title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: A few months later, Bakugan City is shown to have a peaceful start as humans have now communed with the Bakugan from New Vestroia. Not all is well when 4 Mechtogan led by Coredegon, who have broken free from their Bakugan, start terrorizing the place. Not only that, but some new enemy called Wiseman has appeared with ancient Bakugan called the Nonets. At the beginning, The Brawlers get confused because Wiseman somehow had the appearance of Gunz Lazar, the new Haos Brawler who disappeared after the four Mechtogan attacked Bakugan City. But it was later revealed that Wiseman was actually Coredegon in disguise while the real Gunz was put in a coma so his negative energy was absorbed. After Coredegon alongside his pals (in his combined form as a Mechtogan Destroyer) sent the Brawlers to the Doom Dimension, he completely destroyed the Earth and New Vestroia. With Gunz back to his normal state, Dan and the others travel through time in order to stop Mechtavius Destroyer from killing every human and Bakugan. In the final battle, Dragonoid Destroyer, who is Drago's last Mechtogan, acquires an infinite power that comes from the bond between Bakugan and humans all over the world, which gave them a chance to defeat the Nonet Mechtogan and send them back between dimensions. Dan's friends throw him a party, but soon discover Dan is missing. Shun sees Dan and Drago sailing off using a boat borrowed from Kato. Dan says that another adventure is waiting for him and Drago, and that he had enough time in the spotlight, such that he wants to let other Brawlers to rise to his rank.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: The first episode of the anime television series (produced by TMS Entertainment, Dentsu Inc., and Japan Vistec under the direction of Mitsuo Hashimoto), made its debut in Japan on TV Tokyo on April 5, 2007 and was rebroadcast six days later on BS Japan. Nelvana Limited produced the English-language version and premiered the series on the Canadian network Teletoon in July 2007 and then on Cartoon Network on February 24, 2008. An alternative English dub produced by Odex with all the character names kept in Japanese premiered on Cartoon Network Singapore. The series currently reruns on Kabillion.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: In March 2009, TMS and Nelvana Entertainment companies announced that a follow-up series, , consisting of 26 episodes was in production. The series began airing on April 12, 2009 on Teletoon in Canada, followed by Cartoon Network in the U.S on May 9, 2009. Due to the ratings in Canada, "New Vestroia" was extended with an additional 26 episode order.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: The Cartoon Network website aired a special called "Maxus Unleashed", and marks a synopsis about the first 26 episodes.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: "New Vestroia" was broadcast in Japan on TV Tokyo from March 2, 2010 at 7:00PM. The opening song, titled "Cho! Saikyo! Warriors", is once again performed by Psychic Lover. The first ending was "Bang! Bang! Bakugan!" by Yoshifumi Ushima, while the second ending was "Communication Breakdown" by Crush Tears.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: Publicly announced through Bakugan.com, the official My.Bakugan.com community, and other media, Spin Master announced a third series, titled . It premiered in Canada on May 23, 2010 and aired in the United States on May 29, 2010. The Japanese version premiered on April 3, 2011 and ended on January 22, 2012, before being replaced by the Japanese dub of Zoobles! in its initial timeslot. The new series ties into the online game "Bakugan Dimensions" through the use of special heat-reveal DNA codes on the new series of Gundalian Invaders Bakugan.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: The first opening song "Ready Go!" is done by Sissy, while the second opening, "Mega・Meta", is done by Yu Kobayashi, who is Dan's voice actor. The first ending song, "Love the Music", is done by Lisp, while the second, "Tan-Kyu-Shin", is done by KREVA, and the third is "Love Go! Courage Go!", which was performed by TAKUYA.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: In September 2010, Nelvana Entertainment announced a fourth and final season to the "Bakugan" series titled , which launched on February 13, 2011 in Canada and in United States on March 5, 2011. It was originally set for 26 episodes but was later extended to 46. While "Mechtanium Surge" was produced for North American audiences and was never aired in Japan, a localized version aired in Taiwan and Hong Kong, using a modified version of the "New Vestroia" credit animations and songs.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: In September 2010, Japanese children's anthology magazine CoroCoro Comic began serializing a Bakugan manga by Shingo Maki titled . The series starred a new cast of characters not related to the anime series. As of August 2011, three volumes have been collected. The anime adaption of Baku Tech! Bakugan was animated by Shogakukan Music & Digital Entertainment and began aired on TV Tokyo from April 7, 2012 to March 30, 2013 as a segment on the show Oha Coro. It was followed by a sequel called "Baku Tech! Bakugan Gachi" which aired from April 6, 2013 to December 28, 2013.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: It is the sequel to "Baku Tech! Bakugan" which aired from April 6, 2013 to December 28, 2013 on TV Tokyo.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: A strategic game called "Bakugan" was developed by Sega Toys and Spin Master and released in conjunction with the anime series, albeit beginning a year before the anime even started (2006). The game uses spherical, spring-loaded miniature figures, representing the Bakugan, which pop open when rolled onto special metal Gate cards. The objective of the game is to capture three Gate cards.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: Bakugan marbles have been one of the top rated toys for children, winning awards and selling thousands of marbles a year. The original series 1 and 2 (B1 Bakugan) were smaller, and all Bakugan after series 3 called Bakupearl (B2 Bakugan) are larger and the current size.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: According to IGN, it was one of the leading kids games for the Nintendo DS in 2009. The Toy Industry Association gave Bakugan Battle Brawlers the 2009 Property of the Year award, recognizing the property that has had the greatest success spreading its brand throughout the industry that year.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: The card game is played with a deck of 56 cards, consisting of 5 each of ranks 1–10, plus six additional cards which have special abilities in addition to a rank. There is no suit distinction. Although it's conceptually a trick-taking game, the player who wins the trick only saves one card on his score pile, discarding the rest; this allows for special cases where there is no single winner. At the beginning of each hand, each player rolls one die to determine the target number of captures. At the end of the hand, that player accumulates a penalty score equal to the difference between the target number and the actual number captured. The game lasts until some player has scored ten points, and the lowest score is the winner.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: In August 2009, Digital Blue announced a line of "Bakugan" branded electronics for the 20–55 (as confirmed in an interview of popular toys marketed at kids) age group. Products include branded digital cameras, alarm clocks and other electronics. The line was released in retail in Spring 2009.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: The franchise generated significant revenue from merchandising and toy sales. By 2009, "Bakugan" had generated in toy sales. In 2010, licensed merchandise sold worldwide. By 2010, the franchise had generated a total of in merchandise sales.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: On June 6, 2010, Spin Master announced on Bakugan.com that they were working on the online game 'Bakugan Dimensions' which would be released online for all Operating Systems that supported Adobe Flash. It was released for open Beta on June 2, 2010 but the beta was shut down on June 30, 2011 because the season for Gundalian Invaders had finished.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: The DS, Wii, PlayStation 2 and 3, and Xbox 360 also developed a Bakugan game that follows the story of a player's original character with an attribute of its choice. It acts as an alternate plot to the series.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: In 2009, Frito-Lay introduced a set of 26 Bakugan tazos in packages of Cheetos in India. The promotion, which ran from June 10 to August 10, 2009, included a contest in which consumers could win other Bakugan prizes.


