title: Claudette Colbert

text: Intending to become a fashion designer, she attended the Art Students League of New York, where she paid for her art education by working in a dress shop. After attending a party with writer Anne Morrison, Colbert was offered a bit part in Morrison's play, and appeared on the Broadway stage in a small role in "The Wild Westcotts" (1923). She had used the name Claudette, instead of Lily, since high school; for her stage name, she added her maternal grandmother's maiden name, Colbert. Her father, Georges, died in 1925, and her grandmother, Marie Loew, died in New York in 1930.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: In 1924, producer Al Woods, impressed by Colbert's ability to speak with both American and British accents, cast her in Frederick Lonsdale's "The Fake", but she was replaced by Frieda Inescort before it opened. After signing a five-year contract with Woods, Colbert played "ingenue" roles on Broadway from 1925 to 1929. During this period she disliked being typecast as a French maid. Colbert later said, "In the very beginning, they wanted to give me French roles … That's why I used to say my name 'Col-bert' just as it is spelled, instead of 'Col-baire'. I did not want to be typed as 'that French girl. By 1925 she was having success in the comedy "A Kiss in a Taxi", which ran for 103 performances over a two-month period. She received critical acclaim as a carnival snake charmer in the Broadway production of "The Barker" (1927), and reprised the role in London's West End. She was noticed by theatrical producer Leland Hayward, who suggested her for the heroine role in the silent film "For the Love of Mike" (1927). Now believed to be lost, the film did not fare well at the box office.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: In 1928, Colbert signed a contract with Paramount Pictures. A demand existed for stage actors who could handle dialogue in the new "talkies", and Colbert's elegance and musical voice were among her best assets. Her beauty drew attention in "The Hole in the Wall" (1929), but at first she did not like film acting. Her earliest films were produced in New York. During the filming of "The Lady Lies" (also 1929), she was also appearing nightly in the play "See Naples and Die". "The Lady Lies" was a box-office success. In 1930, she starred opposite Maurice Chevalier in "The Big Pond", which was filmed in both English and French. She co-starred with Fredric March in "Manslaughter" (1930), receiving critical acclaim for her performance as a woman charged with vehicular manslaughter. She was paired with March again in "Honor Among Lovers" (1931). She also starred in "Mysterious Mr. Parkes" (1931), a French-language version of "Slightly Scarlet" for the European market, although it was also screened in the United States. She sang and played piano in the Ernst Lubitsch musical "The Smiling Lieutenant" (1931), which was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture. Colbert's ability to "hold her man" (Maurice Chevalier again) surpassed "Queen" Miriam Hopkins, according to David Shipman. Colbert concluded the year with appearance in a modestly successful "His Woman" (1931) with Gary Cooper.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: Colbert's career got a further boost when Cecil B. DeMille cast her as "femme fatale" Poppaea in the historical epic "The Sign of the Cross "(1932), opposite Fredric March and Charles Laughton. In one of the best-remembered scenes of her film career, she bathes nude in a marble pool filled with asses' milk. The film was one of her biggest box-office hits.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: In 1933, Colbert renegotiated her contract with Paramount to allow her to appear in films for other studios. Her musical voice, a contralto that footnotes list as being coached by Bing Crosby, was also featured in "Torch Singer" (1933), co-starring Ricardo Cortez and David Manners. Partly as a result, she was ranked as the year's 13th box-office star. By 1933, she had appeared in 21 films, averaging four per year. Many of her early films were commercial successes, and her performances were admired. Her leading roles were down-to-earth and diverse, highlighting her versatility.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: Colbert was initially reluctant to appear in the screwball comedy "It Happened One Night" (1934). The studio agreed to pay her $50,000 for the role, and guaranteed filming would be done within four weeks so she could take a planned vacation. She won the Academy Award for Best Actress for the film.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: In "Cleopatra" (1934), Colbert played the title role opposite Warren William and Henry Wilcoxon. It was the highest-grossing picture of that year in the United States. Thereafter, Colbert did not wish to be portrayed as overtly sexual, and later refused such roles. "Imitation of Life" (1934), when she was on loan to Universal, was another box-office success. Those three films were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture in the next year. Colbert is the only actress to date to star in three films nominated for Best Motion Picture in the same year.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: Colbert's rising profile again allowed her to renegotiate her contract, which raised her salary. For 1935 and 1936, she was listed sixth and eighth in Quigley's annual "Top-Ten Money-Making Stars Poll". She received an Academy Award nomination for her role in the hospital drama "Private Worlds" (1935).


title: Claudette Colbert

text: In 1936, Colbert signed a new contract with Paramount, making her Hollywood's highest-paid actress. When the studio renewed her contract in 1938, she was again reported to be Hollywood's top-paid actress, with a salary of $426,924. At the peak of her popularity in the late 1930s, she earned $150,000 per film. In 1937 and 1938, she was listed as the 14th and sixth (respectively) top money-making woman in the U.S.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: Colbert spent the rest of the 1930s deftly alternating between romantic comedies and dramas: "She Married Her Boss" (1935) with Melvyn Douglas; "The Gilded Lily" (1935) and "The Bride Comes Home" (1935), both with Fred MacMurray; "Under Two Flags" (1936) with Ronald Colman; "Zaza" (1939) with Herbert Marshall; "Midnight" (1939) with Don Ameche; and "It's a Wonderful World" (1939) with James Stewart.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: Colbert was tall. Columnist Hedda Hopper wrote that Colbert placed her career "ahead of everything, save possibly her marriage", and that she had a strong sense of what was best for her, and a "deep-rooted desire to be in shape, efficient, and under control". Biographer A. Scott Berg wrote that Colbert "helped define femininity for her generation with her chic manner". Colbert once said, "I know what's best for me—after all, I have been in the Claudette Colbert business longer than anybody."


title: Claudette Colbert

text: Colbert was very particular about how she appeared on-screen, and believed her face was difficult to light and photograph. She insisted on having the right side of her face away from the camera because of a small bump from a broken nose as a child. This sometimes required movie sets to be redesigned. During the filming of "Tovarich" (1937), director Anatole Litvak dismissed one of her favored cameramen. After seeing the rushes filmed by his replacement, Colbert refused to continue. She insisted on hiring her own cameraman, and offered to waive her salary if the film went over budget as a result. Gary Cooper was terrified at the prospect of working with Colbert in his first comedy, "Bluebeard's Eighth Wife" (1938), considering Colbert an expert in the genre.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: Colbert learned about lighting and cinematography, and refused to begin filming until she was satisfied that she would be shown to her best advantage. "Drums Along the Mohawk" (1939) with Henry Fonda was her first color film, and one of the year's top-20 grossing pictures. However, she distrusted the relatively new Technicolor process, and fearing she would not photograph well, preferred thereafter to be filmed in black-and-white.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: During this time, she began performing on CBS's popular radio program "Lux Radio Theater", and was heard in 22 episodes between 1935 and 1954. She also participated in 13 episodes of radio's "The Screen Guild Theater", between 1939 and 1952.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: In 1940, Colbert refused a seven-year contract with Paramount that would have paid her $200,000 a year, after learning she could command $150,000 per film as a freelance artist. With her manager, Colbert secured roles in prestigious films, and this period marked the height of her earning ability. "Boom Town", released in August 1940, was the highest-grossing picture of the year in the United States. However, Colbert once said that "Arise, My Love" (1940) was her favorite of all her movies. It won the Academy Award for Best Story.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: During filming of "So Proudly We Hail!" (1943), a rift occurred between Colbert and co-star Paulette Goddard, who preferred another co-star, Veronica Lake, rather than Colbert. Colbert felt that Goddard treated her like an old lady. Goddard said that Colbert "flipped", that she "was at [my] eyes at every moment", and that they continued their feud for the duration of filming. This was unusual for Colbert, who was otherwise known for maintaining high standards of professionalism.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: Impressed by Colbert's role in "So Proudly We Hail!", David O. Selznick approached her to play the lead in "Since You Went Away" (1944). She was initially reluctant to appear as a mother of teenaged children, but Selznick eventually won her over. Released in June 1944, the film made almost $5 million at the US box office and was the year's third highest-grossing picture. Critic James Agee praised aspects of the film, but particularly Colbert's work. Partly as a result, she received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: In 1945, Colbert ended her association with Paramount and continued to freelance in such films as "Guest Wife" (1945) with Don Ameche. She starred opposite John Wayne in RKO's "Without Reservations" (1946), which grossed $3 million in the U.S. While working on it, director Mervyn LeRoy described Colbert as an "interesting" lady to work with, recalling her habit of not watching where she was going and constantly bumping into things. Praised for her sense of style and fashion, Colbert ensured throughout her career that she was impeccably groomed and costumed. For the melodrama "Tomorrow Is Forever" (1946), Jean Louis was hired to create 18 changes of wardrobe for her. "Tomorrow is Forever" and "The Secret Heart" (also 1946) were also substantial commercial successes, and Colbert's popularity during 1947 led her to place 9th in Quigley's ""Top Ten Money-Making Stars Poll"".


title: Claudette Colbert

text: She achieved great success opposite Fred MacMurray in the comedy "The Egg and I" (1947), which was the year's second-highest grossing picture, and later acknowledged as the 12th-most profitable American film of the 1940s. The suspense film "Sleep, My Love" (1948) with Robert Cummings was a modest commercial success. By 1949, she still ranked as the 22nd-highest box-office star.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: The romantic comedy "Bride for Sale" (1949), wherein Colbert played part of a love triangle that included George Brent and Robert Young, was well-reviewed. Her performance in the Pacific war film "Three Came Home" (1950) was also praised by critics. However, the mystery melodrama "The Secret Fury" (1950), distributed by RKO Studios, received mixed reviews. During this period, Colbert was unable to work beyond 5 p.m. each day due to orders from her doctor. While Colbert still looked like a young woman, she found it difficult making the transition to playing more mature characters as she entered middle age. She said, "I'm a very good comedienne, but I was always fighting that image, too."


