title: Akiva Schaffer

text: Schaffer produced the film "Palm Springs", which debuted on Hulu in July 2020 and delivered the largest opening weekend viewership ever for a film on the platform. Prior to launching on Hulu, NEON/Hulu acquired the film for a record-setting $17,500,000.69 at the 2020 Sundance Film Festival, making it the biggest deal in the festival's history. Most recently, the film and cast were nominated for five Super Critics Choice Awards, a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Picture, Musical or Comedy, as well as a Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture, Musical or Comedy nomination for Samberg. The film also won a Critics' Choice Movie Awards in the category of Best Comedy and garnered a Writers Guild of America Award nomination for Best Original Screenplay.


title: Akiva Schaffer

text: Schaffer also executive produces Hulu's Emmy nominated show, "PEN15," starring Maya Erskine and Anna Konkle.


title: Akiva Schaffer

text: Schaffer directed the Disney film "". The film stars Andy Samberg and John Mulaney and is a combination of live action and computer animation. It was released in Spring 2022.


title: Akiva Schaffer

text: In 2007, Schaffer won an Emmy for his participation in the production of "Dick in a Box". He was nominated for an Emmy for the song "Motherlover." He was featured in "People's" Sexiest Bachelor with Andy Samberg, as Sexiest Best Friends. He has also won two Writers Guild of America Awards and a Peabody Award for his work on "Saturday Night Live". The Lonely Island was nominated in 2009 for a People's Choice Award and a Grammy Award.


title: Ossetians

text: The Ossetians or Ossetes (, ; ) are an Iranian ethnic group who are indigenous to Ossetia, a region situated across the northern and southern sides of the Caucasus Mountains. They natively speak Ossetic, an Eastern Iranian language of the Indo-European language family, with most also being fluent in Russian as a second language. Ossetic, a remnant of the Scytho-Sarmatian dialect group which was once spoken across the Pontic–Caspian Steppe, is one of the few Iranian languages remaining inside Europe.


title: Ossetians

text: Currently, the Ossetian homeland of Ossetia is politically divided between North Ossetia–Alania in Russia, and the "de facto" country of South Ossetia (recognized by the United Nations as Russian-occupied territory that is "de jure" part of Georgia). Their closest historical and linguistic relatives, the Jász people, live in the Jászság region within the northwestern part of the Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok County of Hungary. A third group descended from the medieval Alans are the Asud of Mongolia. Both the Jász and the Asud have long been assimilated; only the Ossetians have preserved a form of the Alanic language.


title: Ossetians

text: The majority of Ossetians are Eastern Orthodox Christians, with sizable minorities professing the Ossetian ethnic religion of Uatsdin as well as Islam.


title: Ossetians

text: The Ossetians and Ossetia received their name from the Russians, who had adopted the Georgian designations "Osi" (ოსი, pl. "Osebi", ოსები) and "Oseti" ('the land of the Osi', ოსეთი), used since the Middle Ages for the single Iranian-speaking population of the Central Caucasus and probably based on an old Alan self-designation "As", which is cognate with the Jassic self-designation Jasz, both probably being based on the Scytho-Sarmatian name of the Iazyges, or "Yazigi" as they called themselves. Since Ossetian speakers lacked any single inclusive name for themselves in their native language beyond the traditional Iron–Digoron subdivision, these terms came to be accepted by the Ossetians as an endonym already before their integration into the Russian Empire.


title: Ossetians

text: This practice was put into question by the new Ossetian nationalism in the early 1990s, when the dispute between the Ossetian subgroups of Digoron and Iron over the status of the Digor dialect made Ossetian intellectuals search for a new inclusive ethnic name. This, combined with the effects of the Georgian–Ossetian conflict, led to the popularization of "Alania", the name of the medieval Sarmatian confederation, to which the Ossetians traced their origin and to the inclusion of this name into the official republican title of North Ossetia in 1994.


title: Ossetians

text: The root "os/as"- could also stem from an earlier *"ows"/"aws"-, whose meaning is unknown. This is suggested by the archaic Georgian root "ovs"- (cf. "Ovsi", "Ovseti"), documented in the "Georgian Chronicles"; the long length of the initial vowel or the gemination of the consonant "s" in some forms (NPers. "Ās", "Āṣ"; Lat. "Aas", "Assi"); and by the Armenian ethnic name *"Awsowrk"' ("Ōsur"-), referring to an Alan tribe dwelling near modern Georgia by the time of Anania Shirakatsi (7th century AD).


title: Ossetians

text: The native beliefs of the Ossetian people are rooted in their Sarmatian origin, which have been syncretized with a local variant of Folk Orthodoxy, in which some pagan gods having been converted into Christian saints. The Narts, the Daredzant, and the Tsartsiat, serve as the basic literature of folk mythology in the region.


title: Ossetians

text: The Ossetians descend from the Iazyges tribe of the Alans, a Sarmatian sub-tribe, which in turn is a Scythian subgroup itself. The Alans were the only branch of the Sarmatians to keep their culture in the face of a Gothic invasion (c. 200 AD) and those who remained built a great kingdom between the Don and Volga Rivers, according to Coon, "The Races of Europe". Between 350 and 374 AD, the Huns destroyed the Alan kingdom and the Alan people were split in half. One half fled to the west, where they participated in the Barbarian Invasions of Rome, established short-lived kingdoms in Spain and North Africa and settled in many other places such as Orléans, France, Iași, Romania, Alenquer, Portugal and Jászberény, Hungary. The other half fled to the south and settled on the plains of the North Caucasus, where they established their medieval kingdom of Alania.


title: Ossetians

text: In the 8th century a consolidated Alan kingdom, referred to in sources of the period as Alania, emerged in the northern Caucasus Mountains, roughly in the location of the latter-day Circassia and the modern North Ossetia–Alania. At its height, Alania was a centralized monarchy with a strong military force and had a strong economy that benefited from the Silk Road.


title: Ossetians

text: After the Mongol invasions of the 1200s, the Alans were forced out of their medieval homeland south of the River Don in present-day Russia. Due to this, the Alans migrated toward the Caucasus Mountains, where they would form three ethnographical groups; the Iron, the Digoron and the Kudar. The Jassic people were a fourth group that migrated in the 13th century to Hungary.


title: Ossetians

text: In more-recent history, the Ossetians participated in the Ossetian–Ingush conflict (1991–1992) and Georgian–Ossetian conflicts (1918–1920, early 1990s) and in the 2008 South Ossetia war between Georgia and Russia.


title: Ossetians

text: Ever since "de facto" independence, there have been proposals in South Ossetia of joining Russia and uniting with North Ossetia.


title: Ossetians

text: The Ossetian language belongs to the Eastern Iranian (Alanic) branch of the Indo-European language family.


title: Ossetians

text: Ossetian is divided into two main dialect groups: Ironian (os. – Ирон) in North and South Ossetia and Digorian (os. – Дыгурон) in Western North Ossetia. In these two groups are some subdialects, such as Tualian, Alagirian and Ksanian. The Ironian dialect is the most widely spoken.


title: Ossetians

text: Ossetian is among the remnants of the Scytho-Sarmatian dialect group, which was once spoken across the Pontic–Caspian Steppe. The Ossetian language is not mutually intelligible with any other Iranian language.


title: Ossetians

text: Prior to the 10th century, Ossetians were strictly pagan, though they were partially Christianized by Byzantine missionaries in the beginning of the 10th century. By the 13th, gradually most of the urban population of Ossetia became Eastern Orthodox Christian as a result of Georgian missionary work.


title: Ossetians

text: Islam was introduced shortly after during the 1500s and 1600s, when the members of the Digor first encountered Circassians of the Kabarday tribe in Western Ossetia, who themselves had been introduced to the religion by Tatars during the 1400s.


title: Ossetians

text: In 1774, Ossetia became part of the Russian Empire, which only went on to strengthen Orthodox Christianity considerably, by having sent Russian Orthodox missionaries there. However, most of the missionaries chosen were churchmen from Eastern Orthodox communities living in Georgia, including Armenians and Greeks, as well as ethnic Georgians. Russian missionaries themselves were not sent, as this would have been regarded by the Ossetians as too intrusive.


title: Ossetians

text: Assianism ("Uatsdin" or "Aesdin" in Ossetian), the Ossetian folk religion, is also widespread among Ossetians, with ritual traditions like animal sacrifices, holy shrines, annual festivities, etc. There are temples, known as "kuvandon," in most villages. According to the research service "Sreda", North Ossetia is the primary center of Ossetian Folk religion and 29% of the population reported practicing the Folk religion in a 2012 survey. Assianism has been steadily rising in popularity since the 1980s.


title: Ossetians

text: The Northern Ossetians export lumber and cultivate various crops, mainly corn. The Southern Ossetians are chiefly pastoral, herding sheep, goats and other cattle. Traditional manufactured products include leather goods, fur headgear, daggers and metalware.


title: Ossetians

text: Outside of South Ossetia, there are also a significant number of Ossetians living in Trialeti, in North-Central Georgia. A large Ossetian diaspora lives in Turkey and Syria, Ossetians have also settled in Belgium, France, Sweden, the United States (primarily New York City, Florida and California), Canada (Toronto), Australia (Sydney) and other countries all around the world.


title: Ossetians

text: The Ossetians are a unique ethnic group of the Caucasus, speaking an Indo-Iranian language surrounded mostly by Vainakh-Dagestani and Abkhazo-Circassian ethnolinguistic groups, as well as Turkic tribes such as the Karachays and the Balkars.


title: Ossetians

text: The Y-haplogroup data indicate that North Ossetians are more similar to other North Caucasian groups, and South Ossetians to other South Caucasian groups, than the two are to each other. With respect to mtDNA, Ossetians are significantly more similar to some Iranian groups than to Caucasian groups. It is thus suggested that there is a common origin of Ossetians from the Proto-Iranian Urheimat, followed by subsequent male-mediated migrations from their Caucasian neighbours.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: Star Wars Resistance is an American 3D animated comic science fiction television series produced by Lucasfilm Animation. It follows Kazuda Xiono, a New Republic pilot who is recruited by the Resistance to spy on the growing threat of the First Order shortly before and during the events of the sequel trilogy.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: The series premiered on Disney Channel on October 7, 2018, and the next day it debuted on Disney XD in the United States and worldwide. Twelve shorts debuted on the Disney Channel YouTube channel in December 2018.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: The second and final season premiered on October 6, 2019 on Disney Channel, Disney XD and DisneyNow. The series ended on January 26, 2020 after forty episodes.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: "Resistance" received generally positive reviews from critics. The series was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program for both of its seasons. It won the Saturn Award for Best Animated Series on Television in 2019 for its debut season.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: The other residents of the Colossus are voiced by a group of recurring voice actors. Greg Proops, who had also voiced the race commentator Fode in "Episode I – The Phantom Menace", voices race commentator Jak Sivrak as well as Garma, an elderly Arcona. Fred Tatasciore voices the Klatooinian gorg seller Bolza Grool and Dee Bradley Baker voices both Grevel, an irascible Aleena, and Glem, a Rodian dockworker. Jooks, a Thelin who lives on the Colossus is also voiced by Mary Elizabeth McGlynn.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: The series follows Kazuda Xiono, a New Republic pilot who is recruited by the Resistance to spy on the growing threat of the First Order. The first season begins six months before "" and crosses over with it at the end of the 17th episode.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: The second and final season picks up immediately afterwards, crossing over with "" and leading up to "".


