title: Illeana Douglas

text: Douglas spent time in Sweden shooting a TV show called "Welcome to Sweden," which was produced by Amy Poehler and also starred Greg Poehler and Lena Olin. The series was a Swedish-American co-production that aired on Swedish TV as well as on NBC.


title: Illeana Douglas

text: Douglas has written and directed a comedy short "The Perfect Woman" (1993) (a satire about what men really want from women), the documentary "Everybody Just Stay Calm—Stories in Independent Filmmaking" (1994), and the satire "Boy Crazy, Girl Crazier" (1995). She has been the producer for several projects including "Illeanarama", a collection of her short films for the Sundance Channel.


title: Illeana Douglas

text: From 2008 to 2012, Douglas starred in a web series sponsored by IKEA called "Easy to Assemble," where she plays herself as an actor-in-recovery-from-acting who goes to work at IKEA. Douglas said that she had a great deal of autonomy from sponsor IKEA, whose only condition was that the show be suitable for children and families. It was canceled after 4 seasons.


title: Illeana Douglas

text: In 2015, Douglas produced and mentored women filmmakers in developing a web-series for Jill Soloway called "The Skinny."


title: Illeana Douglas

text: Douglas worked on a Turner Classic Movies series called "Friday Night Spotlight," a prime-time show featuring a month-long festival of movies programmed by special guests. The season that she worked on focused on the theme "Second Looks". Douglas said that curating, writing, and working on this series allowed her to use her movie knowledge while making it funny, entertaining, and informative.


title: Illeana Douglas

text: In 2015, in association with the advocacy group, Women in Film, Douglas presented a month-long series on the TCM cable channel called "Trailblazing Women," an initiative to highlight women's contributions to the art of cinema. Douglas became involved in the project when she found out that the American Film Institute's list of 100 greatest American movies didn't include "any" movies directed by women. The series was also in response to active discussions about the gender imbalance in Hollywood. The series will present work by female pioneers like Dorothy Arzner, Alice Guy-Blaché, Agnès Varda, Lina Wertmüller, as well as interviews with Allison Anders, Amy Heckerling, Julie Dash, and others. The series will be a multi-year event, with the first year's focus on women directors from the 1920s to the present. Each night is themed, with programming topics from foreign films to African-American filmmakers.


title: Illeana Douglas

text: In 2015 Douglas published a memoir called "I Blame Dennis Hopper" which was released through Flatiron Books. In the memoir, Douglas tells about her life via her love for the movies and her exposure to Hollywood through her paternal grandfather Melvyn Douglas. Not long after the book's release, she began a podcast with the same title.


title: Illeana Douglas

text: On May 16, 1998, she married producer and writer Jonathan Axelrod, the stepson of producer George Axelrod; they divorced in 2001. Douglas said that the period after her divorce was difficult both emotionally and financially, and that she relocated from living in Los Angeles to the New York area, where she took classes at her former school, the Neighborhood Playhouse, and worked in theater. She also began writing and directing.


title: Trial and execution of Nicolae and Elena Ceaușescu

text: The trial of Nicolae and Elena Ceaușescu was held on 25 December 1989 by an Exceptional Military Tribunal, a drumhead court-martial created at the request of a newly formed group called the National Salvation Front. Its outcome was pre-determined, and it resulted in guilty verdicts and death sentences for former Romanian President and Romanian Communist Party General Secretary, Nicolae Ceaușescu, and his wife, Elena Ceaușescu.


text: The main charge was genocide— namely, murdering "over 60,000 people" during the revolution in Timișoara. Other sources put the death toll between 689 and 1,200. Nevertheless, the charges did not affect the trial. General Victor Stănculescu had brought with him a specially selected team of paratroopers from a crack regiment, handpicked earlier in the morning to act as a firing squad. Before the legal proceedings began, Stănculescu had already selected the spot where the execution would take place: along one side of the wall in the barracks' square.


text: Nicolae Ceaușescu refused to recognize the tribunal, arguing its lack of constitutional basis and claiming that the revolutionary authorities were part of a Soviet plot.


text: On 22 December 1989, during the Romanian Revolution, Nicolae and Elena Ceaușescu left the Central Committee building in Bucharest by helicopter toward Snagov, from which they left soon after towards Pitești. The helicopter pilot claimed to be in danger of anti-aircraft fire, so he landed on the Bucharest–Târgoviște road, near Găești. They stopped a car driven by a Dr. Nicolae Decă, who took them to Văcărești, after which he informed the local authorities that the Ceaușescus were going toward Târgoviște. The Ceaușescus took another car and told its driver, Nicolae Petrișor, to drive them to Târgoviște. During the trip, the Ceaușescus heard news of the revolution on the car radio (by then the revolutionaries had taken control of the state media), causing Ceaușescu to angrily denounce the revolution as a "coup d'état". Petrișor took the couple to an agricultural centre near Târgoviște, where they were locked in an office and were later arrested by soldiers from a local army garrison.


text: As the new authorities heard the news of their apprehending from General Andrei Kemenici, the commander of the army unit, they began to discuss what to do with the Ceaușescus. Victor Stănculescu, who was Ceaușescu's last defence minister before going over to the revolution, wanted a quick execution, as did Gelu Voican Voiculescu. Ion Iliescu, Romania's provisional president, supported holding a trial first.


text: During the evening of 24 December 1989, Stănculescu sent the secret code "recourse to the method" to Kemenici, referring to the execution of the Ceaușescus. A ten-member tribunal was formed to try the case. The members of the panel were all military judges.


text: "The Independent" characterized the trial as "what can best be described as an egregiously conducted summary trial, at worst a kangaroo court".


text: The morning of the trial, prominent lawyer Nicu Teodorescu was having Christmas breakfast with his family when he was telephoned by an aide to Iliescu, and asked by the National Salvation Front to be the Ceaușescus' defence counsel. He replied that it would be "an interesting challenge". Teodorescu met the couple for the first time in the Târgoviște "court room", when he was given ten minutes to consult with his clients. With so little time to prepare any defence, he tried to explain to them that their best hope of avoiding the death sentence was to plead insanity. The Ceaușescus brushed off the idea; according to Teodorescu, "When [he] suggested it, Elena in particular said it was an outrageous set-up. They felt deeply insulted...They rejected [his] help after that."


text: The trial of Nicolae and Elena Ceaușescu was very brief, lasting approximately one hour. Ceaușescu defended himself by arguing that the tribunal was against the 1965 Constitution of Romania and that only the Great National Assembly had the power to depose him. He argued that it was a "coup d'état" organized by the Soviets.


text: Nicolae and Elena Ceaușescu were convicted of all charges and condemned to death in what amounted to a show trial. At one point, their forcibly-assigned lawyers abandoned their clients' defence and joined with the prosecutor, accusing them of capital crimes instead of defending them. No offer of proof was made for the Ceaușescus' alleged crimes. They were tried based on references, solely by offense-name or hearsay, to criminal acts they had committed in the opinion of prosecutors, or as alleged in press reports. Various irregularities presented themselves, or became apparent post-trial:


text: The Ceaușescus were executed at 4:00 p.m. local time at a military base outside Bucharest on 25 December 1989. The execution was carried out by a firing squad consisting of paratroop regiment soldiers: Captain Ionel Boeru, Sergeant-Major Georghin Octavian and Dorin-Marian Cirlan, while reportedly hundreds of others also volunteered. Before the execution, Nicolae Ceaușescu declared, "We could have been shot without having this masquerade!" The Ceaușescus' hands were tied by four soldiers before the execution. Popular history author Simon Sebag Montefiore has claimed that, before the sentences were carried out, Elena Ceaușescu screamed, "You sons of bitches!" while being led outside and lined up against the wall; at the same time Nicolae Ceaușescu sang "The Internationale".


text: The firing squad began shooting as soon as the two were in position against a wall. The execution happened too quickly for the television crew assigned to the trial and death sentence to videotape it in full; only the last round of shots was filmed. In 2014, retired Captain Boeru told a reporter for "The Guardian" newspaper that he believes that the shots he fired from his rifle were solely responsible for the deaths of both of the Ceaușescus, because, of the three soldiers in the firing squad, he was the only one who remembered to switch his Kalashnikov rifle to fire fully automatic, and at least one member of the group hesitated to shoot for several seconds. In 1990, a member of the National Salvation Front reported that 120 bullets were found in the couple's bodies.


text: In 1989, Prime Minister Petre Roman told French television that the execution was carried out quickly due to rumors that loyalists would attempt to rescue the couple.


text: After the execution, the bodies were covered with canvas. The Ceaușescus' corpses were taken to Bucharest and buried in Ghencea Cemetery on 25 December 1989.


text: The bodies were exhumed for identification and reburied in 2010. Groups of Ceaușescu supporters visit to place flowers on the grave, with large numbers of pensioners gathering on 26 January, Nicolae's birthday.


text: The hasty trial and the images of the dead Ceaușescus were videotaped and the footage promptly released in numerous Western countries two days after the execution. Later that day, it was also shown on Romanian television.


text: In 2009 Valentin Ceaușescu, elder son of the Ceaușescus, argued that the revolutionary forces should have killed his parents when they had arrested them on 22 December since they did not need any trial. After making vague comments about the incident, Ion Iliescu stated that it was "quite shameful, but necessary". In a similar vein, Stănculescu told the BBC in 2009 that the trial was "not just, but it was necessary" because the alternative would have been seeing Nicolae lynched on the streets of Bucharest.


text: Several countries criticized the new rulers of Romania after the execution due to lack of public trial. The United States was the most prominent critic of the trial, stating: "We regret the trial did not take place in an open and public fashion."


