title: David Ayer

text: Ayer also directed "Bright", "a contemporary cop thriller, but with fantastical elements", starring Will Smith and Joel Edgerton with a script penned by Max Landis that Ayer rewrote. Netflix picked up the film for a $90 million deal. The film was released on December 22, 2017. On January 3, 2018, Netflix confirmed they were moving ahead with the sequel for "Bright", with Smith and Edgerton reprising their roles and Ayer directing and writing the script with Evan Spiliotopoulos, the filming of which began in March 2019.


title: David Ayer

text: This ultimately did not happen due to Will Smith's schedule, and on May 5, 2020, he was replaced with Louise Leterrier as David Ayer wanted to focus on "The Dirty Dozen" for Warner Brothers.


title: David Ayer

text: On December 13, 2016, Ayer was brought on board to direct the spin-off of "Suicide Squad", "Gotham City Sirens", which evolved into "Birds of Prey", directed by Cathy Yan, and starring Margot Robbie reprising her role of Harley Quinn. "Gotham City Sirens" remained in development, but as of April 2021, "Gotham City Sirens" has been put on pause.


title: David Ayer

text: He was also contracted by Universal Pictures to direct a remake of "Scarface" starring Diego Luna, but was let go because his script was too violent.


title: David Ayer

text: Ayer established Cedar Park Entertainment on January 4, 2018, with former head of programming at Audience Network, Chris Long. Primarily established to produce films and television shows, the first film Cedar Park produced was 2020's "The Tax Collector", Ayer's second collaboration with actor Shia LaBeouf. On June 21, 2018, it set a first look deal with Entertainment One, and it will cover television series, both scripted and unscripted.


title: David Ayer

text: In May 2022, Ayer signed on to direct action thriller "The Beekeeper" for Miramax, written by Kurt Wimmer and starring Jason Statham, with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer later acquiring domestic distribution rights.


title: Furby

text: Furby is an American electronic robotic toy that was originally released in 1998 by Tiger Electronics. It resembles a hamster or owllike creature and went through a period of being a "must-have" toy following its holiday season launch, with continual sales until 2000. Over 40 million Furbies were sold during the three years of its original production, with 1.8 million sold in 1998, and 14 million in 1999. Its speaking capabilities were translated into 24 languages.


title: Furby

text: Furbies were the first successful attempt to produce and sell a domestically aimed robot. A newly purchased Furby starts out speaking entirely "Furbish", the unique language that all Furbies use, but is programmed to start using English words and phrases in place of Furbish over time. This process is intended to resemble the process of learning English. The updated Emoto-Tronic Furby, with voice recognition and more complex facial movements, was sold by Hasbro between 2005 and 2007. Another updated Furby with black and white LCD eyes and a mobile app was released for the holiday season in 2012. The last updated Furby with color LCD eyes was released in 2016.


title: Furby

text: Dave Hampton and Caleb Chung spent nine months creating the Furby (in addition to nine months spent designing the toy). After two attempts at licensing the concept, they invited fellow toy and game inventor Richard C. Levy to join their efforts to sell Furby. Levy brought Furby to Tiger Electronics and Tiger's Roger Shiffman bought the rights to it. Furby's first public appearance was at the American International Toy Fair in 1998.


title: Furby

text: Furbies originally retailed for about US$35, and upon release, they sold very well. Catapulting demand during the 1998 Christmas period drove the resale price over $100, and sometimes as high as several hundred dollars. Furbies were sold for over $300 in newspapers and in auctions. Nicknames were given to the different aesthetic varieties, and sellers assigned rarity values to them.


title: Furby

text: The significant aftermarket demand (and price) for the toy resulted in cases of fraud in which customers paid for Furbies that were never delivered. Parental battles, arguments, and fights increased rapidly as supplies dwindled, and when retail supplies ran out, buyers turned to the Internet, where Furbies could be purchased for two, three, or more multiples of their retail price. During one 12-month period, a total of 27 million Furby toys were sold.


title: Furby

text: On April 12, 2012, it was announced that Hasbro would be making a new line of Furbies. The new line was released in September 2012. As of December 2012 there were sixteen colors: Teal, white, black, purple, tangerine-tango, yellow, aqua, navy blue, plum, pink, pink/teal, orange/blue, black/pink, blue/yellow, teal/purple, and gray/teal.


title: Furby

text: Furbies were one of the eleven toys named the top toys for Christmas 2013 by the Toy Retailers Association at the DreamToys Convention where they unveil their predictions for the most popular holiday toys annually.


title: Furby

text: The main reason for their popularity was because of apparent "intelligence", reflected in their ability to develop language skills.


title: Furby

text: Furbies can communicate with one another via an infrared port located between their eyes. Furbies start out speaking entirely "Furbish", a language with short words, simple syllables, and various other sounds. They are programmed, however, to speak less and less Furbish and more and more English as they "grow". According to the variant, it knew 9 languages (English, French, Spanish, German, Italian, Japanese, Swedish, Greek and Portuguese).


title: Furby

text: There was a common misconception that they repeated words that were said around them. This belief most likely stemmed from the fact that it is possible to have the Furby say certain pre-programmed words or phrases more often by petting it whenever it said these words. As a result of this myth, several intelligence agencies banned them from their offices.


title: Furby

text: A simple electric motor and a system of cams and gears close the Furby's eyes and mouth, raise its ears, and lift it off the ground in a "faux" display of mobility.


title: Furby

text: The originals are popular with many hackers as they can be dissected and made to do interesting things. In particular, their advanced audio capabilities and various sensory interfaces make them popular with the circuit bending community.


title: Furby

text: In 1999, the Furby Babies line was introduced. Furby Babies are smaller than the original, have higher voices, and cannot dance, but they switch to speaking English more quickly. They also have an extended vocabulary and different "Easter eggs" and "games" built into them. Furby Babies come in 24 different colors. All have white eyelashes and one of six different eyecolors.


title: Furby

text: Novel Furbies were also released, including an interactive Furby-style "Gizmo", from the film "Gremlins", a Furby-style "Interactive Yoda" based on the Star Wars character, and a Furby-style "Interactive E.T." from the movie of the same name. Another "friend of Furby", called "Shelby", is similar to Furby, but looks like a clam, has vast improvements in memory, and has a different personality; it was released in 2001 and can communicate with the original Furbies and Furby Babies. They also have sensors that can sense loud sounds, can sense being upside down (they say things like "Shiver me timbers" and "Walk the plank" when left upside-down for an extended period of time), and they laugh when "tickled" (their antennae – or "tennies", as they like to call them). They also purr when "petted". They can be fed by sticking a finger in their mouth. Similarly, Shelbies do not have their own names, unlike the classic Furbies. Shelbies are also capable of knowing if it is talking to a Furby or another Shelby, saying phrases such as "Where's Furby?"—though they cannot differentiate between a Furby and a Furby Baby—they just assume it is a Furby. In addition to English, Shelbies also know some Furbish words and also have their own unique language called "Shelbish".


title: Furby

text: Emoto-Tronic Furbies was released in August 2005. Larger than the previous version, the new Furbies have been upgraded with a more emotional face and a voice recognition system, enabling them to communicate with humans. Unlike the Furbies originally released, just one order is necessary to make them 'sleep', and they have an on/off switch. They can communicate with other Emoto-tronic Furbies, though to a lesser extent than the communication between original Furbies, and they cannot themselves communicate with the original Furbies nor Funky Furbies. They also lack light sensors and basic motion sensors and do not respond to loud sounds as the originals do. These Furbies, according to the story they come packed with, are from Furby Island. It knew only seven languages (Swedish and Greek disappeared).


title: Furby

text: In 2006, a new version of Furby Baby was released, with the most notable features being the new look and a more "babyish" appearance in contrast to the Emoto-Tronic Furby adult. They also have considerably fewer features than the "adult" Furby, with a very limited vocabulary and a lower level of interactivity. Another notable feature of the 2006 Emoto-Tronic Baby Furby is the movable "legs" which unfurl when a Furby Baby is awake. Although they were a European exclusive, they were sold in the US via the Hasbro Toy Shop website.


title: Furby

text: The Funky Furbies were released in August 2006 outside the United States. They are limited to three color combinations (pink and yellow; purple and green; blue and purple), they can sing three new songs and dance. They can be taught dance routines and remember them.


title: Furby

text: A new Furby was released in the fall of 2012. It has more expressive LCD eyes, a wider range of motions, its own iOS and Android app, and the ability to adapt its personality in reaction to user behavior. Compared to the first generation, variants with Russian, Chinese, Mandarin, Korean and Polish were also produced, increasing the number of languages to 14. The on-off switch is replaced with a reset button; the Furby turns itself off after one minute of inactivity. The app was removed from mobile app stores in 2021.


title: Furby

text: Instead of the screens that the full-size Furbies feature, their eyes are made out of transparent plastic with a backing that has a static pattern printed.


title: Furby

text: The eyes have an LED backlight and the printed image is stereoscopic so that it changes depending on the viewing angle. The Party Rockers don't have any moving parts.


title: Furby

text: In summer of 2013, about a year after the 2012 Furby came out, a new Furby was released with new different colors and new Personalities. It has a brand-new iOS and Android app, called Furby BOOM!, with many new features. The app was removed from mobile app stores in 2021.


title: Furby

text: In June 2014, a toy version of the Furblings from the Furby BOOM! app was released along with a Golden limited time one. It can communicate with Furby Booms, and can be used with the app too.


title: Furby

text: The release for Christmas 2014 is called the Furby Boom Crystal series, with a redesign of the ears, face and feet and new bright neon fur. The iOS and Android apps have also been redesigned.


title: Furby

text: In early 2015, a toy version of the Furby Boom Crystal Furblings from the app was released. Like the other Furblings, it can communicate with Furby Boom Crystals, and be used with the app.