title: Claudette Colbert

text: In 1949, Colbert was selected to play Margo Channing in "All About Eve", because producer Joseph L. Mankiewicz felt that she best represented the style he envisioned for the part. However, Colbert severely injured her back, forcing her to abandon the picture shortly before filming began. Bette Davis was cast, instead, and received an Oscar nomination for the film. In later life, Colbert said, "I just never had the luck to play bitches."


title: Claudette Colbert

text: In the early 1950s, Colbert traveled to Europe for tax purposes and joined fewer films. "The Planter's Wife" (1952) was a success in British market. She played a supporting role in "Royal Affairs in Versailles" (1954), her only film with a French director (Sacha Guitry). It was screened in the United States in 1957.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: In 1954, Colbert turned down a million-dollar broadcast deal with NBC-TV, but made a pact with CBS-TV to star in several teleplays. After a successful appearance in a television version of "The Royal Family" (a parody of the Barrymore family in "The Best of Broadway" series), she took on more television work. She starred in television adaptations of "Blithe Spirit" in 1956 and "The Bells of St. Mary's" in 1959, and guest-starred on "Robert Montgomery Presents" and "Playhouse 90".


title: Claudette Colbert

text: In 1957, she was cast as Lucy Bradford, wife of schoolteacher Jim Bradford (Jeff Morrow), in the "Blood in the Dust" episode of CBS's "Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre". In the story, Jim refuses to back down when a gunman orders him to leave town, and Lucy is distressed because Jim hasn't fired a weapon since he was in the Civil War.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: In the show's 1960 episode "So Young the Savage Land", she played Beth Brayden, who becomes disillusioned with her rancher-husband Jim (John Dehner) when he turns to violence to protect their property.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: In 1958, she returned to Broadway in "The Marriage-Go-Round", for which she was nominated for a Best Actress Tony Award.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: She made a brief return to the screen, opposite Troy Donahue in "Parrish" (1961). It was her last appearance on the big screen, and she played the supporting role of the mother. The film was a commercial success, but Colbert received little attention, and she directed her agent to end any further attempts to generate interest in her as a film actress.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: Colbert made successful Broadway appearances in "The Irregular Verb to Love" (1963); in "The Kingfisher" (1978), with co-star Rex Harrison; and in Frederick Lonsdale's "Aren't We All?" (1985), also with Harrison. She told an interviewer, "Audiences always sound like they're glad to see me, and I'm damned glad to see them."


title: Claudette Colbert

text: She appeared in a supporting role in the television miniseries "The Two Mrs. Grenvilles" (1987), which was a ratings success, and for which she won a Golden Globe and was nominated for an Emmy Award. Towards the end of her life, she explained why she had never written her autobiography, "I've been happy, and that's no story."


title: Claudette Colbert

text: Modern critics have pointed out that Colbert had a unique set of assets—her round apple-face, big eyes, curly hair, slender body, elegant voice, aristocratic manner, relaxed acting, tongue-in-cheek vivacity, intelligent style, comedic timing, and ladylike alluring charm—that distinguishes her from other comediennes of the 1930s. In her comedies, she invariably played shrewd, self-reliant women; unlike many of her contemporaries, though, she rarely engaged in physical comedy. Her characters were more likely to be observers and commentators.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: In 1928, Colbert married actor and director Norman Foster, with whom she co-starred in the Broadway show "The Barker", and in the film "Young Man of Manhattan" (1930), for which he received negative reviews as one of her weakest leading men. Their marriage remained a secret for many years while they lived in separate homes.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: In Los Angeles, Colbert shared a home with her mother, Jeanne Chauchoin, but her domineering mother disliked Foster and reputedly did not allow him into the home. Colbert and Foster divorced in 1935 in Mexico.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: On Christmas Eve, 1935, in Yuma, Arizona, Colbert married Dr. Joel Pressman, who eventually became a professor and chief of the head and neck surgery department of UCLA Medical School. She gave a Beechcraft single-engined airplane to Pressman as a present. They purchased a ranch in Northern California, where Colbert enjoyed horseback riding and her husband kept show cattle. During this time, Colbert drove a Lincoln Continental and a Ford Thunderbird. The marriage lasted 33 years, until Pressman's death from liver cancer in 1968.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: Jeanne Chauchoin reportedly envied her daughter, preferred her son's company, and made Colbert's brother Charles serve as his sister's agent. Charles used the surname Wendling, borrowed from Jeanne's paternal grandmother Rose Wendling. He served as Colbert's business manager for a time, and was credited with negotiating some of her more lucrative contracts in the late 1930s and early 1940s.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: Although virtually retired from motion pictures since the mid-1950s, Colbert was still financially solvent enough to maintain an upscale lifestyle. She had a country house in Palm Springs for weekends, and rented a cottage in Cap Ferrat in southeastern France. Adman Peter Rogers said, "Claudette was extravagant; I never, ever saw her question the price of anything." In 1963, Colbert sold her Lloyd Wright-designed residence in Holmby Hills (West Los Angeles), and Dr. Pressman and she rented a small house in Beverly Hills.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: In 1958, she met Verna Hull, a wealthy painter, photographer and the stepdaughter of a Sears Roebuck heiress. They had a nine-year friendship that included travel, an interest in art, and rented twin New York penthouses. When Colbert bought a house in Barbados in the early 1960s, Hull bought a house next door, amid rumors that their friendship was a romantic one, which Colbert denied. The friendship ended after an argument that took place as Colbert's husband lay dying, wherein Hull insisted Pressman would not only take his life, but Colbert's, too, rather than die alone. Pressman died on February 26, 1968.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: For years, Colbert divided her time between her Manhattan apartment and her vacation home in Speightstown, Barbados. The latter, purchased from a British gentleman and nicknamed Bellerive, was the island's only plantation house fronting the beach. However, her permanent address remained Manhattan.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: When Colbert's mother Jeanne died in 1970, and her brother Charles in 1971, her only surviving relative was her brother's daughter, Coco Lewis.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: Colbert sustained a series of small strokes during the last three years of her life. She died in 1996 in Barbados, where she had employed a housekeeper and two cooks. She was 92. Her remains were transported to New York City for cremation and funeral services.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: A requiem mass was later held at Church of St. Vincent Ferrer in Manhattan. Her ashes are laid to rest in the Godings Bay Church Cemetery, Speightstown, Saint Peter, Barbados, alongside her mother and second husband.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: Colbert never had children. She left most of her estate, estimated at $3.5 million and including her Manhattan apartment and Bellerive, to a long-time friend, Helen O'Hagan, a retired director of corporate relations at Saks Fifth Avenue. Colbert met O'Hagan in 1961 on the set of "Parrish", her last film, and they became best friends around 1970.


title: Claudette Colbert

text: After Pressman's death, Colbert instructed her friends to treat O'Hagan as they had Pressman, "as her spouse". Although O'Hagan was financially comfortable without the generous bequest, Bellerive was sold for over $2 million to David Geffen. Colbert's will also left $150,000 to her niece Coco Lewis; a trust of over $100,000 to UCLA, in Pressman's memory; and $75,000 to Marie Corbin, her Barbadian housekeeper.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Howard Winchester Hawks (May 30, 1896December 26, 1977) was an American film director, producer and screenwriter of the classic Hollywood era. Critic Leonard Maltin called him "the greatest American director who is not a household name."


title: Howard Hawks

text: A versatile film director, Hawks explored many genres such as comedies, dramas, gangster films, science fiction, film noir, war films and westerns. His most popular films include "Scarface" (1932), "Bringing Up Baby" (1938), "Only Angels Have Wings" (1939), "His Girl Friday" (1940), "To Have and Have Not" (1944), "The Big Sleep" (1946), "Red River" (1948), "The Thing from Another World" (1951), "Gentlemen Prefer Blondes" (1953), and "Rio Bravo" (1959). His frequent portrayals of strong, tough-talking female characters came to define the "Hawksian woman".


title: Howard Hawks

text: In 1942, Hawks was nominated the only time for the Academy Award for Best Director for "Sergeant York" (1941). In 1974, he was awarded an Honorary Academy Award as "a master American filmmaker whose creative efforts hold a distinguished place in world cinema." His work has influenced various popular and respected directors such as Martin Scorsese, Robert Altman, Jean-Luc Godard, John Carpenter, Rainer Werner Fassbinder and Michael Mann.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Howard Winchester Hawks was born in Goshen, Indiana. He was the first-born child of Frank Winchester Hawks (1865–1950), a wealthy paper manufacturer, and his wife, Helen Brown (née Howard; 1872–1952), the daughter of a wealthy industrialist. Hawks's family on his father's side were American pioneers and his ancestor John Hawks had emigrated from England to Massachusetts in 1630. The family eventually settled in Goshen and by the 1890s was one of the wealthiest families in the Midwest, due mostly to the highly profitable Goshen Milling Company.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Hawks's maternal grandfather, C. W. Howard (1845–1916), had homesteaded in Neenah, Wisconsin in 1862 at age 17. Within 15 years he had made his fortune in the town's paper mill and other industrial endeavors. Frank Hawks and Helen Howard met in the early 1890s and married in 1895. Howard Hawks was the eldest of five children and his birth was followed by Kenneth Neil Hawks (August 12, 1898 – January 2, 1930), William Bellinger Hawks (January 29, 1901 – January 10, 1969), Grace Louise Hawks (October 17, 1903 – December 23, 1927) and Helen Bernice Hawks (1906 – May 4, 1911). In 1898, the family moved back to Neenah where Frank Hawks began working for his father-in-law's Howard Paper Company.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Between 1906 and 1909, the Hawks family began to spend more time in Pasadena, California during the cold Wisconsin winters in order to improve Helen Hawks's ill health. Gradually, they began to spend only their summers in Wisconsin before permanently moving to Pasadena in 1910. The family settled in a house down the street from Throop Polytechnic Institute and the Hawks children began attending the school's Polytechnic Elementary School in 1907. Hawks was an average student and did not excel in sports, but by 1910 had discovered coaster racing, an early form of soapbox racing. In 1911, Hawks's youngest sibling Helen died suddenly of food poisoning. From 1910 to 1912, Hawks attended Pasadena High School. But in 1912, the Hawks family moved to nearby Glendora, California, where Frank Hawks owned orange groves. Hawks finished his junior year of high school at Citrus Union High School in Glendora. During this time he worked as a barnstorming pilot.