text: In December 2018, Iliescu, former Deputy Prime Minister Gelu Voican Voiculescu, former Romanian Air Force chief Iosif Rus, and former National Salvation Front council member Emil Dumitrescu were indicted by Romanian military prosecutors for crimes against humanity for the deaths that occurred during the Romanian Revolution, most of which took place after Ceaușescu was overthrown. The indictment also made reference to the conviction and execution of the Ceaușescus "after a mockery of a trial".<ref name="RFE/RL 2018"></ref> The investigation that led to the indictments had previously been closed in 2009, but was re-opened in 2016 as the result of a trial at the European Court of Human Rights. On 1 March 1990, Colonel Gică Popa, who presided over the trial and was promoted to General, was found dead in his office. His death was ruled as a suicide. The Ceaușescus were the last people to be executed in Romania before the abolition of capital punishment on 7 January 1990.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: Cagliari Calcio, commonly referred to as Cagliari (), is an Italian football club based in Cagliari, Sardinia. In the 2022-23 season, they compete in Serie B. As of 2021–22, the team is temporarily playing their home games at the 16,416-seat Unipol Domus, adjacent to their future new stadium site.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: Founded in 1920, they won their only "Scudetto" in 1969–70, when they were led by the Italian national team's all-time leading scorer, Gigi Riva. The triumph was also the first by a club from south of Rome. The club's best European performance was in the 1993–94 UEFA Cup, losing in the semi-finals to Internazionale.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: As with the flag of its city, Cagliari's colours are blue and red. The club badge incorporates the flag of Sardinia.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: Cagliari became the first ever out-right champions of Serie C during the 1951–52 season; prior to that in the league, the championship was shared amongst more than one team. They spent the 1950s from then on in Serie B, losing a promotion play-off in 1954. After descending to Serie C in the early 1960s, Cagliari's rise would be meteoric, eventually achieving promotion to Serie A in 1964.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: The squad for the "Rossoblu"'s debut season in Serie A featured players like defender Mario Martiradonna, midfielders Pierluigi Cera, Nené and Ricciotti Greatti, and forward Gigi Riva. A poor first half of the season, however, saw Cagliari in last place with nine points at the halfway mark. An astonishing second half of the season saw Cagliari defeat the likes of Juventus and Milan and finish in seventh place with 34 points. Two seasons later, Riva finished as Serie A's top scorer for the first time while Cagliari finished with the league's best defensive record.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: During the summer of 1967, Cagliari played a season in North America as part of a fledgling league called the United Soccer Association. This league included teams from Europe and South America set to play in American and Canadian cities, with each club bearing a local name. Cagliari played as the Chicago Mustangs, and finished joint second in the league's Western Division with 13 points, two behind the division champion and eventual league champion Los Angeles Wolves. The league's leading scorer was Chicago/Cagliari's Roberto Boninsegna, who scored ten goals while playing in 9 of the team's 12 games.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: Cagliari first emerged as serious Serie A title contenders in 1968–69 with a three-horse race involving them, Fiorentina and Milan. Fiorentina would win the league, but the following season would bring ultimate glory. With Angelo Domenghini joining the side, Cagliari would win the title in 1970 with only two games lost, 11 goals conceded (the fewest in any major European league to date) and Riva as league top scorer once more. Players like Albertosi, Niccolai, Boninsegna, Gori, Cera, Domenghini and Riva played in Italy's 1970 World Cup final team.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: The 1970s would see a gradual decline (though were title contenders two years after their one and only "Scudetto" win). Cagliari were finally relegated in 1976, with Riva's career having effectively ended during that season.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: After relegation, Cagliari lost a play-off for promotion the following season and would return to Serie A in 1979. Players like Franco Selvaggi, Mario Brugnera (a survivor of the 1970 team) and Alberto Marchetti ensured a respectable four-year stay in the top flight before a second relegation in 1983. The 1980s would then prove to be a darker time compared to the previous two decades with relegation to Serie C1 in 1987.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: Cagliari spent two seasons in Serie C1. In the first one it barely avoided relegation in Serie C2. In 1988, Claudio Ranieri was appointed coach, and led the team to two successive promotions, to Serie B in 1989 and to Serie A in 1990. The first two seasons back in Serie A saw Cagliari fight relegation, with safety being achieved by excellent second half runs. But the 1992–93 season would see Cagliari fight for a European place and succeed under the management of Carlo Mazzone. The following season saw a best-ever run to the semi-finals of the UEFA Cup, taking out Juventus in the quarter-finals before being eliminated 5–3 on aggregate by compatriots Internazionale, having won the first leg 3–2 at home.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: The next few years would see Cagliari return to mid-table anonymity, before a struggle in 1996–97 saw Cagliari relegated after losing a play-off to Piacenza. Once more they bounced back after just one year, but their next stay in Serie A lasted just two seasons.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: Cagliari spent the next four seasons in Serie B, until in 2003–04 with Sardinian-born veteran striker Gianfranco Zola, the team won promotion. In 2005–06, the first season without Zola, the team changed their manager three times before Nedo Sonetti, appointed in November, was able to save the team from relegation, especially thanks to the excellent goal contribution from Honduran striker David Suazo.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: Apart from finishing 9th in 2008–09 season, Cagliari regularly finished in the bottom half of Serie A under a sequence of managers, before being relegated in 2014–15. They gained promotion back the following season as champions of Serie B.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: In 2014 the company passed, after 22 years of Massimo Cellino's presidency, into the hands of Tommaso Giulini, president and owner of Fluorsid, a multinational in the chemical sector. Relegation took place in the first season but the team won the Serie B championship in 2016, returning permanently to the top division albeit always finishing in the second half of the table.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: Cagliari moved from the Stadio Amsicora to the Stadio Sant'Elia in 1970, after winning their only league title. It was renovated for Italy's hosting of the 1990 FIFA World Cup where it hosted all of England's group games, ostensibly to confine the team's notorious hooligans to an island.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: Disputes with the city council over renovation of the publicly owned stadium meant that Cagliari played their final home games of 2011–12 at the Stadio Nereo Rocco in Trieste on the Italian mainland. For most of the following season, the club played at the Stadio Is Arenas in the neighbouring municipality of Quartu Sant'Elena. It was deemed unsafe by the league, forcing them to play behind closed doors before leaving the ground in April 2013. The Sant'Elia was demolished for a new stadium in 2017, and the club moved to the temporary Sardegna Arena next to it.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: The official red and blue colours of Cagliari mirror those featured on the "stemma" of Cagliari. The red parts of the stemma are a reference to the coat of arms of the House of Savoy, a family which was previously the monarchy of Italy and more relevantly to Cagliari in particular, the Kingdom of Sardinia. The blue part of the "stemma" features the sky and the sea, also a castle; this is because the old historic centre of Cagliari is walled and called the "Castello". Due to the use of these colours on their shirt in halves, the club is commonly nicknamed "rossoblu".


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: Cagliari have had several different logo designs during their history, all of which feature the flag of Sardinia. Usually the badge also features the club colours; if there is a change, the main difference has been the colour of the border or the shape. Since June 2015, the badge features an "Old French"-shaped escutcheon with red and blue halves, with the club's name written in white just above the flag of Sardinia. The Moors' heads have, for the first time, been turned to the right as of 2015 so as to match the Sardinian flag after it was updated in 1992.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: Due to the fact that Cagliari are the main club from the island of Sardinia, they are nicknamed the ""Isolani"" ("Islanders").


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: This shortlist only includes players with at least 100 appearances for the club and/or an appearance in an edition of the FIFA World Cup.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: Cagliari have a long history of Uruguayan players, numbering 16 as of 2014; the most used of them was Diego López with 314 games, while others include Enzo Francescoli, José Herrera, Fabián O'Neill, Darío Silva, Nahitan Nandez and Diego Godin.


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: Cagliari have had numerous presidents over the course of their history, some of which have been the owners of the club, others have been honorary presidents, here is a complete list of them:


title: Cagliari Calcio

text: Cagliari have had many managers and trainers, some seasons they have had co-managers running the team, here is a chronological list of them from when they founded in 1920 onwards.


title: Stephen Humphrey Bogart

text: Stephen Humphrey Bogart (born January 6, 1949) is an American writer, producer, and businessman. He is the only son of actor Humphrey Bogart and actress Lauren Bacall, and authored three semi-autobiographical books about his family.


title: Stephen Humphrey Bogart

text: Bogart was born on January 6, 1949, in Los Angeles, California, to Lauren Bacall and Humphrey Bogart at the Cedars of Lebanon Hospital. Bogart and his younger sister, Leslie, were raised in the Holmby Hills neighborhood of Los Angeles, where his neighbors, who were also family friends, were Judy Garland and Frank Sinatra. After his father died in 1957, the family moved to New York City, where his mother had bought an apartment at The Dakota. His half-brother is the actor Sam Robards, son of Bacall and her second husband, Jason Robards. His mother enrolled Bogart at the Milton Academy, where he graduated in 1967. Afterward, he enrolled in the University of Pennsylvania and majored in English. He reported that he was unhappy with this, and changed to Boston University in 1969. Bogart met his first wife, Dale Gemelli, there. The couple married in 1969.


title: Stephen Humphrey Bogart

text: Bogart began his working career as an insurance agent, while he studied mass communications at the University of Hartford. He pursued a career in television news, and at the age of 39, he moved from New York to become a producer for NBC's "Sunday Today". Later, he took a job as an executive producer of a television news department.


title: Stephen Humphrey Bogart

text: Bogart oversees the management of the estate of Humphrey Bogart. The business owns and manages the name, image, and likeness rights of Humphrey Bogart. The estate hosts an annual Humphrey Bogart Film Festival in Key Largo, Florida. The estate owns and manages Santana Films, the successor to Humphrey Bogart's company, Santana Productions. The business is also the founding partner of the 'Bogart Spirits' liquor brand.


title: Stephen Humphrey Bogart

text: Bogart hosted the festival celebrating the 70th and 75th anniversary of the film "Casablanca" (which his father starred in) in 2012 and 2017.


title: Stephen Humphrey Bogart

text: Bogart has three adult children and currently lives in Naples, Florida. He is the brother-in-law of author and yoga master Erich Schiffmann.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: Amy Lynn Bradley (born May 12, 1974) is an American woman who went missing during a Caribbean cruise on the Royal Caribbean International cruise ship "Rhapsody of the Seas" in late March 1998 at the age of 23 while en route to Curaçao. Her whereabouts remain unknown to this day. She was a 23-year-old Longwood University graduate at the time of her disappearance.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: After midnight on Monday March 23, 1998, Amy and her younger brother Brad headed to the ship's nightclub to go dancing. Records show that Brad decided to return to his cabin earlier than Amy. The ship's door lock records show that Brad had entered his cabin at around 3:35 AM, and Amy soon followed five minutes later. The two chatted before heading to bed. Amy's father Ron awoke around 6:00 AM to check on his daughter only to find her missing from the balcony she earlier had slept on.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: When authorities were alerted that Amy was missing, the Netherlands Antilles Coast Guard conducted a four-day search in the surrounding waters and along the cruise lines to no result. Authorities began to speculate that she may have fallen overboard and drowned, but investigators have rejected this theory as Amy was known to be a strong swimmer and searches turned up no sign of her. There have been possible sightings of Bradley in Curaçao. In August 1998, tourists saw a woman resembling Bradley on a beach and in 1999 a member of the U.S. Navy claimed a woman in a brothel said she was Bradley and asked him for help.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: In the years after Amy's disappearance, there would arise some new evidence leading to theories including Amy being sold into a human trafficking industry or potential remains. The case has been presented on "Dr. Phil" in a segment entitled "The Search for Natalee: Amy Bradley", the case was also presented on "America's Most Wanted".


