title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: On transport and the environment, Khan expressed support for the use of low traffic neighbourhoods and said that roads should be used by "blue light services, to electricians, to plumbers, to commercial drivers, to taxis, to those that need to use our roads—delivery drivers and so forth—rather than individuals that could be walking, cycling and using public transport." He said that if re-elected, he would seek government funding to accelerate TfL's transition to zero-emission buses, so that the move would be complete by 2030 rather than 2037. He also promised to expand the availability of 4G on the London Underground. On 22 April, Khan said he was giving his second preference to Berry and asked his supporters to do the same.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: On housing, he set a target of 10,000 new council homes and said he would build more on TfL land. He further said that he would explore options including a fund to allow councils to buy back former council houses, supporting a new factory for off-site construction, and starting a Greater London Authority-owned company to build affordable homes directly. On crime, Khan said he would continue to seek government funding for 6,000 more police officers in London and provide more technology funding to the Metropolitan Police. He also promised to launch an independent commission of experts to study the effects of decriminalising cannabis.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: On 4 March, Bailey claimed that Khan had failed to meet more than half of his 2016 election promises. He said that, if elected, he would start a "London-wide campaign" against litter to remind people to use bins. During a debate on 20 April, he said he would ban Quds Day marches in London. His manifesto proposed an annual festival in the city based on the Edinburgh Festival Fringe.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: On transport and the environment, Bailey said he would seek corporate sponsors for London Underground stations to raise money, and start a new bank to finance transport projects, including 4G access on the London Underground. He said he would offer interest-free loans to black cab drivers to pay for 10% of the cost of an electric vehicle, and promised to make TfL's bus fleet zero-emission by 2025. He said that if elected, he would hold a competition to design murals for the city. He also pledged to plant half a million new trees. On tax and the economy, Bailey said he would lobby the government to allow the Greater London Authority to keep the full amount of business rates paid, rather than 75%. He also proposed the establishment of an infrastructure bank to raise private finance for infrastructure probjects, including making repairs to Hammersmith Bridge.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: On housing, he said he would start a Greater London Authority-owned company called Housing for London to build houses. He also said he would make beauty an important planning criterion and build 100,000 shared ownership homes which people could buy a share in for £5,000. On crime, Bailey said he would hire 8,000 more police officers and reopen dozens of police stations. He would introduce a fund to help former prisoners get qualifications. He also promised to install a CCTV camera on every bus stop. On 19 April, Bailey said that, if elected, he would "visibly make a difference" to crime in the first hundred days by increasing police patrols and "boost" usage of stop-and-search. He also promised to open a new youth centre in every borough and hire 4,000 youth workers. He said he would require large employers to subject their staff to drug tests and publish league tables of companies with the most and least drug use.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: In February 2021, Berry said she would focus on LGBT rights. This included making London the most "trans-inclusive city in the world" and protecting LGBT spaces. In an interview in March, she proposed a voluntary increase in the London living wage amongst accredited employers to £14 an hour. She also said she would improve London's bus stops, reduce speed limits with the goal of no road deaths, put more toilets in London Underground stations, and close London City Airport to build houses on the site. Berry published her manifesto in April, which included plans to establish a fund to introduce repair centres and a Library of Things in each borough.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: On transport and the environment, Berry supported the expansion of 4G access across the London Underground. She promised to merge TfL fare zones with the eventual goal of reaching a single fare zone for the entire city. Her manifesto included a proposal to extend London's Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) to cover the entire city, and a goal to cut traffic in terms of the number of miles travelled by 40% by 2026. She would also implement a pay-as-you-go road pricing scheme. She also promised to end the use of incineration and landfill, making London a zero waste city by 2030. She promised to "gold plate" the green belt to prevent development, and instead plant new woodlands and increase food production on green belt land. She said the next mayor should take direct control of Oxford Street and Kensington High Street to stop local councils blocking cycling schemes and part-pedestrianisation.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: On housing, she said she would start a commission to reduce private rent. On tax and the economy, she proposed a "Creative Autonomy Allowance" scheme whereby 1,000 young artists and entrepreneurs would be paid a monthly income for three years to support the start of their careers. On crime, Berry pledged to reduce the number of murders in the city to zero in ten years by investing in preventative measures. She said that violence could be reduced by reallocating police resources away from minor drug offences and large presences at protests. She said she would introduce a target for an even gender balance amongst new Metropolitan Police recruits. She also supported the introduction of supervised injection sites.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: When she was selected, Porritt said that if elected she would use empty office buildings for housing and revive town centres in the suburbs. She said that low traffic neighbourhood plans and the introduction of cycle lanes were being rushed and "a good idea being done the wrong way". In March 2021, she formally launched her campaign. She pledged to diversify high streets away from shops and towards services and start a "London Housing Company" to convert empty buildings and build new housing. She also proposed a trial of a universal basic income for the city.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: On transport and the environment, Porritt said she would make the city's rental bicycles free on Sundays for a year, and increase the area covered by rental bicycles to Lewisham and Greenwich. Porritt questioned Khan's environmentalism given his support for the Silvertown Tunnel project, which she called his "dirty little secret". She proposed a road pricing policy to replace the ULEZ, congestion charged and proposed boundary charge. The pay-as-you-go scheme would work by charging drivers based on "the number of journeys you make, the distance travelled, the type of vehicle you have, the level of emissions that produces", and its proceeds would go towards TfL's funding. Her proposals also included establishing ten new parks and including a green roof on all new buildings. On housing, she said she would focus on giving young people access to shelter throughout the year in a bid to end homelessness.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: On crime, she said she would double the number of police officers assigned to each ward and investigate reopening thirty police stations. She said she would "effectively legalise cannabis by encouraging the Met Police not to prosecute cannabis crimes".


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: On 30 March 2021, Laurence Fox said he had made an agreement with Reform UK leader Richard Tice that Reform UK wouldn't field a candidate in the mayoral election. Tice and other Reform UK members attended Fox's campaign launch that month, while the party's former leader, Nigel Farage, also endorsed Fox. In April, Fox proposed six months of free bus and London Underground travel, saying that the increase in economic activity would pay for the cost of lost fares, which he said would be £500 million. Fox has spread misinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic and calls the threat of COVID-19 variants "scaremongering". He said that if elected, he would instruct the Metropolitan Police and schools to not enforce pandemic-related restrictions. His campaign was funded by the businessman Jeremy Hosking.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: "The Guardian" noted a wave of social media content creators turning to local elections for content, Niko Omilana, Max Fosh and Brian Rose. Rose, a podcaster who has actively promoted misinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic, stood for the London Real Party. He was reported to be second favourite in the contest by a bookmaker. He said he had made substantial bets on himself "[b]ut not enough to move the markets.” In the run-up to the election, he was polling in the low single figures. He said he had spent more than a million pounds on billboards and that he was "going to pull off the biggest upset in British political history". He pledged that if elected he would build 50,000 new homes on TfL land by Christmas 2021. On 22 April, Lib Dem candidate Luisa Porritt said he should withdraw from the election after the Jewish Leadership Council and the London Jewish Forum described conspiracy theories proposed by David Icke expounded in a video with Rose, which Rose did not challenge, as "clearly antisemitic". During the campaign, a 2018 video of Rose drinking his own urine resurfaced. Speaking about the video, he said "I actually think this shows why I’m the best candidate, I’m open to new ideas."


