title: Crane (machine)

text: Generally, these cranes are able to travel on highways, eliminating the need for special equipment to transport the crane unless weight or other size constrictions are in place such as local laws. If this is the case, most larger cranes are equipped with either special trailers to help spread the load over more axles or are able to disassemble to meet requirements. An example is counterweights. Often a crane will be followed by another truck hauling the counterweights that are removed for travel. In addition some cranes are able to remove the entire upper. However, this is usually only an issue in a large crane and mostly done with a conventional crane such as a Link-Belt HC-238. When working on the job site, outriggers are extended horizontally from the chassis then vertically to level and stabilize the crane while stationary and hoisting. Many truck cranes have slow-travelling capability (a few miles per hour) while suspending a load. Great care must be taken not to swing the load sideways from the direction of travel, as most anti-tipping stability then lies in the stiffness of the chassis suspension. Most cranes of this type also have moving counterweights for stabilization beyond that provided by the outriggers. Loads suspended directly aft are the most stable, since most of the weight of the crane acts as a counterweight. Factory-calculated charts (or electronic safeguards) are used by crane operators to determine the maximum safe loads for stationary (outriggered) work as well as (on-rubber) loads and travelling speeds.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Truck cranes range in lifting capacity from about to about . Although most only rotate about 180 degrees, the more expensive truck mounted cranes can turn a full 360 degrees.


title: Crane (machine)

text: A rough terrain crane has a boom mounted on an undercarriage atop four rubber tires that is designed for off-road pick-and-carry operations. Outriggers are used to level and stabilize the crane for hoisting.


title: Crane (machine)

text: These telescopic cranes are single-engine machines, with the same engine powering the undercarriage and the crane, similar to a crawler crane. The engine is usually mounted in the undercarriage rather than in the upper, as with crawler crane. Most have 4 wheel drive and 4 wheel steering for traversing tighter and slicker terrain than a standard truck crane, with less site prep.


title: Crane (machine)

text: A crawler crane has its boom mounted on an undercarriage fitted with a set of crawler tracks that provide both stability and mobility. Crawler cranes range in lifting capacity from about .


title: Crane (machine)

text: The main advantage of a crawler crane is its ready mobility and use, since the crane is able to operate on sites with minimal improvement and stable on its tracks without outriggers. Wide tracks spread the weight out over a great area and are far better than wheels at traversing soft ground without sinking in. A crawler crane is also capable of traveling with a load. Its main disadvantage is its weight, making it difficult and expensive to transport. Typically a large crawler must be disassembled at least into boom and cab and moved by trucks, rail cars or ships to its next location.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Floating cranes are used mainly in bridge building and port construction, but they are also used for occasional loading and unloading of especially heavy or awkward loads on and off ships. Some floating cranes are mounted on pontoons, others are specialized crane barges with a lifting capacity exceeding and have been used to transport entire bridge sections. Floating cranes have also been used to salvage sunken ships.


title: Crane (machine)

text: The largest revolving cranes can be found on SSCV "Thialf", which has two cranes with a capacity of each. For 50 years, the largest such crane was "Herman the German" at the Long Beach Naval Shipyard, one of three constructed by Nazi Germany and captured in the war. The crane was sold to the Panama Canal in 1996 where it is now known as "Titan".


title: Crane (machine)

text: A reach stacker is a vehicle used for handling intermodal cargo containers in small terminals or medium-sized ports. Reach stackers are able to transport a container short distances very quickly and pile them in various rows depending on its access.


title: Crane (machine)

text: An all-terrain crane is a hybrid combining the roadability of a truck-mounted and on-site maneuverability of a rough-terrain crane. It can both travel at speed on public roads and maneuver on rough terrain at the job site using all-wheel and crab steering.


title: Crane (machine)

text: A pick and carry crane is similar to a mobile crane in that is designed to travel on public roads; however, pick and carry cranes have no stabiliser legs or outriggers and are designed to lift the load and carry it to its destination, within a small radius, then be able to drive to the next job. Pick and carry cranes are popular in Australia, where large distances are encountered between job sites. One popular manufacturer in Australia was Franna, who have since been bought by Terex, and now all pick and carry cranes are commonly called "Frannas", even though they may be made by other manufacturers. Nearly every medium- and large-sized crane company in Australia has at least one and many companies have fleets of these cranes. The capacity range is between as a maximum lift, although this is much less as the load gets further from the front of the crane. Pick and carry cranes have displaced the work usually completed by smaller truck cranes, as the set-up time is much quicker. Many steel fabrication yards also use pick and carry cranes, as they can "walk" with fabricated steel sections and place these where required with relative ease.


title: Crane (machine)

text: A sidelifter crane is a road-going truck or semi-trailer, able to hoist and transport ISO standard containers. Container lift is done with parallel crane-like hoists, which can lift a container from the ground or from a railway vehicle.


title: Crane (machine)

text: A carry deck crane is a small 4 wheel crane with a 360-degree rotating boom placed right in the centre and an operators cab located at one end under this boom. The rear section houses the engine and the area above the wheels is a flat deck. Very much an American invention the Carry deck can hoist a load in a confined space and then load it on the deck space around the cab or engine and subsequently move to another site. The Carry Deck principle is the American version of the pick and carry crane and both allow the load to be moved by the crane over short distances.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Telescopic handlers are forklift-like trucks that have set of forks mounted on a telescoping extendable boom like a crane. Early telescopic handlers only lifted in one direction and did not rotate; however, several of the manufacturers have designed telescopic handlers that rotate 360 degrees through a turntable and these machines look almost identical to the Rough Terrain Crane. These new 360-degree telescopic handler/crane models have outriggers or stabiliser legs that must be lowered before lifting; however, their design has been simplified so that they can be more quickly deployed. These machines are often used to handle pallets of bricks and install frame trusses on many new building sites and they have eroded much of the work for small telescopic truck cranes. Many of the world's armed forces have purchased telescopic handlers and some of these are the much more expensive fully rotating types. Their off-road capability and their on site versatility to unload pallets using forks, or lift like a crane make them a valuable piece of machinery.


title: Crane (machine)

text: A travel lift (also called a boat gantry crane, or boat crane) is a crane with two rectangular side panels joined by a single spanning beam at the top of one end. The crane is mobile with four groups of steerable wheels, one on each corner. These cranes allow boats with masts or tall super structures to be removed from the water and transported around docks or marinas. Not to be confused mechanical device used for transferring a vessel between two levels of water, which is also called a boat lift.


title: Crane (machine)

text: The simplest form is a crane mounted on a flatcar. More capable devices are purpose-built. Different types of crane are used for maintenance work, recovery operations and freight loading in goods yards and scrap handling facilities.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Aerial cranes or "sky cranes" usually are helicopters designed to lift large loads. Helicopters are able to travel to and lift in areas that are difficult to reach by conventional cranes. Helicopter cranes are most commonly used to lift loads onto shopping centers and high-rise buildings. They can lift anything within their lifting capacity, such as air conditioning units, cars, boats, swimming pools, etc. They also perform disaster relief after natural disasters for clean-up, and during wild-fires they are able to carry huge buckets of water to extinguish fires.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Instead of setting up a large crane to construct a wind turbine tower, a smaller climbing crane can help build the tower, climb with it to the top, lift the generator housing to its top, add the rotor blades, then climb down. This has been introduced by Lagerwey Wind and Enercon.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Exchanging mobility for the ability to carry greater loads and reach greater heights due to increased stability, these types of cranes are characterised by the fact that their main structure does not move during the period of use. However, many can still be assembled and disassembled. The structures basically are fixed in one place.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Ring cranes are some of the largest and heaviest land-based cranes ever designed. A ring-shaped track support the main superstructure allowing for extremely heavy loads (up to thousands of tonnes).


title: Crane (machine)

text: Tower cranes are a modern form of balance crane that consist of the same basic parts. Fixed to the ground on a concrete slab (and sometimes attached to the sides of structures), tower cranes often give the best combination of height and lifting capacity and are used in the construction of tall buildings. The base is then attached to the mast which gives the crane its height. Further, the mast is attached to the slewing unit (gear and motor) that allows the crane to rotate. On top of the slewing unit there are three main parts which are: the long horizontal jib (working arm), shorter counter-jib, and the operator's cab.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Optimization of tower crane location in the construction sites has an important effect on material transportation costs of a project.


title: Crane (machine)

text: The long horizontal jib is the part of the crane that carries the load. The counter-jib carries a counterweight, usually of concrete blocks, while the jib suspends the load to and from the center of the crane. The crane operator either sits in a cab at the top of the tower or controls the crane by radio remote control from the ground. In the first case the operator's cab is most usually located at the top of the tower attached to the turntable, but can be mounted on the jib, or partway down the tower. The lifting hook is operated by the crane operator using electric motors to manipulate wire rope cables through a system of sheaves. The hook is located on the long horizontal arm to lift the load which also contains its motor.


title: Crane (machine)

text: In order to hook and unhook the loads, the operator usually works in conjunction with a signaller (known as a "dogger", "rigger" or "swamper"). They are most often in radio contact, and always use hand signals. The rigger or dogger directs the schedule of lifts for the crane, and is responsible for the safety of the rigging and loads.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Tower cranes are used extensively in construction and other industry to hoist and move materials. There are many types of tower cranes. Although they are different in type, the main parts are the same, as follows:


title: Crane (machine)

text: A tower crane is usually assembled by a telescopic jib (mobile) crane of greater reach (also see "self-erecting crane" below) and in the case of tower cranes that have risen while constructing very tall skyscrapers, a smaller crane (or derrick) will often be lifted to the roof of the completed tower to dismantle the tower crane afterwards, which may be more difficult than the installation.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Tower cranes can be operated by remote control, removing the need for the crane operator to sit in a cab atop the crane.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Each model and distinctive style of tower crane has a predetermined lifting chart that can be applied to any radii available, depending on its configuration. Similar to a mobile crane, a tower crane may lift an object of far greater mass closer to its center of rotation than at its maximum radius. An operator manipulates several levers and pedals to control each function of the crane.