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: A series of shorts, depicting the lives of the "Resistance" cast, were released during a midseason break for the first season in 2018.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: On February 22, 2018, /Film reported that Lucasfilm had trademarked the name "Star Wars Resistance" for a wide range of merchandise and a potential animated series.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: On April 26, the series was officially announced and scheduled for a Fall 2018 debut. The show was created by Dave Filoni, who previously directed the 2008 film "", developed the , created, developed and executive produced "Star Wars Rebels", and in 2017 became the head of Lucasfilm Animation. Filoni said the show was influenced by anime and by his grandfather's experiences in World War II. By August 1, 2018, Polygon Pictures was selected as the animation production company.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: On August 12, 2018, Filoni stated that he would not work as directly on "Resistance" in a day-to-day capacity as he had on previous projects due to his work on "The Clone Wars" revival. However, he provided direction and notes to the story team, a role he compared to George Lucas' input on "The Clone Wars".


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: Along with the official series announcement, it was announced that Oscar Isaac and Gwendoline Christie would reprise their roles as Poe Dameron and Captain Phasma, respectively. They are joined by Christopher Sean, Bobby Moynihan, Suzie McGrath, Scott Lawrence, Myrna Velasco, Josh Brener, Donald Faison and Jim Rash. General Leia Organa, Kylo Ren and have appeared in the series.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: A trailer was released on August 17, 2018, showcasing the new animation style and characters. It received a negative reaction from fans, including criticism for its apparent targeting of younger viewers and both praise and criticism for the anime-style CGI. Blair Marnell of "Nerdist" compared the initial reaction to the early stigma "The Clone Wars" and "Rebels" suffered for similarly targeting younger demographics during release, only for both to become more positively received with subsequent seasons.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: The series debuted in the United States on the Disney Channel on October 7, 2018, with Disney XD airing the series later in the United States and worldwide, with the exception of Southeast Asia, where all live-action shows are sold by Disney's Southeast Asian channel. The series was renewed for a second season, which aired in October 2019. Its first episode, which picks up directly after the end of the first season, was screened at "Star Wars" Celebration in Chicago.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: Season two premiered on Sunday, October 6, (10 p.m. EDT/PDT) on Disney Channel and DisneyNOW, with subsequent airings on Disney XD. Season two was the final season of the show and consisted of 19 episodes.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: As announced on July 23, 2019, Lucasfilm released the first season on DVD on August 20. It includes all 21 episodes of season one, as well as an exclusive sneak-peek at the making of the show with cast and crew, 4 audio commentaries with Sean, Lawrence, Brener and Velasco, the 12 shorts and Resistance Rewind.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: The first season of "Star Wars Resistance" became available for streaming on November 12, 2019, the launch date for Disney+. The second season became available on February 25, 2020.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, season 1 has an approval rating of 92% based reviews from 13 critics, with an average rating of 6.70/10. The site's critics consensus states that ""Star Wars: Resistance" streamlined story sets the stage for exciting adventures—and seems poised to explore a canvas stocked with immediately relatable characters and plenty of potential."


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: William Hughes of The A.V. Club praised the first episode saying "At the end of its first hour, Resistance feels pleasantly primed with potential." He gave it a grade B.


