title: The Brian Jonestown Massacre

text: Along with Portland, Oregon alternative rock band The Dandy Warhols, The Brian Jonestown Massacre were the subjects of the 2004 documentary film "Dig!". The film captured a love–hate relationship between both bands, highlighting the interaction of Newcombe with his counterpart in the Warhols, Courtney Taylor-Taylor. The film was recorded over the course of seven years by filmmaker Ondi Timoner, but largely focused on The Brian Jonestown Massacre from late 1996 to mid-1998. "Dig!" won the Documentary Grand Jury Prize at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The Saab 9-3 (pronounced "nine-three") is a compact executive car initially developed and manufactured by the Swedish automaker Saab.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The first generation 9-3 (1998-2003) is based on the GM2900 platform, changing to the GM Epsilon platform with the introduction of the second-generation car (2003-2012). Other vehicles using this platform include the Opel Vectra, Chevrolet Malibu, and Cadillac BLS. Saab's last owners, National Electric Vehicle Sweden (NEVS), assembled the 9-3 sedan as Saab's only model.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The car was badged as 9 starting in the 1998 model year when Saab revised the naming strategy of their small car to match that of their larger 9. The model was marketed as 9-3, pronounced as "nine three.” The Saab 9-3 was launched in 1998 for the 1999 model year essentially as a rebadged second-generation Saab 900 (1994–1998 model) and succeeded by a redesigned 9-3 for the 2003 model year. It is not to be confused with the Saab 93 (pronounced "ninety-three"), a car produced by Saab from 1955 to 1960.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The first generation 9-3, an updated Saab 900 (NG), was launched in 1998 for the 1999 model year. It is known to enthusiasts as the 'OG' (old generation) 9-3 and internally as body style 9400. Production ended on 8 May 2002 at the Trollhättan plant and 25 April 2003 at the Valmet plant in Finland.


title: Saab 9-3

text: Saab claimed that 1,100 changes were made between the outgoing NG 900 and the 9-3. Changes included revised suspension, intended to improve the handling characteristics of the car. The 9-3 received revised styling, with some models featuring a rear spoiler, whilst Saab's signature underbody mounted 'snow & gravel flaps' were removed. It was available as a three or five-door hatchback, and as a two-door convertible. It was the last small Saab to use the company's "H engine". Further improvements over the Saab 900 (NG) included better crashworthiness courtesy of more extensive A-pillar reinforcements, stronger door sills and frames, standard torso/head side-airbags, and Saab Active Head Restraints. Other notable changes included a stronger AC compressor, better ventilation system, and a switch to a hydraulically operated convertible roof rather than an electric powered.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The 9-3 was available with a new variant of the B204 engine (B204E, ), a low-pressure turbo (LPT) engine based on the B204L used in the last generation Saab 900. For the U.S. market, all 9-3s received turbocharged petrol engines with the "full pressure turbo" (B204L, ) as the standard offering, and a "HOT" (B204R, 200 hp) variant in the SE models for the 1999 model year. The 2000 model year saw a revision from SAAB's Trionic T5.5 to Trionic 7 engine management system. The T7 based engines were the B205E, the B205L with and the B205R HOT engine with . The first generation 9-3 was also the first Saab available with a diesel engine, a unit also found in the Opel Vectra, Astra G, Signum, Zafira A. Unlike the Saab 900 (NG), the 9-3 is fitted with a CAN bus like the Saab 9-5.


title: Saab 9-3

text: A Saab innovation is the 'Night Panel', carried over from the Saab 900, which permits dousing of the instrument panel lighting, except for essential information, for less distraction when night driving.


title: Saab 9-3

text: A total of 326,370 first generation 9-3s were built. As with the preceding generation, convertibles were built by Valmet in Uusikaupunki, Finland. Valmet was also the only plant assembling the 9-3 Viggen, in all three bodystyles. After production at Saab's main plant ended, Valmet kept producing non-Viggen hatchbacks until 2003. Altogether, Valmet built 7789 Hatchbacks of all models.


title: Saab 9-3

text: Between 1999 and 2002, Saab offered a limited edition and higher-performance version of the 9-3. The 'Viggen' (English: "Thunderbolt") is named after the Saab 37 Viggen aircraft, and was developed by Saab with input from the Tom Walkinshaw Racing (TWR) Group.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The Viggen production car draws upon on the earlier Saab 900 Concept Coupe that had been developed by the Saab Special Vehicle Operations (SVO) group. For Saab, the team was led by Peter Leonard and John-Gustav Gudmundsson. Only 4,600 9-3 Viggen specification cars were produced.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The Viggen is powered by Saab's 2.3 L B235R engine, running at a 9.3:1 compression ratio and fitted with Nimonic valves. Initially rated at , power later increased to on of boost from its Mitsubishi TD04-HL15-5 turbocharger.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The cars are equipped with a higher capacity intercooler, performance-tuned ECU, flow-through muffler and tip, stiffer gearbox casing and stronger output shaft, a heavy-duty clutch and pressure plate, stiffened and lowered springs with revised spring rates, firmer dampers, and stronger CV joints and driveshafts.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The Viggen is only available with a five-speed manual transmission which features an electronic torque-sensing function to prevent damage to the gearbox.


title: Saab 9-3

text: In 1999, the Viggen was the first 9-3 to use Saab's Trionic 7 engine management system. The 2001 model year introduced a Traction Control System (TCS). The TCS was later made available in the SE line.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The exterior of the Viggen features a larger rear wing that also located the radio antenna to the rear of the roof, aerodynamically designed bumpers and side skirts, model-specific 17-inch alloy wheels, and upgraded brakes. Paint options include Black, Metallic Silver, Steel Grey, Monte Carlo Yellow, Laser Red, and the exclusive Viggen 'Lightning Blue'.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The interior offers special bolstered and coloured leather seats and door cards in four colours: black with black inserts ('Charcoal'), black with blue inserts ('Deep Blue'), black with orange inserts ('Flame Ochre') and tan with tan inserts.


title: Saab 9-3

text: Other interior features include a CD player with four or six-speaker, amplifier and CD-changer options, power moonroof, and what were initially Viggen-specific motorised and heated leather seats with the Viggen delta logo embossed in the backrest. The Viggen seats later became available in the Aero model (U.S. market 'SE' model) without the embossed Viggen logo. Some colourways feature carbon-fibre interior trim, offered between 1999 and the middle of the 2001 model year. Cars built afterward came with a less expensive printed grey pattern for the dash and standard trim.


title: Saab 9-3

text: Buyers of new Viggen models in the U.S. were offered two days of advanced driving instruction at Road Atlanta and an opportunity to dine with Saab USA executives from nearby Norcross, Georgia.


title: Saab 9-3

text: A total of 4,600 Viggens were manufactured by Valmet Automotive in Finland until production ended in June 2002; of which 500 units were produced for the UK market. For 1999, 426 3-door Viggens were imported into the U.S.; of those 420 were blue, 2 were silver, 2 were Monte Carlo yellow, and 2 were black.


title: Saab 9-3

text: Some journalists have criticised the Viggen, in particular for untamed torque steer in low gears, with Britain's Evo Magazine naming the car as one of its 10 worst cars ever tested. Other commentators, however, have named the Viggen a 'classic'. US reviewers at Motor Trend (writing in 2000) noted the crisp turn-in and grip on offer. Jalopnik has named the Viggen "The Last Great True Saab".


title: Saab 9-3

text: All the petrol engines offered in the first generation 9-3 were versions of the Saab H engine. The Saab 9-5 and the first generation 9-3 were the last Saab cars to utilise this all-Saab DOHC 16-valve fuel injection design. The non-turbo models use a distributor, and leads to each spark plug, while the turbocharged engines utilise Saab's Trionic engine management system with a Direct Ignition Module (or cassette) mounted at the top of the engine, directly connecting to the spark plugs. Trionic 5 was used on the B204 Engines, and Trionic 7 was introduced with the B2x5 Engines. The latter two technologies were migrated into other GM products during the ten years that GM controlled Saab. All of the engines, other than the normally aspirated version and the low-pressure turbo, had high specific power outputs. The B205R generated per litre and of torque.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The 9-3X concept, a preview of the next-generation 9-3, premiered in January 2002 at the North American International Auto Show. Originally, the 9-3 was due to début with the Opel Vectra in October 2001, at the Frankfurt Motor Show, but in July 2001, it was announced that delays had forced General Motors to postpone the introduction. The new 9-3 was eventually launched in July 2002 for the 2003 model year. The convertible version of the second-generation 9-3 began with the MY04, and SportCombi with MY05.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The new 9-3 remained an exclusively front-wheel drive powertrain at launch. The most significant aesthetic change from the previous generation cars was the elimination of the hatchback design. The second-generation 9-3 was available as a four-door saloon, an estate (introduced in late 2005 as a 2006 model, known as the SportWagon, SportCombi or Sport-Hatch dependent on the market), and a two-door convertible (introduced in 2004). It included Saab Active Head Restraints (SAHR II) to reduce whiplash and ReAxs, a feature of the rear suspension bushings which changes the toe angle to help reduce understeer under heavy braking.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The new 9-3 departed from the Saab H / EcoPower engine used previously for a new 2.0 L inline-four engine "Ecotec" engine from General Motors' for the petrol-powered models. There are three different versions of the turbocharged inline-four, with the amount of turbo boost determining the power output: 1.8T (112 kW), 2.0t (131 kW) and 2.0T (157 kW). The engines were mated with a 5-speed manual transmission or a 5-speed 'Sentronic' which is a traditional automatic, not to be confused with SAAB's earlier 'Sensonic' which was a clutchless manual transmission that retained a conventional H-pattern shifter, but the clutch system was hydraulically actuated. In 2003 models, the standard manual transmission was a 5-speed gearbox with the 6-speed optional. The 6-speed manual was standard on US 2.0T (Vector) models.


title: Saab 9-3

text: There were four trim levels: the entry-level Linear, mid-range Vector and Arc (with emphasis on sporty appeal and luxury), and a top-of-the-range Aero model. In non-US markets, any trim level except the Aero (which was exclusively available with the 210 hp 2.0T) was available with any engine the buyer opted for. However, in the US, the Linear was exclusively available with the 2.0t engine, the Arc and Vector trims were exclusively available with the 2.0T, and the Aero model offered more options, such as a sunroof, larger wheels, and a 6-speed manual while retaining the same engine as the 2.0T, the B207R. It would be given a 2.8 L turbocharged V6 in 2006. No diesel models were ever sold in the US, neither were the 1.8T or any BioPower engines.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The 9-3 and the Opel Vectra were the first of the global GM Epsilon platform, which was then lengthened to accommodate four new cousins, the Chevrolet Malibu/Malibu Maxx, the Pontiac G6, and the Saturn Aura. A proprietary fiber-optic electric/electronic system, the possibility of AWD (exploited from 2008 on, dubbed Saab XWD), and ReAxs as described above, are just a few of the features exclusive to the 9-3.