title: Crane (machine)

text: When a tower crane is used in proximity to buildings, roads, power lines, or other tower cranes, a tower crane anti-collision system is used. This operator support system reduces the risk of a dangerous interaction occurring between a tower crane and another structure.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Generally a type of pedestrian operated tower crane, self-erecting tower cranes are transported as a single unit and can be assembled by a qualified technician without the assistance of a larger mobile crane. They are bottom slewing cranes that stand on outriggers, have no counter jib, have their counterweights and ballast at the base of the mast, cannot climb themselves, have a reduced capacity compared to standard tower cranes, and seldom have an operator's cabin.


title: Crane (machine)

text: In some cases, smaller self-erecting tower cranes may have axles permanently fitted to the tower section to make maneuvering the crane onsite easier.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Tower cranes can also use a hydraulic-powered jack frame to raise themselves to add new tower sections without any additional other cranes assisting beyond the initial assembly stage. This is how it can grow to nearly any height needed to build the tallest skyscrapers when tied to a building as the building rises. The maximum unsupported height of a tower crane is around 265 ft. For a video of a crane getting taller, see "Crane Building Itself" on YouTube.


title: Crane (machine)

text: For another animation of such a crane in use, see "SAS Tower Construction Simulation" on YouTube. Here, the crane is used to erect a scaffold, which, in turn, contains a gantry to lift sections of a bridge spire.


title: Crane (machine)

text: A telescopic crane has a boom that consists of a number of tubes fitted one inside the other. A hydraulic cylinder or other powered mechanism extends or retracts the tubes to increase or decrease the total length of the boom. These types of booms are often used for short term construction projects, rescue jobs, lifting boats in and out of the water, etc. The relative compactness of telescopic booms makes them adaptable for many mobile applications.


title: Crane (machine)

text: A telescopic tower crane has a telescopic mast and often a superstructure (jib) on top so that it functions as a tower crane. Some telescopic tower cranes also have a telescopic jib.


title: Crane (machine)

text: The "hammerhead", or giant cantilever, crane is a fixed-jib crane consisting of a steel-braced tower on which revolves a large, horizontal, double cantilever; the forward part of this cantilever or jib carries the lifting trolley, the jib is extended backwards in order to form a support for the machinery and counterbalancing weight. In addition to the motions of lifting and revolving, there is provided a so-called "racking" motion, by which the lifting trolley, with the load suspended, can be moved in and out along the jib without altering the level of the load. Such horizontal movement of the load is a marked feature of later crane design. These cranes are generally constructed in large sizes and can weigh up to 350 tons.


title: Crane (machine)

text: The design of "Hammerkran" evolved first in Germany around the turn of the 19th century and was adopted and developed for use in British shipyards to support the battleship construction program from 1904 to 1914. The ability of the hammerhead crane to lift heavy weights was useful for installing large pieces of battleships such as armour plate and gun barrels. Giant cantilever cranes were also installed in naval shipyards in Japan and in the United States. The British government also installed a giant cantilever crane at the Singapore Naval Base (1938) and later a copy of the crane was installed at Garden Island Naval Dockyard in Sydney (1951). These cranes provided repair support for the battle fleet operating far from Great Britain.


title: Crane (machine)

text: In the British Empire, the engineering firm Sir William Arrol & Co. was the principal manufacturer of giant cantilever cranes; the company built a total of fourteen. Among the sixty built in the world, few remain; seven in England and Scotland of about fifteen worldwide.


title: Crane (machine)

text: The Titan Clydebank is one of the four Scottish cranes on the River Clyde and preserved as a tourist attraction.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Normally a crane with a hinged jib will tend to have its hook also move up and down as the jib moves (or "luffs"). A level luffing crane is a crane of this common design, but with an extra mechanism to keep the hook at the same level when luffing.


title: Crane (machine)

text: An overhead crane, also known as a bridge crane, is a type of crane where the hook-and-line mechanism runs along a horizontal beam that itself runs along two widely separated rails. Often it is in a long factory building and runs along rails along the building's two long walls. It is similar to a gantry crane. Overhead cranes typically consist of either a single beam or a double beam construction. These can be built using typical steel beams or a more complex box girder type. Pictured on the right is a single bridge box girder crane with the hoist and system operated with a control pendant. Double girder bridge are more typical when needing heavier capacity systems from 10 tons and above. The advantage of the box girder type configuration results in a system that has a lower deadweight yet a stronger overall system integrity. Also included would be a hoist to lift the items, the bridge, which spans the area covered by the crane, and a trolley to move along the bridge.


title: Crane (machine)

text: The most common overhead crane use is in the steel industry. At every step of the manufacturing process, until it leaves a factory as a finished product, steel is handled by an overhead crane. Raw materials are poured into a furnace by crane, hot steel is stored for cooling by an overhead crane, the finished coils are lifted and loaded onto trucks and trains by overhead crane, and the fabricator or stamper uses an overhead crane to handle the steel in his factory. The automobile industry uses overhead cranes for handling of raw materials. Smaller workstation cranes handle lighter loads in a work-area, such as CNC mill or saw.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Almost all paper mills use bridge cranes for regular maintenance requiring removal of heavy press rolls and other equipment. The bridge cranes are used in the initial construction of paper machines because they facilitate installation of the heavy cast iron paper drying drums and other massive equipment, some weighing as much as 70 tons.


title: Crane (machine)

text: In many instances the cost of a bridge crane can be largely offset with savings from not renting mobile cranes in the construction of a facility that uses a lot of heavy process equipment.


title: Crane (machine)

text: This is most common type of overhead crane, found in many factories. These cranes are electrically operated by a control pendant, radio/IR remote pendant, or from an operator cabin attached to the crane.


title: Crane (machine)

text: A gantry crane has a hoist in a fixed machinery house or on a trolley that runs horizontally along rails, usually fitted on a single beam (mono-girder) or two beams (twin-girder). The crane frame is supported on a gantry system with equalized beams and wheels that run on the gantry rail, usually perpendicular to the trolley travel direction. These cranes come in all sizes, and some can move very heavy loads, particularly the extremely large examples used in shipyards or industrial installations. A special version is the container crane (or "Portainer" crane, named by the first manufacturer), designed for loading and unloading ship-borne containers at a port.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Located on the ships and boats, these are used for cargo operations or boat unloading and retrieval where no shore unloading facilities are available. Most are diesel-hydraulic or electric-hydraulic.


title: Crane (machine)

text: A jib crane is a type of crane where a horizontal member ("jib" or "boom"), supporting a moveable hoist, is fixed to a wall or to a floor-mounted pillar. Jib cranes are used in industrial premises and on military vehicles. The jib may swing through an arc, to give additional lateral movement, or be fixed. Similar cranes, often known simply as hoists, were fitted on the top floor of warehouse buildings to enable goods to be lifted to all floors.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Bulk-handling cranes are designed from the outset to carry a shell grab or bucket, rather than using a hook and a sling. They are used for bulk cargoes, such as coal, minerals, scrap metal etc.


title: Crane (machine)

text: A loader crane (also called a "knuckle-boom crane" or "articulating crane") is an hydraulically powered articulated arm fitted to a truck or trailer, and is used for loading/unloading the vehicle cargo. The numerous jointed sections can be folded into a small space when the crane is not in use. One or more of the sections may be telescopic. Often the crane will have a degree of automation and be able to unload or stow itself without an operator's instruction.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Unlike most cranes, the operator must move around the vehicle to be able to view his load; hence modern cranes may be fitted with a portable cabled or radio-linked control system to supplement the crane-mounted hydraulic control levers.


title: Crane (machine)

text: In the United Kingdom and Canada, this type of crane is often known colloquially as a "Hiab", partly because this manufacturer invented the loader crane and was first into the UK market, and partly because the distinctive name was displayed prominently on the boom arm.


title: Crane (machine)

text: A rolloader crane is a loader crane mounted on a chassis with wheels. This chassis can ride on the trailer. Because the crane can move on the trailer, it can be a light crane, so the trailer is allowed to transport more goods.


title: Crane (machine)

text: A crane with a forklift type mechanism used in automated (computer-controlled) warehouses (known as an automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS)). The crane moves on a track in an aisle of the warehouse. The fork can be raised or lowered to any of the levels of a storage rack and can be extended into the rack to store and retrieve the product. The product can in some cases be as large as an automobile. Stacker cranes are often used in the large freezer warehouses of frozen food manufacturers. This automation avoids requiring forklift drivers to work in below-freezing temperatures every day.


title: Crane (machine)

text: A block-setting crane is a form of crane. They were used for installing the large stone blocks used to build breakwaters, moles and stone piers.


title: Crane (machine)

text: Lifetime of existing cranes made of welded metal structures can often be extended for many years by aftertreatment of welds. During development of cranes, load level (lifting load) can be significantly increased by taking into account the IIW recommendations, leading in most cases to an increase of the permissible lifting load and thus to an efficiency increase.


title: Crane (machine)

text: The generally accepted definition of a crane is a machine for lifting and moving heavy objects by means of ropes or cables suspended from a movable arm. As such, a lifting machine that does not use cables, or else provides only vertical and not horizontal movement, cannot strictly be called a 'crane'.