title: Howard Hawks

text: He was then sent to Phillips Exeter Academy in New Hampshire from 1913 to 1914; his family's wealth may have influenced his acceptance to the elite private school. Even though he was seventeen, he was admitted as a lower middleclassman, the equivalent of a sophomore. While in New England, Hawks often attended the theaters in nearby Boston. In 1914, Hawks returned to Glendora and graduated from Pasadena High School that year. Skilled in tennis, by eighteen years old, Hawks won the United States Junior Tennis Championship. That same year, Hawks was accepted to Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, where he majored in mechanical engineering and was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon. His college friend Ray S. Ashbury remembered Hawks spending more of his time playing craps and drinking alcohol than studying, although Hawks was also known to be a voracious reader of popular American and English novels in college.


title: Howard Hawks

text: While working in the film industry during his 1916 summer vacation, Hawks made an unsuccessful attempt to transfer to Stanford University. He returned to Cornell that September, leaving in April 1917 to join the Army when the United States entered World War I. He served as a lieutenant in the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps. During World War I, he taught aviators to fly and he used these experiences as influence for future aviation films such as "The Dawn Patrol" (1930). Like many college students who joined the armed services during the war, he received a degree in absentia in 1918. Before Hawks was called for active duty, he returned to Hollywood and by the end of April 1917 was working on a Cecil B. DeMille film.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Howard Hawks's interest and passion for aviation led him to many important experiences and acquaintances. In 1916, Hawks met Victor Fleming, a Hollywood cinematographer who had been an auto mechanic and early aviator. Hawks had begun racing and working on a Mercer race car—bought for him by his grandfather, C.W. Howard—during his 1916 summer vacation in California. He allegedly met Fleming when the two men raced on a dirt track and caused an accident. This meeting led to Hawks's first job in the film industry, as a prop boy on the Douglas Fairbanks film "In Again, Out Again" (on which Fleming was employed as the cinematographer) for Famous Players-Lasky. According to Hawks, a new set needed to be built quickly when the studio's set designer was unavailable, so Hawks volunteered to do the job himself, much to Fairbanks's satisfaction. He was next employed as a prop boy and general assistant on an unspecified film directed by Cecil B. DeMille. (Hawks never named the film in later interviews and DeMille made roughly five films in that time period). By the end of April 1917, Hawks was working on Cecil B. DeMille's "The Little American". Hawks then worked on the Mary Pickford film "The Little Princess", directed by Marshall Neilan. According to Hawks, Neilan did not show up to work one day, so the resourceful Hawks offered to direct a scene himself, to which Pickford consented.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Hawks began directing at age 21 after he and cinematographer Charles Rosher filmed a double exposure dream sequence with Mary Pickford. Hawks worked with Pickford and Neilan again on "Amarilly of Clothes-Line Alley" before joining the United States Army Air Service. Hawks's military records were destroyed in the 1973 Military Archive Fire, so the only account of his military service is his own. According to Hawks, he spent 15 weeks in basic training at the University of California in Berkeley where he was trained to be a squadron commander in the air force. When Pickford visited Hawks at basic training, his superior officers were so impressed by the appearance of the celebrity that they promoted him to flight instructor and sent him to Texas to teach new recruits. Bored by this work, Hawks attempted to secure a transfer during the first half of 1918 and was eventually sent to Fort Monroe, Virginia. The Armistice was signed in November of that year, and Hawks was discharged as a Second Lieutenant without having seen active duty.


title: Howard Hawks

text: After the war, Hawks was eager to return to Hollywood. His brother, Kenneth Hawks, who had also served in the Air Force, graduated from Yale University in 1919, and the two of them moved to Hollywood together to pursue their careers. They quickly made friends with Hollywood insider (and fellow Ivy Leaguer) Allan Dwan. Hawks landed his first important job when he used his family's wealth to loan money to studio head Jack L. Warner. Warner quickly paid back the loan and hired Hawks as a producer to "oversee" the making of a new series of one-reel comedies starring the Italian comedian Monty Banks. Hawks later stated that he personally directed "three or four" of the shorts, though no documentation exists to confirm the claim. The films were profitable, but Hawks soon left to form his own production company using his family's wealth and connections to secure financing. The production company, "Associated Producers," was a joint venture between Hawks, Allan Dwan, Marshall Neilan, and director Allen Holubar, with a distribution deal with First National. The company made 14 films between 1920 and 1923, with 8 directed by Neilan, 3 by Dwan and 3 by Holubar. More of a "boy's club" than a production company, the four men gradually drifted apart and went their separate ways in 1923, by which time Hawks had decided that he wanted to direct rather than produce.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Beginning in early 1920, Hawks lived in rented houses in Hollywood with the group of friends he was accumulating. This rowdy group of mostly macho, risk-taking men included his brother Kenneth Hawks, Victor Fleming, Jack Conway, Harold Rosson, Richard Rosson, Arthur Rosson and Eddie Sutherland. During this time, Hawks first met Irving Thalberg, the vice-President in charge of production at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Hawks admired his intelligence and sense of story. Hawks also became friends with barn stormers and pioneer aviators at Rogers Airport in Los Angeles, getting to know men like Moye Stephens.


title: Howard Hawks

text: In 1923, Famous Players-Lasky president Jesse Lasky was looking for a new Production Editor in the story department of his studio and Thalberg suggested Hawks. Hawks accepted and was immediately put in charge of over 40 productions, including several literary acquisitions of stories by Joseph Conrad, Jack London and Zane Grey. Hawks worked on the scripts for all of the films produced, but he had his first official screenplay credit in 1924 on "Tiger Love". Hawks was the Story Editor at Famous Players (later Paramount Pictures) for almost two years, occasionally editing such films as "Heritage of the Desert". Hawks signed a new one-year contract with Famous-Players in the fall of 1924. He broke his contract to become a story editor for Thalberg at MGM, having secured a promise from Thalberg to make him a director within a year. In 1925, when Thalberg hesitated to keep his promise, Hawks broke his contract at MGM and left.


title: Howard Hawks

text: In October 1925, Sol Wurtzel, William Fox's studio superintendent at the Fox Film Corporation, invited Hawks to join his company with the promise of letting Hawks direct. Over the next three years, Hawks directed his first eight films (six silent, two "talkies"). Hawks reworked the scripts of most of the films he directed without always taking official credit for his work. He also worked on the scripts for "Honesty – The Best Policy" in 1926 and Joseph von Sternberg's "Underworld" in 1927, famous for being one of the first gangster films. Hawks's first film was "The Road to Glory" which premiered in April 1926. The screenplay was based on a 35-page composition written by Howard Hawks. This represented one of the only films on which Hawks had extensive writing credit. It is one of Hawks's only two lost films. Immediately after completing "The Road to Glory", Hawks began writing his next film, "Fig Leaves", his first (and, until 1935, only) comedy. It received positive reviews, particularly for the art direction and costume designs. It was released in July 1926 and was Hawks' first hit as a director. Although he mainly dismissed his early work, Hawks praised this film in later interviews.


title: Howard Hawks

text: "Paid to Love" is notable in Hawks's filmography, because it was a highly stylized, experimental film. He attempted to imitate the style of German film director F. W. Murnau. Hawks's film includes atypical tracking shots, expressionistic lighting and stylistic film editing that was inspired by German Expressionist cinema. In a later interview, Hawks commented "It isn't my type of stuff, at least I got it over in a hurry. You know the idea of wanting the camera to do those things: Now the camera's somebody's eyes." Hawks worked on the script with Seton I. Miller, with whom he would go on to collaborate on seven more films. The film stars George O'Brien as the introverted Crown Prince Michael, William Powell as his happy-go-lucky brother and Virginia Valli as Michael's flapper love interest Dolores. The characters played by Valli and O'Brien anticipate those found in later films by Hawks: a sexually aggressive showgirl, who is an early prototype of the "Hawksian woman", and a shy man disinterested in sex, found in later roles played by Cary Grant and Gary Cooper. "Paid to Love" was completed by September 1926, but remained unreleased until July 1927. It was financially unsuccessful. "Cradle Snatchers" was based on a 1925 hit stage play by Russell G. Medcraft and Norma Mitchell. The film was shot in early 1927. The film was released in May 1927 and was a minor hit. For many years it was believed to be a lost film until film director Peter Bogdanovich discovered a print in 20th Century Fox's film vaults, although the print was missing part of reel three and all of reel four. In March 1927, Hawks signed a new one-year, three-picture contract with Fox and was assigned to direct "Fazil", based on the play "L'Insoumise" by Pierre Frondaie. Hawks again worked with Seton Miller on the script. Hawks was over schedule and over budget on the film, which began a rift between him and Sol Wurtzel that would eventually lead to Hawks leaving Fox. The film was finished in August 1927, though it was not released until June 1928.


title: Howard Hawks

text: "A Girl in Every Port" is considered by film scholars to be the most important film of Hawks's silent career. It is the first of his films to utilize many of the Hawksian themes and characters that would define much of his subsequent work. It was his first "love story between two men," with two men bonding over their duty, skills and careers, who consider their friendship to be more important than their relationships with women. In France, Henri Langlois called Hawks "the Gropius of the cinema" and Swiss novelist and poet Blaise Cendrars said that the film "definitely marked the first appearance of contemporary cinema." Hawks went over budget once again with this film, though, and his relationship with Sol Wurtzel deteriorated. After an advance screening that received positive reviews, Wurtzel told Hawks, "This is the worst picture Fox has made in years." "The Air Circus" was Hawks's first film centered around aviation, one of his early passions. In 1928, Charles Lindbergh was the world's most famous person and "Wings" was one of the most popular films of the year. Wanting to capitalize on the country's aviation craze, Fox immediately bought Hawks' original story for "The Air Circus", a variation of the male friendship plot of "A Girl in Every Port" about two young pilots. The film was shot from April to June 1928, but Fox ordered an additional 15 minutes of dialogue footage in order that the film could compete with the new "talkies" being released. Hawks hated the new dialogue written by Hugh Herbert and he refused to participate in the re-shoots. The film was released in September 1928 and was a moderate hit. It is one of two films directed by Hawks that are lost films.