title: Star Wars Resistance

text: Brian Lowry of CNN gave it a mixed review, he notes that previous "Star Wars" shows offered plenty for older fans but that this show was more clearly made for a younger audience, and "Star Wars Resistance paints with a much brighter, more colorful palette, but at least initially settles for more pallid characters and situations—the kind that don't immediately suggest this is the animated show you're looking for." Syfy Wire notes that ""Resistance"s cel-shading animation style stands out amongst the franchise's traditional CG-animated fare." Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media called the series "lighthearted" and downplaying cartoon violence. She also argued that the series has a lot of humor, has characters demonstrate traits of determination and courage, saying that the series had vivid animation and "high-flying action" which dominates the series plot.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Sergei Pavlovich Korolev (; ) 14 January 1966) was a lead Soviet rocket engineer and spacecraft designer during the Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1950s and 1960s. He is regarded by many as the father of practical astronautics. He was involved in the development of the R-7 Rocket, Sputnik 1, launching Laika, Sputnik 3, the first human-made object to make contact with another celestial body, Belka and Strelka, the first human being, Yuri Gagarin, into space, Voskhod 1, and the first person, Alexei Leonov, to conduct a spacewalk.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Although Korolev trained as an aircraft designer, his greatest strengths proved to be in design integration, organization and strategic planning. Arrested on a false official charge as a "member of an anti-Soviet counter-revolutionary organization" (which would later be reduced to "saboteur of military technology"), he was imprisoned in 1938 for almost six years, including a few months in a Kolyma labour camp. Following his release he became a recognized rocket designer and a key figure in the development of the Soviet Intercontinental ballistic missile program. He later directed the Soviet space program and was made a Member of Soviet Academy of Sciences, overseeing the early successes of the Sputnik and Vostok projects including the first human Earth orbit mission by Yuri Gagarin on 12 April 1961. Korolev's unexpected death in 1966 interrupted implementation of his plans for a Soviet crewed Moon landing before the United States 1969 mission.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Before his death he was officially identified only as "Glavny Konstruktor" (), or the "Chief Designer", to protect him from possible Cold War assassination attempts by the United States. Even some of the cosmonauts who worked with him were unaware of his last name; he only went by "Chief Designer." Only following his death in 1966 was his identity revealed and he received the appropriate public recognition as the driving force behind Soviet accomplishments in space exploration during and following the International Geophysical Year.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev was born in the city of Zhytomyr, the capital of Volhynian Governorate of the Russian Empire (now in Ukraine). His father, Pavel Yakovlevich Korolev, was born in Mogilev to a Russian soldier and a Belarusian mother. His mother, Maria Nikolaevna Koroleva (Moskalenko/Bulanina), was a daughter of a wealthy merchant from the city of Nezhin (now Nizhyn, Ukraine), with Zaporozhian Cossack, Greek and Polish heritage.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: His father moved to Zhytomyr to be a teacher of the Russian language. Three years after Sergei's birth the couple separated due to financial difficulties. Although Pavel later wrote to Maria requesting a meeting with his son, Sergei was told by his mother that his father had allegedly died. Sergei never saw his father after the family break-up, and Pavel died in 1929 before his son learned the truth.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev grew up in Nezhin, under the care of his maternal grandparents Nikolay Yakovlevich Moskalenko who was a trader of the Second Guild and Maria Matveevna Moskalenko (née Fursa), a daughter of a local cossack. Korolev's mother also had a sister Anna and two brothers Yuri and Vasily. Maria Koroleva was frequently away attending Women's higher education courses in Kiev. As a child, Korolev was stubborn, persistent, and argumentative. Sergei grew up a lonely child with few friends. Korolev began reading at an early age, and his abilities in mathematics and other subjects made him a favorite student of his teachers, but caused jealousy from his peers. He later stated in an interview, the torment of classmates bullying and teasing him as a small child encouraged his focus on academic work. His mother divorced Pavel in 1915 and in 1916 married Grigory Mikhailovich Balanin, an electrical engineer who had been educated in Germany but who had to attend the Kiev Polytechnic University because German engineering diplomas were not recognized in Russia. After getting a job with the regional railway, Grigory moved the family to Odessa in 1917, where they endured hardships with many other families through the tumultuous years following the Russian Revolution and continuing internecine struggles until the Bolsheviks assumed unchallenged power in 1920. Local schools were closed and young Korolev had to continue his studies at home. Grigory proved a good influence on his step-son, who suffered from a bout of typhus during the severe food shortages of 1919.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev received vocational training in carpentry and in various academics at the Odessa Building Trades School (Stroyprofshkola No. 1). Enjoyment of a 1913 air show inspired interest in aeronautical engineering. Korolev began designing a glider as a diversion while studying for his graduation exams at the vocational school. He made an independent study of flight theory, and worked in the local glider club. A detachment of military seaplanes had been stationed in Odessa, and Korolev took a keen interest in their operations.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: In 1923 he joined the Society of Aviation and Aerial Navigation of Ukraine and the Crimea (OAVUK). He had his first flying lesson after joining the Odessa hydroplane squadron and had many opportunities to fly as a passenger. In 1924 he personally designed an OAVUK construction project glider called the K-5. He briefly trained in gymnastics until his academic work suffered from this distraction. Korolev hoped to attend the Zhukovsky Academy in Moscow, but his qualifications did not meet the academy's standards. He attended the Kiev Polytechnic Institute's aviation branch in 1924 while living with his uncle Yuri, and earning money to pay for his courses by performing odd jobs. His curriculum was technically oriented, and included various engineering, physics and mathematics classes. He met and became attracted to a classmate, Xenia Vincentini, who would later become his first wife. In 1925 he was accepted into a limited class on glider construction, and suffered two broken ribs flying the training glider they built. He continued courses at Kiev until he was accepted into the Bauman Moscow State Technical University (MVTU, BMSTU) in July 1926, having the famous aircraft designer Andrei Tupolev as his mentor, who was a professor at his University.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev studied specialized aviation topics until 1929, while living with his family in the typically crowded conditions of Moscow. Korolev enjoyed opportunities to fly gliders and powered aircraft during this part of his education. He designed a glider in 1928, and flew it in a competition the next year. The Communist Party accelerated the education of engineers in 1929 to meet the country's urgent need for their skills. Korolev obtained a diploma by producing a practical aircraft design by the end of the year.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: After graduation, Korolev worked with some of the best Soviet designers at the 4th Experimental Section aircraft design bureau OPO-4 headed by who emigrated to the USSR from France in the 1920s. He did not stand out in this group, but while so employed he also worked independently to design a glider capable of performing aerobatics. In 1930 he became interested in the possibilities of liquid-fueled rocket engines to propel airplanes, while working at the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI) as a lead engineer on the Tupolev TB-3 heavy bomber. Korolev earned his pilot's license in 1930 and explored the operational limits of the aircraft he piloted, wondering what was beyond his plane's altitude limit and how he could get there. Many believe this was the start of his interest in space.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev married Xenia Vincentini on 6 August 1931. He had first proposed marriage to her in 1924, but she then declined so she might continue her higher education. In 1931, Korolev and space travel enthusiast Friedrich Zander participated in the creation of the Group for the Study of Reactive Motion (GIRD), one of the earliest state-sponsored centers for rocket development in the USSR. In May 1932 Korolev was appointed chief of the group; and military interest encouraged funding of group projects. On August 18, 1933, GIRD launched the first hybrid propellant rocket, the GIRD-09, and on November 25, 1933, the Soviet's first liquid-fueled rocket GIRD-X.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Growing military interest in this new technology caused GIRD to be merged with the Gas Dynamics Laboratory (GDL) at Leningrad in 1933 to create the Reactive Scientific Research Institute (RNII), which brought together the best of the Soviet rocket talent, including Korolev, Georgy Langemak, and former GDL engine designer Valentin Glushko. Korolev was appointed deputy head under Ivan Kleymyonov, however in 1934, following a disagreement over the direction of RNII, Korolev was demoted to section chief of winged missiles and was replaced by Georgy Langemak. Korolev supervised development of cruise missiles and a crewed rocket-powered glider. "Rocket Flight in Stratosphere" was published by Korolev in 1934. On 10 April 1935, Korolev's wife gave birth to their daughter, Natalya; and they moved out of Sergei's parents' home and into their own apartment in 1936. Both Korolev and his wife had careers, and Sergei always spent long hours at his design office.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Joseph Stalin's Great Purge severely damaged RNII, with Director Kleymyonov and Chief Engineer Langemak arrested in November 1937, tortured, made to sign false confessions and later executed. Glushko was arrested in March 1938 and with many other leading engineers was imprisoned in the Gulag. Korolev was arrested by the NKVD on 27 June 1938 after being accused of a variety of charges, including false charges extracted from Kleymyonov, Langemak and Glushko. He was tortured in the Lubyanka prison to extract a confession. Glushko and Korolev had reportedly been denounced by Andrei Kostikov who became the head of RNII after its leadership was arrested.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev was sent to prison, where he wrote many appeals to the authorities, including Stalin himself. Following the fall of NKVD head Nikolai Yezhov, the new chief Lavrenti Beria chose to retry Korolev on reduced charges in 1939; but by that time Korolev was on his way from prison to a Gulag forced labour camp in Kolyma in the far east of Siberia, where he spent several months in a gold mine before word reached him of his retrial. Work camp conditions of inadequate food, shelter, and clothing killed thousands of prisoners each month. Korolev sustained injuries, including possibly a heart attack and lost most of his teeth from scurvy before being returned to Moscow in late 1939. When he reached Moscow, Korolev's sentence was reduced to eight years. However, due to the intervention by his old mentor, Andrei Tupolev, he was relocated to a prison for scientist and engineers in September 1940. These were labor camps where scientists and engineers worked on projects assigned by the Communist party leadership. The "Central Design Bureau 29" (CKB-29, ЦКБ-29) of the NKVD, served as Tupolev's engineering facility, and Korolev was brought here to work. During World War II, this "sharashka" designed both the Tupolev Tu-2 bomber and the Petlyakov Pe-2 dive bomber. The group was moved several times during the war, the first time to avoid capture by advancing German forces. Korolev was moved in 1942 to the "sharashka" of Kazan OKB-16 under Glushko. Korolev and Glushko designed the RD-1 kHz auxiliary rocket motor tested in an unsuccessful fast-climb Lavochkin La-7R. Korolev was isolated from his family until 27 June 1944 when healong with Tupolev, Glushko and otherswas finally discharged by special government decree, although the charges against him were not dropped until 1957.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev rarely talked about his experience in the Gulag, and lived under constant fear of being executed for the military secrets he possessed. He was deeply affected by his time in the camp, becoming reserved and cautious as a result. He later learned that Glushko was one of his accusers, and this was likely the cause of the lifelong animosity between the two men. The design bureau was handed over from NKVD control to the government's aviation industry commission. Korolev continued working with the bureau for another year, serving as deputy designer under Glushko and studying various rocket designs.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev was commissioned into the Red Army with the rank of colonel in 1945; his first military decoration was the Badge of Honor, awarded in 1945 for his work on the development of rocket motors for military aircraft. On 8 September 1945, Korolev was brought to Germany along with many other experts to recover the technology of the German V-2 rocket. The Soviets worked with German specialists to understand and replicate the rocket technology, placing a priority on recreating the entire German V-2 rocket. In February 1946 the Institute Nordhausen was formed, with Korolev as Chief Engineer, Glushko as head of Engine assembly and propulsion systems and German Helmut Gröttrup, who previously worked with Wernher von Braun, as General Director. The work continued in East Germany until late 1946, when 2,000+ German scientists and engineers were sent to the USSR through Operation Osoaviakhim. Most of the German experts, Gröttrup being an exception, had not worked directly with Wernher von Braun. Many of the leading German rocket scientists, including Dr. von Braun himself, surrendered to Americans and were transported to the United States as part of Operation Paperclip.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Stalin made rocket and missile development a national priority upon signing a decree on 13 May 1946, and a new institute called Scientific Research Institute No. 88 (NII-88) was created for that purpose, in the suburbs of Moscow. Development of ballistic missiles was placed under the military control of Dmitriy Ustinov through the decree signed by Stalin, and Ustinov appointed Korolev as chief designer of long-range missiles at Department No. 3 of NII-88. During this period Korolev demonstrated his organisation and management capabilities by organising a “Council of Chief Designers”, which assisted in circumnavigating the bureaucratic hierarchy of the Soviet missile industry. This group eventually assumed engineering control over the early Soviet space program.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev returned from Germany in February 1947 and took up his duties as chief designer and Head of Department No 3 of NII-88, initially tasked with reproduction of the V-2. The Soviets were only able to obtain parts to assemble approximately a dozen V-2 rockets, so the decision was made to replicate a Soviet version, which was designated the R-1. Initially Korolev opposed this decision as he thought it was a waste of time and they should move immediately move to manufacture a more advanced version, which had been designated the R-2. However Korolev was overruled and was ordered to assemble what V-2s they had for flight testing, then create the R-1 using Soviet infrastructure and materials. NII-88 also incorporated 170+ German specialistsincluding Helmut Gröttrup and Fritz Karl Preikschat with approximately half based at Branch 1 of NII-88 on Gorodomlya Island in Lake Seliger some from Moscow. The Germans provided a variety of support to the Soviet efforts, particularly on assembling the V-2 and creating the R-1.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: The first Soviet tests of V-2 rockets took place in October 1947 at Kapustin Yar, with Korolev as management lead for the project. Numerous German engineers also participated in the tests. A total of 11 V-2 rockets were launched, with 5 reaching their designated targets. In September 1948 testing of the R-1 began at Kapustin Yar, where Korolev was a formal member of the “State Commission for testing the R-1”. No Germans participated in these tests, which launched 9 rockets between September and November 1948.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev continued to lobby for the design and construction of the R-2, including meeting with Stalin in April 1947, but faced competition from a proposal from the Germans, called the G-1. Whilst the German proposal was initially supported by Soviet management, Korolev opposed utilising German specialist for personal reasons and basically ignored their suggestions and advice. Due to political and security concerns, German specialists were not allowed knowledge or access to any Soviet missile design and in December 1948 work on the G-1 proposal was terminated. The Ministry of Defence decided to dissolve the German team in 1950 and repatriated the German engineers and their families between December 1951 and November 1953.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: In April 1948 the go ahead for “scientific and experimental work" was approved, which lead to the creation of the R-2. The R-2 doubled the range of the V-2, and was the first design to utilize a separate warhead. This was followed by the R-3, which had a range of , and thus could target England.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Glushko couldn't obtain the required thrust from the R-3 engines, so the project was canceled in 1952; and Korolev joined the Soviet Communist Party that year to request money from the government for future projects including the R-5, with a more modest range. It completed a first successful flight by 1953. The world's first true intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) was the R-7 Semyorka. This was a two-stage rocket with a maximum payload of 5.4 tons, sufficient to carry the Soviets' bulky nuclear bomb an impressive distance of . After several test failures, the R-7 successfully launched on 21 August 1957, sending a dummy payload to the Kamchatka Peninsula. Because of Korolev's success with the R-7 and because the Soviet Union had successfully created the ICBM before the United States of America, he was nationally recognized by the Soviet Union, although his name was kept secret. However, despite the Soviet R-7 initial success, it experienced later failures as it was not intended to be a practical weapon. On 19 April 1957 Korolev was declared fully "rehabilitated", as the government acknowledged that his sentence was unjust.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev was keenly aware of the orbital possibilities of the rockets being designed as ICBMs. He had brought up the idea of using the R-7 to launch a satellite into space to the Central Committee of the Communist Party on 26 May 1954, but was rejected as the Communist Party was uninterested. Korolev's Tikhonravov group filed exaggerated Soviet newspaper articles which were referred by the United States (US) press. This influenced American authorities to start satellite programs, announced on 29 July 1955 by the Eisenhower administration. While the US government debated the idea of spending millions of dollars on this concept, Korolev's group suggested the international prestige of launching a satellite before the United States could act. Korolev sent another proposal (attached with American newspaper articles about the US program) on 5 August, and on 8 August the Soviet leadership approved Korolev's satellite project. The spirit of cold war competition was adequate to secure approval for the project.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: German specialists faced similar difficulties in the USA as their compatriots in the USSR. The American leadership wanted to give priority to "100% Americans", and Wernher von Braun himself was pushed away from design work and, unlike S.Korolev had enough time to popularize cosmonautics and perform on television. But it worked against the speed of the rocket design work. Korolev's team won the space race in 1957.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Sputnik 1 was designed and constructed in less than a month by the Tikhonravov group, with Korolev personally managing the assembly at a hectic pace. The satellite was a simple polished metal sphere no bigger than a beach ball, containing batteries that powered a transmitter using 4 external communication antennas. Sputnik 1 was successfully completed and launched into space on 4 October 1957 using a rocket that had successfully launched only once before. It was the very first artificial satellite of earth.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: International response to the accomplishment was electrifying, and political ramifications continued for decades. Nikita Khrushchev — initially bored with the idea of another "Korolev rocket launch" — was pleased with this success after the wide recognition, and encouraged launch of a more sophisticated satellite less than a month later, in time for the 40th anniversary of the October Revolution on 3 November.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev and close associate Mstislav Keldysh wished to up the ante of building a second, larger satellite by proposing the idea of putting a dog on board, which sufficiently caught the interest of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. This new Sputnik 2 spacecraft had six times the mass of the Sputnik 1, and carried the dog Laika as a payload. The entire vehicle was designed from scratch within four weeks, with no time for testing or quality checks. It was successfully launched on 3 November and Laika was placed in orbit. There was no mechanism to bring the dog back to Earth; the dog died from heat exhaustion after five hours in space.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: The instrument-laden Sputnik 3 spacecraft was launched initially on 27 April 1958, but the satellite had a failure with the engine which caused the satellite to fall back down to earth in separate pieces. On 15 May 1958, Sputnik 3 was successfully launched into orbit. The tape recorder that was to store the data failed after launch. As a result, the discovery and mapping of the Van Allen radiation belts was left to the United States' Explorer 3 and Pioneer 3 satellites. Sputnik 3 left little doubt with the American government about the Soviets' pending ICBM capability.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Even before the "Sputnik 1" launch, Korolev was interested in getting to the Moon. He came up with the notion to modify the R-7 missile in order to carry a package to the Moon. However, it was not until 1958 that this idea was approved, after Korolev wrote a letter explaining that his current technology would make it possible to get to the Moon. A modified version of the R-7 launch vehicle was used with a new upper stage. The engine for this final stage was the first designed to be fired in outer space. "Mechta" is the Russian word meaning "dream", and this is the name Korolev called his moon ships. Officially, the Soviet Union called them Lunas. The first three lunar probes launched in 1958 all failed in part because of political pressure forcing the launches to be rushed with an inadequate budget to test and develop the hardware properly before they were ready to fly. Korolev thought political infighting in Moscow was responsible for the lack of sufficient funding for the program, although the US space program at this early phase also had a scarcely enviable launch record. Once, when pressured to beat the US to a working lunar probe, Korolev allegedly exclaimed: "Do you think that only American rockets explode!?" The Luna 1 mission on 2 January 1959 was intended to impact the surface, but missed by about . Nevertheless, this probe became the first to reach escape velocity and the first to go near the Moon, as well as becoming the first man-made object to enter the Sun's orbit. A subsequent attempt (Luna E-1A No.1) failed at launch, and then Luna 2 successfully impacted the surface on 14 September 1959, giving the Soviets another first. This was followed just one month later by an even greater success with Luna 3. It was launched only two years after Sputnik 1, and on 7 October 1959 was the first spacecraft to photograph the far side of the Moon, which was something the people of earth had never seen beforehand.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: The "Luna" missions were intended to make a successful soft landing on the Moon, but Korolev was unable to see a success. "Luna 4" and "Luna 6" both missed, "Luna 5", "Luna 7", and "Luna 8" all crashed on the Moon. It was not until after Korolev's death that the Soviet Union successfully achieved a soft landing on the Moon with the "Luna 9".