title: Crane (machine)

text: More technically advanced types of such lifting machines are often known as "cranes", regardless of the official definition of the term.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Luke August Kuechly (; born April 20, 1991) is an American former professional football middle linebacker who played all eight seasons of his career with the Carolina Panthers of the National Football League (NFL). He was drafted by the Panthers ninth overall in the 2012 NFL Draft. Kuechly played college football at Boston College where he was recognized twice as a consensus All-American.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Kuechly had an immediate impact during his rookie season, as he led the NFL in tackles and won the Associated Press 2012 NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year award, becoming the third youngest recipient in its history. In 2013, Kuechly became the youngest recipient of the AP NFL Defensive Player of the Year Award in its history.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: After retiring following the 2019 season, Kuechly rejoined the Panthers as a pro scout. Kuechly resigned from his position a year later in 2021.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Kuechly was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, and grew up in Evendale, Ohio. He attended St. Xavier High School in the Finneytown area of Cincinnati, where he played linebacker and safety for the football team. As a junior in 2007 he had 147 tackles, six sacks, two forced fumbles, three fumble recoveries, two interceptions, and a touchdown as a linebacker. He helped his team go 15-0, winning the Division 1 Ohio state title, and finishing at the top of several national polls (Calpreps.com and Prepnation.com) as the best high school team in America. As a senior in 2008, he had 130 tackles, a sack, three forced fumbles, two fumble recoveries and an interception. Kuechly was a two-time All Greater Catholic League selection at St. Xavier, gaining first-team honors in 2008.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Regarded as a three-star recruit, Kuechly was listed as the No. 44 outside linebacker prospect in the class of 2009, which was headed by Jelani Jenkins and Nico Johnson. After official visits to Boston College, Virginia, Duke, and Stanford, Kuechly committed to the Eagles in January 2009.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Kuechly attended Boston College, a member of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), where he played for the Boston College Eagles football team from 2009 to 2011 under head coach Frank Spaziani.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: As a true freshman in 2009, Kuechly became the Eagles' starting outside linebacker after Mark Herzlich announced that he would miss the season after being diagnosed with Ewing's sarcoma, a rare form of cancer. He finished the season with 158 tackles (87 solo), which led the team and conference, as well as being second nationally (first among freshmen). He was the first true freshman in team history to lead the team in tackles and almost broke the freshman tackle record set by Stephen Boyd in 1991. He returned an interception for a touchdown against Central Michigan. For his play, he was named the 2009 ACC Defensive Rookie of the Year and was on the 2009 "CFN" All-Freshman Defensive Team. "CFN" named the true freshman Kuechly to its All-America team.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Kuechly moved to middle linebacker at the beginning of his sophomore season. He went on to lead the country with 183 tackles (110 solo) and had an ongoing streak of 21 straight games with at least 10 tackles at the end of the season. Kuechly was named a finalist for the Butkus Award and the Nagurski Award. He broke the school single season record for tackles, topping the previous record of 165, held since 1991 by Tom McManus. After the season, Kuechly was named a unanimous first-team All-American. He was the first consensus All-American for the Eagles since Jamie Silva in 2007. Boston College played in the Kraft Fight Hunger Bowl (the same bowl as the Emerald Bowl from the previous season with a change of corporate sponsorship) at the end of the season and Kuechly was named the defensive MVP for a second time.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Kuechly led the nation with 191 tackles (102 solo) during the season, averaging nearly 16 tackles per game. Kuechly compiled his stats in the 12-game regular season, as the team finished with a 4-8 record and was ineligible for post-season play. He still almost broke the NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) single-season tackle record (193, set by Lawrence Flugence in a 14-game season) and did break the single season tackles-per-game record with 15.9 (previously held by Rick Sherrod with a 15.6 average over a 10-game season). He broke his own team and conference single-season tackle records set just a year earlier.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: In only three seasons of play, Kuechly set the Boston College and ACC career tackle records with 532 tackles, eclipsing the previous record of 524 held by Stephen Boyd and only 13 short of the NCAA FBS record held by Tim McGarigle. On December 4, Dick Butkus personally presented the 2011 Butkus Award to Kuechly at the Boston College team banquet a week before the expected formal announcement of the recipient. Kuechly went on to win the Lombardi Award, the Lott IMPACT Trophy, and the Bronko Nagurski Trophy, and was recognized as a consensus first-team All-American for the second consecutive year.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: On January 6, 2012, Kuechly announced his intention to forgo his final year of college eligibility and enter the 2012 NFL Draft. At the time of his announcement, he was rated the top linebacker available in this draft: Mel Kiper Jr. ranked him tenth on his "Big Board", while Todd McShay ranked him thirteenth in his "Top 32". Kuechly squashed any lingering doubts about his athleticism with his performance at the combine and pro day workouts, demonstrating rare pass coverage abilities which would allow him to be a "three-down" inside linebacker (i.e. not subbed-out on obvious passing downs) which raised his draft stock even further.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Kuechly was drafted by the Carolina Panthers in the first round: the first linebacker selected and the ninth overall pick. On May 10, 2012, Kuechly signed a 4-year, $12.58 million contract.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Kuechly began the season at outside linebacker instead of middle linebacker; After considering Kuechly as starting middle linebacker, head coach Ron Rivera decided to start veteran Jon Beason at middle linebacker due to his experience. When Beason was placed on injured reserve due to a torn Achilles tendon, Kuechly was moved to middle linebacker. Due to his strong performance at middle linebacker, Rivera announced that Kuechly would be the team's long-term starter at that position even after Beason returned from his injury. In a 30-20 victory over the Atlanta Falcons in Week 14, Kuechly recorded a career-high 16 tackles and was honored as NFC Defensive Player of the Week; Kuechly received the NFC Defensive Rookie of the Month award in December, recording a league-high 59 tackles over the final five games of the season. He became the second Panther after Julius Peppers to receive the award. Kuechly led the league with 164 tackles during the regular season and recorded eight pass deflections, one sack, two interceptions, and three fumble recoveries. He was awarded the AP Defensive Rookie of the Year and received the Defensive Rookie of the Year award from "Pro Football Weekly".


title: Luke Kuechly

text: While not being an official stat kept by the NFL, after tape review, Panthers coaches credited Kuechly with a franchise record 205 tackles, surpassing James Anderson's 174 set in 2011, and became the first rookie to lead the NFL in that department since Patrick Willis in 2007. Kuechly was rated as the 79th best player on the NFL Top 100 list.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Kuechly brought his play to a whole new level in his second season, becoming the leader of a stingy Panthers defense that finished the season as runner-up in points and yards allowed. In Week 10, he earned NFC Defensive Player of the Week for his effort in a 10–9 victory over San Francisco 49ers. On Sunday, December 22, 2013, Kuechly recorded 24 tackles and one interception in a game against the New Orleans Saints, which the Carolina Panthers won and made the playoffs. Kuechly's 24 tackles nearly tied the NFL record for most tackles in a game. After film review, the number was increased to 26, which is six tackles more than the previous team record held by James Anderson, and a new NFL single game record. He earned NFC Defensive Player of the Week for his game against the Saints. Kuechly was selected to the 2014 Pro Bowl where he had a team high 12 tackles for Team Sanders. Kuechly was named to the 2013 All-Pro Team and recognized as the NFL Defensive Player of the Year by the Associated Press, joining Lawrence Taylor as the only players in NFL history to win the NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year and NFL Defensive Player of the Year in successive years. Further, Kuechly joined Taylor, Joe Greene, Jack Lambert, Dana Stubblefield, Charles Woodson, Brian Urlacher, and Terrell Suggs as the only players to win both awards. Kuechly was rated as the 15th best player in the NFL Top 100 Players of 2014 list.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: During the season opener against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Kuechly recorded nine tackles, a sack, a forced fumble, and had a tipped pass that led to an interception. In a Week 2 game against the Detroit Lions, Kuechly recorded 11 tackles and two pass deflections en route to a 24–7 victory. During the Panthers Week 5 victory over the Chicago Bears, Kuechly was credited with 15 tackles without a missed tackle and allowed only 47 yards on nine receptions in coverage. Through the first five games of the season, Pro Football Focus has rated Kuechly as the best inside linebacker in the NFL. During Week 7 against the Green Bay Packers on October 19, 2014, Kuechly was ejected for making inadvertent contact with an official; while trying to break free of a pile, Kuechly was grabbed from behind by an official. Not knowing it was an official, Kuechly swung his arm, resulting in his ejection. The NFL later determined that Kuechly should not have been ejected. Kuechly finished the regular season, leading the NFL in tackles with 153, along with three sacks, one interception, one forced fumble, and a career-high 12 pass deflections. He was voted to the Pro Bowl and was also selected to the NFL All-Pro First-team for the second consecutive season. He also won the Butkus Award for the second time, joining Von Miller and Patrick Willis as the only players to win the award in both college and in the NFL.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: During the Panthers 27–16 victory over the Arizona Cardinals, Kuechly made three defensive stops, 10 tackles, one interception, and two pass defenses, one of which he tipped directly to Tre Boston for another interception. During the Panthers' loss to the Seattle Seahawks, Kuechly was credited with eight total tackles (two solo and six assisted). He was ranked 14th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2015.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: On September 10, 2015, Kuechly signed a five-year, $62 million extension with the Panthers, becoming the NFL's highest-paid middle linebacker by annual average salary. During the season opener, Kuechly suffered a concussion during a game against the Jacksonville Jaguars and left the game. He missed the first home game of the 2015 season the following week when the Panthers defeated the Houston Texans. Kuechly returned to the field during the Panthers Week 6 victory over the Seattle Seahawks in Seattle. During the game, he recorded 14 tackles and eight defensive stops. Kuechly continued to play in form during the Panthers victory over the Philadelphia Eagles, recording 11 defensive stops, one tackle-for-loss, one pass defensed, and one quarterback hit.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Kuechly tied a season high 14 tackles during a "Monday Night Football" victory over the Indianapolis Colts. He also had three passes defended and an interception in overtime to set up a Graham Gano game-winning field goal. Kuechly followed up his impressive performance the following week during the Panthers 37-29 victory over the Green Bay Packers, where he recorded a team-high nine tackles and four stops to go along with his fifth pass defensed of the season. The following week, Kuechly forced a fumble for just the second time in his career during the Panthers 27-10 victory over the Tennessee Titans. The next week, during the Panthers 44-16 victory over the Washington Redskins to move them to 10-0, Kuechly recorded four tackles, one forced fumble, and a fumble recovery. The next week, Kuechly recorded 7 tackles, 2 passes defenses, and 2 interceptions for 49 yards and a touchdown against the Dallas Cowboys in a 33-14 win, which helped Carolina reach 11-0. During the game, Kuechly became the first player with picks on back-to-back plays from scrimmage since 1997 and upped his career total to 10, most among all linebackers since 2012. Additionally, his pick 6 was the first of his NFL career and the first one since his junior season at Boston College. He was awarded the All-Iron Award and NFC Defensive Player of the Week for his performance during the game; it was his fourth such honor in his career, setting a new Panthers' franchise record.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: According to PFF through the first 12 weeks of the season, Kuechly's 17.6 run-stop percentage ranked first for any defensive player regardless of position with at least 100 snaps against the run. Further, Kuechly was one of seven linebackers with 30 or more tackles in the run game, and just one missed tackle. In coverage, Kuechly had three interceptions and four passes defended with no touchdowns allowed. He also allowed the second-lowest passer rating among all linebackers when targeted in coverage at 47.4 and is the one of just three linebacker with more than 25 tackles in coverage, and only one missed tackle. During the Panthers week 14 victory over the Atlanta Falcons, Kuechly recorded his fourth interception of this season against quarterback Matt Ryan. His 11 career interceptions are the most by any linebacker since he came into the league in 2012. During the Panthers thrilling 38-35 victory over the New York Giants to move them to 14-0, Kuechly recorded 15 tackles, his highest total since 2014 Week 5. Kuechly was the winner of PFF's inaugural Dick "Night Train" Lane Award, given to the defender who performed the best in pass-coverage over the course of the season. Kuechly led all linebackers in allowing a passer rating of just 48.7 into his coverage (playoffs included).