title: Howard Hawks

text: "Trent's Last Case" is an adaptation of British author E. C. Bentley's 1913 novel of the same name. Hawks considered the novel to be "one of the greatest detective stories of all time" and was eager to make it his first sound film. He cast Raymond Griffith in the lead role of Phillip Trent. Griffith's throat had been damaged by poison gas during World War I and his voice was a hoarse whisper, prompting Hawks to later state, "I thought he ought to be great in talking pictures "because" of that voice." However, after shooting only a few scenes, Fox shut Hawks down and ordered him to make a silent film, both because of Griffith's voice and because they only owned the legal rights to make a silent film. The film did have a musical score and synchronized sound effects, but no dialogue. Due to the failing business of silent films, it was never released in the US and only briefly screened in England where film critics hated it. The film was believed lost until the mid-1970s and was screened for the first time in the US at a Hawks retrospective in 1974. Hawks was in attendance of the screening and attempted to have the only print of the film destroyed. Hawks's contract with Fox ended in May 1929, and he never again signed a long-term contract with a major studio. He managed to remain an independent producer-director for the rest of his long career.


title: Howard Hawks

text: By 1930, Hollywood was in upheaval over the coming of "talkies" and the careers of many actors and directors were ruined. Hollywood studios were recruiting stage actors and directors that they believed were better suited for sound films. After having worked in the industry for 14 years and directed many financially successful films, Hawks found himself having to prove himself an asset to the studios once again. Leaving Fox on sour terms didn't help his reputation, but Hawks never backed down from fights with studio heads. After several months of unemployment, Hawks renewed his career with his first sound film in 1930.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Hawks' first all-sound film was "The Dawn Patrol", based on an original story by John Monk Saunders and (unofficially) Hawks. Reportedly, Hawks paid Saunders to put his name on the film, so that Hawks could direct the film without arousing concern due to his lack of writing experience. Accounts vary on who came up with the idea of the film, but Hawks and Saunders developed the story together and tried to sell it to several studios before First National agreed to produce it. Shooting began in late February 1930, about the same time that Howard Hughes was finally finishing his epic World War I aviation epic "Hell's Angels", which had been in production since September 1927. Shrewdly, Hawks began to hire many of the aviation experts and cameramen that had been employed by Hughes, including Elmer Dyer, Harry Reynolds and Ira Reed. When Hughes found out about the rival film, he did everything he could to sabotage "The Dawn Patrol". He harassed Hawks and other studio personnel, hired a spy that was quickly caught and finally sued First National for copyright infringement. Hughes eventually dropped the lawsuit in late 1930—he and Hawks had become good friends during the legal battle. Filming was finished in late May 1930 and it premiered in July, setting a first-week box office record at the Winter Garden Theatre in New York. The film became one of the biggest hits of 1930. The success of this film allowed Hawks to gain respect in the field of filmmaking and allowed him to spend the rest of his career as an independent director without the necessity to sign any long-term contracts with specific studios.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Hawks did not get along with Warner Brothers executive Hal B. Wallis and his contract allowed him to be loaned out to other studios. Hawks took the opportunity to accept a directing offer from Harry Cohn at Columbia Pictures. The film opened in January 1931 and was a hit. The film was banned in Chicago, though, and the experience of censorship which would continue in his next film project. In 1930, Howard Hughes hired Hawks to direct "Scarface", a gangster film loosely based on the life of Chicago mobster Al Capone. The film was completed in September 1931, but the censorship of the Hays Code prevented it from being released as Hawks and Hughes had originally intended. The two men fought, negotiated and made compromises with the Hays Office for over a year, until the film was eventually released in 1932, after such other pivotal early gangster films as "The Public Enemy" and "Little Caesar". "Scarface" was the first film in which Hawks worked with screenwriter Ben Hecht, who became a close friend and collaborator for 20 years. After filming was complete on "Scarface", Hawks left Hughes to fight the legal battles and returned to First National to fulfill his contract, this time with producer Darryl F. Zanuck. For his next film, Hawks wanted to make a film about his childhood passion: car racing. Hawks developed the script for "The Crowd Roars" with Seton Miller for their eighth and final collaboration. Hawks used real race car drivers in the film, including the 1930 Indianapolis 500 winner Billy Arnold. The film was released in March and became a hit.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Later in 1932, he directed "Tiger Shark" starring Edward G. Robinson as a tuna fisherman. In these early films, Hawks established the prototypical "Hawksian Man", which film critic Andrew Sarris described as "upheld by an instinctive professionalism." "Tiger Shark" demonstrated Hawks' ability to incorporate touches of humor into dramatic, tense, and even tragic story lines. In 1933, Hawks signed a three-picture deal at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, the first of which was "Today We Live" in 1933. This World War I film was based on a short story by author William Faulkner. Hawks' next two films at MGM were the boxing drama "The Prizefighter and the Lady" and the bio-pic "Viva Villa!". Studio interference on both films led Hawks to walk out on his MGM contract without completing either film himself.


title: Howard Hawks

text: In 1934, Hawks went to Columbia Pictures to make his first screwball comedy, "Twentieth Century", starring John Barrymore and Hawks's distant cousin Carole Lombard. It was based on a stage play by Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur and, along with Frank Capra's "It Happened One Night" (released the same year), is considered to be the defining film of the screwball comedy genre. In 1935, Hawks made "Barbary Coast" with Edward G. Robinson and Miriam Hopkins. Hawks collaborated with Hecht and MacArthur on "Barbary Coast" and reportedly convinced them to work on the film by promising to teach them a marble game. They would switch off between working on the script and playing with marbles during work days. In 1936, he made the aviation adventure "Ceiling Zero" with James Cagney and Pat O'Brien. Also in 1936, Hawks began filming "Come and Get It", starring Edward Arnold, Joel McCrea, Frances Farmer and Walter Brennan. But he was fired by Samuel Goldwyn in the middle of shooting and the film was completed by William Wyler.


title: Howard Hawks

text: In 1938, Hawks made the screwball comedy "Bringing Up Baby" for RKO Pictures. It starred Cary Grant and Katharine Hepburn and was adapted by Dudley Nichols and Hagar Wilde and has been called "the screwiest of the screwball comedies" by film critic Andrew Sarris. Grant plays a near-sighted paleontologist who suffers one humiliation after another due to the lovestruck socialite played by Hepburn. Hawks's artistic direction for "Bringing Up Baby" revolved around the raw natural chemistry between Grant and Hepburn. With Grant portraying the paleontologist and Hepburn as an heiress, the roles only add to the movie's purpose of disintegrating the line between the real and the imaginary. "Bringing Up Baby" was a box office flop when initially released and, subsequently, RKO fired Hawks due to extreme losses; however, the film has become regarded as one of Hawks's masterpieces. Hawks followed this with 11 consecutive hits up to 1951, starting with the aviation drama "Only Angels Have Wings", starring Cary Grant and made in 1939 for Columbia Pictures. It also starred Jean Arthur, Thomas Mitchell, Rita Hayworth, and Richard Barthelmess.


title: Howard Hawks

text: In 1940, Hawks returned to the screwball comedy genre with "His Girl Friday", starring Cary Grant and Rosalind Russell. The film was an adaptation of the hit Broadway play "The Front Page" by Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur, which had already been made into a film in 1931. Not forgetting the influence Jesse Lasky had on his early career, in 1941, Hawks made "Sergeant York", starring Gary Cooper as a pacifist farmer who becomes a decorated World War I soldier. Hawks directed the film and cast Cooper as a specific favor to Lasky. This was the highest-grossing film of 1941 and won two Academy Awards (Best Actor and Best Editing), as well as earning Hawks his only nomination for Best Director. Later that year, Hawks worked with Cooper again for "Ball of Fire", which also starred Barbara Stanwyck. The film was written by Billy Wilder and Charles Brackett and is a playful take on "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs". Cooper plays a sheltered, intellectual linguist who is writing an encyclopedia with six other scientists, and hires street-wise Stanwyck to help them with modern slang terms. In 1941, Hawks began work on the Howard Hughes-produced (and later directed) film "The Outlaw", based on the life of Billy the Kid and starring Jane Russell. Hawks completed initial shooting of the film in early 1941, but due to perfectionism and battles with the Hollywood Production Code, Hughes continued to re-shoot and re-edit the film until 1943, when it was finally released with Hawks uncredited as director.


title: Howard Hawks

text: After making the World War II film "Air Force" in 1943 starring John Garfield and written by Nichols, Hawks did two films with real-life lovers Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall. "To Have and Have Not", made in 1944, stars Bogart, Bacall and Walter Brennan and is based on a novel by Ernest Hemingway. Hawks was a close friend of Hemingway and made a bet with the author that he could make a good film out of Hemingway's "worst book." Hawks, William Faulkner and Jules Furthman collaborated on the script about an American fishing boat captain working out of French Martinique in the Caribbean and various situations of espionage after the Fall of France in 1940. Bogart and Bacall fell in love on the set of the film and married soon afterwards. "To Have and Have Not" has been critiqued as having a "rambling, slapped-together feel" that contribute to an overall clumsy and dull movie. The film, however, has also been enjoyed for its romantic plot and has been compared to "Casablanca" in its feel. The greatest strength of the movie has been said to come from its atmosphere and use of wit that really plays on the strengths of Bacall and helps the movie solidify the theme of beauty in perpetual opposition. Hawks reteamed with Bogart and Bacall in 1945 and 1946 with "The Big Sleep", based on the Philip Marlowe detective novel by Raymond Chandler. An early 1945 version was substantially recut to comprise the final 1946 U.S. release with additional scenes emphasizing the special repartee chemistry between Bogart and Bacall. The screenplay for the film also reteamed Faulkner and Furthman, in addition to Leigh Brackett. Curiously Raymond Chandler, who had been nominated for an Oscar as co-author of the 1944 “Double Indemnity”


title: Howard Hawks

text: In 1948, Hawks made "Red River", an epic western reminiscent of "Mutiny on the Bounty" starring John Wayne and Montgomery Clift in his first film. Later that year, Hawks remade his earlier film "Ball of Fire" as "A Song Is Born", this time starring Danny Kaye and Virginia Mayo. This version follows the same plot but pays more attention to popular jazz music and includes such jazz legends as Tommy Dorsey, Benny Goodman, Louis Armstrong, Lionel Hampton, and Benny Carter playing themselves. In 1949, Hawks reteamed with Cary Grant in the screwball comedy "I Was a Male War Bride", also starring Ann Sheridan.