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: Amy Lynn Bradley was born on May 12, 1974 in Petersburg, Virginia. She was a resident of Chesterfield County, Virginia. She attended a local university, Longwood University, graduating with a degree in Physical Education. She attended with a scholarship in basketball and was known for her strong swimming abilities as well as having previously worked as a lifeguard. Amy was planning to start a new job at a computer consulting firm after she graduated university.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: As a celebratory event, Amy decided to join her family on a cruise vacation on the Royal Caribbean International cruise ship "Rhapsody of the Seas" en route for Curaçao, a Dutch Caribbean island under the Kingdom of the Netherlands.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: On March 21, 1998, Amy and her family boarded the cruise towards Curaçao. Prior to the time of the disappearance, Amy and her brother Brad decided to stay up late dancing to a Mardi Gras nightclub party on the ship and drink alcohol with the ship’s band, Blue Orchid. One of the band’s members, Alister Douglas, otherwise known as ‘Yellow’ was drinking with Amy that night where he claimed that he left the party at around 1:00 am. At the time, a videographer known as Chris Fenwick was also able to capture the moment where Amy and Yellow were dancing.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: After a couple of hours, Brad decided to rest for the rest of the night at the family cabin at around 3:35 am. The ship’s computerized door lock system recorded that Brad returned to the cabin at 3:35 am where Amy followed five minutes later. Brad reported that he and his sister sat on the suite’s balcony and talked before he went to sleep while Amy stayed awake for a while longer before she fell asleep shortly after.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: Between the times of 5:15 am and 5:30 am 24 March 1998, Amy’s father Ron woke up and got up to check on the status of his children where he saw Amy still sleeping on the lounge chair of their cabin’s balcony. Ron told local papers – “"could see Amy’s legs from her hips down. […] I dozed back off to sleep. The balcony door was closed, because if it hadn’t been closed, I would have gotten up and closed it." When he got up at 06:00 am, however, she was missing along with her cigarettes and lighter. He later said, "I left to try and go up and find her. When I couldn't find her, I didn't really know what to think, because it was very much unlike Amy to leave and not tell us where she was going." After Ron searched the common areas of the cruise, Ron woke up the rest of the family and told them Amy was missing at 6:30 am.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: Amy’s family immediately reported the missing case to the onboard crew where they continued to plead with the crew members to keep the 2,000 passengers from disembarking the cruise and to make an announcement to assist in finding Amy. However, the team at the purser’s office informed them that it was too early to make a ship-wide announcement. The crew agreed to issue an announcement at 7:50 am after a majority of the passengers left the ship announcing, “"Will Amy Bradley please come to the purser’s desk?”". Between 12:15 pm and 1:00 pm, the cruise staff searched through the ship but could not find Amy. The delay that the crew put on the search and investigation of the disappearance has been said to have led to lowering the chance of finding Amy by allowing the passengers to disembark ignoring the Bradley family's advice.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: The Dutch Caribbean Coast Guard conducted a four-day search that ended on 27 March 1998 and Royal Caribbean Cruise Lines chartered a boat to continue looking for her. The Coast Guard used three helicopters and a radar plane to assist in the search.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: Initially, the authorities suspected that Amy had either fallen overboard or committed suicide. However, this speculation was soon discredited as Amy was known to be a strong swimmer and her body was never found in the waters as well as no evidence of foul play.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: On the morning of the disappearance, two passengers told Ron that they saw a woman matching Amy’s description taking an elevator to the ship’s deck with cigarettes and a lighter. However, this did not lead to any findings.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: Another witness was a cab driver where he stated that a woman matching Amy’s description approached him and said she urgently needed a phone. This sighting was never confirmed by authorities.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: In August 1998, a Canadian computer engineer claimed to have seen Amy walking down with two men on a beach in Curaçao, five months after the disappearance was made public. The witness noticed that the woman was constantly trying to get his attention until he lost sight of her at a nearby café. The woman's tattoos were reportedly identical to Bradley's and man said he was “two feet away from her” and he was sure it was her with complete certainty.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: In January 1999, a U.S Navy Petty Officer claimed to have seen a woman who claimed to be Amy Bradley at a brothel in Curaçao. He claimed she told him that "her name was Amy Bradley and [she] begged him for help", explaining that she was held against her will and not allowed to leave and did not report the incident earlier as he feared for his career in the Navy having been in a brothel. The witness only contacted Amy’s family after he retired and saw her picture in a magazine. There was no evidence to support the witness’s claim.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: There was another potential sighting in 2005 when a witness named Judy Maurer claimed to have seen Bradley in a department store restroom in Barbados. She claimed a woman entered the restroom accompanied by three men who proceeded to threaten her if she did not follow through on a deal. She alleges that after the men left, she approached the distraught woman who said that her first name was Amy and that she was from Virginia before the men re-entered and took her away. Maurer called authorities and they created composite sketches of three men and the woman based on her account.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: In more recent years, Amy’s case has been revisited a couple of times. The cold case has resurfaced on "America’s Most Wanted" and on an episode on "Dr Phil". In the fall of 1999, Amy’s parents received an email from a self-proclaimed Navy Seal Soldier – Frank Jones. Frank told the family that he was a former US Army Special officer with a team of experienced soldiers who might be able to rescue Amy. Jones had claim that his team had seen Amy being held by heavily armed Colombian personnel in a housing complex surrounded by barbed wire. The team also gave an accurate description of Amy’s tattoos and sang the lullaby that Amy’s mother used to sing for Amy. Over the next few months, Frank would feed news to the family and provided reports on sightings of their daughter. When Jones told them they were going to attempt a rescue, he added that more funds were needed. The Bradleys sent Jones a total of $210,000 to fund the set up for Amy’s search and had expected a call from Jones and his team for the results of the rescue mission that never came. Jones had made the story up and had tried to scam the Bradleys of money. In February 2002, federal prosecutors in Richmond charged him with defrauding the Bradleys of $24,444 and the National Missing Children’s Organization of $186,416. Jones pleaded guilty in April of mail fraud and was sentenced to 5 years in prison.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: Another incident involved the finding of a jawbone that washed ashore in Aruba in 2010. Initially, it was thought to be the jawbone of another missing person’s case – Natalee Holloway – but once the jawbone was cleared of Holloway, authorities ceased any further testing despite the fact that there were nine other Caribbean vacationers that were said to be missing. No DNA testing was done on the material. They say that the bone is human and was likely from a Caucasian origin.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: Bradley's mother and father appeared on the November 17, 2005 episode of "Dr. Phil". An image of a young woman resembling Bradley that was emailed to her parents was shown on the program and it suggests that she might have been sold into sexual slavery. An email was sent to the Bradley family website containing two photographs of a woman that closely resembled Amy. The photographs were observed by a member of an organization that attempts to track victims on sites that feature sex workers. The woman in the photo has been said to appear “distraught and despondent” and was a sex worker known as Jas.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: There are some theories that are circulating the internet in regard to the disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley. One of these theories was that she was kidnapped and sold into the illegal human trafficking industry in the Caribbean. This theory is supported by various sources of evidence including a key witness from a US Navy Officer claiming that he heard a worker at a brothel in the Caribbean claiming to be Amy and a 2005 photo that was emailed to Amy’s family. Another piece of evidence would include the inconsistencies of the witnesses on the night of the disappearance. In People’s Magazine, Amy’s mother stated, “I remember watching people watch her admiringly” and later goes on to say “Amy would have been a trophy." This theory also includes suspicions of the staff/band members on the cruise on the night of the disappearance. One of these suspicions include the inconsistent story that the band member ‘Yellow’ presented to the authorities as opposed to what CCTV has captured that night. Many people suspected that a waiter was also involved with the disappearance. Throughout the night, Amy’s family was approached by the same waiter asking to pass on a note to Amy for him involving an invitation for her to go drinking with him once they reach shore. In addition, the professional photographer had printed out all photos taken throughout the cruise to sell at a stall, but the family could not find any of Amy’s photos making them think that the photos had been removed by somebody.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: Another theory authorities considered was that Amy was murdered on the ship and thrown overboard. However, the only evidence supporting this is the discovery of a jawbone which washed ashore on a beach in Aruba.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: Amy Lynn Bradley was declared legally dead on 24 March 2010, 12 years after the disappearance with no witnesses and no body found.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: The FBI is currently offering a reward of up to $25,000 for any information that could potentially lead to the recovery of Amy Lynn Bradley or leads to an arrest or conviction of the person(s) responsible for Amy’s disappearance. On top of this, the family is awarding $250,000 for information leading to her safe return and the family also has a reward of $50,000 for information leading to her current location.


title: Disappearance of Amy Lynn Bradley

text: Her case was featured on "America's Most Wanted" and the television show "Disappeared". Her case was also the subject of episode 59 of the Casefile podcast and the podcasts Crime Junkie and The Casual Criminalist.


title: Interquartile range

text: In descriptive statistics, the interquartile range (IQR) is a measure of statistical dispersion, which is the spread of the data. The IQR may also be called the midspread, middle 50%, fourth spread, or H‑spread. It is defined as the difference between the 75th and 25th percentiles of the data. To calculate the IQR, the data set is divided into quartiles, or four rank-ordered even parts via linear interpolation. These quartiles are denoted by Q (also called the lower quartile), "Q" (the median), and "Q" (also called the upper quartile). The lower quartile corresponds with the 25th percentile and the upper quartile corresponds with the 75th percentile, so IQR = "Q" −  "Q"


title: Interquartile range

text: The IQR is an example of a trimmed estimator, defined as the 25% trimmed range, which enhances the accuracy of dataset statistics by dropping lower contribution, outlying points. It is also used as a robust measure of scale It can be clearly visualized by the box on a Box plot.