title: Saab 9-3

text: On 22 February 2012, the final 47 Saabs were built. All the cars were 9-3 'Independence Edition' convertible models built by one of Sweden's largest car dealers, ANA, in Trollhättan. Of the 47 cars assembled, 21 were LHD, and 26 RHD. The final Saab was a Saab 9-3 Aero Independence Edition TTiD convertible.


title: Saab 9-3

text: Note: Diesel, biopower, and certain petrol engines were not available in North America. Starting from late 2004, diesel engines are Fiat-sourced common-rail units.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The Vector trim level was replaced with the Aero in the United States. The Arc trim level received the five-speed manual in place of the six-speed. In the UK, the 9-3 Aero 2.0T was made available with a six-speed manual transmission.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The 2.2 TiD engine was replaced with the common rail 1.9 TiD engine from Fiat. The 1.9 TiD was available both as an 8V version with 120 PS and a 16V version with 150 PS. The 8V version was available exclusively with a 6-speed manual, while the 16V was also available with a 6-speed automatic. The 16V was equipped with a diesel particulate filter as standard, while it was optional on the 8V for the 2005 MY. Like the 2.2 TiD, the 1.9 TiD was not available in the US, where demand for diesel engines was not very high.


title: Saab 9-3

text: US versions were sold with 16-inch wheels standard (17-inch for the Aero), unlike the 15-inch wheels which were previously found in the Linear version. In the United States, but not in most countries, 2005 was the last year of the Linear and Arc versions. In addition, the 6-speed manual was dropped and both the Arc and Aero received the 5-speed manual.


title: Saab 9-3

text: A new 2.8-liter turbocharged V6 engine, branded as 2.8T by Saab, was introduced for the Aero. The 2006 Aero was exclusively available with the V6 in the US, replacing the 2.0T engine. In other markets, the 2006 Aero was available with both the four-cylinder 2.0T and the 6-cylinder 2.8T engine. The 2.0T had 12.3 psi maximum turbo boost pressure and turned out , while the 2.8T had 8.7 psi boost and turned out . In certain markets, like Switzerland, a 230 hp variant of the 6-cylinder was also offered in Vector trim.


title: Saab 9-3

text: In the United States, the Linear model and the 175 hp engine was dropped, so that all four-cylinder 9-3 models had the 210 hp engine. The Arc designation also disappeared, replaced by a trim level simply known as 2.0T, which was similar to the 2005 Arc except that Linear wheels were used. A special "20 Years Edition Aero Convertible" for the American market was unveiled at the Los Angeles Auto Show in January 2006 to celebrate 20 years since the introduction of the Saab 900 convertible. All 20 Years Edition Aero Convertibles were offered in metallic electric blue.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The dashboard was revamped for 2007, with the Saab Information Display moved from its high mounted position to the main instrument binnacle. The button-heavy climate control system disappeared, replaced by the Saab 9-5 climate control system, OnStar was re-introduced and required when Nav was ordered in North America, and the corporate GM head unit debuted, which allowed for satellite radio and MP3 CD capability. The suspension went from harsh to firm, and the cabin was quietened. Steel Gray was also replaced with Titan Gray as an exterior color choice. For the 2007 model year, the 9-3 was also available with Biopower versions of the 1.8t and 2.0t engines, able to run on E85 as well as petrol.


title: Saab 9-3

text: In the U.S. market, only the 210 hp 2.0 L 16-valve turbo engine and the 250 hp 2.8 L V6 turbo were available. The manual transmission in the 2.0T model was changed from a 5-speed to a 6-speed.


title: Saab 9-3

text: A 60th Anniversary Edition was also offered for the sedan, wagon, and convertible body styles for 2007 to celebrate 60 years of SAAB. The package was available on 2.0T cars and included unique five-spoke 17-inch alloy wheels, black leather sport seats with grey inserts and SAAB embossments on the front seats, dark walnut trim, black floormats with grey binding, front fog lamps, and a BOSE audio system with 6-disc CD changer and satellite radio. Sedan and convertible models also received trunk-lid spoilers. An Ice Blue metallic paint was offered for the edition, as well as standard SAAB paint colors.


title: Saab 9-3

text: Saab claimed over 2000 changes were made to the model year 2008 cars. The 2008 range, first presented at the Saab Festival in Trollhättan, Sweden (10 June 2007) included new frontal styling inspired by the Saab Aero-X and Saab 9-2X, Saab's first use of LED "signature" lighting in the revised headlamps, new door panels, a new clamshell bonnet, new rear bumper, and frosted "ice block" rear lamps. Black replaced charcoal gray as an interior color choice. Snow Silver became a new exterior color. The 2.8T V6 received a mild output boost from 250 hp to 255 hp. Some additional exterior modifications are available on the limited-edition XWD 9-3 Turbo X, presented at the Frankfurt Motor Show (9/07). The Turbo X made its North American debut at the New England Auto show in late November. Saab also released an all-wheel-drive version of the Aero, with the system dubbed "XWD", in March 2008.


title: Saab 9-3

text: A new twin-turbo diesel engine with 180 PS, dubbed 1.9 TTiD, was introduced. The TTiD engine was also available in Aero trim. The TTiD Aero marked the first time Saab had used a diesel engine in a car with the Aero designation.


title: Saab 9-3

text: Offered in either Sport Sedan, or Sportcombi (wagon) It was made to celebrate SAAB's 30 years of turbocharging. All Turbo X models were offered in metallic jet black with matte grey trim. The Turbo X is SAAB's first production car with the XWD all-wheel drive system from Haldex Traction and eLSD. It is powered by a 2.8 L V6 producing mated to a six-speed manual or automatic gearbox. It has larger brakes as well as stiffer springs and shocks. The dash, shift lever, and door panels have a carbon fiber look and the turbo boost gauge draws its inspiration from the Saab 900.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The 2009 9-3 series expands the trim levels while dropping the limited-edition Turbo X saloon and estate from the lineup. The 2.0T and Aero saloon and estate models are now available with Saab's all-wheel drive (XWD). The convertible range lacked the all-wheel-drive option. The 2009 Saab 9-3 was mostly unchanged from the 2008 model, although the Aero trim level came standard with the XWD system, eLSD, and 280-horsepower power increase, all formerly reserved for the discontinued Turbo X. During 2009 the 9-3X was launched at the Geneva auto show. The 9-3X is a four-wheel-drive XUV version of the 9-3 SportWagon. The new 9-3X came with two engine choices: the 1.9 L diesel (producing 180 bhp) and the 2.0 L petrol engine (producing the 210 bhp). Only the 2.0 L petrol engine is equipped with the XWD while the diesel version is available only with front-wheel-drive.


title: Saab 9-3

text: 2010 marked the 50th anniversary of Erik Carlsson's first win for Saab on the RAC Rally in a Saab 96. A limited-edition of 96 Aero Carlsson 9-3 was released. The 9-3 Aero Carlsson featured Saab's cross wheel drive (XWD) system, a turbocharged engine, 2.8 L V6 producing 280 hp, and 400Nm of torque through a 6-speed "Sentronic" hydraulic automatic transmission.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The Saab 9-3 ePower electric car was unveiled at the 2010 Paris Motor Show and became Saab's first electric vehicle. The ePower concept car is based on the 9-3 SportWagon, has a 35.5kWh lithium-ion battery pack, a top speed of , and an estimated driving range of . Saab had scheduled to run a two-year trial with 70 ePower demonstrators in Sweden by late 2011. The new owner of the Saab estate, National Electric Vehicle Sweden, initially stated that they intended to start producing the all-electric 9-3 ePower to be launched in China by late 2013 or early 2014.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The production version was slated to be unveiled at the 2014 Frankfurt Motor Show and market launch for 2015. In April 2014, NEVS began production on a batch of 200 units to be tested in Qingdao, China by mid-2014. After the test, sales are scheduled to begin in Sweden in 2015.


title: Saab 9-3

text: For the 2011 model year, the single-turbo TiD diesel engines were replaced by twin-turbo diesel engines (TTiD), which increased the power output of the 8V version from 120 to 130 PS, and the 16V from 150 to 160, respectively.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The 9-3 received some revisions in 2011 for the 2012 model year. Changes were in the engine range with an overall reduction in diesel and petrol engine fuel consumption of 12% and 7% respectively. An entry-level 163 hp, 2.0 L gasoline/BioPower engine was added for 9-3 saloon, estate, and 9-3X models with Saab XWD. Other changes included rear badging in line with all new Saab 9-5 saloon, 'ice block' style headlights, New bumper design, titanium metallic-effect trim around the instrument panel, gearshift, doors, and glove box. The Aero included graphite fiber effect. Contrast stitching on leather upholstery.


title: Saab 9-3

text: In most markets, car was badged 'Griffin'. The three-spoke alloy wheel returned in 16- to 18-inch choices. An "Independence Edition" convertible was released with a total of 366 units to commemorate the first anniversary of the sale to Spyker Cars.


title: Saab 9-3

text: National Electric Vehicle Sweden (NEVS) restarted production of the Saab 9-3 Aero Sedan MY14 on 2 December 2013, in Saab's former Trollhättan assembly plant. The only exterior difference on the MY14 model is the lack of the Griffin badge, to which NEVS does not own the rights. The Griffin is replaced with a badge displaying the Saab logotype, as well as new seats. The 9-3 Aero MY14 features a 220-horsepower 2.0-liter direct-injected twin-scroll turbocharged engine and went on sale in Sweden on 10 December. The first cars were to deliver in Spring 2014 as a "Limited Edition" model. Only two colors were available, black and Silver.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The 9-3 no longer meets the latest Euro NCAP tests regarding pedestrian safety; therefore, only 1,000 cars of each body model could be sold in Europe, as a low-volume manufacturer. The only other market was China. An electric version was to be launched in spring 2014 in the Chinese market.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The updated 9-3 have been tested favourably by motoring magazines. Vi Bilägare wrote that it feels modern and feels sporty yet comfortable.