title: Howard Hawks

text: In 1951, Hawks produced, and according to some, directed, a science-fiction film, "The Thing from Another World". Director John Carpenter stated: "And let's get the record straight. The movie was directed by Howard Hawks. Verifiably directed by Howard Hawks. He let his editor, Christian Nyby, take credit. But the kind of feeling between the male characters—the camaraderie, the group of men that has to fight off the evil—it's all pure Hawksian." He followed this with the 1952 western film "The Big Sky", starring Kirk Douglas. Later in 1952, Hawks worked with Cary Grant for the fifth and final time in the screwball comedy "Monkey Business", which also starred Marilyn Monroe and Ginger Rogers. Grant plays a scientist (reminiscent of his character in "Bringing up Baby") who creates a formula that increases his vitality. Film critic John Belton called the film Hawks's "most organic comedy." Hawks's third film of 1952 was a contribution to the omnibus film "O. Henry's Full House", which includes short stories by the writer O. Henry made by various directors. Hawks's short film "The Ransom of Red Chief" starred Fred Allen, Oscar Levant and Jeanne Crain.


title: Howard Hawks

text: In 1953, Hawks made "Gentlemen Prefer Blondes", which featured Marilyn Monroe famously singing "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend." The film starred Monroe and Jane Russell as two cabaret performing best friends; many critics argue that the film is the only female version of the celebrated "buddy film" genre. Choreographer Jack Cole is generally credited with staging the musical numbers while Hawks is credited with directing the non-musical scenes. In 1955, Hawks shot a film atypical within the context of his other work, "Land of the Pharaohs", which is a sword-and-sandal epic about ancient Egypt that stars Jack Hawkins and Joan Collins. The film was Hawks's final collaboration with longtime friend William Faulkner before the author's death. In 1959, Hawks worked with John Wayne in "Rio Bravo", also starring Dean Martin, Ricky Nelson, and Walter Brennan as four lawmen "defending the fort" of their local jail in which a local criminal is awaiting a trial while his family attempt to break him out. The screenplay was written by Furthman and Leigh Brackett, who had collaborated with Hawks previously on "The Big Sleep". Film critic Robin Wood has said that if he "were asked to choose a film that would justify the existence of Hollywood ... it would be "Rio Bravo"."


title: Howard Hawks

text: In 1962, Hawks made "Hatari!", again with John Wayne, who plays a wild animals catcher in Africa. It was also written by Leigh Brackett. Hawks's knowledge of mechanics allowed him to built the camera-car hybrid that allowed him to film the hunting scenes in the film. In 1964, Hawks made his final comedy, "Man's Favorite Sport?", starring Rock Hudson (since Cary Grant felt he was too old for the role) and Paula Prentiss. Hawks then returned to his childhood passion for car races with "Red Line 7000" in 1965, featuring a young James Caan in his first leading role. Hawks's final two films were both Western remakes of "Rio Bravo" starring John Wayne and written by Leigh Brackett. In 1966, Hawks directed "El Dorado", starring Wayne, Robert Mitchum, and Caan, which was released the following year. He then made "Rio Lobo", with Wayne in 1970. After "Rio Lobo", Hawks planned a project relating to Ernest Hemingway and "Now, Mr. Gus," a comedy about two male friends seeking oil and money. He died in December 1977, before these projects were completed.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Hawks died on December 26, 1977, at the age of 81, from complications arising from a fall when he tripped over his dog at his home in Palm Springs, California. He had spent two weeks in the hospital recovering from his concussion when he asked to be taken home, dying a few days later. He was working with his last protégée discovery at the time, Larraine Zax.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Howard Hawks was married three times: to actress Athole Shearer, sister of Norma Shearer, from 1928 to 1940; to socialite and fashion icon Slim Keith from 1941 to 1949; and to actress Dee Hartford from 1953 to 1959. Hawks had two children with Shearer, Barbara and David. David Hawks worked as an assistant director for the television series "M*A*S*H". His second daughter Kitty Hawks was a result of his second marriage to "Slim" Keith. Hawks had one son with his last wife, Dee Hartford, who was named Gregg after cinematographer Gregg Toland.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Along with his love of flying machines, Hawks also had a passion for cars and motorcycles. He built the race car that won the 1936 Indianapolis 500, as well as enjoyed riding motorcycles with Barbara Stanwyck and Gary Cooper. Hawks and his son Gregg were members of Checkers Motorcycle Club. Hawks continued riding until the age of 78. His other hobbies included golf, tennis, sailing, horse racing, carpentry, and silversmithing.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Hawks was also known for maintaining close friendships with many American writers such as Ben Hecht, Ernest Hemingway, and William Faulkner. Hawks credited himself with the discovery of William Faulkner and introducing the then-unknown writer to the Algonquin Round Table. Hawks and Faulkner had mutual interests in flying and drinking and Faulkner admired the films of Hawks, asking him to teach him how to write screenplays. Faulkner wrote five screenplays for Hawks, the first of them being "Today We Live" and the last of them being "Land of the Pharaohs". With a mutual interest in fishing and skiing, Hawks was also close with Ernest Hemingway, and was almost made the director of the "film adaptation" of "For Whom the Bell Tolls". Hawks found it difficult to forgive Hemingway for his suicide. After coming to terms with it in the 1970s, he began to plan a film project about Hemingway and his relationship with Robert Capa. He never filmed the project.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Hawks was a versatile director whose career includes comedies, dramas, gangster films, science fiction, film noir, and Westerns. Hawks's own functional definition of what constitutes a "good movie" is characteristic of his no-nonsense style: "Three great scenes, no bad ones." Hawks also defined a good director as "someone who doesn't annoy you." In Hawks's own words, his directing style is based on being enjoyable and straightforward. His style was very actor-focused and he made it a point to take as few shots as possible, thereby preserving an inherent and natural humor for his comedic pieces.


title: Howard Hawks

text: While Hawks was not sympathetic to feminism, he popularized the Hawksian woman archetype, a portrayal of women in more strong, less effeminate roles. Such an emphasis had never been done in the 1920s and therefore was seen to be a rarity and, according to Naomi Wise, has been cited as a prototype of the post-feminist movement. Another notable theme carried throughout his work included the relationship of morality and human interaction. In this sense he tended to portray more dramatic elements of a concept or a plot in a humorous way.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Orson Welles in an interview with Peter Bogdanovich said of Howard Hawks, in comparison with John Ford, that "Hawks is great prose; Ford is poetry." Despite Hawks's work in a variety of Hollywood genres, he still retained an independent sensibility. Film critic David Thomson wrote of Hawks: "Far from being the meek purveyor of Hollywood forms, he always chose to turn them upside down. "To Have and Have Not" and "The Big Sleep", ostensibly an adventure and a thriller, are really love stories. "Rio Bravo", apparently a Western – everyone wears a cowboy hat – is a comedy conversation piece. The ostensible comedies are shot through with exposed emotions, with the subtlest views of the sex war, and with a wry acknowledgment of the incompatibility of men and women." David Boxwell argues that the filmmaker's body of work "has been accused of a historical and adolescent escapism, but Hawks's fans rejoice in his oeuvre's remarkable avoidance of Hollywood's religiosity, bathos, flag-waving, and sentimentality.


title: Howard Hawks

text: In addition to his career as a film director, Howard Hawks either wrote or supervised the writing for most of his films. In some cases, he would rewrite parts of the script on-set. Due to the Screen Writer's Guild's rule that the director and producer couldn't receive credit for writing, Hawks rarely received credit. Even though Sidney Howard received credit for writing "Gone with the Wind" (1939), the screenplay was actually written by a myriad of Hollywood screenwriters including, David O. Selznick, Ben Hecht, and Howard Hawks. Hawks was an uncredited contributor to many other screenplays such as "Underworld" (1927), "Morocco" (1930), "Shanghai Express" (1932), and "Gunga Din" (1939). Hawks also produced many of his own films, preferring not to work under major film studios, because it allowed him creative freedom in his writing, directing, and casting. Hawks would sometimes walk out on films that he wasn't producing himself. Hawks, however, never considered producing to come before his directing. For example, several of the film cards for his films show "Directed and produced by Howard Hawks" with "produced" underneath "directed" in much smaller font. Sometimes his films wouldn't credit any producer. Hawks discovered many well known film stars such as Paul Muni, George Raft, Ann Dvorak, Carole Lombard, Frances Farmer, Jane Russell, Montgomery Clift, Joanne Dru, Angie Dickinson, James Caan, and most famously Lauren Bacall.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Peter Bogdanovich suggested to the Museum of Modern Art to do a retrospective on Howard Hawks who was in the process of releasing "Hatari!". For marketing purposes, Paramount paid for part of the exhibition which was held in 1962. The exhibition traveled to Paris and London. For the event, Bogdanovich prepared a monograph. As a result of the retrospective, a special edition of "Cahiers du Cinéma" was published and Hawks was featured on his own issue of "Movie" magazine.


title: Howard Hawks

text: In 1996, Howard Hawks was voted No. 4 on Entertainment Weekly's list of 50 greatest directors. In 2007, "Total Film" magazine ranked Hawks as No. 4 in its "100 Greatest Film Directors Ever" list. "Bringing Up Baby" (1938) was listed number 97 on the American Film Institute's AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies. On the AFI's AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs "Bringing Up Baby" was listed number 14, "His Girl Friday" (1940) was listed number 19 and "Ball of Fire" (1941) was listed number 92. In the 2012 "Sight & Sound" polls of the greatest films ever made, six films directed by Hawks were in the critics' top 250 films: "Rio Bravo" (number 63), "Bringing Up Baby" (number 110), "Only Angels Have Wings" (number 154), "His Girl Friday" (number 171), "The Big Sleep" (number 202) and "Red River" (number 235). Six of his films currently hold a 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes. His films "Ball of Fire", "The Big Sleep", "Bringing Up Baby", "His Girl Friday", "Only Angels Have Wings", "Red River", "Rio Bravo", "Scarface", "Sergeant York", "The Thing from Another World" and "Twentieth Century" were deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the United States Library of Congress and inducted into the National Film Registry. With eleven films, he ties with John Ford for directing the most films that are in the registry.


