title: Mongrel

text: In one study, the effect of breed on longevity in the pet dog was analyzed using mortality data from 23,535 pet dogs. The data were obtained from North American veterinary teaching hospitals. The median age at death was determined for purebred and mixed-breed dogs of different body weights. Within each body weight category, the median age at death was lower for purebred dogs compared with mixed-breed dogs. The median age at death was "8.5 years for all mixed breed dogs, and 6.7 years for all pure breed dogs" in the study.


title: Mongrel

text: In 2013, a study found that mixed breeds live on average 1.2 years longer than purebreds, and that increasing body weight was negatively correlated with longevity (i.e. the heavier the dog, the less its lifespan). Another study published in 2019 confirmed this 1.2 year difference in lifespan for mixed-breed dogs, and further demonstrated negative impacts of recent inbreeding and benefits of occasional outcrossing for lifespan in individual dogs.


title: Mongrel

text: Studies that have been done in the area of health show that mixed-breeds on average are both healthier and longer-lived than their purebred relations. This is because current accepted breeding practices within the pedigreed dog community result in a reduction in genetic diversity, and can result in physical characteristics that lead to health issues.


title: Mongrel

text: Studies have shown that crossbreed dogs have a number of desirable reproductive traits. Scott and Fuller found that crossbreed dogs were superior mothers compared to purebred mothers, producing more milk and giving better care. These advantages led to a decreased mortality in the offspring of crossbreed dogs.


title: Mongrel

text: Purebred dogs are known by breed names given to groups of dogs that are visibly similar in most characteristics and have reliable documented descent. In recent years many owners and breeders of crossbreed dogs identify them—often facetiously—by invented names constructed from parts of the parents' breed names. These are known as portmanteau names and the resulting crosses as "designer dogs". For example, a cross between a Pekingese and a Poodle may be referred to as a Pekeapoo. Other similarly named crossbreeds include the Goldendoodle, a cross between a Standard Poodle and a Golden Retriever, and the Dorgi, a cross between a Dachshund and a Welsh Corgi.


title: Mongrel

text: Until the early 1980s, mixed-breed dogs were usually excluded from obedience and other dog sport competitions. However, starting with the American Mixed Breed Obedience Registry (AMBOR) and the Mixed Breed Dog Clubs of America (MBDCA), which created obedience venues in which mixed-breed dogs could compete, more opportunities have opened up for all dogs in all dog sports. Most dog agility and fly ball organizations have always allowed mixed-breed dogs to compete. Today, mixed-breeds have proven their worth in many performance sports.


title: Mongrel

text: In conformation shows, where dogs' conformation to a breed standard is evaluated, mixed-breed dogs normally cannot compete. For purebred dogs, their physical characteristics are judged against a single breed standard. This is different in the case of mixed-breed dogs because they are difficult to classify, except for height. There is variation in physical traits such as coat, skeletal structure, gait, ear set, eye shape and color. When conformation standards are applied to mixed-breed dogs, such as in events run by the MBDCA, the standards are usually general traits of health, soundness, symmetry, and personality.


title: Mongrel

text: The Kennel Club (U.K.) operates a show called Scruffts (a name derived from its prestigious Crufts show) open only to mixed-breeds in which dogs are judged on character, health, and temperament. Some kennel clubs, whose purpose is to promote purebred dogs, still exclude mixed-breeds from their performance events. The AKC and the FCI are two such prominent organizations. While the AKC does allow mixed-breed dogs to earn their Canine Good Citizen award, mixed-breed dogs are not permitted to enter AKC "all breed" events, though through their "Canine Partners" program, mixed-breed dogs can be registered to compete in AKC Agility, Obedience, and Rally events.


title: Robb Stark

text: Robert Stark is a fictional character in the "A Song of Ice and Fire" series of epic fantasy novels by American author George R. R. Martin, and its television adaptation "Game of Thrones", where he is portrayed by Scottish actor Richard Madden.


title: Robb Stark

text: Introduced in "A Game of Thrones" (1996), Robb is the eldest son and heir of Lord Eddard Stark of Winterfell and Eddard's wife Lady Catelyn Stark. He subsequently appeared in Martin's "A Clash of Kings" (1998) and "A Storm of Swords" (2000). After his father is executed by king Joffrey Baratheon in King's Landing, Robb assembles his Northern bannermen, is crowned 'King in the North', and marches south to seek vengeance against the Lannisters and independence for his new kingdom. The plot in the third novel and third season involving Robb and his Northern army at the House Frey wedding of his uncle Edmure Tully shocked both readers of the book and viewers of the TV series.


title: Robb Stark

text: Robb is 14 years old at the beginning of "A Game of Thrones" (17 on the TV series). He is the oldest legitimate son of Eddard "Ned" Stark and his wife Catelyn, and has five siblings: younger sisters Sansa and Arya, younger brothers Bran and Rickon, and a bastard half-brother Jon Snow. He is also a close friend to Eddard's ward Theon Greyjoy. Robb is constantly accompanied by his direwolf, Grey Wind. Like most of his siblings, Robb inherited his mother's Tully features, being strong and fast with a stocky build, blue eyes and thick red-brown hair.


title: Robb Stark

text: As Eddard's heir, Robb remains at Winterfell and rules in his father's stead when Eddard goes to King's Landing to become King Robert Baratheon's King's Hand. After King Robert's death, Eddard is imprisoned in political struggle with Queen Cersei. Robb calls his banners and raises a Northern army to aid his maternal House Tully against the invading Lannister army, and scores a crushing victory at Whispering Wood, capturing Jaime Lannister. After his father is publicly beheaded under King Joffrey Baratheon's order, Robb is crowned King in the North by his bannermen, and declares the North and the Riverlands an independent kingdom, officially starting the War of the Five Kings. Despite displaying an exceptional proficiency in military talent, Robb is ultimately betrayed and murdered at the wedding of his uncle Edmure with Roslin Frey, by the treacherous Walder Frey and Roose Bolton, all under discreet command of Tywin Lannister.


title: Robb Stark

text: James Poniewozik of "Time" describes Robb as less eager to seek retaliation than his father Eddard but as more pragmatic. Poniewozik's overview of the television version of Robb focuses on his role as a foil for Eddard:


title: Robb Stark

text: Robb has risen to take his father’s place, as a lord of Winterfell and as a focal character in the show. We never saw what kind of warrior Ned was in the field, but in King’s Landing, he fought a straight-ahead battle, telegraphing his moves, and died for it. Robb, seeing the Lannisters' numbers, shows himself capable of feints and deceptions—albeit at the cost of 2,000 men and the guilt of having sent them on a suicide mission.


title: Robb Stark

text: In the third novel, "A Storm of Swords", Robb is assassinated in an event called the Red Wedding, which was inspired by the Black Dinner and Glencoe Massacre from Scottish history. George Martin has said that he decided to kill Robb Stark because he wished to keep the story difficult to predict: "I killed Ned because everybody thinks he’s the hero ... The next predictable thing is to think his eldest son is going to rise up and avenge his father. And everybody is going to expect that. So immediately [killing Robb] became the next thing I had to do."


title: Robb Stark

text: The Scottish actor Richard Madden has received positive reviews for his role as Robb Stark in the TV series.


title: Robb Stark

text: Robb Stark is not a point of view character in the novels and is mostly a background character. His actions are mainly witnessed and interpreted through the eyes of his brother Bran and mother Catelyn, as well as via memories of Jon Snow and Theon Greyjoy.


title: Robb Stark

text: When his father departs for King's Landing to act as Hand of the King for Robert Baratheon, Robb becomes acting Lord of Winterfell. Following his father's arrest for presumed treason, he marches south with an assembled army in attempt to free his father. To secure safe passage at the vital crossing of The Twins, Robb consents to marrying one of Lord Walder Frey's daughters or granddaughters as negotiated by his mother. After crossing the river, he surprises and destroys the Lannister army besieging Riverrun, capturing Ser Jaime Lannister in the process. Upon hearing of his father's execution at King's Landing on the orders of King Joffrey Baratheon, Robb is crowned the King in the North and King of the Trident by his bannermen.


title: Robb Stark

text: Robb continues to win victories against Lord Tywin Lannister's armies, and earns the nickname "Young Wolf" for his ferocity in battle. He sends his mother to negotiate an alliance with King Renly Baratheon, but Renly is assassinated by his brother, King Stannis Baratheon with blood magic from the priestess Melisandre. Robb invades The Westerlands in order to strategically assist Stannis' campaign against the Lannisters. He also sends Lord Theon Greyjoy to Pyke to broker an alliance with Theon's father Balon Greyjoy, Lord of the Iron Islands. However, Balon declares himself to be a King and decides to invade the North instead. Theon joins his father, seizing Winterfell by surprise. Theon is believed to have murdered Robb's youngest siblings Bran and Rickon, though in reality they have escaped and gone into hiding.


title: Robb Stark

text: During an assault in the Westerlands, Robb is wounded and learns of the apparent deaths of his brothers at the hands of his closest friend and ally. Falling ill due to mourning and injury, he falls in love with the noble maiden in charge of nursing him, Lady Jeyne Westerling, and takes her virginity. To preserve Jeyne's honor, Robb marries her, rescinding his previous marriage arrangement with House Frey, causing them to desert his army.


title: Robb Stark

text: Following Stannis' defeat at the Battle of the Blackwater, Robb withdraws from the Westerlands and returns to Riverrun to attend the funeral of his grandfather Lord Hoster Tully. Upon returning, Robb learns that his mother has secretly released Jaime Lannister as an exchange for her daughter Sansa, a hostage in King's Landing. This leads to the mutiny of Lord Rickard Karstark, whose two sons were slain by Jaime, forcing Robb to execute Rickard and lose the Karstark's support. With his army dwindling, Robb tries to repair the alliance with the Freys by bargaining his uncle Lord Edmure Tully to marry Lady Roslin Frey. The Freys demand that Robb personally attend the wedding at The Twins as an apology.


title: Robb Stark

text: Robb learns that Balon Greyjoy has died and he decides to lead his army to retake the North immediately after the wedding is complete. He soon learns that his sister Sansa has been forcibly married to Lord Tyrion Lannister. To prevent the Lannisters from claiming Winterfell through Sansa's child by Tyrion, Robb, against the opposition of his mother, disinherits Sansa and signs a decree legitimizing his bastard half-brother Jon Snow as his heir if he happens to die with no children, and requests the Night's Watch release Jon from service. Robb then entrusts the decree to Lord Galbart Glover and Lady Maege Mormont, sending them to make contact with Lord Howland Reed so that he can launch a coordinated attack to recapture the strategically crucial Moat Cailin.