title: Bakugan Battle Brawlers

text: At least since 2016, Spin Master sued Alpha (over Screechers Wild!), Lingdong (over Eonster Hunter) and both Choirock and Mattel (over Turning Mecard), alleging that the rival toys in question breached the Canadian company's patents related to Bakugan toys. Later, Spin Master and Alpha reached a settlement, in which Alpha would stop selling Screechers Wild! toys in Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom after January 31, 2019. Spin Master lost a case over Turning Mecard in Mainland China against Choirock in March 2019, but the lawsuits filed against Mattel in Canada, the United States and Mexico are still ongoing as of January 2019.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: Alexander Wang (born December 26, 1983) is an American fashion designer. Wang launched his Alexander Wang fashion brand in 2005 and came to prominence after being awarded the CFDA/"Vogue" Fashion Fund in 2008. From November 2012 through July 2015, Wang was creative director at Balenciaga. He is known for his urban-inspired designs and use of black.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: Wang was born on December 26, 1983 to Taiwanese parents in San Francisco, California, where he was raised with his brother Dennis and sister Theresa. Despite speculation, Wang has noted that he does not speak Mandarin Chinese.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: He attended elementary and middle school at the Harker School in San Jose, California. He spent ninth grade as a boarding student at the Stevenson School in Pebble Beach, California. Subsequently, Wang attended and graduated from the Drew School in San Francisco. At 15 years old, Wang took part in a summer design program at Central Saint Martins.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: At age 18, Wang moved to New York City to attend Parsons School of Design. He left his program after two years to begin his professional career and did not graduate.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: In 2005, after two years at Parsons, Wang decided to pursue the launch of his own fashion label, which debuted with a predominantly knitwear collection. In Fall 2007, Wang presented a complete women's ready-to-wear collection on the New York catwalk for the first time, to critical acclaim. He won the CFDA/"Vogue" Fashion Fund in 2008, an honor accompanied by a $20,000 award to expand one's business. That same year, he launched his first handbag collection.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: After designing a Fall 2008 collection using black as the predominant color, he designed his Spring 2009 collection using bright colors such as orange, dusty purple, aqua and hot pink. Following this, he reverted to using mainly black fabrics.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: Wang's first flagship store opened in SoHo, Lower Manhattan, on February 17, 2011. Some have noted that Wang has helped to rejuvenate an otherwise dissolving area into fashion's Lower Manhattan epicenter.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: "Women's Wear Daily" reported on November 30, 2012 that Wang had been named creative director at Balenciaga after Nicolas Ghesquière's departure from the French design house. As the creative director, Wang would oversee the women's and men's ready-to-wear and accessories lines. His debut Fall–Winter 2013 Balenciaga collection was shown in February 2013 at the Balenciaga salons in Paris at 10 avenue George V.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: On April 12, 2014, Wang announced that he would be creating a collection for Swedish-based fashion retailer H&M. The collection was available at H&M stores and online November 6, 2014. The collaboration included pieces for both men and women, as well as a selection of accessories.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: Kering issued a press release on July 31, 2015, announcing that Wang was leaving Balenciaga by mutual consent.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: In 2016, Wang became the CEO and chairman of the Wang brand, succeeding his mother, Ying Wang, and sister-in-law, Aimee Wang. Later that year, he was awarded $90 million in damages after successfully suing over 45 defendants operating 459 websites that sold counterfeit goods bearing the brand name, although the reward was mostly symbolic, as neither Wang nor the brand were likely to ever receive the amount. Wang hosted a 2016 New York Fashion Week show.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: Wang was the winner of the 2008 Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA)/Vogue Fashion Fund Award. In 2009, he was recognized by his peers when he was announced as the winner of the Swarovski Womenswear Designer of the Year. Later that same year he was the recipient of the Swiss Textiles Award. Wang was celebrated again in 2010 with another Swarovski Designer of the Year Award, this time in the Accessory category. In 2011, GQ US acknowledged Wang as the Best Menswear Designer of the Year. That same year he also won the CFDA's Best Accessory Designer award.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: In October 2013, Wang was honored with the 'Fashion Star' awarded by Fashion Group International. The award was presented to Wang by Hamish Bowles, European Editor-at-Large of Vogue US. In 2017, Wang was named one of HypeBeast's HB100, their top 100 influencers in the industry.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: In February 2012, a lawsuit was filed against Wang, claiming that his company violated New York State labor laws, and that employees were mistreated. The 31 plaintiffs sought $50 million for each of nine charges, a total of $450 million. One of the workers, Wenyu Lu, claimed that he was "hospitalized for several days after he passed out at his work station because he was forced to work 25 hours straight without a break". Lu claimed that the office on Broadway was windowless and poorly ventilated, and that workers were being forced to work 16 hours or more without overtime or breaks; Lu's lawyer, Ming Hai, claimed that Lu was eventually fired on February 16 due to complaints about working conditions and applying for workers' compensation. A second worker, Flor Duante, also stated that she was fired after filing for workers' compensation, and that she had worked 90-hour weeks at Wang's factory.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: On August 14, 2012, WWD reported that the lawsuit had been dismissed, with a spokesman for Wang stating that "We are gratified that this matter has been dismissed, as the allegations were unfounded and completely false". However, it was reported that both parties had agreed to a settlement with undisclosed terms.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: Fashion industry whistleblower account DietPrada and modeling industry watchdog account Shit Model Management published posts on Instagram on December 29, 2020, compiling accusations made on social media (TikTok, Twitter and Instagram) by people who said Wang sexually assaulted them.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: Social media scrutiny ensued when male model Owen Mooney came forward, describing a 2017 incident where he was groped by Wang in a packed New York City nightclub, which was later reposted by Shit Model Management, leading others to come forward with similar stories. The posts amplified previous allegations from others such as New York-based DJ Nick Ward, who publicly accused Wang of groping him in a nightclub in 2017. Some claimed to have witnessed a victim being drugged by Wang, or being slipped ecstasy or other drugs themselves without their knowledge. There were also repeat allegations of victims, including several trans women, being groped or having their bodies or genitals exposed by Wang. On December 31, 2020, Wang's representatives released a statement to various media outlets, with the designer denying all accusations of sexual assault and that he intended to "hold accountable whoever is responsible for originating these claims and viciously spreading them online." On January 1, 2021, "The Guardian" published other alleged accounts of sexual assault incidents from others, including transgender model and actor Gia Garison. On January 4, 2021, Wang issued an updated statement thanking those who had stood by him, while also assuring that he would "remain honest and transparent" throughout the investigation into the claims. The same day it was reported that Lisa Bloom would represent alleged victims of Wang.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: Wang is gay and an avid supporter of the LGBTQ community. In 2018, Wang partnered with Trojan to release a limited-edition "Protect Your Wang" capsule collection in support of the LGBTQ community and to celebrate Pride.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: Wang is additionally well known for his party-going persona, having thrown a number of star-studded parties, such as a party thrown at a gas station in 2009 to celebrate his Spring 2010 collection, a party in 2019 to celebrate Wang's Bulgari x Alexander Wang collection, and parties held for New York Fashion Week.


title: Alexander Wang (designer)

text: Wang currently resides in New York City, with a number of residences in New York state, including in Westchester County.


title: Association football positions

text: In the sport of association football, each of the 11 players on a team is assigned to a particular position on the field of play. A team is made up of one goalkeeper and ten outfield players who fill various defensive, midfield, and attacking positions depending on the formation deployed. These positions describe both the player's main role and their area of operation on the pitch.


title: Association football positions

text: In the early development of the game, formations were much more offensively aggressive, with the 1–2–7 being prominent in the late 1800s. In the latter part of the 19th century, the 2–3–5 formation became widely used and the position names became more refined to reflect this. In defence, there were full-backs, known as the left-back and right-back; in midfield, left-half, centre-half and right-half; and for the forward line there were outside-left (or left wing), inside-left, centre-forward, inside-right and outside-right (or right wing). As the game has evolved, tactics and team formations have changed and so many of the names of the positions have changed to reflect their duties in the modern game (though some old familiar ones remain). The term "half-back" fell out of use by the early 1970s and "midfield" was used in naming the positions that play around the middle third as in centre midfield and wide midfield.


title: Association football positions

text: The fluid nature of the modern game means that positions in football are not as rigidly defined as in sports such as rugby or American football. Even so, most players will play in a limited range of positions throughout their career, as each position requires a particular set of skills and physical attributes. Footballers who are able to play comfortably in a number of positions are referred to as "utility players".


title: Association football positions

text: However, in Total Football tactics, the players are only loosely defined into a position. This tactic required players who were extremely versatile, such as Johan Cruyff, who could play every position on the pitch apart from goalkeeper.


title: Association football positions

text: Goalkeeper is the most defensive position in football. The goalkeeper's main job is to stop the other team from scoring by catching, palming or punching the ball from shots, headers and crosses. Unlike their teammates, goalkeepers typically remain in and around their own penalty area for most of the game. As a result, goalkeepers have a better view of the pitch and often give advice to their defence when the other team is on the attack or during set pieces. Goalkeepers are the only players on the pitch who are allowed to handle the ball, but this is restricted to their own penalty area. Positioning is another important job and is one of the hardest to master as keeper.


title: Association football positions

text: Goalkeepers must also wear a different coloured kit from the outfielders and officials. Common colours include yellow, green, grey, black and shades of blue. Since the 1970s, goalkeepers have also typically worn specialised gloves. They provide better grip on the ball and protect their hands from hard shots and headers, as well making it easier to punch or push the ball away. Caps were common between the 1910s and 1960s, as well as woolly jumpers, but these are not worn in any professional or semi-professional context today.


title: Association football positions

text: Unlike the other positions the goalkeeper is the only required role in a football match. If a goalkeeper gets sent off or injured another goalkeeper must take their place in goal. If that is not possible an outfielder must do so and wear the goalkeeper's shirt.


title: Association football positions

text: Defenders play behind the midfielders and their primary responsibility is to provide support to the team and to prevent the opposition from scoring a goal. They usually remain in the half of the field that contains the goal they are defending. Taller defenders will move forward to the opposing team's penalty box when their team takes corner kicks or free kicks, where scoring with one's head is a possibility.


title: Association football positions

text: The principal role of the centre-back, (or central defender) (historically called a centre-half) is to block the opponent's players from scoring, and safely clearing the ball from the defensive half's penalty area. As their name suggests, they play in a central position. Most teams employ two centre-backs, stationed in front of the goalkeeper. There are two main defensive strategies used by centre-backs: the zonal defence, where each centre-back covers a specific area of the pitch, and man-to-man marking, where each centre-back has the job of covering a particular opposition player.


title: Association football positions

text: Centre-backs are often tall, strong and have good jumping, heading and tackling ability. Successful centre-backs also need to be able to concentrate, read the game well, and be brave and decisive in making last-ditch tackles on attacking players who might otherwise be through on goal. Sometimes, particularly in lower leagues, centre-backs concentrate less on ball control and passing, preferring simply to clear the ball in a "safety-first" fashion. However, there is a long tradition of centre-backs having more than just rudimentary footballing skill, enabling a more possession-oriented playing style.


title: Association football positions

text: Centre-backs will usually go forward for set piece corners and free-kicks, where their height and jumping ability give them an aerial goal threat, while defensive duties are covered by the full-backs. Once the set piece is complete, they will retreat to their own half.


title: Association football positions

text: The position is sometimes referred to as "centre-half". This originates the late part of the 19th century, when most teams employed the 2–3–5 formation, the row of three players were called "half-backs". As formations evolved, the central player in this trio (the centre-half), moved into a more defensive position on the field, taking the name of the position with them.


title: Association football positions

text: The sweeper (or "libero" ()) is a more versatile type of centre-back that, as the name suggests, "sweeps up" the ball if the opponent manages to breach the defensive line. Their position is rather more fluid than other defenders who mark their designated opponents. The sweeper's ability to read the game is even more vital than for a centre-back. The catenaccio system of play, used in Italian football in the 1960s, notably employed a defensive libero. With the advent of the modern offside rule came the need to hold more of a defensive line to catch opposing players offside. Use of a sweeper role became less popular as the last man can play an attacking opponent onside, which could in the case of the sweeper be behind the main defence.


