title: Michelle Malkin

text: In 2017, Malkin endorsed alt-right candidate Paul Nehlen in his ultimately unsuccessful primary challenge against Paul Ryan for Wisconsin's 1st congressional district, citing Nehlen's opposition to "elites" who support open borders as the reason for her endorsement.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Malkin has advocated for interning Muslims on national security grounds. Malkin also defended "racial, ethnic, religious, and nationality profiling policies" used during the War on Terror.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Malkin has covered anti-Muslim topics on episodes of her CRTV show "Michelle Malkin Investigates", including "The Muslim Refugee Rape Epidemic" and "Honor Killings: The Real War on Women". Malkin promoted her 2019 book, "Open Borders Inc.", at the David Horowitz Freedom Center, a non-profit that has been described as Islamophobic.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Amanda Carpenter wrote in March 2020 that Malkin had begun to "link arms with the most vocal elements of the white nationalist movement". In August 2020, the Anti-Defamation League wrote, "in the past year ... she has publicly and explicitly allied herself with white supremacists" and that she herself was "echoing" white supremacist views. The Southern Poverty Law Center described her in January 2021 as a "former conservative-pundit-gone-white-nationalist-apologist".


title: Michelle Malkin

text: YAF dismissed Malkin in November 2019 after she gave a YAF-sponsored speech at UCLA titled "America First: the Torch Is Being Passed". In her speech, she praised Nick Fuentes as "one of the New Right leaders", and also spoke supportively of the Proud Boys, Laura Loomer, and Steve King. In 2020, Malkin faced criticism for speaking at the America First Political Action Conference, which is hosted by white nationalist Nick Fuentes and also featured Patrick Casey, the founder of the neo-Nazi group Identity Evropa. Malkin has also supported Gavin McInnes, and has described him and Laura Loomer as friends of hers. She has described herself as the "mommy" of the Groypers, a loose collection of white nationalists who follow Nick Fuentes.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: In 2020, Malkin appeared on "Red Ice", a white supremacist radio program, and cautioned listeners about changing demographics and "multicultural rot".


title: Michelle Malkin

text: In November 2021, Malkin delivered a speech at the annual American Renaissance Conference, hosted by the white supremacist New Century Foundation. Malkin and her family were subsequently banned from using Airbnb in reaction to her having appeared at the event.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: According to "Bridge Initiative", a Georgetown University research project on Islamophobia, Malkin has promoted antisemitic conspiracy theories about George Soros on her social media and on Fox News programs. In 2019, Malkin joined far-right commentator Gavin McInnes for a Facebook Live event to promote her book, and agreed with him when he claimed that Soros was "not a Holocaust survivor" but a "Holocaust facilitator": Malkin has denied accusations of anti-semitism, saying that she is "the proud wife of a grandson of Ukrainian Jews who came to this country to escape pogroms [and is] a proud supporter of Israel, but more importantly, a proud supporter of American sovereignty." At the 2020 America First Political Action Conference, Malkin said it was "not anti-semitic" to question "whatever the precise number of people is who perished in World War II."


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Following the 2020 United States presidential election, Malkin helped advance the conspiracy theory that the election was stolen from Trump. She used the #StopTheSteal hashtag on Twitter and spoke at a Stop the Steal rally in her hometown of Colorado Springs to protest the election results. She also appeared in a trailer for a film about the movement, which also featured Fuentes and Stop the Steal organizer Ali Alexander.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: While in college at Oberlin, she began dating Jesse Malkin. They married in 1993 and have two children. Jesse Malkin worked as a healthcare consultant for RAND Corporation. Jesse is a retired health economist, who now works on his wife's speaking engagements and helps her run her business.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Malkin and her family lived in North Bethesda, Maryland, until 2008 when they relocated to Colorado Springs, Colorado.


title: Shakti

text: In Hinduism, especially Shaktism (a theological tradition of Hinduism), Shakti (Devanagari: शक्ति, IAST: Śakti; lit. "Energy, ability, strength, effort, power, capability") is the primordial cosmic energy, female in aspect, and represents the dynamic forces that are thought to move through the universe. She is thought of as creative, sustaining, as well as destructive, and is sometimes referred to as auspicious source energy.


title: Shakti

text: Shakti is sometimes personified as the creator goddess, and is known as "Adi Shakti" or "Adi Parashakti" ("inconceivableprimordial energy"). In Shaktism, Adi Parashakti is worshipped as the Supreme Being. On every plane of creation, energy manifests itself into all forms of matter; these are all thought to be infinite forms of Parashakti. She is described as "anaadi" (with no beginning, no ending) and "nitya" (forever).


title: Shakti

text: One of the oldest representations of the goddess in India is in a triangular form. The Baghor stone, found in a Paleolithic context in the Son River valley and dating to 9,000–8,000 BCE, is considered an early example of a yantra. Kenoyer, part of the team that excavated the stone, considered that it was highly probable that the stone was associated with Shakti. The veneration of Shiva and Shakti was also prevalent in Indus valley civilization.