title: Robb Stark

text: At The Twins, the Northern convoy, who are treated with bread and salt (thus promised guest rights and safety), are betrayed and massacred by House Frey and House Bolton during the wedding feast in an event known as the "Red Wedding". Robb is shot by crossbow bolts multiple times, and then personally murdered by his chief vassal Lord Roose Bolton, who has secretly defected to the Lannisters in reward for being named the Warden of the North. After his death, the Freys mutilate Robb's body by sewing the head of his dead direwolf Grey Wind onto his decapitated corpse. His mother, as well as his entire northern army (save for the Boltons and Freys), are also murdered.


title: Robb Stark

text: Robb Stark is portrayed by Richard Madden in the television adaption of the series. There are some slight differences between Robb's TV portrayal and the book version. Due to the child characters' ages being increased, Robb's age is changed from fourteen to seventeen-years-old at the start of the series. Instead of marrying Jeyne Westering, he marries a healer from Volantis named Talisa Maegyr, who is also killed during "The Red Wedding". And while Robb is a background character in the books, not having any chapters told from his perspective, he is listed ahead of Michelle Fairley, who plays POV character Catelyn Stark in the books, in the opening credits of many episodes, and we see the Stark's storyline in seasons two and three revolve more around Robb in the viewers' eyes as opposed to the readers'.


title: Robb Stark

text: James Poniewozik comments in "TIME", on Madden's performance in "The Pointy End": "both the script and Richard Madden show in deft, quick strokes how the crisis focuses him. (This is another case where having a live actor does a better job of showing a transition that seemed more abrupt in the book.)"


title: Robb Stark

text: Madden said that he learned that the character would be killed off early on but otherwise read the books season by season, focusing primarily on the scripts: "I'm, as an actor, forced to bend the path I put Robb on and change it and keep the surprises coming. Hopefully, I managed to do that."


title: Robb Stark

text: Robb Stark is the eldest son of Lord Eddard Stark and Lady Catelyn. When King Robert Baratheon summons Eddard to King's Landing to serve as Hand of the King, Robb becomes acting Lord of Winterfell. After his father is arrested for apparent treason, Robb summons the Northern bannermen and assembles an army of 20,000 in an effort to rescue his father and aid the Riverlands, which have come under attack by the armies of House Lannister. Catelyn brokers an alliance between the North and House Frey when Robb consents to marrying one of Lord Walder Frey's daughters, allowing the Stark army to strategically cross the river at the Twins and launch a surprise engagement against the Lannisters, successfully capturing Ser Jaime Lannister in the process. After the death of Robert Baratheon and the execution of Eddard Stark on the orders of King Joffrey Baratheon, a bastard born of incest between Jaime and Cersei Lannister, the Northern and Riverland Lords declare their independence from the Iron Throne and proclaim Robb as "The King in the North".


title: Robb Stark

text: Robb proves to be a skillful military commander and he wins a succession of battles against Lord Tywin Lannister's forces, earning him the nickname "the Young Wolf". He sends his closest friend, Lord Theon Greyjoy, to the Iron Islands to broker an alliance with Lord Balon Greyjoy, Theon's father. In exchange for Greyjoy support and the use of their naval fleet, Robb intends to recognize the Iron Islands' independence. Robb also sends his mother to parlay with Renly Baratheon, who has declared himself king and has amassed an army of 100,000. However, Lord Stannis Baratheon, having also declared himself king via the lawful line of succession, prepares to engage Renly. Catelyn is successful in brokering an alliance with Renly, but he is assassinated by Stannis' using blood magic. Theon fails to convince his father to ally with Robb, and Balon launches an invasion of the North. Theon decides to capture Winterfell to earn his father's favor. Robb offers amnesty to the Ironborn invaders on the condition that they hand over Theon. Robb soon meets and falls in love with Talisa Maegyr, a foreign healer from Volantis.


title: Robb Stark

text: Stannis assaults King's Landing at the Battle of Blackwater Bay and is defeated when Tywin, joined by the armies of House Tyrell via a newly brokered alliance, arrives and stops the city from being sacked. While Robb travels to the Crag to negotiate a surrender, Jaime escapes and kills the son of Lord Rickard Karstark before he is recaptured. Catelyn stops Rickard from killing Jaime but discontent within the Stark army begins to grow. Additionally, despite his mother's protest, Robb breaks his engagement with the Freys and marries Talisa. As a result, the Freys abandon the Stark army.


title: Robb Stark

text: Believing Jaime to be her only chance of seeing her daughters again, Catelyn frees him and commands Brienne of Tarth to bring him to King's Landing in exchange for Sansa. Furious, Robb has his mother imprisoned. He leads his army to capture Harrenhal, but finds that hundreds of his imprisoned bannermen have been slaughtered. Upon learning of the death of his grandfather, Lord Hoster Tully, Robb returns to Riverrun for the funeral. Robb's uncle and the new Lord of Riverrun, Edmure Tully, is scolded by Robb for previously disobeying a command when he attacked Ser Gregor Clegane's forces. While at Riverrun, Robb executes Rickard Karstark after he murders two teenage Lannister squires. As a result, the Karstarks abandon his army. In order to regain an alliance with the Freys and bolster his army, Robb arranges for the reluctant Edmure to marry one of Walder Frey's daughters. With the advisement of his mother, Robb prepares to invade Casterly Rock, the domain of House Lannister.


title: Robb Stark

text: At the Twins, Walder Frey provides guest right to Robb, his family and bannermen. The wedding commences but Walder betrays Robb in an event secretly orchestrated by Tywin, Walder, and Lord Roose Bolton. Talisa, pregnant with Robb's child, is stabbed in the stomach and killed. Robb's entire army (save for the Boltons and Freys), are murdered. Robb himself is shot with multiple crossbow bolts, taunted by Walder, and subsequently executed by Roose with a knife to the heart. Catelyn kills Walder's wife but she too is executed when her throat is slit. Robb's corpse is decapitated and his direwolf Grey Wind's head is sewn on in its place, and the corpse is then paraded around as the Stark forces are slaughtered. Robb's great-uncle, Ser Brynden Tully escapes, but Edmure is held captive and Walder becomes Lord of Riverrun. Roose once again swears fealty to the Iron Throne and is granted the title of the Warden of the North. This event comes to be known as the "Red Wedding".


title: Robb Stark

text: House Lannister strips House Stark of all lands and titles after Robb's failed rebellion against the Iron Throne. The Boltons recapture Winterfell from Theon, expel the Ironborn from the North, and begin to rule with an iron fist. Sansa is forced to marry Roose's legitimized bastard, Ramsay Bolton. Tywin and Roose are both killed by their own sons. The remnants of Robb's army, now led by Brynden Tully, recapture Riverrun and hold it until Jaime Lannister retakes it and Brynden is killed. Arya Stark returns to Westeros, murders Walder Frey and his sons, and poisons all of his male descendants, ultimately exterminating House Frey. Sansa escapes from the Boltons and she and Jon Snow successfully destroy House Bolton and retake Winterfell. Jon is crowned the King in the North, restoring Stark rule in the process. With the arrival of Queen Daenerys Targaryen, Jon declares fealty and becomes Warden of the North. However, following her death and Jon's banishment, the North is given permission by the newly appointed King Bran Stark to regain its independence, and the Northern lords declare Sansa the Queen in the North.


title: Robb Stark

text: In his article "The War in Westeros and Just War Theory", Richard H. Corrigan uses Robb to illustrate the concepts of just cause and right intention in the decision to go to war: "Robb is not only fighting this war to ensure that his fellow Northerners have a just king [Robb's cause]. He is also doing it to avenge his father, Ned, and to recover his sisters Arya and Sansa [Robb's intention]." Corrigan speculates that Robb may be suffering from cognitive dissonance and says that, ethically, once Robb has achieved his cause, he is obligated to cease fighting even if he has not yet avenged his family.


title: Robb Stark

text: Robb's decision to renege on his promise to marry one of Walder Frey's daughters features heavily in the fifth chapter of Tim Phillips and Rebecca Clare's "Game of Thrones and Business", "Keep Your Word: Robb Stark discovers too late the dangers of broken promises in business deals."


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: Ricardo Verhoeven (born 10 April 1989) is a Dutch professional kickboxer who currently competes in the heavyweight division of GLORY, where he is the reigning Glory Heavyweight Champion. A professional since 2004, he also competed in the K-1, It's Showtime and SUPERKOMBAT promotions. He is currently ranked the number one heavyweight in the world by Combat Press. Verhoeven has been continually ranked as the number one heavyweight kickboxer in the world by Combat Press since September 2014, when the rankings were first established.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: Rico Verhoeven was born in Bergen op Zoom, Netherlands. He began learning martial arts at age five, starting with Kyokushin. He was trained by his father, a karate black belt. After transitioning into kickboxing, Verhoeven began training at the age of seven and started competing against adults when he was only 16 years old, due to his large size.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: He has trained mainly in Zevenbergen under Dennis Krauweel at Superpro Sportcenter, with fellow kickboxers Benjamin Adegbuyi, Albert Kraus and Alviar Lima.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: He was drawn against Russian mixed martial artist Sergei Kharitonov at the opening round of the sixteen-man 2012 Glory Heavyweight Grand Slam held at "" in Saitama, Japan on 31 December 2012. As he was leading the judges' scorecards after the first two, two-minute rounds, he advanced to the quarter-finals where he lost out to the eventual tournament winner Semmy Schilt by the same margin.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: He rematched Errol Zimmerman at "" in New York City on 22 June 2013. Despite being deducted a point for rabbit punching in round one, he outworked and outstruck Zimmerman for three rounds and won by unanimous decision.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: He caused a major upset to win the "" in Hoffman Estates, Illinois, United States in October 2013. After taking a majority decision over Gökhan Saki in the semi-finals, and scoring a controversial knockdown in round one, he beat Daniel Ghiță by unanimous decision in the final.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: Rico further established himself by defeating kickboxing legend Peter Aerts by split decision in the tightly contested main event of "" in Tokyo, Japan on 21 December 2013.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven was scheduled to make his professional boxing debut against Nikolaj Falin at "Mix Fight Gala XV" in Darmstadt, Germany on 26 April 2014 but his opponent was changed to János Finfera for undisclosed reasons. Verhoeven defeated the Hungarian by second-round knockout.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: He rematched and defeated Daniel Ghiță via unanimous decision in a bout for the vacant Glory Heavyweight (+95 kg/209 lb) Championship at "" in Inglewood, California, US on June 21, 2014.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven was scheduled to make the first defense of his Glory Heavyweight title against Errol Zimmerman at , in what would be their trilogy match. Each fighter had previously won once, Verhoeven by decision, and Zimmerman by knockout.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven kept to out fighting, looking to deal damage with body kicks and straight shots, while keeping his opponent at distance with snap kicks and teep kicks. With a minute left in the first round, both fighters engaged in a wild exchange, with Errol being dropped at the end of it. He was once again dropped with a front kick, with half a minute left in the round. The fight ended in a technical knockout, as Zimmerman injured his left knee, following a missed spinning back kick.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: For his second title defense, Verhoeven was scheduled to fight the former SUPERKOMBAT Heavyweight GP winner Benjamin Adegbuyi at . Adegebuyi managed to stun the champion in the first round, before Verhoeven took over in the second. He dominated the rest of the affair, picking up in both volume and pace as the fight went on, while Adegbuyi slowed down. Rico won the fight by unanimous decision (49–47, 49–47 and 50–45).