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: Mandu Reid, the Women's Equality Party candidate, said that if elected she would offer an extension of the national government's programme of 30 days free childcare to eligible London residents who were retraining after losing their jobs. She also said that she would reallocate money Khan had planned to use to fund more police on the street to 'establish a specialist squad within the Met “to rebuild trust and get justice” for women suffering violence, as part of a “perpetrator strategy”'.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: Piers Corbyn, the candidate for the Let London Live party, told the BBC that he would "end lockdown on day one" if he were elected. Corbyn is a conspiracy theorist who has promoted misinformation and conspiracy theories about COVID-19, including calling the virus a "hoax". He is sceptical of climate change and is an anti-vaxxer. He has been fined and arrested during the campaign for breaches of COVID-19 lockdown restrictions, including an arrest on suspicion of malicious communications and public nuisance over his distributing a leaflet comparing COVID-19 vaccination programme with the Nazi concentration camp at Auschwitz. His policy platform includes a pledge to prevent extension of London's Ultra Low Emission Zone.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: Count Binface, the satirical candidate for the Count Binface Party, pledged to rename London Bridge the Phoebe Waller Bridge. His manifesto also included a croissant price cap and tying government officials' pay to nurses' pay. He said that he wasn't going to win, but that the supplementary vote system meant that voters could give him their first preference and vote for or against Khan with their second preference.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: On 21 April, an opinion poll showed that the independent candidate Niko Omilana, a YouTuber who makes prank videos, on 5% of the vote, ahead of all candidates other than Khan, Bailey, Berry and Porritt. His policy platform centred on telling the prime minister Boris Johnson to "shush". Omilana's manager said "it’s an investment for him" as more brands would be interested in working with him after the campaign. Omilana was endorsed by fellow YouTubers Keemstar and KSI. Max Fosh, another YouTuber standing in the election, "urged people not to vote for him" and used his platform to encourage young people to vote and to troll Fox.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: Valerie Brown, the Burning Pink candidate, was arrested in the early hours of Saturday 8 May, between the election and the announcement of the results. Her campaign manager, Ramon Salgado-Touzon, was arrested on Friday 7 May. Both were accused of criminal damage after spraying pink paint on offices of "The Guardian" newspaper. Brown was previously arrested and charged with criminal damage of windows at HSBC's headquarters on 22 April.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: The incumbent mayor Sadiq Khan, who announced in June 2018 that he would run for re-election, became Labour's candidate after more than half of local parties and party affiliates in London voted to automatically reselect him. The comedian Eddie Izzard and Tottenham MP David Lammy had been suggested as potential candidates for the party.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: Shaun Bailey was selected as the candidate of the Conservative Party in September 2018. Bailey has been a member of the London Assembly since 2016, having worked as a youth worker and as a special adviser to David Cameron.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: The party had started the process for selecting their candidate in June 2018. "The Guardian" reported that more than twenty prospective candidates applied, mostly from local government. A longlist of ten was published in July 2018. Following interviews, the party produced a shortlist of three for London members of the Conservative Party to vote on using a preferential voting system. To vote, members needed to reside in London and to have been members on 26 June 2018.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: Bailey had been endorsed in the party's selection process by the "Evening Standard", as well as Conservative police and crime commissioners Anthony Stansfeld, David Lloyd, Matthew Scott and Roger Hirst.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: Siân Berry, who has been a Member of the London Assembly since 2016 and was co-leader of the Green Party from 2018 to 2021, was announced as the party's mayoral candidate on 14 February 2019. She had been the party's candidate for mayor of London in 2008, when she came fourth with 3.2% of the first preference vote, and in 2016, when she came third with 5.8% of the first preference vote. Nominations had opened in November 2018 and closed in January 2019, with four candidates duly nominated. The other nominated candidates were former deputy leader and candidate for the UK Parliament, London Assembly and European Parliament Shahrar Ali, actor and Cities of London and Westminster December 2019 candidate Zack Polanski, as well as former senior civil servant, general election candidate and London Assembly candidate Peter Underwood.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: Luisa Porritt, a former Member of the European Parliament from 2019 to 2020 and a councillor in Camden, was selected as the party's candidate in October 2020. Initially, the party had selected Siobhan Benita, a former senior civil servant and 2012 independent candidate for London mayor. Benita withdrew in July 2020 after the election was postponed to 2021.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: In the first selection process, Benita was chosen to be the Liberal Democrat candidate on 21 November 2018. The other shortlisted candidates were the anti-Brexit campaigner and former and 2020 London Assembly candidate Rob Blackie, Ebookers founder Dinesh Dhamija, and former parliamentary candidate, consultant and 2020 London Assembly candidate Lucy Salek. Benita came first among first preferences, but with less than half the votes. After last-placed Lucy Salek was eliminated and second preferences among her voters tallied, Benita had a majority of the votes cast and was chosen as the party's candidate.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: The former Conservative parliamentary candidates Azi Ahmed and Kishan Devani had previously been discussed as potential Liberal Democrat candidates for the mayoralty, as had Rachel Johnson, a journalist and sister of Boris Johnson, the Conservative Prime Minister and a former mayor of London.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: However, on 27 July 2020, Benita announced her withdrawal from the candidacy, saying she was unable to commit to another year of campaigning following the election's postponement to 2021 given the unpaid nature of the role. The party began a new selection process following Benita's withdrawal. A shortlist of two candidates was announced on 10 September: Luisa Porritt and Geeta Sidhu-Robb. Porritt had served as an MEP for London from 2019 to 2020 and as a councillor on Camden London Borough Council from 2018, having become group leader earlier in September 2020. Sidhu-Robb had previously worked as a lawyer, and was the founder and chief executive of the health company Nosh Detox. She had formerly served as the vice-chair of the People's Vote campaign and served as chair of its successor, Democracy Unleashed.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: On 13 September, two days after the shortlist was announced, footage of Sidhu-Robb from the 1997 general election, when she was the Conservative candidate for the seat of Blackburn, re-emerged in which Sidhu-Robb said (in what has been reported to be Urdu or Gujarati), "Don't vote for a Jew, Jack Straw is a Jew. If you vote for him, you're voting for a Jew. Jews are the enemies of Muslims". A few hours later, Sidhu-Robb was suspended from the party and as a candidate. Sidhu-Robb apologised for the comments and said she had regretted making them at the time. Following these events, Benita revealed that she had not only stood down as candidate, but had also resigned from the party.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: As a result, a vote among the membership was held on the same timetable, but with Porritt standing against only the option to reopen nominations. The result was announced on 13 October 2020, with Porritt being selected.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: Environmental campaigner Rosalind Readhead intended to stand, but withdrew from the race 30 March 2021 to help stop the environmental vote being split. London-based rapper Drillminister had announced his candidacy as an independent candidate, campaigning on reducing homelessness, improving transport, increasing mental health support, diversifying the Metropolitan Police Service and rehabilitation to curb crime and improving air quality in the capital. Charlie Mullins, founder of Pimlico Plumbers, had announced he would stand as an independent. Winston McKenzie, an activist and perennial candidate, had also announced he was intending to stand for the party he founded and leads, Unity in Action. Drillminister, Mullins and McKenzie were all absent from the list of candidates nominated.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: The chart below shows opinion polls conducted for the 2021 London mayoral election. The trend lines are local regressions (LOESS).


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: The polls below were taken when the election was expected in May 2020. Rory Stewart and Siobhan Benita both dropped out of the election following its delay.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: Counting of the votes started on Friday 7 May at 7am. Due to measures taken to limit the spread of coronavirus, a result came on the evening of Saturday 8 May. Turnout at the election was 42%


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: The result was closer than expected, with Bailey receiving a greater than expected share of the vote compared to polling and despite receiving few resources from Conservative Campaign HQ. Unlike incumbents in Greater Manchester, the West Midlands and Tees Valley, Khan saw his victory margin cut, and Bailey received the largest number of first preference votes in Ealing and Hillingdon, and Brent and Harrow, two constituencies where Khan won the most votes in the previous election.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: Khan's first round vote share was down 4.2%, while Bailey's first round vote share was up 0.3% on the candidate in 2016. Berry's vote share was up 2.0%. The Liberal Democrats were down 0.2%. UKIP's vote share fell by 3%. The only other party that stood a candidate in 2016 and 2021 were the Women's Equality Party, who saw their vote share fall by 1.2%.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: Two prominent YouTubers stood as candidates, both claiming that they successfully engaged young people in the election. Max Fosh came second to last and said he had no intention of standing as a candidate again, but Niko Omilana came fifth. Fosh told the BBC that he made about £4,500 from YouTube videos of his campaign, a net loss of £5500 taking into account his lost deposit, but that he also gained followers. Omilana did not answer the BBC's enquiries on this matter, but Hussein Kesvani estimated he would make back his lost deposit through increased YouTube revenues.


title: 2021 London mayoral election

text: This was the Lib Dems' second-worst performance, only behind 2012. It also marked the third time in a row both that they had lost their deposit and had come fourth in London; this led the Green Party to suggest the Lib Dems are no longer London's third party, although the Liberal Democrats maintain far greater representation than the Green Party among MPs, councillors and controlled councils in London.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: The Boeing 737 Classic is a series of narrow-body airliners produced by Boeing Commercial Airplanes, the second generation of the Boeing 737 series of aircraft.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: Development began in 1979 and the first variant, the 737-300, first flew in February 1984 and entered service that December.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: The stretched 737-400 first flew in February 1988 and entered service later that year. The shortest variant, the 737-500, first flew in June 1989 and entered service in 1990.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: Compared to the original series, the classic series was re-engined with the CFM56, a high-bypass turbofan, for better fuel economy and had upgraded avionics.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: It competed with the McDonnell Douglas MD-80 series, then with the Airbus A320 family which prompted Boeing to update its offer with the 737 Next Generation, thus designating the -300/400/500 variants as the 737 Classic.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: In total, 1,988 aircraft were delivered from 1984 until production ended in the year 2000: 1,113 -300s, 486 -400s and 389 -500s.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: Following the success of the Boeing 737-200 Advanced, Boeing wanted to increase capacity and range, incorporating improvements to upgrade the plane to modern specifications, while also retaining commonality with previous 737 variants. Development began in 1979, and in 1980, preliminary aircraft specifications were released at the Farnborough Airshow. The new series featured CFM56 turbofan engines, yielding significant gains in fuel economy and a reduction in noise, but also posing an engineering challenge given the low ground clearance of the 737 – a trait of its 707-derived fuselage. Boeing and engine supplier CFM International solved the problem by placing the engine ahead of (rather than below) the wing, and by moving engine accessories to the sides (rather than the bottom) of the engine pod, giving the 737 a distinctive noncircular air intake.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: The wing incorporated a number of changes for improved aerodynamics. The wing tip was extended . The leading-edge slats and trailing-edge flaps were adjusted. The flight deck was improved with the optional electronic flight instrumentation system, and the passenger cabin incorporated improvements similar to those on the Boeing 757. The family also featured a redesigned vertical stabilizer with a dorsal fin at the base.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: In March 1981, USAir and Southwest Airlines each ordered 10 aircraft of the 737-300 series, with an option for 20 more. That aircraft, the initial model of the 737 Classic series, first flew in February 1984 and entered service in December of that year with Southwest Airlines. A further stretched model, the 737-400, was launched with an order for 25 aircraft with 30 options from Piedmont Airlines in June 1986. That aircraft first flew in February 1988 and entered service later that year with Piedmont Airlines. The final model of the series, the 737-500, was launched with an order for 30 aircraft from Southwest Airlines in May 1987. That aircraft, which was designed as a replacement for the 737-200 and had similar passenger capacity and dimensions, as well as the longest range of any member of the 737 Classic family, first flew in June 1989 and entered service with Southwest Airlines in 1990.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: Boeing selected the CFM56-3 exclusively to power the 737-300 variant. The 737 wings were closer to the ground than previous applications for the CFM56, necessitating several modifications to the engine. The fan diameter was reduced, which reduced the bypass ratio, and the engine accessory gearbox was moved from the bottom of the engine (the 6 o'clock position) to the 9 o'clock position, giving the engine nacelle its distinctive flat-bottomed shape, which is often nicknamed the "hamster pouch". The overall thrust was also reduced, from , mostly due to the reduction in bypass ratio.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: The 737 Classic saw introduction of Speed Trim System (STS), a flight augmentation system that adjusts the stabilizer automatically at low speed, low weight, aft center of gravity and high thrust with autopilot disengaged. Most frequently it can be observed during takeoffs and go-arounds. The system relies on most of the same hardware and software used in autopilot mode. STS is not fail-safe in that it uses only one of each sensor types required for its functionality and a single computer. Such a single-channel design is not common for augmentation systems that have full control of the stabilizer. This design was considered acceptable because of the ability for the aft and forward column cutout switches as well as center console cutout switches to constrain its malfunction. The limited flight envelope protections on the 737 Next Generation series, as well as MCAS on the 737 MAX, are later extensions of this system.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: Throughout the 1980s, the 737 Classic series attracted large orders from airlines in the United States and Europe, with its order totals exceeding those of preceding 737 models. By far, the most successful model was the 737-300, with deliveries totaling 1,113 aircraft (the 737-400 and -500 reached 486 and 389 deliveries, respectively). Major operators included US carriers, small national airlines, and charter carriers.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: By the 1990s, when regular Boeing customer United Airlines bought the Airbus A320, this prompted Boeing to update the slower, shorter-range 737 Classic -400 into the rewinged, updated, more efficient, longer 737NG-800.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: Production of the 737 Classic continued alongside that of the Next Generation for a period of time; the first 737-700 was completed in December 1996; the last 737 Classic was completed in February 2000.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: Six former Southwest 737-300s are modified and operated for aerial firefighting by British Columbia-based Coulson Group, supported by a C$3.4 million ($2.6 million) loan from the Canadian government.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: The prototype of the -300 rolled out of the Renton plant on January 17, 1984, and first flew on February 24, 1984. After it received its flight certification on November 14, 1984, USAir received the first aircraft on November 28. It proved a very popular aircraft: Boeing received 252 orders in 1985, and over 1,000 throughout its production. The 300 series remained in production until the last aircraft was delivered to Air New Zealand on December 17, 1999, registration ZK-NGJ. By then, 1,113 Boeing 737-300s had been produced over more than 15 years.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: In December 2008, Southwest Airlines selected Boeing to retrofit the 737-300 with a new set of instruments, hardware, and software, to improve commonality with the 737-700, as well as to support the Required Navigation Performance initiative, but that order was later cancelled and the retrofits never took place.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: The 737-300 can be retrofitted with Aviation Partners Boeing winglets. The 737-300 retrofitted with winglets is designated the -300SP (Special Performance) first entered service in June 2003. Used passenger -300 aircraft have also been converted to freighter versions. The 737-300 has been replaced by the 737-700 in the Boeing 737 Next Generation family.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: The 737-400 design was launched in 1985 to fill the gap between the 737-300 and the 757-200, and competed with the Airbus A320 and McDonnell Douglas MD-80. It stretched the 737-300 another to carry up to 188 passengers. It included a tail bumper to prevent tailscrapes during take-off (an early issue with the 757), and a strengthened wing spar. The prototype rolled out on January 26, 1988, and flew for the first time on February 19, 1988.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: The aircraft entered service on September 15, 1988, with launch customer Piedmont Airlines (25 aircraft ordered).