title: Association football positions

text: Former German captain Franz Beckenbauer is commonly seen as the inventor of the libero and the best player in the role. However, players such as Velibor Vasović and Armando Picchi were prominent sweepers prior to Beckenbauer. Some of the greatest sweepers were Gaetano Scirea, Bobby Moore, Franco Baresi, Daniel Passarella and Lothar Matthäus.


title: Association football positions

text: The left-back and the right-back (generally referred to as the full-backs) are the defenders stationed at either side of the centre-backs to provide protection from attacking wide players. They often have to defend against the opponent's wingers, who will try to take the ball past them down the flanks in order to cross or pass into the penalty area to their attackers. Full-backs traditionally do not go up to support the attack but may move up as far as the halfway line depending on the defensive line being held. In the modern game, there has been the tendency to prefer the use of the attacking full-back (wing-back) role though they are more often than not still referred to as right- or left-backs.


title: Association football positions

text: Originally, a full-back was the last line of defence, but as the game developed in the early 20th century, the centre-half role was dropped backwards and came to be known as 'centre-back', and the full-backs were then pushed out wider to create the right-back and left-back positions.


title: Association football positions

text: The wing-backs (or attacking full-backs) are defenders with a more advanced emphasis on attack. The name is a portmanteau of "winger" and "full-back", indicating greater emphasis on their responsibilities in attack. They are usually employed as part of a 3–5–2 formation, and can therefore be considered part of the midfield when a team is attacking. They may also be used in a 5–3–2 formation and therefore have a more defensive role. The term "wing-back" itself is gradually falling out of use as there is less of a distinction with the full-back roles in the modern game, especially when used in a 4–3–3 or 4–2–3–1 formation.


title: Association football positions

text: The wing-back role is one of the most physically demanding positions in modern football. Wing-backs are often more adventurous than traditional full-backs and are expected to provide width, especially in teams without wingers. A wing-back needs to be of exceptional stamina, be able to provide crosses upfield and then defend effectively against an opponent's attack down the flanks. A defensive midfielder is usually fielded to cover the advances of an opponent's wing-back.


title: Association football positions

text: Midfielders (originally called half-backs) are players whose position of play is midway between the attacking forwards and the defenders. Their main duties are to maintain possession of the ball, taking the ball from defenders and feeding it to the strikers, as well as dispossessing opposing players. Most managers field at least one central midfielder with a marked task of breaking up opposition's attacks while the rest are more adept to creating goals or have equal responsibilities between attack and defence. Midfielders can be expected to cover many areas of a pitch, as at times they can be called back into defence or required to attack with the strikers. They are more often the players that initiate attacking play for a team.


title: Association football positions

text: The central midfielder provides a link between defence and attack, fulfilling a number of duties and operating primarily in the middle third of the pitch. They will support their team's attacking play and endeavour to win the ball back on defense. A central midfielder is often an important initiator of attacks and can be sometimes described as a "playmaker." They will also offer an additional line of defence when the team is under sustained attack and when defending set pieces. Central midfielders are always busy in a game and are therefore sometimes described as the engine room of the team.


title: Association football positions

text: Their central position enables them to have an all-round view of the match. Since most of the action takes place in and around their area of the pitch, midfielders often exert the greatest degree of control over how a match is played. It is often said that a match is won or lost in midfield, meaning that whichever team dominates the middle area of the pitch is able to dictate the game. A central midfielder is expected to have good vision, be adept at long and short passing and have great stamina because of the ground they cover in a game. They also need to be good at tackling to win the ball back.


title: Association football positions

text: Over time two additional central midfield roles have developed from the standard role, though their duties have a degree of overlap. These are the attacking midfield and defensive midfield roles and are explained in the sections below. Depending on the team's tactics a combination of all three roles may be deployed in midfield. Sometimes a central midfielder will be used in a wide midfield role to provide width or as cover.


title: Association football positions

text: A defensive midfielder (holding midfielder or midfield anchor) is a central midfielder who is stationed in front of the defenders to provide more defensive protection, thus "holding back" when the rest of the midfield supports the attack. The defensive midfielder screens the defence by harrying and tackling the opposition teams' attackers and defenders. They also help tactically, for instance, by directing opposing attacking players out to the wing where they have more limited influence, and by covering the positions of full-backs, other midfielders and even the centre-backs if they charge up to support the attack.


title: Association football positions

text: Although the duties of defensive midfielders are primarily defensive, some midfielders are deployed as deep-lying playmakers, due to their ability to dictate tempo from a deep position with their passing. Sometimes a defensive midfielder will be paired with a central midfielder who will act as the deep-lying playmaker. Whenever the central midfielder ventures forward the defensive midfielder will hold back.


title: Association football positions

text: Defensive midfielders require good positional sense, work rate, tackling ability, and anticipation (of player and ball movement) to excel. They also need to possess good passing skills and close control to hold the ball in midfield under sustained pressure. Most importantly, defensive midfielders require great stamina as they are the outfield players who cover the greatest distance during a professional match. In top football clubs, a midfielder may cover up to 12 kilometres for a full 90-minute game. Deep-lying playmakers typically require a good first touch under opposition pressure and the ability to play long crossfield passes to attacking players further upfield.


title: Association football positions

text: An attacking midfielder is a midfield player who is positioned in an advanced midfield position, usually between central midfield and the team's forwards, and who has a primarily offensive role.


title: Association football positions

text: According to positioning along the field, attacking midfield may be divided into "left, right" and "central attacking midfield" roles. A central attacking midfielder may be referred to as a "playmaker", or "number ten" (due to the association of the number 10 shirt with this position).


title: Association football positions

text: These players typically serve as the offensive pivot of the team, and are sometimes said to be "playing in the hole", although this term can also be used to describe the positioning of a deep-lying forward. Their main role is to create goal-scoring opportunities using superior vision, control, and technical skill.<br>


title: Association football positions

text: The attacking midfielder is an important position that requires the player to possess superior technical abilities in terms of passing and, perhaps more importantly, the ability to read the opposing defence in order to deliver defence-splitting passes to the strikers; in addition to their technical and creative ability, they are also usually quick, agile, and mobile players, which aids them in beating opponents during dribbling runs.


title: Association football positions

text:
Some attacking midfielders are called "trequartistas" or "fantasisti" (, i.e. a playmaker between the forwards and the midfield), known for their deft touch, vision, ability to shoot from range, and passing prowess.
However, not all attacking midfielders are trequartistas – some attacking midfielders are very vertical and are essentially auxiliary attackers, i.e. secondary striker.


title: Association football positions

text: In Brazil, the offensive playmaker is known as the "meia atacante", whereas in Argentina, it is known as the "enganche".


title: Association football positions

text: A wide midfielder (left midfield and right midfield, or generally side midfielder) (historically called left-half and right-half, or wing-half) is a midfielder who is stationed to the left or right of central midfield. Though they are often referred to as wingers, not all players in these positions are stereotypical speedy, touchline hugging players. With the advent of the modern game the traditional outside forwards known as "wingers" were pushed back to wide midfield, though still commonly referred to as wingers. As the game has developed further, some tactical formations (for example, 4–3–3) have used central midfielders deployed in a wider position to provide width, more defensive protection along the flanks and to help compress play in the opponent's half. They will still support attacking play and sometimes be expected to act as a semi-winger.


title: Association football positions

text: Forwards (or strikers) are players who are positioned nearest to the opposing team's goal. The primary responsibility of forwards is to score goals and to create scoring chances for other players. Forwards may also contribute defensively by harrying opposition defenders and goalkeepers whilst not in possession. The most common modern formations include between one and three forwards; for example, a lone striker in a 4–2–3–1, paired strikers in a 4–4–2 or a striker and two wingers in a 4–3–3.


title: Association football positions

text: Coaches will often field one striker who plays on the shoulder of the last opposing defender and another attacking forward who plays somewhat deeper and assists in creating goals as well as scoring. The former is sometimes a large striker, typically known as a "target man", who is used either to distract opposing defenders to help teammates score, or to score himself; the latter is usually of quicker pace, and is required to have some abilities like finding holes in the opposing defence and, sometimes, dribbling. In other cases, strikers will operate on the wings of the field and work their way goalwards. Yet another variation is the replacement of the target man with a striker who can thread through-balls.


title: Association football positions

text: Players who specialise in playing as a target are usually of above-average height with good heading ability and an accurate shot. They tend to be the "outlet" player for both midfielders and defenders, able to "hold the ball up" (retain possession of the ball in an advanced position while teammates run forward to join the attack). They tend to score goals from crosses, often with the head, and can use their body strength to shield the ball while turning to score.


title: Association football positions

text: Other forwards may rely on their pace to run onto long balls passed over or through the opposition defence, rather than collecting the ball with their back to goal like a target man. Some forwards can play both of these roles equally well.


title: Association football positions

text: The second striker has a long history in the game, but the terminology to describe them has varied over the years. Originally such players were termed inside forwards. More recently, the preferred terms have been second striker, support striker, deep-lying forward, shadow striker, or withdrawn striker, and are often referred to as playing "in the hole" (i.e. the space between the midfield and the defence of the opposing team). Second strikers tend not to be as tall or as physically imposing as a centre forward. They are required to be more "nippy", quick, mobile, and skillful, helping to create goals and scoring opportunities for centre forwards, utilising spaces created in the opposition's defence to provide passes to the strikers, picking up loose balls around the area, or attempting to dribble with the ball and score themselves.


title: Association football positions

text: The position was initially developed by the famous Hungary national team of the late 1940s and mid-1950s led by Ferenc Puskás. Later, it was popularised in Italian football as the "trequartista" ("three-quarters") or "fantasista", the advanced playmaker who plays neither in midfield nor as a forward, but effectively pulls the strings for his team's attack, and serves as an assist provider. Many players in this position can play in a free role, as an attacking midfielder or sometimes on the wing. The position has also been known as the number 10 role, as many players who played in this position wore the number 10 jersey.