title: Shakti

text: The Shakti goddess has been syncretised with the Amman of South Indian tradition, especially in the states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh. There are many temples devoted to various incarnations of the Shakti goddess in most of the villages in South India. The people of the countryside believe that Amman is the bringer of rain, the protector of the village, the punisher of evil people, the cure of diseases, and the one who gives welfare to the village. They celebrate Shakti festivities with great pomp annually. Some examples of the deities assimilated into Shakti are Mahalakshmi, Kamakshi, Parvati, Lalita, Bhuvaneshwari, Durga, Meenakshi, Mariamman, Yellamma, Poleramma, Saraswati and Perantalamma.


title: Shakti

text: Shaktism regards Devi (lit., "the Goddess") as the Supreme Brahman itself with all other forms of divinity considered to be merely Her diverse manifestations. In the details of its philosophy and practice, Shaktism resembles Shaivism. However, "Shaktas" (, , ), practitioners of Shaktism, focus most or all worship on Shakti, as the dynamic feminine aspect of the Supreme Divine. Shiva, the masculine aspect of divinity, is considered solely transcendent, and Shiva's worship is usually secondary.


title: Shakti

text: In the Smarta Advaita sect of Hinduism, Shakti is considered to be one of five equal personal forms of God in the panchadeva system advocated by Adi Shankara.


title: Shakti

text: There are many ancient Shakti devotional songs and vibrational chants in the Hindu tradition. The recitation of the Sanskrit mantras is commonly used to call upon the Divine Mother.


title: Daisy Fuentes

text: Daisy Fuentes (born November 17, 1966) is a Cuban-American actress, comedian, model, television host and former weather presenter. Fuentes broke barriers as MTV's first Latina VJ (signed to MTV and MTV Latin America simultaneously) and as Revlon's first Latina spokesperson to be signed to a worldwide contract.


title: Daisy Fuentes

text: Daisy Fuentes was born on November 17, 1966 in Havana, Cuba, to a Cuban father and Spanish mother. In 1969, when Fuentes was three years old, her family fled the country to escape Fidel Castro's regime and moved to Madrid, Spain. Four years later, she moved with her family to Harrison, New Jersey, where she attended Harrison High School, was voted homecoming queen and "best looking", and graduated in 1984. An aspiring hairstylist, she enrolled in cosmetology school with dreams of opening her own salon. Later, she enrolled at Bergen Community College where she majored in communications.


title: Daisy Fuentes

text: While still a college student, Fuentes was hired to present the weather at the 6pm and 11pm newscasts at WNJU-TV 47, the local affiliate of Spanish-language TV network, Telemundo. Shortly after, Fuentes took a position with New York's Univision affiliate WXTV-TV 41 where in addition to being the weather anchor, she reported for the evening news.


title: Daisy Fuentes

text: In 1988, in addition to her weather duties, Fuentes hosted "MTV Internacional", a one-hour Spanish language music show that aired in Latin America and the U.S. on Telemundo Network which made her well known in the Spanish-language TV market in the U.S. and Latin America. Fuentes joined MTV in 1993, becoming the first Latina VJ in the U.S., while also hosting shows for MTV Latin America. While at MTV Fuentes was also a host of the fashion and modeling series, "House of Style", among other correspondent gigs. With MTV she achieved name recognition as one of that network's more popular hosts and soon was courted by companies to be a spokesmodel. She later landed a role on the ABC soap opera "Loving". Fuentes appeared on shows such as "Dream On", "The Larry Sanders Show", and "Cybill". From 1994 to 1995 she hosted her own talk show, "Daisy", on CNBC. She was the co-host of "America's Funniest Home Videos", along with John Fugelsang, from 1998 to 1999 making her the only female host of the show. She hosted the "ALMA Award", "Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve", the 1998 "World Music Awards", the 1999 Billboard Latin Awards, and the Miss Teen USA, Miss USA, and Miss Universe pageants. She guest-starred in the TV series "Queen of Swords" episode "Running Wild" in 2000. Also in 2000, she starred opposite Steve Borden (professional wrestler 'Sting') in the made-for-TV movie "Shutterspeed".


title: Daisy Fuentes

text: Daisy Fuentes has appeared on many magazine covers and has starred in nationally televised ads for Revlon, Pantene, American Express, M&M's and others. She was the first Mind, Body, Spirit Superstar, which was created to generate awareness of top women's health causes and work to promote change. In 2005, Fuentes appeared on the three page cover of People en Español's "50 most beautiful" women. Fuentes has hosted numerous TV shows and specials.


title: Daisy Fuentes

text: She made her debut in the haircare category with an all-natural hair care line called "Daisy Fuentes Style Pro" in March 2009 to mass retailers. Her workout game for the Wii, "Daisy Fuentes Pilates", was released in August 2009.


title: Daisy Fuentes

text: Each year Fuentes sells about $300 million worth of goods, including hair care, fragrances, clothing, sunglasses, and accessories at Kohl's department stores.


title: Daisy Fuentes

text: Fuentes signed a prescription-eye wear licensing deal with Zyloware. Zyloware is an eyewear manufacturer that also has licensing deals with the "American Idol" judge, Randy Jackson, and Sophia Loren, for a women's Latina-driven collection of prescription glasses.


title: Daisy Fuentes

text: Currently, Fuentes is co-presenter of "La Voz Kids" on Telemundo, the Spanish-language TV version of the show "The Voice" with kids and judges Paulina Rubio, Prince Royce, and Roberto Tapia.