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: The last two Boeing 737-400s, the last Boeing 737 Classics, were delivered to CSA Czech Airlines on February 28, 2000.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: The 737-400SF (Special Freighter) was not a model delivered by Boeing, but a 737-400 converted to freighter. The Boeing 737-400 never included winglets as an option, just like the Boeing 737-600. Alaska Airlines was the first to convert one of their 400s from regular service to an aircraft with the ability to handle 10 pallets. The airline has also converted five more into fixed combi aircraft for half passenger and freight. These 737-400 Combi aircraft were retired in 2017 and replaced with 737-700Fs.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: In November 2018, VX Capital launched an ABS secured on 35 737-400 freighters valued at $250 million (an average of $250/35round1 million), to be leased for $100,000 per month each.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: The -500 series has the smallest dimensions of the 737 Classics. The -500 was offered, due to customer demand, as a modern and direct replacement of the 737-200, incorporating the improvements of the 737 Classic series in a model that allowed longer routes with fewer passengers to be more economical than with the 737-300. Though smaller than the -300 and -400, the fuselage length of the -500 is longer than the 737-200, accommodating up to 140 passengers. Both glass and older style mechanical cockpits arrangements were available. Using the CFM56-3 engine also gave a 25% increase in fuel efficiency over the older -200s P&W engines.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: The 737-500 was launched in 1987, by Southwest Airlines, with an order for 20 aircraft, and flew for the first time on June 30, 1989. A single prototype flew 375 hours for the certification process, and on February 28, 1990 Southwest Airlines received the first delivery. The 737-500 has become a favorite of some Russian airlines, with Nordavia, Rossiya Airlines, S7 Airlines, Sky Express, Transaero, UTair, and Yamal Airlines all buying second-hand models of the aircraft to replace aging Soviet-built aircraft and/or expand their fleets. Aerolíneas Argentinas replaced its 737-200s with second-hand 737-500s. The 737-500 was replaced by the 737-600 in the Boeing 737 Next Generation family. However, unlike the 737-500, the 737-600 was a slow seller for Boeing, with only 69 aircraft delivered since its introduction.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: As the retirement of all 737 Classic models progressed, with retirement of 300s and -500s reaching 40% in 2012, the 737-500 has faced accelerated retirement because of its smaller size. Aircraft of this series were being retired after 21 years of use, as compared to 24 years for the 737-300. While a few 737-300s are slated for freighter conversion, no demand at all exists for a -500 freighter conversion. On September 5, 2016, Southwest Airlines flew their last 737-500 revenue flight, Flight 377 from El Paso to Dallas.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: As of July 2019, 692 Boeing 737 Classic aircraft were in commercial service. This includes 297 -300s, 261 -400s, and 134 -500s.