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: After this loss, Adegbuyi won the 2015 Glory Heavyweight Contender Tournament, to once again earn a title shot at , six months after their first fight. The second fight ended with a first-round KO, with Verhoeven quickly overwhelming his opponent and knocking him out with right hook. After this fight, Verhoeven changed his nickname from "Prince of Kickboxing" to "King of Kickboxing".


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven was scheduled to defend his title for the fourth time just three months later, at , against the newly crowned FFC Heavyweight champion Mladen Brestovac. Just as with his two previous title bouts against Benjamin Adegbuyi, Verhoeven was thoroughly dominant, despite a slow first round which he lost with one of the judges. He won the fight by unanimous decision (49–46, 50–45, 50–45).


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: For his fifth consecutive title defense, Verhoeven was to face the Brazilian Anderson Braddock Silva at . Verhoeven began the fight with several leg kicks, which he would keep throwing for the duration of the bout, landing 16 kicks from 22 attempts in the first round alone. Early in the second round, he knocked Silva down with an inside right leg kick. After 40 seconds in the second round, Verhoeven once again knocked Silva down, this time with a left leg head kick. He would knock Silva down for the third time with five seconds left in the second round, forcing the referee to wave the fight off.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: The 10 December 2016 bout against former world champion Badr Hari at GLORY Collision in Oberhausen, Germany, was considered a watershed moment for Verhoeven's career, with Hari being a very entertaining, albeit controversial fighter, who had been a dominant force in the kickboxing community, while also being taller (1.98 to 1.96 m) with a reach advantage over Verhoeven. Competing for the first time in over a year, Hari promised he would knock out Verhoeven in the first round. Intending to keep his promise, Hari came out aggressively in the first round, opening a cut on Verhoeven's nose early in the fight. Hari won the first round. The GLORY heavyweight champion returned more aggressive in the second round, but the fight ended by an injury at Hari's arm after which he couldn't continue the fight. Verhoeven scored the 50th victory of his kickboxing career with a TKO.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: After defeating Hari, Glory was unable to find an appropriate opponent for Verhoeven, and so arranged for him to fight the reigning Enfusion Super Heavyweight champion Ismael Lazaar in a non-title fight at Glory 41: Holland. Verhoeven dominated the fight, with Lazaar being unable to cover the distance, being six inches shorter than the champion. He won the fight by unanimous decision. Lazaar would later fail a doping test and was suspended for four years.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: Glory would once again book Verhoeven in a non-title match against Antônio Silva, in what the website Bloody Elbow called a "gross mismatch". Silva was given a 35-1 odds to win. Verhoeven abandoned his usual strategy of outfighting, unleashing several combinations on the MMA fighter. The fight ended in a technical knockout, after Rico knocked Silva down with a head kick 43 seconds into the second round.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven fought Jamal Ben Saddik in defense of Glory heavyweight title, on 9 December 2017. In a fight that has been called the "biggest fight in kickboxing history" due to the size of the contestants, with Jamal being 6' 9", 280 lbs and Rico himself at 6' 5", 260 lbs. Jamal defeated a young Rico in their first meeting in 2011, but since then has had a record of 11 wins to 6 losses, while Rico climbed the P4P rankings and established himself as a kickboxing world champion.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: Ben Saddik found success early on in the fight, before Verhoeven took over as the fight went on, winning by a fifth-round TKO.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: Verhoven was again scheduled to defend his title at , in a rematch with Mladen Brestovac. Verhoeven had won five straight fights since their first meeting, while Brestovac came into the fight on a three fight winning streak. The champion stuck to his patented outfighting, damaging the challenger with low kicks and front kicks from distance early, and unleashing hand combinations later in the fight. Verhoeven won a comfortable unanimous decision with 50–45 on all five scorecards.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: He was scheduled to defend his title for a record setting eighth time at , when he faced the WGP Heavyweight champion Guto Inocente. Inocente would use several illegal moves during the fight, such as a foot sweep and a judo throw, however, Verhoeven would again dominate the bout, winning all five rounds on each of the judges scorecards.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: For his ninth title defense, Verhoeven was set to fight a rematch with Badr Hari at . Since their first fight, Hari had served a prison sentence, and had only fought once in the meantime, he won against Hesdy Gerges by unanimous decision but later turned into a no-contest.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: The fight itself took place in the sold out GelreDome, in front of 30 000 fans. Verhoeven began the fight in an uncharacteristically aggressive fashion, and was knocked down at the 1:40 minute mark of the first round. He found more success in the second round, but was once again knocked down with a head kick in the third round. The fight ended in the third round, with Verhoeven winning by TKO, after Hari broke his ankle with a missed kick.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: Aside from selling out the arena, the rematch also drew 3.5 million viewers, an estimated 53% of the live television audience in the Netherlands, which was the second highest viewership of a live sports broadcast, in Dutch television history.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: It was revealed by Glory in October 2020 that Verhoeven would fight a trilogy match with Jamal Ben Saddik in early 2021, although the exact date and event weren't announced. Their fight was a rubber match, as both fighters held a TKO win over the other. Their fight was later scheduled for on 30 January 2021. 11 days before the event, Ben Saddik withdrew due to a back injury. Accordingly, Verhoeven was scheduled to take part in a four-man heavyweight tournament, facing Hesdy Gerges in the semifinals, after Gerges called Verhoeven out. He won the semifinal bout against Hesdy Gerges by unanimous decision, and the final bout against Tarik Khbabez by TKO, after Khbabez retired at the end of the first round.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: It was announced on August 23, 2021 that Verhoeven would make the tenth defense of his Glory Heavyweight Championship against the 2010 K-1 World Grand Prix winner Alistair Overeem. The fight was scheduled for on October 23, 2021. On October 7, it was revealed that Overeem had suffered an injury in training and was forced to withdraw from the bout. Overeem was replaced by Jamal Ben Saddik, who stepped in on two-weeks notice. Verhoeven defeated Ben Saddik by TKO in the fourth round.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: On April 12, 2022, it was announced that Verhoeeven's next fight would take place at the inaugural "HIT IT" event, a sports and live entertainment show. Although it was initially assumed that the fight would be an exhibition bout, on June 2 it was revealed that he would face the former It's Showtime World Heavyweight champion Hesdy Gerges for the fourth time in his professional career and who he had beaten in all three of their previous meetings. The quadrilogy bout headlined the "HIT IT" event, which took place on October 29, 2022, at the Rotterdam Ahoy. Verhoeven won the fight by a fifth-round technical knockout.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven made his MMA pro debut at RXF 20: Verhoeven vs. Bogutzki in Sibiu, Romania on 19 October 2015 defeating Viktor Bogutzki by TKO in the 1st round due to punches. Prior to his MMA debut he trained in San Jose, California at the American Kickboxing Academy, where he trained with fighters like Daniel Cormier and Jon Fitch.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven is tall and very athletic for a fighter his size. Besides his physical gifts, he is an intelligent fighter. He has a wide arsenal of attacks, most notably his powerful low kicks, and a tight defense. He also worked closely with WBC and Lineal heavyweight world champion Tyson Fury, whom he credits with turning his jab into the highly effective weapon it is now.


title: Rico Verhoeven

text: Verhoeven and his ex-wife, Jacky Duchenne, have together two daughters (b. 2011 & 2015) and a son (b. 2017).


title: 2007 ICC World Twenty20

text: The 2007 ICC World Twenty20 was the inaugural Twenty20 International cricket world championship, contested in South Africa from 11 to 24 September 2007. Twelve teams took part in the thirteen-day tournament—the ten Test-playing nations and the finalists of the 2007 WCL Division One tournament: Kenya and Scotland. India won the tournament, beating Pakistan in the final.


title: 2007 ICC World Twenty20

text: In case of a tie (i.e., both teams score exactly the same number of runs at the end of their respective innings), a bowl-out decided the winner. This was applicable in all stages of the tournament. The bowl-out was used to determine the result of only one game in this tournament – the Group D game between India and Pakistan on 14 September .


title: 2007 ICC World Twenty20

text: Within each group (both group stage and Super Eight stage), teams were ranked against each other based on the following criteria:


title: 2007 ICC World Twenty20

text: By finishing first and second in the 2007 WCL Division One, Kenya and Scotland qualified for the World Twenty20.


title: 2007 ICC World Twenty20

text: The 12 participant teams were divided into four groups of three teams each. The groups were determined based on the rankings of the teams in Twenty20 as of 1 March 2007. The top two teams from each group went through to the second stage of the tournament.


title: 2007 ICC World Twenty20

text: Group A saw the only exit of a seeded team when the West Indies were eliminated after losing both their matches. Their first loss came after Chris Gayle's record 117 runs was not enough to prevent South Africa from winning and Bangladesh also winning against West Indies.


title: 2007 ICC World Twenty20

text: Group B started with World Champions Australia being defeated by Zimbabwe, Brendan Taylor scored 64 (not out) and saw the Africans home with one ball to spare.


title: 2007 ICC World Twenty20

text: In the first match Kenya scored the lowest Twenty20 International total of 73 against New Zealand and went on to lose with 12.2 overs and 9 wickets to spare. Kenya's fate was sealed when they allowed Sri Lanka to post a Twenty20 world record of 260 in the group's second match. Kenya were then bowled out for 88 and lost by a record 172 runs.