title: Association football positions

text: Whatever the terminology, the position itself is a loosely defined one, a player who lies somewhere between the out-and-out striker and the midfield, who can perform this role effectively due to their vision, technical skills, creativity, and passing ability. Such a player is either a skillful, attack-minded midfielder or a creative striker who can both score and create opportunities for centre forwards, although a second striker will often not be involved in build-up plays as much as an attacking midfielder. As the supporting forward role was popularised in Italy due to free-role attacking midfielders adapting to a more advanced position in the tactically rigorous 4–4–2 formations of the 1990s, their defensive contribution is also usually higher than that of a pure number ten playmaker. In Italy, this role is also known as a "rifinitore" or "seconda punta", whereas in Brazil, it is known as a "ponte de lança".


title: Association football positions

text: A centre forward has the key task of scoring goals and for this reason acts as the focal point of the majority of attacking play by a team. As such, how well a striker is performing tends to be measured purely on goals scored despite the fact that they may be contributing in other ways to a team's success. A traditional centre forward was required to be tall in height and strong physically in order to be able to win the ball in the area from crosses and attempt to score with either their feet or head, or to knock the ball down for a teammate to score. Whilst these assets are still an advantage, in the modern game speed and movement are also required as there is more interplay when attacking. In a 4–4–2 or 4–4–1–1 formation the centre forward is often paired with a second striker who may play around him or in a slightly withdrawn role respectively, though it is not unknown to play two recognised centre forwards.


title: Association football positions

text: Sometimes a team may opt on a more defensive formation such as 4–5–1 in which the centre forward is required to play a "lone role" up front. In these cases a team may look for opportunities to counter-attack on the break and the centre forward may find himself attacking the goal on his own with just a defender to beat or alternatively he may hold the ball up in the opponent's half to allow other players to join in the attack. Modern footballing tactics have made more use of 4–3–3 and 4–2–3–1 formations. Here the centre forward may be involved more with the attacking build up play, supported by wingers (who often come infield) and attacking midfielders. The play uses more shorter, quick passes with movement off the ball, looking to create an opening on goal.


title: Association football positions

text: A winger (left winger and right winger) (historically called outside-left and outside-right, or outside forward) is an attacking player who is stationed in a wide position near the touchlines. They can be classified as forwards, considering their origin as the old outside forward who played out on the "wing" (i.e. side of the pitch). They continue to be termed as such in many parts of the world, especially in Latin and Dutch footballing cultures. However, in the English-speaking world, they are usually counted as part of the midfield having been pushed back there with the advent of the 4–4–2 formation which gradually rose to prominence in the 1960s, given the role's additional defensive duties. A winger's main attribute is usually speed which is used to attack and dribble past opponent's full-backs in order to get behind the defence and to then deliver crosses and passes into the centre for their attackers. Occasionally left and right footed wingers may swap sides of the field as a tactical move to enable the winger to cut inside against the opposing full-back's weaker foot, looking for a shooting opportunity or just as a means of opening up the defence. Clubs such as Barcelona and Real Madrid often choose to play their wingers on the 'wrong' flank for this reason.


title: Association football positions

text: Although wingers are a familiar part of football, the use of wingers is by no means universal, and many successful teams have operated without wingers. At the 1966 World Cup, England manager Alf Ramsey led a team without natural wingers to the title; this was unusual enough at the time for the team to be nicknamed "The Wingless Wonders". A more recent example is that of Italian club Milan, who have typically played in a narrow midfield diamond formation or in a "Christmas tree" formation (4–3–2–1), relying on attacking full-backs to provide the necessary width down the wings.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: Robert Sargent Shriver Jr. (November 9, 1915 – January 18, 2011) was an American diplomat, politician, and activist. As the husband of Eunice Kennedy Shriver, he was part of the Kennedy family. Shriver was the driving force behind the creation of the Peace Corps, and founded the Job Corps, Head Start, VISTA, Upward Bound, and other programs as the architect of the 1960s War on Poverty. He was the Democratic Party's nominee for vice president in the 1972 presidential election.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: Born in Westminster, Maryland, Shriver attended Yale University, then Yale Law School, graduating in 1941. An opponent of U.S. entry into World War II, he helped establish the America First Committee but volunteered for the United States Navy before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. During the war, he served in the South Pacific, participating in the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. After being discharged from the navy, he worked as an assistant editor for "Newsweek" and met Eunice Kennedy, marrying her in 1953.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: He worked on the 1960 presidential campaign of his brother-in-law, John F. Kennedy, and helped establish the Peace Corps after Kennedy's victory. After Kennedy's assassination, Shriver served in the administration of Lyndon B. Johnson and helped establish several anti-poverty programs as director of the Office of Economic Opportunity from October 16, 1964, to March 22, 1968. He also served as the United States Ambassador to France from 1968 to 1970. In 1972, Democratic vice presidential nominee Thomas Eagleton resigned from the ticket, and Shriver was chosen as his replacement. The Democratic ticket of George McGovern and Shriver lost in a landslide election defeat to Republican President Richard Nixon and Vice President Spiro Agnew. Shriver briefly sought the 1976 Democratic presidential nomination but dropped out of the race after the first set of primaries.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: After leaving office, he resumed the practice of law, becoming a partner with Fried, Frank, Harris, Shriver & Jacobson. He also served as president of the Special Olympics and was briefly a part-owner of the Baltimore Orioles. He was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 2003 and died in Bethesda, Maryland, in 2011.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: Robert Sargent Shriver Jr. was born in Westminster, Maryland, the younger of two sons. Shriver's parents Robert Sargent Shriver Sr. and Hilda, who had also been born with the surname "Shriver", were second cousins. His elder brother was Thomas Herbert Shriver. Of partial-German ancestry, Shriver was a descendant of David Shriver, who signed the Maryland Constitution and Bill of Rights at Maryland's Constitutional Convention of 1776.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: He spent his high school years at Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut, which he attended on a full scholarship. In his freshman year at Canterbury, he befriended future President John F. Kennedy. He was on Canterbury's baseball, basketball, and football teams, became the editor of the school's newspaper, and participated in choral and debating clubs. After graduating from The Browning School in 1934, Shriver spent the summer in Germany as part of The Experiment in International Living, returning in the fall of 1934 to enter Yale University, where he was a brother in the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity, as well as a member of Yale's Scroll and Key society.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: An early opponent of American involvement in World War II, Shriver was a founding member of the America First Committee, an organization started in 1940 by a group of Yale Law School students, also including future President Gerald Ford and future Supreme Court Justice Potter Stewart, which tried to keep the US out of the European war. Nevertheless, Shriver volunteered for the US Navy before the attack on Pearl Harbor and said he had a duty to serve his country even if he disagreed with its policies. He spent five years on active duty, mostly in the South Pacific, serving aboard the , reaching the rank of lieutenant commander (O-4). He was awarded a Purple Heart for wounds he received during the bombardment of Guadalcanal.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: Shriver's relationship with the Kennedys began when he was working as an assistant editor at "Newsweek" after his discharge from the Navy. He met Eunice Kennedy at a party in New York, and shortly afterwards, family patriarch Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. asked him to look at diary entries written by his eldest son, Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., who had died in a plane crash while he was on a military mission during World War II. Shriver was later hired to manage the Merchandise Mart, part of Kennedy's business empire, in Chicago, Illinois.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: After a seven-year courtship, Shriver married Eunice Kennedy on May 23, 1953, at St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York City. She was the third daughter of Joseph Kennedy Sr. and Rose Kennedy.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: They had five children: Robert Sargent "Bobby" Shriver III (born April 28, 1954), Maria Owings Shriver (born November 6, 1955), Timothy Perry Shriver (born August 29, 1959), Mark Kennedy Shriver (born February 17, 1964), and Anthony Paul Kennedy Shriver (born July 20, 1965). The Shrivers were married for 56 years, and often worked together on projects.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: Shriver was admitted to practice law in the District of Columbia, Illinois, and New York, and at the US Supreme Court.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: A devout Catholic, Shriver attended daily Mass and always carried a rosary of well-worn wooden beads. He was critical of abortion and was a signatory to "A New Compact of Care: Caring about Women, Caring for the Unborn", which appeared in "The New York Times" in July 1992 and stated that "To establish justice and to promote the general welfare, America does not need the abortion license. What America needs are policies that responsibly protect and advance the interest of mothers and their children, both before and after birth."


title: Sargent Shriver

text: In May 1954, Shriver was appointed to the Chicago Board of Education by Chicago mayor Martin H. Kennelly. On October 26, 1955, Shriver was elected president of the Chicago Board of Education by a vote of the Board. Shriver would serve in the position of president for five years, resigning from the position on October 10, 1960. At the time he became president of the Board, he was the second-youngest individual to hold that office, being only 39. At the time, Chicago Public Schools was the second-largest school district in the United States.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: Shriver also served as director of the Catholic Interracial Council, a group created to advocate for desegregation in Chicago schools.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: Shriver was speculated to be a potential Democratic candidate for the 1960 Illinois gubernatorial election, but did not run.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: When brother-in-law John F. Kennedy ran for president, Shriver worked as a political and organization coordinator in the Wisconsin and West Virginia primaries. During Kennedy's presidential term, Shriver founded and served as the first director of the Peace Corps from March 22, 1961, to February 28, 1966.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: Shriver has been credited with convincing a hesitant Kennedy to contact Coretta Scott King after her husband, prominent civil rights activist Martin Luther King, was jailed for civil disobedience in Georgia in October 1960. Kennedy's phone call to Coretta Scott King was credited with helping to strengthen black support for Kennedy's candidacy.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: After Kennedy's assassination, Shriver continued to serve as Director of the Peace Corps and served as Special Assistant to President Lyndon Johnson. Under Johnson, he created the Office of Economic Opportunity with William B. Mullins and served as its first Director. He is known as the "architect" of the Johnson administration's "War on Poverty". Hired by President Johnson to be the "salesman" for Johnson's War on Poverty initiative, Shriver initially was "not interested in hearing about community action proposals." The Job Corps movement was more consistent with his goals. Thus, soon after his appointment, Shriver "moved quickly to reconsider the proposed anti-poverty initiative."