title: Luke Kuechly

text: In the Panthers' 31–24 win over the Seattle Seahawks in the NFC , Kuechly intercepted Seattle quarterback Russell Wilson early in the first quarter and returned the pick 14 yards for a touchdown to give the Panthers a 14–0 lead. He added another "pick six" late in the Panthers' 49–15 win over the Arizona Cardinals in the . On February 7, 2016, Kuechly was part of the Panthers team that played in Super Bowl 50. In the game, he recorded 10 tackles and a sack, but the Panthers fell to the Denver Broncos by a score of 24–10. Ten days after, it was announced that Kuechly would undergo surgery to repair a torn labrum. Sources said that he had played through the injury throughout the postseason.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Kuechly was named to his third straight Pro Bowl, third straight first-team All-Pro, and was ranked as the seventh best player by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2016.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: In 2016, Kuechly started 10 games before suffering a concussion in Week 11, keeping him out the rest of the season. Despite the concussion and missing six games, Kuechly still recorded over 100 tackles, two sacks, six passes defensed, and one interception. He made his fourth straight Pro Bowl and was named second-team All-Pro, and was ranked 20th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2017 as the highest ranked middle linebacker.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: On September 10, 2017, in the season opening 23–3 victory over the San Francisco 49ers, Kuechly recorded an interception off of quarterback Brian Hoyer to go along with five solo tackles and two assisted tackles. On October 12, 2017, Kuechly was placed into the concussion protocol after seemingly suffering his third concussion in as many seasons during a "Thursday Night Football" game against the Philadelphia Eagles, although this was just a precaution. On October 27, 2017, it was announced that Kuechly had cleared the concussion protocol. He made his return against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on October 29, where he would record six solo tackles, two assisted tackles, and an interception off of a Jameis Winston pass. In Week 12, Kuechly returned a strip-sacked fumble 34 yards for the touchdown in a 35-27 win over the New York Jets, earning him NFC Defensive Player of the Week. On December 19, 2017, Kuechly was named to his fifth straight Pro Bowl. He earned First-team All-Pro honors for the fourth time. He was ranked 12th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2018.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Kuechly started off the 2018 season strong with 13 combined tackles in the 16–8 victory over the Dallas Cowboys in Week 1. In Week 3, against the Cincinnati Bengals, he recorded his lone interception on the season. On October 21, against the Philadelphia Eagles, he once again recorded 13 combined tackles to go along with a quarterback hit in the 21–17 victory. In Week 14, against the Cleveland Browns, he recorded two forced fumbles in the game. Overall, on the 2018 season, he started in all 16 games and finished with two sacks, 130 total tackles, five quarterback hits, one interception, six passes defensed, and two forced fumbles. For the fifth time in his career, he was named as a First-team All-Pro. He was named to his sixth consecutive Pro Bowl, which he withdrew from. He was ranked 24th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2019.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: In Week 2 against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Kuechly made 17 tackles, including 2.5 tackles for loss and tackling running back Peyton Barber in his own endzone for a safety as the Panthers lost 20–14. In Week 5 of the regular season Luke Kuechly had a game-high 12 tackles and the game-sealing pass deflection on the last play. He also reached a milestone with 1,000 career tackles, becoming the first player in NFL history to do so in his first eight seasons and the fastest to reach the mark in only 107 games. In Week 6 against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in London, Kuechly recorded his first interception of the season off Jameis Winston in the 37–26 win. In Week 8 against the San Francisco 49ers, Kuechly recorded a team high 10 tackles and intercepted Jimmy Garoppolo once in the 51–13 loss. In Week 15 against the Seattle Seahawks, Kuechly recorded a team high 17 tackles during the 30–24 loss. In the 2019 season, Kuechly finished with 144 total tackles, 12 passes defensed, two interceptions, and one safety. He was named to the Pro Bowl for the seventh time.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: After retiring, Kuechly considered becoming a broadcaster or coach before deciding to enter scouting. On June 4, 2020, he returned to the Panthers as a pro scout. Kuechly resigned from his scout position in the 2021 offseason.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: In August 2021, he was seen at a Buffalo Bills practice assisting his former defensive coordinator Sean McDermott.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Standing and weighing , Kuechly was slightly taller but slightly lighter than the average linebacker (, ). Kuechly was a top impact player each year in his professional career, and was frequently compared to Hall of Fame player Brian Urlacher.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Through 2017 many analysts, coaches, and current and former players considered Kuechly to be the best linebacker in the game. Kuechly had an immediate impact his rookie season, as he led the NFL in tackles and won the Associated Press 2012 NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year award, becoming the third youngest recipient in its history, and was voted the youngest recipient of the AP NFL Defensive Player of the Year Award in the award's history. He was consistently ranked in the NFL Top 100 players throughout his career. In particular, he was rated among the best coverage players each year in his career and was rated the best coverage defender among all defensive players, by Pro Football Focus in 2015, which is considered a rare honor for a linebacker.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Kuechly is the middle child in his family, with an older brother named John and younger brother named Henry. His family members are avid outdoorsmen and Luke began bird hunting at age four. He also fishes, shoots skeet, and hunts deer. Kuechly began playing football in fourth grade and always wanted to play defense. While attending St. Xavier High School, Kuechly wore number 3. After his rookie season in the NFL, Kuechly returned to Boston College and completed a full semester of classes toward his undergraduate degree. In 2015 he completed his final degree requirements to earn a marketing degree from the Boston College Carroll School of Management.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: Kuechly is a devout Roman Catholic, and credits his parents and his Catholic faith for making a positive impact on his NFL career and his outlook on life.


title: Luke Kuechly

text: "I went to a Catholic grade school, Jesuit high school and a Jesuit college, and I think you just learn certain things growing up in that environment. Really, the biggest thing I learned from it is respect and to treat people correctly."


title: CD-ROM

text: A CD-ROM (, compact disc read-only memory) is a type of read-only memory consisting of a pre-pressed optical compact disc that contains data. Computers can read—but not write or erase—CD-ROMs. Some CDs, called enhanced CDs, hold both computer data and audio with the latter capable of being played on a CD player, while data (such as software or digital video) is only usable on a computer (such as ISO 9660 format PC CD-ROMs).


title: CD-ROM

text: During the 1990s and early 2000s, CD-ROMs were popularly used to distribute software and data for computers and fifth generation video game consoles. DVD started to replace it in these roles starting in the early 2000s.


title: CD-ROM

text: The earliest theoretical work on optical disc storage was done by independent researchers in the United States including David Paul Gregg (1958) and James Russel (1965–1975). In particular, Gregg's patents were used as the basis of the LaserDisc specification that was co-developed between MCA and Philips after MCA purchased Gregg's patents, as well as the company he founded, Gauss Electrophysics. The LaserDisc was the immediate precursor to the CD, with the primary difference being that the LaserDisc encoded information through an analog process whereas the CD used digital encoding.


title: CD-ROM

text: Key work to digitize the optical disc was performed by Toshi Doi and Kees Schouhamer Immink during 1979–1980, who worked on a taskforce for Sony and Phillips. The result was the Compact Disc Digital Audio (CD-DA), defined on 1980. The CD-ROM was later designed an extension of the CD-DA, and adapted this format to hold any form of digital data, with an initial storage capacity of 553 MB. Sony and Philips created the technical standard that defines the format of a CD-ROM in 1983, in what came to be called the "Yellow Book". The CD-ROM was announced in 1984 and introduced by Denon and Sony at the first Japanese COMDEX computer show in 1985. In November, 1985, several computer industry participants including Microsoft, Philips, Sony, Apple and Digital Equipment Corporation met to create a specification to define a file system format for CD-ROMs. The resulting specification, called the High Sierra format, was published in May 1986. It was eventually standardized, with a few changes, as the ISO 9660 standard in 1988. One of the first CD-ROM products to be made available to the public was the "Grolier Academic Encyclopedia", presented at the Microsoft CD-ROM Conference in March 1986.


title: CD-ROM

text: CD-ROMs began being used in home video game consoles starting with the PC Engine CD-ROM² (TurboGrafx-CD) in 1988, while CD-ROM drives had also become available for home computers by the end of the 1980s. In 1990, Data East demonstrated an arcade system board that supported CD-ROMs, similar to 1980s laserdisc video games but with digital data, allowing more flexibility than older laserdisc games. By early 1990, about 300,000 CD-ROM drives were sold in Japan, while 125,000 CD-ROM discs were being produced monthly in the United States. Some computers which were marketed in the 1990s were called "multimedia" computers because they incorporated a CD-ROM drive, which allowed for the delivery of several hundred megabytes of video, picture, and audio data.