title: Interquartile range

text: Unlike total range, the interquartile range has a breakdown point of 25%, and is thus often preferred to the total range.


title: Interquartile range

text: For a symmetric distribution (where the median equals the midhinge, the average of the first and third quartiles), half the IQR equals the median absolute deviation (MAD).


title: Interquartile range

text: The IQR can be used to identify outliers (see below). The IQR also may indicate the skewness of the dataset.


title: Interquartile range

text: The IQR of a set of values is calculated as the difference between the upper and lower quartiles, Q and Q. Each quartile is a median calculated as follows.


title: Interquartile range

text: This means the 1.5*IQR whiskers can be uneven in lengths. The median, minimum, maximum, and the first and third quartile constitute the Five-number summary.


title: Interquartile range

text: The interquartile range of a continuous distribution can be calculated by integrating the probability density function (which yields the cumulative distribution function—any other means of calculating the CDF will also work). The lower quartile, "Q", is a number such that integral of the PDF from -∞ to "Q" equals 0.25, while the upper quartile, "Q", is such a number that the integral from -∞ to "Q" equals 0.75; in terms of the CDF, the quartiles can be defined as follows:


title: Interquartile range

text: The IQR, mean, and standard deviation of a population "P" can be used in a simple test of whether or not "P" is normally distributed, or Gaussian. If "P" is normally distributed, then the standard score of the first quartile, "z", is −0.67, and the standard score of the third quartile, "z", is +0.67. Given "mean" = formula_3 and "standard deviation" = σ for "P", if "P" is normally distributed, the first quartile


title: Interquartile range

text: If the actual values of the first or third quartiles differ substantially from the calculated values, "P" is not normally distributed. However, a normal distribution can be trivially perturbed to maintain its Q1 and Q2 std. scores at 0.67 and −0.67 and not be normally distributed (so the above test would produce a false positive). A better test of normality, such as Q–Q plot would be indicated here.


title: Interquartile range

text: The interquartile range is often used to find outliers in data. Outliers here are defined as observations that fall below Q1 − 1.5 IQR or above Q3 + 1.5 IQR. In a boxplot, the highest and lowest occurring value within this limit are indicated by "whiskers" of the box (frequently with an additional bar at the end of the whisker) and any outliers as individual points.


title: Varicose veins

text: Varicose veins, also known as varicoses, are a medical condition in which superficial veins become enlarged and twisted. These veins typically develop in the legs, just under the skin. Varicose veins usually cause few symptoms. However, some individuals may experience fatigue or pain in the area. Complications can include bleeding or superficial thrombophlebitis. Varices in the scrotum are known as a varicocele, while those around the anus are known as hemorrhoids. Due to the various physical, social, and psychological effects of varicose veins, they can negatively affect one's quality of life.


title: Varicose veins

text: Varicose veins have no specific cause. Risk factors include obesity, lack of exercise, leg trauma, and family history of the condition. They also develop more commonly during pregnancy. Occasionally they result from chronic venous insufficiency. Underlying causes include weak or damaged valves in the veins. They are typically diagnosed by examination, including observation by ultrasound.


title: Varicose veins

text: Treatment may involve lifestyle changes or medical procedures with the goal of improving symptoms and appearance. Lifestyle changes may include wearing compression stockings, exercising, elevating the legs, and weight loss. Possible medical procedures include sclerotherapy, laser surgery, and vein stripping. Reoccurrence is common following treatment.


title: Varicose veins

text: Varicose veins are very common, affecting about 30% of people at some time in their lives. They become more common with age. Women develop varicose veins about twice as often as men. Varicose veins have been described throughout history and have been treated with surgery since at least A.D. 400.


title: Varicose veins

text: People with varicose veins might have a positive D-dimer blood test result due to chronic low-level thrombosis within dilated veins (varices).


title: Varicose veins

text: Most varicose veins are reasonably benign, but severe varicosities can lead to major complications, due to the poor circulation through the affected limb.


title: Varicose veins

text: Varicose veins are more common in women than in men and are linked with heredity. Other related factors are pregnancy, obesity, menopause, aging, prolonged standing, leg injury and abdominal straining. Varicose veins are unlikely to be caused by crossing the legs or ankles. Less commonly, but not exceptionally, varicose veins can be due to other causes, such as post-phlebitic obstruction or incontinence, venous and arteriovenous malformations.


title: Varicose veins

text: Venous reflux is a significant cause. Research has also shown the importance of pelvic vein reflux (PVR) in the development of varicose veins. Varicose veins in the legs could be due to ovarian vein reflux. Both ovarian and internal iliac vein reflux causes leg varicose veins. This condition affects 14% of women with varicose veins or 20% of women who have had vaginal delivery and have leg varicose veins. In addition, evidence suggests that failing to look for and treat pelvic vein reflux can be a cause of recurrent varicose veins.


title: Varicose veins

text: There is increasing evidence for the role of incompetent perforator veins (or "perforators") in the formation of varicose veins. and recurrent varicose veins.


title: Varicose veins

text: Varicose veins could also be caused by hyperhomocysteinemia in the body, which can degrade and inhibit the formation of the three main structural components of the artery: collagen, elastin and the proteoglycans. Homocysteine permanently degrades cysteine disulfide bridges and lysine amino acid residues in proteins, gradually affecting function and structure. Simply put, homocysteine is a 'corrosive' of long-living proteins, i.e. collagen or elastin, or lifelong proteins, i.e. fibrillin. These long-term effects are difficult to establish in clinical trials focusing on groups with existing artery decline. Klippel–Trenaunay syndrome and Parkes Weber syndrome are relevant for differential diagnosis.


title: Varicose veins

text: Another cause is chronic alcohol consumption due to the vasodilatation side effect in relation to gravity and blood viscosity.


title: Varicose veins

text: Traditionally, varicose veins were investigated using imaging techniques only if there was a suspicion of deep venous insufficiency, if they were recurrent, or if they involved the saphenopopliteal junction. This practice is now less widely accepted. People with varicose veins should now be investigated using lower limbs venous ultrasonography. The results from a randomised controlled trial on patients with and without routine ultrasound have shown a significant difference in recurrence rate and reoperation rate at 2 and 7 years of follow-up.


title: Varicose veins

text: The CEAP (Clinical, Etiological, Anatomical, and Pathophysiological) Classification, developed in 1994 by an international ad hoc committee of the American Venous Forum, outlines these stages


title: Varicose veins

text: Each clinical class is further characterized by a subscript depending upon whether the patient is symptomatic (S) or asymptomatic (A), e.g. C2S.


title: Varicose veins

text: Treatment options include surgery, laser and radiofrequency ablation, and ultrasound-guided foam sclerotherapy. Newer treatments include cyanoacrylate glue, mechanochemical ablation, and endovenous steam ablation. No real difference could be found between the treatments, except that radiofrequency ablation could have a better long-term benefit.


title: Varicose veins

text: The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) produced clinical guidelines in July 2013 recommending that all people with symptomatic varicose veins (C2S) and worse should be referred to a vascular service for treatment. Conservative treatments such as support stockings should not be used unless treatment was not possible.


title: Varicose veins

text: Stripping consists of removal of all or part the saphenous vein (great/long or lesser/short) main trunk. The complications include deep vein thrombosis (5.3%), pulmonary embolism (0.06%), and wound complications including infection (2.2%). There is evidence for the great saphenous vein regrowing after stripping. For traditional surgery, reported recurrence rates, which have been tracked for 10 years, range from 5% to 60%. In addition, since stripping removes the saphenous main trunks, they are no longer available for use as venous bypass grafts in the future (coronary or leg artery vital disease).


title: Varicose veins

text: A commonly performed non-surgical treatment for varicose and "spider leg veins" is sclerotherapy, in which medicine called a sclerosant is injected into the veins to make them shrink. The medicines that are commonly used as sclerosants are polidocanol (POL branded Asclera in the United States, Aethoxysklerol in Australia), sodium tetradecyl sulphate (STS), Sclerodex (Canada), Hypertonic Saline, Glycerin and Chromated Glycerin. STS (branded Fibrovein in Australia) liquids can be mixed at varying concentrations of sclerosant and varying sclerosant/gas proportions, with air or CO or O to create foams. Foams may allow more veins to be treated per session with comparable efficacy. Their use in contrast to liquid sclerosant is still somewhat controversial and there is no clear evidence that foam are superior. Sclerotherapy has been used in the treatment of varicose veins for over 150 years. Sclerotherapy is often used for telangiectasias (spider veins) and varicose veins that persist or recur after vein stripping. Sclerotherapy can also be performed using foamed sclerosants under ultrasound guidance to treat larger varicose veins, including the great saphenous and small saphenous veins.


title: Varicose veins

text: There is some evidence that sclerotherapy is a safe and may be an effective treatment option for improving the cosmetic appearance, reducing residual varicose veins, improving the quality of life, and reducing symptoms that may be present due to the varicose veins. There is also weak evidence that this treatment option may have a slightly higher risk of deep vein thrombosis. It is not known if sclerotherapy decreases the change that varicose veins return (recurrent varicose veins). It is also not known if the type of liquid, substance, or foam used for the sclerotherapy procedure is the most effective and comes with the lowest risk of complications.


title: Varicose veins

text: Complications of sclerotherapy are rare but can include blood clots and ulceration. Anaphylactic reactions are "extraordinarily rare but can be life-threatening," and doctors should have resuscitation equipment ready. There has been one reported case of stroke after ultrasound-guided sclerotherapy when an unusually large dose of sclerosant foam was injected.


title: Varicose veins

text: There are three kinds of endovenous thermal ablation treatment possible: laser, radiofrequency, and steam.