title: 2007 ICC World Twenty20

text: India and Pakistan played in the first ever World Twenty20 bowl-out. India's bowlers defeated Pakistan 3–0.


title: 2007 ICC World Twenty20

text: This tournament's Super Eight format was designed such that the top 2 seeds from each group was pre-decided at the start of the tournament. The actual performance of the team in the Group Stage played no role in determining if the team qualified into Super Eight Group E or F. For example, in Group C, though Sri Lanka finished with more points than New Zealand, for the purpose of the Super Eight groupings, New Zealand retained the group's top seed position (C1) while Sri Lanka retained the group's second seed position (C2).


title: 2007 ICC World Twenty20

text: In case a third-seeded team qualified ahead of the two top-seeded teams, it took on the seed of the eliminated team. This only happened in Group A, where Bangladesh (original seed A3) qualified ahead of West Indies (original seed A2) and therefore took on the A2 spot in Group F. The other seven top seeds qualified.


title: 2007 ICC World Twenty20

text: The eight teams were divided into two groups of four teams each. The two top teams from each Super Eight group qualified for the semi-finals.


title: 2007 ICC World Twenty20

text: India won the toss and chose to bat on what was considered to be a traditionally batsman-friendly pitch at the Bullring. Umar Gul took the wickets of both Yuvraj Singh and Mahendra Singh Dhoni, leaving India with 157/5 in 20 overs; only Gautam Gambhir (75 from 54 balls) produced a notable innings. A 21-run over from Sreesanth swung the game towards Pakistan. However, Irfan Pathan (3/16), RP Singh (3/26) and Joginder Sharma (2/20) slowed the scoring dramatically. With Pakistan needing 54 from 24 balls, Misbah-ul-Haq hit 3 sixes off Harbhajan Singh in one over. Sreesanth was also dispatched for 2 sixes but took the wicket of Sohail Tanvir, as Pakistan went into the last over needing 13 runs to win, with only 1 wicket remaining. Joginder Sharma bowled a wide first ball, followed by a dot ball. Misbah followed by taking six off a full-toss; Pakistan needed just 6 runs to win from the last four balls. Misbah attempted to hit the next ball with a paddle-scoop over fine leg, but he only managed to sky the ball, and it was caught at short fine-leg by Sreesanth, leaving Pakistan all out for 152 runs. Irfan Pathan was awarded the Man of the Match for his spell, which included 3 wickets for 16 runs, including that of Man of the Series, Shahid Afridi.


title: 2007 ICC World Twenty20

text: The leading run-scorer in the tournament was Matthew Hayden, with 265 runs, and the highest wicket-taker Umar Gul with 13 wickets.


title: 2007 ICC World Twenty20

text: The umpires were selected from the Elite Panel of ICC Umpires and the ICC International umpire panel and the referees from the Elite Panel of ICC Referees.


title: Baronet

text: A baronet ( or ; abbreviated Bart or Bt) or the female equivalent, a baronetess (, , or ; abbreviation Btss), is the holder of a baronetcy, a hereditary title awarded by the British Crown. The title of baronet is mentioned as early as the 14th century, however in its current usage was created by James I of England in 1611 as a means of raising funds for the crown.


title: Baronet

text: A baronetcy is the only British hereditary honour that is not a peerage, with the exception of the Anglo-Irish Black Knights, White Knights, and Green Knights (of whom only the Green Knights are extant). A baronet is addressed as "Sir" (just as is a knight) or "Dame" in the case of a baronetess, but ranks above all knighthoods and damehoods in the order of precedence, except for the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle, and the dormant Order of St Patrick. Baronets are conventionally seen to belong to the lesser nobility, even though William Thoms claims that:


title: Baronet

text: The precise quality of this dignity is not yet fully determined, some holding it to be the head of the , while others, again, rank Baronets as the lowest of the , because their honour, like that of the higher nobility, is both hereditary and created by patent.


title: Baronet

text: Comparisons with continental titles and ranks are tenuous due to the British system of primogeniture and because claims to baronetcies must be proven; currently the Official Roll of the Baronetage is overseen by the Ministry of Justice. In practice this means that the UK Peerage and Baronetage consist of about 1,200 families (some peers are also baronets), which is roughly less than 0.01% of UK families.


title: Baronet

text: The term "baronet" has medieval origins. Sir Thomas de La More (1322), describing the Battle of Boroughbridge, mentioned that baronets took part, along with barons and knights. Edward III created eight baronets in 1328.


title: Baronet

text: The title of baronet was initially conferred upon noblemen who lost the right of individual summons to Parliament, and was used in this sense in a statute of Richard II. A similar title of lower rank was banneret.


title: Baronet

text: Present-day baronets date from 1611 when James I granted letters patent to 200 gentlemen of good birth with an income of at least £1,000 a year; in return for the honour, each was required to pay for the upkeep of thirty soldiers for three years amounting to £1,095, in those days a very large sum. In 1619 James I established the Baronetage of Ireland; Charles I in 1625 created the Baronetages of Scotland and Nova Scotia. The new baronets were each required to pay 2,000 marks or to support six colonial settlers for two years. Over a hundred of these baronetcies, now familiarly known as Scottish baronetcies, survive to this day.


title: Baronet

text: As a result of the Union of England and Scotland in 1707, all future creations were styled baronets of Great Britain. Following the Union of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801, new creations were styled as baronets of the United Kingdom.


title: Baronet

text: Under royal warrants of 1612 and 1613, certain privileges were accorded to baronets. Firstly, no person or persons should have place between baronets and the younger sons of peers. Secondly, the right of knighthood was established for the eldest sons of baronets (this was later revoked by George IV in 1827), and thirdly, baronets were allowed to augment their armorial bearings with the Arms of Ulster on an inescutcheon: "in a field Argent, a Hand Geules (or a bloudy hand)". These privileges were extended to baronets of Ireland, and for baronets of Scotland the privilege of depicting the Arms of Nova Scotia as an augmentation of honour. The former applies to this day for all baronets of Great Britain and of the United Kingdom created subsequently.


title: Baronet

text: Like knights, baronets are accorded the style "Sir" before their first name. Baronetesses in their own right use "Dame", also before their first name, while wives of baronets use "Lady" followed by the husband's (marital) surname only, this by longstanding courtesy. Wives of baronets are not baronetesses; only women holding baronetcies in their own right are so styled.


title: Baronet

text: Unlike knighthoods – which apply to the recipient only – a baronetcy is hereditarily entailed. The eldest son of a baronet who is born in wedlock succeeds to a baronetcy upon his father's death, but will not be officially recognised until his name is recognised by being placed on the Official Roll. With some exceptions granted with special remainder by letters patent, baronetcies descend through the male line.


title: Baronet

text: A full list of extant baronets appears in "Burke's Peerage and Baronetage", which also published a record of extinct baronetcies.


title: Baronet

text: A baronetcy is not a peerage; so baronets, like knights and junior members of peerage families, are commoners and not peers of the realm. Originally, all first baronets were knighted. Baronets also had other rights, including the right to have the eldest son knighted on his 21st birthday. However, at the beginning of George IV's reign, these rights were eroded by orders-in-council on the grounds that sovereigns should not necessarily be bound by acts of their predecessors. Although never having been automatically entitled to heraldic supporters, baronets were allowed them in heredity in the first half of the 19th century if the title holder was also a Knight Grand Cross of a Crown order.


title: Baronet

text: Baronets of Scotland or Nova Scotia were allowed to augment their armorial bearings with the Arms of Nova Scotia and the privilege of wearing a neck badge signifying "of Nova Scotia", suspended by an orange-tawny ribbon. This consists of an escutcheon argent with a saltire azure, an inescutcheon of the Royal Arms of Scotland, with an Imperial Crown above the escutcheon, and encircled with the motto "Fax Mentis Honestae Gloria". This badge may be shown suspended by the ribbon below the escutcheon.


title: Baronet

text: Baronets of England and Ireland applied to King Charles I for permission to wear a badge. Although a badge was worn in the 17th century, it was not until 1929 that King George V granted permission for all baronets (other than those of Scotland) to wear badges.


title: Baronet

text: A baronet is referred to and addressed as, for example, "Sir Joseph" (using his forename). The correct style on an envelope for a baronet who has no other titles is "Sir Joseph Bloggs, Bt." or "Sir Joseph Bloggs, Bart." The letter would commence: "Dear Sir Joseph".


title: Baronet

text: The wife of a baronet is addressed and referred to as "Lady Bloggs"; at the head of a letter as "Dear Lady Bloggs". Her given name is used only when necessary to distinguish between two holders of the same title. For example, if a baronet has died and the title has passed to his son, the widow (the new baronet's mother) will remain "Lady Bloggs" if he (the son) is unmarried or never marries, but if he is married or becomes married then his wife becomes "Lady Bloggs" while his mother will be known by the style "Alice, Lady Bloggs". Alternatively, the mother may prefer to be known as "The Dowager Lady Bloggs". A previous wife will also become "Alice, Lady Bloggs" to distinguish her from the current wife of the incumbent baronet. She would not be "Lady Alice Bloggs", a style reserved for the daughters of dukes, marquesses and earls.


title: Baronet

text: In 1976, Lord Lyon King of Arms stated that, without examining the patent of every Scottish baronetcy, he was not in a position to confirm that only these four title creations could pass through female lines.


title: Baronet

text: For a baronetess one should write, for example, "Dame Daisy Smith, Btss" on the envelope. At the head of the letter, one would write "Dear Dame Daisy", and to refer to her, one would say "Dame Daisy" or "Dame Daisy Smith" (never "Dame Smith").


title: Baronet

text: All baronetcies are created with a territorial sub-designation, however only more recent creations duplicating the original creation require territorial designations. So, for example, there are baronetcies Moore of Colchester, Moore of Hancox, Moore of Kyleburn, and Moore of Moore Lodge.