title: Boeing 737 Classic

text: , 64 hull losses of Boeing 737 Classic series aircraft have occurred, with 1,298 fatalities. An analysis by Boeing on commercial jet airplane accidents in the period 1959–2017 showed that the classic series had a hull loss rate of 0.71 per million departures versus 0.17 for the Next Generation series and 1.75 for the original series.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: The Battle of Anzio was a battle of the Italian Campaign of World War II that took place from January 22, 1944 (beginning with the Allied amphibious landing known as Operation Shingle) to June 5, 1944 (ending with the capture of Rome). The operation was opposed by German forces in the area of Anzio and Nettuno.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: The operation was initially commanded by Major General John P. Lucas, of the U.S. Army, commanding U.S. VI Corps with the intent to outflank German forces at the Winter Line and enable an attack on Rome.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: The success of an amphibious landing at that location, in a basin consisting substantially of reclaimed marshland and surrounded by mountains, depended on the element of surprise and the swiftness with which the invaders could build up strength and move inland relative to the reaction time and strength of the defenders. Any delay could result in the occupation of the mountains by the defenders and the consequent entrapment of the invaders. Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, commander of the U.S. Fifth Army, understood that risk, but he did not pass on his appreciation of the situation to his subordinate Lucas, who preferred to take time to entrench against an expected counterattack. The initial landing achieved complete surprise with no opposition and a jeep patrol even made it as far as the outskirts of Rome. However, Lucas, who had little confidence in the operation as planned, failed to capitalize on the element of surprise and delayed his advance until he judged his position was sufficiently consolidated and he had sufficient strength.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: While Lucas consolidated, Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, the German commander in the Italian theatre, moved every unit he could spare into a defensive ring around the beachhead. His artillery units had a clear view of every Allied position. The Germans also stopped the drainage pumps and flooded the reclaimed marsh with salt water, planning to entrap the Allies and destroy them by epidemic. For weeks a rain of shells fell on the beach, the marsh, the harbour, and on anything else observable from the hills, with little distinction between forward and rear positions.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: After a month of heavy but inconclusive fighting, Lucas was relieved and sent home. His replacement was Major General Lucian Truscott, who had previously commanded the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division. The Allies broke out in May. But, instead of striking inland to cut lines of communication of the German Tenth Army's units fighting at Monte Cassino, Truscott, on Clark's orders, reluctantly turned his forces north-west towards Rome, which was captured on June 4, 1944. As a result, the forces of the German Tenth Army fighting at Cassino were able to withdraw and rejoin the rest of Kesselring's forces north of Rome, regroup, and make a fighting withdrawal to his next major prepared defensive position on the Gothic Line.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: At the end of 1943, following the Allied invasion of Italy, Allied forces were bogged down at the Gustav Line, a defensive line across Italy south of the strategic objective of Rome. The terrain of central Italy had proved ideally suited to defense, and Field Marshal Albert Kesselring took full advantage.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Operation Shingle was originally conceived by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in December 1943, as he lay recovering from pneumonia in Marrakesh. His concept was to land two divisions at Anzio, bypassing German forces in central Italy, and take Rome, the strategic objective of the current Battle of Rome. By January he had recovered and was badgering his commanders for a plan of attack, accusing them of not wanting to fight but of being interested only in drawing pay and eating rations. General Harold Alexander, commander of the Allied Armies in Italy, had already considered such a plan since October using five divisions. However, the 5th Army did not have the troops nor the means to transport them. Clark proposed landing a reinforced division to divert German troops from Monte Cassino. This second landing, however, instead of failing similarly, would hold "the shingle" for a week in expectation of a breakthrough at Cassino, and so the operation was named Shingle.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: The Anzio beachhead is at the northwestern end of a tract of reclaimed marshland, formerly the Pontine Marshes, now the Pontine Fields (Agro Pontino). Previously uninhabitable due to mosquitoes carrying malaria, in Roman times armies marched as quickly as possible across it on the military road, the Via Appia. The marsh was bounded on one side by the sea and on others by mountains: the Monti Albani, the Monti Lepini, the Monti Ausoni and further south the Monti Aurunci (where the allies had been brought to a halt before Monte Cassino). Overall these mountains are referenced by the name Monti Laziali, the mountains of Lazio, the ancient Latium. Invading armies from the south had the choice of crossing the marsh or taking the only other road to Rome, the Via Latina, running along the eastern flanks of the Monti Laziali, risking entrapment. The marshes were turned into cultivatable land in the 1930s under Benito Mussolini. Canals and pumping stations were built to remove the brackish water from the land. These canals divided the land into personal tracts with new stone houses for colonists from north Italy. Mussolini also founded the five cities destroyed by the battle.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: When Lucian Truscott's 3rd Division was first selected for the operation, he pointed out to Clark that the position was a death trap and there would be no survivors. Agreeing, Clark canceled the operation, but Prime Minister Churchill revived it. Apparently, the two allies had different concepts: the Americans viewed such a landing as another distraction from Cassino, but if they could not break through at Cassino, the men at Anzio would be trapped. Churchill and the British high command envisioned an outflanking movement ending with the capture of Rome. Mediterranean Theatre commander General Dwight D. Eisenhower, leaving to take command of Operation Overlord, left the decision up to Churchill with a warning about German unpredictability.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: The final plan called for Lucas to lead the US VI Corps in a landing in the Anzio area, followed by an advance into the Alban Hills, to cut German communications and "threaten the rear of the German XIV Panzer Corps" (under Fridolin von Senger und Etterlin). It was hoped that such an advance would draw German forces away from the Monte Cassino area and facilitate an Allied breakthrough there.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Planners argued that if Kesselring (in charge of German forces in Italy) pulled troops out of the Gustav Line to defend against the Allied assault, then Allied forces would be able to break through the line; if Kesselring didn't pull troops out of the Gustav Line, then Operation Shingle would threaten to capture Rome and cut off the German units defending the Gustav Line. Should Germany have adequate reinforcements available to defend both Rome and the Gustav Line, the Allies felt that the operation would nevertheless be useful in engaging forces which could otherwise be committed on another front. The operation was officially canceled on December 18, 1943. However, it was later reselected.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Clark did not feel he had the numbers on the southern front to exploit any breakthrough. His plan therefore was relying on the southern offensive drawing Kesselring's reserves in and providing the Anzio force the opportunity to break inland quickly. This would also reflect the orders he had received from Alexander to "...carry out an assault landing on the beaches in the vicinity of Rome with the object of cutting the enemy lines of communication and threatening the rear of the German XIV Corps [on the Gustav Line]." However, his written orders to Lucas did not really reflect this. Initially Lucas had received orders to "1. Seize and secure a beachhead in the vicinity of Anzio 2. Advance and secure Colli Laziali [the Alban Hills] 3. Be prepared to advance on Rome". However, Clark's final orders stated "...2. Advance on Colli Laziali" giving Lucas considerable flexibility as to the timing of any advance on the Alban Hills. It is likely that the caution displayed by both Clark and Lucas was to some extent a product of Clark's experiences at the tough battle for the Salerno beach head and Lucas' natural caution stemming from his lack of experience in battle.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Neither Clark nor Lucas had full confidence in either their superiors or the operational plan. Along with most of the Fifth Army staff they felt that "Shingle" was properly a two corps or even a full army task. A few days prior to the attack, Lucas wrote in his diary, "They will end up putting me ashore with inadequate forces and get me in a serious jam... Then, who will get the blame?" and "[The operation] has a strong odour of Gallipoli and apparently the same amateur was still on the coach's bench." The "amateur" can only have referred to Winston Churchill, architect of the disastrous Gallipoli landings of World War I and personal advocate of "Shingle".


title: Battle of Anzio

text: One of the problems with the plan was the availability of landing ships. The American commanders in particular were determined that nothing should delay the Normandy invasion and the supporting landings in southern France. Operation Shingle would require the use of landing ships necessary for these operations. Initially "Shingle" was to release these assets by January 15. However, this being deemed problematic, President Roosevelt granted permission for the craft to remain until February 5.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Only enough tank landing ships (LSTs) to land a single division were initially available to "Shingle". Later, at Churchill's personal insistence, enough were made available to land two divisions. Allied intelligence thought that five or six German divisions were in the area, although U.S. 5th Army intelligence severely underestimated the German 10th Army's fighting capacity at the time, believing many of their units would be worn out after the defensive battles fought since September.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: The Fifth Army's attack on the Gustav Line began on January 16, 1944, at Monte Cassino. The operation failed to break through, but it partly succeeded in its primary objective. Heinrich von Vietinghoff, commanding the Gustav Line, called for reinforcements, and Kesselring transferred the 29th and 90th Panzergrenadier Divisions from Rome.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Although resistance had been expected, as seen at Salerno during 1943, the initial landings were essentially unopposed, with the exception of desultory "Luftwaffe" strafing runs.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: By midnight, 36,000 soldiers and 3,200 vehicles had landed on the beaches. Thirteen Allied troops were killed, and 97 wounded; about 200 Germans had been taken as POWs. The 1st Division penetrated inland, the Rangers captured Anzio's port, the 509th PIB captured Nettuno, and the 3rd Division penetrated inland.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: In the first days of operations, the command of the Italian resistance movement had a meeting with the Allied General Headquarters: it offered to guide the Allied Force through the Alban Hills territory, but the Allied Command refused the proposal.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: It is clear that Lucas' superiors expected some kind of offensive action from him. The point of the landing was to turn the German defences on the Winter Line, taking advantage of their exposed rear and hopefully panicking them into retreating northwards past Rome. However, Lucas instead poured more men and material into his tiny bridgehead, and strengthened his defences.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Winston Churchill was clearly displeased with this action. He said: "I had hoped we were hurling a wildcat into the shore, but all we got was a stranded whale".


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Lucas' decision remains a controversial one. Noted military historian John Keegan wrote, "Had Lucas risked rushing at Rome the first day, his spearheads would probably have arrived, though they would have soon been crushed. Nevertheless he might have 'staked out claims well inland." However, "Lucas did not have confidence in the strategic planning of the operation. Also, he could certainly argue that his interpretation of his orders from Clark was not an unreasonable one. With two divisions landed, and facing two or three times that many Germans, it would have been reasonable for Lucas to consider the beachhead insecure." But according to Keegan, Lucas's actions "achieved the worst of both worlds, exposing his forces to risk without imposing any on the enemy."


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Kesselring was informed of the landings at 3 a.m. January 22. Although the landings came as a surprise, Kesselring had made contingency plans to deal with possible landings at all the likely locations. All the plans relied on his divisions each having previously organised a motorized rapid reaction unit ("Kampfgruppe") which could move speedily to meet the threat and buy time for the rest of the defenses to get in place. At 5 a.m. he initiated Operation "Richard" and ordered the "Kampfgruppe" of 4th Parachute Division and the Hermann Göring Fallschirm Panzer Division to defend the roads leading from Anzio to the Alban Hills via Campoleone and Cisterna whilst his plans expected some 20,000 defending troops to have arrived by the end of the first day. In addition, he requested that OKW send reinforcements, and in response to this they ordered the equivalent of more than three divisions from France, Yugoslavia, and Germany whilst at the same time releasing to Kesselring a further three divisions in Italy which had been under OKW's direct command. Later that morning, he ordered General Eberhard von Mackensen (Fourteenth Army) and General Heinrich von Vietinghoff (Tenth Army – Gustav Line) to send him additional reinforcements.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: The German units in the immediate vicinity had in fact been dispatched to reinforce the Gustav Line only a few days earlier. All available reserves from the southern front or on their way to it were rushed toward Anzio and Nettuno; these included the 3rd Panzer Grenadier and 71st Infantry Divisions, and the bulk of the Luftwaffe's Hermann Göring Panzer Division. Kesselring initially considered that a successful defence could not be made if the Allies launched a major attack on January 23 or January 24. However, by the end of January 22, the lack of aggressive action convinced him that a defence could be made. Nevertheless, few additional defenders arrived on January 23, although the arrival on the evening of January 22 of Lieutenant General Alfred Schlemm and his 1st Parachute Corps headquarters brought greater organisation and purpose to the German defensive preparations. By January 24, the Germans had over 40,000 troops in prepared defensive positions.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Three days after the landings, the beachhead was surrounded by a defence line consisting of three divisions: The 4th Parachute Division to the west, the 3rd Panzer Grenadier Division to the center in front of Alban Hills, the Hermann Göring Panzer Division to the east.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Von Mackensen's 14th Army assumed overall control of the defence on January 25. Elements of eight German divisions were employed in the defence line around the beachhead, and five more divisions were on their way to the Anzio area. Kesselring ordered an attack on the beachhead for January 28, though it was postponed to February 1.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Liberty ships, which were never intended as warships, were involved in some fighting during the Battle of Anzio. On 22 to 30 January 1944 the was under repeated bombardment from shore batteries and aircraft throughout an eight-day period. It endured a prolonged barrage of shrapnel, machine-gun fire and bombs. The gun crew fought back with shellfire and shot down five German planes.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Further troop movements including the arrival of U.S. 45th Infantry Division and U.S. 1st Armored Division, brought Allied forces total on the beachhead to 69,000 men, 508 guns and 208 tanks by January 29, whilst the total defending Germans had risen to 71,500. Lucas initiated a two-pronged attack on January 30. While one force was to cut Highway 7 at Cisterna di Latina before moving east into the Alban Hills, a second was to advance northeast up the Via Anziate towards Campoleone.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: In heavy fighting British 1st Division made ground but failed to take Campoleone and ended the battle in an exposed salient stretching up the Via Anziate.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: The main attack by the U.S. 3rd Division captured ground up to deep on a seven-mile wide front, but failed to break through or capture Cisterna. On the right, ahead of the main assault, two Ranger battalions made a daring covert advance towards Cisterna. Due to faulty intelligence, when daylight arrived they were engaged and cut off. A brutal battle with elements of the Fallschirm-Panzer Division 'Hermann Göring' followed. Rangers began surrendering individually or in small groups prompting others, acting on their own authority, to shoot them. Of the 767 men in the 1st and 3rd Ranger Battalions, six returned to the Allied lines and 761 were killed or captured.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: By early February, German forces in Fourteenth Army numbered some 100,000 troops organised into two Army Corps, the 1st Parachute Corps under Schlemm and the LXXVI Panzer Corps under Lieutenant General Traugott Herr. Allied forces by this time totalled 76,400 (including the recently arrived British 56th Infantry Division, under Major-General Gerald Templer, which arrived complete on February 16). After making exploratory probes on the Campoleone salient on the afternoon of February 3 the German forces launched a full counterattack at 23:00 in order to reduce the salient and "iron out" the front line. Von Mackensen had planned for the salient to be ground away rather than employing a rapid, focused thrust to cut it off. Some hours after the attack started the coherence of the front line had been completely shattered, and the fighting for the salient had given way to small unit actions, swaying back and forth through the gullies. In the morning of February 4 the situation was becoming more serious, with the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards (of 24th Guards Brigade), only having one cohesive rifle company left and on the opposite side of the salient, the 6th Battalion, Gordon Highlanders (of 2nd Brigade) was beginning to crumble and later lost three complete companies as prisoners.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Even though the base of the salient was nearly broken, Lucas was able to bolster the British 1st Division's defenses with the newly arrived 168th Brigade (from the 56th Division, containing 1st Battalion, London Irish Rifles, 1st Battalion, London Scottish, 10th Battalion, Royal Berkshire Regiment). The 3rd Brigade had been tasked with holding the tip of the salient 2 miles long and 1,000 yards wide on the road going north of Campoleone, but after the German attacks in the early hours of 4 February, the 2nd Battalion, Sherwood Foresters, 1st Battalion, King's Shropshire Light Infantry and 1st Battalion, Duke of Wellington's Regiment (all of 3rd Brigade) had been cut off and were surrounded in the pocket. They held the line all day, taking heavy casualties, but were eventually ordered to pull back and made a fighting retreat at 5pm to the Factory with the aid of artillery, and a successful assault launched by the London Scottish, of 168th Brigade, supported by the 46th Royal Tank Regiment (46 RTR).