title: Howard Hawks

text: From the film industry, he received three nominations for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures from the Directors Guild of America for "Red River" in 1949, "The Big Sky" in 1953, and "Rio Bravo" in 1960. He was inducted into the Online Film and Television Association's Hall of Fame for his directing in 2005. For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Howard Hawks has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1708 Vine Street. He was nominated for Academy Award for Best Director in 1942 for "Sergeant York", but he received his only Oscar in 1974 as an Honorary Award from the Academy. He was cited as, "a master filmmaker whose creative efforts hold a distinguished place in world cinema".


title: Howard Hawks

text: In the 1950s, Eugene Archer, a film fan, was planning on writing a book on important American film directors such as John Ford. However, after reading "Cahiers du Cinéma", Archer learned that the French film scene was more interested in Alfred Hitchcock and Howard Hawks. Books were not written on Hawks until the Sixties and a full biography on Hawks wasn't published until 1997, twenty years after his death. Film critic Andrew Sarris cited Howard Hawks as "the least known and least appreciated Hollywood director of any stature". According to professor of film studies Ian Brookes, Hawks is not as well known as other directors, because of his lack of association with a particular genre such as Ford with Western and Hitchcock with thriller. Hawks worked across many genres including gangster, film noir, musical comedy, romantic comedy, screwball comedy, Western, aviation, and combat. Moreover, Hawks preferred not to associate with major studios during his film production. He worked for all major studios at least once on short term contract, but many of his films were produced under his own name. The simplicity of his narratives and stories may also have contributed to his under-recognition. Commercially, his films were successful, but he received little critical acclaim except for one Academy Award nomination for Best Director for "Sergeant York" (he lost to John Ford for "How Green Was My Valley"), and an Honorary Academy Award presented to him two years before his death.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Some critics limit Hawks by his action films, describing Hawks as a director who produced films with a "masculine bias", however action scenes in Hawks's films were often left to second-unit directors and Hawks actually preferred to work indoors. Howard Hawks's style is difficult to interpret, because there is no recognizable relationship between his visual and narrative style as in the films of his contemporary directors. Because his camera style was derived more from his working method rather than anecdotal or visual realization, his camera work is unobtrusive, making his films appear to have little to no cinematographic style. Hawks's style can, rather, be characterized as improvisational and collaborative. Hawks' directorial style and the use of natural, conversational dialogue in his films are cited as major influences on many noted filmmakers, including Robert Altman, John Carpenter, and Quentin Tarantino. His work is also admired by many notable directors including Peter Bogdanovich, Martin Scorsese, François Truffaut, Michael Mann and Jacques Rivette. Jean-Luc Godard called him "the greatest American artist." Critic Leonard Maltin labeled Hawks "the greatest American director who is not a household name." Andrew Sarris in his influential book of film criticism "The American Cinema: Directors and Directions 1929–1968" included Hawks in the "pantheon" of the 14 greatest film directors who had worked in the United States. Brian De Palma dedicated his version of "Scarface" to Hawks and Ben Hecht. Altman was influenced by the fast-paced dialogue of "His Girl Friday" in "MASH" and subsequent productions. Hawks was nicknamed "The Gray Fox" by members of the Hollywood community, thanks to his prematurely gray hair.


title: Howard Hawks

text: Hawks has been considered by some film critics to be an auteur both because of his recognizable style and frequent use of specific thematic elements, and because of his attention to all aspects of his films, not merely directing. Hawks was venerated by French critics associated with "Cahiers du cinéma", who intellectualized his work in a way that Hawks himself found moderately amusing (his work was promoted in France by The Studio des Ursulines cinema). And although he was not at first taken seriously by British critics of the "Sight & Sound" circle, other independent British writers, such as Robin Wood, admired his films. Wood named Hawks's "Rio Bravo" as his top film of all time.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: The Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) are the military services of the Republic of Singapore, responsible for protecting and defending the security interests and the sovereignty of the country. A military component of the Ministry of Defence (MINDEF), the armed forces have four service branches: the Army, the Navy, the Air Force, and the Digital and Intelligence Service. An integrated force, it is one of the most capable, robust, technologically sophisticated and powerful militaries in Southeast Asia and the surrounding regions. The SAF is headed by the chief of Defence Force, who holds the rank of a Lieutenant-General or Vice-Admiral, and is appointed by the president of Singapore.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: The SAF consists of four service branches: the Singapore Army, the Republic of Singapore Navy (RSN), the Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF), and the Digital and Intelligence Service (DIS). The SAF protects the interests, sovereignty and territorial integrity of Singapore from external threats. In recent years, the SAF has also taken on a more active role in counter-terrorism efforts both domestically and abroad.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Since its inception, the SAF has been involved in various operations, both within and outside of Singapore's borders. These include peacekeeping missions in places such as Afghanistan, Iraq, Nepal and Timor Leste, as well as the humanitarian aid operations in various countries, such as the Hurricane Katrina in 2005. In addition, the SAF has also assisted the United Nations (UN) to oversee and supervise the electoral process in countries such as Cambodia, Ethiopia, Namibia and South Africa.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: It has an approximate active strength of over 71,000 full-time personnel and is capable of mobilising over 352,500 reservists (also known as National Servicemen, or NSmen) in the event of national exigencies or a full-scale war. It also has a large pool of conscripts (also known as Full-time National Servicemen, or NSFs) in the active and reserve forces, with about 50,000 reaching military age annually.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Singapore's military role stems from its strategic geographical location, an asset exploited by both local settlers and foreign colonists alike. Archaeological excavations have discovered remnants of fortresses and other forms of military fortifications in pre-colonial Singapore. Stamford Raffles, founder of modern Singapore, chose Singapore in 1819 to establish a new British colony with the security concerns of the British in the Far East in mind against the Dutch. Thus, Singapore, which attained the Crown colony status, played an active role in British military interests for decades, particularly in the years leading up to the First and Second World Wars.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: The Singapore Volunteer Rifle Corps (SVRC) was first created in 1854 as a private organisation, with the governor serving as its first Colonel. It was later gazetted in 1857. However, participation in the SVRC was weak and it was disbanded on 16 December 1887 in favour of forming an artillery corps instead. This was to be the Singapore Volunteer Artillery (SVA), which was formed in 1888 to operate the gun emplacements around Singapore, and is also considered to be the predecessor of the artillery formation of the Singapore Armed Forces. In 1901, additional non-artillery units were set up in, including a Chinese infantry company, Eurasian infantry company, and the Singapore Volunteer Engineers, leading to the force being renamed as the Singapore Volunteer Corps (SVC). It assisted in suppressing the 1915 Singapore Mutiny. In 1921, the SVC was combined with other volunteer forces from Malacca and Penang as the Straits Settlements Volunteer Force (SSVF).


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: During World War II, the SSVF took part in the Battle of Singapore but most of its members were captured on 15 February 1942 when their positions were overrun by Japanese forces. After the end of the war, the SSVF was re-constituted in 1948, but the SVF was absorbed into the Singapore Military Forces (SMF, predecessor of the SAF) following the disbandment of the SSVF in 1954. Subsequently, in 1961, SMF was renamed to the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF).


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: When Singapore achieved independence in 1965, its military consisted of only two infantry regiments, commanded by British officers and made up of mostly non-Singaporean residents. Britain pulled its military out of Singapore in October 1971, leaving behind only a small amount of British, Australian and New Zealand forces as a token military presence. The last of the British soldiers left Singapore in March 1976. The New Zealand troops were the last to leave Singapore, in 1989.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Singapore believed that it needed a larger, capable yet economic-efficient defence force to protect and defend itself as it is surrounded by several larger neighbouring countries in the Southeast Asia region that are often hostile to them. At that time, Singapore enlisted the covert assistance of Israel, which sent its military advisers who helped Singapore set up a defence force modelled in part after the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). Jungle warfare techniques were taught so that the Singapore Army could engage in combat conflict in the jungle areas of its neighbouring countries, if need be. The army also procured battle tanks from Israel, doing so before neighbouring Malaysia acquired theirs, thereby gaining an advantage.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: On 1 July 2018, Minister for Defence Ng Eng Hen announced that the SAF would transition from its current third-generation technologies to fourth [next-gen] technologies by overhauling its current arsenal.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: On 27 February 2019, the office of Inspector-General of the Armed Forces was set up to ensure that safety protocols are applied and enforced throughout the military following the death of Aloysius Pang who was the fourth training related fatality in 18 months following 2017.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Singapore has been described as "a military powerhouse with the best air force and navy in Southeast Asia." Singapore's vast wealth allows it to acquire and make the best equipment available as well as incorporate high-end technological equipment into its nation military forces. The SAF is also called "the most technologically advanced armed forces across the Association of Southeast Asian Nation states"—referring to ASEAN.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: A key recent example was Singapore's decision to acquire four Lockheed Martin's F-35B Joint Strike Fighters, which the United States Congress approved, with the option to acquire a further eight more and beyond. This acquisition is significant as "Singapore will fly the most advanced fleet of fighters in its region" which reflects its security relationship with the United States. In addition, the F-35Bs have a significant impact to Singapore's air power since the land limited country no longer needs to depend on "long, vulnerable runways" to operate the aircraft due to the fifth-generation's fighter jet's short-takeoff-and-vertical landing capability. The jet's advanced network-enabled capabilities would be additionally advantageous for Singapore which is seeking to modernise its military. Furthermore, Singapore stands out from all the other countries in Southeast Asia with its technological sophistication and equipments that "operates at a very high level of capability" and are "all integrated into a single cohesive fighting force."


