title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: The recipient of several awards, "Koi... Mil Gaya" won three National Film Awards (including Best Film on Other Social Issues). At the 49th Filmfare Awards, it was nominated in eleven categories and received five awards, including Best Film, Best Director (Rakesh Roshan), and Best Actor and Best Actor (Critics) (Hrithik Roshan). The film won five of its eleven nominations at the 5th IIFA Awards, including Best Director (Rakesh Roshan) and Best Actor (Hrithik Roshan). Considered a milestone of its genre, it is one of the first Indian films featuring aliens. The character of Jadoo became popular, and inspired a spin-off series entitled "J Bole Toh Jadoo" (2004).


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Scientist Sanjay Mehra has created a computer from which he sends variations of the syllable "om" into space, hoping to attract extraterrestrial life. When he believes he has finally received a response, the scientific community ridicules him. While Sanjay is driving home, frustrated, an alien spacecraft appears overhead. He drives off the road and the car explodes, killing him. His pregnant wife, Sonia, is injured but survives; their son, Rohit, is born with a developmental disability. Sonia learns that surgery is the only cure for Rohit's disability, but it could paralyze or kill him. Not wanting to lose her son, she raises him in Kasauli.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: A young woman, Nisha, arrives and is initially antagonistic to Rohit because of his childish practical jokes against her. Her friend, Raj, and his four friends attack Rohit and break his kick scooter; Sonia chides them for assaulting Rohit, saying that he did not intentionally make fun of her. Realizing her mistake, Nisha gives Rohit a bicycle and introduces him to her parents, who are sympathetic to him. Rohit and Nisha (now friends) find Sanjay's old computer, and Rohit inadvertently summons the aliens. The aliens leave hastily, accidentally leaving a group member behind. Rohit, Nisha, his young friends, and Sonia befriend the alien, naming him Jadoo and discovering his psychokinetic abilities.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Raj resents Nisha's closeness to Rohit, bullying him and spreading a rumour that Raj and Nisha are getting married. The rumour upsets Nisha and Rohit, who is hurt because he thought Nisha was his girlfriend. Jadoo discovers that Rohit is disabled and uses his powers, derived from sunlight, to enhance Rohit's mental and intellectual ability. The next morning, Rohit has clear vision; a seventh-standard student, he later solves an oral tenth-standard mathematics problem (surprising his mathematics teacher and his school principal).


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Rohit's physical abilities increase to superhuman levels. Raj and his friends challenge Rohit and his friends to a basketball game. Rohit scores several baskets, and Raj and his friends begin to cheat; when the sun comes out, Jadoo helps Rohit and his friends win the game. Rohit tells Nisha that he loves her, and she returns his affection. Raj's friends confront Rohit's friends about the basketball game. Rohit's friends flee, dropping Jadoo. Constable Chelaram Sukhwani sees Jadoo in a bag and calls for backup. Led by Inspector Khurshid Khan, they capture the bag; however, Rohit rescues Jadoo. Confronted by Raj and his friends, an angry Rohit overpowers them and the policemen arrive. Jadoo is not in the bag; he had escaped when Chelaram was calling the other police officers.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Khurshid, suspicious of Rohit, confronts him at his house with other officers. The police seize Jadoo and knock Rohit out. When he regains consciousness, Rohit catches up to the police cars in time to save Jadoo from being sent to the United States. The flying saucer which he had summoned with his father's computer returns, and Rohit bids a sad farewell to Jadoo. When Jadoo leaves, Rohit reverts to his old self; this saves him from prosecution by the government, who congratulate him for his actions.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Raj and his friends later harass Rohit, challenging him to kick a ball to them. Rohit angrily kicks the ball into Raj's face after Jadoo permanently returns his superpowers. Rohit and Nisha thank Jadoo, and get married.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Following the success of the romantic thriller "Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai" (2000), the director Rakesh Roshan wanted to collaborate again with his son, Hrithik Roshan, who starred in the film alongside the debutante Ameesha Patel. The director wanted his next project to be a child-centric film, not just a romance, which Rakesh Roshan had done many times in his career both as a director and actor. He told Bollywood Hungama that he was motivated to make a film that was not "run-of-the-mill" but "an out-of-the-box yet entertaining, mainstream film", after attending the premiere of "Lagaan" in June 2001 during the 2nd IIFA Awards. He announced it subsequently at the ceremony while he was receiving the Best Director award for "Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai". The idea to make a film on extraterrestrial life came up when he saw his five-year-old granddaughter watching a series about it on a cartoon network. He later informed Hrithik Roshan of the project when the latter was shooting the 2001 release "Yaadein" in Delhi; Hrithik Roshan accepted the role immediately.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Rakesh Roshan used a "K" as the film's initial, his favourite letter he used in all of his directorial ventures. The film was originally titled "Koi Aap Jaisa" (), "Koi... Tumsa Nahin" (), and "Kaisa Jaadu Kiya" (), before "Koi... Mil Gaya" ()—which sounded more romantic to him than any of the previous titles—was finally chosen. He wrote the screenplay with Sachin Bhowmick, Honey Irani, and Robin Bhatt. This took between two and three weeks before its first draft was done in Khandala. Unfamiliar with the topic, Rakesh Roshan confessed he was initially reluctant and doubtful of the project, but Hrithik Roshan convinced him. According to Rakesh Roshan, the screenwriters were "contributing new ideas since the premise itself was so new". He described it as "a very emotional, thematic film" and "the greatest challenge" of his life, saying that science fiction was not the main theme of the film. Javed Siddiqui finished the dialogue. "Koi... Mil Gaya" was produced by Rakesh Roshan under Filmkraft Productions, which he established in 1980, and distributed by Yash Raj Films.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: When "Koi... Mil Gaya" was announced, Rakesh Roshan said that his son Hrithik Roshan and Preity Zinta would play the lead roles in the film; it marked the actors' second collaboration after "Mission Kashmir" (2000). Playing against type, Roshan was cast as the developmentally disabled man Rohit. He admitted the role had reminded him of his childhood, saying he could eat as many chocolates as he wanted and "became a baby and everybody was so caring towards me". Hrithik Roshan called it the "most challenging role" of his career, but revealed he had accepted the part after his father first offered it to him, confessing that his excitement made the role feel much easier. In a retrospective interview with "Mint", he explained that he "revisited that earlier passion I had felt when I did my first film". To provide an accurate portrayal, Hrithik Roshan lost , changed his hairstyle, and wore loose clothes to cover his well-built body.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Zinta was given the role of Rohit's friend and then-wife, Nisha, after Rakesh Roshan saw her 20-minute performance in Mani Ratnam's 1998 thriller "Dil Se.." and was impressed by it. It was originally to be played by Aishwarya Rai Bachchan or Kareena Kapoor; however, he saw that Rai Bachchan would not be a suitable co-actor as she was older than Hrithik Roshan, while Kapoor opted out because she had collaborated with the actor on many projects. Zinta, who enjoyed her part as Nisha and called "Koi... Mil Gaya" a special film for her, described the role as an attempt to change her "conventional heroine" image, telling Rediff.com that: "If I only did the glam-and-pout act, I would have stuck out like a sore thumb and destroyed the film's timeless texture." The part proved to be a new challenge for her, and she found it to be her career's "toughest" role as it was "a very-controlled character". Hrithik Roshan spoke positively of his rapport with her, and said he would "have been only half effective" if she was not his co-star.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: In July 2001, Rekha joined the cast and portrays Rohit's mother Sonia, a part that was specifically written by Rakesh Roshan for her. Rakesh Roshan recommended she play the character as soon as he had finished writing the film's screenplay. "I didn't even have a back-up artiste in mind for her role. If she had turned me down, I wonder what I would've done", he told "Filmfare". Discussing the film and its casting with the press, Hrithik Roshan said that she was the best on-screen mother and called her "marvellous". Rekha saw that her part was "not too big", but believed that the role's motherhood aspect made it "worthwhile". The film was her second project with Zinta following "Dil Hai Tumhaara" in 2002; it also reunited her with Rakesh Roshan after both had worked together on several films such as "Khubsoorat" (1980) and "Khoon Bhari Maang" (1989). After Anil Kapoor, Jackie Shroff, and Rishi Kapoor rejected the role, Rakesh Roshan decided to play the small role of Rohit's father and Sonia's husband, the scientist Sanjay. The film marked his comeback to acting following the 1999 comedy-drama "Mother".