title: Furby

text: In June 2015, a Furby that resembles Chewbacca from Star Wars was released. It is similar to the Furby Boom because it can hatch Furblings with the same app and more. It is known as the Wookie Furby and the new Furby Friend. The app was removed from mobile app stores in 2021.


title: Furby

text: In 2016 another new Furby Connect with more expressive eyes and movements was released, along with an app containing a whole world of Furblings for it to interact with. The Furby Connect has a translucent plastic joystick on its head which lights up different colors when toggled and is used to control games played with Furblings in the app. Unlike the 2012 Furby and Furby Boom, the Furby Connect does not change personalities. However it can sing songs that it "learns" from the app. It knew only two languages, English or Russian.


title: Furby

text: The first Furby model was based around a 6502-style Sunplus SPC81A microcontroller, which had 80 KiB of ROM and 128 bytes of RAM. Its core differed from the original 6502 in the lack of the Y index register.


title: Furby

text: On January 13, 1999, it was reported the National Security Agency of the United States banned Furbies from entering NSA's property due to concerns that they may be used to record and repeat classified information, advising those that see any on NSA property to "contact their Staff Security Officer for guidance."


title: Furby

text: Roger Shiffman, the owner of Tiger Electronics, stated that "Furby has absolutely no ability to do any recording whatsoever," and that he would have gladly told the NSA this if he was asked by anyone from the spy agency. Additionally, Dave Hampton demonstrated that Furby's microphone can't record any sound at all, and can only hear a single monotonous beep if a loud sound is produced around Furby, and no words or waveforms can be made out at all. He too was never questioned by the NSA. The ban was eventually withdrawn.


title: Furby

text: Security researchers discovered that the microphone on a Furby Connect can be remotely activated and used to record voice through a Bluetooth connection.


title: Furby

text: "Furbish" is the Furbies' language, with simple syllables, short words, and various sounds. A newly- purchased Furby starts out speaking entirely in Furbish. Over time, the Furby gradually replaces Furbish words and phrases with English.


title: Furby

text: Bob Weinstein announced in November 2016 that a Furby film adaptation is to be produced by The Weinstein Company (TWC). The film was written by Daniel Persitz and Devon Kliger, and will contain both live action and computer-animated characters. In regards to the film's narrative, Hasbro executive Stephen Davis stated that "we think that this can resonate as a four-quadrant film. It can't just be a 90-minute commercial." TWC filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on March 19, 2018. On May 1, 2018, Lantern Capital emerged as the winner of the studio's bankruptcy auction. On July 16, 2018, it was announced that The Weinstein Company had shut down and its assets had been sold to the newly created Lantern Entertainment. It is unclear whether Lantern Entertainment will take over producing the project.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: Bryan Stevenson (born November 14, 1959) is an American lawyer, social justice activist, law professor at New York University School of Law, and the founder and executive director of the Equal Justice Initiative. Based in Montgomery, Alabama, he has challenged bias against the poor and minorities in the criminal justice system, especially children. He has helped achieve United States Supreme Court decisions that prohibit sentencing children under 18 to death or to life imprisonment without parole. He has assisted in cases that have saved dozens of prisoners from the death penalty, advocated for the poor, and developed community-based reform litigation aimed at improving the administration of criminal justice.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: He was depicted in the legal drama "Just Mercy", which is based on his memoir "Just Mercy: A Story of Justice and Redemption." He recounted his work with Walter McMillian, who had been unjustly convicted and sentenced to death.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: Stevenson initiated the National Memorial for Peace and Justice in Montgomery, which honors the names of each of more than 4,000 African Americans lynched in the twelve states of the South from 1877 to 1950. He argues that the history of slavery and lynchings has influenced the subsequent high rate of death sentences in the South, where it has been disproportionately applied to minorities. A related museum, The Legacy Museum: From Enslavement to Mass Incarceration, offers interpretations to show the connection between the post-Reconstruction period of lynchings to the high rate of incarceration and executions of people of color in the United States.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: In November 2018, Stevenson received the Benjamin Franklin Award from the American Philosophical Society as a "Drum major for justice and mercy." In 2020, he shared the Right Livelihood Award with Nasrin Sotoudeh, Ales Bialiatski and Lottie Cunningham Wren.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: Born on November 14, 1959, Stevenson grew up in Milton, Delaware, a small rural town located in southern Delaware. His father Howard Carlton Stevenson Sr., had grown up in Milton, and his mother Alice Gertrude (Golden) Stevenson was born and grew up in Philadelphia. Her family had moved to the city from Virginia in the Great Migration of the early 20th century. Stevenson has two siblings: an older brother Howard Jr. and a sister Christy.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: Both parents commuted to the northern part of the state for work, with Howard Sr., working at a General Foods processing plant as a laboratory technician and Alice as an equal opportunity officer at Dover Air Force Base. She particularly emphasized the importance of education to her children.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: Stevenson's family attended the Prospect African Methodist Episcopal Church, where as a child, Stevenson played piano and sang in the choir. His later views were influenced by the strong faith of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, where churchgoers were celebrated for "standing up after having fallen down". These experiences informed his belief that "each person in our society is more than the worst thing they’ve ever done.”


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: When Stevenson was 16, his maternal grandfather, Clarence L. Golden, was stabbed to death in his Philadelphia home during a robbery. The killers received life sentences, an outcome Stevenson thought fair. Stevenson said of the murder: "Because my grandfather was older, his murder seemed particularly cruel. But I came from a world where we valued redemption over revenge."


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: As a child, Stevenson dealt with segregation and its legacy. He spent his first classroom years at a "colored" elementary school. By the time he entered the second grade, his school was formally desegregated, but the old rules from segregation still applied. Black kids played separately from white kids, and at the doctor's or dentist's office, black kids and their parents continued to use the back door, while whites entered through the front. Pools and other community facilities were informally segregated. Stevenson's father, having grown up in the area, took the ingrained racism in his stride, but their mother noted that this was not right. In an interview in 2017, Stevenson recalled how his mother protested the day the black children from town lined up at the back door of the polio vaccination station to receive their shots, waiting hours while the white children went in first.<ref name="The Ezra Klein Show 5/16/2017"></ref>


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: Stevenson attended Cape Henlopen High School and graduated in 1978. He played on the soccer and baseball teams. He also served as president of the student body and won American Legion public speaking contests. His brother, Howard, takes some credit for helping hone Stevenson's rhetorical skills: “We argued the way brothers argue, but these were serious arguments, inspired I guess by our mother and the circumstances of our family growing up.”


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: Stevenson earned straight A's and won a scholarship to Eastern University in St. Davids, Pennsylvania. On campus, he directed the campus gospel choir. Stevenson graduated with a B.A. degree in Philosophy from Eastern in 1981. In 1985, Stevenson earned both a J.D. degree from Harvard Law School and an M.A. degree in Public Policy (MPP) from the John F. Kennedy School of Government, also at Harvard University. During law school, as part of a class on race and poverty litigation with Elizabeth Bartholet, he worked for Stephen Bright's Southern Center for Human Rights, an organization that represents death-row inmates throughout the South. During this work, Stevenson found his career calling.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: After graduating from Harvard in 1985, Stevenson moved to Atlanta, and joined the Southern Center for Human Rights full-time. The center divided work by region and Stevenson was assigned to Alabama. In 1989 he was appointed to run the Alabama operation, a resource center and death-penalty defense organization that was funded by Congress. He had a center in Montgomery, the state capital.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: When the United States Congress eliminated funding for death-penalty defense, Stevenson converted the center and founded the non-profit Equal Justice Initiative (EJI) in Montgomery. In 1995, he was awarded a MacArthur Grant and put all the money toward supporting the center. He guaranteed a defense of anyone in Alabama sentenced to the death penalty, as it was the only state that did not provide legal assistance to people on death row. It also has the highest per capita rate of death penalty sentencing.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: One of EJI's first cases was the post-conviction appeal of Walter McMillian, who had been confined to death row before being convicted of murder and sentenced to death. Stevenson was able to discredit every element of the prosecution's initial case, which led to McMillian being exonerated and released from jail in 1993.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: Stevenson has been particularly concerned about overly harsh sentencing of persons convicted of crimes committed as children, under the age of 18. In 2005, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in "Roper v. Simmons" that the death penalty was unconstitutional for persons convicted of crimes committed under the age of 18. Stevenson worked to have the court's thinking about appropriate punishment broadened to related cases applying to children convicted under the age of 17.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: EJI mounted a litigation campaign to gain review of cases in which convicted children were sentenced to life-without-parole, including cases without homicide. In "Miller v. Alabama" (2012), the US Supreme Court ruled in a landmark decision that mandatory sentences of life-without-parole for children 17 and under were unconstitutional; their decision has affected statutes in 29 states. In 2016, the court ruled in "Montgomery v. Louisiana" that this decision had to be applied retroactively, potentially affecting the sentences of 2300 people nationwide who had been sentenced to life while still children.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: As of 2022, the EJI has saved over 130 people from the death penalty. In addition, it has represented poor people, defended people on appeal, overturned wrongful convictions, and worked to alleviate bias in the criminal justice system.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: The EJI offices are near the landing at the Alabama River where slaves were unloaded in the domestic slave trade; an equal distance away is Court Square, "one of the largest slave auction sites in the country." Stevenson has noted that in downtown Montgomery, there were "dozens" of historic markers and numerous monuments related to Confederate history, but nothing acknowledging the history of slavery, on which the wealth of the South was based and for which it fought the Civil War. He proposed to the state and provided documentation to three slavery sites with historic markers; the Alabama Department of Archives and History told him that it did not want to "sponsor the markers given the potential for controversy." Stevenson worked with an African-American history group to gain sponsorship for this project; they gained state approval for the three markers in 2013, and these have been installed in Montgomery.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: Stevenson acquired six acres of former public housing land in Montgomery for the development of a new project, the National Memorial for Peace and Justice, to commemorate the nearly 4,000 persons who were lynched in the South from 1877 to 1950. Many lynchings were conducted openly in front of mobs and crowds in county courthouse squares. Stevenson argues this history of extrajudicial lynchings by white mobs is closely associated with the subsequent high rate of death sentences imposed in Alabama and other southern states, and to their disproportionate application to minority people. He further argues that this history influences the bias against minorities as expressed in disproportionately high mass incarceration rates for them across the country. The memorial opened in April 2018.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: Associated with the Memorial is the Legacy Museum: From Enslavement to Mass Incarceration, which also opened on April 26, 2018. Exhibits in the former slave warehouse include materials on lynching, racial segregation, and mass incarceration since the late 20th century. Stevenson articulates how the treatment of people of color under the criminal justice system is related to the history of slavery and later treatment of minorities in the South.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: Stevenson wrote the critically acclaimed memoir "," published in 2014 by Spiegel & Grau. It was selected by "Time" magazine as one of the "10 Best Books of Nonfiction" for 2014, and was among "The New York Times" "100 Notable Books" for the year. It won the 2015 Andrew Carnegie Medal for Excellence in Nonfiction and the 2015 Dayton Literary Peace Prize for Nonfiction. A film based on the book, called "Just Mercy", starring Michael B. Jordan as Stevenson while Stevenson himself executive-producing, premiered on September 6, 2019, at the Toronto International Film Festival and was released in theatres on December 25, 2019.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: Stevenson conducts an active public speaking schedule, in large part for fundraising for the work of EJI. His speech at TED2012 in Long Beach, California brought him a wide audience on the Internet. Following his presentation, attendees at the conference contributed more than $1 million to fund a campaign run by Stevenson to end the practice of placing convicted children to serve sentences in adult jails and prisons. His talk is available on the TED website; by April 2020, it had been viewed more than 6.5 million times.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: Stevenson has been a commencement speaker and received numerous honorary degrees, including from the following institutions: University of Delaware, 2016, honorary Doctor of Laws degree; Williams College, 2016, honorary doctorate; Loyola University Chicago, Stritch School of Medicine, 2011, Doctor of Humane Letters, "honoris causa"; College of the Holy Cross, 2015; Wesleyan University, 2016, honorary degree; University of Mississippi, 2017s fall convocation; Northeastern University, fall 2017 convocation; Emory University, spring 2020 commencement and honorary doctor of laws degree.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: In June 2017, Stevenson delivered the 93rd Ware Lecture at the General Assembly of the Unitarian Universalist Association in New Orleans, Louisiana.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: Stevenson is featured in episode 45 of the podcast "Criminal" by Radiotopia from PRX. Host Phoebe Judge talked with Stevenson about his experiences during his 30 years spent working to get people off death row, and about his take on the deserving of mercy.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: On May 24, 2018, Stevenson delivered the Commencement address for The Johns Hopkins University Class of 2018.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: On May 21, 2021, "Freedom, Justice, and Hope with Bryan Stevenson" premiered on Jazz at Lincoln Center where he provided reflections on the American narrative of racism and performed pieces on the piano such as "Honeysuckle Rose".