title: Sargent Shriver

text: Shriver founded numerous social programs and organizations, including Head Start, VISTA, Job Corps, Community Action, Upward Bound, Foster Grandparents, Legal Services, the National Clearinghouse for Legal Services (now the Shriver Center), Indian and Migrant Opportunities and Neighborhood Health Services, in addition to directing the Peace Corps. He was active in the Special Olympics, which was founded in 1968 by his wife Eunice.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: Shriver was awarded the Pacem in Terris Peace and Freedom Award in 1967. It was named after a 1963 encyclical letter by Pope John XXIII that calls upon all people of good will to secure peace among all nations. "Pacem in terris" is Latin for 'Peace on Earth'.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: Shriver served as U.S. Ambassador to France from 1968 to 1970, becoming a quasi-celebrity among the French for bringing what "Time" magazine called "a rare and welcome panache" to the normally sedate world of international diplomacy.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: During the 1972 Democratic National Convention in Miami Beach, Florida, George McGovern considered Shriver as a vice presidential candidate, but his campaign was unable to reach Shriver, who was at the time visiting Moscow, Soviet Union. McGovern then selected Thomas Eagleton instead, who later resigned from the Democratic ticket following revelations of past mental health treatments. Shriver replaced Eagleton on the ticket. The McGovern-Shriver ticket lost to Republican incumbents Richard Nixon and Spiro Agnew.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: Shriver unsuccessfully sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1976. In the months before the primaries began, political observers thought that Shriver would draw strength from legions of former colleagues from the Peace Corps and the War on Poverty programs, and he was even seen as an inheritor of the Kennedy legacy, but neither theory proved true. His candidacy was short-lived and he returned to private life.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: Shriver was a partner of the Fried, Frank, Harris, Shriver & Jacobson law firm in Washington, D.C., where he specialized in international law and foreign affairs, beginning in 1971. He retired as partner in 1986 and was then named of counsel to the firm.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: In 1981, Shriver was appointed to the Rockefeller University Council, an organization devoted exclusively to research and graduate education in the biomedical and related sciences.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: In 1984, he was elected president of Special Olympics by the board of directors; as president, he directed the operation and international development of sports programs around the world. Six years later, in 1990, he was appointed chairman of the board of Special Olympics.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: He was an investor in the Baltimore Orioles along with his eldest son Bobby Shriver, Eli Jacobs, and Larry Lucchino from 1989 to 1993.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: Shriver was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 2003. In 2004, his daughter, Maria, published a children's book, "What's Happening to Grandpa?", to help explain Alzheimer's to children. The book gives suggestions on how to help and to show love to an elderly person with the disease. In July 2007, Shriver's son-in-law, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, speaking in favor of stem-cell research, said that Shriver's Alzheimer's disease had advanced to the point that "Today, he does not even recognize his wife." Maria Shriver discusses her father's worsening condition in a segment for the four-part 2009 HBO documentary series "The Alzheimer's Project" called "Grandpa, Do You Know Who I Am?", including describing a moment when she decided to stop trying to correct his various delusions.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: On August 11, 2009, Shriver's wife of 56 years, Eunice, died at the age of 88. He attended her wake and funeral in Centerville and Hyannis, Massachusetts. Two weeks later, on August 29, 2009, he also attended the funeral of her brother Ted Kennedy in Boston, Massachusetts.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: Shriver died on January 18, 2011, in Suburban Hospital in Bethesda, Maryland, at age 95. Shriver's family released a statement calling him "a man of giant love, energy, enthusiasm, and commitment" who "lived to make the world a more joyful, faithful, and compassionate place." President Barack Obama also released a statement, calling Shriver "one of the brightest lights of the greatest generation". Aaron S. Williams, the director of the Peace Corps, said in a statement, "The entire Peace Corps community is deeply saddened by the passing of Sargent Shriver." He further noted that Shriver "served as our founder, friend, and guiding light for the past 50 years" and that "his legacy of idealism will live on in the work of current and future Peace Corps volunteers." He is buried alongside his wife Eunice at St. Francis Xavier Cemetery in Centerville, Massachusetts.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: In 1968, he was awarded the Laetare Medal by the University of Notre Dame, the oldest and most prestigious award for American Catholics.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: In 1993, Shriver received the Franklin D. Roosevelt Freedom From Want Award. On August 8, 1994, Shriver received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the United States' highest civilian honor, from President Bill Clinton.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: In December 1993, the University of Maryland, Baltimore County created the Shriver Center in honor of Shriver and his wife. The center serves as the university's civic engagement, and applied learning organization. The Shriver Center also is home to the Shriver Peaceworker Program and the Shriver Living Learning Community.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: The Job Corps dedicated a center to his name in 1998 – the "Shriver Job Corps Center" – located in Devens, Massachusetts. The National Clearinghouse for Legal Services (renamed the National Center on Poverty Law in 1995) was renamed the Shriver Center in 2002 and each year awards a Sargent Shriver Award for Equal Justice.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: In January 2008, a documentary film about Shriver aired on PBS, titled "American Idealist: The Story of Sargent Shriver".


title: Sargent Shriver

text: The Kennedy Shriver Aquatic Center in Bethesda, Maryland, is named after him and Eunice Kennedy Shriver.


title: Sargent Shriver

text: Shriver was an admirable, principled, and conscientious man who respected the dignity and sanctity of human life, and he also happened to be a contemporary and in-law of Kennedy. Not only did Shriver represent a "link" with JFK, but he represented a particular culture of white ethnic Catholic Democratic politics that has been gradually disappearing for the last fifty years. A pro-life Catholic, Shriver had been a founding member of the America First Committee, and more famously he was also on the 1972 antiwar ticket with George McGovern. In short, he represented much of what was good in the Democratic Party of his time.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: Prochlorperazine, formerly sold under the brand name Compazine among others, is a medication used to treat nausea, migraines, schizophrenia, psychosis and anxiety. It is a less preferred medication for anxiety. It may be taken by mouth, rectally, injection into a vein, or injection into a muscle.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: Common side effects include sleepiness, blurry vision, low blood pressure, and dizziness. Serious side effects may include movement disorders including tardive dyskinesia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Use in pregnancy and breastfeeding is generally not recommended. It is a typical antipsychotic which is believed to work by reducing the action of dopamine in the brain.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: Prochlorperazine was approved for medical use in the United States in 1956. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 355th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 600thousand prescriptions.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: Prochlorperazine is used to prevent vomiting caused by chemotherapy, radiation therapy and in the pre- and postoperative setting. A 2015 Cochrane review found no differences in efficacy among drugs commonly used for this purpose in emergency rooms.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: Prochlorperazine, generally by intravenous, is used to treat migraine. Such use is recommended by The American Headache Society. A 2019 systematic review found prochlorperazine was nearly three times as likely as metoclopramide to relieve headache within 60 minutes of administration.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: In the UK prochlorperazine maleate has been used for labyrinthitis, which include not only nausea and vertigo, but spatial and temporal 'jerking' and distortion.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: Sedation is very common, and extrapyramidal side effects are common and include restlessness, dystonic reactions, pseudoparkinsonism, and akathisia; the extrapyramidal symptoms can affect 2% of people at low doses, whereas higher doses may affect as many as 40% of people.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: Prochlorperazine can also cause a life-threatening condition called neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS). Some symptoms of NMS include high fever, stiff muscles, neck muscle spasm, confusion, irregular pulse or blood pressure, fast heart rate (tachycardia), sweating, abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias). Research from the Veterans Administration and United States Food and Drug Administration show injection site reactions. Adverse effects are similar in children.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: The FDA approved label for prochlorperazine includes a warning for increased risk of mortality in elderly patients with dementia related psychosis.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: The British National Formulary recommends a gradual withdrawal when discontinuing antipsychotics to avoid acute withdrawal syndrome or rapid relapse. Symptoms of withdrawal commonly include nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Other symptoms may include restlessness, increased sweating, and trouble sleeping. Less commonly there may be a feeling of the world spinning, numbness, or muscle pains. Symptoms generally resolve after a short period of time.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: There is tentative evidence that discontinuation of antipsychotics can result in psychosis. It may also result in reoccurrence of the condition that is being treated. Rarely tardive dyskinesia can occur when the medication is stopped.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: Prochlorperazine is analogous to chlorpromazine; both of these agents antagonize dopaminergic D receptors in various pathways of the central nervous system. This D blockade results in antipsychotic, antiemetic and other effects. Hyperprolactinemia is a side effect of dopamine antagonists as blockade of D receptors within the tuberoinfundibular pathway results in increased plasma levels of prolactin due to increased secretion by lactotrophs in the anterior pituitary.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: Following intramuscular injection, the antiemetic action is evident within 5 to 10 minutes and lasts for 3 to 4 hours. Rapid action is also noted after buccal treatment. With oral dosing, the start of action is delayed but the duration somewhat longer (approximately 6 hours).


title: Prochlorperazine

text: In the UK, prochlorperazine is available for the treatment of nausea caused by migraine as a tablet dissolved in the mouth, and in Australia as a tablet swallowed whole. It is sold as a "pharmacy medicine", meaning it does not require a prescription but is only available after talking with a pharmacist.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: As of September 2017 it was marketed under the trade names Ametil, Antinaus, Buccastem, Bukatel, Chlormeprazine, Chloropernazine, Compazine, Compro, Daolin, Dhaperazine, Emedrotec, Emetiral, Eminorm, Lotamin, Mitil, Mormal, Nautisol, Novamin, Novomit, Proazine, Procalm, Prochlorperazin, Prochlorperazine, Prochlorpérazine, Prochlorperazinum, Prochlozine, Proclorperazina, Promat, Promin, Promtil, Roumin, Scripto-metic, Seratil, Stemetil, Steremal, Vergon, Vestil, and Volimin.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: It was also marketed at that time as a combination drug for humans with paracetamol as Vestil-A, as a combination drug for veterinary use, with isopropamide as Darbazine.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: Alexza Pharmaceuticals studied an inhaled form of prochlorperazine for the treatment of migraine through Phase II trials under the development name AT-001; development was discontinued in 2011.


title: Prochlorperazine

text: The alkylation of 2-chlorophenothiazine (1) and 1-(3-Chloropropyl)-4-methylpiperazine [104-16-5] (2) in the presence of sodamide gives Prochlorperazine (3); or by alkylation of 2-Chloro-10-(3-chloropropyl)phenothiazine [2765-59-5] (4) and 1-methylpiperazine (5).