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Indravadan J. Purohit got the part as the alien Jadoo. According to him, Rakesh Roshan had offered the role to 30 or 40 people before he gave it to him without any screen tests. To prepare, Purohit lost several kilograms of weight, joined a gym, and followed a strict diet. Four months before the beginning of shooting, he went to Australia to model his 15 kilogram (33 lb.), three foot (nearly one metre) animatronical mask, which was created by the Australian artists James Colmer and Lara Denman from Bimini Special Effects Studios. They were both emotional when Rakesh Roshan narrates the film's screenplay, and they later showed a number of sketches for the mask that took a half-hour each to draw. The mask took nearly a year to build. and cost . Because the mask was heavy, Purohit needed oxygen after shooting every one of his scenes to avoid suffocating. Having starred in more than 300 films (all of which feature him in comic roles), he thought with "Koi... Mil Gaya" he got "a role of a lifetime" and considered the film to be a career boost.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Principal photography for "Koi... Mil Gaya" began on 12 November 2001, in Film City, during the Dhanteras celebration. The total budget ranged from to , making it the most expensive film Rakesh Roshan had made at the time. Ravi K. Chandran and Sameer Arya were the cinematographers, while Sharmishta Roy was the production designer. Rocky Star and Komal Shahani designed the costumes for the rest of the cast. Farah Khan, Raju Khan, and Ganesh Hegde served as the choreographers, and Allan Amin and Tinu Verma did the action direction. A mall replica was built in the film complex for the film's 14-day shooting schedule. A schedule in Canada was completed after three days. In September 2002, the entertainment portal Bollywood Hungama reported that the film was 40 percent completed.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Chandran used shadows and smoke to make the film's sets look dark for the scenes that feature aliens, as he faced difficulties shooting those scenes in bright light. The spaceship, in which Jadoo visited Earth in the film, was designed by Colmer and Denman and built in a year. During filming, Hrithik Roshan was also shooting three other projects—"Na Tum Jaano Na Hum" (2002), "Mujhse Dosti Karoge!" (2002), and "Main Prem Ki Diwani Hoon" (2003). "Koi... Mil Gaya" took place in Bali, Rajasthan, Bhimtal, Western Europe, Kasauli, Nainital, and New Zealand. In 2018, Rakesh Roshan revealed its climax sequences were shot in two different versions: in the first one, Rohit lost all of his powers after Jadoo left Earth, while in the second, Rohit did not lose them. After hearing opinions from many directors (such as Aditya Chopra, Karan Johar, Subhash Ghai, and Yash Chopra, he decided to use the second ending, presuming the audience would be satisfied by it.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Shooting ended in March 2003, and "Koi... Mil Gaya" was edited by Sanjay Verma. With help from the Bangalore-based company Compudyne Winfosys, the American artists Marc Klobe and Craig Mumma, who previously collaborated on the science fiction films "Independence Day" (1996) and "Godzilla" (1998), were involved in the special effects. They were enthusiastic about their first Bollywood project, and Rakesh Roshan asked them to be thrifty; they spent . Nonetheless, the director confessed that the film's total cost was still excessive for him and attributed this problem to the special effects and making Jadoo's costumes.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Rajesh Roshan composed the soundtrack and background score for "Koi... Mil Gaya". Having worked with his brother Rakesh Roshan several times, he said that this one was more difficult than his other compositions; he used the same technique he employed in "Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai". Ibrahim Ashk, Nasir Faraaz, and Dev Kohli wrote the lyrics, while Udit Narayan, K. S. Chithra, Alka Yagnik, Tarsame Singh Saini, Shaan, Kavita Krishnamurti, Baby Sneha, Adnan Sami, and Preeti Uttam Singh performed the vocals. The album was sold for to Saregama who released it on 11 June 2003.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Critical response to the album was positive, and Rajesh Roshan confessed he had never received that much appreciation. Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama concluded, "In all, the music ... doesn't disappoint. Though we may not be able to compare its music with the earlier "Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai" by the same team, it has its share of plus points going in its favour." Planet Bollywood's Anish Khanna declared "Jaadoo Jaadoo" as the best song from the soundtrack album. In a less-positive review, Narendra Kusnur from "Mid-Day" opined that it "loses out on consistency". "The Hindu" concluded the title song was "the unique selling point" of the film, referring to it as a "sonorous number", praising Chithra's singing. The critic added, "The lyrics of all the songs are simple and easily understandable. Rajesh Roshan is able to impart a certain freshness to the music."


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: According to the film-trade website Box Office India, the soundtrack album sold 2.1 million copies and became the fourth-highest-selling Bollywood soundtrack of the year.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: "Koi... Mil Gaya" was one of the most anticipated Indian films of 2003, owing to its science fiction genre, one rarely used by any Bollywood films before, and the character Jadoo. Promoted with the tagline, "You Are Not Alone...", the film was targeted at children and parents. The teasers, created by the Mumbai-based company Prime Focus, were aired on television for a week. The Central Board of Film Certification finished the censorship review of the film on 25 July and gave it a "U" (suitable for all age groups) certification. "Koi... Mil Gaya" garnered high expectations from trade analysts as well, which left Hrithik Roshan restless. After seeing its promotional trailers, Komal Nahta, the editor of the trade magazine "Film Information", reported: "This has been my gut feeling ever since I heard the narration of the film concept. But the magic of the film comes across even through the promos." Amod Mehra said that the film's themes would successfully attract an audience, giving "adults ... a chance to relive their childhood". Sharing the same sentiments, the critic and film trade observer Taran Adarsh added that "the combination of Hrithik, Rakesh and Rajesh Roshan" would make its opening "bumper".


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: A special screening was held for Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Deputy Prime Minister Lal Krishna Advani along with their families on 2 August 2003 in Mumbai. After watching the film, Vajpayee told Rakesh Roshan that he had made "a very good film". The film was released theatrically six days later and clashed with Vikram Bhatt's "Footpath" and Satish Kaushik's "Tere Naam". According to Rediff.com's Syed Firdaus Ashraf, who attended its premiere in Mumbai, he saw that children would continuously shout, "Jadoo! Jadoo!". He also reported that the film's tickets were being sold illegally by black marketeers at a higher price. As parts of the promotion, MTV managed a special show for the film, titled "MTV Making of the Movie" (containing interviews of the cast and crew) which aired between 10 and 14 August. It was screened at the 2nd International Special Film Festival (organised by ActionAid) on 14–20 March 2003 and the 15th NatFilm Festival on 11 April. A German-dubbed version was released under the title of "Sternenkind" () in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland during Christmas of 2005.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Distributed by Yash Raj Films, it was released on DVD on 15 September 2003 in a single-disc pack. It is also available on CD and VCD distributed by Moser Baer and Eros International, respectively. According to an estimate by "The Economic Times" in June 2004, the DVD version had sold around 15,000 units, while for the VCD version sold 150,000 units; the film thus grossed . Eros International released its triple-disc CD version in the NTSC widescreen format as well. The television rights to "Koi... Mil Gaya" were sold to Sony Entertainment Television in February 2004, and the worldwide premiere occurred on 24 October. The film has been streaming on Netflix and Amazon Prime Video since 30 November 2016.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: "Koi... Mil Gaya" was successful at the box office, due to the audience's sympathy for Hrithik Roshan's character as a man with developmental disability. Trade analysts speculated the film would be an "acid test" for the actor. The film was released on 450 screens across India and grossed on its opening day, the year's second-highest first-day earnings. It grossed by the end of its opening weekend, and after its first week. "Koi... Mil Gaya" earned in India, becoming the highest-grossing Indian film of 2003.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Abroad, the film did not attract much of an audience. As reported by Rediff.com, it debuted in 29th place in North America, where it was released on 55 screens, and grossed less than $300,000 after a three-day run. Following its first weekend, the film had collected . It earned after finishing its overseas theatrical run, becoming the fifth-highest-grossing Indian film of the year. Summarizing the film's total gross in India and overseas, the film-trade website Box Office India estimated "Koi... Mil Gaya" grossed , making it 2003's second-highest-grossing Indian film.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: "Koi... Mil Gaya" opened to a positive critical reception, with most critics applauding the cast's performances (especially that of Hrithik Roshan). Rekha and Zinta's performances were panned; several critics found them to be "utterly wasted" serving only as the film's "decorative piece[s]". In spite of that, Rekha's performance was better received critically. The film received a rating of 75 percent on Rotten Tomatoes based on eight reviews, with an average rating of 5.4 out of 10. Udita Jhunjhunwala of "Mid-Day" observed, "You walk into "Koi... Mil Gaya" expecting to find a mysterious alien, what you end up discovering is a child inside you." She praised Roshan for his performance in "his bravest role". Bollywood Hungama noted, "Hrithik Roshan dominates the show and packs in a power-packed performance. The role of a mentally challenged person is no cakewalk, but the actor takes to it like a fish takes to water. He manages to pull off the zero-to-hero routine exceptionally well. As an actor, he scales dizzier heights with this splendid performance." Rediff.com's R. Swaminathan called the actor "the turbojet that propels the film to the realm of the extraordinary", and believed that the film's screenplay and dialogues gave his character "flesh and blood". However, he felt Jadoo's design was "a big letdown", saying that it was "plasticky" and "does not exude life".


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Writing for "The Afternoon Despatch & Courier", Deepa Gahlot described "Koi... Mil Gaya" as "a great demo of the Bollywood style of filmmaking", but criticised its scientific inaccuracy. Manjulaa S. Negi of the "Hindustan Times" was not satisfied by the special effects and compared them to "Independence Day" (1996). "Screen" editor Bhawana Somaaya appreciated Hrithik Roshan's performance, finding it to be "very sincere" and "brave"; she also took note of the film's "refreshing" subject. Sharing a similar view, Dinesh Raheja felt Hrithik Roshan had delivered "a cherish-worthy performance". Both critics added the child actors, who accompanying Hrithik Roshan's character throughout the film, contributed positively to his performance. Ziya Us Salam was sure Rekha was underdeveloped and Lata Khubchandani, in her review for Sify, questioned why she was cast for the role; Khalid Mohamed, who gave the film four stars, presumed that Rekha's role made her "restrained"—an opinion shared by Nahta. Of Zinta's performance, Nahta opined: "Preity Zinta does not have a very significant role in terms of the value she adds although she has a running role. She looks pretty and acts well." Vijay Venkataramanan of Planet Bollywood appreciated Rekha's strong chemistry with Hrithik Roshan.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Chitra Mahesh from "The Hindu" commended Hrithik Roshan and the cast of the children, while referring to the character Jadoo as "amateurish". In his five-star review published by B4U, Parag Chandrabala Maniar lauded the efforts of Rakesh Roshan "to provide pure and clean entertainment" and Kolbe's and Mumma's special effects. He said of Hrithik Roshan, "[He] proves his versatility as an actor. At times he moves you and at others he makes you laugh. Here's is ("sic") definitely an actor to reckon with. The number of flops notwithstanding, Hrithik Roshan is here to stay." Meenakshi Rao of "The Pioneer" complimented his acting style, considering him to be "endearing, as endearing as a child of his mental age". "The Times of India" Omar Qureshi elaborated, "Hrithik blows away all doubts, theories, criticisms and disbelief with an extraordinarily touching performance of a mentally challenged boy in a rough man's world. He surprises you with his reserves of pathos, his gamut of emotion and his transition from weak boy to strong man. Here is a sterling act, worthy of all awards this year—thus far. He is simply incredible, even in his voice modulations, his sloppy walk and his lopsided smile." An Indo-Asian News Service critic wrote that the pairing of Hrithik Roshan and Preity Zinta took "the couple conventions of Hindi cinema far beyond the escapades of typical Hindi cinema".