title: Daisy Fuentes

text: Fuentes also previously offered relationship advice on the "Matty's Dating Advice Corner" segment of the "Fantasy Focus" podcast with Matthew Berry.


title: Daisy Fuentes

text: In addition to her work as an actress and model, Fuentes has become actively involved in charity, helping raise money for breast cancer research and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. Daisy Fuentes speaks often in support of charities including the March of Dimes and Starlight Children's Foundation. Fuentes has been the celebrity chairman for the annual St. Jude Angeles & Stars gala in Miami since its debut in Miami more than 7 years ago, raising millions of dollars for this organization. In 2007, Fuentes worked for Girls On the Run, a non-profit prevention program that encouraged preteen girls to develop self-respect and healthy lifestyles through running.


title: Daisy Fuentes

text: Fuentes currently hosts "A New Leaf" on NBC Saturday mornings, sponsored by Ancestry.com. "A New Leaf" will follow everyday people on the cusp of key life inflection points, using family history, genealogy and sometimes DNA analysis to help guide them on their journey of self‑discovery. Along the way, viewers will learn about different cultures as our featured guest uncovers new information about their family's heritage. Each week, "A New Leaf" will teach viewers the importance of appreciating and understanding their family history in order to make important decisions and enact positive changes in their lives. Fuentes has also worked with many breast cancer awareness causes such as the Revlon / UCLA Women's Breast Cancer Research program. She received an award at The Wellness Community West Los Angeles Tribute to the Human Spirit Awards dinner for her commitment to spreading breast cancer awareness, particularly in the Latino community.


title: Daisy Fuentes

text: Fuentes considers Harrison, New Jersey, to be her home, even though her parents left New Jersey for Miami. She has one sister, Rosana Fuentes Brijbag (born June 25, 1971), who lives in Miami with her family.


title: Daisy Fuentes

text: Fuentes was married to actor and model Timothy Adams from 1991 to 1995. She met Luis Miguel when she interviewed him that same year. The pair dated for three years before breaking up in 1998. She went on to date singer/songwriter Matt Goss. He moved into her Hollywood Hills home, and they were engaged in 2003 but did not marry. They broke off the relationship in January 2010.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (; ) (19 October 1910 – 21 August 1995) was an Indian-American theoretical physicist who spent his professional life in the United States. He shared the 1983 Nobel Prize for Physics with William A. Fowler for "...theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars". His mathematical treatment of stellar evolution yielded many of the current theoretical models of the later evolutionary stages of massive stars and black holes. Many concepts, institutions, and inventions, including the Chandrasekhar limit and the Chandra X-Ray Observatory, are named after him.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: Chandrasekhar worked on a wide variety of problems in physics during his lifetime, contributing to the contemporary understanding of stellar structure, white dwarfs, stellar dynamics, stochastic process, radiative transfer, the quantum theory of the hydrogen anion, hydrodynamic and hydromagnetic stability, turbulence, equilibrium and the stability of ellipsoidal figures of equilibrium, general relativity, mathematical theory of black holes and theory of colliding gravitational waves. At the University of Cambridge, he developed a theoretical model explaining the structure of white dwarf stars that took into account the relativistic variation of mass with the velocities of electrons that comprise their degenerate matter. He showed that the mass of a white dwarf could not exceed 1.44 times that of the Sun – the Chandrasekhar limit. Chandrasekhar revised the models of stellar dynamics first outlined by Jan Oort and others by considering the effects of fluctuating gravitational fields within the Milky Way on stars rotating about the galactic centre. His solution to this complex dynamical problem involved a set of twenty partial differential equations, describing a new quantity he termed "dynamical friction", which has the dual effects of decelerating the star and helping to stabilize clusters of stars. Chandrasekhar extended this analysis to the interstellar medium, showing that clouds of galactic gas and dust are distributed very unevenly.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: Chandrasekhar studied at Presidency College, Madras (now Chennai) and the University of Cambridge. A long-time professor at the University of Chicago, he did some of his studies at the Yerkes Observatory, and served as editor of "The Astrophysical Journal" from 1952 to 1971. He was on the faculty at Chicago from 1937 until his death in 1995 at the age of 84, and was the Morton D. Hull Distinguished Service Professor of Theoretical Astrophysics.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: Chandrasekhar was born in Lahore on 19 October 1910 of the British Raj (present-day Pakistan) in a Tamil Brahmin family, to Sita Balakrishnan (1891–1931) and Chandrasekhara Subrahmanya Ayyar (1885–1960) who was stationed in Lahore as Deputy Auditor General of the Northwestern Railways at the time of Chandrasekhar's birth. He had two elder sisters, Rajalakshmi and Balaparvathi, three younger brothers, Vishwanathan, Balakrishnan, and Ramanathan, and four younger sisters, Sarada, Vidya, Savitri, and Sundari. His paternal uncle was the Indian physicist and Nobel laureate Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman. His mother was devoted to intellectual pursuits, had translated Henrik Ibsen's "A Doll's House" into Tamil and is credited with arousing Chandra's intellectual curiosity at an early age. The family moved from Lahore to Allahabad in 1916, and finally settled in Madras in 1918.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: Chandrasekhar was tutored at home until the age of 12. In middle school his father taught him mathematics and physics and his mother taught him Tamil. He later attended the Hindu High School, Triplicane, Madras during the years 1922–25. Subsequently, he studied at Presidency College, Madras (affiliated to the University of Madras) from 1925 to 1930, writing his first paper, "The Compton Scattering and the New Statistics", in 1929 after being inspired by a lecture by Arnold Sommerfeld. He obtained his bachelor's degree, BSc (Hon.), in physics, in June 1930. In July 1930, Chandrasekhar was awarded a Government of India scholarship to pursue graduate studies at the University of Cambridge, where he was admitted to Trinity College, secured by R. H. Fowler with whom he communicated his first paper. During his travels to England, Chandrasekhar spent his time working out the statistical mechanics of the degenerate electron gas in white dwarf stars, providing relativistic corrections to Fowler's previous work (see Legacy below).