title: Saab 9-3

text: Saab automobile production ended as of May 2014 because Qingbo Investment, one of NEVS shareholders, was not able to reach a financing agreement. By the end of 2014, India's Mahindra & Mahindra agreed to buy a majority stake in NEVS. In February 2015, it was announced that the remaining 100 cars that were stuck on the halted production line since May 2014 would be completed.


title: Saab 9-3

text: Work on a third-generation Saab 9-3 started in 2007, when designers in General Motors facilities in Rüsselsheim and Detroit began work on a design study. The design language was supervised by Simon Padian, and the design team managed to produce a clay model and several computer models before General Motors announced it had put the Saab brand "under review" in December 2008.


title: Saab 9-3

text: After an intended sale of Saab to Swedish supercar manufacturer Koenigsegg ultimately failed in 2009, General Motors reached an agreement with Dutch manufacturer Spyker N.V. in January 2010. The sale of Saab to Spyker was completed in late February 2010 and work on a replacement for the 9-3 was restarted virtually immediately. The new management of Saab, headed by CEO Victor Muller, felt, however, that a new design language was needed to distance a newly independent Saab from General Motors.


title: Saab 9-3

text: Muller hired Jason Castriota in June 2010 to work on a scalable car platform that would serve as the basis for future Saabs, beginning with the replacement for the 9-3. In October 2010 a number of prototypes were produced and evaluated against the prototypes made in 2007. Eventually, Castriota's prototype was chosen and the design team was instructed to develop a five-door combi coupé, a convertible and a crossover on the new platform.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The work on the new platform culminated in the unveiling of the Saab PhoeniX concept car at the Geneva Motor Show in March 2011. By that time, Saab had run into serious cash flow problems, but work on the PhoeniX platform and the 9-3 replacement continued to the point that bankruptcy papers were filed in late 2011.


title: Saab 9-3

text: The replacement of the 9-3, which had been renamed 900 by that time, was to have a 1.6 liter turbo engine supplied by BMW, who would have also supplied the cars' start-stop system. The car was to have a hybrid drivetrain and was to be released in both a premium Aero and an economy Vector variant.


title: Saab 9-3

text: When Saab finally filed for bankruptcy in December 2011, Castriota and his team had already finished most of the work on the car's body and its engineering, with the interior being the only part yet to be developed. The car was set to be completed by fall of 2012 The main assets of the bankrupt company were acquired by National Electric Vehicle Sweden (NEVS), which may revisit the PhoeniX platform. NEVS was focusing its efforts on producing an electric variant of the second generation 9-3.


title: Sam Brinton

text: Samuel Otis Brinton (born September 11, 1987) is an American nuclear engineer and LGBTQ activist. They served as the deputy assistant secretary of Spent Fuel and Waste Disposition in the Office of Nuclear Energy from June to December 2022. Brinton left the position after being charged with luggage theft twice.


title: Sam Brinton

text: Brinton was the first openly gender-fluid individual in federal government leadership, and uses "they" and "them" pronouns.


title: Sam Brinton

text: Brinton was raised in Perry, Iowa and is the child of two Southern Baptist missionaries. Brinton came out as bisexual to their parents in the early 2000s. According to Brinton, Brinton's parents disapproved of Brinton's attraction to a male friend from school, and put the then-middle school student in conversion therapy, an experience Brinton later described as "barbaric" and "painful" in a "New York Times" op-ed. In the most extreme session, Brinton has stated that a conversion therapist bound them to a table while ice, heat, and electricity was applied to their body, all while being forced to watch clips of gay intimacy. Brinton has also stated that their parents were physically abusive and that, after it was obvious that the conversion therapy had had no effect, Brinton was effectively disowned by their parents, with Brinton's father threating to shoot Brinton in the head if Brinton ever returned home.


title: Sam Brinton

text: Journalist and gay activist Wayne Besen has several times publicly expressed skepticism about Brinton's description of their childhood. Besen has noted inconsistencies in Brinton's retelling of events, such as the occupation and location of the conversion therapist; as well as Brinton's claim that they could not remember the therapist's name (which would be necessary to corroborate the story), despite having had two years of sessions with him.


title: Sam Brinton

text: Brinton graduated from Kansas State University with a Bachelor of Science in nuclear engineering and vocal music. While attending the university, they organized its first pride march in 2010. They have a dual Master of Science degree in nuclear science and engineering (technology and policy program) from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.


title: Sam Brinton

text: Calling themselves a "survivor" of conversion therapy, Brinton was the first such individual to testify before the United Nations Convention against Torture regarding their experience in November 2014, as the advisory committee cochair of the National Center for Lesbian Rights' "#BornPerfect" campaign. Brinton held the position until at least September 2015.


title: Sam Brinton

text: Brinton, on December 1, 2016, founded the #50Bills50States campaign with the goal of prohibiting the pseudoscientific practice of conversion therapy throughout the U.S.


title: Sam Brinton

text: In 2016 and 2018, Brinton was the principal officer for the Washington DC chapter of the Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence, an LGBTQ charity and human rights group. At events, such as the organization's 40th anniversary, Brinton performed in drag under the name "Sister Ray Dee O'Active".


title: Sam Brinton

text: From 2017 to 2019, Brinton was the head of advocacy and government affairs at the non-profit LGBTQ youth suicide prevention organization The Trevor Project.


title: Sam Brinton

text: In 2016, Brinton was a senior policy analyst for the Bipartisan Policy Center, lobbying for updated regulations so nuclear waste can be used to power advanced nuclear reactors. In February 2020, the website of Deep Isolation, a Berkeley, California, nuclear waste storage and disposal company, listed them as its Director of Legislative Affairs and in May 2022 they were its Director of Global Political Strategy. In 2022, Brinton's profile at the Department of Energy (DOE) indicated their previous work with the Breakthrough Institute, the Clean Air Task Force, and Third Way.


title: Sam Brinton

text: In 2022, Brinton became a deputy assistant secretary at DOE, serving in the Office of Spent Fuel and Waste Disposition. "South Florida Gay News" reported that, according to Brinton, while they were "welcomed with open arms" at all levels of the organization, others reacted to their appointment with hatred and disgust, some making death threats against the self-described "Nuclear Nerd".


title: Sam Brinton

text: In February 2022, an unidentified Department of Energy employee filed allegations of hiring malpractice with the Office of the Inspector General due to concern regarding Brinton's qualifications for a Senior Executive Service (SES) level position, i.e. "the class of federal career officials who rank just below top presidential appointees in seniority".


title: Sam Brinton

text: Brinton supports the use of interim siting for radioactive waste to determine which sites and storage methods are best suited for future permanent repositories.


title: Sam Brinton

text: In November 2022, Brinton was placed on leave by the Department of Energy after they were charged with theft of airport luggage. On December 12, 2022, a Department of Energy spokesperson confirmed that Brinton was no longer a DOE employee.


title: Sam Brinton

text: In October 2022, Brinton was charged with felony theft after allegedly stealing a woman's suitcase from a Minneapolis–St. Paul Airport baggage carousel on September 16. The criminal complaint alleged that Brinton did not have any checked luggage, and placed the suitcase's baggage tag in their handbag before leaving with the suitcase. A hearing related to the complaint was scheduled for December 19, 2022, but was rescheduled for February 2023.


title: Sam Brinton

text: On December 8, 2022, a felony warrant for grand larceny was issued for Brinton's arrest, also for being accused of stealing luggage, this time from the Harry Reid International Airport in Las Vegas on July 6, 2022.


title: Sam Brinton

text: Brinton is bisexual, and uses "they" and "them" pronouns. According to a 2017 "Washington Blade" report, Brinton resided in Washington, D.C., was a singer in the Gay Men's Chorus of Washington, D.C., and was engaged to Kevin Rieck.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: A neodymium magnet (also known as NdFeB, NIB or Neo magnet) is the most widely used type of rare-earth magnet.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: It is a permanent magnet made from an alloy of neodymium, iron, and boron to form the NdFeB tetragonal crystalline structure. Developed independently in 1984 by General Motors and Sumitomo Special Metals, neodymium magnets are the strongest type of permanent magnet available commercially.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: NdFeB magnets can be classified as sintered or bonded, depending on the manufacturing process used. They have replaced other types of magnets in many applications in modern products that require strong permanent magnets, such as electric motors in cordless tools, hard disk drives and magnetic fasteners.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: General Motors (GM) and Sumitomo Special Metals independently discovered the NdFeB compound almost simultaneously in 1984. The research was initially driven by the high raw materials cost of SmCo permanent magnets, which had been developed earlier. GM focused on the development of melt-spun nanocrystalline NdFeB magnets, while Sumitomo developed full-density sintered NdFeB magnets.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: GM commercialized its inventions of isotropic Neo powder, bonded neo magnets, and the related production processes by founding Magnequench in 1986 (Magnequench has since become part of Neo Materials Technology, Inc., which later merged into Molycorp). The company supplied melt-spun NdFeB powder to bonded magnet manufacturers. The Sumitomo facility became part of the Hitachi Corporation, and has manufactured but also licensed other companies to produce sintered NdFeB magnets. Hitachi has held more than 600 patents covering neodymium magnets.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: Chinese manufacturers have become a dominant force in neodymium magnet production, based on their control of much of the world's rare-earth mines.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: The United States Department of Energy has identified a need to find substitutes for rare-earth metals in permanent magnet technology and has funded such research. The Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy has sponsored a Rare Earth Alternatives in Critical Technologies (REACT) program, to develop alternative materials. In 2011, ARPA-E awarded 31.6 million dollars to fund Rare-Earth Substitute projects. Because of its role in permanent magnets used for wind turbines, it has been argued that neodymium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy. This perspective has been criticized for failing to recognize that most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets and for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: In its pure form, neodymium has magnetic properties—specifically, it is antiferromagnetic—but only at temperatures, below . Neodymium magnets are made from compounds of neodymium with transition metals such as iron that are ferromagnetic, with Curie temperatures well above room temperature.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: The strength of neodymium magnets is the result of several factors. The most important is that the tetragonal NdFeB crystal structure has exceptionally high uniaxial magnetocrystalline anisotropy ("H" ≈ 7T –


title: Neodymium magnet

text: magnetic field strength H in units of A/m versus magnetic moment in A·m). This means a crystal of the material preferentially magnetizes along a specific crystal axis but is very difficult to magnetize in other directions. Like other magnets, the neodymium magnet alloy is composed of microcrystalline grains which are aligned in a powerful magnetic field during manufacture so their magnetic axes all point in the same direction. The resistance of the crystal lattice to turning its direction of magnetization gives the compound a very high coercivity, or resistance to being demagnetized.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: The neodymium atom can have a large magnetic dipole moment because it has 4 unpaired electrons in its electron structure as opposed to (on average) 3 in iron. In a magnet it is the unpaired electrons, aligned so that their spin is in the same direction, which generate the magnetic field. This gives the NdFeB compound a high saturation magnetization ("J" ≈ 1.6T or 16kG) and a remnant magnetization of typically 1.3 teslas. Therefore, as the maximum energy density is proportional to "J", this magnetic phase has the potential for storing large amounts of magnetic energy ("BH" ≈ 512kJ/m or 64MG·Oe).