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: Overseas critics focused their attention on Hrithik Roshan's performance and the film's themes. Grady Hendrix of "Film Comment" commented that the film was an "embarrassment of riches", summarising, "... it's mockable, it's silly, it's cloaked in a cloying miasma of cute, but its off-handed facility with pop-cinema conventions, spiced up with some jarring stylistic disconnects, delivers the most mind-bending entertainment experience of the season. This is commercial moviemaking taken to its logical, mondo mercantilist conclusion." M. J. Simpson expressed approval of the entire cast, especially Hrithik Roshan, whom he regarded as the film's "oddest aspect". Calling it "bright, loud and relentless fun", Jürgen Fauth gave the film three-and-a-half-out-of-five stars and reviewed its comedic, romantic, science-fictional, musical, action, and melodramatic elements positively. "Empire" magazine hailed it as the "most novel Bollywood movie of the year". The BBC's Manish Gajjar described Hrithik Roshan's role as a "mentally-retarded-child-[turned]-superman-hero". Derek Elley praised him for avoiding his typecasting as a romantic hero, while David Parkinson of "Radio Times" thought that the film served as "slick, sentimental entertainment". Writing for "TV Guide", Maitland McDonagh singled out Jadoo's expression in the scene where he is lost in a forest for praise.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: "Koi... Mil Gaya" won three awards at the 51st National Film Awards, including National Film Award for Best Film on Other Social Issues tied with Prakash Jha's crime film "Gangaajal". At the 49th Filmfare Awards, the film was nominated for eleven categories including Best Actress (Zinta), Best Supporting Actress (Rekha), Best Performance in a Comic Role (Johnny Lever), and Best Music Director (Rajesh Roshan). It went on to win five trophies including Best Film, Best Director for Rakesh Roshan, and Best Actor and Best Actor (Critics) for Hrithik Roshan. At the sixth Bollywood Movie Awards, Hrithik Roshan received Best Actor and Best Actor (Critics), while Rekha was acknowledged as the year's Best Supporting Actress. The film won five of eleven nominations at the fifth International Indian Film Academy Awards, including Best Director (Rakesh Roshan) and Best Actor (Hrithik Roshan). It also earned five Screen Awards, five Zee Cine Awards, four Producers Guild Film Awards, and two Stardust Awards.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: "Koi... Mil Gaya", often abbreviated as "KMG", has been widely regarded as the first Indian science fiction film with alien characters in it, although this was disputed by several film experts. In "The Liverpool Companion to World Science Fiction Film" (2014), professors Jessica Langer and Dominic Alessio wrote that the Tamil-language film "Kalai Arasi" (1963) should be given the title. Writing for "The New York Times", the critic and author Anupama Chopra stated that "Koi... Mil Gaya" was "Hindi cinema's first major science fiction film." The BBC reported that the film "is certainly a milestone in the reformation of commercial Indian cinema as a whole", and the American graphic artist Aaron Marcus, in his 2014 book "Design, User Experience, and Usability: Health, Learning, Playing, Cultural, and Cross-Cultural User Experience" called it the most popular Bollywood science fiction film. In 2016, "Mint" featured "Koi... Mil Gaya" on its lists of "Children's Day: 10 Memorable Bollywood Films" and "Ten Bollywood films Dealing with Disability".


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: After making his debut in "Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai" (2000), Hrithik Roshan starred in a series of romantic films, most of which under performed financially including "Yaadein" (2001), "Aap Mujhe Achche Lagne Lage" (2002), and "Na Tum Jaano Na Hum" (2002). Trade analysts believed that his career was ended by these failures. The release of "Koi... Mil Gaya", which Hrithik Roshan wanted to revive his career, changed analysts' perspectives of the actor and suggested that the film resurrected his position in the industry. While attending its premiere, Nahta told Rediff.com that it was "very important for him. Hrithik is not 'out' of the industry but his position is shaky. So, if the audience likes the film, it is good for him." In 2010, "Filmfare" magazine included his performance on their list of "80 Iconic Performances" of Hindi cinema, writing, "It's incredible how the actor manages to diminish his size, unstylise his look, wear bug-eyed glasses and talk funny ... Watch him laugh, cry or bond with his remote controlled alien friend and note his nuanced turn." He and Zinta collaborated again in the war drama "Lakshya" (2004), which failed at the box office although he received positive feedback. In 2005, Zinta chose "Koi... Mil Gaya" as one of her favourite films.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: The film was remade into a soap opera in Indonesia under the title (2003–2007). Following the film's success, Jadoo became popular with children. Nickelodeon India aired a spin-off television series based on the character, titled "J Bole Toh Jadoo", in 2004. In 2020, after the United States Department of Defense published footage of an unidentified flying object, internet memes relating to the film went viral; most of them use the scene where Rohit summons aliens by his father's computer.


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: "Koi... Mil Gaya" is the first installment in the "Krrish" franchise. In November 2004, in an interview with Subhash K. Jha of Rediff.com, Hrithik Roshan announced that his father, Rakesh Roshan, had begun the production of a sequel to "Koi... Mil Gaya", based on a screenplay which was written in eight or nine months. A superhero film titled "Krrish", Hrithik Roshan would play a dual role, reprising his part as Rohit from the original film and playing the character's eponymous son. While Rekha also reprised her role in the sequel, Zinta's position as the female lead was given to Priyanka Chopra. Produced on a budget of , principal photography started in March 2005 and finished in January 2006. "Krrish" opened on 23 June 2006 to mixed reviews, with critics were disappointed by the replacement of Zinta. However, the film was a commercial success and became the second-highest-grossing Indian film that year, earning more than .


title: Koi... Mil Gaya

text: A second superhero sequel, "Krrish 3", was announced in December 2006. Hrithik Roshan and Chopra reprise their roles, while Vivek Oberoi and Kangana Ranaut play the antagonists. The film was originally scheduled to be released as a 3D film, but the idea was scrapped. Although Rakesh Roshan never officially confirmed its budget, reports from the media estimated it to be above . Filming took place between December 2011 and June 2012. "Krrish 3" premiered on 4 November 2013 and was declared a commercial success, emerging as the fourth-highest-grossing Indian film of the year. Critics panned its lack of originality, although Hrithik Roshan's performance garnered praise. , the fourth successor "Krrish 4" was to be released at Christmas 2020 but was postponed because of the COVID-19 pandemic in India.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises (; 29 September 1881 – 10 October 1973) was an Austrian School economist, historian, logician, and sociologist. Mises wrote and lectured extensively on the societal contributions of classical liberalism. He is best known for his work on praxeology studies comparing communism and capitalism. He is considered one of the most influential economic and political thinkers of the 20th century.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: Mises emigrated from Austria to the United States in 1940. Since the mid-20th century, libertarian movements have been strongly influenced by Mises's writings. Mises' student Friedrich Hayek viewed Mises as one of the major figures in the revival of classical liberalism in the post-war era. Hayek's work "The Transmission of the Ideals of Freedom" (1951) pays high tribute to the influence of Mises in the 20th century libertarian movement.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: Mises's Private Seminar was a leading group of economists. Many of its alumni, including Friedrich Hayek and Oskar Morgenstern, emigrated from Austria to the United States and Great Britain. Mises has been described as having approximately seventy close students in Austria.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: Ludwig von Mises was born to Jewish parents in the city of Lemberg, Galicia, Austria-Hungary. The family of his father, Arthur Edler von Mises, had been elevated to the Austrian nobility in the 19th century (Edler indicates a noble landless family) and they had been involved in financing and constructing railroads. His mother Adele (née Landau) was a niece of Joachim Landau, a Liberal Party deputy to the Austrian Parliament. Arthur von Mises was stationed in Lemberg as a construction engineer with the Czernowitz railway company.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: By the age of 12, Mises spoke fluent German, Russian, Polish and French, read Latin and could understand Ukrainian. Mises had a younger brother, Richard von Mises, who became a mathematician and a member of the Vienna Circle, and a probability theorist. When Ludwig and Richard were still children, their family moved back to Vienna.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: In 1900, Mises attended the University of Vienna, becoming influenced by the works of Carl Menger. Mises's father died in 1903. Three years later, Mises was awarded his doctorate from the school of law in 1906.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: In the years from 1904 to 1914, Mises attended lectures given by Austrian economist Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk. He graduated in February 1906 (Juris Doctor) and started a career as a civil servant in Austria's financial administration.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: After a few months, he left to take a trainee position in a Vienna law firm. During that time, Mises began lecturing on economics and in early 1909 joined the Vienna Chamber of Commerce and Industry. During World War I, Mises served as a front officer in the Austro-Hungarian artillery and as an economic adviser to the War Department.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: Mises was chief economist for the Austrian Chamber of Commerce and was an economic adviser of Engelbert Dollfuss, the austrofascist Austrian Chancellor. Later, Mises was economic adviser to Otto von Habsburg, the Christian democratic politician and claimant to the throne of Austria (which had been legally abolished in 1918 following the Great War). In 1934, Mises left Austria for Geneva, Switzerland, where he was a professor at the Graduate Institute of International Studies until 1940.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: While in Switzerland, Mises married Margit Herzfeld Serény, a former actress and widow of Ferdinand Serény. She was the mother of Gitta Sereny.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: In 1940, Mises and his wife fled the German advance in Europe and emigrated to New York City in the United States. He had come to the United States under a grant by the Rockefeller Foundation. Like many other classical liberal scholars who fled to the United States, he received support by the William Volker Fund to obtain a position in American universities. Mises became a visiting professor at New York University and held this position from 1945 until his retirement in 1969, though he was not salaried by the university. Businessman and libertarian commentator Lawrence Fertig, a member of the New York University Board of Trustees, funded Mises and his work.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: For part of this period, Mises studied currency issues for the Pan-Europa movement, which was led by Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, a fellow New York University faculty member and Austrian exile. In 1947, Mises became one of the founding members of the Mont Pelerin Society.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: In 1962, Mises received the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art for political economy at the Austrian Embassy in Washington, D.C.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: Mises retired from teaching at the age of 87 and died at the age of 92 in New York. He is buried at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York. Grove City College houses the 20,000-page archive of Mises papers and unpublished works. The personal library of Mises was given to Hillsdale College as bequeathed in his will.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: At one time, Mises praised the work of writer Ayn Rand and she generally looked on his work with favor, but the two had a volatile relationship, with strong disagreements for example over the moral basis of capitalism.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: Mises wrote and lectured extensively on behalf of classical liberalism. In his magnum opus "Human Action", Mises adopted praxeology as a general conceptual foundation of the social sciences and set forth his methodological approach to economics.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: Mises was for economic non-interventionism and was an anti-imperialist. He referred to the Great War as such a watershed event in human history and wrote that "war has become more fearful and destructive than ever before because it is now waged with all the means of the highly developed technique that the free economy has created. Bourgeois civilization has built railroads and electric power plants, has invented explosives and airplanes, in order to create wealth. Imperialism has placed the tools of peace in the service of destruction. With modern means it would be easy to wipe out humanity at one blow."