title: Varicose veins

text: The Australian Medical Services Advisory Committee (MSAC) in 2008 determined that endovenous laser treatment/ablation (ELA) for varicose veins "appears to be more effective in the short term, and at least as effective overall, as the comparative procedure of junction ligation and vein stripping for the treatment of varicose veins." It also found in its assessment of available literature, that "occurrence rates of more severe complications such as DVT, nerve injury, and paraesthesia, post-operative infections, and haematomas, appears to be greater after ligation and stripping than after EVLT". Complications for ELA include minor skin burns (0.4%) and temporary paresthesia (2.1%). The longest study of endovenous laser ablation is 39 months.


title: Varicose veins

text: Two prospective randomized trials found speedier recovery and fewer complications after radiofrequency ablation (ERA) compared to open surgery. Myers wrote that open surgery for small saphenous vein reflux is obsolete. Myers said these veins should be treated with endovenous techniques, citing high recurrence rates after surgical management, and risk of nerve damage up to 15%. By comparison ERA has been shown to control 80% of cases of small saphenous vein reflux at 4 years, said Myers. Complications for ERA include burns, paraesthesia, clinical phlebitis and slightly higher rates of deep vein thrombosis (0.57%) and pulmonary embolism (0.17%). One 3-year study compared ERA, with a recurrence rate of 33%, to open surgery, which had a recurrence rate of 23%.


title: Varicose veins

text: Steam treatment consists in injection of pulses of steam into the sick vein. This treatment which works with a natural agent (water) has similar results than laser or radiofrequency. The steam presents a lot of post-operative advantages for the patient (good aesthetic results, less pain, etc.)


title: Varicose veins

text: ELA and ERA require specialized training for doctors and special equipment. ELA is performed as an outpatient procedure and does not require an operating theatre, nor does the patient need a general anaesthetic. Doctors use high-frequency ultrasound during the procedure to visualize the anatomical relationships between the saphenous structures.


title: Varicose veins

text: Some practitioners also perform phlebectomy or ultrasound-guided sclerotherapy at the time of endovenous treatment. Follow-up treatment to smaller branch varicose veins is often needed in the weeks or months after the initial procedure. Steam is a very promising treatment for both doctors (easy introduction of catheters, efficient on recurrences, ambulatory procedure, easy and economic procedure) and patients (less post-operative pain, a natural agent, fast recovery to daily activities).


title: Varicose veins

text: Also called medical super glue, medical adhesive is an advanced non-surgical treatment for varicose veins during which a solution is injected into the diseased vein through a small catheter and under the assistance of ultrasound-guided imagery. The "super glue" solution is made of cyanoacrylate, aiming at sealing the vein and rerouting the blood flow to other healthy veins.


title: Varicose veins

text: Post-treatment, the body will naturally absorb the treated vein which will disappear. Involving only a small incision and no hospital stay, medical super glue has generated great interest within the last years, with a success rate of about 96.8%.


title: Varicose veins

text: A follow-up consultation is required after this treatment, just like any other one, in order to re-assess the diseased vein and further treat it if needed.


title: Varicose veins

text: In the field of varicose veins, the latest medical innovation is high-intensity focused ultrasound therapy (HIFU). This method is completely non-invasive and is not necessarily performed in an operating room, unlike existing techniques. This is because the procedure involves treating from outside the body, able to penetrate the skin without damage, to treat the veins in a targeted area. This leaves no scars and allows the patient to return to their daily life immediately.


title: Varicose veins

text: Varicose veins are most common after age 50. It is more prevalent in females. There is a hereditary role. It has been seen in smokers, those who have chronic constipation, and in people with occupations which necessitate long periods of standing such as wait staff, nurses, conductors (musical and bus), stage actors, umpires (cricket, javelin, etc.), the King's guards, lectern orators, security guards, traffic police officers, vendors, surgeons, etc.


title: Sexual addiction

text: According to proponents of the concept, sexual addiction, also known as sex addiction, is a state characterized by [[compulsive]] participation or engagement in [[Human sexual activity|sexual activity]], particularly [[sexual intercourse]], despite negative consequences. The concept is contentious; neither of the two major mainstream medical categorization systems recognise sex addiction as a real medical condition, instead categorizing such behavior under labels such as [[Compulsive sexual behaviour disorder|compulsive sexual behavior]].


title: Sexual addiction

text: Proponents of a diagnostic model for sexual addiction consider it to be one of several sex-related disorders within [[hypersexual disorder]]. The term "sexual dependence" is also used to refer to people who report being unable to control their [[sexual urges]], behaviors, or thoughts. Related or synonymous models of pathological sexual behavior include [[hypersexuality]] (nymphomania and satyriasis), [[erotomania]], [[Don Juanism]], and [[paraphilia]]-related disorders.


title: Sexual addiction

text: The concept of sexual addiction is contentious. There is considerable debate among [[psychiatrists]], [[psychologist]]s, [[sexologist]]s, and other specialists whether compulsive sexual behavior constitutes an addiction, and therefore its classification and possible diagnosis. [[Animal research]] has established that compulsive sexual behavior arises from the same [[transcriptional]] and [[epigenetic]] mechanisms that mediate [[drug addiction]] in laboratory animals; however, sexual addiction is not a clinical diagnosis in either the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM]] or [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems|ICD]] medical classifications of diseases and medical disorders. Some argue that applying such concepts to normal behaviors such as sex can be problematic, and suggest that applying medical models such as addiction to human sexuality can serve to pathologise normal behavior and cause harm.


title: Sexual addiction

text: The [[ICD-11]] created a new condition classification, [[Compulsive sexual behaviour disorder|compulsive sexual behavior disorder]], to cover "a persistent pattern of failure to control intense, repetitive sexual impulses or urges resulting in repetitive sexual behaviour". However, CSBD is not considered to be an addiction, and the [[WHO]] does not support a diagnosis of sex addiction.


title: Sexual addiction

text: None of the official diagnostic classification frameworks list "sexual addiction" as a distinct disorder.


title: Sexual addiction

text: The [[American Psychiatric Association]] (APA) publishes and periodically updates the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM), a widely recognized compendium of mental health diagnostics.


title: Sexual addiction

text: The version published in 1987 (DSM-III-R), referred to "distress about a pattern of repeated sexual conquests or other forms of [[paraphilia|nonparaphilic]] sexual addiction, involving a succession of people who exist only as things to be used." The reference to sexual addiction was subsequently removed. The DSM-IV-TR, published in 2000 (DSM-IV-TR), did not include sexual addiction as a mental disorder.


title: Sexual addiction

text: Some authors suggested that sexual addiction should be re-introduced into the DSM system; however, sexual addiction was rejected for inclusion in the [[DSM-5]], which was published in 2013. Darrel Regier, vice-chair of the DSM-5 task force, said that "[A]lthough '[[hypersexuality]]' is a proposed new addition...[the phenomenon] was not at the point where we were ready to call it an addiction." According to the APA, the proposed diagnosis was not included due to a lack of research into diagnostic criteria for compulsive sexual behavior.


title: Sexual addiction

text: The World Health Organization produces the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), which is not limited to mental disorders. The most recent approved version of that document, ICD-10, includes "excessive sexual drive" as a diagnosis (code F52.7), subdividing it into "satyriasis" (for males) and "nymphomania" (for females). However, the ICD categorizes these diagnoses as compulsive behaviors or impulse control disorders and not addiction. The most recent version of that document, ICD-11, includes "[[Compulsive sexual behaviour disorder|compulsive sexual behavior disorder]]" as a diagnosis (code 6C72) – however, it does not use the addiction model.


title: Sexual addiction

text: The [[Chinese Society of Psychiatry]] produces the [[Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders]] (CCMD), which is currently in its third edition the CCMD-3 does not include sexual addiction as a diagnosis.


title: Sexual addiction

text: Some mental health providers have proposed various, but similar, criteria for diagnosing sexual addiction, including [[Patrick Carnes]], Aviel Goodman, and the late Jonathan Marsh. Carnes authored the first clinical book about sex addiction in 1983, based on his own empirical research. His diagnostic model is still largely utilized by the thousands of certified sex addiction therapists (CSATs) trained by the organization he founded. No diagnostic proposal for sex addiction has been adopted into any official medical diagnostic manual, however.


title: Sexual addiction

text: During the update of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual to version 5 (DSM-5), the APA rejected two independent proposals for inclusion.


title: Sexual addiction

text: In 2011, the [[American Society of Addiction Medicine]] (ASAM), the largest medical consensus of physicians dedicated to treating and preventing addiction, redefined addiction as a chronic brain disorder, which for the first time broadened the definition of addiction from substances to include addictive behaviors and reward-seeking, such as gambling and sex.


title: Sexual addiction

text: The ICD, DSM and CCMD list promiscuity as a prevalent and problematic symptom for [[Borderline personality disorder|Borderline Personality Disorder]]. Individuals with this diagnosis sometimes engage in sexual behaviors that can appear out of control, distressing the individual or attracting negative reactions from others. There is therefore a risk that a person presenting with sex addiction, may in fact have Borderline Personality Disorder. This may lead to inappropriate or incomplete treatment.


title: Sexual addiction

text: In November 2016, the [[American Association of Sexuality Educators, Counselors and Therapists]] (AASECT), the official body for sex and relationship therapy in the United States, issued a position statement on sex addiction declaring that their organization "does not find sufficient empirical evidence to support the classification of sex addiction or porn addiction as a mental health disorder, and does not find the sexual addiction training and treatment methods and educational pedagogies to be adequately informed by accurate human sexuality knowledge. Therefore, it is the position of AASECT that linking problems related to sexual urges, thoughts or behaviors to a porn/sexual addiction process cannot be advanced by AASECT as a standard of practice for sexuality education delivery, counseling or therapy."


title: Sexual addiction

text: In 2017, three new USA sexual health organizations found no support for the idea that sex or adult films were addictive in their position statement.


title: Sexual addiction

text: On 16 November 2017 the [[Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers]] (ATSA) published a position against sending sex offenders to sex addiction treatment facilities. Those centers argued that "illegal" behaviors were symptoms of sex addiction, which ATSA challenged they had no scientific evidence to support.


title: Sexual addiction

text: Neuroscientists who are sex researchers state sex is not addictive. Addiction criteria were not met for sexual behaviours: “experimental studies do not support key elements of addiction such as escalation of use, difficulty regulating urges, negative effects, reward deficiency syndrome, withdrawal syndrome with cessation, tolerance, or enhanced late positive potentials.” Аs well as evidence of a key neurobiological feature of addiction is scarce in case of sex.