title: Neodymium magnet

text: This magnetic energy value is about 18 times greater than "ordinary" ferrite magnets by volume and 12 times by mass. This magnetic energy property is higher in NdFeB alloys than in samarium cobalt (SmCo) magnets, which were the first type of rare-earth magnet to be commercialized. In practice, the magnetic properties of neodymium magnets depend on the alloy composition, microstructure, and manufacturing technique employed.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: The NdFeB crystal structure can be described as alternating layers of iron atoms and a neodymium-boron compound. The diamagnetic boron atoms do not contribute directly to the magnetism but improve cohesion by strong covalent bonding. The relatively low rare earth content (12% by volume, 26.7% by mass) and the relative abundance of neodymium and iron compared with samarium and cobalt makes neodymium magnets lower in price than samarium-cobalt magnets.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: Neodymium magnets are graded according to their maximum energy product, which relates to the magnetic flux output per unit volume. Higher values indicate stronger magnets. For sintered NdFeB magnets, there is a widely recognized international classification. Their values range from 28 up to 52. The first letter N before the values is short for neodymium, meaning sintered NdFeB magnets. Letters following the values indicate intrinsic coercivity and maximum operating temperatures (positively correlated with the Curie temperature), which range from default (up to ) to TH ().


title: Neodymium magnet

text: Neodymium magnets have higher remanence, much higher coercivity and energy product, but often lower Curie temperature than other types of magnets. Special neodymium magnet alloys that include terbium and dysprosium have been developed that have higher Curie temperature, allowing them to tolerate higher temperatures. The table below compares the magnetic performance of neodymium magnets with other types of permanent magnets.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: Sintered NdFeB tends to be vulnerable to corrosion, especially along grain boundaries of a sintered magnet. This type of corrosion can cause serious deterioration, including crumbling of a magnet into a powder of small magnetic particles, or spalling of a surface layer.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: This vulnerability is addressed in many commercial products by adding a protective coating to prevent exposure to the atmosphere. Nickel, nickel-copper-nickel and zinc platings are the standard methods, although plating with other metals, or polymer and lacquer protective coatings, are also in use.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: Neodymium has a negative coefficient, meaning the coercivity along with the magnetic energy density ("BH") decreases with temperature. Neodymium-iron-boron magnets have high coercivity at room temperature, but as the temperature rises above , the coercivity decreases drastically until the Curie temperature (around ). This fall in coercivity limits the efficiency of the magnet under high-temperature conditions such as in wind turbines, hybrid motors, etc. Dysprosium (Dy) or terbium (Tb) is added to curb the fall in performance from temperature changes, making the magnet even more expensive.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: The greater forces exerted by rare-earth magnets create hazards that may not occur with other types of magnet. Neodymium magnets larger than a few cubic centimeters are strong enough to cause injuries to body parts pinched between two magnets, or a magnet and a ferrous metal surface, even causing broken bones.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: Magnets that get too near each other can strike each other with enough force to chip and shatter the brittle magnets, and the flying chips can cause various injuries, especially eye injuries. There have even been cases where young children who have swallowed several magnets have had sections of the digestive tract pinched between two magnets, causing injury or death. Also this could be a serious health risk if working with machines that have magnets in or attached to them.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: The stronger magnetic fields can be hazardous to mechanical and electronic devices, as they can erase magnetic media such as floppy disks and credit cards, and magnetize watches and the shadow masks of CRT type monitors at a greater distance than other types of magnet. In some cases, chipped magnets can act as a fire hazard as they come together, sending sparks flying as if they were a lighter flint, because some neodymium magnets contain ferrocerium.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: In 2015, Nitto Denko Corporation of Japan announced their development of a new method of sintering neodymium magnet material. The method exploits an "organic/inorganic hybrid technology" to form a clay-like mixture that can be fashioned into various shapes for sintering. Most importantly, it is said to be possible to control a non-uniform orientation of the magnetic field in the sintered material to locally concentrate the field to, e.g., improve the performance of electric motors. Mass production is planned for 2017.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: As of 2012, 50,000tons of neodymium magnets are produced officially each year in China, and 80,000tons in a "company-by-company" build-up done in 2013. China produces more than 95% of rare earth elements and produces about 76% of the world's total rare-earth magnets, as well as most of the world's neodymium.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: Neodymium magnets have replaced alnico and ferrite magnets in many of the myriad applications in modern technology where strong permanent magnets are required, because their greater strength allows the use of smaller, lighter magnets for a given application. Some examples are:


title: Neodymium magnet

text: The greater strength of neodymium magnets has inspired new applications in areas where magnets were not used before, such as magnetic jewelry clasps, children's magnetic building sets (and other neodymium magnet toys) and as part of the closing mechanism of modern sport parachute equipment. They are the main metal in the formerly popular desk-toy magnets, "Buckyballs" and "Buckycubes", though some U.S. retailers have chosen not to sell them because of child-safety concerns, and they have been banned in Canada for the same reason.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: The strength and magnetic field homogeneity on neodymium magnets has also opened new applications in the medical field with the introduction of open magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners used to image the body in radiology departments as an alternative to superconducting magnets that use a coil of superconducting wire to produce the magnetic field.


title: Neodymium magnet

text: Neodymium magnets are used as a surgically placed anti-reflux system which is a band of magnets surgically implanted around the lower esophageal sphincter to treat gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). They have also been implanted in the fingertips in order to provide sensory perception of magnetic fields, though this is an experimental procedure only popular among biohackers and grinders.


title: Bayezid I

text: Bayezid I (, ), also known as Bayezid the Thunderbolt (, ; – 8 March 1403) was the Ottoman Sultan from 1389 to 1402. He adopted the title of "Sultan-i Rûm", "Rûm" being an old Islamic name for the Roman Empire. He decisively defeated the Crusaders at Nicopolis (in modern Bulgaria) in 1396. Bayezid unsuccessfully besieged Constantinople and later was defeated and captured by Timur at the Battle of Ankara in 1402 and died in captivity in March 1403, triggering the Ottoman Interregnum.


title: Bayezid I

text: Bayezid was the son of Murad I and his Greek wife, Gülçiçek Hatun. His first major role was as governor of Kütahya, a city that he earned by marrying the daughter of a Germiyanid ruler. He was an impetuous soldier, earning the nickname "Thunderbolt" in a battle against the Karamanids.


title: Bayezid I

text: Bayezid ascended to the throne following the death of his father, Murad I, who was killed by Serbian knight Miloš Obilić during (15 June), or immediately after (16 June), the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, the battle in which Serbia became a vassal of the Ottoman Sultanate. Immediately after obtaining the throne, he had his younger brother strangled to avoid a plot. In 1390, Bayezid took as a wife Princess Olivera Despina, the daughter of Prince Lazar of Serbia, who also lost his life in Kosovo. Bayezid recognized Stefan Lazarević, the son of Lazar, as the new Serbian leader - later despot - with considerable autonomy.


title: Bayezid I

text: Meanwhile, the sultan began unifying Anatolia under his rule. Forcible expansion into Muslim territories could have endangered the Ottoman relationship with the gazis, who were an important source of warriors for this ruling house on the European frontier. Thus Bayezid began the practice of first securing "fatwas", or legal rulings from Islamic scholars, to justify wars against these Muslim states. However, Bayezid suspected the loyalty of his Muslim Turkish followers, so he relied heavily on his Serbian and Byzantine vassal troops in these conquests.


title: Bayezid I

text: In a single campaign over the summer and fall of 1390, Bayezid conquered the beyliks of Aydin, Saruhan and Menteshe. His major rival Sulayman, the emir of Karaman, responded by allying himself with the ruler of Sivas, Kadi Burhan al-Din and the remaining Turkish beyliks. Nevertheless, Bayezid pushed on and overwhelmed the remaining beyliks (Hamid, Teke, and Germiyan), as well as taking the cities of Akşehir and Niğde, as well as their capital Konya from the Karaman. At this point, Bayezid accepted peace proposals from Karaman (1391), concerned that further advances would antagonize his Turkoman followers and lead them to ally with Kadi Burhan al-Din. Once peace had been made with Karaman, Bayezid moved north against Kastamonu which had given refuge to many fleeing from his forces, and conquered both that city as well as Sinop. However, his subsequent campaign was stopped by Burhan al-Din at the Battle of Kırkdilim.


title: Bayezid I

text: From 1389 to 1395 he conquered Bulgaria and northern Greece. In 1394 Bayezid crossed the River Danube to attack Wallachia, ruled at that time by Mircea the Elder. The Ottomans were superior in number, but on 10 October 1394 (or 17 May 1395), in the Battle of Rovine, on forested and swampy terrain, the Wallachians won the fierce battle and prevented Bayezid's army from advancing beyond the Danube.


title: Bayezid I

text: In 1394, Bayezid laid siege to Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Anadoluhisarı fortress was built between 1393 and 1394 as part of preparations for the second Ottoman siege of Constantinople, which took place in 1395. On the urgings of the Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaeologus, a new crusade was organized to defeat him. This proved unsuccessful: in 1396 the Christian allies, under the leadership of the King of Hungary and future Holy Roman Emperor (in 1433) Sigismund, were defeated in the Battle of Nicopolis. Bayezid built the magnificent Ulu Cami in Bursa, to celebrate this victory.


title: Bayezid I

text: Thus the siege of Constantinople continued, lasting until 1402. The beleaguered Byzantines had their reprieve when Bayezid fought the Timurid Empire in the east. At this time, the empire of Bayezid included Thrace (except Constantinople), Macedonia, Bulgaria, and parts of Serbia in Europe. In Asia, his domains extended to the Taurus Mountains. His army was considered one of the best in the Islamic world.


title: Bayezid I

text: In 1397, Bayezid defeated the emir of Karaman in Akçay, killing him and annexing his territory. In 1398, the sultan conquered the Djanik emirate and the territory of Burhan al-Din, violating the accord with the Turco-Mongol emir Timur. Finally, Bayezid occupied Elbistan and Malatya.