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: In 1920, Mises introduced in an article his Economic Calculation Problem as a critique of socialisms which are based on planned economies and renunciations of the price mechanism. In his first article "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth", Mises describes the nature of the price system under capitalism and describes how individual subjective values are translated into the objective information necessary for rational allocation of resources in society. Mises argued that the pricing systems in socialist economies were necessarily deficient because if a public entity owned all the means of production, no rational prices could be obtained for capital goods as they were merely internal transfers of goods and not "objects of exchange", unlike final goods. Therefore, they were unpriced and hence the system would be necessarily irrational, as the central planners would not know how to allocate the available resources efficiently. He wrote that "rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth". Mises developed his critique of socialism more completely in his 1922 book "", arguing that the market price system is an expression of praxeology and can not be replicated by any form of bureaucracy.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: Friends and students of Mises in Europe included Wilhelm Röpke and Alfred Müller-Armack (advisors to German chancellor Ludwig Erhard), Jacques Rueff (monetary advisor to Charles de Gaulle), Gottfried Haberler (later a professor at Harvard), Lionel, Lord Robbins (of the London School of Economics), Italian President Luigi Einaudi, and Leonid Hurwicz, recipient of the 2007 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. Economist and political theorist Friedrich Hayek first came to know Mises while working as his subordinate at a government office dealing with Austria's post-World War I debt. While toasting Mises at a party in 1956, Hayek said: "I came to know him as one of the best educated and informed men I have ever known". Mises's seminars in Vienna fostered lively discussion among established economists there. The meetings were also visited by other important economists who happened to be traveling through Vienna.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: At his New York University seminar and at informal meetings at his apartment, Mises attracted college and high school students who had heard of his European reputation. They listened while he gave carefully prepared lectures from notes. Among those who attended his informal seminar over the course of two decades in New York were Israel Kirzner, Hans Sennholz, Ralph Raico, Leonard Liggio, George Reisman and Murray Rothbard. Mises's work also influenced other Americans, including Benjamin Anderson, Leonard Read, Henry Hazlitt, Max Eastman, legal scholar Sylvester J. Petro and novelist Ayn Rand.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: As a result of the economic works of Ludwig Von Mises, the Mises Institute was founded in 1982 by Lew Rockwell, Burton Blumert, and Murray Rothbard, following a split between the Cato Institute and Rothbard, who had been one of the founders of the Cato Institute. It was funded by Ron Paul.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: The Mises Institute offers thousands of free books written by Ludwig Von Mises, Murray Rothbard, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, and other prominent economists in e-book and audiobook format. For those unfamiliar with the concepts of Austrian Economics, it has a section designed for beginners that summarizes the main concepts in thirty minutes. The Mises Institute also offers a graduate school program.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: Economic historian Bruce Caldwell wrote that in the mid-20th century, with the ascendance of positivism and Keynesianism, Mises came to be regarded by many as the "archetypal 'unscientific' economist". In a 1957 review of his book "The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality", "The Economist" said of Mises: "Professor von Mises has a splendid analytical mind and an admirable passion for liberty; but as a student of human nature he is worse than null and as a debater he is of Hyde Park standard". Conservative commentator Whittaker Chambers published a similarly negative review of that book in the "National Review," stating that Mises's thesis that anti-capitalist sentiment was rooted in "envy" epitomized "know-nothing conservatism" at its "know-nothingest".


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: Scholar Scott Scheall called economist Terence Hutchison "the most persistent critic of Mises's apriorism", starting in Hutchison's 1938 book "The Significance and Basic Postulates of Economic Theory" and in later publications such as his 1981 book "The Politics and Philosophy of Economics: Marxians, Keynesians, and Austrians". Scheall noted that Friedrich Hayek, later in his life (after Mises died), also expressed reservations about Mises's apriorism, such as in a 1978 interview where Hayek said that he "never could accept the ... almost eighteenth-century rationalism in his [Mises's] argument".


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: Economist Milton Friedman considered Mises inflexible in his thinking, but added that Mises's difficult life and lack of acceptance by academia are the likely culprits:


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: Economist Murray Rothbard, who studied under Mises, agreed he was uncompromising, but disputes reports of his abrasiveness. In his words, Mises was "unbelievably sweet, constantly finding research projects for students to do, unfailingly courteous, and never bitter" about the discrimination he received at the hands of the economic establishment of his time.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: After Mises died, his widow Margit quoted a passage that he had written about Benjamin Anderson. She said it best described Mises's own personality: His most eminent qualities were his inflexible honesty, his unhesitating sincerity. He never yielded. He always freely enunciated what he considered to be true. If he had been prepared to suppress or only to soften his criticisms of popular, but irresponsible, policies, the most influential positions and offices would have been offered him. But he never compromised.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: Marxists Herbert Marcuse and Perry Anderson as well as German writer Claus-Dieter Krohn criticized Mises for writing approvingly of Italian fascism, especially for its suppression of leftist elements, in his 1927 book "Liberalism". In 2009, economist J. Bradford DeLong and sociologist Richard Seymour repeated the criticism.


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: Mises biographer Jörg Guido Hülsmann says that critics who suggest that Mises supported fascism are "absurd" as he notes that the full quote describes fascism as dangerous. He notes that Mises said it was a "fatal error" to think that it was more than an "emergency makeshift" against up and coming communism and socialism as exemplified by the Bolsheviks in Russia and the surging communists of Germany. Hülsmann writes in "Mises: The Last Knight of Liberalism" that Mises had been a card-carrying member of the Fatherland Front party and that this was "probably mandatory for all employees of public and semi-public organizations."


title: Ludwig von Mises

text: In regards to Nazism, Mises called on the Allies in his 1944 book "Omnipotent Government" to "smash Nazism" and to "fight desperately until the Nazi power is completely broken".


title: Zakir Hussain (musician)

text: Ustad Zakir Hussain (born 9 March 1951) is an Indian tabla player, composer, percussionist, music producer and film actor. He is the eldest son of tabla player Alla Rakha.


title: Zakir Hussain (musician)

text: He was awarded the Padma Shri in 1988, and the Padma Bhushan in 2002, by the Government of India presented by President Abdul Kalam. He was also awarded the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in 1990, given by the Sangeet Natak Academy, India's National Academy of Music, Dance and Drama. In 1999, he was awarded the United States National Endowment for the Arts' National Heritage Fellowship, the highest award given to traditional artists and musicians.


title: Zakir Hussain (musician)

text: Hussain attended St. Michael's High School in Mahim, and was graduated from the St. Xavier's College, Mumbai.


title: Zakir Hussain (musician)

text: Hussain played on George Harrison's 1973 album "Living in the Material World" and John Handy's 1973 album "Hard Work". He also performed on Van Morrison's 1979 album "Into the Music" and Earth, Wind & Fire's 1983 album "Powerlight".


title: Zakir Hussain (musician)

text: Mickey Hart of the Grateful Dead, who had known Hussain since the 1960s, invited him to create the special album "Planet Drum", featuring drummers from different parts of the world. Featured along with Hussain, from India, was Vikku Vinayakram, with whom Hussain had collaborated in Shakti. The first "Planet Drum" album, released in 1991 on the Rykodisc label, went on to earn the 1992 Grammy Award for Best World Music Album, the first Grammy ever awarded in this category. The "Global Drum Project" album and tour brought Mickey Hart, Hussain, Sikiru Adepoju, and Giovanni Hidalgo together again in a reunion sparked by the 15th anniversary of the "Planet Drum" album. The album "Global Drum Project" won the Grammy Award for Best Contemporary World Music Album at the 51st Grammy Awards Ceremony held on 8 February 2009.


title: Zakir Hussain (musician)

text: Hussain composed, performed and acted as Indian music advisor for the Malayalam film "Vanaprastham", a 1999 Cannes Film Festival entry which was nominated for the Grand Jury Prize at the AFI Los Angeles International Film Festival (AFI Fest) in 1999, and won awards at 2000 Istanbul International Film Festival (Turkey), 2000 Mumbai International Film Festival (India), and 2000 National Film Awards (India). He has composed soundtracks for several movies, most notably "In Custody" and "The Mystic Masseur" by Ismail Merchant, and has played tabla on the soundtracks of Francis Coppola's "Apocalypse Now", Bernardo Bertolucci's "Little Buddha," and other films.


title: Zakir Hussain (musician)

text: He starred in several films specifically showcasing his musical performance both solo and with different bands, including the 1998 documentary "Zakir and His Friends", and the documentary "The Speaking Hand: Zakir Hussain and the Art of the Indian Drum" (2003 Sumantra Ghosal). Hussain co-starred as Inder Lal in the 1983 Merchant Ivory film "Heat and Dust", for which he was an associate music director.


title: Zakir Hussain (musician)

text: In 2016, Hussain was amongst many musicians invited by President Obama to the International Jazz Day 2016 All-Star Global Concert at the White House.


title: Zakir Hussain (musician)

text: Haridas Vhatkar has been making Hussain's tablas for more than 18 years. Haridas said he learned how to make tabla so he could specially make them for Hussain.


title: Zakir Hussain (musician)

text: Hussain has stated that he does not play at private gatherings, corporate events, or weddings; he believes music should not be heard at events where folks come to socialize, drink or enjoy a meal (music should be the sole purpose of the event).


title: Zakir Hussain (musician)

text: Nasreen Munni Kabir compiled 15 interview sessions (each lasting about 2 hours) from 2016 to 2017 into the book "Zakir Hussain: A Life in Music", which was published in 2018. This book takes the reader through Hussain's life from his youth, his years of intense training, and growth as a musician.