title: Baronet

text: Baronetcies usually descend through heirs male of the body of the grantee, and can rarely be inherited by females or collateral kins, unless created with special remainder, for example:


title: Baronet

text: Baronets of England, Ireland, Great Britain or the United Kingdom ("i.e." all except baronets of Nova Scotia) can display the Red Hand of Ulster (sinister (left) hand version) as a heraldic badge, being the arms of the ancient kings of Ulster. This badge (or augmentation of honour) is blazoned as follows: "Argent a Hand sinister couped at the wrist extended in pale Gules". King James I of England established the hereditary Order of Baronets in England on 22 May 1611, in the words of "Collins' Peerage" (1741): "for the plantation and protection of the whole Kingdom of Ireland, but more especially for the defence and security of the Province of Ulster, and therefore for their distinction those of this order and their descendants may bear the badge (Red Hand of Ulster) in their coats of arms either in canton or an escutcheon at their election". Since 1929 such baronets may also display the Red Hand of Ulster on its own as a badge, suspended by a ribbon below the shield of arms.


title: Baronet

text: Baronets of Nova Scotia, unlike other baronets, do not use the Baronet's Badge (of Ulster), but have their own badge showing the escutcheon of the arms of Nova Scotia: "Argent, a Saltire Azure with an inescutcheon of the Royal Arms of Scotland". From before 1929 to the present it has been customary practice for such baronets to display this badge on its own suspended by the order's ribbon below the shield of arms.


title: Baronet

text: The first publication listing all baronetcies ever created was C. J. Parry's "Index of Baronetcy Creations" (1967). This listed them in alphabetical order, other than the last five creations (Dodds of West Chillington, Redmayne of Rushcliffe, Pearson of Gressingham, Finlay of Epping and Thatcher of Scotney). It showed the total number created from 1611 to 1964 to have been 3,482. They include five of Oliver Cromwell, several of which were recreated by Charles II. Twenty-five were created between 1688 and 1784 by James II in exile after his dethronement, by his son James Stuart ("The Old Pretender") and his grandson Charles Edward Stuart ("Bonnie Prince Charlie"). These "Jacobite baronetcies" were never accepted by the English Crown, have all disappeared and should properly be excluded from the 3,482, making the effective number of creations 3,457. A close examination of Parry's publication shows he missed one or two, so there might well have been some more.


title: Baronet

text: As of 2000, including baronetcies where succession was dormant or unproven, there was a total of 1,314 baronetcies divided into five classes of creation included on "The Official Roll of the Baronetage" – 146 of England, 63 of Ireland, 119 of Scotland, 133 of Great Britain and 853 of the United Kingdom.


title: Baronet

text: The total number of baronetcies today is approximately 1,204, although only some 1,020 are on "The Official Roll of the Baronetage". It is unknown whether some baronetcies remain extant and it may be that nobody can prove himself to be the actual heir. Over 200 baronetcies are now held by peers; and others, such as the Knox line, have been made tenuous by internal family disputes.


title: Baronet

text: There were 1,490 baronetcies extant on 1 January 1965. Since then the number has reduced by 286 through extinction or dormancy: a gross decline of 19.2% (up to 2017). Extant baronetcies numbered about 1,236 in 2015, and 1,204 as of 2017.


title: Baronet

text: Since 1965 only one new baronetcy has been created, for Sir Denis Thatcher on 7 December 1990, husband of a former British prime minister, Margaret Thatcher ("later" Baroness Thatcher); their eldest son, Sir Mark Thatcher, succeeded as 2nd Baronet upon his father's death in 2003.


title: Baronet

text: Seven baronetcies dormant in 1965 have since been revived: Innes baronetcy, "of Coxton" (1686), Nicolson baronetcy of that Ilk and of Lasswade (1629), Hope baronetcy, "of Kirkliston" (1698), St John ("later" St John-Mildmay) baronetcy, "of Farley" (1772), Maxwell-Macdonald baronetcy of Pollok (1682), Inglis baronetcy, "of Cramond, Edinburgh" (1687) and Von Friesendorff baronetcy, "of Hirdech, Sweden" (1661).


title: Baronet

text: The Premier Baronet (of England) is the unofficial title afforded to the current holder of the oldest extant baronetcy in the realm. The Premier Baronet is regarded as the senior member of the Baronetage, and ranks above other baronets (unless they hold a peerage title) in the United Kingdom Order of Precedence. Sir Nicholas Bacon, 14th Baronet, is the current Premier Baronet; his family's senior title was created by King James I in 1611.


title: Baronet

text: The Premier Baronets of Nova Scotia (Scotland) were the Gordon baronets of Gordonstoun and Letterfourie until the title's extinction in 1908. Subsequently, the Premier Scottish Baronets are the Innes baronets of that Ilk (cr. 28 May 1625), the present Premier Baronet being Charles Innes-Ker, 11th Duke of Roxburghe.


title: Baronet

text: The Premier Baronetcy of Ireland was created for Sir Dominic Sarsfield in 1619, and was held by his successors until the attainder of the 4th Viscount Sarsfield in 1691. Since then the descendants of Sir Francis Annesley Bt., the Annesley baronets, have been the Premier Baronets of Ireland; presently Francis William Dighton Annesley, 16th Viscount Valentia.


title: Alcohol proof

text: Alcohol proof (usually termed simply "proof" in relation to a beverage) is a measure of the content of ethanol (alcohol) in an alcoholic beverage. The term was originally used in England and was equal to about 1.8 times the percentage of alcohol by volume (ABV). The UK now uses ABV instead of proof. In the United States, alcohol proof is defined as twice the percentage of ABV. The definition of proof in terms of ABV varies from country to country.


title: Alcohol proof

text: The measurement of alcohol content and the statement of content on bottles of alcoholic beverages is regulated by law in many countries. In 1972, Canada phased out the use of "proof"; in 1973, the European Union followed suit; and the UK, where the concept originated, started using ABV instead in 1980. The US code mandates the use of ABV, but permits proof to be used also.


title: Alcohol proof

text: The term "proof" dates back to 16th century England, when spirits were taxed at different rates depending on their alcohol content. Similar terminology and methodology spread to other nations as spirit distillation, and taxation, became common. In England, spirits were originally tested with a basic "burn-or-no-burn" test, in which an alcohol-containing liquid that would ignite was said to be "above proof", and one which would not was said to be "under proof". A liquid just alcoholic enough to maintain combustion was defined as 100 proof and was the basis for taxation. Because the flash point of alcohol is highly dependent on temperature, 100 proof defined this way ranges from 20% at to 96% at alcohol by (ABW); at 100 proof would be 50% AB.


title: Alcohol proof

text: Another early method for testing liquor's alcohol content was the "gunpowder method". Gunpowder was soaked in a spirit, and if the gunpowder could still burn, the spirit was rated above proof. This test relies on the fact that potassium nitrate (a chemical in gunpowder) is significantly more soluble in water than in alcohol. While less influenced by temperature than the simpler burn-or-no-burn test, gunpowder tests also lacked true reproducibility. Factors including the grain size of gunpowder and the time it sat in the spirit impact the dissolution of potassium nitrate and therefore what would be defined as 100 proof. However, the gunpowder method is significantly less variable than the burn-or-no-burn method, and 100 proof defined by it is traditionally defined as 57.15% ABV.


title: Alcohol proof

text: By the end of the 17th century, England had introduced tests based on specific gravity for defining proof. However, it was not until 1816 that a legal standard based on specific density was defined in England. 100 proof was defined as a spirit with the specific gravity of pure water at the same temperature. From the 19th century until 1 January 1980, the UK officially measured alcohol content by proof spirit, defined as spirit with a gravity of that of water, or , and equivalent to 57.15% ABV.


title: Alcohol proof

text: The value 57.15% is very close to the fraction . This led to the definition that 100-proof spirit has an ABV of . From this, it follows that to convert the ABV expressed as a percentage to degrees proof, it is only necessary to multiply the ABV by . Thus pure 100% alcohol will have 100×() = 175 proof, and a spirit containing 40% ABV will have 40×() = 70 proof.


title: Alcohol proof

text: The proof system in the United States was established around 1848 and was based on percent alcohol rather than specific gravity. Fifty percent alcohol by volume was defined as 100 proof. Note that this is different from 50% volume fraction (expressed as a percentage); the latter does not take into account change in volume on mixing, whereas the former does. To make 50% ABV from pure alcohol, one would take 50 parts of alcohol and dilute to 100 parts of solution with water, all the while mixing the solution. To make 50% alcohol by volume fraction, one would take 50 parts alcohol and 50 parts water, measured separately, and then mix them together. The resulting volume will not be 100 parts but between 96 and 97 parts, since the smaller water molecules can take up some of the space between the larger alcohol molecules (see volume change).


title: Alcohol proof

text: The use of proof as a measure of alcohol content is now mostly historical. Today, liquor is sold in most locations with labels that state its percentage alcohol by volume.


title: Alcohol proof

text: The European Union (EU) follows recommendations of the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML). OIML's International Recommendation No. 22 (1973) provides standards for measuring alcohol strength by volume and by mass. A preference for one method over the other is not stated in the document, but if alcohol strength by volume is used, it must be expressed as a percentage of total volume, and the water/alcohol mixture must have a temperature of when measurement is done. The document does not address alcohol proof or the labeling of bottles.


title: Alcohol proof

text: On 1 January 1980, Britain adopted the ABV system of measurement prescribed by the European Union, of which it was a member. The OIML recommendation for ABV used by the EU states the alcohol by volume in a mixture containing alcohol as a percentage of the total volume of the mixture at a temperature of . It replaced the Sikes hydrometer method of measuring the proof of spirits, which had been used in Britain for over 160 years.


title: Alcohol proof

text: In the United States, alcohol content is legally required to be specified as an ABV percentage. For bottled spirits over containing no solids, actual alcohol content is allowed to vary within 0.15% of ABV stated on the label. Proof (the term "degrees proof" is not used), defined as twice the percentage of alcohol by volume, may also be stated. For example, whisky may be labeled as 50% ABV and as 100 proof; 86-proof whisky contains 43% ABV. The most typical bottling proof for spirits in the United States is 80 US proof, and there is special legal recognition of 100-proof spirits in the bottled in bond category defined since 1897.


title: Alcohol proof

text: The Code of Federal Regulations requires that liquor labels state the percentage of ABV. The regulation permits, but does not require, a statement of the proof, provided that it is printed close to the ABV number. In practice, proof levels continue to be stated on nearly all spirits labels in the United States, and are more commonly used than ABV when describing spirits in journalism and informal settings.


title: Scream queen

text: A scream queen (a wordplay on "screen queen") is an actress who is prominent and influential in horror films, either through a notable appearance or recurring roles. A scream king is her male equivalent.