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: On May 8, 2022, Stevenson delivered the Commencement address at Eastern Mennonite University in Harrisonburg, VA. He became just the second person to receive an honorary doctorate from the university, the other being Nobel Peace Prize winner Leymah Gbowee.


title: Bryan Stevenson

text: Stevenson is a lifelong bachelor and has stated that his career is incompatible with married life. He has resided in Montgomery, Alabama since 1985.


title: Safe House (2012 film)

text: Safe House is a 2012 American action thriller film directed by Daniel Espinosa, written by David Guggenheim, and starring Denzel Washington and Ryan Reynolds. The film follows Matt Weston (Reynolds), a CIA officer on a low-level posting in Cape Town, South Africa, who is in charge of a safe house where the CIA is interrogating Tobin Frost (Washington), a veteran operative who has allegedly betrayed the agency. When the safe house is attacked by mercenaries, Weston flees with Frost in his charge. As the team of killers, who seem to be one step ahead of the pair, track them throughout Cape Town, Weston wonders who to trust. Vera Farmiga, Brendan Gleeson, Sam Shepard, Rubén Blades, Nora Arnezeder and Robert Patrick co-star.


title: Safe House (2012 film)

text: "Safe House" was Espinosa's first English-language film. Filming took place on location in Cape Town. The film premiered in New York City on February 7, 2012, and was released in U.S. theaters on February 10, 2012, by Universal Pictures. The film earned mixed reviews, with praise for Washington and Reynolds' performances, but negative criticisms for the screenplay and the editing of the action scenes. Nevertheless, "Safe House" was a commercial success, earning $208 million worldwide against an $85 million budget.


title: Safe House (2012 film)

text: In Cape Town, South Africa, junior CIA officer Matt Weston is serving as a "housekeeper", an operative in charge of securing and maintaining a local CIA safe house. He is frustrated due to the lack of action at his location, and hopes to move to the Paris to follow his live-in girlfriend Ana, a young French physician about to start her residency.


title: Safe House (2012 film)

text: Elsewhere in Cape Town, ex-CIA NOC operative-turned criminal Tobin Frost acquires a data storage device from rogue MI6 officer Alec Wade. A team of mercenaries attacks the meet and kills Wade, forcing Frost to surrender to the American consulate. A team led by veteran CIA agent Daniel Kiefer transfer Frost to Weston's safe house to interrogate him. When the mercenaries, led by Vargas, attack the safe house and kill Kiefer's team, Weston escapes with Frost.


title: Safe House (2012 film)

text: Weston contacts his surpvisor, David Barlow, at CIA headquarters in Langley, Virginia, along with Catherine Linklater, the operative in charge of Frost's interrogation, and CIA Deputy Director Harlan Whitford, who is overseeing the operation. Linklater orders Weston to lie low and await further instructions. But Frost begins to manipulate Weston, insisting that someone within the CIA gave away their location to the mercenaries and that Weston is in peril. Barlow tells Weston to go to Cape Town Stadium where he retrieves a GPS device containing the location of another safe house, but Frost creates a diversion and eludes him. When Weston is detained by the police, he is forced to fire at them to escape.


title: Safe House (2012 film)

text: Weston contacts Langley to report Frost's escape. After hearing that Weston fired at the police, Linklater orders him to the nearest American embassy while Linklater and Barlow travel to South Africa. When Whitford uses a phrase, "we'll take it from here," that Frost warned him about earlier, Weston decides to pursue Frost himself. Weston meets with Ana, admits he is CIA, and urges her to return to Paris to protect her.


title: Safe House (2012 film)

text: Weston tracks Frost to a township in Langa, where Frost obtains travel documents from Carlos Villar, an old friend. Vargas' team attacks again, killing Carlos and his family, but Weston helps Frost escape. Weston brutally interrogates one of Vargas' wounded mercenaries, who reveals that Vargas is working for the CIA, which is seeking to retrieve the storage device from Frost. As they bandage their wounds, Frost urges Weston not to kill innocent people, telling the story of how he was forced to kill an air traffic controller while on a mission to cover up wetwork committed by the CIA.


title: Safe House (2012 film)

text: Weston takes Frost to the new safe house, where Weston keeps the housekeeper, Keller, at gunpoint. Keller attacks and severely wounds Weston before Weston kills him. Frost reveals to Weston that the device contains evidence of corruption and bribery involving the CIA, MI6, and other intelligence agencies, put together by the Mossad, before leaving.


title: Safe House (2012 film)

text: Meanwhile, Barlow kills Linklater and arrives at the safe house where he reveals that he is Vargas' employer. The file contains incriminating evidence against Barlow, who encourages Weston to lie about what has happened. Frost returns and kills Vargas' team but is fatally wounded by Barlow. Weston then shoots and kills Barlow. As he dies, Frost gives Weston the file, saying he is a better man than Frost.


title: Safe House (2012 film)

text: Back in the United States, Weston meets with Director Whitford, who informs Weston that unflattering facts about the CIA must be removed from his report, but that he will be promoted. He asks Weston about the file's location, but Weston denies knowing about it. Whitford states that whoever has those files will have many enemies. Weston assures Whitford that he will "take it from here,“ shaking Whitford's hand and leaving. He leaks the files to the media, incriminating personnel from many intelligence agencies, including Whitford. Weston travels to Paris and covertly observes Ana while she sits with friends in a cafe. She notices him across the street and smiles before he walks away.


title: Safe House (2012 film)

text: The film premiered in New York City on February 7, 2012, and was released in U.S. theaters on February 10, 2012. "Safe House" was released to Blu-ray and DVD on June 5, 2012 in the United States.


title: Safe House (2012 film)

text: "Safe House" grossed $126.4 million in the United States, and $81.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $208.1 million.


title: Safe House (2012 film)

text: "Safe House" earned $13.6 million on opening day, and a total of $40.2 million over the weekend, finishing second behind "The Vow". The film was the second-biggest opener for Washington, behind "American Gangster" ($43.6 million), and third-best for Reynolds behind "" ($85.1 million) and "Green Lantern" ($53.2 million), respectively. In its second weekend, it finished first $23.6 million. It became the second film in 2012 to cross the $100 million mark domestically after "The Vow" and the fourth film to cross the mark worldwide after "", "", and "The Vow".


title: Safe House (2012 film)

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 53% based on 194 reviews; the average rating is 5.70/10. The site's consensus reads, ""Safe House" stars Washington and Reynolds are let down by a thin script and choppily edited action sequences." On Metacritic the film holds an average weighted score of 52 out of 100 based on 36 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Safe House (2012 film)

text: In September 2012, it was announced that Universal had hired screenwriter David Guggenheim to write a script for a possible sequel.