title: Zakir Hussain (musician)

text: Hussain married Antonia Minnecola, a Kathak dancer and teacher, who is also his manager. They have two daughters, Anisa Qureshi and Isabella Qureshi. Anisa graduated from UCLA and is trying her hand in video production and film making. Isabella is studying dance in Manhattan.


title: Zakir Hussain (musician)

text: Hussain has two brothers: Taufiq Qureshi, a percussionist and Fazal Qureshi, also a tabla player. Their brother Munawar died at a young age when he was attacked by a rabid dog. His eldest sister Bilquis died before Hussain was born. Another sister, Razia, died due to complications during a cataract surgery, just a few hours before their father's death in 2000. He has another sister named Khurshid.


title: Zakir Hussain (musician)

text: He was named an Old Dominion Fellow by the Humanities Council at Princeton University, where he resided for the 2005–2006 semester as full professor in the music department. He was also a visiting professor at Stanford University. In May 2022, he was conferred the honorary Doctor of Law (LLD) degree for his contribution to the field of music by Mumbai University.


title: Zakir Hussain (musician)

text: The line ""Zakir Hussain Tabela Ivaltana"" in the Tamil song "Telephone Manipol" in "Indian" (1996) film directed by S.Shankar is a tribute to him. This song was written by poet Vairamuthu.


title: Kiss from a Rose

text: "Kiss from a Rose" is a song from Seal's second eponymous album. The song was first released as a single in July 1994 and included in the film "The NeverEnding Story III" that year. It was re-released a year later in 1995 as part of the "Batman Forever" film soundtrack, helping it top the charts in the United States and Australia. It also reached the top 10 in several other countries, including Canada, France, Iceland and Norway. At the 1996 Grammy Awards, it won awards for Record of the Year, Song of the Year, and Best Male Pop Vocal Performance.


title: Kiss from a Rose

text: "Kiss from a Rose" was written in 1987, several years prior to the release of Seal's eponymous debut album from 1991. After writing the song, Seal felt "embarrassed by it" and "threw the tape in the corner". Seal did not present it to producer Trevor Horn until the recording sessions for "Seal II". In 2015, Seal said of the song: "To be honest, I was never really that proud of it, though I like what Trevor did with the recording. He turned that tape from my corner into another 8 million record sales and my name became a household name".


title: Kiss from a Rose

text: "Kiss from a Rose" was the second single taken from the "Batman Forever" film soundtrack, and topped the US "Billboard" Hot 100 for one week in August 1995. It also went to number four on the UK Singles Chart, where it had originally reached number 20 in 1994. It also was nominated for the MTV Movie Award for Best Song from a Movie in 1996.


title: Kiss from a Rose

text: Seal talked about the long, strange journey that the song went through on "The Brian McKnight Show" season finale that aired 30 May 2010. He described how the song initially dropped out of the charts shortly after its release. Joel Schumacher subsequently called Seal, and requested use of the song to play over a love scene between the characters played by Nicole Kidman and Val Kilmer in "Batman Forever".


title: Kiss from a Rose

text: "Music & Media" commented: "Sealed with a kiss, here you get a ballad and a half! It's got the right pathos and the unavoidable violins. The thorn, needed to show the sincerity, comes from the razor sharp alto sax". Alan Jones from "Music Week" wrote: "Seal's magnificent "Kiss From A Rose" – now subtitled "Love Theme From Batman Forever" – is back a mere year after its first release when it reached number 19. A complex yet melodic song, it has remained a radio staple since it was first released, and is ready to explode".


title: Kiss from a Rose

text: The song's cryptic lyrics have been the subject of debate since its release. In 2015, Seal provided verified commentary on the "Kiss from a Rose" entry on the website Genius, stating simply: "I have avoided explaining these lyrics for over 25 years. I am not going to start doing it now".


title: Kiss from a Rose

text: Between all the formats of the single release, bonus tracks include the non-album tracks "The Wind Cries Mary" (a Jimi Hendrix cover) and "Blues in 'E'"; remixes of "Kiss from a Rose" by Adamski (who produced the original version of "Killer"); and remixes of album track "I'm Alive" by Steve Fitzmaurice and Sasha with BT.


title: Moped

text: A moped ( ) is a type of small motorcycle, generally having a less stringent licensing requirement than full motorcycles or automobiles. The term used to mean a similar vehicle except with both bicycle pedals and a motorcycle engine. Mopeds typically travel only a bit faster than bicycles on public roads. Mopeds are distinguished from motor scooters in that the latter tend to be more powerful and subject to more regulation.


title: Moped

text: Some mopeds have a step-through frame design, while others have motorcycle frame designs, including a backbone and a raised fuel tank, mounted directly between the saddle and the head tube. Some resemble motorized bicycles. Most are similar to a regular motorcycle but with pedals and a crankset that may be used with or instead of motor drive. Although mopeds usually have two wheels, some jurisdictions classify low-powered three- or four-wheeled vehicles (including ATVs and go-kart) as a moped.


title: Moped

text: In some countries, a moped can be any motorcycle with an engine capacity below (most commonly or lower).


title: Moped

text: The word "moped" was coined by the Swedish journalist Harald Nielsen in 1952, as a portmanteau of the Swedish words and . The claimed derivation from the term "motor-velocipede" is incorrect. According to Douglas Harper, the Swedish terms originated from "("trampcykel med") mo(tor och") ped(aler")", which means "pedal cycle with engine and pedals" (the earliest versions had auxiliary pedals). Like some of the earliest two wheeled motorcycles, all mopeds were once equipped with bicycle pedals.


title: Moped

text: The term "moped" has now been applied by some regional governments to vehicles without pedals such as motor scooters, based on criteria of restricted engine displacement, speed, and/or power output. This is a misnomer, as they are no longer "mopeds" at all, and might instead be called a "noped" if they appear to look exactly like a typical moped, but no longer include pedals.


title: Moped

text: The term "moped" now only applies to low-power (often super-economy) vehicles, but pedals were fitted to some early motorcycles, such as the pictured 1912 Douglas. Pedaling away from stationary was a great improvement over "run and jump" and light pedal assistance (LPA) was valuable for climbing hills. Better transmissions with wider ranges, better clutches and much better engine performance made pedals obsolete on most motorcycles by 1918 but the pedals on mopeds remained valuable for their original purposes as late as the 1990s.


title: Moped

text: The earliest mopeds were bicycles with a helper motor in various locations, for example on top of the front wheel; they were also called cyclemotors. An example of that type is the VéloSoleX brand, which simply has a roller driving the front tire.


title: Moped

text: A more innovative design was known in the UK as the Cyclemaster. This had a complete powered rear wheel which was simply substituted for the bicycle rear wheel, which originated from a design by two DKW engineers in Germany. Slightly larger machines, commonly with a engine were known as autocycles. On the other hand, some mopeds, such as the Czech-made Jawa, were derived from motorcycles.


title: Moped

text: A further category of low-powered two-wheelers exists today in some jurisdictions for bicycles with helper motors – these are often defined as power-assisted bicycles or motorized bicycles. Other jurisdictions may categorize the same machines as mopeds, creating a certain amount of confusion. In many countries three-wheelers and microcars are classified as mopeds or variations thereof. This practice is not restricted to the third world; France and Belgium classify microcars such as the Aixam similarly or as "light quadricycles". The Ariel 3, a motorised three-wheeler is classed as a moped.


title: Moped

text: In 1977, the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic considers the moped any two-wheeled or three-wheeled vehicle which is fitted with an internal combustion engine having a cylinder capacity not exceeding 50 cc.


title: Moped

text: Mopeds can achieve fuel economy of over . The emissions of mopeds have been the subject of multiple studies. Studies have found that two-stroke 50 cc mopeds, with and without catalytic converters, emit ten to thirty times the hydrocarbons and particulate emissions of the outdated Euro 3 automobile standards. In the same study, four-stroke mopeds, with and without catalytic converters, emitted three to eight times the hydrocarbons and particulate emissions of the Euro 3 automobile standards. Approximate parity with automobiles was achieved with NOx emissions in these studies. Emissions performance was tested on a g/km basis and was unaffected by fuel economy. Currently in the United States, the EPA allows motorcycles, scooters, and mopeds with engine displacements less than to emit ten times the NOx and six times the CO as the median Tier II bin 5 automobile regulations. An additional air quality problem can also arise from the use of moped and scooter transportation over automobiles, as a higher density of motorized vehicles can be supported by existing transportation infrastructure.


title: Moped

text: Safely riding a moped mostly requires the same considerations as safely riding a motorcycle. However the lower speeds reduce some dangers and increase others. The biggest danger is that other traffic may not notice the presence of a moped; bright clothes and reflective fittings help. Drivers may even see the moped, recognize it as harmless to them and simply forget it is there, pulling out of side-turnings into its path. Similarly, a car approaching a moped from behind will approach it more quickly than the driver expects, and the driver's attention may be more attuned to other automobile traffic rather than the moped, increasing the likelihood of an accident. This is a particular problem for mopeds used on high-speed roads where they may not be intended to travel.


title: Moped

text: Mopeds are often illegally tuned for higher speeds, powers or engine displacements than allowed. For this to be legal, such vehicles should be re-registered as motorcycles, and their driver's license requirements, taxes, insurance costs, and minimum driver age would be higher. A tuned vehicle, not designed for higher speeds, is not as safe as a purpose-designed motorcycle. A survey of Finnish high school vocational and gymnasium students found that 80% and 70% of their respective mopeds were tuned. Only 10% of trade school students had a moped that conformed to legislation. The average maximum speed was 72 km/h, far higher than the legally allowable 45 km/h. Another study reported that of school-age moped owners, 50% of boys and 15% of girls have an illegally tuned moped.


title: Moped

text: In the United Kingdom during the 1970s, a high-performance derivation of the moped concept was developed, aimed at 16-year-olds. It was created in order to circumvent governmental legislation aimed at forcing young motorcycle riders off the road. These new laws, called the "Sixteener Law", were introduced by John Peyton, the then Conservative Party Minister for Transport in 1971. They forbade 16-year-olds from riding motorcycles of up to capacity as they had done before, and limited them to machines until they were 17. The law provoked motorcycle manufacturers to develop new class of motorcycle which were then called "sports mopeds" or, colloquially, "sixteener specials" and was subject to much criticism. The market for these was primarily young males.