title: CD-ROM

text: CD-ROMs are identical in appearance to audio CDs, and data are stored and retrieved in a very similar manner (only differing from audio CDs in the standards used to store the data). Discs are made from a 1.2 mm thick disc of polycarbonate plastic, with a thin layer of aluminium to make a reflective surface. The most common size of CD-ROM is 120 mm in diameter, though the smaller Mini CD standard with an 80 mm diameter, as well as shaped compact discs in numerous non-standard sizes and molds (e.g., business card-sized media), also exist.


title: CD-ROM

text: Data is stored on the disc as a series of microscopic indentations called "pits", with the non-indented spaces between them called "lands". A laser is shone onto the reflective surface of the disc to read the pattern of pits and lands. Because the depth of the pits is approximately one-quarter to one-sixth of the wavelength of the laser light used to read the disc, the reflected beam's phase is shifted in relation to the incoming beam, causing destructive interference and reducing the reflected beam's intensity. This is converted into binary data.


title: CD-ROM

text: Several formats are used for data stored on compact discs, known as the Rainbow Books. The "Yellow Book", created in 1983, defines the specifications for CD-ROMs, standardized in 1988 as the ISO/IEC 10149 standard and in 1989 as the ECMA-130 standard. The CD-ROM standard builds on top of the original "Red Book" CD-DA standard for CD audio. Other standards, such as the "White Book" for Video CDs, further define formats based on the CD-ROM specifications. The "Yellow Book" itself is not freely available, but the standards with the corresponding content can be downloaded for free from ISO or ECMA.


title: CD-ROM

text: There are several standards that define how to structure data files on a CD-ROM. ISO 9660 defines the standard file system for a CD-ROM. ISO 13490 is an improvement on this standard which adds support for non-sequential write-once and re-writeable discs such as CD-R and CD-RW, as well as multiple sessions. The ISO 13346 standard was designed to address most of the shortcomings of ISO 9660, and a subset of it evolved into the UDF format, which was adopted for DVDs. A bootable CD specification, called El Torito, was issued in January 1995, to make a CD emulate a hard disk or floppy disk.


title: CD-ROM

text: Pre-pressed CD-ROMs are mass-produced by a process of stamping where a glass master disc is created and used to make "stampers", which are in turn used to manufacture multiple copies of the final disc with the pits already present. Recordable (CD-R) and rewritable (CD-RW) discs are manufactured by a different method, whereby the data are recorded on them by a laser changing the properties of a dye or phase transition material in a process that is often referred to as "burning".


title: CD-ROM

text: Data stored on CD-ROMs follows the standard CD data encoding techniques described in the "Red Book" specification (originally defined for audio CD only). This includes cross-interleaved Reed–Solomon coding (CIRC), eight-to-fourteen modulation (EFM), and the use of pits and lands for coding the bits into the physical surface of the CD.


title: CD-ROM

text: The structures used to group data on a CD-ROM are also derived from the "Red Book". Like audio CDs (CD-DA), a CD-ROM "sector" contains 2,352 bytes of user data, composed of 98 frames, each consisting of 33 bytes (24 bytes for the user data, 8 bytes for error correction, and 1 byte for the subcode). Unlike audio CDs, the data stored in these sectors corresponds to any type of digital data, not audio samples encoded according to the audio CD specification. To structure, address and protect this data, the CD-ROM standard further defines two sector modes, Mode 1 and Mode 2, which describe two different layouts for the data inside a sector. A track (a group of sectors) inside a CD-ROM only contains sectors in the same mode, but if multiple tracks are present in a CD-ROM, each track can have its sectors in a different mode from the rest of the tracks. They can also coexist with audio CD tracks, which is the case of mixed mode CDs.


title: CD-ROM

text: Both Mode 1 and 2 sectors use the first 16 bytes for header information, but differ in the remaining 2,336 bytes due to the use of error correction bytes. Unlike an audio CD, a CD-ROM cannot rely on error concealment by interpolation; a higher reliability of the retrieved data is required. To achieve improved error correction and detection, Mode 1, used mostly for digital data, adds a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC) code for error detection, and a third layer of Reed–Solomon error correction using a Reed-Solomon Product-like Code (RSPC). Mode 1 therefore contains 288 bytes per sector for error detection and correction, leaving 2,048 bytes per sector available for data. Mode 2, which is more appropriate for image or video data (where perfect reliability may be a little bit less important), contains no additional error detection or correction bytes, having therefore 2,336 available data bytes per sector. Note that both modes, like audio CDs, still benefit from the lower layers of error correction at the frame level.


title: CD-ROM

text: Before being stored on a disc with the techniques described above, each CD-ROM sector is scrambled to prevent some problematic patterns from showing up. These scrambled sectors then follow the same encoding process described in the "Red Book" in order to be finally stored on a CD.


title: CD-ROM

text: The net byte rate of a Mode-1 CD-ROM, based on comparison to CD-DA audio standards, is 44,100 Hz × 16 bits/sample × 2 channels × 2,048 / 2,352 / 8 = 150 KB/s (150 × 2) . This value, 150 Kbyte/s, is defined as "1× speed". Therefore, for Mode 1 CD-ROMs, a 1× CD-ROM drive reads 150/2 = 75 consecutive sectors per second.


title: CD-ROM

text: The playing time of a standard CD is 74 minutes, or 4,440 seconds, contained in 333,000 blocks or sectors. Therefore, the net capacity of a Mode-1 CD-ROM is 650 MB (650 × 2). For 80 minute CDs, the capacity is 703 MB.


title: CD-ROM

text: "CD-ROM XA" is an extension of the "Yellow Book" standard for CD-ROMs that combines compressed audio, video and computer data, allowing all to be accessed simultaneously. It was intended as a bridge between CD-ROM and CD-i (Green Book) and was published by Sony and Philips, and backed by Microsoft, in 1991, first announced in September 1988. "XA" stands for eXtended Architecture.


title: CD-ROM

text: CD-ROM XA defines two new sector layouts, called Mode 2 Form 1 and Mode 2 Form 2 (which are different from the original Mode 2). XA Mode 2 Form 1 is similar to the Mode 1 structure described above, and can interleave with XA Mode 2 Form 2 sectors; it is used for data. XA Mode 2 Form 2 has 2,324 bytes of user data, and is similar to the standard Mode 2 but with error detection bytes added (though no error correction). It can interleave with XA Mode 2 Form 1 sectors, and it is used for audio/video data. Video CDs, Super Video CDs, Photo CDs, Enhanced Music CDs and CD-i use these sector modes.


title: CD-ROM

text: When a disc image of a CD-ROM is created, this can be done in either "raw" mode (extracting 2,352 bytes per sector, independent of the internal structure), or obtaining only the sector's useful data (2,048/2,336/2,352/2,324 bytes depending on the CD-ROM mode). The file size of a disc image created in raw mode is "always" a multiple of 2,352 bytes (the size of a block). Disc image formats that store raw CD-ROM sectors include CCD/IMG, CUE/BIN, and MDS/MDF. The size of a disc image created from the data in the sectors will depend on the type of sectors it is using. For example, if a CD-ROM mode 1 image is created by extracting only each sector's data, its size will be a multiple of 2,048; this is usually the case for ISO disc images.


title: CD-ROM

text: On a 74-minute CD-R, it is possible to fit larger disc images using raw mode, up to 333,000 × 2,352 = 783,216,000 bytes (~747 MB). This is the upper limit for raw images created on a 74 min or ≈650 MB "Red Book" CD. The 14.8% increase is due to the discarding of error correction data.


title: CD-ROM

text: CD-ROM capacities are normally expressed with binary prefixes, subtracting the space used for error correction data. The capacity of a CD-ROM depends on how close the outward data track is extended to the disc's outer rim. A standard 120 mm, "700 MB" CD-ROM can actually hold about 703 MB of data with error correction (or 847 MB total). In comparison, a single-layer DVD-ROM can hold 4.7 GB (4.7 × 10 bytes) of error-protected data, more than 6 CD-ROMs.


title: CD-ROM

text: CD-ROM discs are read using CD-ROM drives. A CD-ROM drive may be connected to the computer via an IDE (ATA), SCSI, SATA, FireWire, or USB interface or a proprietary interface, such as the Panasonic CD interface, LMSI/Philips, Sony and Mitsumi standards. Virtually all modern CD-ROM drives can also play audio CDs (as well as Video CDs and other data standards) when used with the right software.


title: CD-ROM

text: CD-ROM drives employ a near-infrared 780 nm laser diode. The laser beam is directed onto the disc via an opto-electronic tracking module, which then detects whether the beam has been reflected or scattered.


title: CD-ROM

text: CD-ROM drives are rated with a speed factor relative to music CDs. If a CD-ROM is read at the same rotational speed as an audio CD, the data transfer rate is 150 Kbyte/s, commonly called "1×" (with constant linear velocity, short ""CLV""). At this data rate, the track moves along under the laser spot at about 1.2 m/s. To maintain this linear velocity as the optical head moves to different positions, the angular velocity is varied from about 500 rpm at the inner edge to 200 rpm at the outer edge. The 1× speed rating for CD-ROM (150 Kbyte/s) is different from the 1× speed rating for DVDs (1.32 MB/s).


title: CD-ROM

text: By increasing the speed at which the disc is spun, data can be transferred at greater rates. For example, a CD-ROM drive that can read at 8× speed spins the disc at 1600 to 4000 rpm, giving a linear velocity of 9.6 m/s and a transfer rate of 1200 Kbyte/s. Above 12× speed most drives read at Constant angular velocity (CAV, constant rpm) so that the motor is not made to change from one speed to another as the head seeks from place to place on the disc. In CAV mode the "×" number denotes the transfer rate at the outer edge of the disc, where it is a maximum.