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: In his first year at Cambridge, as a research student of Fowler, Chandrasekhar spent his time calculating mean opacities and applying his results to the construction of an improved model for the limiting mass of the degenerate star. At the meetings of the Royal Astronomical Society, he met E. A. Milne. At the invitation of Max Born he spent the summer of 1931, his second year of post-graduate studies, at Born's institute at Göttingen, working on opacities, atomic absorption coefficients, and model stellar photospheres. On the advice of P. A. M. Dirac, he spent his final year of graduate studies at the "Institute for Theoretical Physics" in Copenhagen, where he met Niels Bohr.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: After receiving a bronze medal for his work on degenerate stars, in the summer of 1933, Chandrasekhar was awarded his PhD degree at Cambridge with a thesis among his four papers on rotating self-gravitating polytropes. On 9 October, he was elected to a Prize Fellowship at Trinity College for the period 1933–1937, becoming only the second Indian to receive a Trinity Fellowship after Srinivasa Ramanujan 16 years earlier. He had been so certain of failing to obtain the fellowship that he had already made arrangements to study under Milne that autumn at Oxford, even going to the extent of renting a flat there.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: During this time, Chandrasekhar became acquainted with British physicist Sir Arthur Eddington. In an infamous encounter at the Royal Astronomical Society in London in 1935, Eddington publicly ridiculed the concept of the Chandrasekhar limit. Although Eddington would later be proved wrong by computers and the first positive identification of a black hole in 1972, this encounter caused Chandrasekhar to contemplate employment outside the UK. Later in life, on multiple occasions, Chandrasekhar expressed the view that Eddington's behaviour was in part racially motivated.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: In 1935, Chandrasekhar was invited by the Director of the Harvard Observatory, Harlow Shapley, to be a visiting lecturer in theoretical astrophysics for a three-month period. He travelled to the United States in December. During his visit to Harvard, Chandrasekhar greatly impressed Shapley, but declined his offer of a Harvard research fellowship. At the same time, Chandrasekhar met Gerard Kuiper, a noted Dutch astrophysical observationalist who was then a leading authority on white dwarfs. Kuiper had recently been recruited by Otto Struve, the Director of the Yerkes Observatory in Williams Bay, Wisconsin, which was run by the University of Chicago, and the university's President Robert Maynard Hutchins. Having known of Chandrasekhar, Struve was then considering him for one of three faculty posts in astrophysics, along with Kuiper; the other opening had been filled by Bengt Stromgren, a Danish theorist. Following a recommendation from Kuiper, Struve invited Chandrasekhar to Yerkes in March 1936 and offered him the job. Though Chandrasekhar was keenly interested, he initially declined the offer and left for England; after Hutchins sent a radiogram to Chandrasekhar during the voyage, he finally accepted, returning to Yerkes as an Assistant Professor of Theoretical Astrophysics in December 1936. Hutchins also intervened on an occasion where Chandra's participation on teaching a course organised by Struve, was vetoed by the dean Henry Gale based on a racial prejudice; Hutchins said "By all means have Mr.Chandrasekhar teach".


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: Chandrasekhar remained at the University of Chicago for his entire career. He was promoted to associate professor in 1941 and to full professor two years later at the age of 33. In 1946, when Princeton University offered Chandrasekhar a position vacated by Henry Norris Russell with a salary double that of Chicago's, Hutchins incremented his salary matching with that of Princeton's and persuaded Chandrasekhar to stay in Chicago. In 1952, he became Morton D. Hull Distinguished Service Professor of Theoretical Astrophysics and Enrico Fermi Institute, upon Enrico Fermi's invitation. In 1953, he and his wife, Lalitha Chandrasekhar, took American citizenship.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: After the Laboratory for Astrophysics and Space Research (LASR) was built by NASA in 1966 at the university, Chandrasekhar occupied one of the four corner offices on the second floor. (The other corners housed John A. Simpson, Peter Meyer, and Eugene N. Parker.) Chandrasekhar lived at 4800 Lake Shore Drive after the high-rise apartment complex was built in the late 1960s, and later at 5550 Dorchester Building.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: During World War II, Chandrasekhar worked at the Ballistic Research Laboratory at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland. While there, he worked on problems of ballistics, resulting in reports such as 1943's "", "", "", "" and "". Chandrasekhar's expertise in hydrodynamics led Robert Oppenheimer to invite him to join the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, but delays in the processing of his security clearance prevented him from contributing to the project. It has been rumoured that he visited the Calutron project.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: He wrote that his scientific research was motivated by his desire to participate in the progress of different subjects in science to the best of his ability, and that the prime motive underlying his work was "systematization". "What a scientist tries to do essentially is to select a certain domain, a certain aspect, or a certain detail, and see if that takes its appropriate place in a general scheme which has form and coherence; and, if not, to seek further information which would help him to do that".