title: Scream queen

text: The term "scream queen" is more specifically used to refer to the "attractive young damsels-in-distress" characters that have appeared in a number of films in the horror genre. Lloyd Kaufman, co-founder of Troma Entertainment, noted that being a scream queen is "more than just crying and having ketchup thrown on you. You not only have to be attractive, but you also have to have a big brain. You have to be frightened, you have to be sad, you have to be romantic."


title: Scream queen

text: Debbie Rochon, often described as a scream queen herself, wrote in an article originally published in "GC Magazine" that "a true Scream Queen isn't The Perfect Woman. She's sexy, seductive, but most importantly 'attainable' to the average guy. Or so it would seem." And although the earlier scream queens might be women that "just had to look pretty and shriek a lot until the hero of the film got around to save (them)", the later scream queens "showcase women worrying about something other than a guy...unless said guy is the one trying to kill them", with some of them "wreaking vengeance" by defeating the villain.


title: Scream queen

text: The prominence of women in horror films dates back to the silent film era, with films such as "The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari" (1920) and "Nosferatu" (1922). George Feltenstein, film historian and senior vice president of theatrical catalog marketing at Warner Home Video, states, "Women screaming in terror has been a Hollywood mainstay — even when films were silent".


title: Scream queen

text: Sandra Peabody, who portrayed Mari Collingwood in "The Last House on the Left" (1972), Marilyn Burns, who portrayed Sally Hardesty in "The Texas Chain Saw Massacre" (1974), Olivia Hussey, who portrayed Jess Bradford in "Black Christmas" (1974), and Jamie Lee Curtis, who portrayed Laurie Strode in "Halloween" (1978).


title: Scream queen

text: After "The Last House on the Left", Peabody went on to appear in the horror films "Voices of Desire" (1972), "Massage Parlor Murders" (1973), "Case of the Full Moon Murders" (1973), and "Legacy of Satan" (1974). Burns followed her performance in "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre" with roles in "Helter Skelter" (1976) and "Eaten Alive" (1977). In "Halloween", Jamie Lee Curtis, daughter of "Psycho" actress Janet Leigh, had her first film role. Portraying Laurie Strode in "Halloween", Curtis established herself as the "ultimate 'scream queen'" and was even referenced as such in the horror film "Scream" (1996) by Randy Meeks. Curtis went on to star in several other horror films after that, two of them being "The Fog" and "", in both of which she appears with Leigh.


title: Scream queen

text: Dee Wallace appeared in Wes Craven's 1977 horror film "The Hills Have Eyes" before going onto establish herself as a scream queen in the 80s by appearing in "The Howling" (1981), "Cujo" (1983) and "Critters" (1986).


title: Scream queen

text: Daria Nicolodi played the role of the scream queen in most of her films ("Deep Red", "Inferno", "Phenomena", "Terror at the Opera"). Also Mario Bava called on Nicolodi for "Shock" (1977). In 1982, Nicolodi played Anne in Dario Argento's "Tenebrae".


title: Scream queen

text: Veronica Cartwright was also a prominent scream queen of the 1970s, appearing in the 1978 remake of "Invasion of the Body Snatchers" as well as "Alien" in 1979. She began her career as a scream queen in Alfred Hitchcock’s "The Birds".


title: Scream queen

text: The success of "Halloween" made slasher films known again, and so that type of film saw a revival during the late 1970s and entire 1980s. A few such films worth mentioning include "Terror Train" and "Prom Night", in which Jamie Lee Curtis would again essay this type of role; "Friday the 13th", the first entry to have both a female antagonist (Betsy Palmer) and protagonist (Adrienne King); and "A Nightmare on Elm Street", now considered a slasher-classic, which introduced supernatural serial killer Freddy Krueger, and whose leading actress, Heather Langenkamp, was dubbed a scream queen, and went on to become one of the most influential. Linnea Quigley also became a scream queen during the 1980s, appearing specifically in low-budget and cult-classic films such as "Silent Night, Deadly Night" and "Return of the Living Dead". Mark Patton, star of "" (1985), has in recent years been touted at horror conventions as mainstream horror's first "male scream queen". Bruce Campbell, lead actor of the "Evil Dead" franchise, has been branded as "the definitive scream king."


title: Scream queen

text: British actress Catriona MacColl became a scream queen after appearing in three Italian horror films directed by Lucio Fulci. "City of the Living Dead" (1980), "The Beyond" (1981) and "House by the Cemetery" (1981) have all gone on to gain a cult following.


title: Scream queen

text: Following her Saturn Award-nominated turn in "", Oscar-nominee Linda Blair parlayed her classic 1973 "The Exorcist" role into a slew of 80s horror performances, including "Hell Night", "Witchery", "Grotesque", and "The Chilling". She would continue making horror films into the 1990s, with a cameo in Wes Craven's "Scream" and the lead role in the Australian thriller "Dead Sleep". In 2008, at the Malaga Fantasy & Horror Film Festival, Blair received a lifetime achievement award for her work in the horror genre. After a long hiatus from horror films, Blair returned to form in Juliana Brafa's "All Is Normal" (2005) and the upcoming thriller "Landfill" (2021).


title: Scream queen

text: During the 1990s, Debbie Rochon starred in dozens of Troma Production horror films and was voted by "Draculina" magazine as its "Scream Queen of the Decade". Sheryl Lee played murder victims Laura Palmer and Maddy Ferguson in the TV series "Twin Peaks" (1990–91) and spinoff movie "" (1992) and has been described as a "scream queen", in particular for scenes in the otherworldly Black Lodge. Neve Campbell also began her career in horror with "The Craft" (1996), and later went on to star as Sidney Prescott in the "Scream" film series. Jennifer Love Hewitt was reckoned a scream queen after her "I Know What You Did Last Summer" films. The first film of that trilogy also had a starring role for Sarah Michelle Gellar, who went on to appear in other horror films made during the 1990s and new millennium, including "Scream 2" and "The Grudge" film series.


title: Scream queen

text: In 2005, Shauna Macdonald starred in "The Descent", which established her as a scream queen and for which she was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Actress. Elisha Cuthbert starred in the horror film "House of Wax" (2005) and "Captivity" (2007), gaining the status by from films. In 2007, "USA Today" published an article listing on modern scream queens interviewing actresses Sheri Moon Zombie, Jaimie Alexander, Andrea Bogart, Mercedes McNab, Tiffany Shepis and Cerina Vincent. Since 2007 and her appearance in "Halloween", Danielle Harris has increased her genre work, being subsequently called "horror's reigning scream queen" by the "NY Daily News".


title: Scream queen

text: Bipasha Basu has been referred as "Bollywood's Scream Queen" due to her contributions to horror in India with her blockbuster horror movies like "Raaz" (2002) and "Raaz 3D" (2012).


title: Scream queen

text: In 2016, Screen Rant listed the "15 Greatest Scream Queens in Horror History", which includes Linda Blair, Danielle Harris, Lisa Wilcox, Vera Farmiga, Janet Leigh, Marilyn Burns, Veronica Cartwright, Neve Campbell, Naomi Watts, Heather Langenkamp, Eva Green, Chloë Grace Moretz, Sarah Michelle Gellar, Barbara Steele and Jamie Lee Curtis.


title: Scream queen

text: Indonesian actress Tara Basro has been described as a "scream queen" for her roles in Joko Anwar's films "Satan's Slaves" (2017) and "Impetigore" (2019).


title: Scream queen

text: Jenna Ortega starred in the slasher films "X" and "Scream" (both 2022), establishing herself as a scream queen.


title: Scream queen

text: "Scream Queens Illustrated" magazine featured pictorials, interviews, reviews, and other content concerning such Hollywood scream queens as Barbara Bauer, Becky Sunshine, Tina Krause, Julia Hayes, Julie Strain, Monique Gabrielle, Brinke Stevens, Linnea Quigley, Rhonda Shear, Xenia Gratsos ("Brioni Farrell"), Lorissa McComas, June Wilkinson, Debbie Rochon, Sherri Frazer, Melissa Wolf, and Cassandra Peterson ("Elvira").


title: Scream queen

text: More recently, the term "scream king" has been used to refer to male leading actors who have made their name through taking on leading roles in horror movies as a "final guy" character. Rachel Roth defines the rise of the "scream kings" as a result of moving away from formulas where men are typically cast as monsters for a female character to fight off and female actresses being cast less as victims and sometimes as the monster or villain themselves. Roth cites Bruce Campbell as an early example of a scream king for his role in the "Evil Dead" franchise. Notable actors who have earned reputations as scream kings include Devon Sawa known for Idle Hands (film) and Final Destination, Patrick Wilson who has appeared "Annabelle Comes Home," "Insidious" and "The Conjuring", Evan Peters for being the only male actor to appear in nine of the ten seasons of "American Horror Story", Ian Ogilvy for his earlier screen roles in British cult horrors such as "Witchfinder General," Daniel Kaluuya for his performance in "Get Out" and "Nope," Finn Wolfhard for his roles in "It" and "Stranger Things", and Shawn Roberts.


title: Triamcinolone

text: Triamcinolone is a glucocorticoid used to treat certain skin diseases, allergies, and rheumatic disorders among others. It is also used to prevent worsening of asthma and COPD. It can be taken in various ways including by mouth, injection into a muscle, and inhalation.


title: Triamcinolone

text: Common side effects with long-term use include osteoporosis, cataracts, thrush, and muscle weakness. Serious side effects may include psychosis, increased risk of infections, adrenal suppression, and bronchospasm. Use in pregnancy is generally safe. It works by decreasing inflammation and immune system activity.


title: Triamcinolone

text: Triamcinolone was patented in 1956 and came into medical use in 1958. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 106th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 6million prescriptions.


title: Triamcinolone

text: Triamcinolone is used to treat a number of different medical conditions, such as eczema, alopecia areata, lichen sclerosus, psoriasis, arthritis, allergies, ulcerative colitis, lupus, sympathetic ophthalmia, temporal arteritis, uveitis, ocular inflammation, keloids, urushiol-induced contact dermatitis, aphthous ulcers (usually as triamcinolone acetonide), central retinal vein occlusion, visualization during vitrectomy and the prevention of asthma attacks.


title: Triamcinolone

text: The derivative triamcinolone acetonide is the active ingredient in various topical skin preparations (cream, lotion, ointment, aerosol spray) designed to treat skin conditions such as rash, inflammation, redness, or intense itching due to eczema and dermatitis.