title: CD-ROM

text: 20× was thought to be the maximum speed due to mechanical constraints until Samsung Electronics introduced the SCR-3230, a 32× CD-ROM drive which uses a ball bearing system to balance the spinning disc in the drive to reduce vibration and noise. As of 2004, the fastest transfer rate commonly available is about 52× or 10,400 rpm and 7.62 MB/s. Higher spin speeds are limited by the strength of the polycarbonate plastic of which the discs are made. At 52×, the linear velocity of the outermost part of the disc is around 65 m/s. However, improvements can still be obtained using multiple laser pickups as demonstrated by the Kenwood TrueX 72× which uses seven laser beams and a rotation speed of approximately 10×.


title: CD-ROM

text: The first 12× drive was released in late 1996. Above 12× speed, there are problems with vibration and heat. CAV drives give speeds up to 30× at the outer edge of the disc with the same rotational speed as a standard (constant linear velocity, CLV) 12×, or 32× with a slight increase. However, due to the nature of CAV (linear speed at the inner edge is still only 12×, increasing smoothly in-between) the actual throughput increase is less than 30/12; in fact, roughly 20× average for a completely full disc, and even less for a partially filled one.


title: CD-ROM

text: Problems with vibration, owing to limits on achievable symmetry and strength in mass-produced media, mean that CD-ROM drive speeds have not massively increased since the late 1990s. Over 10 years later, commonly available drives vary between 24× (slimline and portable units, 10× spin speed) and 52× (typically CD- and read-only units, 21× spin speed), all using CAV to achieve their claimed "max" speeds, with 32× through 48× most common. Even so, these speeds can cause poor reading (drive error correction having become very sophisticated in response) and even shattering of poorly made or physically damaged media, with small cracks rapidly growing into catastrophic breakages when centripetally stressed at 10,000–13,000 rpm (i.e. 40–52× CAV). High rotational speeds also produce undesirable noise from disc vibration, rushing air and the spindle motor itself. Most 21st-century drives allow forced low speed modes (by use of small utility programs) for the sake of safety, accurate reading or silence, and will automatically fall back if numerous sequential read errors and retries are encountered.


title: CD-ROM

text: Other methods of improving read speed were trialled such as using multiple optical beams, increasing throughput up to 72× with a 10× spin speed, but along with other technologies like 90~99 minute recordable media, GigaRec and double-density compact disc (Purple Book standard) recorders, their utility was nullified by the introduction of consumer DVD-ROM drives capable of consistent 36× equivalent CD-ROM speeds (4× DVD) or higher. Additionally, with a 700 MB CD-ROM fully readable in under 2½ minutes at 52× CAV, increases in actual data transfer rate are decreasingly influential on overall effective drive speed when taken into consideration with other factors such as loading/unloading, media recognition, spin up/down and random seek times, making for much decreased returns on development investment. A similar stratification effect has since been seen in DVD development where maximum speed has stabilised at 16× CAV (with exceptional cases between 18× and 22×) and capacity at 4.3 and 8.5 GB (single and dual layer), with higher speed and capacity needs instead being catered to by Blu-ray drives.


title: CD-ROM

text: CD-Recordable drives are often sold with three different speed ratings, one speed for write-once operations, one for re-write operations, and one for read-only operations. The speeds are typically listed in that order; i.e. a 12×/10×/32× CD drive can, CPU and media permitting, write to CD-R discs at 12× speed (1.76 MB/s), write to CD-RW discs at 10× speed (1.46 MB/s), and read from CDs at 32× speed (4.69 MB/s).


title: CD-ROM

text: Software distributors, and in particular distributors of computer games, often make use of various copy protection schemes to prevent software running from any media besides the original CD-ROMs. This differs somewhat from audio CD protection in that it is usually implemented in both the media and the software itself. The CD-ROM itself may contain "weak" sectors to make copying the disc more difficult, and additional data that may be difficult or impossible to copy to a CD-R or disc image, but which the software checks for each time it is run to ensure an original disc and not an unauthorized copy is present in the computer's CD-ROM drive.


title: CD-ROM

text: Manufacturers of CD writers (CD-R or CD-RW) are encouraged by the music industry to ensure that every drive they produce has a unique identifier, which will be encoded by the drive on every disc that it records: the RID or Recorder Identification Code. This is a counterpart to the Source Identification Code (SID), an eight character code beginning with "IFPI" that is usually stamped on discs produced by CD recording plants.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Quechua (, ; ), usually called ("people's language") in Quechuan languages, is an indigenous language family spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Peruvian Andes. Derived from a common ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken pre-Columbian language family of the Americas, with an estimated 8–10 million speakers as of 2004. Approximately 25% (7.7 million) of Peruvians speak a Quechuan language.


title: Quechuan languages

text: It is perhaps most widely known for being the main language family of the Inca Empire. The Spanish encouraged its use until the Peruvian struggle for independence of the 1780s. As a result, Quechua variants are still widely spoken today, being the co-official language of many regions and the second most spoken language family in Peru.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire. The Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke a form of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by neighboring languages such as Aymara, which caused it to develop as distinct. In similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, influenced by local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language.


title: Quechuan languages

text: After the Spanish conquest of Peru in the 16th century, Quechua continued to be used widely by the indigenous peoples as the "common language." It was officially recognized by the Spanish administration, and many Spaniards learned it in order to communicate with local peoples. The clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization. The oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his "Grammatica o arte de la lengua general de los indios de los reynos del Perú" (Grammar or Art of the General Language of the Indians of the Kingdoms of Peru) in 1560. Given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas.


title: Quechuan languages

text: In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua. They banned it from public use in Peru after the Túpac Amaru II rebellion of indigenous peoples. The Crown banned "loyal" pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vega's "Comentarios Reales."


title: Quechuan languages

text: Despite a brief revival of the language immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century, the prestige of Quechua had decreased sharply. Gradually its use declined so that it was spoken mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated and conservative rural areas. Nevertheless, in the 21st century, Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the most speakers of any indigenous language.


title: Quechuan languages

text: As a result of Inca expansion into Central Chile, there were bilingual Quechua-Mapudungu Mapuche in Central Chile at the time of the Spanish arrival. It has been argued that Mapuche, Quechua, and Spanish coexisted in Central Chile, with significant bilingualism, during the 17th century. Quechua is the indigenous language that has influenced Chilean Spanish the most.


title: Quechuan languages

text: In 2017 the first thesis defense done in Quechua in Europe was done by Peruvian at Pablo de Olavide University (Sevilla). The same year Pablo Landeo wrote the first novel in Quechua without a Spanish translation. A Peruvian student, of the University of San Marcos, completed and defended the first thesis in the language group in 2019; it concerned the works of poet and it was also the first non-Spanish native language thesis done at that university.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Currently, there are different initiatives that promote Quechua in the Andes and across the world: many universities offer Quechua classes, a community-based organization such as Elva Ambía's Quechua Collective of New York promote the language, and governments are training interpreters in Quechua so they serve in healthcare, justice, and bureaucratic facilities.


title: Quechuan languages

text: In 1975, Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages. Ecuador conferred official status on the language in its 2006 constitution, and in 2009, Bolivia adopted a new constitution that recognized Quechua and several other indigenous languages as official languages of the country.


title: Quechuan languages

text: The major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechuan languages is the lack of written materials, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups. Quechua, along with Aymara and minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language.


title: Quechuan languages

text: In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural bilingual education (IBE) in Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations. Some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for social advancement.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua. Similarly, Quechua phrases and words are commonly used by Spanish speakers. In southern rural Bolivia, for instance, many Quechua words such as "wawa" (infant), "misi" (cat), "waska" (strap or thrashing), are as commonly used as their Spanish counterparts, even in entirely Spanish-speaking areas. Quechua has also had a profound influence on other native languages of the Americas, such as Mapuche.


title: Quechuan languages

text: The number of speakers given varies widely according to the sources. The total in "Ethnologue" 16 is 10 million, primarily based on figures published 1987–2002, but with a few dating from the 1960s. The figure for Imbabura Highland Quechua in "Ethnologue", for example, is 300,000, an estimate from 1977.


title: Quechuan languages

text: The missionary organization FEDEPI, on the other hand, estimated one million Imbabura dialect speakers (published 2006). Census figures are also problematic, due to under-reporting. The 2001 Ecuador census reports only 500,000 Quechua speakers, compared to the estimate in most linguistic sources of more than 2 million. The censuses of Peru (2007) and Bolivia (2001) are thought to be more reliable.


title: Quechuan languages

text: There are significant differences among the varieties of Quechua spoken in the central Peruvian highlands and the peripheral varieties of Ecuador, as well as those of southern Peru and Bolivia. They can be labeled Quechua I (or Quechua B, central) and Quechua II (or Quechua A, peripheral). Within the two groups, there are few sharp boundaries, making them dialect continua.


title: Quechuan languages

text: However, there is a secondary division in Quechua II between the grammatically simplified northern varieties of Ecuador, Quechua II-B, known there as Kichwa, and the generally more conservative varieties of the southern highlands, Quechua II-C, which include the old Inca capital of Cusco. The closeness is at least in part because of the influence of Cusco Quechua on the Ecuadorean varieties in the Inca Empire. Because Northern nobles were required to educate their children in Cusco, this was maintained as the prestige dialect in the north.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Speakers from different points within any of the three regions can generally understand one another reasonably well. There are nonetheless significant local-level differences across each. (Wanka Quechua, in particular, has several very distinctive characteristics that make the variety more challenging to understand, even for other Central Quechua speakers.) Speakers from different major regions, particularly Central or Southern Quechua, are not able to communicate effectively.


title: Quechuan languages

text: The lack of mutual intelligibility among the dialects is the basic criterion that defines Quechua not as a single language, but as a language family. The complex and progressive nature of how speech varies across the dialect continua makes it nearly impossible to differentiate discrete varieties; "Ethnologue" lists 45 varieties which are then divided into two groups; Central and Peripheral. Due to the non-intelligibility among the two groups, they are all classified as separate languages.