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Towards the latter part of Korolev's life, he had been working on projects for reaching the planets Mars and Venus, and even had spacecraft ready to reach both. The United States was also working towards reaching these planets, so it was a race to see who would be successful. Korolev's two initial Mars probes suffered from engine failures, and the five probes the Soviet Union launched in hopes of reaching Venus all failed between 1961 and 1962, Korolev himself supervised the launches of all probes.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: On 1 November 1962, the Soviet Union successfully launched the "Mars 1" and although communications failed, was the very first to complete a flyby of Mars. Later, the Soviet Union launched "Venera 3", which was the very first impact of Venus. It was not until after Korolev's death that the Soviet Union impacted Mars.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev's group was also working on ambitious programs for missions to Mars and Venus, putting a man in orbit, launching communication, spy and weather satellites, and making a soft-landing on the Moon. A radio communication center needed to be built in the Crimea, near Simferopol and near Evpatoria to control the spacecraft. Many of these projects were not realized in his lifetime, and none of the planetary probes performed a completely successful mission until after his death.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Although he was having ideas since 1948, Korolev's planning for the piloted mission began in 1958 with design studies for the future Vostok spacecraft. It was to hold a single passenger in a space suit, and be fully automated. The space suit, unlike the United States' pure oxygen system, was 80 percent nitrogen and only 20 percent oxygen. The capsule had an escape mechanism for problems prior to launch, and a soft-landing and ejection system during the recovery. The spacecraft was spherical, just like the Sputnik design, and Korolev explained his reasoning for this by saying "the spherical shape would be more stable dynamically". Beginning with work on the Vostok, Konstantin Feoktistov was recruited directly by Korolev to be the principal designer for crewed spaceflight vehicles.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: On 15 May 1960 an uncrewed prototype performed 64 orbits of the Earth, but the reentry maneuver failed. On 28 July 1960, two dogs by the names of Chaika and Lishichka were launched into space, but the mission was unsuccessful when an explosion killed the dogs. However, on 19 August, the Soviet Union became the first to successfully recover living creatures back to Earth. The dogs, Belka and Strelka were successfully launched into space on a Vostok spacecraft and they completed eighteen orbits. Following this, the Soviet Union sent a total of six dogs into space, two in pairs, and two paired with a dummy. Unfortunately, not all the missions were successful. After gaining approval from the government, a modified version of Korolev's R-7 was used to launch Yuri Alexeevich Gagarin into orbit on 12 April 1961, which was before the United States was able to put Alan Shepard into space. Korolev served as capsule coordinator, and was able to speak to Gagarin who was inside the capsule. The first human in space and Earth orbit returned to Earth via a parachute after ejecting at an altitude of . Gagarin was followed by additional Vostok flights, culminating with 81 orbits completed by Vostok 5 and the launch of Valentina Tereshkova as the first woman cosmonaut in space aboard Vostok 6.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev proposed communications satellites and the Vostok craft was a spinoff from the Zenit spy satellite useful for photographic reconnaissance and the mission Vostok 1 had its defense importance acknowledged by the military. Korolev planned to move forward with Soyuz craft able to dock with other craft in orbit and exchange crews. He was directed by Khrushchev to cheaply produce more 'firsts' for the piloted program, including a multi-crewed flight. Korolev was reported to have resisted the idea as the Vostok was a one-man spacecraft and the three-man Soyuz was several years away from being able to fly. Khrushchev was not interested in technical excuses and let it be known that if Korolev could not do it, he would give the work to his rival, Vladimir Chelomey. But Russian Space Web describes this demand by Khrushchev as a legend and Challenge to Apollo says that the evidence that Khrushchev would have ordered these missions does not survive scrutiny.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Long before we met him, one man dominated much of our conversation in the early days of our training; Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, the mastermind behind the Soviet space program. He was only ever referred to by the initials of his first two names, SP, or by the mysterious title of "Chief Designer", or simply "Chief". For those on the space program there was no authority higher. Korolev had the reputation of being a man of the highest integrity, but also of being extremely demanding. Everyone around him was on tenterhooks, afraid of making a wrong move and invoking his wrath. He was treated like a god.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: The Voskhod was designed as an incremental improvement on the Vostok to meet Khruschev's goal. As a single capsule would be ineffective for proper travel to the Moon, the vehicle needed to be able to hold more people. Khrushchev ordered Korolev to launch three people on the Voskhod capsule quickly, as the United States had already completed a two-man mission with Gemini. Korolev accepted, on the condition that more backing would be given to his N-1 rocket program. One of the difficulties in the design of the Voskhod was the need to land it via parachute. The three-person crew could not bail out and land by parachute, since the altitude would not be survivable. So the craft would need much larger parachutes in order to land safely. Early tests with the craft resulted in some failures until use of stronger fabric improved parachute reliability.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: The resulting Voskhod was a stripped-down vehicle from which any excess weight had been removed; although a backup retrofire engine was added, since the more powerful Voskhod rocket used to launch the craft would send it to a higher orbit than the Vostok, eliminating the possibility of a natural decay of the orbit and reentry in case of primary retrorocket failure. After one uncrewed test flight, this spacecraft carried a crew of three cosmonauts, Komarov, Yegorov and Feoktistov, into space on 12 October 1964 and completed sixteen orbits. This craft was designed to perform a soft landing, eliminating a need for the ejection system; but the crew was sent into orbit without space suits or a launch abort system.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: With the Americans planning a space walk with their Gemini program, the Soviets decided to trump them again by performing a space walk on the second Voskhod launch. After rapidly adding an airlock, the Voskhod 2 was launched on 18 March 1965, and Alexei Leonov performed the world's first space walk. The flight very nearly ended in disaster, as Leonov was just barely able to re-enter through the airlock, and plans for further Voskhod missions were shelved. In the meantime the change of Soviet leadership with the fall of Khrushchev meant that Korolev was back in favor and given charge of beating the US to landing a man on the Moon.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: For the Moon race, Korolev's staff started to design the immense N1 rocket in 1961, using the NK-15 liquid fuel rocket engine. He also was working on the design for the Soyuz spacecraft that was intended to carry crews to LEO and to the Moon. As well, Korolev was designing the Luna series of vehicles that would soft-land on the Moon and make robotic missions to Mars and Venus. Unexpectedly, he died in January 1966, before he could see his various plans brought to fruition.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Engineer Sergei Khrushchev, son of former Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, explained in an interview some shortcomings of Korolev's approach, which in his opinion is why the Soviets didn't land on the Moon:


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Another reason the Soviet crewed lunar program didn't succeed was the rivalry between Korolev and Vladimir Chelomey. Their animosity was due to the intolerable persona of both men, and their desire for leadership at any cost. The two never said a harsh word about each other either in public or in private, but toppled each other's projects in any way possible. Instead of dividing competencies and responsibilities and cooperating in order to pursue the same goal, the two struggled for leadership in the space program. According to Khrushchev, who worked for Chelomey and knew both men well, they both would have preferred the Americans to land on the Moon first rather than their rival.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: On 3 December 1960, Korolev suffered his first heart attack. During his convalescence, it was also discovered that he was suffering from a kidney disorder, a condition brought on by his detention in the Soviet prison camps. He was warned by the doctors that if he continued to work as intensely as he had, he would not live long. Korolev became convinced that Khrushchev was only interested in the space program for its propaganda value and feared that he would cancel it entirely if the Soviets started losing their leadership to the United States, so he continued to push himself.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: By 1962, Korolev's health problems were beginning to accumulate and he was suffering from numerous ailments. He had a bout of intestinal bleeding that led to him being taken to the hospital in an ambulance. In 1964 doctors diagnosed him with cardiac arrhythmia. In February he spent ten days in the hospital after a heart problem. Shortly after he was suffering from inflammation of his gallbladder. The mounting pressure of his workload was also taking a heavy toll, and he was suffering from a lot of fatigue. Korolev was also experiencing hearing loss, possibly from repeated exposure to loud rocket-engine tests.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: The actual circumstances of Korolev's death remain somewhat uncertain. In December 1965, he was supposedly diagnosed with a bleeding polyp in his large intestine. He entered the hospital on 5 January 1966 for somewhat routine surgery, but died nine days later. It was stated by the government that he had what turned out to be a large, cancerous tumor in his abdomen, but Valentin Glushko later reported that he actually died due to a poorly performed operation for hemorrhoids. Another version states that the operation was going well and no one was predicting any complications. Suddenly, during the operation, Korolev started to bleed. Doctors tried to provide intubation to allow him to breathe freely, but his jaws, injured during his time in a Gulag, had not healed properly and impeded the installation of the breathing tube. Korolev died without regaining consciousness. According to Harford, Korolev's family confirmed the cancer story. His weak heart contributed to his death during surgery.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Under a policy initiated by Stalin and continued by his successors, the identity of Korolev was not revealed until after his death. The purported reason was to protect him from foreign agents from the United States. As a result, the Soviet people didn't become aware of his accomplishments until after his death. His obituary was published in the "Pravda" newspaper on 16 January 1966, showing a photograph of Korolev with all his medals. Korolev's ashes were interred with state honors in the Kremlin Wall.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev is often compared to Wernher von Braun as the leading architect of the Space Race. Like von Braun, Korolev had to compete continually with rivals, such as Vladimir Chelomey, who had their own plans for flights to the Moon. Unlike the Americans, he also had to work with technology that in many aspects was less advanced than what was available in the United States, particularly in electronics and computers, and to cope with extreme political pressure.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev's successor in the Soviet space program was Vasily Mishin, a quite competent engineer who had served as his deputy and right-hand man. After Korolev died, Mishin became the Chief Designer, and he inherited what turned out to be a flawed N1 rocket program. In 1972, Mishin was fired and then replaced by a rival, Valentin Glushko, after all four N-1 test launches failed. By that time, the rival Americans had already made it to the Moon, and so the program was canceled by CPSU General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: The Soviet émigré Leonid Vladimirov related the following description of Korolev by Valentin Glushko at about this time:


title: Sergei Korolev

text: His career also contributed to instability in his personal life. About 1946, the marriage of Korolev and Vincentini began to break up. Vincentini was heavily occupied with her own career, and about this time Korolev had an affair with a younger woman named Nina Ivanovna Kotenkova, who was an English interpreter in the Podlipki office. Vincentini, who still loved Korolev and was angry over the infidelity, divorced him in 1948. Korolev and Kotenkova were married in 1949, but he is known to have had affairs even after this second marriage.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev's passion for his work was a characteristic that made him a great leader. He was committed to training younger engineers to move into his space and missile projects, even while consumed with his own work. Korolev knew that students would be the future of space exploration, which is why he made such an effort to communicate with them. Arkady Ostashev was one of Korolev's students, who Korolev hired to do dissertation work before later becoming an engineer and working on the R-2.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev, ultimately, will be remembered for the new genre of science and innovation management, a program manager, an idea that was not fully understood or realized until the 1990s. Korolev, an engineer by training, was able to navigate the unpredictable and dangerous Soviet politics of Moscow, secure funding and support of leadership to the cause that was only vaguely defined (space exploration), create a shared vision to sell the idea to an extended set of disparate stakeholders, create an entirely new segment of science and, finally, deliver a concrete value that defied imaginations. This genre of program management and its ability to make a profound impact, found parallels and support in 90's Silicon valley where Korolev enjoys a cult following and remains an inspiration as the "startup CEO."


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Among his awards, Korolev was twice honored as Hero of Socialist Labour, in 1956 and 1961. He was also a Lenin Prize winner in 1971, and was awarded the Order of Lenin three times, the Order of the Badge of Honour and the Medal "For Labour Valour".


title: Sergei Korolev

text: In 1958 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. In 1969 and 1986, the USSR issued 10 kopek postage stamps honoring Korolev. In addition he was made an Honorary Citizen of Korolyov and received the Medal "In Commemoration of the 800th Anniversary of Moscow".


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Sergei Khrushchev claimed that the Nobel Prize committee attempted to award Korolev but the award was turned down by Khrushchev in order to maintain harmony within the Council of Chief Designers.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: In 1990, Korolev was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: A street in Moscow was named after Korolev in 1966 and is now called "Ulitsa Akademika Korolyova" (Academician Korolyov Street). "The memorial home-museum of akademician S.P.Korolyov" was established in 1975 in the house where Korolev lived from 1959 till 1966 (Moscow, 6th Ostankinsky Lane,2/28). In 1976 he was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: The town of Kaliningrad (formerly "Podlipki", Moscow region) is the home of RSC Energia, the largest space company in Russia. In 1996, Boris Yeltsin renamed the town after Korolyov. There is now an oversized statue of Korolev located in the town square. RSC Energia was also renamed to S.P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Astronomical features named after Korolev include the crater Korolev on the far side of the Moon, a crater on Mars, and the asteroid 1855 Korolyov.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Quite a large number of streets exist with his name in Russia as well as in Ukraine. In Zhytomyr on the other side of the street (vulytsia Dmytrivska) from the house where Korolev was born is the .


title: Sergei Korolev

text: A visual phenomenon iconic to a type of rocket staging event is named the Korolev cross in honor of Korolev.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: The first portrayal of Korolev in Soviet cinema was made in the 1972 film "Taming of the Fire", in which Korolev was played by Kirill Lavrov.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev appeared briefly in a film-within-a-film in 1983's "The Right Stuff" during the administration of Dwight D. Eisenhower, inside one of the President's conference rooms.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: In 1991's "", a United Federation of Planets Starfleet Constitution-class ship and a class of Starfleet ships are named after Korolev.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev plays a major role in the 2009 graphic novel "T-Minus: The Race to The Moon" by Zander Cannon, Jim Ottaviani and Kevin Cannon


title: Sergei Korolev

text: The science fiction novel by Paolo Aresi titled "Korolev" was published in the Italian magazine series "Urania" in April 2011.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: In 2011 the British writer Rona Munro produced the play "Little Eagles" on Korolev's life – its premiere was from 16 April to 7 May 2011, in an RSC production at the Hampstead Theatre, with Korolev played by Darrel D'Silva and Yuri Gagarin by Dyfan Dwyfor.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Public Service Broadcasting released a remix album in 2016, which included two remixes of a track named "Korolev", after Sergei Korolev.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: According to Ronald D. Moore, the creator of the alternate history TV series "For All Mankind", the divergence point of the alternate timeline was that Korolev instead survives the surgery in 1966, which leads to the Soviets landing on the moon first. Korolev then also appears in the second season, where he is portrayed by Endre Hules.


title: Sergei Korolev

text: Korolev city is the name of the fictional human colony on Mars in the Brazilian sci-fi novel "" (The Cretaceous Chronicles), published in 2020.


title: Tim Key

text: Timothy David Key (born September 1976) is an English poet, comedian, actor, screenwriter and radio personality. He is best known for playing Alan Partridge's sidekick Simon in "Mid Morning Matters", "", and "This Time", as well as his work as a member of the comedy group Cowards and his extensive list of performances at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival. In 2009, he won the Edinburgh Comedy Award and was nominated for the Malcolm Hardee Award for Comic Originality.


title: Tim Key

text: Timothy David Key was born in September 1976, in Cambridgeshire. He was educated in the intertwined villages of Histon and Impington before moving on to Hills Road Sixth Form College in Cambridge and then the University of Sheffield, where he studied Russian. Following graduation, he returned to Cambridge and joined the Cambridge Footlights, despite not being a student of Cambridge University. There he met Tom Basden, Stefan Golaszewski, and Lloyd Woolf, with whom he formed the sketch group Cowards.