title: Sexual addiction

text: Yet, despite these advances, research related to sexual addiction remains in its infancy. A lack of theoretical integration, deficits in methodological rigor, a paucity of clinical samples, over reliance on convenience samples (i.e., university students or Mechanical Turk samples), the complete absence of epidemiological studies, widespread inconsistencies in the definitions and measurements of CSB, and a lack of treatment studies all still plague the literature related to sexual addiction. If scientists, researchers, and clinicians in this domain want to bring the field forward and provide evidence-based care to people who report out-of control sexual behaviors, all of the above are needed. (Grubbs et al. 2020)


title: Sexual addiction

text: ICD-11 added pornography to CSBD. [[Compulsive sexual behaviour disorder|CSBD]] is not an addiction and should not be conflated with sex addiction.


title: Sexual addiction

text: Animal research involving rats that exhibit compulsive sexual behavior has identified that this behavior is mediated through the same molecular mechanisms in the brain that mediate drug addiction. Sexual activity is an [[intrinsic reward]] that has been shown to act as a [[positive reinforcer]], strongly activate the [[reward system]], and induce the accumulation of [[ΔFosB]] in part of the [[striatum]] (specifically, the [[nucleus accumbens]]). Chronic and excessive activation of certain pathways within the reward system and the accumulation of ΔFosB in a specific group of neurons within the nucleus accumbens has been directly implicated in the development of the compulsive behavior that characterizes addiction.


title: Sexual addiction

text: In humans, a [[dopamine dysregulation syndrome]], characterized by drug-induced compulsive engagement in sexual activity or gambling, has also been observed in some individuals taking [[dopaminergic]] medications.


title: Sexual addiction

text: Current experimental models of addiction to natural rewards and drug reward demonstrate common alterations in [[gene expression]] in the [[mesocorticolimbic projection]]. [[ΔFosB]] is the most significant [[gene transcription]] factor involved in addiction, since its [[viral vector|viral]] or genetic overexpression in the [[nucleus accumbens]] is [[necessary and sufficient]] for most of the neural adaptations and plasticity that occur; it has been implicated in addictions to [[alcoholism|alcohol]], [[cannabinoid]]s, [[cocaine]], [[nicotine]], [[opioids]], [[phenylcyclidine]], and [[substituted amphetamines]]. [[ΔJunD]] is the transcription factor which directly opposes ΔFosB. Increases in nucleus accumbens ΔJunD expression can reduce or, with a large increase, even block most of the neural alterations seen in chronic drug abuse (i.e., the alterations mediated by ΔFosB).


title: Sexual addiction

text: ΔFosB also plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards, such as palatable food, sex, and exercise. Natural rewards, like drugs of abuse, induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens, and chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological addictive state. Thus, ΔFosB is also the key transcription factor involved in addictions to natural rewards as well, and sexual addictions in particular, since ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens is critical for the reinforcing effects of sexual reward. Research on the interaction between natural and drug rewards suggests that psychostimulants and sexual reward possess cross-sensitization effects and act on common biomolecular mechanisms of addiction-related neuroplasticity which are mediated through ΔFosB.


title: Sexual addiction

text: As of 2017, none of the official regulatory bodies for [[Sex therapy|Psycho-sexual Counseling]] or [[Relationship counseling|Sex and Relationship therapy]], have accepted sex addiction as a distinct entity with associated treatment protocols. Indeed, some practitioners regard sex addiction as a potentially harmful diagnosis and draw parallels with gay conversion therapy. As a result, treatment for sex addiction is more often provided by addiction professionals in the counseling field than psychosexual specialists. These counseling professionals typically hold advanced degrees of education including master's degrees or Doctorates in counseling or a related field like psychology. These counselors can also hold certifications like Licensed Professional Counselors (LPC-S) who are required to hold a master's degree or higher level of education. Therapists and Psychologists usually also hold a Master's in a related field of study.


title: Sexual addiction

text: [[Cognitive behavioral therapy]] is a common form of behavioral treatment for addictions and maladaptive behaviors in general. [[Dialectical behavior therapy]] has been shown to improve treatment outcomes as well. [[Certified Sex Addiction Therapist]]s (CSAT) a group of sexual addiction therapists certified by the [[International Institute for Trauma and Addiction Professionals]] offer specialized behavioral therapy designed specifically for sexual addiction. Their treatments have yet to be subject to peer-review, so it is unclear if they help or harm patients.


title: Sexual addiction

text: In-person support groups are available in most of the developed world. None yet have any scientific evidence to show whether or not they are helpful, so attendees do so at their own risk.


title: Sexual addiction

text: In places where none of the above are available, open meetings of [[Alcoholics Anonymous]] or [[Narcotics Anonymous]] may be a second-best option. At open AA and NA meetings, non-alcoholics/non-addicts are welcome to observe but not participate.


title: Sexual addiction

text: Support groups may be useful for uninsured or under-insured individuals. (See also: .) They may also be useful as an adjunct to professional treatment. In addition, they may be useful in places where professional practices are full (i.e. not accepting new patients), scarce, or nonexistent, or where these practices have waiting lists. Finally, they may be useful for patients who are reluctant to spend money on professional treatment.


title: Sexual addiction

text: The term "pre-exposure prophylaxis" (PrEP) generally refers to the use of [[antiviral drugs]] to help [[prevention of HIV/AIDS|prevent AIDS]]. PrEP is an optional treatment for people who are HIV-negative, but have a substantial risk of getting an HIV infection.


title: Sexual addiction

text: According to a systematic review from 2014, observed prevalence rates of sexual addiction/hypersexual disorder range from 3% to 6%. Some studies suggest that sex addicts are disproportionately male, at 80%.


title: Sexual addiction

text: Sex addiction as a term first emerged in the mid-1970s when various members of [[Alcoholics Anonymous]] sought to apply the principles of [[twelve-step program|12-steps]] toward sexual recovery from serial infidelity and other unmanageable compulsive sex behaviors that were similar to the powerlessness and un-manageability they experienced with alcoholism. Multiple 12-step style self-help groups now exist for people who identify as sex addicts, including [[Sex Addicts Anonymous]], [[Sexaholics Anonymous]], [[Sex and Love Addicts Anonymous]], and [[Sexual Compulsives Anonymous]].


title: Sexual addiction

text: The controversy surrounding sexual addiction is centered around its identification, through a diagnostic model, in a clinical setting. As noted in current medical literature reviews, compulsive sexual behavior has been observed in humans; drug-induced compulsive sexual behavior has also been noted clinically in some individuals taking [[dopaminergic]] drugs. Moreover, some research suggests compulsive engagement in sexual behavior despite negative consequences in animal models. Since current diagnostic models use drug-related concepts as diagnostic criteria for addictions, these are ill-suited for modelling compulsive behaviors in a clinical setting. Consequently, diagnostic classification systems, such as the DSM, do not include sexual addiction as a diagnosis because there is currently "insufficient peer-reviewed evidence to establish the diagnostic criteria and course descriptions needed to identify these behaviors as mental disorders". A systematic review on sexual addiction conducted in 2014 argued that the "lack of empirical evidence on sexual addiction is the result of the disease's complete absence from versions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders."


title: Sexual addiction

text: There have been debates regarding the definition and existence of sexual addictions for decades, as the issue was covered in a 1994 journal article. The [[Mayo Clinic]] considers sexual addiction a form of [[obsessive compulsive disorder]] and refer to it as "sexual compulsivity" (note that addiction has been defined as a compulsion toward rewarding stimuli, although the ASAM now describe it as "a primary, chronic disease of brain reward, motivation, memory and related circuitry.")). A paper dating back to 1988 and a journal comment letter published in 2006 asserted that sex addiction is itself a myth, a by-product of cultural and other influences. The 1988 paper argued that the condition is instead a way of projecting [[social stigma]] onto patients. "Love addiction" falls into the same controversial area as well since it refers to a frequent pattern of intimate relationships which can be a by product of cultural norms and commonly accepted morals.


title: Sexual addiction

text: In a report from 2003, [[Marty Klein]], stated that "the concept of sex addiction provides an excellent example of a model that is both sex-negative and politically disastrous." Klein singled out a number of features that he considered crucial limitations of the sex addiction model and stated that the diagnostic criteria for sexual addiction are easy to find on the internet. Drawing on the "[[International Institute for Trauma and Addiction Professionals#Resources|Sexual Addiction Screening Test]]", he stated that "the sexual addiction diagnostic criteria make problems of nonproblematic experiences, and as a result pathologize a majority of people."


title: Sexual addiction

text: Sexual addiction has been the main theme in a variety of films including "[[Diary of a Sex Addict]]", "[[I Am a Sex Addict]]", "[[Black Snake Moan (film)|Black Snake Moan]]", "[[Confessions of a Porn Addict]]", "[[Shame (2011 film)|Shame]]", "[[Thanks for Sharing]]", "[[Don Jon]]", and "[[Choke (2008 film)|Choke]]".


title: Janine Turner

text: Janine Turner (born Janine Loraine Gauntt; December 6, 1962) is an American actress best known for her roles as Maggie O'Connell in the television series "Northern Exposure", as Jessie Deighan in the feature film "Cliffhanger", and as Katie McCoy in "Friday Night Lights". She is an author, public speaker and founder and co-chair of Constituting America 2010.


title: Janine Turner

text: Turner was born Janine Loraine Gauntt in Lincoln, Nebraska, the daughter of Janice Loraine ("née" Agee) and Turner Maurice Gauntt Jr. Her parents returned to their native Texas soon after her birth, and Turner grew up in Euless and Fort Worth, Texas.


title: Janine Turner

text: In 1978, the 15-year-old Turner left home to pursue a modeling career with the Wilhelmina Modeling Agency in New York City. She began her acting career in 1980 in Hollywood, appearing in several episodes of "Dallas". In October 1981 Turner could be seen in a television commercial for Buf-Puf body sponge. She continued to make guest appearances on television shows throughout the 1980s before landing the role of Laura Templeton on "General Hospital".