title: Battle of Anzio

text: From February 5 to February 7 both sides employed heavy artillery concentrations and bombers to disrupt the other side and at 21:00 on February 7 the Germans renewed their attack. Once more the fighting was fierce and they managed to infiltrate between the 5th Battalion, Grenadier Guards (24th Guards Brigade) and the 2nd Battalion, North Staffordshire Regiment (2nd Brigade) and nearly surrounded them; it was for his leadership of British counterattacks during this period that Major William Sidney, a company commander in the 5th Grenadier Guards, was later awarded the Victoria Cross. Slowly the Allies were forced to give ground and by February 10 they had been pushed out of the salient. Lucas ordered attacks on February 11 to regain the lost ground but the Germans, forewarned by a radio intercept, repelled the Allies' poorly coordinated attack.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: On February 16, the Germans launched a new offensive ("Operation Fischfang") down the line of the Via Anziate, supported by Tiger tanks. They overran the 167th Brigade, of the recently arrived 56th (London) Division, and virtually destroyed X and Y Companies of the 8th Battalion, Royal Fusiliers, each of which was reduced from around 125 down to a single officer and 10 other ranks. One of the men killed was Second Lieutenant Eric Waters, whose son Roger Waters of Pink Floyd, created a song ("When the Tigers Broke Free") in memory of his father and describes his death.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: By February 18, after desperate fighting, the Allies' Final Beachhead Line (prepared defenses more or less on the line of the original beachhead) was under attack. Numerous attacks were launched on 1st Battalion, Loyal Regiment (2nd Brigade) and they lost a company, overrun, and the day after had suffered 200 casualties. On the same day Major-General Ronald Penney, General Officer Commanding (GOC) British 1st Division, had been wounded by shellfire and the division was temporarily commanded by Major-General Templer, GOC 56th (London) Division, which had arrived complete. However, a counterattack using VI Corps' reserves halted the German advance, and on February 20, "Fischfang" petered out with both sides exhausted. During "Fischfang" the Germans had sustained some 5,400 casualties, the Allies 3,500. Both had suffered nearly 20,000 casualties each since the first landings, and it was """far the highest density of destruction in the Italian campaign, perhaps in the whole war""". Also on February 18 while returning to Anzio the light cruiser was struck by two torpedoes and sunk with a loss of 417 men. Despite the exhausted state of the troops, Hitler insisted that 14th Army should continue to attack. Despite the misgivings of both Kesselring and von Mackensen, a further assault was mounted on February 29, this time on LXXVI Panzer Corps' front around Cisterna. This push achieved little except to generate a further 2,500 casualties for the 14th Army.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Some RSI Italian units fought in the Anzio-Nettuno area, especially since March; the land units were part of the German 14th Army: only the paratroopers of the "Nembo" Battalion were there since February, participating in the German counterattack. In March the infantrymen of the "Barbarigo" Battalion (from Decima Flottiglia MAS) joined the frontline along the "Canale Mussolini".


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Churchill had continued to bridle at Lucas' perceived passivity. He had written on February 10 to General Alexander encouraging him to exert his authority and Alexander had visited the beachhead on February 14 to tell Lucas he wished for a breakout as soon as the tactical situation allowed. After his visit Alexander wrote to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Alan Brooke, saying:


title: Battle of Anzio

text: On February 16 at a high level conference hosted by Alexander and attended by Mark W. Clark and Henry Maitland Wilson, commander Allied Force Headquarters it was decided to appoint two deputies under Lucas, Lucian Truscott and the British Major-General Vyvyan Evelegh. On February 22, Clark replaced Lucas with Truscott, appointing Lucas deputy commander Fifth Army until such time as a suitable job could be found for him back in the United States.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Both sides had realised that no decisive result could be achieved until the spring and reverted to a defensive posture involving aggressive patrolling and artillery duels whilst they worked to rebuild their fighting capabilities. In anticipation of the following spring, Kesselring ordered the preparation of a new defence line, the Caesar C line, behind the line of beachhead running from the mouth of the river Tiber just south of Rome through Albano, skirting south of the Alban Hills to Valmontone and across Italy to the Adriatic coast at Pescara, behind which 14th Army and, to their left, 10th Army might withdraw when the need arose. Meanwhile, Lucian Truscott, who had been promoted from the command of U.S. 3rd Infantry Division to replace Lucas as commander of VI Corps on February 22, worked with his staff on the plans for a decisive attack as part of a general offensive which Alexander was planning for May and which would include a major offensive on the Gustav Line, Operation Diadem. The objective of the plan was to fully engage Kesselring's armies with a major offensive and remove any prospect of the Germans withdrawing forces from Italy to redeploy elsewhere. It was also intended to trap the bulk of the German 10th Army between the Allied forces advancing through the Gustav Line and VI Corps thrusting inland from Anzio.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: In March, the 2nd Italian SS "Vendetta" Battalion and 29th Italian SS Rifle Battalion were sent to fight against the Anglo-American forces at the Anzio beachhead. Dispersed among German battalions, the German commanding officers later gave the Italians companies favourable reports. Members of former Blackshirt Lieutenant-Colonel Degli Oddi's "Vendetta" helped defeat a determined effort by the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division to overrun their positions and captured a number of prisoners. Their performance at Anzio led to designation as units of the Waffen-SS, with all the duties and rights that that entailed.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: The next few weeks saw many changes in divisions on both sides. The U.S. 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment, which had fought with distinction but suffered heavy losses, was withdrawn to England on 23 March 1944. Also in March the U.S. 34th Infantry Division and in early May, U.S. 36th Infantry Division, had arrived at Anzio. On the British side the 24th Guards Brigade of British 1st Infantry Division was replaced in the first week of March by 18th Infantry Brigade (from British 1st Armoured Division in North Africa). The Guards Brigade had suffered devastating casualties (nearly 2,000 of an initial strength of over 2,500) in just less than two months at Anzio. In late March the 56th (London) Infantry Division had also been relieved, after sustaining very heavy losses (one of its battalions — 7th Ox and Bucks of 167th (London) Brigade — had been reduced from 1,000 to 60), by British 5th Infantry Division. By late May, there were some 150,000 Allied troops in the bridgehead, including five U.S. and two British divisions, facing five German divisions. The Germans were well dug into prepared defenses, but were weak in numbers of officers and NCOs and, by the time of the late May offensive, lacked any reserves (which had all been sent south to the Gustav fighting).


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Despite Alexander's overall plan for "Diadem" requiring VI Corps to strike inland and cut Route 6, Clark asked Truscott to prepare alternatives and to be ready to switch from one to another at 48 hours' notice. Of the four scenarios prepared by Truscott, Operation Buffalo called for an attack through Cisterna, into the gap in the hills and to cut Route 6 at Valmontone. Operation Turtle on the other hand foresaw a main thrust to the left of the Alban Hills taking Campoleone, Albano and on to Rome. On May 5, Alexander selected "Buffalo" and issued Clark with orders to this effect.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: However, Clark was determined that VI Corps should strike directly for Rome as evidenced in his later writing: "We not only wanted the honor of capturing Rome, but felt that we deserved it... Not only did we intend to become the first army to seize Rome from the south, but we intended to see that people at home knew that it was the Fifth Army that did the job, and knew the price that had been paid for it." He argued to Alexander that VI Corps did not have the strength to trap the German 10th Army and Alexander, instead of making his requirements clear, was conciliatory and gave the impression that a push on Rome was still a possibility if "Buffalo" ran into difficulties. On May 6, Clark informed Truscott that "..the capture of Rome is the only important objective and to be ready to execute "Turtle" as well as "Buffalo"".