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Armed Forces Day is commemorated by the SAF annually on 1 July, with a parade held at the SAFTI Military Institute.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: On 15 March 1986, the six-storey Hotel New World, a 15-year-old, one-star budget hotel situated at the junction of Serangoon Road and Owen Road collapsed. SAF soldiers aided in rescue operations, and had worked alongside members of the Singapore Civil Defence Force (SCDF) to remove the rubble. RSAF UH-1H helicopters were on standby at the nearby Farrer Park football field to evacuate rescued victims to the Singapore General Hospital.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: On 26 March 1991, Singapore Airlines Flight 117 was hijacked by four Pakistanis en route to Singapore. Upon landing in Changi Airport at 8:15pm SGT, the hijackers demanded the release of several Pakistan Peoples Party members. Negotiations faltered, and after the hijackers gave their ultimatum to have their demands fulfilled at 6.15am SGT of the following morning, Commandos from SAF's Special Operations Force (SOF) stormed the plane and shot all of the hijackers dead and rescued the hostages.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: During the SARS outbreak in 2003, SAF paramedics were deployed at Changi International Airport to screen incoming passengers from places hit by SARS such as Hong Kong, China, Hanoi and Toronto. The SAF also deployed 220 servicemen with operations such as screening for SARS, contact tracing and enforcing home quarantine orders. The team also managed other major operations such as the quarantine of 1,500 staff from the Institute of Mental Health.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: In 2004, the Singapore Armed Forces also responded to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. In addition to the human tolls, being one of the nearest neighbors to the tsunami-hit countries and a nation that was not directly affected by the recent disaster, Singapore has been able to render prompt help as part of the global relief efforts.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic since 2020, over 1,500 SAF servicemen were called upon to pack 5.2 million masks and transport them to distribution centers across Singapore in time for the start of distribution on 1 February that year. A MINDEF personnel also ran the National Call Centre to address public queries on the collection of reusable masks, which were distributed in April. Personnel manning the phone lines included volunteers from MINDEF and the SAF, as well as clan associations, grounded staff from Singapore Airlines, and other retrenched workers, who were employed by MINDEF on short-term contracts. The SAF also deployed manpower to assist in manning thermal imagery machines at the airport to pick out travellers with symptoms.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: To aid in operations, MINDEF had also recruited former SAF regulars as the inter-agency task force handling the spike in cases from foreign worker dormitories, including “personnel with operational experience.” They were to augment the Forward Assurance Support Teams (FAST) deployed at various foreign worker dormitories. Both regular and full-time national servicemen were deployed to provide healthcare services for patients at one of the CIFs set up in the Singapore EXPO halls.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: The SAF also housed about 3,000 recovering migrant workers with COVID-19 in six military camps across Singapore. The Jurong, Bedok, Amoy Quee, Guillemard, Tanjong Gul and Lim Chu Kang camps had been converted into community recovery facilities (CRFs). Operational since 28 April 2020, the CRFs are for COVID-19 patients who remain well at Day 14 of the disease and do not require further medical care.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Separately, more than 1,300 SAF personnel were also deployed to make calls to do contact tracing and check compliance with stay at home notices. These contact tracers worked with Ministry of Health officials to fill gaps in the activity maps of confirmed or suspected cases. Defence Science and Technology Agency Engineers also developed tools to automate the extraction and fusion of data for analysis. The contact tracers were reported to make between 1,000 and 2,000 calls a day.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Deterrence and diplomacy have been the fundamental tenets of Singapore's military defence policy. Through the years, the military has developed extensive links with armed forces from other countries. In recent years, there has also been an increased emphasis on international peace-keeping and relief operations, notably the peace-keeping operations in Afghanistan, East Timor, the Persian Gulf and disaster relief in the Indian Ocean earthquake-tsunami of 2004, the 2005 Nias earthquake and 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake both in Indonesia, Hurricane Katrina in the United States and the 2008 Sichuan earthquake in China.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: According to military and strategic analysts, such as Tim Huxley in "Defending the Lion City", Singapore is well poised to be using a forward-defence military doctrine. Singapore is, after all, a relatively small country of about and therefore lacks the hinterland for a defence in depth strategy. In historical news archives, there were also defence analogies used by Singapore founders that Singapore must be a poison shrimp and later, porcupine. Thenceforth, if a wartime military battle is to take place on the island of Singapore, the effects would be devastating to both the people and infrastructure. Press statements from Singapore's Ministry of Defence (MINDEF) describe the SAF as a deterrent force. The SAF's declared mission statement is to "enhance Singapore’s peace and security through deterrence and diplomacy, and should these fail, to secure a swift and decisive victory over the aggressor".


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Today, a career military force of 39,000 is supplemented by 46,800 men on active National Service duty, the latter generally filling up the lower ranks. This group of just over 80,000 officers and servicemen/women staffs the command structure, advises the government, manages the bases, teaches at the tri-service SAFTI Military Institute, flies the on-call jets, crews the ships on-patrol and stands watch over the straits. They comprise both the top command structure and what might be called the "Standing Forces" which can go into a humanitarian relief or combat situation instantly. The main force actually comprises 400,000 or so Operationally-Ready National Servicemen (ORNSmen). This is the full mobilization force that can be called up within a few days. They are the 10-year ORNSmen with regular training and call-up cycles. Full sets of light equipment stands ready for them in armories and heavy equipment for their units is maintained in dedicated bunkers. Singapore is very high tech and individuals can be reached almost instantly; thus the system is highly flexible, so only the units and numbers needed for a particular task can be summoned. If called up they would be integrated into, augment and dramatically expand the "Standing Forces" up to five times its peacetime size, fully staffed and equipped, while maintaining a cohesive structure.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: The SAF's policy towards Malays, who share religious and ethnic ties with Singapore's largest neighbours, Malaysia and Indonesia, has been a source of controversy over the years. Malays were virtually excluded from conscription from the beginning of the draft in 1967 until 1977 and, after the policy was eased, were assigned mainly to serve in the police and civil defence (fire brigade), not active combat roles. In 1987, BG(NS) Lee Hsien Loong (then Second Minister for Defence) stated that "If there is a conflict, if the SAF is called to defend the homeland, we do not want to put any of our soldiers in a difficult position where his emotions for the nation may be in conflict with his religion" and in "The Roar of the Lion City" (2007), military analyst Sean Walsh claimed that "official discrimination against the Malay population remains an open secret". The Ministry of Defence contests the charge, noting that there are "Malay pilots, commandos and air defence personnel" and stating that "the proportion of eligible Malays selected for specialist and officer training is similar to the proportion for eligible non-Malays."


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Women are exempt from full-time National Service, but can sign on as a career regular soldier in both combat and non-combat roles, some as combat officers, but mostly in clerical and logistic positions in the earlier years. The range of positions available to women has been expanded gradually, with some exceptions in vocations. In July 2007, the SAF held an exhibition highlighting the contributions of women in the armed forces. Annual women career seminars are conducted to inform Singaporean women of careers in the SAF facing competitive factors in the labour force. In recent years, some women have taken higher positions, such as BG Gan Siow Huang, who is the highest ranking female officer and the first female General in the SAF.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: In 2014, a governmental Committee to Strengthening NS (CSNS) decided to establish a SAF Volunteer Corps (SAFVC). This will enable women, first generation Permanent Residents and new citizens to contribute to national defence and strengthen support for NS. The volunteers will undergo a four-week course to gain basic military skills and values. They will be orientated to their operational and professional roles in the SAFVC.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Under the Enlistment Act 1970, conscription is mandatory for all "persons subject to [the] act", defined as those who are not less than 16 years and 6 months of age and not more than 40 years of age, with some exemptions and with no specific bias to gender (not limited to males). In practice however, it is only compulsory for all fit and able-bodied Singaporean men who have reached 18 years of age, and are not deferred for certain reasons, to be conscripted in military service, or Full-time National Service (NSF).


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: NS was initially three years for commissioned officers and two years for other ranks, but it was later revised to two years and six months for soldiers with the rank of Corporal and above, and two years for those with the rank of Lance Corporal or lower. In June 2004, a major announcement review was conducted to NS was shortened to two years for all Full-time National Servicemen (NSFs), regardless of rank, due to changes in population demographics, manpower requirements and technological advancements. Combat fit NSFs (PES A/B1) who obtain a silver or gold standard in the NAPFA test will have another two months reduction, serving 22 months of NS effectively. Upon completion of their NSF stint, servicemen will be considered as having reached their Operationally-ready Date (ORD) and will be known as Operationally-ready National Servicemen (NSmen). Almost all NSmen will have to go through a 10-year reservist cycle of military training with their assigned unit deployment. Almost all NSmen are obliged to be called up annually for a maximum of 40 days per workyear for national duties, refresher trainings, mobilisations, upgrading courses and physical fitness tests and conditioning, depending on their NS unit deployment.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Prior to enlistment, pre-enlistees (recruits) are required to attend a medical examination (PULHHEEMS) to determine their medical status to assess vocational suitability postings. They will then be issued a "Physical Employment Status" (PES), which will be used as a guideline to determine for which vocation groupings they are deemed suitable.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: PES A and PES B1 (combat-fit) recruits go through a nine-week Basic Military Training (BMT) program, held at the Basic Military Training Centre (BMTC) on the offshore island of Pulau Tekong. Recruits who are considered obese, are required to attend a 19-week PES Bp BMT weight-loss program. PES B2 formally PES C1 (fit for some combat vocations) recruits will go through a nine-week modified BMT programme at BMTC. PES C and PES E recruits (non-combat-fit) undertake a nine-week modified BMT program in BMTC School V at Kranji Camp II, where serviceman undergoing a four-week modified BMT programme before being deployed to various combat service support vocations such as Admin Support Assistant (ASA), Transport Operator, and Supply Assistant (SA). The One-BMT programme was fully implemented in November 2017 thus all servicemen including mono-intakes with the exception of those in commandos, naval divers and service support vocation units will complete their BMT at BMTC. Mono-intake recruits will return to their unit after BMT.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: In standard BMT package, all recruits attend component trainings on fieldcraft, basic survival skills, weapon maintenance and a field camp, participate in live firing and hand grenade throwing exercises, go through a Standard Obstacle Course (SOC), and do daily physical training in preparation for the Individual Physical Proficiency Test (IPPT). The selected ones among NS recruits in BMT are assessed via SITEST for suitability of commander trainings to become officers or specialists. They are posted to the Officer Cadet School (OCS) or the Specialist Cadet School (SCS) respectively for commander training. The majority of the rest of recruits, known as enlistees, are posted to various NS units or vocational training institutes where the newly minted privates undergo continuous, specialised and further vocational trainings to pass out successfully as a vocationalist.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Due to land space limitations on Singapore's territorial land and waters, some specialised training programmes and facilities are located overseas e.g. 130 Squadron in Australia, 150 Squadron in France.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Initially, commissioned officers were drawn exclusively from the ranks of Singaporeans who had completed their GCE A levels or embarked on tertiary studies. While the requirements have since been revised, the SAF has still been criticised for "using a promotion system that is based more on education and scholarships than on proven competence".