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: Chandrasekhar developed a unique style of mastering several fields of physics and astrophysics; consequently, his working life can be divided into distinct periods. He would exhaustively study a specific area, publish several papers in it and then write a book summarizing the major concepts in the field. He would then move on to another field for the next decade and repeat the pattern. Thus he studied stellar structure, including the theory of white dwarfs, during the years 1929 to 1939, and subsequently focused on stellar dynamics, theory of Brownian motion from 1939 to 1943. Next, he concentrated on the theory of radiative transfer and the quantum theory of the negative ion of hydrogen from 1943 to 1950. This was followed by sustained work on turbulence and hydrodynamic and hydromagnetic stability from 1950 to 1961. In the 1960s, he studied both the equilibrium and the stability of ellipsoidal figures of equilibrium, and general relativity. During the period, 1971 to 1983 he studied the mathematical theory of black holes, and, finally, during the late 80s, he worked on the theory of colliding gravitational waves.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: Chandra worked closely with his students and expressed pride in the fact that over a 50-year period (from roughly 1930 to 1980), the average age of his co-author collaborators had remained the same, at around 30. He insisted that students address him as "Prof. Chandrasekhar" until they received their PhD degree, after which time they (as other colleagues) were encouraged to address him as "Chandra". When Chandrasekhar was working at the Yerkes Observatory in 1940s, he would drive to and from every weekend to teach a course at the University of Chicago. Two of the students who took the course, Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen-Ning Yang, won the Nobel prize before he could get one for himself. Regarding classroom interactions during his lectures, noted astrophysicist Carl Sagan stated from firsthand experience that "frivolous questions" from unprepared students were "dealt with in the manner of a summary execution", while questions of merit "were given serious attention and response".


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: From 1952 to 1971 Chandrasekhar was editor of "The Astrophysical Journal". When Eugene Parker submitted a paper on his discovery of solar wind in 1957, two eminent reviewers rejected the paper. However, since Chandra as an editor could not find any mathematical flaws in Parker's work, he went ahead and published the paper in 1958.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: During the years 1990 to 1995, Chandrasekhar worked on a project devoted to explaining the detailed geometric arguments in Sir Isaac Newton's "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" using the language and methods of ordinary calculus. The effort resulted in the book "Newton's Principia for the Common Reader", published in 1995. Chandrasekhar was an honorary member of the International Academy of Science.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: While working with his last graduate student Sandip Chakrabarti from 1983 to 1985, Chandrasekhar was interested in the solution of the Dirac equation in Kerr geometry, collision of gravitational waves, and algebraically special perturbations.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: Chandrasekhar married Lalitha Doraiswamy in September 1936. He met her as a fellow student at Presidency College. He became a naturalized citizen of the U.S. in 1953. Many considered him as warm, positive, generous, unassuming, meticulous, and open to debate, while some others as private, intimidating, impatient and stubborn regarding non-scientific matters, and unforgiving to those who ridiculed his work.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: Chandrasekhar died of a heart attack at the University of Chicago Hospital in 1995, having survived a prior heart attack in 1975. He was survived by his wife, who died on 2 September 2013 at the age of 102. She was a serious student of literature and western classical music.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: Once when involved in a discussion about the Gita, Chandrasekhar said, "I should like to preface my remarks with a personal statement in order that my later remarks will not be misunderstood. I consider myself an atheist". This was also confirmed many times in his other talks. In an interview with Kevin Krisciunas at the University of Chicago, on 6 October 1987, Chandrasekhar commented: "Of course, he (Otto Struve) knew I was an atheist, and he never brought up the subject with me".


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: Chandrasekhar was awarded half of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 for his studies on the physical processes important to the structure and evolution of stars. Chandrasekhar accepted this honour, but was upset the citation mentioned only his earliest work, seeing it as a denigration of a lifetime's achievement. He shared it with William A. Fowler.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: Chandrasekhar's most notable work is on the astrophysical Chandrasekhar limit. The limit gives the maximum mass of a white dwarf star, ~1.44 solar masses, or equivalently, the minimum mass that must be exceeded for a star to collapse into a neutron star or black hole (following a supernova). The limit was first calculated by Chandrasekhar in 1930 during his maiden voyage from India to Cambridge, England for his graduate studies. In 1979, NASA named the third of its four "Great Observatories" after Chandrasekhar. This followed a naming contest which attracted 6,000 entries from fifty states and sixty-one countries. The Chandra X-ray Observatory was launched and deployed by Space Shuttle "Columbia" on 23 July 1999. The Chandrasekhar number, an important dimensionless number of magnetohydrodynamics, is named after him. The asteroid 1958 Chandra is also named after Chandrasekhar. The Himalayan Chandra Telescope is named after him. In the "Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society of London", R. J. Tayler wrote: "Chandrasekhar was a classical applied mathematician whose research was primarily applied in astronomy and whose like will probably never be seen again."