title: Tim Key

text: Key's first appearance with the Footlights was in the stage production "Far Too Happy" in 2001. The cast, which included Mark Watson and Sophie Winkleman, took the show to the Edinburgh Festival Fringe and were nominated for the Edinburgh Comedy Award for Best Newcomer. Key has regularly attended Edinburgh ever since, performing in solo shows and collaborations.


title: Tim Key

text: In 2009, Key's solo poetry show "The Slutcracker" won the Edinburgh Comedy Award and was nominated for the Malcolm Hardee Award for Comic Originality. He took the show to the Melbourne International Comedy Festival the following year.


title: Tim Key

text: Key co-starred in Daniel Kitson's play "Tree" when it premiered in September 2013 at the Royal Exchange, Manchester. The play then transferred to The Old Vic in 2015. He appeared alongside Paul Ritter and Rufus Sewell in Yasmina Reza's "Art" at The Old Vic, directed by Matthew Warchus, from December 2016 to February 2017.


title: Tim Key

text: Key's comedy show "Megadate" toured from 2017 to 2018. Like "The Slutcracker", it featured Key reading "deliberately bad" poetry interspersed with black-and-white films.


title: Tim Key

text: Key has regularly been heard on BBC Radio 4 since 2006, when the station commissioned "All Bar Luke," a series based on his earlier stage show "Luke & Stella". It aired from 2006 to 2008, with a Christmas special in 2009. Key's prior radio projects included "Cowards" and "Mark Watson Makes the World Substantially Better".


title: Tim Key

text: In 2010, Key was heard as Duncan in the radio sitcom "Party", created by Tom Basden and based on the stage show of the same name. In 2012, he reunited with Basden for "Tim Key's Late Night Poetry Programme", a series that features Key reading poetry and Basden providing musical accompaniment, intercut with dialogue between the two. Five series of the show have been broadcast as of 2020.


title: Tim Key

text: Key's first album, "Tim Key. With a String Quartet. On a Boat." was released by The Invisible Dot Ltd / Angular Records in November 2010. It features Key reading poetry backed by a string quartet, with interjections from Basden.


title: Tim Key

text: Key first appeared on television in 2006's satirical comedy "Time Trumpet", as an "Eastenders" special effects supervisor. The next year, he appeared as himself in "Charlie Brooker's Screenwipe", reading poetry.


title: Tim Key

text: In 2009, Key (along with Mark Watson and Alex Horne) co-created "We Need Answers" for BBC Four, a comedic quiz show in which celebrities answer questions posed by question-answering text services. It was hosted by Watson, with Horne providing technical support and Key reading questions. As part of the show's bonus online content, the BBC uploaded videos of Key and Watson playing "No More Women", a parlour game they had invented several years earlier, with Horne supplying narration. The three reunited in 2020 to play the game as a trio, renaming it "No More Jockeys".


title: Tim Key

text: In November 2010, Key appeared as "Sidekick Simon" alongside Steve Coogan on "Mid Morning Matters", an online series based on Coogan's Alan Partridge character. The series was also broadcast on Sky Atlantic in 2012. Key would appear again as Simon in the 2013 film "" and the BBC series "This Time with Alan Partridge."


title: Tim Key

text: In 2013, Key played Greg in the E4 comedy-drama series "Gap Year". In 2014, he played Ian in the "Inside No. 9" episode "Sardines". His performance was praised, with one journalist calling him "an unsung hero of British comedy". The following year, he was a panellist on the first series of "Taskmaster" and has been credited as a "Task Consultant" since the show's second series.


title: Tim Key

text: Key has also had minor roles in shows such as "Skins", "Plebs", "Life's Too Short", "Stag", "Peep Show", "Brassic (TV Series)" and "The End of the F***ing World". He has also appeared on panel shows "Never Mind the Buzzcocks" and "Richard Osman's House of Games."


title: Tim Key

text: In 2022, Key starred in the BBC Two comedy series "The Witchfinder". That year he also appeared as Ray, nemesis and old archery teammate of Paul (Jim Howick) in an episode of friend Tom Basden's BBC1 sitcom, "Here We Go."


title: Tim Key

text: Key and Basden collaborated on short film "The One and Only Herb McGwyer Plays Wallis Island" in 2007. The film won Best UK Short at the 2007 Edinburgh Film Festival and was nominated for a 2008 BAFTA in the category of Best Short Film. In 2012, Key collaborated with director J. van Tulleken on one of 16 short films to have won production funding through BFI Shorts. The resultant film was a black comedy entitled "Anthony", starring Key and Basden, in which Key played Santa Claus


title: Tim Key

text: Key reprised his role as Sidekick Simon for the Alan Partridge film "", released in August 2013. Also in 2013, he appeared in the Richard Ayoade film "The Double". In 2019, he again starred alongside Steve Coogan in "Greed", playing the character of Sam. In 2022, he played Commissioner Harrold Scott in See How They Run.


title: Tim Key

text: Key has written a total of five books. The first, "Instructions, Guidelines, Tutelage, Suggestions, Other Suggestions and Examples Etc.: An Attempted Book by Tim Key. (And Conversations / Descriptions / A Piece About a Moth)", was published in 2009. The second, "25 Poems, 3 Recipes and 32 Other Suggestions (An Inventory)" was published in 2011. The third, "The Incomplete Tim Key", was published by Canongate Books in 2011.


title: Tim Key

text: In 2020, Key collaborated with designer Emily Juniper to create "He Used Thought As a Wife (An Anthology of Poems and Conversations from Inside)". This book, published by Utter and Press, chronicles Key's experiences during the UK's first COVID-19 lockdown. A sequel, "Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush (An Anthology of Poems and Conversations from Outside)", was released in 2022.


title: J. Kenji López-Alt

text: James Kenji López-Alt (born October 31, 1979) is an American chef and food writer. His first book, "The Food Lab: Better Home Cooking Through Science", became a critical and commercial success, charting on the "New York Times" Bestseller list and winning the 2016 James Beard Foundation Award for the best General Cooking cookbook. The cookbook expanded on López-Alt's "The Food Lab" column on the Serious Eats blog. López-Alt is known for using the scientific method in his cooking to improve popular American recipes and to explain the science of cooking.


title: J. Kenji López-Alt

text: López-Alt co-founded Wursthall in 2017, a beer hall style restaurant in San Mateo, California. He now maintains a popular YouTube channel in which he demonstrates various recipes and cooking techniques with a POV filming style. He released a children's book titled "Every Night is Pizza Night" in 2020 and a cookbook titled "The Wok: Recipes and Techniques" in 2022 which focused on the eponymous cooking vessel, both of which became "New York Times" Bestsellers.


title: J. Kenji López-Alt

text: Born James Kenji Alt, López-Alt is the son of Harvard University geneticist and immunologist Frederick Alt and the grandson of chemist Koji Nakanishi. López-Alt attended the Dalton School and graduated from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 2002, where he majored in architecture.


title: J. Kenji López-Alt

text: López-Alt's first restaurant job was during his sophomore year of college. He attempted to take a job as a waiter at a local restaurant, but they needed a prep cook. He later worked with several Boston chefs including Barbara Lynch and Ken Oringer. He went on to work as a test cook and editor at "Cook's Illustrated" magazine and "America's Test Kitchen".


title: J. Kenji López-Alt

text: López-Alt was the Managing Culinary Director and is the Chief Culinary Consultant of Serious Eats, a food blog, where he authored the James Beard Award-nominated column "The Food Lab". He later adapted this column into his first book, "The Food Lab: Better Home Cooking Through Science", which was published in September 2015 by W. W. Norton & Company. It was a "New York Times" Bestseller. and won the 2016 James Beard Foundation Award for General Cooking, as well as the International Association of Culinary Professionals awards for Best American Cookbook and Cookbook of the Year. Penny Pleasance of the "New York Journal of Books" called "The Food Lab" "a seminal work that is encyclopedic in scope and can be used as a reference by even the most experienced home cooks".


title: J. Kenji López-Alt

text: López-Alt opened the Wursthall Restaurant & Bierhaus in San Mateo, California in 2017, with partners Adam Simpson and Tyson Mao.


title: J. Kenji López-Alt

text: López-Alt started a YouTube channel in 2016, which, as of March 2022, has over one million subscribers and over 100 million views. The videos are POV-style demonstrations of recipes and cooking techniques in López-Alt's home kitchen that feature unscripted commentary and largely unedited footage.


title: J. Kenji López-Alt

text: In 2020 López-Alt released a children's book, "Every Night is Pizza Night", which debuted on the "New York Times" Children's Bestseller list.


title: J. Kenji López-Alt

text: After his move to Seattle in late 2020, López-Alt's Instagram posts became increasingly popular as he recommended various businesses and dishes around the area, becoming "maybe the most powerful food influencer this city has seen in the social media age," according to "The Seattle Times".


title: J. Kenji López-Alt

text: In 2022, López-Alt released a cookbook titled "The Wok: Recipes and Techniques", a 658-page book focused on woks. "The Seattle Times" called the book "arguably the most anticipated cookbook of the year" and it debuted at number one on the "New York Times" Bestseller list in the category of "Advice, How-To & Miscellaneous".


title: J. Kenji López-Alt

text: As of 2021, López-Alt resides in Seattle, Washington, after previously living in San Mateo, California, New York City, and Boston.


title: J. Kenji López-Alt

text: Upon marriage, López-Alt combined his birth surname, Alt, with that of his wife Adriana López. López-Alt has two children, the second of which was born in September 2021.


title: J. Kenji López-Alt

text: In January 2019, López-Alt tweeted that "if you come to my restaurant wearing a MAGA cap, you aren't getting served, same as if you come in wearing a swastika, white hood, or any other symbol of intolerance and hate" and "If you’re comfortable sitting next to a MAGA wearer I’m probably not interested in serving you either." He later apologized and deleted the tweet.