title: Bayezid I

text: In 1400, Timur succeeded in rousing the local Turkic beyliks who had been vassals of the Ottomans to join him in his attack on Bayezid, who was also considered one of the most powerful rulers in the Muslim world during that period. Years of insulting letters had passed between Timur and Bayezid. Both rulers insulted each other in their own way while Timur preferred to undermine Bayezid's position as a ruler and play down the significance of his military successes.


title: Bayezid I

text: In the fateful Battle of Ankara, on 20 July 1402, the Ottoman army was defeated. Bayazid tried to escape, but was captured and taken to Timur. Historians describe their first meeting as follows:


title: Bayezid I

text: Many writers claim that Bayezid was mistreated by the Timurids. However, writers and historians from Timur's own court reported that Bayezid was treated well, and that Timur even mourned his death. One of Bayezid's sons, Mustafa Çelebi, was captured with him and held captive in Samarkand until 1405.


title: Bayezid I

text: Four of Bayezid's sons, specifically Süleyman Çelebi, İsa Çelebi, Mehmed Çelebi, and Musa Çelebi, however, escaped from the battlefield and later started a civil war for the Ottoman throne known as the Ottoman Interregnum. After Mehmed's victory, his coronation as Mehmed I, and the deaths of the other three, Bayezid's other son Mustafa Çelebi emerged from hiding and began two failed rebellions against his brother Mehmed and, after Mehmed's death, his nephew Murad II.


title: Bayezid I

text: In Europe, the legend of Bayazid's humiliation in captivity was very popular. He was allegedly chained, and forced to watch how his beloved wife, Olivera, served Timur at dinner. According to a legend, Timur took Bayezid with himself everywhere in a barred palanquin or cage, humiliating him in various ways, used Bayezid as a support under his legs, and at dinner had him placed under the table where bones were thrown at him.


title: Bayezid I

text: Different versions on Bayezid's death existed, too. One of them mentioned the suicide of Bayezid. Allegedly, the Sultan committed suicide through hitting the bars of a cell with his head or taking poison. The version was promoted by Ottoman historians: Lutfi Pasha, Ashik Pasha-Zade. There was also a version where Bayezid was supposedly poisoned by Timur's order. This is considered unlikely, because there is evidence that the Turkic ruler entrusted the care of Bayezid to his personal doctors.


title: Bayezid I

text: In the descriptions of contemporaries and witnesses of the events, neither a cell nor humiliation is mentioned.


title: Bayezid I

text: German traveller and writer Johann Schiltberger did not write anything about the cell, bars or violent death. Another contemporary, Jean II Le Maingre, who witnessed Bayezid's captivity, wrote nothing about the cell or poisoning as well. Clavijo, who came to Timur's court in 1404 as part of the embassy and visited Constantinople on his return trip, also did not mention the cell. All Greek sources of the first decade of the 15th century are equally silent about the cell. Sharafaddin Yazdi (? -1454) in "Zafar-nama" wrote that Bayezid was treated with respect, and at his request, Turco-Mongols found his son among the captives and brought him to his father. Regarding Bayezid's wife, Sharafaddin wrote that Timur sent her and his daughters to her husband. Olivera allegedly became a Muslim under the influence of Timur.


title: Bayezid I

text: First references to a disrespectful attitude towards Bayazid appear in the works of ibn Arabshah (1389-1450) and Constantine of Ostrovica. Ibn Arabshah wrote that “Bayezid’s heart was broken to pieces” when he saw that his wives and concubines were serving at a banquet.


title: Bayezid I

text: However, this is just a “flowery style”, and not a real cell. According to literary historian H.A.R. Gibb, “the flowery elegance of style has also affected historiography. Most of the authors of the Timurid era succumbed to its influence ”.


title: Bayezid I

text: Constantine of Ostrovica wrote neither about the cell, nor about the nudity of Bayezid's wife; though he did write that Bayezid committed suicide. In the story of Constantine, just like in that of ibn Arabshah, the sultan was so struck by the fact that his wife carried wine to a feast that he poisoned himself with a poison from his ring.


title: Bayezid I

text: Ottoman historian Mehmed Neshri (1450-1520) described Bayezid's imprisonment and mentioned the cell twice. According to him, Timur asked Bayezid what he would do in Timur's place with regard to the captive. “I would have planted him in an iron cage,” Bayezid answered. To which Timur replied: "This is a bad answer." He ordered to prepare the cage and the Sultan was put into it.


title: Bayezid I

text: The complete set of legends may perhaps be found in the work of Pope Pius II "Asiae Europaeque elegantissima descriptio", written in 1450-1460 (published in 1509): Bayezid is kept in a cage, fed with garbage under the table, Timur uses Bayezid as a support to get on or off a horse. Further development can be found in later authors, such as Theodore Spandounes. The first version of his story was written in Italian and completed in 1509, and a French translation was published in 1519. In these versions of the text, Spandounes wrote only about the golden chains and that the sultan was used as a stand. Spandounes added the cell only in later versions of the text. Later versions of the text also include a description of the public humiliation of Bayezid's wife:


title: Bayezid I

text: According to the British orientalist, Lord Kinross, Bayezid was distinguished by haste, impulsivity, unpredictability and imprudence. He cared little for state affairs, which he entrusted to his governors. As Kinross writes, between campaigns Bayezid was often engaged in pleasures: gluttony, drunkenness and debauchery. The courtyard of the sultan was famous for its luxury and was comparable to the Byzantine court during its heyday.


title: Bayezid I

text: At the same time, the sultan was a talented commander. In all 13 years of his reign, Bayezid suffered only one defeat, which eventually turned out to be fatal for him. Despite his lust for earthly pleasures, Bayezid was a religious man and used to spend hours in his personal mosque in Bursa. He also kept Islamic theologians in his circle.


title: Bayezid I

text: Bayezid managed to expand the territory of his empire to the Danube and the Euphrates. However, Sultan's policy led to a humiliating defeat at Ankara and to the collapse of his state. The Ottoman Empire declined to the size of a beylik from the time of Orhan, but even that territory was divided by Timur and given to the two sons of Bayezid. Small beyliks gained independence again thanks to Timur, who wanted to conquer China in the last years of his life, and therefore did not complete the defeat of the Ottomans. The victory at Ankara marked the beginning of the Ottoman interregnum, which lasted 10 years.


title: Bayezid I

text: The defeat of Bayezid became a popular subject for later Western writers, composers, and painters. They embellished the legend that he was taken by Timur to Samarkand with a cast of characters to create an oriental fantasy that has maintained its appeal. Christopher Marlowe's play "Tamburlaine the Great" was first performed in London in 1587, three years after the formal opening of English-Ottoman trade relations when William Harborne sailed for Constantinople as an agent of the Levant Company.


title: Bayezid I

text: In 1648, the play "Le Gran Tamerlan et Bejezet" by Jean Magnon appeared in London, and in 1725, Handel's "Tamerlano" was first performed and published in London; Vivaldi's version of the story, "Bajazet", was written in 1735. Magnon had given Bayezid an intriguing wife and daughter; the Handel and Vivaldi renditions included, as well as Tamerlane and Bayezid and his daughter, a prince of Byzantium and a princess of Trebizond (Trabzon) in a passionate love story. A cycle of paintings in Schloss Eggenberg, near Graz in Austria, translated the theme to a different medium; this was completed in the 1670s shortly before the Ottoman army attacked the Habsburgs in central Europe.


title: Bayezid I

text: The historical novel "The Grand Cham" (1921) by Harold Lamb focuses on the quest of its European hero to gain the assistance of Tamerlane in defeating Bayezid. Bayezid (spelled Bayazid) is a central character in the Robert E. Howard story "Lord of Samarcand," where he commits suicide at Tamerlane's victory banquet. Bayazid is a main character in the novel "The Walls of Byzantium" (2013) by James Heneage.


title: Bayezid I

text: Sultan Bayazit was portrayed in the Serbian 1989 historical drama film "Battle of Kosovo", as a participant of the Battle of Kosovo by actor Branislav Lečić, and in the Romanian historical drama "Mircea (Proud heritage)" by Ion Ritiu as a young Sultan who fought in the battles of Rovine, Nicopolis and Angora.


title: Jalsa (2022 film)

text: Jalsa is an Indian 2022 Hindi-language thriller film directed by Suresh Triveni. It is produced by T-Series and Abundantia Entertainment. The film stars Vidya Balan and Shefali Shah. It premiered on Amazon Prime Video on 18 March 2022. It received positive reviews, with praise directed towards the cast (particularly Balan and Shah).


title: Jalsa (2022 film)

text: A hit and run of an 18-year-old girl raises many questions only to realise that the truth is rarely pure and never at all simple.


title: Jalsa (2022 film)

text: Maya Menon (Vidya Balan) is a successful, rich, hard hitting, truth telling, influential TV journalist, with high morals. She hosts a successful TV show aptly called "Face The Truth" and enjoys celebrity status which is also desired by her competitors, peers and juniors alike. In her private life, she lives with her son, Ayush who suffers from cerebral palsy and her mother. She is somewhat in a romantic relationship with her boss. Maya is on great terms with her ex-husband who's now happily married to his current Russian wife and they have a baby boy. All in all, her life seems perfect until one fateful night Maya falls asleep at the wheel of her car whilst driving home late from work. She inadvertently hits a young girl who suddenly appears in front of her car out of nowhere. After the accident she stops and sees another bystander who's fleeing the scene and she gets spooked and flees the scene of the accident not knowing that it's all captured on a nearby CCTV camera.


title: Jalsa (2022 film)

text: Maya arrives home deeply shaken. She inspects the damage to her car and covers up the car, again caught on security cameras. Rukhsana (Shefali Shah), is her son's carer and cook. Rukhsana had stayed at Maya's for the night, per Maya's request, as she was running late that night. Rukhsana loves Ayush like her own son. She sees that Maya is very upset, but chooses to ignore it.


title: Jalsa (2022 film)

text: The next morning, the story starts to unravel. The young girl turns out to be Rukhsana's daughter. Rukhsana is unsure and embarrassed about why her 18-year-old daughter was out so late at night, and what she was doing in the neighborhood where the hit & run happened.


title: Jalsa (2022 film)

text: The police officer, assigned to the case, discovers (from CCTV footage) his own indiscretion that took place at the same spot, an hour before the accident. Hence, he is motivated to not disclose the CCTV footage (the only proof of Maya's crime) and suppress the case for his own protection and wellbeing in light of his daughter's upcoming wedding.