title: Go Ara

text: Go Ara (; born February 11, 1990) is a South Korean actress and model. She is best known for starring in the television series "Sharp" (2003), "Heading to the Ground" (2009), "Reply 1994" (2013), "You're All Surrounded" (2014), "" (2016–17), "Black" (2017), "Ms. Hammurabi" (2018), "Haechi" (2019), and "Do Do Sol Sol La La Sol" (2020).


title: Go Ara

text: Go was born in Jinju, South Gyeongsang, South Korea. At a young age, she constantly moved around Korea because her father was a soldier. When she was in junior high, she was recommended by a friend to audition for the talent agency SM Entertainment. In 2003, she became the winner of the SM Entertainment Teen Model Contest.


title: Go Ara

text: Go was chosen to play the female lead, Lee Ok-rim, in the 2003 KBS teen drama "Sharp". Her role as an ambitious and confident middle school girl catapulted her to instant stardom. She reprised her role in the sequel "Sharp 2".


title: Go Ara

text: Go next starred in the 2006 SBS melodrama "Snow Flower" alongside Kim Hee-ae. Her portrayal of the rebellious and ambitious Yoo Da-mi won her acting recognition at the Baeksang Arts Awards.


title: Go Ara

text: Go's first film was the big-budget Japanese movie "", which was released in Japan in March 2007. She played Khulan, the mistress of Genghis Khan, after being picked from more than 40,000 auditions. Go was then cast in another Japanese film, "Dance Subaru" due to her fluency in the language.


title: Go Ara

text: In 2008, she was cast in the MBC drama "Who Are You?" opposite Yoon Kye-sang. Despite low ratings in Korea, the body swap comedy drew in international fans, increasing her Korean Wave profile. This led to an appearance in the Japanese television drama "Karei naru Spy".


title: Go Ara

text: In 2009, she was cast in MBC's romantic comedy "Heading to the Ground" with idol singer Jung Yunho from DBSK.


title: Go Ara

text: In 2012, Go made her domestic film debut in sports film "Pacemaker", where she gained 5 kg weight to portray a pole vaulter representing South Korea. She then displayed her singing skills in the 2012 multicultural film "Papa", with Park Yong-woo. Go drew attention for her singing and dancing abilities, fluent English and acting performance in the film.


title: Go Ara

text: Go's popularity further rose through the nostalgic campus drama "Reply 1994" (2013). In order to portray Sung Na-jung, she cut her hair short, and gained 18 lbs. While many doubted her casting when it was first announced, Go's acting later nabbed praise both critically and with viewers. For her performance, Go received Best Actress nominations in the Baeksang Art Awards and APAN Star Awards. She next starred as the sole female rookie detective in the 2014 police drama "You're All Surrounded", alongside Lee Seung-gi and Cha Seung-won.


title: Go Ara

text: In 2015, Go returned to the big screen alongside Yoo Seung-ho in joseon-era romance film, "The Magician", where she plays a princess who finds love with a circus magician. This was followed by a leading role in "Phantom Detective", a neo-noir action flick starring Lee Je-hoon as the titular Hong Gil-dong.


title: Go Ara

text: In 2016, Go starred as the female lead opposite Park Seo-joon in youth historical drama "". The same year, she left SM Entertainment after 13 years and signed with newly formed management agency Artist Company in January 2017.


title: Go Ara

text: She then starred in the fantasy thriller drama "Black" alongside Song Seung-heon, playing a woman who can foresee death.


title: Go Ara

text: In 2018, Go starred in the legal drama "Ms. Hammurabi" alongside Kim Myung-soo, playing a passionate rookie judge. The series was well-received for its honest depiction of adversities in modern-day Korean society; and Go was complimented for her acting.


title: Go Ara

text: In 2019, Go starred in the historical action drama "Haechi", playing a detective who is well versed in both martial arts and foreign languages.


title: Go Ara

text: In 2020, Go starred in the music romance drama "Do Do Sol Sol La La Sol" as a pianist who hits rock bottom following her family’s downfall alongside


title: Go Ara

text: On March 7, 2019, Go's agency reported that during the filming of "Haechi" Go ruptured her Anterior talofibular ligament which resulted her to be hospitalised.


title: Electromotive force

text: In electromagnetism and electronics, electromotive force (also electromotance, abbreviated emf, denoted formula_1 or formula_2) is an energy transfer to an electric circuit per unit of electric charge, measured in volts. Devices called electrical "transducers" provide an emf by converting other forms of energy into electrical energy. Other electrical equipment also produce an emf, such as batteries, which convert chemical energy, and generators, which convert mechanical energy. This energy conversion is achieved by physical forces applying physical work on electric charges. However, electromotive force itself is not a physical force, and for the current ISO/IEC standards consider the term deprecated, favoring the names source voltage or source tension instead (denoted formula_3).


title: Electromotive force

text: An electronic–hydraulic analogy may view emf as the mechanical work done to water by a pump, which results in a pressure difference (analogous to voltage).


title: Electromotive force

text: In electromagnetic induction, emf can be defined around a closed loop of a conductor as the electromagnetic work that would be done on an elementary electric charge (such as an electron) if it travels once around the loop.


title: Electromotive force

text: For two-terminal devices modeled as a Thévenin equivalent circuit, an equivalent emf can be measured as the open-circuit voltage between the two terminals. This emf can drive an electric current if an external circuit is attached to the terminals, in which case the device becomes the voltage source of that circuit.


title: Electromotive force

text: Although an emf gives rise to a voltage and can be measured as a voltage and may sometimes informally be called a "voltage", they are not the same phenomenon (see ).


title: Electromotive force

text: Devices that can provide emf include electrochemical cells, thermoelectric devices, solar cells, photodiodes, electrical generators, inductors, transformers and even Van de Graaff generators. In nature, emf is generated when magnetic field fluctuations occur through a surface. For example, the shifting of the Earth's magnetic field during a geomagnetic storm induces currents in an electrical grid as the lines of the magnetic field are shifted about and cut across the conductors.


title: Electromotive force

text: In a battery, the charge separation that gives rise to a potential difference (voltage) between the terminals is accomplished by chemical reactions at the electrodes that convert chemical potential energy into electromagnetic potential energy. A voltaic cell can be thought of as having a "charge pump" of atomic dimensions at each electrode, that is:


title: Electromotive force

text: In an electrical generator, a time-varying magnetic field inside the generator creates an electric field via electromagnetic induction, which creates a potential difference between the generator terminals. Charge separation takes place within the generator because electrons flow away from one terminal toward the other, until, in the open-circuit case, an electric field is developed that makes further charge separation impossible. The emf is countered by the electrical voltage due to charge separation. If a load is attached, this voltage can drive a current. The general principle governing the emf in such electrical machines is Faraday's law of induction.


title: Electromotive force

text: In 1801, Alessandro Volta introduced the term "force motrice électrique" to describe the active agent of a battery (which he had invented around 1798).


title: Electromotive force

text: Around 1830, Michael Faraday established that chemical reactions at each of two electrode–electrolyte interfaces provide the "seat of emf" for the voltaic cell. That is, these reactions drive the current and are not an endless source of energy as the earlier obsolete theory thought. In the open-circuit case, charge separation continues until the electrical field from the separated charges is sufficient to arrest the reactions. Years earlier, Alessandro Volta, who had measured a contact potential difference at the metal–metal (electrode–electrode) interface of his cells, held the incorrect opinion that contact alone (without taking into account a chemical reaction) was the origin of the emf.


title: Electromotive force

text: In a device without internal resistance, if an electric charge formula_5 passing through that device gains an energy formula_6 via work, the net emf for that device is the energy gained per unit charge: formula_7 Like other measures of energy per charge, emf uses the SI unit volt, which is equivalent to a joule (SI unit of energy) per coulomb (SI unit of charge).


title: Electromotive force

text: Electromotive force in electrostatic units is the statvolt (in the centimeter gram second system of units equal in amount to an erg per electrostatic unit of charge).


title: Electromotive force

text: "Inside" a source of emf (such as a battery) that is open-circuited, a charge separation occurs between the negative terminal "N" and the positive terminal "P".


title: Electromotive force

text: This leads to an electrostatic field formula_8 that points from "P" to "N", whereas the emf of the source must be able to drive current from "N" to "P" when connected to a circuit.


title: Electromotive force

text: This led Max Abraham to introduce the concept of a nonelectrostatic field formula_9 that exists only inside the source of emf.


title: Electromotive force

text: In the open-circuit case, formula_10, while when the source is connected to a circuit the electric field formula_11 inside the source changes but formula_9 remains essentially the same.


title: Electromotive force

text: In the open-circuit case, the conservative electrostatic field created by separation of charge exactly cancels the forces producing the emf.


title: Electromotive force

text: where formula_8 is the conservative electrostatic field created by the charge separation associated with the emf, formula_15 is an element of the path from terminal "N" to terminal "P", 'formula_16' denotes the vector dot product, and formula_17 is the electric scalar potential.


title: Electromotive force

text: This emf is the work done on a unit charge by the source's nonelectrostatic field formula_9 when the charge moves from "N" to "P".


title: Electromotive force

text: In the case of a closed path in the presence of a varying magnetic field, the integral of the electric field around the (stationary) closed loop formula_21 may be nonzero.


title: Electromotive force

text: where formula_11 is the entire electric field, conservative and non-conservative, and the integral is around an arbitrary, but stationary, closed curve formula_21 through which there is a time-varying magnetic flux formula_25, and formula_26 is the vector potential.


title: Electromotive force

text: The electrostatic field does not contribute to the net emf around a circuit because the electrostatic portion of the electric field is conservative (i.e., the work done against the field around a closed path is zero, see Kirchhoff's voltage law, which is valid, as long as the circuit elements remain at rest and radiation is ignored).


title: Electromotive force

text: That is, the "induced emf" (like the emf of a battery connected to a load) is not a "voltage" in the sense of a difference in the electric scalar potential.


title: Electromotive force

text: If the loop formula_21 is a conductor that carries current formula_28 in the direction of integration around the loop, and the magnetic flux is due to that current, we have that formula_29, where formula_30 is the self inductance of the loop.