title: Significant figures

text: Significant figures (also known as the significant digits, "precision" or "resolution") of a number in positional notation are digits in the number that are reliable and necessary to indicate the quantity of something.


title: Significant figures

text: If a number expressing the result of a measurement (e.g., length, pressure, volume, or mass) has more digits than the number of digits allowed by the measurement resolution, then only as many digits as allowed by the measurement resolution are reliable, and so only these can be significant figures.


title: Significant figures

text: For example, if a length measurement gives 114.8 mm while the smallest interval between marks on the ruler used in the measurement is 1 mm, then the first three digits (1, 1, and 4, showing 114 mm) are certain and so they are significant figures. Digits which are uncertain but "reliable" are also considered significant figures. In this example, the last digit (8, which adds 0.8 mm) is also considered a significant figure even though there is uncertainty in it.


title: Significant figures

text: Another example is a volume measurement of 2.98 L with an uncertainty of ± 0.05 L. The actual volume is somewhere between 2.93 L and 3.03 L. Even when some of the digits are not certain, as long as they are reliable, they are considered significant because they indicate the actual volume within the acceptable degree of uncertainty. In this example the actual volume might be 2.94 L or might instead be 3.02 L. And so all three are significant figures.


title: Significant figures

text: Of the significant figures in a number, the most significant is the digit with the highest exponent value (simply the left-most significant figure), and the least significant is the digit with the lowest exponent value (simply the right-most significant figure). For example, in the number "123", the "1" is the most significant figure as it counts hundreds (10), and "3" is the least significant figure as it counts ones (10).


title: Significant figures

text: Significance arithmetic is a set of approximate rules for roughly maintaining significance throughout a computation. The more sophisticated scientific rules are known as propagation of uncertainty.


title: Significant figures

text: Numbers are often rounded to avoid reporting insignificant figures. For example, it would create false precision to express a measurement as 12.34525 kg if the scale was only measured to the nearest gram. In this case, the significant figures are the first 5 digits from the left-most digit (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5), and the number needs to be rounded to the significant figures so that it will be 12.345 kg as the reliable value. Numbers can also be rounded merely for simplicity rather than to indicate a precision of measurement, for example, in order to make the numbers faster to pronounce in news broadcasts.


title: Significant figures

text: Note that identifying the significant figures in a number requires knowing which digits are reliable (e.g., by knowing the measurement or reporting resolution with which the number is obtained or processed) since only reliable digits can be significant; e.g., 3 and 4 in 0.00234 g are not significant if the measurable smallest weight is 0.001 g.


title: Significant figures

text: The significance of trailing zeros in a number not containing a decimal point can be ambiguous. For example, it may not always be clear if the number 1300 is precise to the nearest unit (just happens coincidentally to be an exact multiple of a hundred) or if it is only shown to the nearest hundreds due to rounding or uncertainty. Many conventions exist to address this issue. However, these are not universally used and would only be effective if the reader is familiar with the convention:


title: Significant figures

text: As the conventions above are not in general use, the following more widely recognized options are available for indicating the significance of number with trailing zeros:


title: Significant figures

text: Rounding to significant figures is a more general-purpose technique than rounding to "n" digits, since it handles numbers of different scales in a uniform way. For example, the population of a city might only be known to the nearest thousand and be stated as 52,000, while the population of a country might only be known to the nearest million and be stated as 52,000,000. The former might be in error by hundreds, and the latter might be in error by hundreds of thousands, but both have two significant figures (5 and 2). This reflects the fact that the significance of the error is the same in both cases, relative to the size of the quantity being measured.


title: Significant figures

text: In financial calculations, a number is often rounded to a given number of places. For example, to two places after the decimal separator for many world currencies. This is done because greater precision is immaterial, and usually it is not possible to settle a debt of less than the smallest currency unit.


title: Significant figures

text: In UK personal tax returns, income is rounded down to the nearest pound, whilst tax paid is calculated to the nearest penny.


title: Significant figures

text: As an illustration, the decimal quantity 12.345 can be expressed with various numbers of significant figures or decimal places. If insufficient precision is available then the number is rounded in some manner to fit the available precision. The following table shows the results for various total precision at two rounding ways (N/A stands for Not Applicable).


title: Significant figures

text: The representation of a non-zero number "x" to a precision of "p" significant digits has a numerical value that is given by the formula:


title: Significant figures

text: which may need to be written with a specific marking as detailed above to specify the number of significant trailing zeros.


title: Significant figures

text: It is recommended for a measurement result to include the measurement uncertainty such as formula_5, where "x" and "σ" are the best estimate and uncertainty in the measurement respectively. "x" can be the average of measured values and "σ" can be the standard deviation or a multiple of the measurement deviation. The rules to write formula_5are:


title: Significant figures

text: In chemistry (and may also be for other scientific branches), uncertainty may be implied by the last significant figure if it is not explicitly expressed. The implied uncertainty is ± the half of the minimum scale at the last significant figure position. For example, if the volume of water in a bottle is reported as 3.78 L without mentioning uncertainty, then ± 0.005 L measurement uncertainty may be implied. If 2.97 ± 0.07 kg, so the actual weight is somewhere in 2.90 to 3.04 kg, is measured and it is desired to report it with a single number, then 3.0 kg is the best number to report since its implied uncertainty ± 0.05 kg tells the weight range of 2.95 to 3.05 kg that is close to the measurement range. If 2.97 ± 0.09 kg, then 3.0 kg is still the best since, if 3 kg is reported then its implied uncertainty ± 0.5 tells the range of 2.5 to 3.5 kg that is too wide in comparison with the measurement range.


title: Significant figures

text: If there is a need to write the implied uncertainty of a number, then it can be written as formula_7with stating it as the implied uncertainty (to prevent readers from recognizing it as the measurement uncertainty), where "x" and "σ" are the number with an extra zero digit (to follow the rules to write uncertainty above) and the implied uncertainty of it respectively. For example, 6 kg with the implied uncertainty ± 0.5 kg can be stated as 6.0 ± 0.5 kg.


title: Significant figures

text: As there are rules to determine the significant figures in directly "measured" quantities, there are also guidelines (not rules) to determine the significant figures in quantities "calculated" from these "measured" quantities.


title: Significant figures

text: Significant figures in "measured" quantities are most important in the determination of significant figures in "calculated quantities" with them. A mathematical or physical constant (e.g., in the formula for the area of a circle with radius as ) has no effect on the determination of the significant figures in the result of a calculation with it if its known digits are equal to or more than the significant figures in the measured quantities used in the calculation. An exact number such as in the formula for the kinetic energy of a mass with velocity as has no bearing on the significant figures in the calculated kinetic energy since its number of significant figures is infinite (0.500000...).


title: Significant figures

text: The guidelines described below are intended to avoid a calculation result more precise than the measured quantities, but it does not ensure the resulted implied uncertainty close enough to the measured uncertainties. This problem can be seen in unit conversion. If the guidelines give the implied uncertainty too far from the measured ones, then it may be needed to decide significant digits that give comparable uncertainty.


title: Significant figures

text: For quantities created from measured quantities via multiplication and division, the calculated result should have as many significant figures as the "least" number of significant figures among the measured quantities used in the calculation. For example,


title: Significant figures

text: with "one", "two", and "one" significant figures respectively. (2 here is assumed not an exact number.) For the first example, the first multiplication factor has four significant figures and the second has one significant figure. The factor with the fewest or least significant figures is the second one with only one, so the final calculated result should also have one significant figure.


title: Significant figures

text: For unit conversion, the implied uncertainty of the result can be unsatisfactorily higher than that in the previous unit if this rounding guideline is followed; For example, 8 inch has the implied uncertainty of ± 0.5 inch = ± 1.27 cm. If it is converted to the centimeter scale and the rounding guideline for multiplication and division is followed, then 0.32 cm ≈ 20 cm with the implied uncertainty of ± 5 cm. If this implied uncertainty is considered as too overestimated, then more proper significant digits in the unit conversion result may be 2.32 cm ≈ 20. cm with the implied uncertainty of ± 0.5 cm.


title: Significant figures

text: Another exception of applying the above rounding guideline is to multiply a number by an integer, such as 1.234 × 9. If the above guideline is followed, then the result is rounded as 1.234 × 9.000... = 11.16 ≈ 11.11. However, this multiplication is essentially adding 1.234 to itself 9 times such as 1.234 + 1.234 + … + 1.234 so the rounding guideline for addition and subtraction described below is more proper rounding approach. As a result, the final answer is 1.234 + 1.234 + … + 1.234 = 11.10 = 11.106 (one significant digit increase).


title: Significant figures

text: For quantities created from measured quantities via addition and subtraction, the last significant figure position (e.g., hundreds, tens, ones, tenths, hundredths, and so forth) in the calculated result should be the same as the "leftmost" or largest digit position among the last significant figures of the "measured" quantities in the calculation. For example,


title: Significant figures

text: with the last significant figures in the "ones" place, "tenths" place, and "ones" place respectively. (2 here is assumed not an exact number.) For the first example, the first term has its last significant figure in the thousandths place and the second term has its last significant figure in the "ones" place. The leftmost or largest digit position among the last significant figures of these terms is the ones place, so the calculated result should also have its last significant figure in the ones place.


title: Significant figures

text: The rule to calculate significant figures for multiplication and division are not the same as the rule for addition and subtraction. For multiplication and division, only the total number of significant figures in each of the factors in the calculation matters; the digit position of the last significant figure in each factor is irrelevant. For addition and subtraction, only the digit position of the last significant figure in each of the terms in the calculation matters; the total number of significant figures in each term is irrelevant. However, greater accuracy will often be obtained if some non-significant digits are maintained in intermediate results which are used in subsequent calculations.


title: Significant figures

text: The base-10 logarithm of a normalized number (i.e., "a" × 10 with 1 ≤ "a" < 10 and "b" as an integer), is rounded such that its decimal part (called mantissa) has as many significant figures as the significant figures in the normalized number.


title: Significant figures

text: When taking the antilogarithm of a normalized number, the result is rounded to have as many significant figures as the significant figures in the decimal part of the number to be antiloged.