title: Moped

text: Sports mopeds were ostensibly motorcycles, capable of doing more than in some cases, with bicycle-style pedals added to them which the law required were capable of propelling the vehicle. Models were produced by Japanese manufacturers Honda, Yamaha and Suzuki, and European companies such as Puch, Fantic, Gilera, Gitane and Garelli from 1972 onwards, the most famous of which was the Yamaha FS1-E. They included roadsters, enduro and motorcrossers, cafe racers and choppers or scooters, and led to a boom interest in motorcycling similar to the early 1960 rocker period. The government responded again by bringing in even more restrictive legislation in 1977 which limited mopeds to a weight of and a top speed to . The move contributed to the demise of the UK motorcycle market. In Continental Europe no such restrictions existed and such vehicles could be ridden by 14-year-olds.


title: Horoscope

text: A horoscope (or other commonly used names for the horoscope in English include natal chart, astrological chart, astro-chart, celestial map, sky-map, star-chart, cosmogram, vitasphere, radical chart, radix, chart wheel or simply chart) is an astrological chart or diagram representing the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets, astrological aspects and sensitive angles at the time of an event, such as the moment of a person's birth. The word horoscope is derived from the Greek words "ōra" and "scopos" meaning "time" and "observer" ("horoskopos", pl. "horoskopoi", or "marker(s) of the hour"). It is used as a method of divination regarding events relating to the point in time it represents, and it forms the basis of the horoscopic traditions of astrology. Horoscope columns are often featured in print and online newspapers.


title: Horoscope

text: In common usage, horoscope often refers to an astrologer's interpretation, usually based on a system of solar Sun sign astrology; based strictly on the position of the Sun at the time of birth, or on the calendar significance of an event, as in Chinese astrology. In particular, many newspapers and magazines carry predictive columns, written in prose that may be written more for increasing readership than tied directly to the Sun or other aspects of the solar system, allegedly based on celestial influences in relation to the zodiacal placement of the Sun on the month of birth, cusp (two days before or after any particular sign, an overlap), or decant (the month divided into three ten-day periods) of the person's month of birth, identifying the individual's Sun sign or "star sign" based on the tropical zodiac.


title: Horoscope

text: In Hindu astrology, birth charts are called kundali which are claimed to be based on movement of stars and moon. Auspicious events and rituals are started after checking the kundali of a person including the marriage in which the birth charts of the boy and girl are matched.


title: Horoscope

text: There are no scientific studies that have shown support for the accuracy of horoscopes, and the methods used to make interpretations are pseudo-scientific. In modern scientific framework no known interaction exists that could be responsible for the transmission of the alleged influence between a person and the position of stars in the sky at the moment of birth. In all tests completed, keeping strict methods to include a control group and proper blinding between experimenters and subjects, horoscopes have shown no effect beyond pure chance. Furthermore, some psychological tests have shown that it is possible to construct personality descriptions and foretelling generic enough to satisfy most members of a large audience simultaneously, referred to as the Forer or Barnum effect.


title: Horoscope

text: The horoscope serves as a stylized map of the heavens over a specific location at a particular moment in time. In most applications the perspective is Geocentc (heliocentric astrology being one exception). The positions of the actual planets (including Sun and Moon) are placed in the chart, hose of purely calculated factors such as the lunar nodes, the house cusps including the midheaven and the ascendant, zodiac signs, fixed stars and the lots. Angular relationships between the planets themselves and other points, called aspects, are typi, including weakness.


title: Horoscope

text: The Latin word "horoscopus", ultimately from Greek "nativity, horoscope", "observer of the hour [of birth]", from "time, hour" and "observer, watcher". In Middle English texts from the 11th century, the word appears in the Latin form and is anglicized to horoscope in Early Modern English. The noun horoscopy for "casting of horoscopes" has been in use since the 17th century (OED). In Greek, in the sense of "ascendant" – not only of the time of someone's birth, but more generally of any significant event – and "observation of the ascendant" has been in use since Ptolemy.


title: Horoscope

text: The ascendant is the easternmost or sunrise point where the ecliptic and horizon intersect; the ascendant and the midheaven are considered the most important angles in the horoscope by the vast majority of astrologers. In most systems of house division, the ascendant is the cusp of the 1st house and the midheaven is the cusp of the 10th house. The placement of the planetary ruler of the ascendant called the Chart Ruler is also considered to be significant. The point in the west diametrically opposing the ascendant is called the descendant, normally the cusp of the 7th house; and the point opposing the M.C. is the cusp of the 4th house, the northernmost point of the chart, called the Imum Coeli or I.C.


title: Horoscope

text: In creating a horoscope the ascendant is traditionally placed at the "nine o'clock" position on the left-hand side of the chart wheel (though traditional rectangular chart formats need not follow this convention). During the course of a day, because of the Earth's rotation, the entire circle of the ecliptic will pass through the ascendant and will be advanced by about 1°. This movement provides us with the term rising sign, which is the sign of the zodiac rising over the eastern horizon at the moment of birth. The point on the ecliptic that is furthest above the plane of the horizon at the time is called the Midheaven, or Medium Coeli (M.C.), placed at the "twelve o'clock position" effectively where the Sun would be if the birth time was midday.


title: Horoscope

text: The Zodiac, or "circle of animals" is a zone or belt in space projected onto the celestial sphere through which, from our viewpoint, the planets move. A symbolic geometric construction around 16 degrees wide, it is divided into 12 signs, each of 30 degrees longitude (making 360 degrees, a full circle), with the ecliptic, the apparent path of the Sun, as its middle line. The tropical zodiac used by most Western astrologers has its beginning at the exact moment that the Sun crosses the celestial equator and enters the zodiacal sign of Aries. Some Western astrologers use the sidereal zodiac favored by Indian ("Jyotish") astrologers, which is based more closely on actual positions of constellations in the heavens, as opposed to the tropical zodiac, which is a moveable format based on the seasons.


title: Horoscope

text: The tropical zodiac defines the vernal point (the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere) as the first degree of Aries, but the sidereal zodiac allows it to precess. Many people are confused regarding the difference between the sidereal zodiac and the tropical zodiac signs. Because of a "wobble" in the Earth's axis of rotation over a period of about 26,000 years (often called a "great year"), the rate at which the vernal equinox precesses in the heavens is approximately 0 deg, 0 min, 50.23 seconds a year, drifting by one degree every 72 years. Precession of the equinoxes thus occurs at a rate of roughly 5 arc minutes of a degree every 6 years. The tropical signs relate to the seasons and not the stars. Here is an example: a person born on, say August 28, 2002, would come to understand that their Sun sign was in Virgo according to Western astrology (conventional Sun sign dates August 23, to September 22, of every year), but Sun on that same calendar date of the year 2002 was in the constellation Leo (where it had been since August 10, 2002, and would remain until September 15, when it would then finally cross into Virgo).


title: Horoscope

text: The sidereal signs and the tropical signs are both geometrical conventions of 30° each, whereas the zodiacal constellations are pictorial representations of mythological figures projected onto the celestial sphere based on patterns of visible star groupings, none of which occupy precisely 30° of the ecliptic. So constellations and signs are not the same, although for historical reasons they might have the same names.


title: Horoscope

text: Some astrologers do not use the signs of the zodiac at all, focusing more instead on the astrological aspects and other features of the horoscope. The sun sign is the sign of the zodiac in which the sun is located for the native. This is the single astrological fact familiar to most people. If an event occurs at sunrise the ascendant and sun sign will be the same; other rising signs can then be estimated at two-hour intervals from there. A cusp is the boundary between two signs or houses. For some, the cusp includes a small portion of the two signs or houses under consideration.


title: Horoscope

text: To create a horoscope, an astrologer first has to ascertain the exact time and place of the subject's birth, or the initiation of an event. The local standard time (adjusting for any daylight saving time or war time) is then converted into Greenwich Mean Time or Universal Time at that same instant. The astrologer then has to convert this into the local sidereal time at birth in order to be able to calculate the ascendant and midheaven. The astrologer will next consult a set of tables called an ephemeris, which lists the location of the Sun, Moon and planets for a particular year, date and sidereal time, with respect to the northern hemisphere vernal equinox or the fixed stars (depending on which astrological system is being used). The astrologer then adds or subtracts the difference between the longitude of Greenwich and the longitude of the place in question to determine the true local mean time (LMT) at the place of birth to show where planets would be visible above the horizon at the precise time and place in question. Planets hidden from view beneath the earth are also shown in the horoscope.


title: Horoscope

text: Using the above process, practitioners of astrology commonly construct a composite chart when two people meet and form a relationship. According to astrologers, the composite chart will give clues as to the nature and function of the relationship.


title: Horoscope

text: The horoscope features 12 sectors around the circle of the ecliptic, starting from the eastern horizon with the ascendant or rising sign. These 12 sectors are called the houses and numerous systems for calculating these divisions exist. Tables of houses have been published since the 19th Century to make this otherwise demanding task easier.


title: Horoscope

text: The chart thus begins with a framework of 12 houses. Upon this the signs of the zodiac are superimposed. In the equal house system the cusp between any two houses will fall at the same degree for each of the at 12° of Leo, the second house will begin at 12° of Virgo, the third at 12° Libra, and so on. In house systems that take into consideration the effects of the angle of intersection between the planes of the horizon and the ecliptic, the calculations are more complicated. For these calculations it is essential to know the latitude of the event. Tables are available for these calculations, but they are now commonly calculated by computer. Most astrology computer programs allow the user to choose from a variety of house systems.


title: Horoscope

text: Having established the relative positions of the signs in the houses, the astrologer positions the sun, moon, and planets at their proper celestial longitudes. Some astrologers also take note of minor planetary bodies, fixed stars, asteroids (for example, Chiron) and other mathematically calculated points and angles such as the vertex, equatorial ascendant, etc. Many astrologers also use what are commonly referred to as Arabic parts (or Greek Lots), the most common of which is the Part of Fortune (Pars Fortunae).