title: Janine Turner

text: By 1986, Turner had become frustrated by the quality of the roles she was getting. As she told the "Chicago Tribune" five years later, "I was always working, but I wanted to do more serious roles and knew that I had the talent. I had to get away from Hollywood." Disregarding her agent's advice, Turner moved to New York in order to hone her craft, studying in Manhattan with Marcia Haufrecht of the Actors Studio.


title: Janine Turner

text: I gained a new respect and appreciation for acting in New York. And I decided that I didn't want to lock myself into roles that portrayed women negatively. I turned a lot of (TV and film) opportunities down because of that. Everyone thought I was crazy. I was really going for broke. I only had eight dollars left and had become very depressed right before I got the part in "Northern Exposure".


title: Janine Turner

text: After her breakthrough in "Northern Exposure", Turner appeared in the action film "Cliffhanger" opposite Sylvester Stallone. She next appeared as June Cleaver in a "Leave It to Beaver" film adaptation of television's original "Leave it to Beaver", then in "", and "Dr. T & the Women" with Richard Gere. She also appeared in "No Regrets" and numerous movies of the week.


title: Janine Turner

text: In 2004, Turner wrote, produced, and directed the award-winning "Trip in a Summer Dress", a film about a strong-willed mother and her children. In 2006, she appeared in a low-budget movie filmed in Dallas, "The Night of the White Pants", with Tom Wilkinson. In 2007, she co-wrote, co-produced, and starred in "Christoga", a Christian Yoga DVD, Turner also co-wrote and produced an album, "Mockingbird Hill", in which both she and her daughter Juliette sang.


title: Janine Turner

text: In 2008, Turner began a 12-episode run on the NBC television series "Friday Night Lights". She portrayed Katie McCoy, mother of a talented high school football quarterback.


title: Janine Turner

text: In 2010 Turner founded and is the co-president of the organization Constituting America with co-president Cathy Gillespie, aimed at educating American adults and students about the non-partisan relevancy of the U.S. Constitution.


title: Janine Turner

text: On May 21, 2011, Turner began hosting a live two-hour talk show, "The Janine Turner Show", on talk radio station KLIF (AM) in Dallas, and in Houston, KPRC (AM), followed by iHeart Radio until 2013. It was awarded "Best Radio Show in Dallas".


title: Janine Turner

text: Turner is the author of four books, "Holding Her Head High: Inspiration from 12 Single Mothers Who Championed Their Children and Changed History","A Little Bit Vulnerable: On Hollywood, God, Sobriety, & Politics", "Wisdom For Each Day: Inherited From My Great Grandfather", and "Artificial Intelligentsia Vs. Primal Sense". "Holding Her Head High" focuses on single mothers through history, such as Rachel Lavein Fawcett, the abandoned single mother of Alexander Hamilton.


title: Janine Turner

text: In 2006, Turner was appointed a member of the President's Council on Service and Civic Participation.


title: Janine Turner

text: In 2010, Turner launched her public speaking career on the national circuit and became a sought-after public inspirational speaker on a plethora of topics, including heart health, sobriety, faith, the Constitution, and politics. She speaks at corporate events, civic events, schools, universities, and churches.


title: Janine Turner

text: Turner has described herself as "socially liberal and fiscally conservative. I'm almost more libertarian." Turner has written 85 essays on the 85 Federalist Papers, and many op-ed pieces for the "Washington Examiner", "The Washington Times", and FoxNews.com. Turner has written a petition, "The Truth Act" – and corresponding white paper, "Long and Little Known: How Incoherent Statutes Harm Liberty & the Rule of Law".


title: Janine Turner

text: Turner has never married. Her daughter, Juliette Turner-Jones, was born in 1997. Juliette legally hyphenated her surname in 2006 to include the name of her father, Jerry Jones Jr., son of the Dallas Cowboys' owner. Turner was once engaged to Alec Baldwin and also dated Troy Aikman, Mikhail Baryshnikov, and Sylvester Stallone. As of 2014, Turner was living on a longhorn cattle ranch outside Dallas with her daughter.


title: Bear in the Big Blue House

text: Bear in the Big Blue House is an American children's television series created by Mitchell Kriegman and produced by Jim Henson Television for Disney Channel's Playhouse Disney preschool television block. Debuting on October 20, 1997, it aired its last episode on April 28, 2006. Reruns of the program continued to air on Playhouse Disney until May 6, 2007.


title: Bear in the Big Blue House

text: In 2004, The Jim Henson Company sold the rights to the show, including characters, content library and copyrights, to The Walt Disney Company; it is now owned by The Muppets Studio, a subsidiary of Disney that also owns, and is named after, The Muppets characters and copyrights.


title: Bear in the Big Blue House

text: Bear lives in the Big Blue House where he is caregiver for his friends Ojo, a bear cub; Tutter, a mouse; Treelo, a lemur; otters Pip and Pop; and narrator Shadow. He and his friends have many adventures together. Those normally include solving problems, sharing, cooperating with each other, and developing social/life skills.


title: Bear in the Big Blue House

text: Each episode opens with the welcome song, Bear detecting a scent in the viewers (which he likens to a pleasant smell) and appearance of the characters. Each show focuses on a theme (ex; "sleep", "doctors", "Thanksgiving") which folds into a lesson at the end. Songs and jokes accompany the episode. The character "Shadow" narrates a segment with shadow puppets in each episode. Most of the segments are in song, while some are simply a short story relating to the episode's theme. At the end of the program, Bear sings the goodbye song with Luna, the moon.


title: Bear in the Big Blue House

text: Several of these characters appeared in a music video for the We Are Family Foundation. Bear also appeared as a celebrity in the 2002 revival of "The Hollywood Squares"; he notably appeared in Whoopi Goldberg's final episode.


title: Bear in the Big Blue House

text: "Bear in the Big Blue House" was initially produced from 1997 to 2003. The sudden death of Lynne Thigpen, who voiced 'Luna' the Moon, led to production being put on hiatus for three years, along with a planned film.


title: Bear in the Big Blue House

text: In 2005, two years after Thigpen's death, Tara Mooney, who voiced Shadow, told Irish radio station Today FM that "the crew's hearts just weren't in it anymore".


title: Bear in the Big Blue House

text: After the hiatus and the spin-off "Breakfast with Bear", a final run of new episodes aired on the Disney Channel in April 2006, with the last episode airing on April 28, 2006. Repeats of the show ceased altogether in May 2007 (December 2010 in the UK). Thigpen was posthumously nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for voicing Luna.


title: Bear in the Big Blue House

text: "Bear in the Big Blue House" was made available for streaming on Disney+ on October 19, 2022. Several episodes were unavailable on the streaming service.


title: Bear in the Big Blue House

text: The show was shown throughout the world including in the United Kingdom on Playhouse Disney UK and Channel 5, on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation in Australia and on RTÉ Two in Ireland.


title: Energy drink

text: An energy drink is a type of drink containing stimulant compounds, usually caffeine, which is marketed as providing mental and physical stimulation (marketed as "energy", but distinct from food energy). They may or may not be carbonated and may also contain sugar, other sweeteners, herbal extracts, taurine, and amino acids. They are a subset of the larger group of energy products, which includes bars and gels, and distinct from sports drinks, which are advertised to enhance sports performance. There are many brands and varieties in this drink category.


title: Energy drink

text: Coffee, tea and other naturally caffeinated drinks are usually not considered energy drinks. Other soft drinks such as cola may contain caffeine, but are not considered energy drinks either. Some alcoholic drinks, such as Buckfast Tonic Wine, contain caffeine and other stimulants. According to the Mayo Clinic, it is safe for the typical healthy adult to consume a total of 400 mg of caffeine a day. This has been confirmed by a panel of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), which also concludes that a caffeine intake of up to 400 mg per day does not raise safety concerns for adults. According to the ESFA this is equivalent to 4 cups of coffee (90 mg each) or 2 1/2 standard cans (250 ml) of energy drink (160 mg each/80 mg per serving).


title: Energy drink

text: Energy drinks have the effects of caffeine and sugar, but there is little or no evidence that the wide variety of other ingredients have any effect. Most effects of energy drinks on cognitive performance, such as increased attention and reaction speed, are primarily due to the presence of caffeine. Other studies ascribe those performance improvements to the effects of the combined ingredients. Advertising for energy drinks usually features increased muscle strength and endurance, but there is no scientific consensus to support these claims. Energy drinks have been associated with many health risks, such as an increased rate of injury when usage is combined with alcohol, and excessive or repeated consumption can lead to cardiac and psychiatric conditions. Populations at risk for complications from energy drink consumption include youth, caffeine-naïve or caffeine-sensitive, pregnant, competitive athletes and people with underlying cardiovascular disease.


title: Energy drink

text: Energy drinks are marketed to young people and provide the benefits among health effects of caffeine along with benefits from the other ingredients they contain. Health experts agree that energy drinks which contain caffeine do improve alertness. The consumption of alcoholic drinks combined with energy drinks is a common occurrence on many high school and college campuses. The alcohol industry has recently been criticized for marketing cohesiveness of alcohol and energy drinks. The combination of the two in college students is correlated to students experiencing alcohol-related consequences, and several health risks.


title: Energy drink

text: There is no reliable evidence that other ingredients in energy drinks provide further benefits, even though the drinks are frequently advertised in a way that suggests they have unique benefits. The dietary supplements in energy drinks may be purported to provide produce benefits, such as for vitamin B12, but no claims of using supplements to enhance health in otherwise normal people have been verified scientifically. Various marketing organizations such as Red Bull and Monster have described energy drinks by saying their product "gives you wings", is "scientifically formulated", or is a "killer energy brew". Marketing of energy drinks has been particularly directed towards teenagers, with manufacturers sponsoring or advertising at extreme sports events and music concerts, and targeting a youthful audience through social media channels. There is some evidence that L-Theanine, a compound found in some energy drinks, has positive effects on mood, anxiety and cognitive function; the effects are more pronounced in conjunction with caffeine.


title: Energy drink

text: When mixed with alcohol, either as a prepackaged caffeinated alcoholic drink, a mixed drink, or just a drink consumed alongside alcohol, energy drinks are often consumed in social settings.