title: Quechuan languages

text: As a reference point, the overall degree of diversity across the family is a little less than that of the Romance or Germanic families, and more of the order of Slavic or Arabic. The greatest diversity is within Central Quechua, or Quechua I, which is believed to lie close to the homeland of the ancestral Proto-Quechua language.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Alfredo Torero devised the traditional classification, the three divisions above, plus a fourth, a northern or Peruvian branch. The latter causes complications in the classification, however, as the northern dialects (Cajamarca–Cañaris, Pacaraos, and Yauyos–Chincha) have features of both Quechua I and Quechua II, and so are difficult to assign to either.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Willem Adelaar adheres to the Quechua I / Quechua II (central/peripheral) bifurcation. But, partially following later modifications by Torero, he reassigns part of Quechua II-A to Quechua I:


title: Quechuan languages

text: Landerman (1991) does not believe a truly genetic classification is possible and divides Quechua II so that the family has four geographical–typological branches: Northern, North Peruvian, Central, and Southern. He includes Chachapoyas and Lamas in North Peruvian Quechua so Ecuadorian is synonymous with Northern Quechua.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Quechua I (Central Quechua, "Waywash") is spoken in Peru's central highlands, from the Ancash Region to Huancayo. It is the most diverse branch of Quechua, to the extent that its divisions are commonly considered different languages.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Quechua shares a large amount of vocabulary, and some striking structural parallels, with Aymara, and the two families have sometimes been grouped together as a "Quechumaran family." That hypothesis is generally rejected by specialists, however. The parallels are better explained by mutual influence and borrowing through intensive and long-term contact. Many Quechua–Aymara cognates are close, often closer than intra-Quechua cognates, and there is little relationship in the affixal system. The Puquina language of the Tiwanaku Empire is a possible source for some of the shared vocabulary between Quechua and Aymara.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Kunza, Leko, Mapudungun, Mochika, Uru-Chipaya, Zaparo, Arawak, Kandoshi, Muniche, Pukina, Pano, Barbakoa, Cholon-Hibito, Jaqi, Jivaro, and Kawapana language families due to contact.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Quechua has borrowed a large number of Spanish words, such as "piru" (from "pero", "but"), "bwenu" (from "bueno", "good"), "iskwila" (from "escuela", "school"), "waka" (from "vaca", "cow") and "wuru" (from "burro", "donkey").


title: Quechuan languages

text: A number of Quechua words have entered English and French via Spanish, including "coca", "condor", "guano", "jerky", "llama", "pampa", "poncho", "puma", "quinine", "quinoa", "vicuña" ("vigogne" in French), and, possibly, "gaucho". The word "lagniappe" comes from the Quechuan word "yapay" "to increase, to add." The word first came into Spanish then Louisiana French, with the French or Spanish article "la" in front of it, "la ñapa" in Louisiana French or Creole, or "la yapa" in Spanish. A rare instance of a Quechua word being taken into general Spanish use is given by "carpa" for "tent" (Quechua "karpa").


title: Quechuan languages

text: The Quechua influence on Latin American Spanish includes such borrowings as "papa" "potato", "chuchaqui" "hangover" in Ecuador, and diverse borrowings for "altitude sickness": "suruqch'i" in Bolivia, "sorojchi" in Ecuador, and "soroche" in Peru.


title: Quechuan languages

text: In Bolivia, particularly, Quechua words are used extensively even by non-Quechua speakers. These include "wawa" "baby, infant," "ch'aki" "hangover," "misi" "cat," "juk'ucho" "mouse," "q'omer uchu" "green pepper," "jacu" "let's go," "chhiri" and "chhurco" "curly haired," among many others. Quechua grammar also enters Bolivian Spanish, such as the use of the suffix "-ri". In Bolivian Quechua, "-ri" is added to verbs to signify an action is performed with affection or, in the imperative, as a rough equivalent to "please". In Bolivia, "-ri" is often included in the Spanish imperative to imply "please" or to soften commands. For example, the standard "pásame" "pass me [something]" becomes "pasarime".


title: Quechuan languages

text: At first, Spaniards referred to the language of the Inca empire as the "lengua general", the "general tongue". The name "quichua" was first used in 1560 by Domingo de Santo Tomás in his "Grammatica o arte de la lengua general de los indios de los reynos del Perú". It is not known what name the native speakers gave to their language before colonial times and whether it was Spaniards who called it "quechua".


title: Quechuan languages

text: There are two possible etymologies of Quechua as the name of the language. There is a possibility that the name Quechua was derived from "*qiĉ.wa", the native word which originally meant the "temperate valley" altitude ecological zone in the Andes (suitable for maize cultivation) and to its inhabitants. Alternatively, Pedro Cieza de León and Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, the early Spanish chroniclers, mention the existence of a people called Quichua in the present Apurímac Region, and it could be inferred that their name was given to the entire language.


title: Quechuan languages

text: The Hispanicised spellings "Quechua" and "Quichua" have been used in Peru and Bolivia since the 17th century, especially after the Third Council of Lima. Today, the various local pronunciations of "Quechua Simi" include , , , and .


title: Quechuan languages

text: Another name that native speakers give to their own language is "runa simi", "language of man/people"; it also seems to have emerged during the colonial period.


title: Quechuan languages

text: The description below applies to Cusco Quechua; there are significant differences in other varieties of Quechua.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Quechua only has three vowel phonemes: and , with no diphthongs, as in Aymara (including Jaqaru). Monolingual speakers pronounce them as respectively, but Spanish realizations may also be found. When the vowels appear adjacent to uvular consonants (, , and ), they are rendered more like [, , ], respectively.


title: Quechuan languages

text: About 30% of the modern Quechua vocabulary is borrowed from Spanish, and some Spanish sounds (such as , , , ) may have become phonemic even among monolingual Quechua-speakers.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Voicing is not phonemic in Cusco Quechua. Cusco Quechua, North Bolivian Quechua, and South Bolivian Quechua are the only varieties to have glottalized consonants. They, along with certain kinds of Ecuadorian Kichwa, are the only varieties which have aspirated consonants. Because reflexes of a given Proto-Quechua word may have different stops in neighboring dialects (Proto-Quechua "*čaki" 'foot' becomes "č'aki" and "čaka" 'bridge' becomes "čaka"), they are thought to be innovations in Quechua from Aymara, borrowed independently after branching off from Proto-Quechua.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Stress is penultimate in most dialects of Quechua. In some varieties, factors such as apocope of word-final vowels may cause exceptional final stress.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Quechua has been written using the Roman alphabet since the Spanish conquest of Peru. However, written Quechua is rarely used by Quechua speakers due to limited amounts of printed material in the language.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Until the 20th century, Quechua was written with a Spanish-based orthography, for example "Inca, Huayna Cápac, Collasuyo, Mama Ocllo, Viracocha, quipu, tambo, condor". This orthography is the most familiar to Spanish speakers, and so it has been used for most borrowings into English, which essentially always happen through Spanish.


title: Quechuan languages

text: In 1975, the Peruvian government of Juan Velasco Alvarado adopted a new orthography for Quechua. This is the system preferred by the Academia Mayor de la Lengua Quechua, which results in the following spellings of the examples listed above: "Inka, Wayna Qhapaq, Qollasuyu, Mama Oqllo, Wiraqocha, khipu, tampu, kuntur". This orthography has the following features:


title: Quechuan languages

text: In 1985, a variation of this system was adopted by the Peruvian government that uses the Quechuan three-vowel system, resulting in the following spellings: "Inka, Wayna Qhapaq, Qullasuyu, Mama Uqllu, Wiraqucha, khipu, tampu, kuntur".


title: Quechuan languages

text: The different orthographies are still highly controversial in Peru. Advocates of the traditional system believe that the new orthographies look too foreign and believe that it makes Quechua harder to learn for people who have first been exposed to written Spanish. Those who prefer the new system maintain that it better matches the phonology of Quechua, and they point to studies showing that teaching the five-vowel system to children later causes reading difficulties in Spanish.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Writers differ in the treatment of Spanish loanwords. These are sometimes adapted to the modern orthography and sometimes left as in Spanish. For instance, "I am Roberto" could be written "Robertom kani" or "Ruwirtum kani". (The "-m" is not part of the name; it is an evidential suffix, showing how the information is known: firsthand, in this case.)


title: Quechuan languages

text: The Peruvian linguist Rodolfo Cerrón Palomino has proposed an orthographic norm for all of Southern Quechua: this Standard Quechua ("el Quechua estándar" or "Hanan Runasimi") conservatively integrates features of the two widespread dialects Ayacucho Quechua and Cusco Quechua. For instance:


title: Quechuan languages

text: The Spanish-based orthography is now in conflict with Peruvian law. According to article 20 of the decree "Decreto Supremo No 004-2016-MC", which approves regulations relative to Law 29735, published in the official newspaper El Peruano on July 22, 2016, adequate spellings of the toponyms in the normalized alphabets of the indigenous languages must progressively be proposed, with the aim of standardizing the spellings used by the National Geographic Institute "(Instituto Geográfico Nacional, IGN)" The IGN implements the necessary changes on the official maps of Peru.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Quechua is an agglutinating language, meaning that words are built up from basic roots followed by several suffixes, each of which carries you one meaning. Their large number of suffixes changes both the overall meaning of words and their subtle shades of meaning. All varieties of Quechua are very regular agglutinative languages, as opposed to isolating or fusional ones [Thompson]. Their normal sentence order is SOV (subject–object–verb). Notable grammatical features include bipersonal conjugation (verbs agree with both subject and object), evidentiality (indication of the source and veracity of knowledge), a set of topic particles, and suffixes indicating who benefits from an action and the speaker's attitude toward it, but some varieties may lack some of the characteristics.