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Proto-Germanic (abbreviated PGmc; also called Common Germanic) is the reconstructed proto-language of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Proto-Germanic eventually developed from pre-Proto-Germanic into three Germanic branches during the fifth century BC to fifth century AD: West Germanic, East Germanic and North Germanic, which however remained in contact over a considerable time, especially the Ingvaeonic languages (including English), which arose from West Germanic dialects and remained in continued contact with North Germanic.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: A defining feature of Proto-Germanic is the completion of the process described by Grimm's law, a set of sound changes that occurred between its status as a dialect of Proto-Indo-European and its gradual divergence into a separate language. As it is probable that the development of this sound shift spanned a considerable time (several centuries), Proto-Germanic cannot adequately be reconstructed as a simple node in a tree model but rather represents a phase of development that may span close to a thousand years. The end of the Common Germanic period is reached with the beginning of the Migration Period in the fourth century.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The alternative term "Germanic parent language" may be used to include a larger scope of linguistic developments, spanning the Nordic Bronze Age and Pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe (second to first millennia BC) to include "Pre-Germanic" (PreGmc), "Early Proto Germanic" (EPGmc) and "Late Proto-Germanic" (LPGmc). While Proto-Germanic refers only to the reconstruction of the most recent common ancestor of Germanic languages, the Germanic parent language refers to the entire journey that the dialect of Proto-Indo-European that would become Proto-Germanic underwent through the millennia.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The Proto-Germanic language is not directly attested by any coherent surviving texts; it has been reconstructed using the comparative method. However, there is fragmentary direct attestation of (late) Proto-Germanic in early runic inscriptions (specifically the second-century AD Vimose inscriptions and the second-century BC Negau helmet inscription), and in Roman Empire era transcriptions of individual words (notably in Tacitus' "Germania", AD 90).


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Some sources also give a date of 750 BC for the earliest expansion out of southern Scandinavia along the North Sea coast towards the mouth of the Rhine.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Proto-Germanic developed out of pre-Proto-Germanic during the Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe. According to the Germanic substrate hypothesis, it may have been influenced by non-Indo-European cultures, such as the Funnelbeaker culture, but the sound change in the Germanic languages known as Grimm's law points to a non-substratic development away from other branches of Indo-European. Proto-Germanic itself was likely spoken after 500 BC, and Proto-Norse from the second century AD and later is still quite close to reconstructed Proto-Germanic, but other common innovations separating Germanic from Proto-Indo-European suggest a common history of pre-Proto-Germanic speakers throughout the Nordic Bronze Age.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: According to Musset (1965), the Proto-Germanic language developed in southern Scandinavia (Denmark, south Sweden and southern Norway), the "Urheimat" (original home) of the Germanic tribes. It is possible that Indo-European speakers first arrived in southern Scandinavia with the Corded Ware culture in the mid-3rd millennium BC, developing into the Nordic Bronze Age cultures by the early second millennium BC. According to Mallory, Germanicists "generally agree" that the "Urheimat" ('original homeland') of the Proto-Germanic language, the ancestral idiom of all attested Germanic dialects, was primarily situated in an area corresponding to the extent of the Jastorf culture.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Early Germanic expansion in the Pre-Roman Iron Age (fifth to first centuries BC) placed Proto-Germanic speakers in contact with the Continental Celtic La Tène horizon. A number of Celtic loanwords in Proto-Germanic have been identified. By the first century AD, Germanic expansion reached the Danube and the Upper Rhine in the south and the Germanic peoples first entered the historical record. At about the same time, extending east of the Vistula (Oksywie culture, Przeworsk culture), Germanic speakers came into contact with early Slavic cultures, as reflected in early Germanic loans in Proto-Slavic.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: By the third century, Late Proto-Germanic speakers had expanded over significant distance, from the Rhine to the Dniepr spanning about . The period marks the breakup of Late Proto-Germanic and the beginning of the (historiographically recorded) Germanic migrations. The first coherent text recorded in a Germanic language is the Gothic Bible, written in the later fourth century in the language of the Thervingi Gothic Christians, who had escaped persecution by moving from Scythia to Moesia in 348.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The earliest available coherent texts (conveying complete sentences, including verbs) in Proto-Norse are variably dated to the 2nd century AD, around 300 AD or the first century AD in runic inscriptions (such as the Tune Runestone). The delineation of Late Common Germanic from Proto-Norse at about that time is largely a matter of convention. Early West Germanic text is available from the fifth century, beginning with the Frankish Bergakker inscription.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The evolution of Proto-Germanic from its ancestral forms, beginning with its ancestor Proto-Indo-European, began with the development of a separate common way of speech among some geographically nearby speakers of a prior language and ended with the dispersion of the proto-language speakers into distinct populations with mostly independent speech habits. Between the two points, many sound changes occurred.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Phylogeny as applied to historical linguistics involves the evolutionary descent of languages. The phylogeny problem is the question of what specific tree, in the tree model of language evolution, best explains the paths of descent of all the members of a language family from a common language, or proto-language (at the root of the tree) to the attested languages (at the leaves of the tree). The Germanic languages form a tree with Proto-Germanic at its root that is a branch of the Indo-European tree, which in turn has Proto-Indo-European at its root. Borrowing of lexical items from contact languages makes the relative position of the Germanic branch within Indo-European less clear than the positions of the other branches of Indo-European. In the course of the development of historical linguistics, various solutions have been proposed, none certain and all debatable.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: In the evolutionary history of a language family, philologists consider a genetic "tree model" appropriate only if communities do not remain in effective contact as their languages diverge. Early Indo-European had limited contact between distinct lineages, and, uniquely, the Germanic subfamily exhibited a less treelike behaviour, as some of its characteristics were acquired from neighbours early in its evolution rather than from its direct ancestors. The internal diversification of West Germanic developed in an especially non-treelike manner.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Proto-Germanic is generally agreed to have begun about 500 BC. Its hypothetical ancestor between the end of Proto-Indo-European and 500 BC is termed Pre-Proto-Germanic. Whether it is to be included under a wider meaning of Proto-Germanic is a matter of usage.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Winfred P. Lehmann regarded Jacob Grimm's "First Germanic Sound Shift", or Grimm's law, and Verner's law, (which pertained mainly to consonants and were considered for many decades to have generated Proto-Germanic) as pre-Proto-Germanic and held that the "upper boundary" (that is, the earlier boundary) was the fixing of the accent, or stress, on the root syllable of a word, typically on the first syllable. Proto-Indo-European had featured a moveable pitch-accent consisting of "an alternation of high and low tones" as well as stress of position determined by a set of rules based on the lengths of a word's syllables.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The fixation of the stress led to sound changes in unstressed syllables. For Lehmann, the "lower boundary" was the dropping of final -a or -e in unstressed syllables; for example, post-PIE "*wóyd-e" > Gothic "", "knows". Elmer H. Antonsen agreed with Lehmann about the upper boundary but later found runic evidence that the -a was not dropped: "ékwakraz … wraita", "I, Wakraz, … wrote (this)". He says: "We must therefore search for a new lower boundary for Proto-Germanic."