title: Electromotive force

text: If in addition, the loop includes a coil that extends from point 1 to 2, such that the magnetic flux is largely localized to that region, it is customary to speak of that region as an inductor, and to consider that its emf is localized to that region.


title: Electromotive force

text: Then, we can consider a different loop formula_31 that consists of the coiled conductor from 1 to 2, and an imaginary line down the center of the coil from 2 back to 1.


title: Electromotive force

text: The magnetic flux, and emf, in loop formula_31 is essentially the same as that in loop formula_21:formula_34


title: Electromotive force

text: Thus, we can associate an effective "voltage drop" formula_38 with an inductor (even though our basic understanding of induced emf is based on the vector potential rather than the scalar potential), and consider it as a load element in Kirchhoff's voltage law,


title: Electromotive force

text: This definition can be extended to arbitrary sources of emf and paths "formula_21" moving with velocity formula_41 through the electric field formula_11 and magnetic field formula_43:


title: Electromotive force

text: which is a conceptual equation mainly, because the determination of the "effective forces" is difficult.


title: Electromotive force

text: When multiplied by an amount of charge formula_46 the emf formula_1 yields a thermodynamic work term formula_48 that is used in the formalism for the change in Gibbs energy when charge is passed in a battery:


title: Electromotive force

text: where formula_50 is the Gibbs free energy, formula_51 is the entropy, formula_17 is the system volume, formula_53 is its pressure and formula_54 is its absolute temperature.


title: Electromotive force

text: The combination formula_55 is an example of a conjugate pair of variables. At constant pressure the above relationship produces a Maxwell relation that links the change in open cell voltage with temperature "formula_54" (a measurable quantity) to the change in entropy "formula_51" when charge is passed isothermally and isobarically. The latter is closely related to the reaction entropy of the electrochemical reaction that lends the battery its power. This Maxwell relation is:


title: Electromotive force

text: If a mole of ions goes into solution (for example, in a Daniell cell, as discussed below) the charge through the external circuit is:


title: Electromotive force

text: where formula_60 is the number of electrons/ion, and formula_61 is the Faraday constant and the minus sign indicates discharge of the cell. Assuming constant pressure and volume, the thermodynamic properties of the cell are related strictly to the behavior of its emf by:


title: Electromotive force

text: where formula_63 is the enthalpy of reaction. The quantities on the right are all directly measurable. Assuming constant temperature and pressure:


title: Electromotive force

text: Although an electrical potential difference (voltage) is sometimes called an emf, however they are formally distinct concepts:


title: Electromotive force

text: In the case of an open circuit, the electric charge that has been separated by the mechanism generating the emf creates an electric field opposing the separation mechanism. For example, the chemical reaction in a voltaic cell stops when the opposing electric field at each electrode is strong enough to arrest the reactions. A larger opposing field can reverse the reactions in what are called "reversible" cells.


title: Electromotive force

text: The electric charge that has been separated creates an electric potential difference that can (in many cases) be measured with a voltmeter between the terminals of the device, when not connected to a load. The magnitude of the emf for the battery (or other source) is the value of this open-circuit voltage.


title: Electromotive force

text: When the battery is charging or discharging, the emf itself cannot be measured directly using the external voltage because some voltage is lost inside the source.


title: Electromotive force

text: It can, however, be inferred from a measurement of the current formula_28 and potential difference formula_17, provided that the internal resistance formula_67 already has been measured: "formula_68"


title: Electromotive force

text: The potential difference (difference in the electric scalar potential) between two points A and B is independent of the path we take from "A" to "B".


title: Electromotive force

text: If a voltmeter always measured the potential difference between "A" and "B", then the position of the voltmeter would make no difference.


title: Electromotive force

text: However, it is quite possible for the measurement by a voltmeter between points "A" and "B" to depend on the position of the voltmeter, if a time-dependent magnetic field is present.


title: Electromotive force

text: For example, consider an infinitely long solenoid using an AC current to generate a varying flux in the interior of the solenoid.


title: Electromotive force

text: The resistor on the left is 100 Ω and the one on the right is 200 Ω, they are connected at the top and bottom at points "A" and "B".


title: Electromotive force

text: The induced voltage, by Faraday's law is formula_17, so the current formula_70 Therefore the voltage across the 100 Ω resistor is formula_71 and the voltage across the 200 Ω resistor is formula_72, yet the two resistors are connected on both ends, but formula_73 measured with the voltmeter to the left of the solenoid is not the same as formula_73 measured with the voltmeter to the right of the solenoid.


title: Electromotive force

text: The question of how batteries (galvanic cells) generate an emf occupied scientists for most of the 19th century. The "seat of the electromotive force" was eventually determined in 1889 by Walther Nernst to be primarily at the interfaces between the electrodes and the electrolyte.


title: Electromotive force

text: Atoms in molecules or solids are held together by chemical bonding, which stabilizes the molecule or solid (i.e. reduces its energy). When molecules or solids of relatively high energy are brought together, a spontaneous chemical reaction can occur that rearranges the bonding and reduces the (free) energy of the system. In batteries, coupled half-reactions, often involving metals and their ions, occur in tandem, with a gain of electrons (termed "reduction") by one conductive electrode and loss of electrons (termed "oxidation") by another (reduction-oxidation or redox reactions). The spontaneous overall reaction can only occur if electrons move through an external wire between the electrodes. The electrical energy given off is the free energy lost by the chemical reaction system.


title: Electromotive force

text: As an example, a Daniell cell consists of a zinc anode (an electron collector) that is oxidized as it dissolves into a zinc sulfate solution. The dissolving zinc leaving behind its electrons in the electrode according to the oxidation reaction ("s" = solid electrode; "aq" = aqueous solution):


title: Electromotive force

text: The zinc sulfate is the electrolyte in that half cell. It is a solution which contains zinc cations formula_76, and sulfate anions formula_77 with charges that balance to zero.


title: Electromotive force

text: In the other half cell, the copper cations in a copper sulfate electrolyte move to the copper cathode to which they attach themselves as they adopt electrons from the copper electrode by the reduction reaction:


title: Electromotive force

text: which leaves a deficit of electrons on the copper cathode. The difference of excess electrons on the anode and deficit of electrons on the cathode creates an electrical potential between the two electrodes. (A detailed discussion of the microscopic process of electron transfer between an electrode and the ions in an electrolyte may be found in Conway.) The electrical energy released by this reaction (213 kJ per 65.4 g of zinc) can be attributed mostly due to the 207 kJ weaker bonding (smaller magnitude of the cohesive energy) of zinc, which has filled 3d- and 4s-orbitals, compared to copper, which has an unfilled orbital available for bonding.


title: Electromotive force

text: If the cathode and anode are connected by an external conductor, electrons pass through that external circuit (light bulb in figure), while ions pass through the salt bridge to maintain charge balance until the anode and cathode reach electrical equilibrium of zero volts as chemical equilibrium is reached in the cell. In the process the zinc anode is dissolved while the copper electrode is plated with copper. The salt bridge has to close the electrical circuit while preventing the copper ions from moving to the zinc electrode and being reduced there without generating an external current. It is not made of salt but of material able to wick cations and anions (a dissociated salt) into the solutions. The flow of positively charged cations along the bridge is equivalent to the same number of negative charges flowing in the opposite direction.


title: Electromotive force

text: If the light bulb is removed (open circuit) the emf between the electrodes is opposed by the electric field due to the charge separation, and the reactions stop.


title: Electromotive force

text: For this particular cell chemistry, at 298 K (room temperature), the emf formula_1 = 1.0934 V, with a temperature coefficient of formula_80 = −4.53×10 V/K.


title: Electromotive force

text: Volta developed the voltaic cell about 1792, and presented his work March 20, 1800. Volta correctly identified the role of dissimilar electrodes in producing the voltage, but incorrectly dismissed any role for the electrolyte. Volta ordered the metals in a 'tension series', "that is to say in an order such that any one in the list becomes positive when in contact with any one that succeeds, but negative by contact with any one that precedes it." A typical symbolic convention in a schematic of this circuit ( –|– ) would have a long electrode 1 and a short electrode 2, to indicate that electrode 1 dominates. Volta's law about opposing electrode emfs implies that, given ten electrodes (for example, zinc and nine other materials), 45 unique combinations of voltaic cells (10 × 9/2) can be created.


title: Electromotive force

text: The electromotive force produced by primary (single-use) and secondary (rechargeable) cells is usually of the order of a few volts. The figures quoted below are nominal, because emf varies according to the size of the load and the state of exhaustion of the cell.


title: Electromotive force

text: Electromagnetic induction is the production of a circulating electric field by a time-dependent magnetic field. A time-dependent magnetic field can be produced either by motion of a magnet relative to a circuit, by motion of a circuit relative to another circuit (at least one of these must be carrying an electric current), or by changing the electric current in a fixed circuit. The effect on the circuit itself, of changing the electric current, is known as self-induction; the effect on another circuit is known as mutual induction.


title: Electromotive force

text: For a given circuit, the electromagnetically induced emf is determined purely by the rate of change of the magnetic flux through the circuit according to Faraday's law of induction.


title: Electromotive force

text: An emf is induced in a coil or conductor whenever there is change in the flux linkages. Depending on the way in which the changes are brought about, there are two types: When the conductor is moved in a stationary magnetic field to procure a change in the flux linkage, the emf is "statically induced". The electromotive force generated by motion is often referred to as "motional emf". When the change in flux linkage arises from a change in the magnetic field around the stationary conductor, the emf is "dynamically induced." The electromotive force generated by a time-varying magnetic field is often referred to as "transformer emf".