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Truscott's planning for "Buffalo" was meticulous: British 5th Division and 1st Division on the left were to attack along the coast and up the Via Anziate to pin the German 4th Parachute, 65th Infantry and 3rd Panzergrenadier in place whilst the U.S. 45th Infantry, 1st Armored and 3rd Infantry Divisions would launch the main assault, engaging the German 362nd and 715th Infantry Divisions and striking towards Campoleone, Velletri and Cisterna respectively. On the Allies' far right, the 1st Special Service Force would protect the American assault's flank.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: At 5:45 a.m. May 23, 1944, 1,500 Allied artillery pieces commenced bombardment. Forty minutes later the guns paused as attacks were made by close air support and then resumed as the infantry and armour moved forward. The first day's fighting was intense: the 1st Armored Division lost 100 tanks and 3rd Infantry Division suffered 955 casualties. The Germans suffered too, with the 362nd Infantry Division estimated to have lost 50% of its fighting strength.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Mackensen had been convinced that the Allies' main thrust would be up the Via Anziate, and the ferocity of the British feint on May 23 and 24 did nothing to persuade him otherwise. Kesselring, however, was convinced that the Allies' intentions were to gain Route 6 and ordered the Hermann Göring Panzer Division, resting away at Livorno, to Valmontone to hold open Route 6 for the Tenth Army, which was retreating up this road from Cassino.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: In the afternoon of May 25, Cisterna finally fell to 3rd Division who had to go house to house winkling out the German 362nd Infantry which had refused to withdraw and, as a consequence, had virtually ceased to exist by the end of the day. By the end of May 25, 3rd Infantry were heading into the Velletri gap near Cori, and elements of 1st Armored had reached within of Valmontone and were in contact with units of the Hermann Göring Division which were just starting to arrive from Leghorn. Although VI Corps had suffered over 3,300 casualties in the three days fighting, Operation Buffalo was going to plan, and Truscott was confident that a concerted attack by 1st Armored and 3rd Infantry Divisions the next day would get his troops astride Route 6.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: On the evening of May 25, Truscott received new orders from Clark via his Operations Officer, Brigadier General Don Brand. These were, in effect, to implement Operation Turtle and turn the main line of attack 90 degrees to the left. Most importantly, although the attack towards Valmontone and Route 6 would continue, 1st Armored were to withdraw to prepare to exploit the planned breakthrough along the new line of attack leaving 3rd Division to continue towards Valmontone with 1st Special Service Force in support. Clark informed Alexander of these developments late in the morning of May 26 by which time the change of orders was a "fait accompli".


title: Battle of Anzio

text: ...I was dumbfounded. This was no time to drive to the north-west where the enemy was still strong; we should pour our maximum power into the Valmontone Gap to ensure the destruction of the retreating German Army. I would not comply with the order without first talking to General Clark in person. ... [However] he was not on the beachhead and could not be reached even by radio... such was the order that turned the main effort of the beachhead forces from the Valmontone Gap and prevented destruction of the German Tenth Army. On the 26th the order was put into effect.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: There has never been any doubt in my mind that had General Clark held loyally to General Alexander's instructions, had he not changed the direction of my attack to the north-west on May 26, the strategic objectives of Anzio would have been accomplished in full. To be first in Rome was a poor compensation for this lost opportunity.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: On May 26, while the VI Corps was initiating its difficult maneuver, Kesselring threw elements of four divisions into the Velletri gap to stall the advance on Route 6. For four days they slugged it out against 3rd Division until finally withdrawing on May 30, having kept Route 6 open and allowed seven divisions from 10th Army to withdraw and head north of Rome.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: On the new axis of attack little progress was made until 1st Armored were in position on May 29, when the front advanced to the main Caesar C Line defences. Nevertheless, an early breakthrough seemed unlikely until on May 30 Major General Fred L. Walker's 36th Division found a gap in the Caesar Line at the join between 1st Parachute Corps and LXXVI Panzer Corps. Climbing the steep slopes of Monte Artemisio they threatened Velletri from the rear and obliged the defenders to withdraw. This was a key turning point, and von Mackensen offered his resignation which Kesselring accepted.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Raising the pressure further, Clark assigned U.S. II Corps which, fighting its way along the coast from the Gustav Line, had joined up with VI Corps on May 25 to attack around the right hand side of the Alban Hills and advance along the line of Route 6 to Rome


title: Battle of Anzio

text: On June 2 the Caesar Line collapsed under the mounting pressure, and 14th Army commenced a fighting withdrawal through Rome. On the same day Hitler, fearing another Stalingrad, had ordered Kesselring that there should be "no defence of Rome". Over the next day, the rearguards were gradually overwhelmed, and Rome was entered in the early hours of June 4 with Clark holding an impromptu press conference on the steps of the Town Hall on the Capitoline Hill that morning. He ensured the event was a strictly American affair by stationing military police at road junctions to refuse entry to the city by British military personnel.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Although controversy continues regarding what might have happened if Lucas had been more aggressive from the start, most commentators agree that the initial plan for Anzio was flawed. They question whether the initial landing of just over two infantry divisions, with no supporting armour, had the strength to achieve the objectives: of cutting Route 6 and then holding off the inevitable counterattacks that would come, as Kesselring redeployed his forces.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Volume 5 of Churchill's "The Second World War" is riddled with implied criticism of Lucas, blaming the failure on his caution. After the war, Kesselring gave his evaluation:


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Furthermore, Field Marshal Sir Harold Alexander, in his Official Dispatch, stated, "The actual course of events was probably the most advantageous in the end."


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Churchill defended the operation and believed that sufficient forces were available. He had clearly made great political efforts to procure certain resources, especially the extra LSTs needed to deliver a second division to shore, but also specific units useful to the attack such as with the 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment. He argued that even regardless of the tactical outcome of the operation, there was immediate strategic benefit with regard to the wider war. After the landings, the German High Command dropped its plans to transfer five of Kesselring's best divisions to Northwestern Europe. That obviously benefited the upcoming Operation Overlord. Churchill also had to ensure the British-dominated forces in Italy were contributing to the war at a time when the Soviet Red Army were suffering tremendous losses on the Eastern Front.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Because of Clark's change of plan, Operation Diadem (during which the U.S. Fifth Army and the British Eighth Army sustained 44,000 casualties) failed in its objective of destroying the German 10th Army. It also condemned the Allies to another year of bloody combat in Italy, notably around the Gothic Line from August 1944 through March 1945.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: The greatest loss was that if the U.S. Army VI Corps main effort had continued on the Valmontone axis from May 26, Clark could probably have reached Rome more quickly than by the route northwest from Cisterna. The VI Corps could also have cut Highway 6 and then put much more pressure on the 10th Army than it actually did.


title: Battle of Anzio

text: Alan Whicker, who was a war correspondent with the British Army's Film and Photo Unit and was present during the fighting, later said:


title: Battle of Anzio

text: The news cycle was similarly unkind to Clark. Just 2 days after his staged press conference on Rome's Capitolium, the "advance" was relegated to the back pages as reporting on the Normandy D Day invasion took center stage June 6.


title: Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom

text: The abolition of slavery occurred at different times in different countries. It frequently occurred sequentially in more than one stage – for example, as abolition of the trade in slaves in a specific country, and then as abolition of slavery throughout empires. Each step was usually the result of a separate law or action. This timeline shows abolition laws or actions listed chronologically. It also covers the abolition of serfdom.


text: Although slavery is technically illegal in all countries today, the practice continues in many locations around the world, primarily in Africa, Asia, and Eastern Europe, often with government support.


text: During classical antiquity, several prominent societies in Europe and the ancient Near East regulated enslavement for debt and the related but distinct practice of debt bondage (in which a creditor could extract compulsory labor from a debtor in repayment of their debt, but the debtor was not formally enslaved and was not subject to all the conditions of chattel slavery, such as being perpetually owned, sellable on the open market, or stripped of kinship).