title: Jalsa (2022 film)

text: The guy fleeing the scene assumed to be the guy the girl was seeing who she had gone out late at night to see. He had tried to make physical advances at her, and the girl was running away from him, when she was hit. So he also chooses to stay silent for his own protection. Only later it is revealed that the girl was there to make videos to post on social media and get more followers. The girl had recently broke up with her boyfriend who works at a mechanic's shop.


title: Jalsa (2022 film)

text: Maya's driver who discovers the car damaged and a girl's earring stuck in the broken windshield figures out that Maya was the culprit, but he also remains silent as he needs half a million from Maya to pay for his family's critical expenses.


title: Jalsa (2022 film)

text: Maya confesses her crime to her boss, but he encourages her to stay silent, as he is protecting the news station (which is immensely successful due to Maya) as well as himself due to fear of his personal relationship with her coming to light.


title: Jalsa (2022 film)

text: The journalist pursuing the case, who discovers all truths, happens to work for Maya, and respects her deeply. She also needs her job and money due to domestic family pressures.


title: Jalsa (2022 film)

text: Do any of these folks come forward? How do they suffer in personal guilt, and what toll it takes on them? Can the details of everyone's truth ever be discovered for the case to be fairly solved? Jalsa takes the viewer through this journey and leave an open ending for viewers to decide.


title: Jalsa (2022 film)

text: The music of the film is composed by Gaurav Chatterji and Salvage Audio Collective with lyrics written by Sandeep Gaur and Charan.


title: Jalsa (2022 film)

text: Renuka Vyavahare of "The Times of India" gave the film a rating of 4/5 and wrote "Jalsa, a captivating drama with a complex moral center, keeps you on the edge of your seat for most part of the film. This one's a must watch, all the more for its terrific climax". Anna MM Vetticad of "Firstpost" gave the film a rating of 4/5 and wrote "Half the battle for Jalsa was won when Vidya Balan and Shefali Shah were roped in to share screen space". Rohit Bhatnagar of "The Free Press Journal" gave the film a rating of 4/5 and wrote "This cat and mouse chase deals with thrill, strong emotions and the harsh realities of a newsroom". Devesh Sharma of "Filmfare" gave the film a rating of 4/5 and wrote "Jalsa means celebration and the film truly is a celebration indeed of good filmmaking". Shubham Kulkarni of "Koimoi" gave the film a rating of 3.5/5 and wrote "It is a filmmaker evolving and two of the most prolific actors exploring their craft and maybe surprising their own selves as well". Tushar Joshi of "India Today" gave the film a rating of 3.5/5 and wrote "Jalsa is a celebration of two power house performers - Vidya Balan and Shefali Shah". Mayank Shekhar of "Mid-Day" gave the film a rating of 3.5/5.


title: Jalsa (2022 film)

text: Sanjana Jadhav of "Pinkvilla" gave the film a rating of 3.5/5 and wrote "Jalsa is a must-watch thriller with top notch storytelling and enjoyable performances. Sukanya Verna of "Rediff" gave the film a rating of 3.5/5 and wrote "Vidya Balan and Shefali Shah are powerhouse talents and are tailor-made for Jalsa's overwrought premise, notes Sukanya Verma". Shilajit Mitra of "Cinema Express" gave the film a rating of 3.5/5. Saibal Chatterjee of "NDTV" gave the film a rating of 3/5 and wrote "Discount the overreach and a flaw here and a blemish there and Jalsa works just fine not only because two wonderful actresses are at their very best". Stutee Ghosh of "The Quint" gavethefilm a rating of 3/5 and wrote "'Jalsa' is a story of inner-conflict, motherhood, and class, portrayed brilliantly by its two lead protagonists". Suhasini Srihari of "Deccan Herald" gave the film a rating of 3/5 and wrote "The film's narrative does not necessarily cut into the emotional veins of the audience, but allows them to participate in a dialogue of the inner conflicts and learn the difference between reality and truth". Shubhra Gupta of "Indian Express" gave the film a rating of 2.5/5 and wrote "Vidya Balan, Shefali Shah film has one of the most tightly-executed beginnings, which develops the odd bump as the plot progresses, until it reaches a cathartic end". Taran Adarsh of "Bollywood Hungama" gave the film a rating of 2.5/5 and wrote "JALSA boasts of fine performances by Vidya Balan and Shefali Shah with unexpected twists and turns".


title: Jalsa (2022 film)

text: Monika Rawal Kukreja of "Hindustan Times" stated "Suresh Triveni's film stars Vidya Balan as a journalist and Shefali Shah has the caretaker of her son". Anuj Kumar of "The Hindu" stated "Director Suresh Triveni delivers a casting coup of sorts with the fantastic ensemble of actors, while also charting a relatable and riveting tale on how a self-righteous approach crumbles under circumstances". Gautaman Bhaskaran of "News18" stated "Suresh Triveni's work, despite two good actresses in Vidya Balan and Shefali Shah, falls into the rut of wanting to fill the plate with too much with the result that none of it has any meat".


title: Touchscreen

text: A touchscreen or touch screen is the assembly of both an input ('touch panel') and output ('display') device. The touch panel is normally layered on the top of an electronic visual display of an information processing system. The display is often an LCD, AMOLED or OLED display while the system is usually used in a laptop, tablet, or smartphone. A user can give input or control the information processing system through simple or multi-touch gestures by touching the screen with a special stylus or one or more fingers. Some touchscreens use ordinary or specially coated gloves to work while others may only work using a special stylus or pen. The user can use the touchscreen to react to what is displayed and, if the software allows, to control how it is displayed; for example, zooming to increase the text size.


title: Touchscreen

text: The touchscreen enables the user to interact directly with what is displayed, rather than using a mouse, touchpad, or other such devices (other than a stylus, which is optional for most modern touchscreens).


title: Touchscreen

text: Touchscreens are common in devices such as game consoles, personal computers, electronic voting machines, and point-of-sale (POS) systems. They can also be attached to computers or, as terminals, to networks. They play a prominent role in the design of digital appliances such as personal digital assistants (PDAs) and some e-readers. Touchscreens are also important in educational settings such as classrooms or on college campuses.


title: Touchscreen

text: The popularity of smartphones, tablets, and many types of information appliances is driving the demand and acceptance of common touchscreens for portable and functional electronics. Touchscreens are found in the medical field, heavy industry, automated teller machines (ATMs), and kiosks such as museum displays or room automation, where keyboard and mouse systems do not allow a suitably intuitive, rapid, or accurate interaction by the user with the display's content.


title: Touchscreen

text: Historically, the touchscreen sensor and its accompanying controller-based firmware have been made available by a wide array of after-market system integrators, and not by display, chip, or motherboard manufacturers. Display manufacturers and chip manufacturers have acknowledged the trend toward acceptance of touchscreens as a user interface component and have begun to integrate touchscreens into the fundamental design of their products.


title: Touchscreen

text: One predecessor of the modern touch screen includes stylus based systems. In 1946, a patent was filed by Philco Company for a stylus designed for sports telecasting which, when placed against an intermediate cathode ray tube display (CRT) would amplify and add to the original signal. Effectively, this was used for temporarily drawing arrows or circles onto a live television broadcast, as described in . Later inventions built upon this system to free telewriting styli from their mechanical bindings. By transcribing what a user draws onto a computer, it could be saved for future use. See .


title: Touchscreen

text: The first version of a touchscreen which operated independently of the light produced from the screen was patented by AT&T Corporation . This touchscreen utilized a matrix of collimated lights shining orthogonally across the touch surface. When a beam is interrupted by a stylus, the photodetectors which no longer are receiving a signal can be used to determine where the interruption is. Later iterations of matrix based touchscreens built upon this by adding more emitters and detectors to improve resolution, pulsing emitters to improve optical signal to noise ratio, and a nonorthogonal matrix to remove shadow readings when using multi-touch.


title: Touchscreen

text: The first finger driven touch screen was developed by Eric Johnson, of the Royal Radar Establishment located in Malvern, England, who described his work on capacitive touchscreens in a short article published in 1965 and then more fully—with photographs and diagrams—in an article published in 1967. The application of touch technology for air traffic control was described in an article published in 1968. Frank Beck and Bent Stumpe, engineers from CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research), developed a transparent touchscreen in the early 1970s, based on Stumpe's work at a television factory in the early 1960s. Then manufactured by CERN, and shortly after by industry partners, it was put to use in 1973.


title: Touchscreen

text: In the mid-1960s, another precursor of touchscreens, an ultrasonic-curtain-based pointing device in front of a terminal display, had been developed by a team around at Telefunken for an air traffic control system. In 1970, this evolved into a device named "Touchinput-" ("touch input facility") for the SIG 50 terminal utilizing a conductively coated glass screen in front of the display. This was patented in 1971 and the patent was granted a couple of years later. The same team had already invented and marketed the mouse RKS 100-86 for the SIG 100-86 a couple of years earlier.


title: Touchscreen

text: In 1972, a group at the University of Illinois filed for a patent on an optical touchscreen that became a standard part of the Magnavox Plato IV Student Terminal and thousands were built for this purpose. These touchscreens had a crossed array of 16×16 infrared position sensors, each composed of an LED on one edge of the screen and a matched phototransistor on the other edge, all mounted in front of a monochrome plasma display panel. This arrangement could sense any fingertip-sized opaque object in close proximity to the screen. A similar touchscreen was used on the HP-150 starting in 1983. The HP 150 was one of the world's earliest commercial touchscreen computers. HP mounted their infrared transmitters and receivers around the bezel of a 9-inch Sony cathode ray tube (CRT).


title: Touchscreen

text: In 1977, an American company, Elographics – in partnership with Siemens – began work on developing a transparent implementation of an existing opaque touchpad technology, U.S. patent  3,911,215, October 7, 1975, which had been developed by Elographics' founder George Samuel Hurst. The resulting resistive technology touch screen was first shown on the World's Fair at Knoxville in 1982.


title: Touchscreen

text: In 1984, Fujitsu released a touch pad for the Micro 16 to accommodate the complexity of kanji characters, which were stored as tiled graphics. In 1985, Sega released the Terebi Oekaki, also known as the Sega Graphic Board, for the SG-1000 video game console and SC-3000 home computer. It consisted of a plastic pen and a plastic board with a transparent window where pen presses are detected. It was used primarily with a drawing software application. A graphic touch tablet was released for the Sega AI computer in 1986.