title: Electromotive force

text: When solids of two different materials are in contact, thermodynamic equilibrium requires that one of the solids assume a higher electrical potential than the other. This is called the "contact potential". Dissimilar metals in contact produce what is known also as a contact electromotive force or Galvani potential. The magnitude of this potential difference is often expressed as a difference in Fermi levels in the two solids when they are at charge neutrality, where the Fermi level (a name for the chemical potential of an electron system) describes the energy necessary to remove an electron from the body to some common point (such as ground). If there is an energy advantage in taking an electron from one body to the other, such a transfer will occur. The transfer causes a charge separation, with one body gaining electrons and the other losing electrons. This charge transfer causes a potential difference between the bodies, which partly cancels the potential originating from the contact, and eventually equilibrium is reached. At thermodynamic equilibrium, the Fermi levels are equal (the electron removal energy is identical) and there is now a built-in electrostatic potential between the bodies.


title: Electromotive force

text: The contact potential cannot drive steady current through a load attached to its terminals because that current would involve a charge transfer. No mechanism exists to continue such transfer and, hence, maintain a current, once equilibrium is attained.


title: Electromotive force

text: One might inquire why the contact potential does not appear in Kirchhoff's law of voltages as one contribution to the sum of potential drops. The customary answer is that any circuit involves not only a particular diode or junction, but also all the contact potentials due to wiring and so forth around the entire circuit. The sum of "all" the contact potentials is zero, and so they may be ignored in Kirchhoff's law.


title: Electromotive force

text: Operation of a solar cell can be understood from its equivalent circuit. Photons with energy greater than the bandgap of the semiconductor create mobile electron–hole pairs. Charge separation occurs because of a pre-existing electric field associated with the p-n junction. This electric field is created from a built-in potential, which arises from the contact potential between the two different materials in the junction. The charge separation between positive holes and negative electrons across the p–n diode yields a "forward voltage", the "photo voltage", between the illuminated diode terminals, which drives current through any attached load. "Photo voltage" is sometimes referred to as the "photo emf", distinguishing between the effect and the cause.


title: Electromotive force

text: Two internal current losses formula_81 limit the total current formula_28 available to the external circuit. The light-induced charge separation eventually creates a forward current formula_83 through the cell's internal resistance formula_84 in the direction opposite the light-induced current formula_85. In addition, the induced voltage tends to forward bias the junction, which at high enough voltages will cause a recombination current formula_86 in the diode opposite the light-induced current.


title: Electromotive force

text: When the output is short-circuited, the output voltage is zeroed, and so the voltage across the diode is smallest. Thus, short-circuiting results in the smallest formula_81 losses and consequently the maximum output current, which for a high-quality solar cell is approximately equal to the light-induced current formula_88. Approximately this same current is obtained for forward voltages up to the point where the diode conduction becomes significant.


title: Electromotive force

text: The current delivered by the illuminated diode to the external circuit can be simplified (based on certain assumptions) to:


title: Electromotive force

text: formula_90 is the reverse saturation current. Two parameters that depend on the solar cell construction and to some degree upon the voltage itself are the ideality factor "m" and the thermal voltage formula_91, which is about 26 millivolts at room temperature.


title: Electromotive force

text: Solving the illuminated diode's above simplified current–voltage relationship for output voltage yields:


title: Electromotive force

text: The solar cell's "photo emf" formula_94 has the same value as the open-circuit voltage formula_95, which is determined by zeroing the output current formula_28:


title: Electromotive force

text: It has a logarithmic dependence on the light-induced current formula_85 and is where the junction's forward bias voltage is just enough that the forward current completely balances the light-induced current. For silicon junctions, it is typically not much more than 0.5 volts. While for high-quality silicon panels it can exceed 0.7 volts in direct sunlight.


title: Electromotive force

text: When driving a resistive load, the output voltage can be determined using Ohm's law and will lie between the short-circuit value of zero volts and the open-circuit voltage formula_95. When that resistance is small enough such that formula_100 (the near-vertical part of the two illustrated curves), the solar cell acts more like a "current generator" rather than a voltage generator, since the current drawn is nearly fixed over a range of output voltages. This contrasts with batteries, which act more like voltage generators.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: Chicken Kiev (; ), sometimes known as Chicken Kyiv, is a dish made of chicken fillet pounded and rolled around cold butter, then coated with egg and bread crumbs, and either fried or baked. Stuffed chicken breast is generally known in Russian and Ukrainian cuisines as côtelette de volaille. Since fillets are often referred to as "suprêmes" in professional cookery, the dish is also called suprême de volaille à la Kiev. Though it has disputed origins, the dish is particularly popular in the post-Soviet states, as well as in several other countries of the former Eastern Bloc, and in the English-speaking world.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: The history of this dish is not well documented, and various sources make claims about its origin. Since the 18th century, Russian chefs have adopted many techniques of French "haute cuisine" and combined them with the local culinary tradition. The adoption was furthered by the French chefs, such as Marie-Antoine Carême and Urbain Dubois, who were hired by Russian gentry. In particular the use of quality meat cuts, such as various cutlets, steaks, escalopes and suprêmes became widespread in the 19th century, and a number of original dishes involving such components were developed in Russia at that time.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: The French term "de volaille" means literally "of poultry" and denotes almost exclusively chicken dishes in French cookbooks. The name "côtelette de volaille" means thus simply "chicken cutlet". Despite the original French name, the Russian recipe is unknown in French cuisine, where the term "côtelette de volaille" refers to chicken breasts in general and is used nearly synonymously with chicken "filet" or "suprême". The French term also denotes a minced chicken cutlet-shaped patty. The general Russian term for chicken cutlets, "kurinaya kotleta" (куриная котлета), refers predominantly to such minced cutlets, whereas "kotleta de-voliay" () is applied exclusively to the stuffed chicken breast dish. The latter name appears in the pre- and post-revolutionary Russian literature (in cookbooks as well as in fiction) since the beginning of the 20th century and is usually mentioned as a common restaurant dish.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: The recipe in the classical Russian cookery textbook "The Practical Fundamentals of the Cookery Art" by Pelageya Alexandrova-Ignatieva (which had eleven editions between 1899 and 1916) includes a complex stuffing similar to quenelle (a mixture of minced meat, in this case the rest of the meat of the chicken, and cream) but with butter added. It also points out that "the cutlets "de volaille" are made from whole chicken fillets, like the game cutlets "à la Maréchale"". The recipe is preceded by a similar one for "hazel grouse cutlets "à la Maréchale"" with a quenelle and truffle stuffing. Another Russian cookbook published at the same time gives basically identical recipes for "côtelette de volaille" and "côtelette à la Maréchale" and notes that the only difference between them is that the former are made of chicken while the latter are made of game, such as hazel grouse, blackcock, etc.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: The term "à la Maréchale" ("marshal-style") denotes in French cookery tender pieces of meat, such as cutlets, escalopes, sweetbreads, or chicken breasts, which are treated "à l'anglaise" ("English-style"), i.e. coated with egg and breadcrumbs, and sautéed. Numerous recipes of such dishes, some of them with stuffings, are described in both Western and Russian cookbooks of the 19th century. Among the stuffed versions, one finds a recipe for a "fowl fillet "à la Maréchale"" stuffed with truffles and herbs in "The Art of French Cuisine of the 19th Century" (1847) by Marie-Antoine Carême, and a similar "filet de poulets à la Maréchale" with herbs and forcemeat in "La cuisine classique" (1868) by Urbain Dubois. Elena Molokhovets' "A Gift to Young Housewives", the most successful Russian cookbook of the 19th century, has included since its first edition in 1861 an elaborate recipe for "hazel grouse "à la Maréchale"" stuffed with Madeira sauce, portobello mushrooms and truffles.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: The main difference between the old time "côtelette de volaille" and the modern chicken Kiev is that the elaborate stuffings of the former are replaced by butter. The use of butter for chicken cutlets has been known in Russian cuisine at least since the invention of the Pozharsky cutlet in the first half of the 19th century. The Pozharsky cutlets are breaded ground chicken patties for which butter is added to minced meat. This results in an especially juicy and tender consistency. The dish was a widely appraised invention of 19th-century Russian cuisine, which was also adopted by French "haute cuisine" and subsequently by the international cuisine.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: While the roots of chicken Kiev can thus be traced back to French "haute cuisine" and Russian cookery of the 19th century, the origin of the particular recipe known today as chicken Kiev remains disputed.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: The "Russian Tea Room Cookbook" notes that chicken Kiev was "most likely ... a creation of the great French chef Carême at the Court of Alexander I." Marie-Antoine Carême spent just several months of the year 1818 in St. Petersburg, but made a profound impact on Russian cuisine in this short time. The reforms carried out by his followers introduced in particular various meat cuts into Russian cookery. The recipe of the Russian "côtelette de volaille" is not present in Carême's major work mentioned above, but his "fowl fillet "à la Maréchale"" could have served as the starting point for the further development of such dishes.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: Some Russian sources attribute the creation of this dish (or of its precursor) to Nicolas Appert, French confectioner and chef, best known as the inventor of airtight food preservation. In contrast, common biographic sources for Appert do not mention this dish, and the origin of these claims is unclear.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: Russian food historian William Pokhlyobkin claimed that chicken Kiev was invented in 1912 as "Novo-Mikhailovskaya kotleta" in а St. Petersburg Merchants' Club located near the Mikhailovsky palace, and was renamed "kotleta po-kiyevski" in 1947 by a Soviet restaurant. However, these claims collide with primary sources. The cookbook by Alexandrova-Ignatieva (including editions before and after 1912) describes indeed Novo-Mikhailovsky cutlets and mentions that they were invented in the club near the Mikhailovsky palace. However, in the provided recipe these cutlets are made from minced meat similarly to the Pozharsky cutlet, with the only difference being the meat pounded by a tenderizer until it gets minced. This allows one to remove tendons from the meat and results in a more tender consistency of the ground meat than after the use of a grinder. The author also remarks that not only breasts but also other parts of chicken can be prepared this way and added to the mixture of meat and butter.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: The second claim of Pokhlyobkin's version is invalidated, as the references of chicken Kiev appeared in published sources much earlier, since the 1910s.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: Oral tradition in Kyiv attributes the invention of the "cutlet "de volaille" Kiev-style" ("kotłeta de-voljaj po-kyjivśky") to the restaurant of the Continental hotel in Kyiv in the beginning of the 20th century. A luxury hotel built in 1897 in the center of Kyiv, it was run until the Nazi German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. The building was then mined by the retreating Red Army and exploded when the German Army occupied Kyiv in September 1941. After the war, the building was rebuilt and has since then been used by the Kyiv Conservatory. According to the memoirs of contemporaries, Chicken Kiev was the signature dish of the hotel's restaurant.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: An early reference of "Kiev cutlets from chicken or veal" is found in the "Cookery Digest" (1915), a collection of recipes which were published in the Moscow "Journal for Housewives" in 1913–1914. These were minced meat cutlets similar to the Pozharsky cutlets, but shaped like a croquette with a bar of cold butter placed in the middle. Like modern chicken Kiev, the croquettes were covered with egg and breadcrumbs and fried.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: Later, "chicken cutlets Kiev-style" were listed in "Apportionments for dinners, separate dishes and other products of public catering" (1928) which served as a standard reference for Soviet catering establishments. The book also included other items for chicken cutlets, such as "cutlet "de volaille"" and "cutlet "à la Maréchale"". The book demanded renaming of many traditional restaurant dishes to replace the (mostly French-style) "bourgeois" names with simple "proletarian" forms. In particular, the "cutlet Kiev-style" had to be renamed into "chicken cutlet stuffed with butter". This program was not realised immediately (at least not completely), and its successor, "The Directory of Apportionments for Catering" (1940), published by the Soviet Ministry of Food Industry, still included the traditional names. In post-World War II publications of this directory and in other Soviet cookery books, such as "Cookery" (1955), the "Kiev-style" name was retained, but the terms "de volaille" and "à la Maréchale" were indeed dropped in favour of simple names such as "chicken cutlet stuffed with milk sauce", "chicken cutlet stuffed with liver" and "chicken cutlet stuffed with chicken quenelle and mushrooms". As a result of this policy, the names "de volaille" and "à la Maréchale" disappeared from menus of Soviet restaurants.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: The "old-style" name "cutlet "de volaille" Kiev-style" was occasionally mentioned in some post-World War II Soviet fiction books. In particular, in a short story "This Is Not Written In A Cookbook" (1947) by Yevgeny Vorobyov, a Soviet soldier and a former chef in a Moscow noble hotel explains to his comrade in arms, that "cutlets "de volaille" are made for two tastes. There are cutlets "de volaille" Kiev-style and cutlets "de volaille jardiniere"."