title: Significant figures

text: If a transcendental function formula_8 (e.g., the exponential function, the logarithm, and the trigonometric functions) is differentiable at its domain element "x", then its number of significant figures (denoted as "significant figures of formula_8") is approximately related with the number of significant figures in "x" (denoted as "significant figures of "x"") by the formula


title: Significant figures

text: where formula_11 is the condition number. See the significance arithmetic article to find its derivation.


title: Significant figures

text: When performing multiple stage calculations, do not round intermediate stage calculation results; keep as many digits as is practical (at least one more digit than the rounding rule allows per stage) until the end of all the calculations to avoid cumulative rounding errors while tracking or recording the significant figures in each intermediate result. Then, round the final result, for example, to the fewest number of significant figures (for multiplication or division) or leftmost last significant digit position (for addition or subtraction) among the inputs in the final calculation.


title: Significant figures

text: When using a ruler, initially use the smallest mark as the first estimated digit. For example, if a ruler's smallest mark is 0.1 cm, and 4.5 cm is read, then it is 4.5 (±0.1 cm) or 4.4 cm to 4.6 cm as to the smallest mark interval. However, in practice a measurement can usually be estimated by eye to closer than the interval between the ruler's smallest mark, e.g. in the above case it might be estimated as between 4.51 cm and 4.53 cm.


title: Significant figures

text: It is also possible that the overall length of a ruler may not be accurate to the degree of the smallest mark, and the marks may be imperfectly spaced within each unit. However assuming a normal good quality ruler, it should be possible to estimate tenths between the nearest two marks to achieve an extra decimal place of accuracy. Failing to do this adds the error in reading the ruler to any error in the calibration of the ruler.


title: Significant figures

text: When estimating the proportion of individuals carrying some particular characteristic in a population, from a random sample of that population, the number of significant figures should not exceed the maximum precision allowed by that sample size.


title: Significant figures

text: Traditionally, in various technical fields, "accuracy" refers to the closeness of a given measurement to its true value; "precision" refers to the stability of that measurement when repeated many times. Thus, it is possible to be "precisely wrong". Hoping to reflect the way in which the term "accuracy" is actually used in the scientific community, there is a recent standard, ISO 5725, which keeps the same definition of precision but defines the term "trueness" as the closeness of a given measurement to its true value and uses the term "accuracy" as the combination of trueness and precision. (See the accuracy and precision article for a full discussion.) In either case, the number of significant figures roughly corresponds to "precision", not to accuracy or the newer concept of trueness.


title: Significant figures

text: Computer representations of floating-point numbers use a form of rounding to significant figures (while usually not keeping track of how many), in general with binary numbers. The number of correct significant figures is closely related to the notion of relative error (which has the advantage of being a more accurate measure of precision, and is independent of the radix, also known as the base, of the number system used).


title: Mongrel

text: A mongrel, mutt or mixed-breed dog is a dog that does not belong to one officially recognized breed and including those that are the result of intentional breeding. Although the term "mixed-breed dog" is sometimes preferred, many mongrels have no known purebred ancestors. Crossbreed dogs, and "designer dogs", while also a mix of breeds, differ from mongrels in being intentionally bred. At other times, the word "mongrel" has been applied to informally purpose-bred dogs such as curs, which were created at least in part from mongrels, especially if the breed is not officially recognized.


title: Mongrel

text: Although mongrels are viewed as of less commercial value than intentionally bred dogs, they are thought to be less susceptible to genetic health problems associated with inbreeding (based on the theory of heterosis), and have enthusiasts and defenders who prefer them to intentionally bred dogs.


title: Mongrel

text: In the United States, the term "mixed-breed" is a favored synonym over "mongrel" among individuals who wish to avoid negative connotations associated with the latter term. The implication that such dogs must be a mix of defined breeds may stem from an inverted understanding of the origins of dog breeds. Purebred dogs have been, for the most part, artificially created from random-bred populations by human selective breeding with the purpose of enhancing desired physical, behavioral, or temperamental characteristics. Dogs that are not "purebred" are not necessarily a mix of such defined breeds. Therefore, among some experts and fans of such dogs, "mongrel" is still the preferred term.


title: Mongrel

text: Dog crossbreeds, sometimes called "designer dogs", also are not members of a single recognized breed. Unlike mixed-breeds, crossbreed dogs are often the product of artificial selection – intentionally created by humans, whereas the term "mongrel" specifically refers to dogs that develop by natural selection, without the planned intervention of humans.


title: Mongrel

text: The words "cur", "tyke", "mutt", and "mongrel" are used, sometimes in a derogatory manner. There are also regional terms for mixed-breed dogs. In the United Kingdom, "mongrel" is the unique technical word for a mixed-breed dog. North Americans generally prefer the term "mix" or "mixed-breed". "Mutt" is also commonly used (in the United States and Canada). Some American registries and dog clubs that accept mixed-breed dogs use the breed description "All American".


title: Mongrel

text: There are also names for mixed-breeds based on geography, behavior, or food. In Hawaii, mixes are referred to as poi dogs, although they are not related to the extinct Hawaiian Poi Dog. In the Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands, the common term is "potcake dogs" (referring to the table scraps they are fed). In South Africa, the tongue-in-cheek expression "pavement special" is sometimes used as a description for a mixed-breed dog. In Trinidad and Tobago, these mixed dogs are referred to as "pot hounds" ("pothong"). In Serbia, a similar expression is "prekoplotski avlijaner" ("over-the-fence yard-dweller"). In the Philippines, mixed-breed street dogs are often called "askal", a Tagalog-derived contraction of "asong kalye" (”street dog"). In Puerto Rico, they are known as "satos"; in Venezuela they are called "yusos" or "cacris", the latter being a contraction of the words "callejero criollo" (literally, street creole, as street dogs are usually mongrels); and in Chile and Bolivia, they are called "quiltros". In Costa Rica, it is common to hear the word "zaguate", a term originating from a Nahuatl term, "zahuatl", that refers to the disease called scabies. In the rural southern United States, a small hunting dog is known as a feist.


title: Mongrel

text: Slang terms are also common. "Heinz 57", Heinz, or Heinz Hound is often used for dogs of uncertain ancestry, in a playful reference to the "57 Varieties" slogan of the H. J. Heinz Company. In some countries, such as Australia, "bitsa" (or "bitzer") is sometimes used, meaning "bits o' this, bits o' that". In Brazil and the Dominican Republic, the name for mixed-breed dogs is "vira-lata" ("trash-can tipper") because of homeless dogs who knock over trash cans to reach discarded food. In Newfoundland, a smaller mixed-breed dog is known as a "cracky", hence the colloquial expression "saucy as a cracky" for someone with a sharp tongue.


title: Mongrel

text: Guessing a mixed-breed's ancestry can be difficult even for knowledgeable dog observers, because mixed-breeds have much more genetic variation than purebreds. For example, two black mixed-breed dogs might each have recessive genes that produce a blond coat and, therefore, produce offspring looking unlike their parents.


title: Mongrel

text: Starting in 2007, genetic analysis has become available to the public. The companies claim their DNA-based diagnostic test can genetically determine the breed composition of mixed-breed dogs. These tests are still limited in scope because only a small number of the hundreds of dog breeds have been validated against the tests, and because the same breed in different geographical areas may have different genetic profiles. The tests do not test for breed purity, but for genetic sequences that are common to certain breeds. With a mixed-breed dog, the test is not proof of purebred ancestry, but rather an indication that those dogs share common ancestry with certain purebreds. The American Kennel Club does not recognize the use of DNA tests to determine breed.


title: Mongrel

text: Many newer dog breeds can be traced back to a common foundational breed, making them difficult to separate genetically. For example, Labrador Retrievers, Flat-coated Retrievers, Chesapeake Bay Retrievers, and Newfoundland dogs share a common ancestry with the St. John's water dog – a now-extinct naturally occurring dog landrace from the island of Newfoundland.


title: Mongrel

text: The theory of hybrid vigor suggests that as a group, dogs of varied ancestry will be generally healthier than their purebred counterparts. In purebred dogs, intentionally breeding dogs of very similar appearance over several generations produces animals that carry many of the same alleles, some of which are detrimental. If the founding population for the breed was small, then the genetic diversity of that particular breed may be small for quite some time.


title: Mongrel

text: When humans select certain dogs for new breeds, they artificially isolate that group of genes and cause more copies of that gene to be made than might have otherwise occurred in nature. The population is initially more fragile because of the lack of genetic diversity. If the dog breed is popular, and the line continues, over hundreds of years diversity increase due to mutations and occasional out-breeding. This is why some of the very old breeds are more stable. One issue is when certain traits found in the breed standard are associated with genetic disorders. The artificial selective force favors the duplication of the genetic disorder because it comes with a desired physical trait. The genetic health of hybrids tends to be higher. Healthy traits have been lost in many purebred dog lines because many breeders of showdogs are more interested in conformation – the physical attributes of the dogs in relation to the breed standard – than in the health and working temperament for which the dog was originally bred.


title: Mongrel

text: Populations are vulnerable when the dogs bred are closely related. Inbreeding among purebreds has exposed various genetic health problems not always readily apparent in less uniform populations. Mixed-breed dogs are more genetically diverse due to the more haphazard nature of their parents' mating. However, "haphazard" is not the same as "random". The offspring of such matings might be less likely to express certain genetic disorders because there might be a decreased chance that both parents carry the same detrimental recessive alleles, but some deleterious recessives occur across many seemingly unrelated breeds, and therefore merely mixing breeds is no guarantee of genetic health. When two poor specimens are bred, the offspring could inherit the worst traits of both parents. This is commonly seen in dogs that came from puppy mills.


title: Mongrel

text: Several studies have shown that mixed-breed dogs have a health advantage over purebred dogs. A German study finds that "mongrels require less veterinary treatment". Studies in Sweden have found that "Mongrel dogs are less prone to many diseases than the average purebred dog" and, when referring to death rates, that "mongrels were consistently in the low risk category". Data from Denmark also suggest that mixed breeds have higher longevity on average compared to purebreds.