title: Triamcinolone

text: Contraindications for systemic triamcinolone are similar to those of other corticoids. They include systemic mycoses (fungal infections) and parasitic diseases, as well as eight weeks before and two weeks after application of live vaccines. For long-term treatment, the drug is also contraindicated in people with peptic ulcers, severe osteoporosis, severe myopathy, certain viral infections, glaucoma, and metastasizing tumours.


title: Triamcinolone

text: Side effects of triamcinolone are similar to other corticoids. In short-term treatment up to ten days, it has very few adverse effects; however, sometimes gastrointestinal bleeding is seen, as well as acute infections (mainly viral) and impaired glucose tolerance.


title: Triamcinolone

text: Side effects of triamcinolone long-term treatment may include coughing (up to bronchospasms), sinusitis, metabolic syndrome–like symptoms such as high blood sugar and cholesterol, weight gain due to water retention, and electrolyte imbalance, as well as cataract, thrush, osteoporosis, reduced muscle mass, and psychosis. Triamcinolone injections can cause bruising and joint swelling. Symptoms of an allergic reaction include rash, itch, swelling, severe dizziness, trouble breathing, and anaphylaxis.


title: Triamcinolone

text: Drug interactions are mainly pharmacodynamic, that is, they result from other drugs either adding to triamcinolone's corticoid side effects or working against its desired effects. They include:


title: Triamcinolone

text: Triamcinolone and other drugs can also influence each other's concentrations in the body, amounting to pharmacokinetic interactions such as:


title: Triamcinolone

text: Triamcinolone is a glucocorticoid that is about five times as potent as cortisol, but has very little mineralocorticoid effects.


title: Triamcinolone

text: When taken by mouth, the drug's bioavailability is over 90%. It reaches highest concentrations in the blood plasma after one to two hours and is bound to plasma proteins to about 80%. The biological half-life from the plasma is 200 to 300 minutes; due to stable complexes of triamcinolone and its receptor in the intracellular fluid, the total half-life is significantly longer at about 36 hours.


title: Triamcinolone

text: A small fraction of the substance is metabolized to 6-hydroxy- and 20-dihydro-triamcinolone; most of it probably undergoes glucuronidation, and a smaller part sulfation. Three quarters are excreted via the urine, and the rest via the faeces.


title: Triamcinolone

text: Due to corticoids' mechanism of action, the effects are delayed as compared to plasma concentrations. Depending on the route of administration and the treated condition, the onset of action can be from two hours up to one or two days after application; and the drug can act much longer than its elimination half-life would suggest.


title: Triamcinolone

text: Triamcinolone is a synthetic pregnane corticosteroid and derivative of cortisol (hydrocortisone) and is also known as 1-dehydro-9α-fluoro-16α-hydroxyhydrocortisone or 9α-fluoro-16α-hydroxyprednisolone as well as 9α-fluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione.


title: Triamcinolone

text: The substance is a light-sensitive, white to off-white, crystalline powder, or has the form of colourless, matted crystals. It has no odour or is nearly odourless. Information on the melting point varies, partly due to the substance's polymorphism: , , or can be found in the literature.


title: Triamcinolone

text: Solubility is 1:500 in water and 1:240 in ethanol; it is slightly soluble in methanol, very slightly soluble in chloroform and diethylether, and practically insoluble in dichloromethane. The specific rotation is formula_1 +65° to +72° cm³/dm·g (1% in dimethylformamide).


title: Triamcinolone

text: According to Chang et al. (2014), "Triamcinolone acetonide (TA) is classified as an S9 glucocorticoid in the 2014 Prohibited List published by the World Anti-Doping Agency, which caused it to be prohibited in international athletic competition when administered orally, intravenously, intramuscularly or rectally".


title: 2004–05 UEFA Champions League

text: The 2004–05 UEFA Champions League was the 50th season of UEFA's premier European club football tournament, and the 13th since it was rebranded as the UEFA Champions League in 1992. The competition was won by Liverpool, who beat Milan on penalties in the final, having come back from 3–0 down at half-time. Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard was named as UEFA's Footballer of the Year for his key role in the final and throughout the Champions League season. The final, played at the Atatürk Olympic Stadium in Istanbul, Turkey, is often regarded as one of the best in the history of the tournament.


title: 2004–05 UEFA Champions League

text: As it was their fifth European Cup title, Liverpool were awarded the trophy permanently, and received the UEFA Badge of Honour. A new trophy was made for the 2005–06 season.


title: 2004–05 UEFA Champions League

text: Porto were the defending champions, but were eliminated by Milan's cross-city rival Internazionale in the first knockout round.


title: 2004–05 UEFA Champions League

text: A total of 72 teams from 48 of the 52 UEFA member associations participated in the 2004–05 UEFA Champions League (the exception being Liechtenstein, which does not organise a domestic league, Andorra and San Marino). Kazakhstan also did not participate this year as none of their clubs were able to obtain UEFA license. The association ranking based on the UEFA country coefficients was used to determine the number of participating teams for each association:


title: 2004–05 UEFA Champions League

text: For the 2004–05 UEFA Champions League, the associations are allocated places according to their 2003 UEFA country coefficients, which takes into account their performance in European competitions from 1998–1999 to 2002–03.


title: 2004–05 UEFA Champions League

text: Apart from the allocation based on the country coefficients, associations may have additional teams participating in the Champions League, as noted below:


title: 2004–05 UEFA Champions League

text: Since the title holders (Porto) qualified for the Champions League group stage through their domestic league, and the group stage spot reserved for the title holders is vacated, while no team from Kazakhstan was admitted, the following changes to the default access list are made:


title: 2004–05 UEFA Champions League

text: The schedule of the competition is as follows (all draws are held at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland, unless stated otherwise).


title: 2004–05 UEFA Champions League

text: 16 winners from the third qualifying round, 10 champions from countries ranked 1–10, and six second-placed teams from countries ranked 1–6 were drawn into eight groups of four teams each. The top two teams in each group will advance to the Champions League play-offs, while the third-placed teams will advance to the third round of the UEFA Cup.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Princeton is a municipality with a borough form of government in Mercer County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It was established on January 1, 2013, through the consolidation of the Borough of Princeton and Princeton Township, both of which are now defunct. Centrally located within the Raritan Valley region, Princeton is a regional commercial hub for the Central New Jersey region and a commuter town in the New York metropolitan area. As of the 2010 United States census, the municipality's population was 28,572, reflecting the former township's population of 16,265, along with the 12,307 in the former borough.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Princeton was founded before the American Revolutionary War. It is the home of Princeton University, which bears its name and moved to the community in 1756 from its previous location in Newark. Although its association with the university is primarily what makes Princeton a college town, other important institutions in the area include the Institute for Advanced Study, Westminster Choir College, Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton Theological Seminary, Opinion Research Corporation, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Siemens Corporate Research, SRI International, FMC Corporation, The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, Amrep, Church and Dwight, Berlitz International, and Dow Jones & Company.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Princeton is roughly equidistant from New York City and Philadelphia. It is close to many major highways that serve both cities (e.g., Interstate 95 and U.S. Route 1), and receives major television and radio broadcasts from each. It is also close to Trenton, New Jersey's capital city, New Brunswick and Edison.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: The New Jersey governor's official residence has been in Princeton since 1945, when Morven in what was then Princeton Borough became the first Governor's mansion. In 1982, it was replaced by the larger Drumthwacket, a colonial mansion located in the former Township, but not all have actually lived in these houses. Morven became a museum property of the New Jersey Historical Society.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Princeton was ranked 15th of the top 100 towns in the United States to Live In by "Money" magazine in 2005.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Throughout much of its history, the community was composed of two separate municipalities: a township and a borough. The central borough was completely surrounded by the township. The borough seceded from the township in 1894 in a dispute over school taxes; the two municipalities later formed the Princeton Public Schools, and some other public services were conducted together before they were reunited into a single Princeton in January 2013. Princeton Borough contained Nassau Street, the main commercial street, most of the university campus, and incorporated most of the urban area until the postwar suburbanization. The borough and township had roughly equal populations.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Europeans settled into the area in the late part of the 17th century, arriving from Delaware to settle West Jersey, and from New York to settle East Jersey, with the site destined to become Princeton being amid the wilderness between these two boroughs. The first European to find his home in the boundaries of the future municipality was Henry Greenland. He built his house in 1683 along with a tavern, where representatives of West and East Jersey met to set the boundaries between the two provinces. Greenland's son-in-law Daniel Brimson inhabited the area by 1690, and left property in a will dated 1696.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Then, Princeton was known only as part of nearby Stony Brook. Nathaniel Fitz Randolph, a native of the town, attested in his private journal on December 28, 1758, that Princeton was named in 1724 upon the making/construction of the first house in the area by James Leonard, who first referred to the community as "Princetown" when describing the location of his large estate in his diary. The community was later known by a variety of names, including: "Princetown", "Prince's Town" and finally "Princeton". The name Princeton was first used in 1724 and became common within the subsequent decade. Although there is no official documentary backing, the municipality is said to be named after King William III, Prince William of Orange of the House of Nassau. Another theory suggests that the name came from a large land-owner named Henry Prince, the son-in-law of a well-known English merchant, but no evidence backs this contention. A royal prince seems a more likely eponym for the settlement, as three nearby towns had names for royalty: Kingston, Queenstown (in the vicinity of the intersection of Nassau and Harrison Streets) and Princessville (Lawrence Township).