title: Energy drink

text: Energy drinks have the effects caffeine and sugar provide, but there is little or no evidence that the wide variety of other ingredients have any effect. Most of the effects of energy drinks on cognitive performance, such as increased attention and reaction speed, are primarily due to the presence of caffeine. Advertising for energy drinks usually features increased muscle strength and endurance, but there is little evidence to support this in the scientific literature.


title: Energy drink

text: A caffeine intake of 400 mg per day (for an adult) is considered as safe from the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Adverse effects associated with caffeine consumption in amounts greater than 400 mg include nervousness, irritability, sleeplessness, increased urination, abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmia), and dyspepsia. Consumption also has been known to cause pupil dilation. Caffeine dosage is not required to be on the product label for food in the United States, unlike drugs, but most (although not all) place the caffeine content of their drinks on the label anyway, and some advocates are urging the FDA to change this practice.


title: Energy drink

text: Combined use of caffeine and alcohol may increase the rate of alcohol-related injury. Energy drinks can mask the influence of alcohol, and a person may misinterpret their actual level of intoxication. Since caffeine and alcohol are both diuretics, combined use increases the risk of dehydration, and the mixture of a stimulant (caffeine) and depressant (alcohol) sends contradictory messages to the nervous system and can lead to increased heart rate and palpitations. Although people decide to drink energy drinks with alcohol with the intent of counteracting alcohol intoxication, many others do so to hide the taste of alcohol. However, in the 2015, the EFSA concluded, that “Consumption of other constituents of energy drinks at concentrations commonly present in such beverages would not affect the safety of single doses of caffeine up to 200 mg.” Also the consumption of alcohol, leading to a blood alcohol content of about 0.08%, would, according to the EFSA, not affect the safety of single doses of caffeine up to 200 mg. Up to these levels of intake, caffeine is unlikely to mask the subjective perception of alcohol intoxication.


title: Energy drink

text: Excessive consumption of energy drinks can have serious health effects resulting from high caffeine and sugar intakes, particularly in children, teens, and young adults. Excessive energy drink consumption may disrupt teens' sleep patterns and may be associated with increased risk-taking behavior. Excessive or repeated consumption of energy drinks can lead to cardiac problems, such as arrhythmias and heart attacks, and psychiatric conditions such as anxiety and phobias. In Europe, energy drinks containing sugar and caffeine have been associated with the deaths of athletes. Reviews have noted that caffeine content was not the only factor, and that the cocktail of other ingredients in energy drinks made them more dangerous than drinks whose only stimulant was caffeine; the studies noted that more research and government regulation were needed.


title: Energy drink

text: Research suggests that emergency department (ED) visits are on the increase. In 2005, there were 1,494 emergency department visits related to energy drink consumption in the United States; whereas, in 2011, energy drinks were linked to 20,783 emergency department visits. During this period of increase, male consumers consistently had a higher likelihood of visiting the emergency department over their female counterparts. Research trends also show that emergency department visits are caused mainly by adverse reactions to the drinks. In 2011, there were 14,042 energy drink-related hospital visits. Misuse and abuse of these caffeinated drinks also cause a significant amount of emergency department visits. By 2011, there were 6,090 visits to the ED due to misuse/abuse of the drinks. In 42% of cases, patients had mixed energy drinks with another stimulant, and in the other 58% of cases the energy drink was the only thing that had been consumed. Several studies suggest that energy drinks may be a gateway drug.


title: Energy drink

text: Energy drinks were an active subset of the early soft drink industry; Pepsi, for instance, was originally marketed as an energy booster. Coca-Cola's name was derived from its two active ingredients, both known stimulants: coca leaves and kola nuts (a source of caffeine). Fresh coca leaves were replaced by "spent" ones in 1904 because of concerns over the use of cocaine in food products; the federal lawsuit "United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola" and subsequent litigation pressured The Coca-Cola Company into reducing the amount of caffeine in its formula by 1916, though the Food and Drug Administration ultimately lost the case against the inanimate Coca-Cola barrels because it failed to demonstrate that the caffeine levels in the drink—78 mg per 8 fl oz, a level comparable to modern energy drinks, at the time of the lawsuit—was harmful as alleged. These developments brought an end to the first wave of energy drinks.


title: Energy drink

text: In the UK, Lucozade Energy was originally introduced in 1927 by a Newcastle pharmacist, William Walker Hunter, as a hospital drink for "aiding the recovery;" in the early 1980s, it was promoted as an energy drink for "replenishing lost energy." One of the first post-"Forty Barrels" energy drinks introduced in America was Dr. Enuf. Its origins date back to 1949, when a Chicago businessman named William Mark Swartz was urged by coworkers to formulate a soft drink fortified with vitamins as an alternative to sugar sodas full of empty calories. He developed an "energy booster" drink containing B vitamins, caffeine and cane sugar. After placing a notice in a trade magazine seeking a bottler, he formed a partnership with Charles Gordon of Tri-City Beverage to produce and distribute the soda. Dr. Enuf is still being manufactured in Johnson City, Tennessee and sold sparsely throughout the nation.


title: Energy drink

text: In Japan, the energy drink dates at least as far back as the early 1960s, with the launch of the Lipovitan brand. However, in Japan, most of the products of this kind bear little resemblance to soft drinks, and are sold instead in small brown glass medicine bottles, or cans styled to resemble such containers. These "eiyō dorinku" (literally, "nutritional drinks") are marketed primarily to "salarymen". Bacchus-F, a South Korean drink closely modeled after Lipovitan, also appeared in the early 1960s and targets a similar demographic.


title: Energy drink

text: In 1985, Jolt Cola was introduced in the United States. Its marketing strategy centered on the drink's caffeine content, billing it as a means to promote wakefulness. The drink's initial slogan read: "All the sugar and twice the caffeine."


title: Energy drink

text: In 1995, PepsiCo launched Josta, the first energy drink introduced by a major US drink company (one that had interests outside energy drinks), but Pepsi discontinued the product in 1999. Pepsi would later return to the energy drink market with the AMP brand.


title: Energy drink

text: In Europe, energy drinks were pioneered by the Lisa company and a product named "Power Horse", before Dietrich Mateschitz, an Austrian entrepreneur, introduced the Red Bull product, a worldwide bestseller in the 21st century. Mateschitz developed Red Bull based on the Thai drink Krating Daeng, itself based on Lipovitan. Red Bull became the dominant brand in the US after its introduction in 1997, with a market share of approximately 47% in 2005.


title: Energy drink

text: In New Zealand and Australia, the leading energy drink product in those markets, V, was introduced by Frucor Beverages. The product now represents over 60% of market in New Zealand and Australia.


title: Energy drink

text: UK supermarkets have launched their own brands of energy drinks, sold at lower prices than the major soft drink manufacturers, that are mostly produced by Canadian beverage maker Cott. Tesco supermarkets sell "Kx" (formerly known as "Kick"), Sainsbury's sell "Blue Bolt" and Asda sell "Blue Charge"—all three drinks are sold in 250-milliliter cans and 1-liter bottles—while Morrison's sell "Source" in 250-milliliter cans. Cott sells a variety of other branded energy drinks to independent retailers in various containers.


title: Energy drink

text: In 2002, Hansen Natural Company introduced the energy drink Monster Energy. Hansen Natural Company changed their name to Monster Beverage Corporation after an agreement by shareholders to change the name after Monster Energy became the largest source of revenue. The company's previous beverages were taken ownership by The Coca-Cola Company.


title: Energy drink

text: Since 2002, there has been a growing trend for packaging energy drinks in bigger cans. In many countries, including the US and Canada, there is a limitation on the maximum caffeine per serving in energy drinks, so manufacturers include a greater amount of caffeine by including multiple servings per container. Popular brands such as Red Bull, Hype Energy Drinks and Monster have increased the can size.


title: Energy drink

text: The energy shot product, an offshoot of the energy drink, was launched in the US with products such as "5-Hour Energy," which was first released onto the market in 2004. A consumer health analyst explained in a March 2014 media article: "Energy shots took off because of energy drinks. If you’re a white collar worker, you’re not necessarily willing to down a big Monster energy drink, but you may drink an energy shot."


title: Energy drink

text: In 2007, energy drink powders and effervescent tablets were introduced, whereby either can be added to water to create an energy drink.


title: Energy drink

text: On 14 August 2012, the word "energy drink" was listed for the first time in the Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary.


title: Energy drink

text: Energy shots are a specialized kind of energy drink. Whereas most energy drinks are sold in cans or bottles, energy shots are usually sold in smaller 50ml bottles. Energy shots can contain the same total amount of caffeine, vitamins or other functional ingredients as their larger versions, and may be considered concentrated forms of energy drinks. The marketing of energy shots generally focuses on their convenience and availability as a low-calorie "instant" energy drink that can be taken in one swallow (or "shot"), as opposed to energy drinks that encourage users to drink an entire can, which may contain 250 calories or more. A common energy shot is 5-hour Energy which contains B vitamins and caffeine in an amount similar to a cup of coffee.


title: Energy drink

text: Energy drinks such as Red Bull are often used as mixers with alcoholic drinks, producing mixed drinks such as Vodka Red Bull which are similar to but stronger than rum and coke with respect to the amount of caffeine that they contain. Sometimes this is configured as a bomb shot, such as the Jägerbomb or the "F-Bomb" Fireball Cinnamon Whisky and Red Bull.


title: Energy drink

text: Caffeinated alcoholic drinks are also sold in some countries in a wide variety of formulations. The American products Four Loko and Joose originally combined caffeine and alcohol before caffeinated alcoholic drinks were banned in the U.S. in 2010.


title: Energy drink

text: Energy drinks generally contain methylxanthines (including caffeine), B vitamins, carbonated water, and high-fructose corn syrup or sugar (for non-diet versions). Other common ingredients are guarana, yerba mate, açaí, and taurine, plus various forms of ginseng, maltodextrin, inositol, carnitine, creatine, glucuronolactone, sucralose or ginkgo biloba. The sugar in non-diet energy drinks is food energy, while there is no scientific evidence that addition of other ingredients has any effect on human health.


title: Energy drink

text: In the United States, the caffeine content of energy drinks is in the range of 40 to 250 mg per 8 fluid ounce (237 ml) serving. The Food and Drug Administration recommends that 400 mg per day is safe for adults, while 1200 mg per day can be toxic.