title: Chicken Kiev

text: The name is used to this day for chicken Kiev in Poland. The name is oftentimes polonised as ( for plural).


title: Chicken Kiev

text: Mentions of chicken Kiev are also found in US newspapers starting from 1937. The reports describe the Russian-style restaurant Yar in Chicago serving this dish. The restaurant existed until 1951 and was run by Vladimir Yaschenko, a former colonel of the imperial Russian army. It was styled after the famous eponymous Moscow restaurant and was frequented by celebrities of that time. After World War II, US newspapers mentioned chicken Kiev served in New York restaurants. Recipes for a "chicken cutlet à la Kiev" were published in "The New York Times" in 1946 and in "Gourmet" magazine in 1948.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: Since the end of the 1940s or beginning of the 1950s, chicken Kiev became a standard fare in Soviet high class restaurants, in particular in the Intourist hotel chain serving foreign tourists. Tourist booklets warned the diners of the danger it presented to their clothing. At the same time the popularity of this dish grew in the US. According to Darra Goldstein chicken Kiev became "a symbol of Russian "haute cuisine"".


title: Chicken Kiev

text: After the Russian Federation started an open war of aggression against Ukraine in 2022, supermarket chains in the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada changed their labelling from a Russian spelling to the Ukrainian form "chicken Kyiv", to show respect and support for Ukraine and Ukrainians.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: Chicken Kiev is made from a boned and skinned breast which is cut lengthwise, pounded and stuffed with butter. Western recipes usually call for garlic butter, while in Russian ones regular butter is used. Herbs (parsley and dill) can be added to the butter. In some American recipes butter is replaced by blue cheese.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: In the classical preparation of French "côtelettes de volaille", the humerus bone of the wing is left attached. This also holds for their Russian versions and in particular for chicken Kiev. For serving, the bone is usually covered with a frilled paper napkin. However, industrially produced pure fillets are often used nowadays, and the cutlets are served without the bone. This is the usual way of serving chicken Kiev in the US. A spherically shaped version was developed by English chef Jesse Dunford Wood.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: In the middle of the 20th century, semi-processed ground meat cutlets were introduced in the USSR. Colloquially known as Mikoyan cutlets (named after Soviet politician Anastas Mikoyan), these were cheap pork or beef cutlet-shaped patties which resembled industrially produced American beef burgers. Some varieties bore names of well known Russian restaurant dishes but they had little in common with the original dishes. In particular, a variety of a pork patty was called "Kiev-style cutlet". Since the late Soviet times, "real" chicken Kiev cutlets have been offered in Russia as convenience food.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: Introduced in Britain during 1979, chicken Kiev was Marks & Spencer company's first ready-made meal. It remains popular in the UK, being readily available in supermarkets and served in some restaurant chains. Due to its popularity, it is included in the UK inflation basket which is composed by the Office for National Statistics for calculations of the consumer price inflation indices. The wide popularity of chicken Kiev as a pre-packaged meal led to the term "Kiev" being applied to various stuffed chicken dishes, such as "leek-and-bacon Kiev" or "cheese-and-ham Kiev" (the same dish as chicken "cordon bleu"). Vegetarian Kievs were introduced in the UK in the 1990s, and are popular vegetarian convenience foods.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: Among other dishes similar to chicken Kiev, the aforementioned chicken "cordon bleu" with a cheese and ham filling instead of butter is particularly popular in the West. The recipe of Karađorđeva šnicla, a Serbian breaded veal or pork cutlet, was inspired by chicken Kiev.


title: Chicken Kiev

text: "Chicken Kiev" is the name used by William Safire for a speech made in Kyiv during August 1991 by then-U.S. President George H. W. Bush cautioning Ukrainians against "suicidal nationalism".


title: Chicken Kiev

text: In 2018 a bronze miniature sculpture of chicken Kiev was placed on Horodecki street in Kyiv, near the restaurant "Chicken Kyiv". The sculpture became the first of a set of such mini-sculptures depicting famous symbols of Kyiv placed throughout the city as part of an art project.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: The Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) is an American think tank specializing in U.S. foreign policy and international relations. Founded in 1921, it is a nonprofit organization that is independent and nonpartisan. CFR is based in New York City, with an additional office in Massachusetts. Its membership has included senior politicians, numerous secretaries of state, CIA directors, bankers, lawyers, professors, corporate directors and CEOs, and senior media figures.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: CFR meetings convene government officials, global business leaders and prominent members of the intelligence and foreign-policy community to discuss international issues. CFR has published the bi-monthly journal "Foreign Affairs" since 1922. It also runs the David Rockefeller Studies Program, which influences foreign policy by making recommendations to the presidential administration and diplomatic community, testifying before Congress, interacting with the media, and publishing on foreign policy issues.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: Towards the end of World War I, a working fellowship of about 150 scholars called "The Inquiry" was tasked with briefing President Woodrow Wilson about options for the postwar world when Germany was defeated. This academic group, including Wilson's closest adviser and long-time friend "Colonel" Edward M. House, as well as Walter Lippmann, met to assemble the strategy for the postwar world. The team produced more than 2,000 documents detailing and analyzing the political, economic, and social facts globally that would be helpful for Wilson in the peace talks. Their reports formed the basis for the Fourteen Points, which outlined Wilson's strategy for peace after the war's end. These scholars then traveled to the Paris Peace Conference 1919 and participated in the discussions there.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: As a result of discussions at the Peace Conference, a small group of British and American diplomats and scholars met on May 30, 1919, at the Hotel Majestic in Paris. They decided to create an Anglo-American organization called "The Institute of International Affairs", which would have offices in London and New York. Ultimately, the British and American delegates formed separate institutes, with the British developing the Royal Institute of International Affairs (known as Chatham House) in London. Due to the isolationist views prevalent in American society at that time, the scholars had difficulty gaining traction with their plan and turned their focus instead to a set of discreet meetings which had been taking place since June 1918 in New York City, under the name "Council on Foreign Relations". The meetings were headed by corporate lawyer Elihu Root, who had served as Secretary of State under President Theodore Roosevelt, and attended by 108 "high-ranking officers of banking, manufacturing, trading and finance companies, together with many lawyers".


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: The members were proponents of Wilson's internationalism, but they were particularly concerned about "the effect that the war and the treaty of peace might have on postwar business". The scholars from the inquiry saw an opportunity to create an organization that brought diplomats, high-level government officials, and academics together with lawyers, bankers, and industrialists to engineer government policy. On July 29, 1921, they filed a certification of incorporation, officially forming the Council on Foreign Relations. Founding members included its first honorary president, Elihu Root, and first elected president, John W. Davis, vice-president Paul D. Cravath, and secretary–treasurer Edwin F. Gay.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: In 1922, Gay, who was a former dean of the Harvard Business School and director of the Shipping Board during the war, spearheaded the Council's efforts to begin publication of a magazine that would be the "authoritative" source on foreign policy. He gathered US$125,000 () from the wealthy members on the council, as well as by sending letters soliciting funds to "the thousand richest Americans". Using these funds, the first issue of "Foreign Affairs" was published in September 1922. Within a few years, it had gained a reputation as the "most authoritative American review dealing with international relations".