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Princeton was described by William Edward Schenck in 1850 as having attained "no very considerable size" until the establishment of the College of New Jersey in the town. When Richard Stockton, one of the founders of the township, died in 1709 he left his estate to his sons, who helped to expand property and the population. Based on the 1880 United States Census, the population of Princeton comprised 3,209 persons (not including students). Local population has expanded from the nineteenth century. According to the 2010 Census, Princeton Borough had 12,307 inhabitants, while Princeton Township had 16,265. The numbers have become stagnant; since the arrival of the College of New Jersey, now Princeton University, in 1756, the town's population spikes every year during the fall and winter and drops significantly over the course of the summer.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: In the pivotal Battle of Princeton in January 1777, George Washington forced the British to evacuate southern New Jersey. After the victory, Princeton hosted the first Legislature under the State Constitution to decide the State's seal, Governor and organization of its government. In addition, two of the original signers of the Declaration of Independence—Richard Stockton and John Witherspoon lived in Princeton. Princetonians honored their citizens' legacy by naming two streets in the downtown area after them.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: On January 10, 1938, Henry Ewing Hale called for a group of citizens to establish a "Historical Society of Princeton." Later the Bainbridge House, constructed in 1766 by Job Stockton, would be dedicated for this purpose. Previously the house was used once for a meeting of Continental Congress in 1783, a general office, and as the Princeton Public Library. The House is owned by Princeton University and is leased to the Princeton Historical Society for one dollar per year. The house has kept its original staircase, flooring and paneled walls. Around 70% of the house has been unaltered. Aside from safety features such as wheelchair access and electrical work, the house has been restored to its original look.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: During the most stirring events in its history, Princeton was a wide spot in the road; the boundary between Somerset County and Middlesex County ran right through Princeton, along the high road between New York and Philadelphia, now Nassau Street. When Mercer County was formed in 1838, part of West Windsor Township was added to the portion of Montgomery Township which was included in the new county, and made into Princeton Township; the area between the southern boundary of the former Borough and the Delaware and Raritan Canal was added to Princeton Township in 1853. Princeton Borough became a separate municipality in 1894.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: In the early nineteenth century, New Jersey boroughs had been quasi-independent subdivisions chartered within existing townships that did not have full autonomy. Princeton Borough received such a charter in 1813, as part of Montgomery and West Windsor Townships; it continued to be part of Princeton Township until the Borough Act of 1894, which required that each township to form a single school district; rather than do so, Princeton Borough petitioned to be separated. (The two Princetons combined their public school systems in the decades before municipal consolidation.) Two minor boundary changes united the then site of the Princeton Hospital and of the Princeton Regional High School inside the Borough, in 1928 and 1951 respectively.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Princeton had a total area of 18.41 square miles (47.69 km), including 17.95 square miles (46.48 km) of land and 0.47 square miles (1.21 km) of water (2.53%).


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Cedar Grove, Port Mercer, Princeton Basin, and Jugtown are unincorporated communities that have been absorbed into Greater Princeton over the years, but still maintain their own community identity.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Princeton borders the municipalities of Hopewell Township, Lawrence and West Windsor Townships in Mercer County; Plainsboro Township and South Brunswick Township in Middlesex County; and Franklin Township and Montgomery Township in Somerset County.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: United States Postal ZIP codes for Princeton include 08540, 08541 (Educational Testing Service), 08542 (largely the old Borough), 08543 (PO boxes), and 08544 (the University).


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Under the Köppen climate classification, Princeton falls within either a hot-summer humid continental climate ("Dfa") if the isotherm is used or a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa") if the isotherm is used. During the summer months, episodes of extreme heat and humidity can occur with heat index values ≥ 100 °F (≥ 38 °C). On average, the wettest month of the year is July which corresponds with the annual peak in thunderstorm activity. During the winter months, episodes of extreme cold and wind can occur with wind chill values < 0 °F (< −18 °C). The plant hardiness zone at the Princeton Municipal Court is 6b with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of −0.9 °F (−18.3 °C). The average seasonal (November–April) snowfall total is and the average snowiest month is February which corresponds with the annual peak in nor'easter activity.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Princeton, New Jersey, would have an Appalachian Oak ("104") vegetation type with an Eastern Hardwood Forest ("25") vegetation form.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: According to the website Data USA, Princeton has a population of 30,168 people, of which 85% are US citizens. The ethnic composition of the population is 20,393 White residents (67.6%), 4,636 Asian residents (15.4%), 2,533 Hispanic residents (8.4%), 1,819 Black residents (6.03%), and 618 Two+ residents (2.05%). The most common foreign languages are Chinese (1,800 speakers), Spanish (1,429 speakers), and French (618 speakers), but compared to other places, Princeton has a relatively high number of speakers of Scandinavian languages (425 speakers), Italian (465 speakers), and German (1,000 speakers).


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Princeton is governed under the Borough form of New Jersey municipal government, which is used in 218 municipalities (of the 564) statewide, making it the most common form of government in New Jersey. The governing body is comprised of the Mayor and the Borough Council, with all positions elected at-large on a partisan basis as part of the November general election. The Mayor is elected directly by the voters to a four-year term of office. The Borough Council is comprised of six members elected to serve three-year terms on a staggered basis, with two seats coming up for election each year in a three-year cycle. The Borough form of government used by Princeton is a "weak mayor / strong council" government in which council members act as the legislative body with the mayor presiding at meetings and voting only in the event of a tie. The mayor can veto ordinances subject to an override by a two-thirds majority vote of the council. The mayor makes committee and liaison assignments for council members, and most appointments are made by the mayor with the advice and consent of the council.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: The Mayor is elected directly by the voters to a four-year term of office, serves as Princeton's chief executive officer and nominates appointees to various boards and commissions subject to approval of the council. The Mayor presides at Council meetings and votes in the case of a tie or a few other specific cases. The Council consists of six members elected to serve three-year terms on a staggered basis, with two seats coming up for election each year in a three-year cycle. The council has administrative powers and is the policy-making body for Princeton. The Council approves appointments made by the Mayor. Council Members serve on various boards and committees and act as liaisons to certain Departments, Committees or Boards.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: , the mayor of Princeton is Democrat Mark Freda, who is serving a four-year term expiring on December 31, 2023. Members of the Princeton Council are Council President Leticia Fraga (D, 2023), David F. Cohen (D, 2023), Eve Niedergang (D, 2024), Michelle Pirone Lambros (D, 2022), Leighton Newlin (D, 2024) and Mia Sacks (D, 2022).


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: In 2018, Princeton had an average property tax bill of $19,388, the highest in the county, compared to an average bill of $8,767 statewide.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: The first attempt to consolidate borough and township was made in the 1950's (and failed). Two subsequent attempts were voted down by borough residents, in large part due to different zoning needs of the densely populated borough versus the more suburban township (surrounding the borough). The ability to win a vote for consolidation in the township required, finally, the participation of numerous Princeton University students, who did not have the same concerns about zoning that property-owning residents of the borough had. After four previous efforts at consolidation had failed, the residents of both the Borough of Princeton and the Township of Princeton voted on November 8, 2011, to merge the two municipalities into one. Student voters were active throughout the campaign and likely contributed strongly to the measure passing. In Princeton Borough 1,385 voted for and 902 voted against, while in Princeton Township 3,542 voted for and 604 voted against. Proponents of the merger asserted that when the merger is completed the new municipality of Princeton would save $3.2 million as a result of some scaled down services including layoffs of 15 government workers including 9 police officers (however the measure itself does not mandate such layoffs). Opponents of the measure challenged the findings of a report citing a cost savings as unsubstantiated, and noted that voter representation would be reduced in a smaller government structure. The merger was the first in the state since 1997, when Pahaquarry Township voted to consolidate with Hardwick Township The consolidation took effect on January 1, 2013.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Princeton is located in the 12th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 16th state legislative district. Prior to the 2011 reapportionment following the 2010 Census, the former Princeton Borough and Princeton Township had both been in the 15th state legislative district.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: As of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 18,049 registered voters in Princeton (a sum of the former borough and township's voters), of which 9,184 (50.9%) were registered as Democrats, 2,140 (11.9%) were registered as Republicans and 6,703 (37.1%) were registered as unaffiliated. There were 22 voters registered as Libertarians or Greens.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: In both the 2016 and 2020 presidential elections, the Democratic nommiee received over 80% of the vote. In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 75.4% of the vote (9,461 cast), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 23.0% (2,882 votes), and other candidates with 1.6% (205 votes), among the 14,752 ballots cast by the municipality's 20,328 registered voters (2,204 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 72.6%.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Democrat Barbara Buono received 58.8% of the vote (4,172 cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 39.2% (2,780 votes), and other candidates with 2.0% (145 votes), among the 7,279 ballots cast by the municipality's 18,374 registered voters (182 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 39.6%.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Princeton University, one of the world's most prominent research universities, is a dominant feature of the community. Established in 1746 as the College of New Jersey and relocated to Princeton ten years later, Princeton University's main campus has its historic center on Nassau Street and stretches south from there. Its James Forrestal satellite campus is located in Plainsboro Township, and some playing fields lie within adjacent West Windsor Township. Princeton University is often featured at or near the top of various national and global university rankings, topping the 2019 list of "U.S. News & World Report".


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Westminster Choir College, a school of music presently owned by Rider University, was established in Princeton in 1932. Before relocating to Princeton, the school resided in Dayton, Ohio and then briefly in Ithaca, New York.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Princeton Theological Seminary, the first and oldest seminary in America of the Presbyterian Church (USA), has its main academic campus in Princeton, with residential housing located just outside of Princeton in West Windsor Township.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: The Institute for Advanced Study maintains extensive land holdings (the "Institute Woods") there covering .


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Mercer County Community College in West Windsor is a two-year public college serving Princeton residents and all those from Mercer County.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: The Princeton Public Schools serve students in pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade. Students from Cranbury Township attend the district's high school as part of a sending/receiving relationship. As of the 2020–21 school year, the district, comprised of six schools, had an enrollment of 3,740 students and 341.0 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 11.0:1. Schools in the district (with 2020–21 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: "New Jersey Monthly" magazine ranked Princeton High School as the 20th best high school in New Jersey in its 2018 rankings of the "Top Public High Schools" in New Jersey. The school was also ranked as the 10th best school in New Jersey by "U.S. News & World Report." Niche ranked Princeton High School as the 47th best public high school in America in its "2021 Best Public High Schools in America" rankings.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: In the early 1990s, redistricting occurred between the Community Park and Johnson Park School districts, as the population within both districts had increased due to residential development. Concerns were also raised about the largely white, wealthy student population attending Johnson Park (JP) and the more racially and economically diverse population at Community Park (CP). As a result of the redistricting, portions of the affluent Western Section neighborhood were redistricted to CP, and portions of the racially and economically diverse John Witherspoon neighborhood were redistricted to JP.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: The Princeton Charter School (grades K–8) operates under a charter granted by the Commissioner of the New Jersey Department of Education. The school is a public school that operates independently of the Princeton Regional Schools, and is funded on a per student basis by locally raised tax revenues.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Eighth grade students from all of Mercer County are eligible to apply to attend the high school programs offered by the Mercer County Technical Schools, a county-wide vocational school district that offers full-time career and technical education at its Health Sciences Academy, STEM Academy and Academy of Culinary Arts, with no tuition charged to students for attendance.


title: Princeton, New Jersey

text: Private schools located in Princeton include The Lewis School of Princeton, Princeton Day School, Princeton Friends School, Hun School of Princeton, and Princeton International School of Mathematics and Science (PRISMS).