title: Touchscreen

text: Touch-sensitive control-display units (CDUs) were evaluated for commercial aircraft flight decks in the early 1980s. Initial research showed that a touch interface would reduce pilot workload as the crew could then select waypoints, functions and actions, rather than be "head down" typing latitudes, longitudes, and waypoint codes on a keyboard. An effective integration of this technology was aimed at helping flight crews maintain a high level of situational awareness of all major aspects of the vehicle operations including the flight path, the functioning of various aircraft systems, and moment-to-moment human interactions.


title: Touchscreen

text: In the early 1980s, General Motors tasked its Delco Electronics division with a project aimed at replacing an automobile's non-essential functions (i.e. other than throttle, transmission, braking, and steering) from mechanical or electro-mechanical systems with solid state alternatives wherever possible. The finished device was dubbed the ECC for "Electronic Control Center", a digital computer and software control system hardwired to various peripheral sensors, servos, solenoids, antenna and a monochrome CRT touchscreen that functioned both as display and sole method of input. The ECC replaced the traditional mechanical stereo, fan, heater and air conditioner controls and displays, and was capable of providing very detailed and specific information about the vehicle's cumulative and current operating status in real time. The ECC was standard equipment on the 1985–1989 Buick Riviera and later the 1988–1989 Buick Reatta, but was unpopular with consumers—partly due to the technophobia of some traditional Buick customers, but mostly because of costly technical problems suffered by the ECC's touchscreen which would render climate control or stereo operation impossible.


title: Touchscreen

text: Multi-touch technology began in 1982, when the University of Toronto's Input Research Group developed the first human-input multi-touch system, using a frosted-glass panel with a camera placed behind the glass. In 1985, the University of Toronto group, including Bill Buxton, developed a multi-touch tablet that used capacitance rather than bulky camera-based optical sensing systems (see History of multi-touch).


title: Touchscreen

text: The first commercially available graphical point-of-sale (POS) software was demonstrated on the 16-bit Atari 520ST color computer. It featured a color touchscreen widget-driven interface. The ViewTouch POS software was first shown by its developer, Gene Mosher, at the Atari Computer demonstration area of the Fall COMDEX expo in 1986.


title: Touchscreen

text: In 1987, Casio launched the Casio PB-1000 pocket computer with a touchscreen consisting of a 4×4 matrix, resulting in 16 touch areas in its small LCD graphic screen.


title: Touchscreen

text: Touchscreens had a bad reputation of being imprecise until 1988. Most user-interface books would state that touchscreen selections were limited to targets larger than the average finger. At the time, selections were done in such a way that a target was selected as soon as the finger came over it, and the corresponding action was performed immediately. Errors were common, due to parallax or calibration problems, leading to user frustration. "Lift-off strategy" was introduced by researchers at the University of Maryland Human–Computer Interaction Lab (HCIL). As users touch the screen, feedback is provided as to what will be selected: users can adjust the position of the finger, and the action takes place only when the finger is lifted off the screen. This allowed the selection of small targets, down to a single pixel on a 640×480 Video Graphics Array (VGA) screen (a standard of that time).


title: Touchscreen

text: Sears et al. (1990) gave a review of academic research on single and multi-touch human–computer interaction of the time, describing gestures such as rotating knobs, adjusting sliders, and swiping the screen to activate a switch (or a U-shaped gesture for a toggle switch). The HCIL team developed and studied small touchscreen keyboards (including a study that showed users could type at 25 on a touchscreen keyboard), aiding their introduction on mobile devices. They also designed and implemented multi-touch gestures such as selecting a range of a line, connecting objects, and a "tap-click" gesture to select while maintaining location with another finger.


title: Touchscreen

text: In 1990, HCIL demonstrated a touchscreen slider, which was later cited as prior art in the lock screen patent litigation between Apple and other touchscreen mobile phone vendors (in relation to ).


title: Touchscreen

text: In 1991–1992, the Sun Star7 prototype PDA implemented a touchscreen with inertial scrolling. In 1993, IBM released the IBM Simon the first touchscreen phone.


title: Touchscreen

text: An early attempt at a handheld game console with touchscreen controls was Sega's intended successor to the Game Gear, though the device was ultimately shelved and never released due to the expensive cost of touchscreen technology in the early 1990s.


title: Touchscreen

text: The first mobile phone with a capacitive touchscreen was LG Prada released in May 2007 (which was before the first iPhone). By 2009, touchscreen-enabled mobile phones were becoming trendy and quickly gaining popularity in both basic and advanced devices. In Q4 2009 for the first time, a majority of smartphones (i.e. not all mobile phones) shipped with touchscreens over non-touch.


title: Touchscreen

text: Touchscreens would not be popularly used for video games until the release of the Nintendo DS in 2004. Until recently, most consumer touchscreens could only sense one point of contact at a time, and few have had the capability to sense how hard one is touching. This has changed with the commercialization of multi-touch technology, and the Apple Watch being released with a force-sensitive display in April 2015.


title: Touchscreen

text: In 2007, 93% of touchscreens shipped were resistive and only 4% were projected capacitance. In 2013, 3% of touchscreens shipped were resistive and 90% were projected capacitance.


title: Touchscreen

text: A resistive touchscreen panel comprises several thin layers, the most important of which are two transparent electrically resistive layers facing each other with a thin gap between. The top layer (that which is touched) has a coating on the underside surface; just beneath it is a similar resistive layer on top of its substrate. One layer has conductive connections along its sides, the other along top and bottom. A voltage is applied to one layer and sensed by the other. When an object, such as a fingertip or stylus tip, presses down onto the outer surface, the two layers touch to become connected at that point. The panel then behaves as a pair of voltage dividers, one axis at a time. By rapidly switching between each layer, the position of pressure on the screen can be detected.


title: Touchscreen

text: Resistive touch is used in restaurants, factories and hospitals due to its high tolerance for liquids and contaminants. A major benefit of resistive-touch technology is its low cost. Additionally, as only sufficient pressure is necessary for the touch to be sensed, they may be used with gloves on, or by using anything rigid as a finger substitute. Disadvantages include the need to press down, and a risk of damage by sharp objects. Resistive touchscreens also suffer from poorer contrast, due to having additional reflections (i.e. glare) from the layers of material placed over the screen. This is the type of touchscreen that was used by Nintendo in the DS family, the 3DS family, and the Wii U GamePad.


title: Touchscreen

text: Surface acoustic wave (SAW) technology uses ultrasonic waves that pass over the touchscreen panel. When the panel is touched, a portion of the wave is absorbed. The change in ultrasonic waves is processed by the controller to determine the position of the touch event. Surface acoustic wave touchscreen panels can be damaged by outside elements. Contaminants on the surface can also interfere with the functionality of the touchscreen.


title: Touchscreen

text: SAW devices have a wide range of applications, including delay lines, filters, correlators and DC to DC converters.


title: Touchscreen

text: A capacitive touchscreen panel consists of an insulator, such as glass, coated with a transparent conductor, such as indium tin oxide (ITO). As the human body is also an electrical conductor, touching the surface of the screen results in a distortion of the screen's electrostatic field, measurable as a change in capacitance. Different technologies may be used to determine the location of the touch. The location is then sent to the controller for processing. Touchscreens that use silver instead of ITO exist, as ITO causes several environmental problems due to the use of indium. The controller is typically a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) chip, which in turn usually sends the signals to a CMOS digital signal processor (DSP) for processing.


title: Touchscreen

text: Unlike a resistive touchscreen, some capacitive touchscreens cannot be used to detect a finger through electrically insulating material, such as gloves. This disadvantage especially affects usability in consumer electronics, such as touch tablet PCs and capacitive smartphones in cold weather when people may be wearing gloves. It can be overcome with a special capacitive stylus, or a special-application glove with an embroidered patch of conductive thread allowing electrical contact with the user's fingertip.


title: Touchscreen

text: A low-quality switching-mode power supply unit with an accordingly unstable, noisy voltage may temporarily interfere with the precision, accuracy and sensitivity of capacitive touch screens.


title: Touchscreen

text: Some capacitive display manufacturers continue to develop thinner and more accurate touchscreens. Those for mobile devices are now being produced with 'in-cell' technology, such as in Samsung's Super AMOLED screens, that eliminates a layer by building the capacitors inside the display itself. This type of touchscreen reduces the visible distance between the user's finger and what the user is touching on the screen, reducing the thickness and weight of the display, which is desirable in smartphones.


title: Touchscreen

text: A simple parallel-plate capacitor has two conductors separated by a dielectric layer. Most of the energy in this system is concentrated directly between the plates. Some of the energy spills over into the area outside the plates, and the electric field lines associated with this effect are called fringing fields. Part of the challenge of making a practical capacitive sensor is to design a set of printed circuit traces which direct fringing fields into an active sensing area accessible to a user. A parallel-plate capacitor is not a good choice for such a sensor pattern. Placing a finger near fringing electric fields adds conductive surface area to the capacitive system. The additional charge storage capacity added by the finger is known as finger capacitance, or CF. The capacitance of the sensor without a finger present is known as parasitic capacitance, or CP.


title: Touchscreen

text: In this basic technology, only one side of the insulator is coated with a conductive layer. A small voltage is applied to the layer, resulting in a uniform electrostatic field. When a conductor, such as a human finger, touches the uncoated surface, a capacitor is dynamically formed. The sensor's controller can determine the location of the touch indirectly from the change in the capacitance as measured from the four corners of the panel. As it has no moving parts, it is moderately durable but has limited resolution, is prone to false signals from parasitic capacitive coupling, and needs calibration during manufacture. It is therefore most often used in simple applications such as industrial controls and kiosks.


title: Touchscreen

text: Although some standard capacitance detection methods are projective, in the sense that they can be used to detect a finger through a non-conductive surface, they are very sensitive to fluctuations in temperature, which expand or contract the sensing plates, causing fluctuations in the capacitance of these plates. These fluctuations result in a lot of background noise, so a strong finger signal is required for accurate detection. This limits applications to those where the finger directly touches the sensing element or is sensed through a relatively thin non-conductive surface.


title: Touchscreen

text: Projected capacitive touch (PCT; also PCAP) technology is a variant of capacitive touch technology but where sensitivity to touch, accuracy, resolution and speed of touch have been greatly improved by the use of a simple form of


title: Touchscreen

text: "Artificial Intelligence". This intelligent processing enables finger sensing to be projected, accurately and reliably, through very thick glass and even double glazing.


title: Touchscreen

text: Some modern PCT touch screens are composed of thousands of discrete keys, but most PCT touch screens are made of an x/y matrix of rows and columns of conductive material, layered on sheets of glass.