title: Horoscope

text: To complete the horoscope the astrologer will consider the aspects or relative angles between pairs of planets. More exact aspects are considered more important. The difference between the exact aspect and the actual aspect is called the orb. Those generally recognized by the astrological community are Conjunction (0°), Opposition (180°), Square (90°), Trine (120°), Sextile (60°), Semi-Square (45°), Sesquisquare (135°), and Quincunx (150°). Understandably these aspects are more significant when they are exact, but they are considered to function within an orb of influence, the size of which varies according to the importance of each aspect. Thus conjunctions are believed to operate with a larger orb than sextiles. Most modern astrologers use an orb of 8° or less for aspects involving the Sun, Moon, and Jupiter and smaller orbs for the other points. Some astrologers, such as practitioners of Cosmobiology, and Uranian astrology, use minor aspects (15°, 22.5°, 67.5°, 72°, 75°, 105°, 112.5°, 157.5°, 165°) with much narrower orbs.


title: Horoscope

text: The major astrological system regarded universally is Vedic Hindu Astrology. As per this, all planets see just opposite i.e. 180 degree aspect. But Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn have special aspects. Mars sees the houses 4th and 8 too from its place in the horoscope, Saturn sees the houses 3 and 10 too from its place, and Jupiter sees 5 and 9 from its place in the horoscope i.e. the house in which they are posited in the lagna chart.


title: Horoscope

text: The ascendant (ASC) is a point on the ecliptic that rises on the eastern horizon at sunrise and changes as the earth rotates on its axis. The ascendant is very important in astrological chart interpretation. It exerts more power than the sun, moon and planets because it infiltrates everything in the natal chart.


title: Horoscope

text: The ascendant is the first point of energy in the natal chart and it represents the way we view life. The sign on the ascendant characterises our expression of "who we are" when dealing with others, and our initial action when dealing with day-to-day concerns. Longitude is necessary in order to determine the position of the Ascendant because horoscopes use local time. Having constructed the horoscope, the astrologer can begin the task of interpreting the chart. This interpretation depends upon which branch of horoscopic astrology is being used.


title: Horoscope

text: In Chinese astrology, horoscopes are based on the symbolism of the Chinese zodiac, a system of elements and animals associated with each year according to a Sexagenary cycle. Chinese horoscopes often appear in horoscope sections in newspapers and magazine alongside Western horoscopes.


title: Horoscope

text: Interest in horoscopes and the zodiac sign have been very popular throughout history and today. There are many faithful followers, from celebrities to the general public. With so many believers, and perhaps a personal connection to the horoscope or the zodiac, it can be difficult to accept that astrology is not grounded in scientific evidence and is a pseudoscience.


title: Horoscope

text: Natal birth charts, or zodiac signs, are often used to predict a person's personality traits. However, the use of natal birth charts to predict personality is not valid or reliable. In a double-blind study that tested the zodiac's reliability to predict personality, an astrologer had to match a person's zodiac sign to their CPI (California Personality Inventory) result. The CPI is a reliable method to determine an individual's personality. It was found that the astrologers were not able to correctly match the zodiac sign to the CPI result beyond random assignment. This means that astrology is no more than a test of chance and it is not a reliable way to predict personality.


title: Horoscope

text: Similarly, the zodiac sign can be used to create horoscopes that predict the events that will happen in an individual's life. However, like using the zodiac sign for personality traits, using it for horoscopes is also unreliable. One astrologer's prediction for a horoscope is typically completely unrelated to the prediction of another astrologer. However, many people still believe their horoscope perfectly aligns with the events in their lives. There are some possible explanations for this. Horoscopes have vague wording and are based on typical everyday activities. Due to this, it is easier for people to relate to these claims and increase their belief that it is a real science. Also, a person's expectations typically lead them to bias the way they perceive information, so their expectations are confirmed. In a study, participant's horoscopes were paired with the events of their previous day. When the horoscopes were presented with the participant's zodiac sign, other participants were more likely to report that the horoscope matched the previous day's events compared to when their zodiac sign was not present. This shows how individuals will bias their perceptions based on the expectations. This makes horoscopes seem reliable, when they are not valid.


title: Horoscope

text: Although it has its proponents, astrology has been rejected by the scientific community. Some horoscopes base their predictions on the "movement" of stars. However, this is inaccurate as stars actually do not move but appear to because the earth rotates on its axis and orbits around the sun. Furthermore, none of the answers given by astrology are actually based on science. According to American astronomer, the reason why people rely on horoscopes is explained by a psychological phenomenon known as "self-selection bias", which is the tendency of humans to look for interpretations or confirmations for what they already hope to be true. Hence, the reason why astrology may seem like it works is because our brains are wired to look for patterns, even when none exists. Many practitioners of astrology claim that astrology is indeed a science however, despite many trial and experiments, the effectiveness and scientific evidence of astrology is still yet to be demonstrated. In conclusion, astrology has no verifiable mechanism behind it and astrologers follow no sort of scientific method in their process hence it cannot be classified as science.


title: Horoscope

text: In Christianity, many say that people should not use horoscopes or practice astrology in general, citing Deuteronomy 4:19, Deuteronomy 18:10-12, and Isaiah 47:13-14 from the Bible. Evangelist and minister Billy Graham has said, "God did make the stars (as well as everything else in the universe), but he intended them to be a witness to his power and glory, not as a means to guide us or foretell the future."


title: Music theory

text: Music theory is the study of the practices and possibilities of music. "The Oxford Companion to Music" describes three interrelated uses of the term "music theory". The first is the "rudiments", that are needed to understand music notation (key signatures, time signatures, and rhythmic notation); the second is learning scholars' views on music from antiquity to the present; the third is a sub-topic of musicology that "seeks to define processes and general principles in music". The musicological approach to theory differs from music analysis "in that it takes as its starting-point not the individual work or performance but the fundamental materials from which it is built."


title: Music theory

text: Music theory is frequently concerned with describing how musicians and composers make music, including tuning systems and composition methods among other topics. Because of the ever-expanding conception of what constitutes music, a more inclusive definition could be the consideration of any sonic phenomena, including silence. This is not an absolute guideline, however; for example, the study of "music" in the "Quadrivium" liberal arts university curriculum, that was common in medieval Europe, was an abstract system of proportions that was carefully studied at a distance from actual musical practice. But this medieval discipline became the basis for tuning systems in later centuries and is generally included in modern scholarship on the history of music theory.


title: Music theory

text: Music theory as a practical discipline encompasses the methods and concepts that composers and other musicians use in creating music. The development, preservation, and transmission of music theory in this sense may be found in oral and written music-making traditions, musical instruments, and other artifacts. For example, ancient instruments from prehistoric sites around the world reveal details about the music they produced and potentially something of the musical theory that might have been used by their makers. In ancient and living cultures around the world, the deep and long roots of music theory are visible in instruments, oral traditions, and current music-making. Many cultures have also considered music theory in more formal ways such as written treatises and music notation. Practical and scholarly traditions overlap, as many practical treatises about music place themselves within a tradition of other treatises, which are cited regularly just as scholarly writing cites earlier research.


title: Music theory

text: In modern academia, music theory is a subfield of musicology, the wider study of musical cultures and history. Etymologically, "music theory", is an act of contemplation of music, from the Greek word θεωρία, meaning a looking at, a viewing; a contemplation, speculation, theory; a sight, a spectacle. As such, it is often concerned with abstract musical aspects such as tuning and tonal systems, scales, consonance and dissonance, and rhythmic relationships. In addition, there is also a body of theory concerning practical aspects, such as the creation or the performance of music, orchestration, ornamentation, improvisation, and electronic sound production. A person who researches or teaches music theory is a music theorist. University study, typically to the MA or PhD level, is required to teach as a tenure-track music theorist in a US or Canadian university. Methods of analysis include mathematics, graphic analysis, and especially analysis enabled by western music notation. Comparative, descriptive, statistical, and other methods are also used. Music theory textbooks, especially in the United States of America, often include elements of musical acoustics, considerations of musical notation, and techniques of tonal composition (harmony and counterpoint), among other topics.


title: Music theory

text: Preserved prehistoric instruments, artifacts, and later depictions of performance in artworks can give clues to the structure of pitch systems in prehistoric cultures. See for instance Paleolithic flutes, Gǔdí, and Anasazi flute.


title: Music theory

text: Several surviving Sumerian and Akkadian clay tablets include musical information of a theoretical nature, mainly lists of intervals and tunings. The scholar Sam Mirelman reports that the earliest of these texts dates from before 1500 BCE, a millennium earlier than surviving evidence from any other culture of comparable musical thought. Further, "All the Mesopotamian texts [about music] are united by the use of a terminology for music that, according to the approximate dating of the texts, was in use for over 1,000 years."


title: Music theory

text: Chinese theory starts from numbers, the main musical numbers being twelve, five and eight. Twelve refers to the number of pitches on which the scales can be constructed. The Lüshi chunqiu from about 239 BCE recalls the legend of Ling Lun. On order of the Yellow Emperor, Ling Lun collected twelve bamboo lengths with thick and even nodes. Blowing on one of these like a pipe, he found its sound agreeable and named it "huangzhong", the "Yellow Bell." He then heard phoenixes singing. The male and female phoenix each sang six tones. Ling Lun cut his bamboo pipes to match the pitches of the phoenixes, producing twelve pitch pipes in two sets: six from the male phoenix and six from the female: these were called the "lülü" or later the "shierlü".


title: Music theory

text: Apart from technical and structural aspects, ancient Chinese music theory also discusses topics such as the nature and functions of music. The "Yueji" ("Record of music", c1st and 2nd centuries BCE), for example, manifests Confucian moral theories of understanding music in its social context. Studied and implemented by Confucian scholar-officials [...], these theories helped form a musical Confucianism that overshadowed but did not erase rival approaches. These include the assertion of Mozi (c. 468 – c. 376 BCE) that music wasted human and material resources, and Laozi's claim that the greatest music had no sounds. [...] Even the music of the "qin" zither, a genre closely affiliated with Confucian scholar-officials, includes many works with Daoist references, such as "Tianfeng huanpei" ("Heavenly Breeze and Sounds of Jade Pendants").