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Antonsen's own scheme divides Proto-Germanic into an early stage and a late stage. The early stage includes the stress fixation and resulting "spontaneous vowel-shifts" while the late stage is defined by ten complex rules governing changes of both vowels and consonants.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: By 250 BC Proto-Germanic had branched into five groups of Germanic: two each in the West and the North and one in the East.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The following changes are known or presumed to have occurred in the history of Proto-Germanic in the wider sense from the end of Proto-Indo-European up to the point that Proto-Germanic began to break into mutually unintelligible dialects. The changes are listed roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list. The stages distinguished and the changes associated with each stage rely heavily on . Ringe in turn summarizes standard concepts and terminology.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: This stage began with the separation of a distinct speech, perhaps while it was still forming part of the Proto-Indo-European dialect continuum. It contained many innovations that were shared with other Indo-European branches to various degrees, probably through areal contacts, and mutual intelligibility with other dialects would have remained for some time. It was nevertheless on its own path, whether dialect or language.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: This stage began its evolution as a dialect of Proto-Indo-European that had lost its laryngeals and had five long and six short vowels as well as one or two overlong vowels. The consonant system was still that of PIE minus palatovelars and laryngeals, but the loss of syllabic resonants already made the language markedly different from PIE proper. Mutual intelligibility might have still existed with other descendants of PIE, but it would have been strained, and the period marked the definitive break of Germanic from the other Indo-European languages and the beginning of Germanic proper, containing most of the sound changes that are now held to define this branch distinctively. This stage contained various consonant and vowel shifts, the loss of the contrastive accent inherited from PIE for a uniform accent on the first syllable of the word root, and the beginnings of the reduction of the resulting unstressed syllables.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: By this stage, Germanic had emerged as a distinctive branch and had undergone many of the sound changes that would make its later descendants recognisable as Germanic languages. It had shifted its consonant inventory from a system that was rich in plosives to one containing primarily fricatives, had lost the PIE mobile pitch accent for a predictable stress accent, and had merged two of its vowels. The stress accent had already begun to cause the erosion of unstressed syllables, which would continue in its descendants. The final stage of the language included the remaining development until the breakup into dialects and, most notably, featured the development of nasal vowels and the start of umlaut, another characteristic Germanic feature.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Loans into Proto-Germanic from other (known) languages or from Proto-Germanic into other languages can be dated relative to each other by which Germanic sound laws have acted on them. Since the dates of borrowings and sound laws are not precisely known, it is not possible to use loans to establish absolute or calendar chronology.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Most loans from Celtic appear to have been made before or during the Germanic Sound Shift. For instance, one specimen *"rīks" 'ruler' was borrowed from Celtic *"rīxs" 'king' (stem *"rīg-"), with "g" → "k". It is clearly not native because PIE *"ē" → "ī" is typical not of Germanic but Celtic languages. Another is *"walhaz" "foreigner; Celt" from the Celtic tribal name "Volcae" with "k" → "h" and "o" → "a". Other likely Celtic loans include *"ambahtaz" 'servant', *"brunjǭ" 'mailshirt', *"gīslaz" 'hostage', *"īsarną" 'iron', *"lēkijaz" 'healer', *"laudą" 'lead', *"Rīnaz" 'Rhine', and *"tūnaz, tūną" 'fortified enclosure'. These loans would likely have been borrowed during the Celtic Hallstatt and early La Tène cultures when the Celts dominated central Europe, although the period spanned several centuries.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: From East Iranian came *"hanapiz" 'hemp' (compare Khotanese "kaṃhā", Ossetian "gæn(æ)" 'flax'), *"humalaz", "humalǭ" 'hops' (compare Osset "xumællæg"), *"keppǭ" ~ "skēpą" 'sheep' (compare Pers "čapiš" 'yearling kid'), *"kurtilaz" 'tunic' (cf. Osset "kəræt" 'shirt'), *"kutą" 'cottage' (compare Pers "kad" 'house'), *"paidō" 'cloak', *"paþaz" 'path' (compare Avestan "pantā", gen. "pathō"), and *"wurstwa" 'work' (compare Av "vərəštuua"). The words could have been transmitted directly by the Scythians from the Ukraine plain, groups of whom entered Central Europe via the Danube and created the Vekerzug Culture in the Carpathian Basin (sixth to fifth centuries BC), or by later contact with Sarmatians, who followed the same route. Unsure is *"marhaz" 'horse', which was either borrowed directly from Scytho-Sarmatian or through Celtic mediation.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Numerous loanwords believed to have been borrowed from Proto-Germanic are known in the non-Germanic languages spoken in areas adjacent to the Germanic languages.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The heaviest influence has been on the Finnic languages, which have received hundreds of Proto-Germanic or pre-Proto-Germanic loanwords. Well-known examples include PGmc *"druhtinaz" 'warlord' (compare Finnish '), *"hrengaz" (later *"hringaz") 'ring' (compare Finnish ', Estonian '), *"kuningaz" 'king' (Finnish '), *"lambaz" 'lamb' (Finnish '), *"lunaz" 'ransom' (Finnish ').


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The term substrate with reference to Proto-Germanic refers to lexical items and phonological elements that do not appear to be descended from Proto-Indo-European. The substrate theory postulates that the elements came from an earlier population that stayed amongst the Indo-Europeans and was influential enough to bring over some elements of its own language. The theory of a non-Indo-European substrate was first proposed by Sigmund Feist, who estimated that about a third of all Proto-Germanic lexical items came from the substrate.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Theo Vennemann has hypothesized a Basque substrate and a Semitic superstrate in Germanic; however, his speculations, too, are generally rejected by specialists in the relevant fields.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The following conventions are used in this article for transcribing Proto-Germanic reconstructed forms:


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The table below lists the consonantal phonemes of Proto-Germanic, ordered and classified by their reconstructed pronunciation. The slashes around the phonemes are omitted for clarity. When two phonemes appear in the same box, the first of each pair is voiceless, the second is voiced. Phones written in parentheses represent allophones and are not themselves independent phonemes. For descriptions of the sounds and definitions of the terms, follow the links on the column and row headings.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Grimm's law as applied to pre-proto-Germanic is a chain shift of the original Indo-European plosives. Verner's Law explains a category of exceptions to Grimm's Law, where a voiced fricative appears where Grimm's Law predicts a voiceless fricative. The discrepancy is conditioned by the placement of the original Indo-European word accent.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: "p", "t", and "k" did not undergo Grimm's law after a fricative (such as "s") or after other plosives (which were shifted to fricatives by the Germanic spirant law); for example, where Latin (with the original "t") has "stella" "star" and "octō" "eight", Middle Dutch has "ster" and "acht" (with unshifted "t"). This original "t" merged with the shifted "t" from the voiced consonant; that is, most of the instances of came from either the original or the shifted .


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Verner's law is usually reconstructed as following Grimm's law in time, and states that unvoiced fricatives: , , , are voiced when preceded by an unaccented syllable. The accent at the time of the change was the one inherited from Proto-Indo-European, which was free and could occur on any syllable. For example, PIE > PGmc. *"brōþēr" "brother" but PIE > PGmc. *"mōdēr" "mother". The voicing of some according to Verner's Law produced , a new phoneme. Sometime after Grimm's and Verner's law, Proto-Germanic lost its inherited contrastive accent, and all words became stressed on their root syllable. This was generally the first syllable unless a prefix was attached.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The loss of the Proto-Indo-European contrastive accent got rid of the conditioning environment for the consonant alternations created by Verner's law. Without this conditioning environment, the cause of the alternation was no longer obvious to native speakers. The alternations that had started as mere phonetic variants of sounds became increasingly grammatical in nature, leading to the grammatical alternations of sounds known as grammatischer Wechsel. For a single word, the grammatical stem could display different consonants depending on its grammatical case or its tense. As a result of the complexity of this system, significant levelling of these sounds occurred throughout the Germanic period as well as in the later daughter languages. Already in Proto-Germanic, most alternations in nouns were leveled to have only one sound or the other consistently throughout all forms of a word, although some alternations were preserved, only to be levelled later in the daughters (but differently in each one). Alternations in noun and verb endings were also levelled, usually in favour of the voiced alternants in nouns, but a split remained in verbs where unsuffixed (strong) verbs received the voiced alternants while suffixed (weak) verbs had the voiceless alternants. Alternation between the present and past of strong verbs remained common and was not levelled in Proto-Germanic, and survives up to the present day in some Germanic languages.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Some of the consonants that developed from the sound shifts are thought to have been pronounced in different ways (allophones) depending on the sounds around them. With regard to original or Trask says:"The resulting or were reduced to and in word-initial position."


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Many of the consonants listed in the table could appear lengthened or prolonged under some circumstances, which is inferred from their appearing in some daughter languages as doubled letters. This phenomenon is termed gemination. Kraehenmann says:"Then, Proto-Germanic already had long consonants … but they contrasted with short ones only word-medially. Moreover, they were not very frequent and occurred only intervocally almost exclusively after short vowels."


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The voiced phonemes , , and are reconstructed with the pronunciation of stops in some environments and fricatives in others. The pattern of allophony is not completely clear, but generally is similar to the patterns of voiced obstruent allophones in languages such as Spanish. The voiced fricatives of Verner's Law (see above), which only occurred in non-word-initial positions, merged with the fricative allophones of , , and . Older accounts tended to suggest that the sounds were originally fricatives and later "hardened" into stops in some circumstances. However, Ringe notes that this belief was largely due to theory-internal considerations of older phonological theories, and in modern theories it is equally possible that the allophony was present from the beginning.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Each of the three voiced phonemes , , and had a slightly different pattern of allophony from the others, but in general stops occurred in "strong" positions (word-initial and in clusters) while fricatives occurred in "weak" positions (post-vocalic). More specifically:


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: These various changes often led to complex alternations, e.g. *"sehwaną" 'to see', *"sēgun" 'they saw' (indicative), *"sēwīn" 'they saw' (subjunctive), which were reanalysed and regularised differently in the various daughter languages.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: posits a process of consonant mutation for Proto-Germanic, under the name "consonant gradation". (This is distinct from the consonant mutation processes occurring in the neighboring Samic and Finnic languages, also known as consonant gradation since the 19th century.) The Proto-Germanic consonant gradation is not directly attested in any of the Germanic dialects, but may nevertheless be reconstructed on the basis of certain dialectal discrepancies in root of the "n"-stems and the "ōn"-verbs.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Diachronically, the rise of consonant gradation in Germanic can be explained by Kluge's law, by which geminates arose from stops followed by a nasal in a stressed syllable. Since this sound law only operated in part of the paradigms of the "n"-stems and "ōn"-verbs, it gave rise to an alternation of geminated and non-geminated consonants. However, there has been controversy about the validity of this law, with some linguists preferring to explain the development of geminate consonants with the idea of "expressive gemination". The origin of the Germanic geminate consonants is currently a disputed part of historical linguistics with no clear consensus at present.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The reconstruction of "grading" paradigms in Proto-Germanic explains root alternations such as Old English ' 'star' < *"sterran-" vs. Old Frisian ' 'id.' < *"steran-" and Norwegian (dial.) ' 'to swing' < *"gubōn-" vs. Middle High German ' 'id.' < *"guppōn-" as generalizations of the original allomorphy. In the cases concerned, this would imply reconstructing an "n"-stem nom. *"sterō", gen. *"sterraz" < PIE *"h₂stér-ōn", *"h₂ster-n-ós" and an "ōn"-verb 3sg. *"guppōþi", 3pl. *"gubunanþi" < *"gʱubʱ-néh₂-ti", *"gʱubʱ-nh₂-énti".