title: Touchscreen

text: This can be done either by etching a single conductive layer to form a grid pattern of electrodes, by etching two separate, perpendicular layers of conductive material with parallel lines or tracks to form a grid, or by forming an x/y grid of fine, insulation coated wires in a single layer . The number of fingers that can be detected simultaneously is determined by the number of cross-over points (x * y) . However, the number of cross-over points can be almost doubled by using a diagonal lattice layout, where, instead of x elements only ever crossing y elements, each conductive element crosses every other element .


title: Touchscreen

text: The conductive layer is often transparent, being made of Indium tin oxide (ITO), a transparent electrical conductor.


title: Touchscreen

text: In some designs, voltage applied to this grid creates a uniform electrostatic field, which can be measured. When a conductive object, such as a finger, comes into contact with a PCT panel, it distorts the local electrostatic field at that point. This is measurable as a change in capacitance. If a finger bridges the gap between two of the "tracks", the charge field is further interrupted and detected by the controller. The capacitance can be changed and measured at every individual point on the grid. This system is able to accurately track touches.


title: Touchscreen

text: Due to the top layer of a PCT being glass, it is sturdier than less-expensive resistive touch technology.


title: Touchscreen

text: Unlike traditional capacitive touch technology, it is possible for a PCT system to sense a passive stylus or gloved finger. However, moisture on the surface of the panel, high humidity, or collected dust can interfere with performance.


title: Touchscreen

text: These environmental factors, however, are not a problem with 'fine wire' based touchscreens due to the fact that wire based touchscreens have a much lower 'parasitic' capacitance, and there is greater distance between neighbouring conductors.


title: Touchscreen

text: This is a common PCT approach, which makes use of the fact that most conductive objects are able to hold a charge if they are very close together. In mutual capacitive sensors, a capacitor is inherently formed by the row trace and column trace at each intersection of the grid. A 16×14 array, for example, would have 224 independent capacitors. A voltage is applied to the rows or columns. Bringing a finger or conductive stylus close to the surface of the sensor changes the local electrostatic field, which in turn reduces the mutual capacitance. The capacitance change at every individual point on the grid can be measured to accurately determine the touch location by measuring the voltage in the other axis. Mutual capacitance allows multi-touch operation where multiple fingers, palms or styli can be accurately tracked at the same time.


title: Touchscreen

text: Self-capacitance sensors can have the same X-Y grid as mutual capacitance sensors, but the columns and rows operate independently. With self-capacitance, the capacitive load of a finger is measured on each column or row electrode by a current meter, or the change in frequency of an RC oscillator.


title: Touchscreen

text: If that finger is also detected by a column, then it can be assumed that the finger position is at the intersection of this row/column pair.


title: Touchscreen

text: This allows for the speedy and accurate detection of a single finger, but it causes some ambiguity if more than one finger is to be detected.


title: Touchscreen

text: Two fingers may have four possible detection positions, only two of which are true. However, by selectively de-sensitizing any touch-points in contention, conflicting results are easily eliminated. This enables "Self Capacitance" to be used for multi-touch operation.


title: Touchscreen

text: Alternatively, ambiguity can be avoided by applying a "de-sensitizing" signal to all but one of the columns .


title: Touchscreen

text: This leaves just a short section of any row sensitive to touch. By selecting a sequence of these sections along the row, it is possible to determine the accurate position of multiple fingers along that row. This process can then be repeated for all the other rows until the whole screen has been scanned.


title: Touchscreen

text: Self-capacitive touch screen layers are used on mobile phones such as the Sony Xperia Sola, the Samsung Galaxy S4, Galaxy Note 3, Galaxy S5, and Galaxy Alpha.


title: Touchscreen

text: Self capacitance is far more sensitive than mutual capacitance and is mainly used for single touch, simple gesturing and proximity sensing where the finger does not even have to touch the glass surface.


title: Touchscreen

text: Many touchscreen manufacturers use both self and mutual capacitance technologies in the same product, thereby combining their individual benefits.


title: Touchscreen

text: Capacitive touchscreens do not necessarily need to be operated by a finger, but until recently the special styli required could be quite expensive to purchase. The cost of this technology has fallen greatly in recent years and capacitive styli are now widely available for a nominal charge, and often given away free with mobile accessories. These consist of an electrically conductive shaft with a soft conductive rubber tip, thereby resistively connecting the fingers to the tip of the stylus.


title: Touchscreen

text: An infrared touchscreen uses an array of X-Y infrared LED and photodetector pairs around the edges of the screen to detect a disruption in the pattern of LED beams. These LED beams cross each other in vertical and horizontal patterns. This helps the sensors pick up the exact location of the touch. A major benefit of such a system is that it can detect essentially any opaque object including a finger, gloved finger, stylus or pen. It is generally used in outdoor applications and POS systems that cannot rely on a conductor (such as a bare finger) to activate the touchscreen. Unlike capacitive touchscreens, infrared touchscreens do not require any patterning on the glass which increases durability and optical clarity of the overall system. Infrared touchscreens are sensitive to dirt and dust that can interfere with the infrared beams, and suffer from parallax in curved surfaces and accidental press when the user hovers a finger over the screen while searching for the item to be selected.


title: Touchscreen

text: A translucent acrylic sheet is used as a rear-projection screen to display information. The edges of the acrylic sheet are illuminated by infrared LEDs, and infrared cameras are focused on the back of the sheet. Objects placed on the sheet are detectable by the cameras. When the sheet is touched by the user, frustrated total internal reflection results in leakage of infrared light which peaks at the points of maximum pressure, indicating the user's touch location. Microsoft's PixelSense tablets use this technology.


title: Touchscreen

text: Optical touchscreens are a relatively modern development in touchscreen technology, in which two or more image sensors (such as CMOS sensors) are placed around the edges (mostly the corners) of the screen. Infrared backlights are placed in the sensor's field of view on the opposite side of the screen. A touch blocks some lights from the sensors, and the location and size of the touching object can be calculated (see visual hull). This technology is growing in popularity due to its scalability, versatility, and affordability for larger touchscreens.


title: Touchscreen

text: Introduced in 2002 by 3M, this system detects a touch by using sensors to measure the piezoelectricity in the glass. Complex algorithms interpret this information and provide the actual location of the touch. The technology is unaffected by dust and other outside elements, including scratches. Since there is no need for additional elements on screen, it also claims to provide excellent optical clarity. Any object can be used to generate touch events, including gloved fingers. A downside is that after the initial touch, the system cannot detect a motionless finger. However, for the same reason, resting objects do not disrupt touch recognition.


title: Touchscreen

text: The key to this technology is that a touch at any one position on the surface generates a sound wave in the substrate which then produces a unique combined signal as measured by three or more tiny transducers attached to the edges of the touchscreen. The digitized signal is compared to a list corresponding to every position on the surface, determining the touch location. A moving touch is tracked by rapid repetition of this process. Extraneous and ambient sounds are ignored since they do not match any stored sound profile. The technology differs from other sound-based technologies by using a simple look-up method rather than expensive signal-processing hardware. As with the dispersive signal technology system, a motionless finger cannot be detected after the initial touch. However, for the same reason, the touch recognition is not disrupted by any resting objects. The technology was created by SoundTouch Ltd in the early 2000s, as described by the patent family EP1852772, and introduced to the market by Tyco International's Elo division in 2006 as Acoustic Pulse Recognition. The touchscreen used by Elo is made of ordinary glass, giving good durability and optical clarity. The technology usually retains accuracy with scratches and dust on the screen. The technology is also well suited to displays that are physically larger.


title: Touchscreen

text: There are several principal ways to build a touchscreen. The key goals are to recognize one or more fingers touching a display, to interpret the command that this represents, and to communicate the command to the appropriate application.


title: Touchscreen

text: In the resistive approach, which used to be the most popular technique, there are typically four layers:


title: Touchscreen

text: When a user touches the surface, the system records the change in the electric current that flows through the display.


title: Touchscreen

text: Dispersive-signal technology measures the piezoelectric effect—the voltage generated when mechanical force is applied to a material—that occurs chemically when a strengthened glass substrate is touched.


title: Touchscreen

text: There are two infrared-based approaches. In one, an array of sensors detects a finger touching or almost touching the display, thereby interrupting infrared light beams projected over the screen. In the other, bottom-mounted infrared cameras record heat from screen touches.


title: Touchscreen

text: In each case, the system determines the intended command based on the controls showing on the screen at the time and the location of the touch.


title: Touchscreen

text: The development of multi-touch screens facilitated the tracking of more than one finger on the screen; thus, operations that require more than one finger are possible. These devices also allow multiple users to interact with the touchscreen simultaneously.


title: Touchscreen

text: With the growing use of touchscreens, the cost of touchscreen technology is routinely absorbed into the products that incorporate it and is nearly eliminated. Touchscreen technology has demonstrated reliability and is found in airplanes, automobiles, gaming consoles, machine control systems, appliances, and handheld display devices including cellphones; the touchscreen market for mobile devices was projected to produce US$5 billion by 2009.


title: Touchscreen

text: The ability to accurately point on the screen itself is also advancing with the emerging graphics tablet-screen hybrids. Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) plays a major role in this innovation due its high piezoelectric properties, which allow the tablet to sense pressure, making such things as digital painting behave more like paper and pencil.


title: Touchscreen

text: TapSense, announced in October 2011, allows touchscreens to distinguish what part of the hand was used for input, such as the fingertip, knuckle and fingernail. This could be used in a variety of ways, for example, to copy and paste, to capitalize letters, to activate different drawing modes, etc.


title: Touchscreen

text: A real practical integration between television-images and the functions of a normal modern PC could be an innovation in the near future: for example "all-live-information" on the internet about a film or the actors on video, a list of other music during a normal video clip of a song or news about a person.


title: Touchscreen

text: For touchscreens to be effective input devices, users must be able to accurately select targets and avoid accidental selection of adjacent targets. The design of touchscreen interfaces should reflect technical capabilities of the system, ergonomics, cognitive psychology and human physiology.


title: Touchscreen

text: Guidelines for touchscreen designs were first developed in the 2000s, based on early research and actual use of older systems, typically using infrared grids—which were highly dependent on the size of the user's fingers. These guidelines are less relevant for the bulk of modern touch devices which use capacitive or resistive touch technology.


title: Touchscreen

text: From the mid-2000s, makers of operating systems for smartphones have promulgated standards, but these vary between manufacturers, and allow for significant variation in size based on technology changes, so are unsuitable from a human factors perspective.