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: Chandrasekhar supervised 45 PhD students. After his death, his widow Lalitha Chandrasekhar made a gift of his Nobel Prize money to the University of Chicago towards the establishment of the Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Memorial Fellowship. First awarded in the year 2000, this fellowship is given annually to an outstanding applicant to graduate school in the PhD programs of the Department of Physics or the Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics. S. Chandrasekhar Prize of Plasma Physics is an award given by Association of Asia Pacific Physical Societies (AAPS) to outstanding plasma physicists, started in the year 2014.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: The Chandra Astrophysics Institute (CAI) is a program offered for high school students who are interested in astrophysics mentored by MIT scientists and sponsored by the Chandra X-ray Observatory. Carl Sagan praised him in the book "The Demon-Haunted World": "I discovered what true mathematical elegance is from Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar." On 19 October 2017, Google showed a Google Doodle in 28 countries honouring Chandrasekhar's 107th birthday and the Chandrasekhar limit.


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: In 2010, on account of Chandra's 100th birthday, University of Chicago conducted a symposium titled "Chandrasekhar Centennial Symposium 2010" which was attended by leading astrophysicists such as Roger Penrose, Kip Thorne, Freeman Dyson, Jayant V. Narlikar, Rashid Sunyaev, G. Srinivasan, and Clifford Will. Its research talks were published in 2011 as a book titled "Fluid flows to Black Holes: A tribute to S Chandrasekhar on his birth centenary".


title: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: Chandrasekhar published around 380 papers in his lifetime. He wrote his first paper in 1928 when he was still an undergraduate student about Compton effect and last paper which was accepted for publication just two months before his death was in 1995 which was about non-radial oscillation of stars. The University of Chicago Press published selected papers of Chandrasekhar in seven volumes.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Fick's laws of diffusion describe diffusion and were derived by Adolf Fick in 1855. They can be used to solve for the diffusion coefficient, . Fick's first law can be used to derive his second law which in turn is identical to the diffusion equation.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: A diffusion process that obeys Fick's laws is called normal or Fickian diffusion; otherwise, it is called anomalous diffusion or non-Fickian diffusion.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: In 1855, physiologist Adolf Fick first reported his now well-known laws governing the transport of mass through diffusive means. Fick's work was inspired by the earlier experiments of Thomas Graham, which fell short of proposing the fundamental laws for which Fick would become famous. Fick's law is analogous to the relationships discovered at the same epoch by other eminent scientists: Darcy's law (hydraulic flow), Ohm's law (charge transport), and Fourier's Law (heat transport).


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Fick's experiments (modeled on Graham's) dealt with measuring the concentrations and fluxes of salt, diffusing between two reservoirs through tubes of water. It is notable that Fick's work primarily concerned diffusion in fluids, because at the time, diffusion in solids was not considered generally possible. Today, Fick's Laws form the core of our understanding of diffusion in solids, liquids, and gases (in the absence of bulk fluid motion in the latter two cases). When a diffusion process does "not" follow Fick's laws (which happens in cases of diffusion through porous media and diffusion of swelling penetrants, among others), it is referred to as "non-Fickian".


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Fick's first law relates the diffusive flux to the gradient of the concentration. It postulates that the flux goes from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration, with a magnitude that is proportional to the concentration gradient (spatial derivative), or in simplistic terms the concept that a solute will move from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration across a concentration gradient. In one (spatial) dimension, the law can be written in various forms, where the most common form (see) is in a molar basis:


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: In two or more dimensions we must use , the del or gradient operator, which generalises the first derivative, obtaining


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: The driving force for the one-dimensional diffusion is the quantity , which for ideal mixtures is the concentration gradient.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Another form for the first law is to write it with the primary variable as mass fraction (, given for example in kg/kg), then the equation changes to:


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Beyond this, in chemical systems other than ideal solutions or mixtures, the driving force for diffusion of each species is the gradient of chemical potential of this species. Then Fick's first law (one-dimensional case) can be written


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Fugacity formula_8 has Pa units. formula_8 is a partial pressure of component i in a vapor formula_10 or liquid formula_11 phase. At vapor liquid equilibrium the evaporation flux is zero because formula_12.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Four versions of Fick's law for binary gas mixtures are given below. These assume: thermal diffusion is negligible; the body force per unit mass is the same on both species; and either pressure is constant or both species have the same molar mass. Under these conditions, Ref. shows in detail how the diffusion equation from the kinetic theory of gases reduces to this version of Fick's law:


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: If (instead of or in addition to formula_15) both species have the same molar mass, Fick's law becomes


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Fick's second law predicts how diffusion causes the concentration to change with respect to time. It is a partial differential equation which in one dimension reads:


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: In two or more dimensions we must use the Laplacian , which generalises the second derivative, obtaining the equation


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Fick's second law has the same mathematical form as the Heat equation and its fundamental solution is the same as the Heat kernel, except switching thermal conductivity formula_22 with diffusion coefficient formula_23:


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Fick's second law can be derived from Fick's first law and the mass conservation in absence of any chemical reactions:


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Assuming the diffusion coefficient to be a constant, one can exchange the orders of the differentiation and multiply by the constant:


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: If the diffusion coefficient is not a constant, but depends upon the coordinate or concentration, Fick's second law yields