text: Reforms listed below such as the laws of Solon in Athens, the Lex Poetelia Papiria in Republican Rome, or rules set forth in the Hebrew Bible in the Book of Deuteronomy generally regulated the supply of slaves and debt-servants by forbidding or regulating the bondage of certain privileged groups (thus, the Roman reforms protected Roman citizens, the Athenian reforms protected Athenian citizens, and the rules in Deuteronomy guaranteed freedom to a Hebrew after a fixed duration of servitude), but none abolished slavery, and even what protections were instituted did not apply to foreigners or noncitizen subjects.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: Andrew Demetric Gillum (born July 26, 1979) is an American former politician who served as the 126th mayor of Tallahassee from 2014 to 2018. He served as a Tallahassee city commissioner from 2003 until 2014, first elected at the age of 23. He is a member of the Democratic Party.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: In 2018, Gillum was the nominee of the Florida Democratic Party to be the governor of Florida. He had won the Democratic primary election over a field of five other candidates, including former U.S. representative Gwen Graham and former Miami Beach mayor Philip Levine. In the general election, he lost in a close race to Republican U.S. representative Ron DeSantis. Gillum's margin of defeat was just 34,000 votes (0.4%), making the election one of the closest gubernatorial races in modern American history.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: In 2022, Gillum was indicted on 21 felony counts, including wire fraud, conspiracy, and making false statements, for allegedly diverting money raised during the campaign to a company controlled by one of his top advisors.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: Gillum was born in Miami and raised in Gainesville, Florida. He is the fifth of seven children born to Charles and Frances Gillum, respectively a construction worker and a school bus driver. Gillum graduated from Gainesville High School in 1998 and was recognized by the "Gainesville Sun" as one of the city's "persons of the year." He then moved to Tallahassee to attend Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University (FAMU) to major in political science.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: Gillum served as president of the FAMU Student Government Association from 2001 to 2002 and was the first student member of the FAMU Board of Trustees. He was recognized by the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation as "emerging leader for 2003." Gillum was also a board member of the Black Youth Vote Coalition, a program of the National Coalition of Black Civic Participation in Washington, D.C. Gillum was elected to the Tallahassee City Commission prior to the completion of his college studies.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: In 2003, aged 23, Gillum was elected to the Tallahassee City Commission for a one-year term, becoming the youngest person to be elected to the commission. Gillum was a political science student at FAMU when he was elected.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: He was subsequently elected to a full four-year term, in 2004, garnering 72 percent of the vote, and was reelected in 2008 and again in 2012.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: Gillum served a one-year term as Mayor Pro Tem from November 10, 2004, through November 9, 2005. The joint body of city and county commissioners, known as the Capital Region Transportation Planning Agency, elected him to serve as their chairperson for a year (January 2005 through December 2005). Gillum has also served as lead commissioner for the Long Range Community Based Target Issue Committee.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: In 2005, Gillum was one of the commissioners who voted to give themselves a new retirement benefit through deferred compensation. The policy was later repealed by the commission after public outrage.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: During his eleven years as a city commissioner, Gillum championed a number of community enrichment projects. The Digital Harmony Project is an initiative championed by Gillum with support from the City of Tallahassee, local businesses and technology partnerships. Digital Harmony won the Significant Achievement Award in the Web & e-Government Services category from the Public Technology Institute. For the first two years, it provided every incoming Nims Middle School sixth and seventh-grader with a new desktop computer, free internet access and online academic curriculum training on core subjects. The school holds ongoing training courses for parents and students on basic computer skills and school curriculum. This effort places 200 computers into the homes of Nims Middle School students.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: Gillum championed the opening of the first Tallahassee Teen Center, the Palmer Munroe Center, which serves as a safe haven for many area youth and operates a restorative justice program. Restorative justice programs have shown significant success, compared to non-restorative measures, in improving victim and/or offender satisfaction, increasing offender compliance with restitution, and decreasing the recidivism of offenders. Gillum stressed these results as some of the reasons for the great importance of the Palmer Munroe Center.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: Gillum supported the city's development project of Cascades Park, located in downtown Tallahassee. The park was built in 2013 and doubles as a storm-water management facility, protecting local neighborhoods from flooding.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: In April 2013, Andrew Gillum announced his intention to run for mayor of Tallahassee. Gillum ran against three opponents: Larry Hendricks, Zach Richardson, and write-in candidate Evin Matthews. In the August 26, 2014 nonpartisan primary, Gillum defeated Richardson and Hendricks; capturing 76 percent of the vote with 19,658 votes. On August 27, 2014, write-in candidate Evin Matthews withdrew from the race, resulting in Gillum becoming mayor-elect.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: Before taking office, Gillum met with various mayors to learn from their successes. He also launched the Tallahassee Mayoral Fellows Program in partnership with Florida Agricultural And Mechanical University and Florida State University, allowing high-achieving graduate students to gain experience working in City government. Gillum was sworn into Office on November 21, 2014.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: In January 2015, Gillum strongly supported the City of Tallahassee joining in the Ban the Box campaign; arguing that the initiative does not stop the city from conducting background checks, but rather gives applicants a fair shot at employment and reduces recidivism. On January 28 the Tallahassee City Commission voted 3–2 to drop the box.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: On February 17, 2015, Gillum welcomed United States secretary of transportation Anthony Foxx to Tallahassee to kick off the Grow America Express Tour. Gillum also contributed to the DOT Fastlane Blog, in which he stressed the importance of long-term transportation investments for America's mid-size cities.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: In an effort to overhaul how City Advisory Committees, a series of local advisory boards, operate in Tallahassee, Mayor Gillum released a survey in March 2015 to gain feedback into the city's numerous boards and motivate citizens to get involved with local government. Also in March 2015, Gillum participated in a conference call with other Florida mayors and United States deputy secretary of commerce, Bruce Andrews; a call in which Gillum stated his support for Congress to pass trade promotion legislation that would bolster international trade, and stressed the importance for local governments of a leveled playing field.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: On March 27, 2015, Gillum held the Mayor's Summit on Children, a large conference in which business and community leaders came together to learn about the importance of investments in quality Early Childhood Education (ECE). Speakers included Dr. Craig Ramey, research scholar of human development at Virginia Tech, who spoke about the importance of ECE to language development and the vocabulary gap that can form between those who receive quality ECE and those who do not; and Rob Grunewald, economist at the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, who spoke about the importance of early learning to the long-term economic success of a community.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: On the heels of the Summit on Children, Gillum launched four community-led task forces as part of his Family First Agenda; these task forces, which Gillum introduced at the Summit, examine: Improved Quality and Affordable Child Care, Family Friendly Workplaces and Culture, Greater Community Investments in Children and Families, and Resources and Training for Parents and Families. Gillum stressed that investments in early childhood education have been proven to return six dollars for every one dollar invested; this is due to lowering community costs on those children as they grow older.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: In May 2015, Gillum launched a 1,000 Mentors Initiative, which aimed to recruit 1,000 men and women from diverse backgrounds to increase youth mentoring opportunities in Tallahassee, and help youth in need. Also in May 2015, Gillum, in partnership with several local and national organizations, orchestrated the Tallahassee Future Leaders Academy (TFLA), a summer jobs program which employed over 100 youths throughout city government. Gillum summarized the importance of a program like the TFLA in a July Op-ed, in which he highlighted how similar summer jobs programs from around the country have been shown to reduce arrests for violent crime, reduce youth mortality rates, and increase the likelihood of college attendance.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: In response to an increase in shootings, Gillum and the Tallahassee Police Department worked with community organizations to implement Operation Safe Neighborhoods in 2015. This initiative called for an increase in law enforcement visibility and capacity; strengthening strategic partnerships and community programs/opportunities; and enhancing community engagement and response, through the implementation of a community watch program called, Neighbors on the Block.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: In October 2015, more than 400 strangers gathered around a 350-foot-long table in downtown Tallahassee to participate in the launch of The Longest Table, an annual initiative aiming to use the dinner table as a medium for generating meaningful conversation among people of diverse ethnic, religious, and political backgrounds. Organized by the Office of the Mayor and spearheaded by Community Engagement Director Jamie Van Pelt, the project won a $57,250 grant from the Knight Cities Challenge via the Knight Foundation.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: In February 2017, Gillum apologized after the "Tallahassee Democrat" reported that his government office had been used to send emails through web-based software purchased from NGP VAN, a company that provides technology to Democratic and progressive campaigns. An investigation into the emails started after Paul Henry, a retired state trooper from Monticello, wrote State Attorney Jack Campbell in March to allege Gillum committed grand theft and official misconduct by paying for the software with city funds when he believed they served no public purpose. Gillum reimbursed the city for the $5,082.45 cost of the software on March 2, 2017. In August 2017, a Leon County grand jury declined to indict Gillum personally due to lack of evidence of criminal wrongdoing.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: During his mayoral campaign in 2014, Gillum faced allegations of misconduct after hiring private equity investor Adam Corey as the treasurer. Corey is an investor in The Edison, a restaurant that received taxpayer money from the city to help with the Cascades Park development project. During a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) investigation into the matter, city officials stated that Gillum's vote did not constitute a conflict of interest and Gillum cut ties with Corey.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: According to text messages uncovered by the "Tampa Bay Times", Gillum accepted tickets to the Broadway musical "Hamilton" from his brother, Marcus Gillum, who got them through an undercover FBI agent conducting a corruption investigation. The agent was posing as a real estate developer. Gillum responded to the "Tampa Bay Times" story, "These messages only confirm what we have said all along. We did go to see "Hamilton". I did get my ticket to "Hamilton" from my brother. At the time, we believed that they were reserved by friends of Adam's, Mike Miller. And when I got there after work, got my ticket, we went in there and saw it, assumed my brother paid for it, and so far as I know, that was the deal."