title: Music theory

text: The Samaveda and Yajurveda (c. 1200 – 1000 BCE) are among the earliest testimonies of Indian music, but they contain no theory properly speaking. The Natya Shastra, written between 200 BCE to 200 CE, discusses intervals ("Śrutis"), scales ("Grāmas"), consonances and dissonances, classes of melodic structure ("Mūrchanās", modes?), melodic types ("Jātis"), instruments, etc.


title: Music theory

text: Several names of theorists are known before these works, including Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BCE), Philolaus (c. 470 – c. 385 BCE), Archytas (428–347 BCE), and others.


title: Music theory

text: The pipa instrument carried with it a theory of musical modes that subsequently led to the Sui and Tang theory of 84 musical modes.


title: Music theory

text: The Latin treatise "De institutione musica" by the Roman philosopher Boethius (written c. 500, translated as "Fundamentals of Music") was a touchstone for other writings on music in medieval Europe. Boethius represented Classical authority on music during the Middle Ages, as the Greek writings on which he based his work were not read or translated by later Europeans until the 15th century. This treatise carefully maintains distance from the actual practice of music, focusing mostly on the mathematical proportions involved in tuning systems and on the moral character of particular modes. Several centuries later, treatises began to appear which dealt with the actual composition of pieces of music in the plainchant tradition. At the end of the ninth century, Hucbald worked towards more precise pitch notation for the neumes used to record plainchant.


title: Music theory

text: Guido d'Arezzo' wrote in 1028 a letter to Michael of Pomposa, entitled "Epistola de ignoto cantu", in which he introduced the practice of using syllables to describe notes and intervals. This was the source of the hexachordal solmization that was to be used until the end of the Middle Ages. Guido also wrote about emotional qualities of the modes, the phrase structure of plainchant, the temporal meaning of the neumes, etc.; his chapters on polyphony "come closer to describing and illustrating real music than any previous account" in the Western tradition.


title: Music theory

text: During the thirteenth century, a new rhythm system called mensural notation grew out of an earlier, more limited method of notating rhythms in terms of fixed repetitive patterns, the so-called rhythmic modes, which were developed in France around 1200. An early form of mensural notation was first described and codified in the treatise "Ars cantus mensurabilis" ("The art of measured chant") by Franco of Cologne (c. 1280). Mensural notation used different note shapes to specify different durations, allowing scribes to capture rhythms which varied instead of repeating the same fixed pattern; it is a proportional notation, in the sense that each note value is equal to two or three times the shorter value, or half or a third of the longer value. This same notation, transformed through various extensions and improvements during the Renaissance, forms the basis for rhythmic notation in European classical music today.


title: Music theory

text: D'Erlanger divulges that the Arabic music scale is derived from the Greek music scale, and that Arabic music is connected to certain features of Arabic culture, such as astrology.


title: Music theory

text: Music is composed of aural phenomena; "music theory" considers how those phenomena apply in music. Music theory considers melody, rhythm, counterpoint, harmony, form, tonal systems, scales, tuning, intervals, consonance, dissonance, durational proportions, the acoustics of pitch systems, composition, performance, orchestration, ornamentation, improvisation, electronic sound production, etc.


title: Music theory

text: Pitch is the lowness or highness of a tone, for example the difference between middle C and a higher C. The frequency of the sound waves producing a pitch can be measured precisely, but the perception of pitch is more complex because single notes from natural sources are usually a complex mix of many frequencies. Accordingly, theorists often describe pitch as a subjective sensation rather than an objective measurement of sound.


title: Music theory

text: Specific frequencies are often assigned letter names. Today most orchestras assign concert A (the A above middle C on the piano) to the frequency of 440 Hz. This assignment is somewhat arbitrary; for example, in 1859 France, the same A was tuned to 435 Hz. Such differences can have a noticeable effect on the timbre of instruments and other phenomena. Thus, in historically informed performance of older music, tuning is often set to match the tuning used in the period when it was written. Additionally, many cultures do not attempt to standardize pitch, often considering that it should be allowed to vary depending on genre, style, mood, etc.


title: Music theory

text: The difference in pitch between two notes is called an interval. The most basic interval is the unison, which is simply two notes of the same pitch. The octave interval is two pitches that are either double or half the frequency of one another. The unique characteristics of octaves gave rise to the concept of pitch class: pitches of the same letter name that occur in different octaves may be grouped into a single "class" by ignoring the difference in octave. For example, a high C and a low C are members of the same pitch class—the class that contains all C's.


title: Music theory

text: Musical tuning systems, or temperaments, determine the precise size of intervals. Tuning systems vary widely within and between world cultures. In Western culture, there have long been several competing tuning systems, all with different qualities. Internationally, the system known as equal temperament is most commonly used today because it is considered the most satisfactory compromise that allows instruments of fixed tuning (e.g. the piano) to sound acceptably in tune in all keys.


title: Music theory

text: Notes can be arranged in a variety of scales and modes. Western music theory generally divides the octave into a series of twelve pitches, called a chromatic scale, within which the interval between adjacent tones is called a half step, or semitone. Selecting tones from this set of 12 and arranging them in patterns of semitones and whole tones creates other scales.


title: Music theory

text: The most commonly encountered scales are the seven-toned major, the harmonic minor, the melodic minor, and the natural minor. Other examples of scales are the octatonic scale and the pentatonic or five-tone scale, which is common in folk music and blues. Non-Western cultures often use scales that do not correspond with an equally divided twelve-tone division of the octave. For example, classical Ottoman, Persian, Indian and Arabic musical systems often make use of multiples of quarter tones (half the size of a semitone, as the name indicates), for instance in 'neutral' seconds (three quarter tones) or 'neutral' thirds (seven quarter tones)—they do not normally use the quarter tone itself as a direct interval.


title: Music theory

text: In traditional Western notation, the scale used for a composition is usually indicated by a key signature at the beginning to designate the pitches that make up that scale. As the music progresses, the pitches used may change and introduce a different scale. Music can be transposed from one scale to another for various purposes, often to accommodate the range of a vocalist. Such transposition raises or lowers the overall pitch range, but preserves the intervallic relationships of the original scale. For example, transposition from the key of C major to D major raises all pitches of the scale of C major equally by a whole tone. Since the interval relationships remain unchanged, transposition may be unnoticed by a listener, however other qualities may change noticeably because transposition changes the relationship of the overall pitch range compared to the range of the instruments or voices that perform the music. This often affects the music's overall sound, as well as having technical implications for the performers.


title: Music theory

text: The interrelationship of the keys most commonly used in Western tonal music is conveniently shown by the circle of fifths. Unique key signatures are also sometimes devised for a particular composition. During the Baroque period, emotional associations with specific keys, known as the doctrine of the affections, were an important topic in music theory, but the unique tonal colorings of keys that gave rise to that doctrine were largely erased with the adoption of equal temperament. However, many musicians continue to feel that certain keys are more appropriate to certain emotions than others. Indian classical music theory continues to strongly associate keys with emotional states, times of day, and other extra-musical concepts and notably, does not employ equal temperament.


title: Music theory

text: Consonance and dissonance are subjective qualities of the sonority of intervals that vary widely in different cultures and over the ages. Consonance (or concord) is the quality of an interval or chord that seems stable and complete in itself. Dissonance (or discord) is the opposite in that it feels incomplete and "wants to" resolve to a consonant interval. Dissonant intervals seem to clash. Consonant intervals seem to sound comfortable together. Commonly, perfect fourths, fifths, and octaves and all major and minor thirds and sixths are considered consonant. All others are dissonant to a greater or lesser degree.


title: Music theory

text: Context and many other aspects can affect apparent dissonance and consonance. For example, in a Debussy prelude, a major second may sound stable and consonant, while the same interval may sound dissonant in a Bach fugue. In the Common practice era, the perfect fourth is considered dissonant when not supported by a lower third or fifth. Since the early 20th century, Arnold Schoenberg's concept of "emancipated" dissonance, in which traditionally dissonant intervals can be treated as "higher," more remote consonances, has become more widely accepted.


title: Music theory

text: Rhythm is produced by the sequential arrangement of sounds and silences in time. Meter measures music in regular pulse groupings, called measures or bars. The time signature or meter signature specifies how many beats are in a measure, and which value of written note is counted or felt as a single beat.


title: Music theory

text: Through increased stress, or variations in duration or articulation, particular tones may be accented. There are conventions in most musical traditions for regular and hierarchical accentuation of beats to reinforce a given meter. Syncopated rhythms contradict those conventions by accenting unexpected parts of the beat. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called polyrhythm.


title: Music theory

text: In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. The most highly cited of these recent scholars are Maury Yeston, Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, Jonathan Kramer, and Justin London.


title: Music theory

text: A melody is a series of tones "perceived as an entity", sounding in succession that typically move toward a climax of tension then resolve to a state of rest. Because melody is such a prominent aspect in so much music, its construction and other qualities are a primary interest of music theory.


title: Music theory

text: The basic elements of melody are pitch, duration, rhythm, and tempo. The tones of a melody are usually drawn from pitch systems such as scales or modes. Melody may consist, to increasing degree, of the figure, motive, semi-phrase, antecedent and consequent phrase, and period or sentence. The period may be considered the complete melody, however some examples combine two periods, or use other combinations of constituents to create larger form melodies.


title: Music theory

text: A chord, in music, is any harmonic set of three or more notes that is heard as if sounding simultaneously. These need not actually be played together: arpeggios and broken chords may, for many practical and theoretical purposes, constitute chords. Chords and sequences of chords are frequently used in modern Western, West African, and Oceanian music, whereas they are absent from the music of many other parts of the world.


title: Music theory

text: The most frequently encountered chords are triads, so called because they consist of three distinct notes: further notes may be added to give seventh chords, extended chords, or added tone chords. The most common chords are the "major" and "minor triads" and then the "augmented" and "diminished triads". The descriptions "major", "minor", "augmented", and "diminished" are sometimes referred to collectively as chordal "quality". Chords are also commonly classed by their root note—so, for instance, the chord C major may be described as a triad of major quality built on the note C. Chords may also be classified by inversion, the order in which the notes are stacked.