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Proto-Germanic had four short vowels, five or six long vowels, and at least one "overlong" or "trimoric" vowel. The exact phonetic quality of the vowels is uncertain.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: PIE "ə", "a", "o" merged into PGmc "a"; PIE "ā", "ō" merged into PGmc "ō". At the time of the merger, the vowels probably were and , or perhaps and . Their timbres then differentiated by raising (and perhaps rounding) the long vowel to . It is known that the raising of "ā" to "ō" can not have occurred earlier than the earliest contact between Proto-Germanic speakers and the Romans. This can be verified by the fact that Latin ' later emerges in Gothic as ' (that is, "Rūmōnīs"). It is explained by Ringe that at the time of borrowing, the vowel matching closest in sound to Latin "ā" was a Proto-Germanic "ā"-like vowel (which later became "ō"). And since Proto-Germanic therefore lacked a mid(-high) back vowel, the closest equivalent of Latin "ō" was Proto-Germanic "ū": "Rōmānī" > *"Rūmānīz" > *"Rūmōnīz" > Gothic "".


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: A new "ā" was formed following the shift from "ā" to "ō" when intervocalic was lost in "-aja-" sequences. It was a rare phoneme, and occurred only in a handful of words, the most notable being the verbs of the third weak class. The agent noun suffix *"-ārijaz" (Modern English "-er" in words such as "baker" or "teacher") was likely borrowed from Latin around or shortly after this time.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Note the change > before or in the same or following syllable. This removed (which became ) but created from earlier .


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Diphthongs in Proto-Germanic can also be analysed as sequences of a vowel plus an approximant, as was the case in Proto-Indo-European. This explains why was not lost in *"niwjaz" ("new"); the second element of the diphthong "iu" was still underlyingly a consonant and therefore the conditioning environment for the loss was not met. This is also confirmed by the fact that later in the West Germanic gemination, -"wj"- is geminated to -"wwj"- in parallel with the other consonants (except ).


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Proto-Germanic had two overlong or trimoraic long vowels "ô" and "ê" , the latter mainly in adverbs (cf. *"hwadrê" 'whereto, whither'). None of the documented languages still include such vowels. Their reconstruction is due to the comparative method, particularly as a way of explaining an otherwise unpredictable two-way split of reconstructed long "ō" in final syllables, which unexpectedly remained long in some morphemes but shows normal shortening in others.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Trimoraic vowels generally occurred at morpheme boundaries where a bimoraic long vowel and a short vowel in hiatus contracted, especially after the loss of an intervening laryngeal (-"VHV"-). One example, without a laryngeal, includes the class II weak verbs ("ō"-stems) where a -"j"- was lost between vowels, so that -"ōja" → "ōa" → "ô" (cf. *"salbōjaną" → *"salbôną" → Gothic ' 'to anoint'). However, the majority occurred in word-final syllables (inflectional endings) probably because in this position the vowel could not be resyllabified. Additionally, Germanic, like Balto-Slavic, lengthened bimoraic long vowels in absolute final position, perhaps to better conform to a word's prosodic template; e.g., PGmc *"arô" 'eagle' ← PIE *' just as Lith "akmuõ" 'stone', OSl "kamy" ← *"aḱmō̃" ← PIE *"". Contrast:


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Trimoraic vowels are distinguished from bimoraic vowels by their outcomes in attested Germanic languages: word-final trimoraic vowels remained long vowels while bimoraic vowels developed into short vowels. Older theories about the phenomenon claimed that long and overlong vowels were both long but differed in tone, i.e., "ô" and "ê" had a "circumflex" (rise-fall-rise) tone while "ō" and "ē" had an "acute" (rising) tone, much like the tones of modern Scandinavian languages, Baltic, and Ancient Greek, and asserted that this distinction was inherited from PIE. However, this view was abandoned since languages in general do not combine distinctive intonations on unstressed syllables with contrastive stress and vowel length. Modern theories have reinterpreted overlong vowels as having superheavy syllable weight (three moras) and therefore greater length than ordinary long vowels.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: By the end of the Proto-Germanic period, word-final long vowels were shortened to short vowels. Following that, overlong vowels were shortened to regular long vowels in all positions, merging with originally long vowels except word-finally (because of the earlier shortening), so that they remained distinct in that position. This was a late dialectal development, because the result was not the same in all Germanic languages: word-final "ē" shortened to "a" in East and West Germanic but to "i" in Old Norse, and word-final "ō" shortened to "a" in Gothic but to "o" (probably ) in early North and West Germanic, with a later raising to "u" (the sixth century Salic law still has "maltho" in late Frankish).


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The shortened overlong vowels in final position developed as regular long vowels from that point on, including the lowering of "ē" to "ā" in North and West Germanic. The monophthongization of unstressed "au" in Northwest Germanic produced a phoneme which merged with this new word-final long "ō", while the monophthongization of unstressed "ai" produced a new "ē" which did not merge with original "ē", but rather with "ē₂", as it was not lowered to "ā". This split, combined with the asymmetric development in West Germanic, with "ē" lowering but "ō" raising, points to an early difference in the articulation height of the two vowels that was not present in North Germanic. It could be seen as evidence that the lowering of "ē" to "ā" began in West Germanic at a time when final vowels were still long, and spread to North Germanic through the late Germanic dialect continuum, but only reaching the latter after the vowels had already been shortened.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: "ē₂" is uncertain as a phoneme and only reconstructed from a small number of words; it is posited by the comparative method because whereas all provable instances of inherited (PIE) *"ē" (PGmc. *"ē₁") are distributed in Gothic as "ē" and the other Germanic languages as *"ā", all the Germanic languages agree on some occasions of "ē" (e.g., Goth/OE/ON "hēr" 'here' ← late PGmc. *"hē₂r"). Gothic makes no orthographic and therefore presumably no phonetic distinction between "ē₁" and "ē₂", but the existence of two Proto-Germanic long "e"-like phonemes is supported by the existence of two "e"-like Elder Futhark runes, Ehwaz and Eihwaz.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Krahe treats "ē₂" (secondary "ē") as identical with "ī". It probably continues PIE "ēi", and it may have been in the process of transition from a diphthong to a long simple vowel in the Proto-Germanic period. Lehmann lists the following origins for "ē₂":


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Proto-Germanic developed nasal vowels from two sources. The earlier and much more frequent source was word-final "-n" (from PIE "-n" or "-m") in unstressed syllables, which at first gave rise to short "-ą", "-į", "-ų", long "-į̄", "-ę̄", "-ą̄", and overlong "-ę̂", "-ą̂". "-ę̄" and "-ę̂" then merged into "-ą̄" and "-ą̂", which later developed into "-ǭ" and "-ǫ̂". Another source, developing only in late Proto-Germanic times, was in the sequences "-inh-", "-anh-", "-unh-", in which the nasal consonant lost its occlusion and was converted into lengthening and nasalisation of the preceding vowel, becoming "-ą̄h-", "-į̄h-", "-ų̄h-" (still written as "-anh-", "-inh-", "-unh-" in this article).


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: In many cases, the nasality was not contrastive and was merely present as an additional surface articulation. No Germanic language that preserves the word-final vowels has their nasality preserved. Word-final short nasal vowels do not show different reflexes compared to non-nasal vowels. However, the comparative method does require a three-way phonemic distinction between word-final "*-ō", "*-ǭ" and "*-ōn", which each has a distinct pattern of reflexes in the later Germanic languages:


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The distinct reflexes of nasal "-ǭ" versus non-nasal "-ō" are caused by the Northwest Germanic raising of final "-ō" to , which did not affect "-ǭ". When the vowels were shortened and denasalised, these two vowels no longer had the same place of articulation, and did not merge: "-ō" became (later ) while "-ǭ" became (later ). This allowed their reflexes to stay distinct.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The nasality of word-internal vowels (from "-nh-") was more stable, and survived into the early dialects intact.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Phonemic nasal vowels definitely occurred in Proto-Norse and Old Norse. They were preserved in Old Icelandic down to at least 1125, the earliest possible time for the creation of the "First Grammatical Treatise", which documents nasal vowels. The PG nasal vowels from "-nh-" sequences were preserved in Old Icelandic as shown by examples given in the "First Grammatical Treatise". For example:


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: The phonemicity is evident from minimal pairs like "ǿ̇ra" "younger" vs. "ǿra" "vex" < "*wor-", cognate with English "weary". The inherited Proto-Germanic nasal vowels were joined in Old Norse by nasal vowels from other sources, e.g. loss of "*n" before "s". Modern Elfdalian still includes nasal vowels that directly derive from Old Norse, e.g. ' "goose" < Old Norse ' (presumably nasalized, although not so written); cf. German "", showing the original consonant.


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Similar surface (possibly phonemic) nasal/non-nasal contrasts occurred in the West Germanic languages down through Proto-Anglo-Frisian of 400 or so. Proto-Germanic medial nasal vowels were inherited, but were joined by new nasal vowels resulting from the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law, which extended the loss of nasal consonants (only before "-h-" in Proto-Germanic) to all environments before a fricative (thus including "-mf-", "-nþ-" and "-ns-" as well). The contrast between nasal and non-nasal long vowels is reflected in the differing output of nasalized long "*ą̄", which was raised to "ō" in Old English and Old Frisian whereas non-nasal "*ā" appeared as fronted "ǣ". Hence:


title: Proto-Germanic language

text: Proto-Germanic allowed any single consonant to occur in one of three positions: initial, medial and final. However, clusters could only consist of two consonants unless followed by a suffix, and only certain clusters were possible in certain positions.