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: In the late 1930s, the Ford Foundation and Rockefeller Foundation began contributing large amounts of money to the Council. In 1938, they created various Committees on Foreign Relations, which later became governed by the American Committees on Foreign Relations in Washington, D.C., throughout the country, funded by a grant from the Carnegie Corporation. Influential men were to be chosen in a number of cities, and would then be brought together for discussions in their own communities as well as participating in an annual conference in New York. These local committees served to influence local leaders and shape public opinion to build support for the Council's policies, while also acting as "useful listening posts" through which the Council and U.S. government could "sense the mood of the country".


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: Beginning in 1939, and lasting for five years, the Council achieved much greater prominence within the government and the State Department, when it established the strictly confidential "War and Peace Studies", funded entirely by the Rockefeller Foundation. The secrecy surrounding this group was such that the Council members who were not involved in its deliberations were completely unaware of the study group's existence. It was divided into four functional topic groups: economic and financial; security and armaments; territorial; and political. The security and armaments group was headed by Allen Welsh Dulles, who later became a pivotal figure in the CIA's predecessor, the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). CFR ultimately produced 682 memoranda for the State Department, which were marked classified and circulated among the appropriate government departments.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: A critical study found that of 502 government officials surveyed from 1945 to 1972, more than half were members of the Council. During the Eisenhower administration 40% of the top U.S. foreign policy officials were CFR members (Eisenhower himself had been a council member); under Truman, 42% of the top posts were filled by council members. During the Kennedy administration, this number rose to 51%, and peaked at 57% under the Johnson administration.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: In an anonymous piece called "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" that appeared in "Foreign Affairs" in 1947, CFR study group member George Kennan coined the term "containment". The essay would prove to be highly influential in US foreign policy for seven upcoming presidential administrations. Forty years later, Kennan explained that he had never suspected the Russians of any desire to launch an attack on America; he thought that it was obvious enough and he did not need to explain it in his essay. William Bundy credited CFR's study groups with helping to lay the framework of thinking that led to the Marshall Plan and NATO. Due to new interest in the group, membership grew towards 1,000.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: Dwight D. Eisenhower chaired a CFR study group while he served as President of Columbia University. One member later said, "whatever General Eisenhower knows about economics, he has learned at the study group meetings." The CFR study group devised an expanded study group called "Americans for Eisenhower" to increase his chances for the presidency. Eisenhower would later draw many Cabinet members from CFR ranks and become a CFR member himself. His primary CFR appointment was Secretary of State John Foster Dulles. Dulles gave a public address at the Harold Pratt House in New York City in which he announced a new direction for Eisenhower's foreign policy: "There is no local defense which alone will contain the mighty land power of the communist world. Local defenses must be reinforced by the further deterrent of massive retaliatory power." After this speech, the council convened a session on "Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy" and chose Henry Kissinger to head it. Kissinger spent the following academic year working on the project at Council headquarters. The book of the same name that he published from his research in 1957 gave him national recognition, topping the national bestseller lists.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: On November 24, 1953, a study group heard a report from political scientist William Henderson regarding the ongoing conflict between France and Vietnamese Communist leader Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh forces, a struggle that would later become known as the First Indochina War. Henderson argued that Ho's cause was primarily nationalist in nature and that Marxism had "little to do with the current revolution." Further, the report said, the United States could work with Ho to guide his movement away from Communism. State Department officials, however, expressed skepticism about direct American intervention in Vietnam and the idea was tabled. Over the next twenty years, the United States would find itself allied with anti-Communist South Vietnam and against Ho and his supporters in the Vietnam War.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: The Council served as a "breeding ground" for important American policies such as mutual deterrence, arms control, and nuclear non-proliferation.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: In 1962 the group began a program of bringing select Air Force officers to the Harold Pratt House to study alongside its scholars. The Army, Navy and Marine Corps requested they start similar programs for their own officers.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: A four-year-long study of relations between America and China was conducted by the Council between 1964 and 1968. One study published in 1966 concluded that American citizens were more open to talks with China than their elected leaders. Henry Kissinger had continued to publish in "Foreign Affairs" and was appointed by President Nixon to serve as National Security Adviser in 1969. In 1971, he embarked on a secret trip to Beijing to broach talks with Chinese leaders. Richard Nixon went to China in 1972, and diplomatic relations were completely normalized by President Carter's Secretary of State, another Council member, Cyrus Vance.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: Vietnam created a rift within the organization. When Hamilton Fish Armstrong announced in 1970 that he would be leaving the helm of "Foreign Affairs" after 45 years, new chairman David Rockefeller approached a family friend, William Bundy, to take over the position. Anti-war advocates within the Council rose in protest against this appointment, claiming that Bundy's hawkish record in the State and Defense Departments and the CIA precluded him from taking over an independent journal. Some considered Bundy a war criminal for his prior actions.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: In November 1979, while chairman of CFR, David Rockefeller became embroiled in an international incident when he and Henry Kissinger, along with John J. McCloy and Rockefeller aides, persuaded President Jimmy Carter through the State Department to admit the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, into the US for hospital treatment for lymphoma. This action directly precipitated what is known as the Iran hostage crisis and placed Rockefeller under intense media scrutiny (particularly from "The New York Times") for the first time in his public life.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: In his book, "White House Diary", Carter wrote of the affair, "April 9 [1979] David Rockefeller came in, apparently to induce me to let the shah come to the United States. Rockefeller, Kissinger, and Brzezinski seem to be adopting this as a joint project".


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: The CFR has two types of membership: life membership; and term membership, which lasts for 5 years and is available only to those between the ages of 30 and 36. Only U.S. citizens (native born or naturalized) and permanent residents who have applied for U.S. citizenship are eligible. A candidate for life membership must be nominated in writing by one Council member and seconded by a minimum of three others. Visiting fellows are prohibited from applying for membership until they have completed their fellowship tenure.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: Corporate membership (250 in total) is divided into "Associates", "Affiliates", "President's Circle", and "Founders". All corporate executive members have opportunities to hear speakers, including foreign heads of state, chairmen and CEOs of multinational corporations, and U.S. officials and Congressmen. President and premium members are also entitled to attend small, private dinners or receptions with senior American officials and world leaders.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: In 2019, it was criticized for accepting a donation from Len Blavatnik, a Ukrainian-born English billionaire with close links to Vladimir Putin. It was reported to be under fire from its own members and dozens of international affairs experts over its acceptance of a $12 million gift to fund an internship program. Fifty-five international relations scholars and Russia experts wrote a letter to the organization's board and CFR's president, Richard N. Haass. "It is our considered view that Blavatnik uses his 'philanthropy'—funds obtained by and with the consent of the Kremlin, at the expense of the state budget and the Russian people—at leading western academic and cultural institutions to advance his access to political circles. We regard this as another step in the longstanding effort of Mr. Blavatnik—who ... has close ties to the Kremlin and its kleptocratic network—to launder his image in the West."


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: The council publishes the international affairs magazine "Foreign Affairs". It also establishes independent task forces, which bring together various experts to produce reports offering both findings and policy prescriptions on foreign policy topics. CFR has sponsored more than fifty reports, including the Independent Task Force on the Future of North America that published report No. 53, entitled "Building a North American Community", in May 2005.


title: Council on Foreign Relations

text: The council received a three star rating (out of a possible four stars) from Charity Navigator in fiscal year 2016, as measured by their analysis of the council's financial data and "accountability and transparency".


title: Kingdom of Hanover

text: The Kingdom of Hanover () was established in October 1814 by the Congress of Vienna, with the restoration of George III to his Hanoverian territories after the Napoleonic era. It succeeded the former Electorate of Hanover (known formally as the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg), and joined 38 other sovereign states in the German Confederation in June 1815. The kingdom was ruled by the House of Hanover, a cadet branch of the House of Welf, in personal union with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland since 1714. Since its monarch resided in London, a viceroy, usually a younger member of the British Royal Family, handled the administration of the Kingdom of Hanover.


title: Kingdom of Hanover

text: The personal union with the United Kingdom ended in 1837 upon the accession of Queen Victoria because semi-Salic law prevented females from inheriting the Hanoverian throne while a dynastic male was still alive. Her uncle Ernest Augustus thus became the ruler of Hanover. His only son succeeded him to the throne as George V. However, as he backed the losing side in the Austro-Prussian War, his kingdom was conquered by Prussia in 1866 and ceased to exist as an independent kingdom, becoming a Prussian province. Along with the rest of Prussia, Hanover became part of the German Empire upon the unification of Germany in January 1871. Briefly revived as the State of Hanover in 1946, the state was later merged with some smaller states to form the current state of Lower Saxony in then West Germany.


title: Kingdom of Hanover

text: The territory of Hanover had earlier been a principality within the Holy Roman Empire before being elevated into an electorate in 1708, when Hanover was formed by union of the dynastic divisions of the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg, excepting the Principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.


title: Kingdom of Hanover

text: After his accession in 1714, George Louis of the House of Hanover ascended the throne of Great Britain as George I, and Hanover was joined in a personal union with Great Britain. In 1803, Hanover was conquered by the French and Prussian armies in the Napoleonic Wars. The Treaties of Tilsit in 1807 joined it to territories from Prussia and created the Kingdom of Westphalia, ruled by Napoleon's youngest brother Jérôme Bonaparte. French control lasted until October 1813 when the territory was overrun by Russian Cossacks. The Battle of Leipzig shortly thereafter spelled the definitive end of the Napoleonic client states, and the electorate was restored to the House of Hanover.


title: Kingdom of Hanover

text: The terms of the Congress of Vienna in 1814 not only restored Hanover, but elevated it to an independent kingdom with its Prince-Elector, George III of the United Kingdom, as King of Hanover. The new kingdom was also greatly expanded, becoming the fourth-largest state in the German Confederation (behind Prussia, Austria and Bavaria) and the second-largest in north Germany.