title: Andrew Gillum

text: In late January 2019, the Florida Commission on Ethics found probable cause that Gillum violated state ethics laws when he accepted gifts during out-of-town excursions with lobbyists and vendors and failed to report them. Ultimately, a $5,000 settlement was agreed to on four out of the five charges.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: Gillum announced his candidacy for governor in March 2017, and was the first to declare his intention to run as a Democrat. Gillum won the Democratic nomination for governor in an upset victory over the expected winner, former congresswoman Gwen Graham, 34–31%. Gillum was the first black nominee for governor in Florida's history. Gillum conceded to Republican candidate Ron DeSantis on the evening of November 6, 2018. However, when the recount began, Gillum withdrew his concession, saying: "I am replacing my words of concession with an uncompromised and unapologetic call that we count every single vote." Gillum conceded again on November 17, after a machine recount was completed. The final tally showed DeSantis had successfully beaten Gillum by 36,219 votes, equalling about 0.4% of the over 8.2 million total votes cast.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: The campaign was marked by racial controversy, as DeSantis was accused of using the verb "monkey" as a dog whistle when he said, "The last thing we need to do is to monkey this up by trying to embrace a socialist agenda with huge tax increases and bankrupting the state. That is not going to work. That's not going to be good for Florida." During the campaign, President Donald Trump claimed that Gillum was a "thief," which was also interpreted as a racial dog whistle.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: Gillum has been widely described as a progressive, and by some conservatives as a democratic socialist. During the 2018 gubernatorial campaign, DeSantis said that Gillum had a "far left socialist platform"; PolitiFact rated this assertion as false.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: Gillum supports the replacement of the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement with the U.S. Department of Justice. He seeks to expand Medicaid to cover "700,000 people, who right now don't have access to health care". He supports the removal of Confederate monuments. Gillum wants to raise the Florida corporate tax rate to 7.75 percent, up from the current 5.5 percent, which he said would be used on education funding. Gillum supports a $15 minimum wage. He was endorsed by Bernie Sanders and received financial support from Tom Steyer and George Soros Gillum has called for the impeachment of Donald Trump. Gillum accepts the scientific consensus on climate change, and has warned that climate change causes sea level rise with adverse effects for Florida. He opposed the Trump administration's decision to withdraw from the Paris Agreement, and said that he would as Florida governor work with other states in a state-based climate alliance.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: Gillum opposes Florida's stand-your-ground law. Gillum is in favor of a 2018 ballot proposition, Amendment 4, to restore the voting rights of most individuals who have completed felony convictions. Gillum said, "Floridians who have paid their debts deserve a second chance and they should have a voice in our state's future. Our current system for rights restoration is a relic of Jim Crow that we should end for good."


title: Andrew Gillum

text: On June 22, 2022, Gillum was indicted by the U.S. Attorney's Office in the Northern District of Florida on 21 felony counts, including wire fraud, conspiracy, and making false statements for allegedly diverting money raised during the campaign to a company controlled by Sharon Lettman-Hicks, one of his top advisors on his campaign, who then used the money to pay Gillum. In response, Gillum released a statement declaring his innocence and calling the indictment "political" in nature.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: Gillum has received various honors and accolades. While attending FAMU, Gillum was recognized by the National Center for Policy Alternatives in Washington, D.C., as the country's top student leader in 2001. In 2004, he was named to "Ebony" magazine's "Fast Track 30 Leaders Who Are 30 and Under." Gillum was named as a "2010 Emerging Leader" by "Essence" Magazine.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: As part of Florida A&M University's 2012 125th Anniversary Quasiquicentennial Celebration, Gillum was honored as an Outstanding Alumnus, along with 124 other FAMU alumni. Also in 2012, Gillum was named as one of "50 Young Progressive Activists Who Are Changing America," by "The Huffington Post". In 2014, Gillum was named as one of the 40 Under 40 by "The Washington Post" political blog "The Fix."


title: Andrew Gillum

text: On May 24, 2009, Gillum married Rashada Jai Howard, a fellow FAMU graduate. The couple have three children.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: In March 2020, the "Tallahassee Democrat" reported that Gillum was one of three men, one of whom was experiencing a drug overdose, who were found with "plastic baggies of suspected crystal meth" in a hotel room in Miami Beach; however, no arrests were made. The person who overdosed has been reported by numerous outlets as a gay male escort. Initially, Gillum was too inebriated to speak with police. On March 16, Gillum stated that he would enter rehabilitation, citing struggles with alcohol after narrowly losing the 2018 Florida gubernatorial race.


title: Andrew Gillum

text: On September 14, 2020, Gillum came out as bisexual in an interview with Tamron Hall on her nationally syndicated talk show.


title: Reichskommissariat Ukraine

text: During World War II, (abbreviated as RKU) was the civilian occupation regime () of much of Nazi German-occupied Ukraine (which included adjacent areas of modern-day Belarus and pre-war Second Polish Republic). It was governed by the Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories headed by Alfred Rosenberg. Between September 1941 and August 1944, the Reichskommissariat was administered by Erich Koch as the . The administration's tasks included the pacification of the region and the exploitation, for German benefit, of its resources and people. Adolf Hitler issued a Decree defining the administration of the newly occupied Eastern territories on 17 July 1941.


title: Reichskommissariat Ukraine

text: Before the German invasion, Ukraine was a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, inhabited by Ukrainians, Russians, Jewish, Belarusian, Romanian, Polish and Roma/Gypsy minorities. It was a key subject of Nazi planning for the post-war expansion of the German state. The Nazi extermination policy in Ukraine, with the help of local Ukrainian collaborators, ended the lives of millions of civilians in The Holocaust and other Nazi mass killings: it is estimated 900,000 to 1.6 million Jews and 3 to 4 million non-Jewish Ukrainians were killed during the occupation; other sources estimate that 5.2 million Ukrainian civilians (of all ethnic groups) perished due to crimes against humanity, war-related disease, and famine amounting to more than 12% of Ukraine's population at the time.


title: Reichskommissariat Ukraine

text: Nazi Germany launched Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 in breach of the mutual Treaty of Non-Aggression. The German invasion resulted in the collapse of the western elements of the Soviet Red Army in the former territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union.


title: Reichskommissariat Ukraine

text: On 20 August, Hitler established the Reichskommissariat Ukraine and appointed Erich Koch as Reichskommissar. On the same day, Hitler announced that the region would be under civil administration from noon on 1 September and delineated the boundaries of the region.


title: Reichskommissariat Ukraine

text: Originally subject to Alfred Rosenberg's Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories, it became a separate German civil entity. The first transfer of Soviet Ukrainian territory from military to civil administration took place on 1 September 1941. There were further transfers on 20 October and 1 November 1941, and a final transfer on 1 September 1942, which brought the boundaries of the province to beyond the Dnieper river.


title: Reichskommissariat Ukraine

text: In the mind of Adolf Hitler and other German expansionists, the destruction of the USSR, dubbed a "Judeo-Bolshevist" state, would remove a threat from Germany's eastern borders and allow for the colonization of the vast territories of Eastern Europe under the banner of "" (living space) for the fulfilment of the material needs of the Germanic people. Ideological declarations about the German (master race) having a right to expand their territory especially in the East were widely spread among the German public and Nazi officials of various ranks. Later on, in 1943, Erich Koch said about his mission: "We are a master race, which must remember that the lowliest German worker is racially and biologically a thousand times more valuable than the population here."


title: Reichskommissariat Ukraine

text: On 14 December 1941, Rosenberg discussed with Hitler various administrative issues regarding the Reichskommissariat Ukraine. These included a dispute over Koch's status and access to Hitler, manpower shortages over gathering the harvest, Hitler's insistence that the Crimea and much of Southern Ukraine was to be "cleaned out" (i.e., unwanted nationalities to be removed), and directly attached to the Reich as a district called ("Land of the Goths") the renaming of cities such as Simferopol to "Gotenburg" and Sevastopol to "Theoderichshafen" (after the ancient Gothic king Theodoric the Great) and an adjustment to the border with Romanian-controlled Transnistria to remove overlooking of the shipyards at Mykolaiv.


title: Reichskommissariat Ukraine

text: Hitler decreed the creation of the Nazi Party organization for the new eastern occupied territories on 1 April 1942. This move had been bitterly resisted by both Rosenberg, who rightly feared that the transformation of the administration of the eastern territories from a state to a party bureaucracy would spell the effective end of the authority of his ministry (which was a state organ), and Heinrich Himmler, who rightly feared that an arbeitsbereich's establishment would be accompanied by the commissars becoming RVKs (commissars for war) and thus enormously empowered at the expense of the SS, which had already been steadily losing ground since late September the previous year, when the commissariat government began establishing itself with local commissars asserting control over the police in their territories, hitherto controlled by the SS. Himmler and Rosenberg's rearguard resistance soon collapsed in the face of pressure from Martin Bormann in Berlin, and Koch and Lohse in the field. Rosenberg at least managed to be appointed Reichsleiter ("Reich leader") of the new arbeitsbereich. Rosenberg later attempted to take such political power into the political section of the ministry to keep all party issues in his control, and prohibited the creation of organizations and any political activity in the East without his express authorization. Needless to say, he was entirely disobeyed.


title: Reichskommissariat Ukraine

text: Hoping that by joining forces they might regain some influence, Himmler and Rosenberg decided upon the appointment of Gottlob Berger, Himmler's political hatchet man and the SS's head of personnel, as Rosenberg's deputy, a move which in theory would give Rosenberg control over SS forces in the occupied Soviet territories under civil administration in return for his support for the SS in its power struggles. The partnership between Rosenberg and Himmler achieved nothing other than the exasperation of each other beyond endurance and Berger soon withdrew all cooperation. Koch and Lohse thereafter gradually reduced communication with Rosenberg, liaising with Hitler through Bormann and the party chancellery. Both also made a point of establishing strong SA organisations in their jurisdiction as a counterbalance to the SS. Given that many of the commissariat officials were active or reserve SA officers, the pre-existing grudge against the SS was resurrected by these measures and a poisoning of relations was guaranteed. As a last resort, the (HSSPF) in Ukraine, Hans-Adolf Prutzmann, attempted to approach Koch directly only to be contemptuously abused and dismissed.


title: Reichskommissariat Ukraine

text: On 28 July 1944, the Soviet army occupied the last part of the Reichskommissariat Ukraine, known as Brest. RKU was liquidated on 10 November 1944.


title: Reichskommissariat Ukraine

text: The Reichskommissariat Ukraine excluded several parts of present-day Ukraine, and included some territories outside of its modern borders. It extended in the west from the Volhynia region around Lutsk, to a line from Vinnytsia to Mykolaiv along the Southern Bug river in the south, to the areas surrounding Kyiv, Poltava and Zaporizhzhia in the east. Conquered territories further to the east, including the rest of Ukraine (the Crimea, Chernihiv, Kharkiv, and the Donbas/Donets Basin), were under military governance until 1943–44. At its greatest extent, it included just under 340,000 square kilometers.