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Officers receive their initial leadership training at the tri-service OCS in the SAFTI Military Institute (SAFTI MI). As they progress in their career, they may undergo further formal military education at the SAF Advanced Schools and the Goh Keng Swee Command and Staff College. On the other hand, specialists first receive leadership training at the SCS. Future platoon sergeants and Company Sergeant Majors receive further instruction at the Advanced Specialist Training Wing (ASTW) in SCS. Specialists undergo further education at the SAFWOS Leadership School before receiving their appointments as Warrant Officers.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: OCS and SCS both have an infantry-based curriculum; special-to-arms training for both officers and WOSPECs is conducted at various training institutes and establishments such as the SAF Medical Training Institute (SMTI), Artillery Institute (AI), Signals Institute (SI), Engineer Training Institute (ETI), Armour Training Institute (ATI), Motorised Infantry Training Institute (MITI), Supply & Transport Centre (STC) and Ordnance Engineering Training Institute (OETI).


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Pointer is the official journal of the SAF. It is a quarterly publication distributed to all Officers and Warrant Officers, which helps with their ongoing professional education.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Singapore is part of the Five Power Defence Arrangements, whose other members include the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and Malaysia. Designed to replace the former defence role of the British in Singapore and Malaysia, the arrangement obliges members to consult in the event of external threat against Malaysia and Singapore. To this end, an Integrated Air Defence System is set up in Butterworth, Malaysia involving the stationing of officers from the 5 countries at its headquarters.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: In 1975, President Chiang Ching-kuo and Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew signed an agreement code-named “Project Starlight” (星光計畫, also known as Hsing Kuang), wherein Singaporean troops could conduct training exercises in Taiwan. These exercises, engaging as many as 10,000 troops at any one time, provided officers a chance to simulate wartime conditions more closely and gain experience in the command and control of operations involving several battalions.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Singapore has consistently supported a strong US military presence in the Asia-Pacific region. In 1990, the US and Singapore signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) which allows the US access to Singapore facilities at Paya Lebar Air Base and the Sembawang wharves. Under the MOU, a US Navy logistics unit was established in Singapore in 1992; US fighter aircraft deploy periodically to Singapore for exercises, and a number of US military vessels visit Singapore. The US Navy's Task Force 73/Commander, Logistics Group Western Pacific is now located at Sembawang. The MOU was amended in 1999 to permit US naval vessels to berth at Changi Naval Base, which was completed in early 2001.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Singapore's defence resources have also been used for international humanitarian aid missions. They included United Nations peacekeeping missions in areas such as Kosovo, Kuwait and East Timor, participation in the Multi-National Force – Iraq, sending military equipment and personnel to assist in the humanitarian rescue and relief efforts in Indonesia after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, and the United States after Hurricane Katrina, sending medical supplies and personnel in response to the earthquake in Nepal and establishing medical and dental assets for use by the Afghan people. The Republic of Singapore Navy contributes to anti-piracy efforts in the Gulf of Aden off the eastern coast of Somalia as part of the 25 nations coalition Combined Maritime Forces. Several of the SAF's top officers have thus overseas operational military experience. Singapore was the only Asian country to contribute assets and personnel to the Global Coalition to Defeat ISIS and had participated in Operation Gallant Phoenix since May 2017.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Many of the Singapore's air units are located abroad such as: No. 130 Squadron in Australia, No. 150 Squadron in France, or joint USAF-RSAF 425th and 428th Fighter Squadron. Since 2009, up to 90 soldiers annually are sent to Germany for exercises of a maximum of seven weeks each time at the Bergen-Hohne Training Area and other locations.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Under the Singapore Armed Forces Act, the president of Singapore has the authority to raise and maintain the SAF. The president also has the power to form, disband or amalgamate units within the SAF.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: The Armed Forces Council (AFC) administers matters relating to the SAF under the Singapore Armed Forces Act. The AFC consists of:


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Military offences are governed by the SAF and the Enlistment Act in the Singapore Statutes. However, civilian offences (e.g. against the Penal Code) may also amount to a military offence. Offences may be prosecuted by military prosecutors, through the military justice system, or through the civilian judicial system.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: Supporting the combat role of the SAF, are other governmental organisations of the Ministry of Defence (MINDEF), such as the Defence Policy Group, the Defence Management Group, the Defence Technology Group, and the Defence Science & Technology Agency. Within these groups are the Central Manpower Base (CMPB), Defence Cyber Organisation, and the Military Security Department (MSD). Domestic technology companies also play a role in building up Singapore's military capabilities, particularly the government-linked ST Engineering (formerly known as Chartered Industries of Singapore), which designed and built some of the SAF's more advanced weaponry and equipment based on specific local requirements which may be expensive for foreign companies to adapt and produce.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: The position of Chief of Defence Force was established in 1990. Winston Choo, as head of the defence forces was previously known as Chief of the General Staff. The SAF is headed by the Chief of Defence Force (CDF), a three-star General (i.e. Lieutenant General/Vice Admiral) by establishment and the sole and only (active) SAF General that can be promoted or hold three-star rank; he is assisted by the four chiefs of the respective services (Army, Air Force, Navy, Digital and Intelligence Service), who are two-star generals/admirals by establishment (or Major-General/Rear-Admiral). The SAF has a Sergeant Major who currently holds the rank of CWO. The CDF is supported by the Chief of Staff, Joint Staff, the Joint Operations Directorate, Joint Plans & Transformation Department, the Joint Manpower Department, the Joint Logistic Department, the Joint Intelligence Directorate, and Office of the Inspector-General of the Armed Forces.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: There are three different rank structures in the SAF. Below is the ranks in the SAF in ascending order for the different schemes of service.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: The SAF utilises technology as "force multipliers", especially in the area of C4I integration, which will enable its various units to fight in an integrated manner. The Army, Air Force and Navy are linked via advanced data-links and networks to enable coordinated attacks and support for various units and forces. Technology is an important element in the SAF's transformation into a 3rd Generation Fighting Force.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: The SAF acknowledges that technology is crucial for overcoming the limitations of Singapore's small population. Having consistently had one of the largest defence budgets in the Asia-Pacific region, Singapore has focused on maintaining its spending on sophisticated and superior weaponry. Research and experimentation to develop a technological edge began as early as 1971, even though the SAF then had only rudimentary capabilities. The effort started off with a three-man team. At present, the Ministry of Defence (MINDEF) is one of the largest employers of engineers and scientists in Singapore and the SAF continues to devote considerable resources to defence research and development (R&D) and experimentation—5% and 1% of the defence budget, respectively. Singapore's education system has also produced national servicemen who can be trained to operate SAF's sophisticated platforms and systems.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: In Sep 2008, the SAF officially opened its Murai Urban Training Facility (MUTF) to hone the SAF's networked urban operations capability. The MUTF resembles a typical town and allows the soldiers to train realistically in an urban setting. In the same month, the SAF's new combat uniform, as well as the Advanced Combat Man System, were also unveiled for the first time.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: The country also has an established military manufacturing industry that is responsible for the design and development of the following military hardware:


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: The SAF's first-generation uniform is named "Temasek Green" from the army's simple flat green uniform, with brown and blue for the navy and air force respectively.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: This was followed by the second-generation uniform which used a patchy camouflage pattern for the army while both the navy and air force used overalls.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: The current (third generation) combat uniform, more commonly known as the No. 4, used by the tri-services are based on digital camouflage with base colors green, blue and light grey for the army, air force and navy respectively. In June 2018, the SAF introduced a new variant of the uniform for combat units which provides more effective cooling similar to the ones issued to US army personnel for tropical climate.


title: Singapore Armed Forces

text: The SAF's desert-camouflage uniforms are only issued to personnel deployed overseas to countries such as Iraq and Afghanistan.


title: Battle of Tarawa

text: The Battle of Tarawa was fought on 20–23 November 1943 between the United States and Japan at the Tarawa Atoll in the Gilbert Islands, and was part of Operation Galvanic, the U.S. invasion of the Gilberts. Nearly 6,400 Japanese, Koreans, and Americans died in the fighting, mostly on and around the small island of Betio, in the extreme southwest of Tarawa Atoll.


title: Battle of Tarawa

text: The Battle of Tarawa was the first American offensive in the critical central Pacific region. It was also the first time in the Pacific War that the United States had faced serious Japanese opposition to an amphibious landing. Previous landings met little or no initial resistance, but on Tarawa the 4,500 Japanese defenders were well-supplied and well-prepared, and they fought almost to the last man, exacting a heavy toll on the United States Marine Corps. The losses on Tarawa were incurred within 76 hours.


title: Battle of Tarawa

text: To set up forward air bases capable of supporting operations across the mid-Pacific, to the Philippines, and into Japan, the U.S. planned to take the Mariana Islands. The Marianas were heavily defended. Naval doctrine of the time held that in order for attacks to succeed, land-based aircraft would be required to weaken the defenses and protect the invasion forces. The nearest islands capable of supporting such an effort were the Marshall Islands. Taking the Marshalls would provide the base needed to launch an offensive on the Marianas, but the Marshalls were cut off from direct communications with Hawaii by a Japanese garrison and air base on the small island of Betio, on the western side of the atoll of Tarawa in the Gilbert Islands. Thus, to eventually launch an invasion of the Marianas, the battle had to start far to the east, at Tarawa.