title: Quechuan languages

text: In Quechua, there are seven pronouns. First-person plural pronouns (equivalent to "we") may be inclusive or exclusive; which mean, respectively, that the addressee ("you") is or is not part of the "we". Quechua also adds the suffix "-kuna" to the second and third person singular pronouns "qam" and "pay" to create the plural forms, "qam-kuna" and "pay-kuna". In Quechua IIB, or "Kichwa", the exclusive first-person plural pronoun, "ñuqayku", is generally obsolete.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Adjectives in Quechua are always placed before nouns. They lack gender and number and are not declined to agree with nouns.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Noun roots accept suffixes that indicate number, case, and the person of a possessor. In general, the possessive suffix precedes that of number. In the Santiago del Estero variety, however, the order is reversed. From variety to variety, suffixes may change.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Adverbs can be formed by adding "-ta" or, in some cases, "-lla" to an adjective: "allin – allinta" ("good – well"), "utqay – utqaylla" ("quick – quickly"). They are also formed by adding suffixes to demonstratives: "chay" ("that") – "chaypi" ("there"), "kay" ("this") – "kayman" ("hither").


title: Quechuan languages

text: There are several original adverbs. For Europeans, it is striking that the adverb "qhipa" means both "behind" and "future" and "ñawpa" means "ahead, in front" and "past." Local and temporal concepts of adverbs in Quechua (as well as in Aymara) are associated to each other reversely, compared to European languages. For the speakers of Quechua, we are moving backwards into the future (we cannot see it: it is unknown), facing the past (we can see it: it is remembered).


title: Quechuan languages

text: The infinitive forms have the suffix "-y" (e.g"., much'a" 'kiss'; "much'a-y" 'to kiss'). These are the typical endings for the indicative in a Southern Quechua (IIC) dialect:


title: Quechuan languages

text: The suffixes shown in the table above usually indicate the subject; the person of the object is also indicated by a suffix, which precedes the suffixes in the table. For the second person, it is "-su-", and for the first person, it is "-wa-" in most Quechua II dialects. In such cases, the plural suffixes from the table ("-chik" and "-ku") can be used to express the number of the object rather than the subject. There is a lot of variation between the dialects in the exact rules which determine this. In Central Quechua, however, the verbal morphology differs in a number of respects: most notably, the verbal plural suffixes "-chik" and "-ku" are not used, and plurality is expressed by different suffixes that are located "before" rather than after the personal suffixes. Furthermore, the 1st person singular object suffix is "-ma-", rather than "-wa-".


title: Quechuan languages

text: Particles are indeclinable: they do not accept suffixes. They are relatively rare, but the most common are "arí" 'yes' and "mana" 'no', although "mana" can take some suffixes, such as "-n"/"-m" ("manan"/"manam"), "-raq" ("manaraq" 'not yet') and "-chu" ("manachu?" 'or not?'), to intensify the meaning. Other particles are "yaw" 'hey, hi', and certain loan words from Spanish, such as "piru" (from Spanish "pero" 'but') and "sinuqa" (from "sino" 'rather').


title: Quechuan languages

text: The Quechuan languages have three different morphemes that mark evidentiality. Evidentiality refers to a morpheme whose primary purpose is to indicate the source of information. In Quechuan languages, evidentiality is a three-term system: there are three evidential morphemes that mark varying levels of source information. The markers can apply to first, second, and third persons. The chart below depicts an example of these morphemes from Wanka Quechua:


title: Quechuan languages

text: The parentheses around the vowels indicate that the vowel can be dropped when following an open vowel. For the sake of cohesiveness, the above forms are used to discuss the evidential morphemes. There are dialectal variations to the forms. The variations will be presented in the following descriptions.


title: Quechuan languages

text: The following sentences provide examples of the three evidentials and further discuss the meaning behind each of them.


title: Quechuan languages

text: The evidential "–mi" indicates that the speaker has a "strong personal conviction the veracity of the circumstance expressed." It has the basis of direct personal experience.


title: Quechuan languages

text: In Quechuan languages, not specified by the source, the inference morpheme appears as "-ch(i), -ch(a), -chr(a)".


title: Quechuan languages

text: The "-chr(a)" evidential indicates that the utterance is an inference or form of conjecture. That inference relays the speaker's non-commitment to the truth-value of the statement. It also appears in cases such as acquiescence, irony, interrogative constructions, and first person inferences. These uses constitute nonprototypical use and will be discussed later in the "changes in meaning and other uses" section.


title: Quechuan languages

text: With the use of this morpheme, the speaker "serves as a conduit through which information from another source passes." The information being related is hearsay or revelatory in nature. It also works to express the uncertainty of the speaker regarding the situation. However, it also appears in other constructions that are discussed in the "changes in meaning" section.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Hintz discusses an interesting case of evidential behavior found in the Sihaus dialect of Ancash Quechua. The author postulates that instead of three single evidential markers, that Quechuan language contains three pairs of evidential markers.


title: Quechuan languages

text: The evidential morphemes have been referred to as markers or morphemes. The literature seems to differ on whether or not the evidential morphemes are acting as affixes or clitics, in some cases, such as Wanka Quechua, enclitics. Lefebvre and Muysken (1998) discuss this issue in terms of case but remark the line between affix and clitic is not clear. Both terms are used interchangeably throughout these sections.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Evidentials in the Quechuan languages are "second position enclitics", which usually attach to the first constituent in the sentence, as shown in this example.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Sometimes, the affix is described as attaching to the focus, particularly in the Tarma dialect of Yaru Quechua, but this does not hold true for all varieties of Quechua. In Huanuco Quechua, the evidentials may follow any number of topics, marked by the topic marker "–qa", and the element with the evidential must precede the main verb or be the main verb.


title: Quechuan languages

text: However, there are exceptions to that rule, and the more topics there are in a sentence, the more likely the sentence is to deviate from the usual pattern.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Evidentials can be used to relay different meanings depending on the context and perform other functions. The following examples are restricted to Wanka Quechua.


title: Quechuan languages

text: The direct evidential appears in wh-questions and yes/no questions. By considering the direct evidential in terms of prototypical semantics, it seems somewhat counterintuitive to have a direct evidential, basically an evidential that confirms the speaker's certainty about a topic, in a question. However, if one focuses less on the structure and more on the situation, some sense can be made. The speaker is asking the addressee for information so the speaker assumes the speaker knows the answer. That assumption is where the direct evidential comes into play. The speaker holds a certain amount of certainty that the addressee will know the answer. The speaker interprets the addressee as being in "direct relation" to the proposed content; the situation is the same as when, in regular sentences, the speaker assumes direct relation to the proposed information.


title: Quechuan languages

text: The direct evidential affix is also seen in yes/no questions, similar to the situation with wh-questions. Floyd describes yes/no questions as being "characterized as instructions to the addressee to assert one of the propositions of a disjunction." Once again, the burden of direct evidence is being placed on the addressee, not on the speaker. The question marker in Wanka Quechua, "-chun", is derived from the negative –chu marker and the direct evidential (realized as –n in some dialects).


title: Quechuan languages

text: In these constructions the evidential works to reaffirm and encourage the addressee's actions or thoughts.


title: Quechuan languages

text: This example comes from a conversation between husband and wife, discussing the reactions of their family and friends after they have been gone for a while. The husband says he plans to stretch the truth and tell them about distant places to which he has gone, and his wife (in the example above) echoes and encourages his thoughts.


title: Quechuan languages

text: With these, the evidential is used to highlight the speaker's assessment of inevitability of an event and acceptance of it. There is a sense of resistance, diminished enthusiasm, and disinclination in these constructions.


title: Quechuan languages

text: This example comes from a discourse where a woman demands compensation from the man (the speaker in the example) whose pigs ruined her potatoes. He denies the pigs as being his but finally realizes he may be responsible and produces the above example.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Somewhat similar to the "–mi" evidential, the inferential evidential can be found in content questions. However, the salient difference between the uses of the evidentials in questions is that in the "–m(i)" marked questions, an answer is expected. That is not the case with "–chr(a)" marked questions.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Irony in language can be a somewhat complicated topic in how it functions differently in languages, and by its semantic nature, it is already somewhat vague. For these purposes, it is suffice to say that when irony takes place in Wanka Quechua, the "–chr(a)" marker is used.


title: Quechuan languages

text: This example comes from discourse between a father and daughter about her refusal to attend school. It can be interpreted as a genuine statement (perhaps one can learn by resisting school) or as an ironic statement (that is an absurd idea).


title: Quechuan languages

text: Because folktales, myths, and legends are, in essence, reported speech, it follows that the hearsay marker would be used with them. Many of these types of stories are passed down through generations, furthering this aspect of reported speech. A difference between simple hearsay and folktales can be seen in the frequency of the "–sh(i)" marker. In normal conversation using reported speech, the marker is used less, to avoid redundancy.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Riddles are somewhat similar to myths and folktales in that their nature is to be passed by word of mouth.


title: Quechuan languages

text: In certain grammatical structures, the evidential marker does not appear at all. In all Quechuan languages the evidential will not appear in a dependent clause. No example was given to depict this omission.


title: Quechuan languages

text: Omissions occur in Quechua. The sentence is understood to have the same evidentiality as the other sentences in the context. Quechuan speakers vary as to how much they omit evidentials, but they occur only in connected speech.


title: Quechuan languages

text: An interesting contrast to omission of evidentials is overuse of evidentials. If a speaker uses evidentials too much with no reason, competence is brought into question. For example, the overuse of –m(i) could lead others to believe that the speaker is not a native speaker or, in some extreme cases, that one is mentally ill.


title: Quechuan languages

text: By using evidentials, the Quechua culture has certain assumptions about the information being relayed. Those who do not abide by the cultural customs should not be trusted. A passage from Weber (1986) summarizes them nicely below:


title: Quechuan languages

text: Evidentials also show that being precise and stating the source of one's information is extremely important in the language and the culture. Failure to use them correctly can lead to diminished standing in the community. Speakers are aware of the evidentials and even use proverbs to teach children the importance of being precise and truthful. Precision and information source are of the utmost importance. They are a powerful and resourceful method of human communication.