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: An important example is the case where is at a steady state, i.e. the concentration does not change by time, so that the left part of the above equation is identically zero. In one dimension with constant , the solution for the concentration will be a linear change of concentrations along . In two or more dimensions we obtain


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: which is Laplace's equation, the solutions to which are referred to by mathematicians as harmonic functions.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Fick's second law is a special case of the convection–diffusion equation in which there is no advective flux and no net volumetric source. It can be derived from the continuity equation:


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: where is the total flux and is a net volumetric source for . The only source of flux in this situation is assumed to be diffusive flux:


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Plugging the definition of diffusive flux to the continuity equation and assuming there is no source (), we arrive at Fick's second law:


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: If flux were the result of both diffusive flux and advective flux, the convection–diffusion equation is the result.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: A simple case of diffusion with time in one dimension (taken as the -axis) from a boundary located at position , where the concentration is maintained at a value is


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: where is the complementary error function. This is the case when corrosive gases diffuse through the oxidative layer towards the metal surface (if we assume that concentration of gases in the environment is constant and the diffusion space – that is, the corrosion product layer – is "semi-infinite", starting at 0 at the surface and spreading infinitely deep in the material). If, in its turn, the diffusion space is "infinite" (lasting both through the layer with , and that with , ), then the solution is amended only with coefficient in front of (as the diffusion now occurs in both directions). This case is valid when some solution with concentration is put in contact with a layer of pure solvent. (Bokstein, 2005) The length is called the "diffusion length" and provides a measure of how far the concentration has propagated in the -direction by diffusion in time (Bird, 1976).


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: As a quick approximation of the error function, the first two terms of the Taylor series can be used:


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: This idea is useful for estimating a diffusion length over a heating and cooling cycle, where varies with temperature.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Another simple case of diffusion is the Brownian motion of one particle. The particle's Mean squared displacement from its original position is:


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: where formula_37 is the dimension of the particle's Brownian motion. For example, the diffusion of a molecule across a cell membrane 8 nm thick is 1-D diffusion because of the spherical symmetry; However, the diffusion of a molecule from the membrane to the center of a eukaryotic cell is a 3-D diffusion. For a cylindrical cactus, the diffusion from photosynthetic cells on its surface to its center (the axis of its cylindrical symmetry) is a 2-D diffusion.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: The square root of MSD, formula_38, is often used as a characterization of how far has the particle moved after time formula_39 has elapsed. The MSD is symmetrically distributed over the 1D, 2D, and 3D space. Thus, the probability distribution of the magnitude of MSD in 1D is Gaussian and 3D is a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: The Chapman–Enskog formulae for diffusion in gases include exactly the same terms. These physical models of diffusion are different from the test models which are valid for very small deviations from the uniform equilibrium. Earlier, such terms were introduced in the Maxwell–Stefan diffusion equation.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: For anisotropic multicomponent diffusion coefficients one needs a rank-four tensor, for example , where refer to the components and correspond to the space coordinates.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Equations based on Fick's law have been commonly used to model transport processes in foods, neurons, biopolymers, pharmaceuticals, porous soils, population dynamics, nuclear materials, plasma physics, and semiconductor doping processes. The theory of voltammetric methods is based on solutions of Fick's equation. On the other hand, in some cases a "Fickian (another common approximation of the transport equation is that of the diffusion theory)" description is inadequate. For example, in polymer science and food science a more general approach is required to describe transport of components in materials undergoing a glass transition. One more general framework is the Maxwell–Stefan diffusion equations


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: of multi-component mass transfer, from which Fick's law can be obtained as a limiting case, when the mixture is extremely dilute and every chemical species is interacting only with the bulk mixture and not with other species. To account for the presence of multiple species in a non-dilute mixture, several variations of the Maxwell–Stefan equations are used. See also non-diagonal coupled transport processes (Onsager relationship).


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: When two miscible liquids are brought into contact, and diffusion takes place, the macroscopic (or average) concentration evolves following Fick's law. On a mesoscopic scale, that is, between the macroscopic scale described by Fick's law and molecular scale, where molecular random walks take place, fluctuations cannot be neglected. Such situations can be successfully modeled with Landau-Lifshitz fluctuating hydrodynamics. In this theoretical framework, diffusion is due to fluctuations whose dimensions range from the molecular scale to the macroscopic scale.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: In particular, fluctuating hydrodynamic equations include a Fick's flow term, with a given diffusion coefficient, along with hydrodynamics equations and stochastic terms describing fluctuations. When calculating the fluctuations with a perturbative approach, the zero order approximation is Fick's law. The first order gives the fluctuations, and it comes out that fluctuations contribute to diffusion. This represents somehow a tautology, since the phenomena described by a lower order approximation is the result of a higher approximation: this problem is solved only by renormalizing the fluctuating hydrodynamics equations.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: The adsorption or absorption rate of a dilute solute to a surface or interface in a (gas or liquid) solution can be calculated using Fick's laws of diffusion. The accumulated number of molecules adsorbed on the surface is expressed by the Langmuir-Schaefer equation at the short-time limit by integrating the diffusion flux equation over time:


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: The Langmuir-Schaefer equation can be extended to the Ward-Tordai Equation to account for the "back-diffusion" of rejected molecules from the surface:


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: where formula_54 is the bulk concentration, formula_55 is the sub-surface concentration (which is a function of time depending on the reaction model of the adsorption), and formula_56 is a dummy variable.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Monte Carlo simulations show that these two equations work to predict the adsorption rate of systems that form predictable concentration gradients near the surface but have troubles for systems without or with unpredictable concentration gradients, such as typical biosensing systems or when flow and convection are significant.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: A brief history of diffusive adsorption is shown in the right figure. A noticeable challenge of understanding the diffusive adsorption at the single-molecule level is the fractal nature of diffusion. Most computer simulations pick a time step for diffusion which ignores the fact that there are self-similar finer diffusion events (fractal) within each step. Simulating the fractal diffusion shows that a factor of two corrections should be introduced for the result of a fixed time-step adsorption simulation, bringing it to be consistent with the above two equations.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: In the ultrashort time limit, in the order of the diffusion time "a"/"D", where "a" is the particle radius, the diffusion is described by the Langevin equation. At a longer time, the Langevin equation merges into the Stokes–Einstein equation. The latter is appropriate for the condition of the diluted solution, where long-range diffusion is considered. According to the fluctuation-dissipation theorem based on the Langevin equation in the long-time limit and when the particle is significantly denser than the surrounding fluid, the time-dependent diffusion constant is:


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: For a single molecule such as organic molecules or biomolecules (e.g. proteins) in water, the exponential term is negligible due to the small product of "mμ" in the picosecond region.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: When the area of interest is the size of a molecule (specifically, a "long cylindrical molecule" such as DNA), the adsorption rate equation represents the collision frequency of two molecules in a diluted solution, with one molecule a specific side and the other no steric dependence, i.e., a molecule (random orientation) hit one side of the other. The diffusion constant need to be updated to the relative diffusion constant between two diffusing molecules. This estimation is especially useful in studying the interaction between a small molecule and a larger molecule such as a protein. The effective diffusion constant is dominated by the smaller one whose diffusion constant can be used instead.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: The above hitting rate equation is also useful to predict the kinetics of molecular self-assembly on a surface. Molecules are randomly oriented in the bulk solution. Assuming 1/6 of the molecules has the right orientation to the surface binding sites, i.e. 1/2 of the z-direction in x, y, z three dimensions, thus the concentration of interest is just 1/6 of the bulk concentration. Put this value into the equation one should be able to calculate the theoretical adsorption kinetic curve using the Langmuir adsorption model. In a more rigid picture, 1/6 can be replaced by the steric factor of the binding geometry.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Fick's first law is also important in radiation transfer equations. However, in this context, it becomes inaccurate when the diffusion constant is low and the radiation becomes limited by the speed of light rather than by the resistance of the material the radiation is flowing through. In this situation, one can use a flux limiter.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: The exchange rate of a gas across a fluid membrane can be determined by using this law together with Graham's law.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Under the condition of a diluted solution when diffusion takes control, the membrane permeability mentioned in the above section can be theoretically calculated for the solute using the equation mentioned in the last section (use with particular care because the equation is derived for dense solutes, while biological molecules are not denser than water):


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: The flux is decay over the square root of time because a concentration gradient builds up near the membrane over time under ideal conditions. When there is flow and convection, the flux can be significantly different than the equation predicts and show an effective time t with a fixed value, which makes the flux stable instead of decay over time. This strategy is adopted in biology such as blood circulation.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: The semiconductor is a collective term for a series of devices. It mainly includes three categories：two-terminal devices, three-terminal devices, and four-terminal devices. The combination of the semiconductors is called an integrated circuit.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: The relationship between Fick's law and semiconductors: the principle of the semiconductor is transferring chemicals or dopants from a layer to a layer. Fick's law can be used to control and predict the diffusion by knowing how much the concentration of the dopants or chemicals move per meter and second through mathematics.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Integrated circuit fabrication technologies, model processes like CVD, thermal oxidation, wet oxidation, doping, etc. use diffusion equations obtained from Fick's law.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: The wafer is a kind of semiconductor whose silicon substrate is coated with a layer of CVD-created polymer chain and films. This film contains n-type and p-type dopants and takes responsibility for dopant conductions. The principle of CVD relies on the gas phase and gas-solid chemical reaction to create thin films.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: The viscous flow regime of CVD is driven by a pressure gradient. CVD also includes a diffusion component distinct from the surface diffusion of adatoms. In CVD, reactants and products must also diffuse through a boundary layer of stagnant gas that exists next to the substrate. The total number of steps required for CVD film growth are gas phase diffusion of reactants through the boundary layer, adsorption and surface diffusion of adatoms, reactions on the substrate, and gas phase diffusion of products away through the boundary layer.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: To keep the reaction balanced, reactants must diffuse through the stagnant boundary layer to reach the substrate. So a thin boundary layer is desirable. According to the equations, increasing vo would result in more wasted reactants. The reactants will not reach the substrate uniformly if the flow becomes turbulent. Another option is to switch to a new carrier gas with lower viscosity or density.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: The Fick's first law describes diffusion through the boundary layer. As a function of pressure (P) and temperature (T) in a gas, diffusion is determined.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: The equation tells that increasing the temperature or decreasing the pressure can increase the diffusivity.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: Fick's first law predicts the flux of the reactants to the substrate and product away from the substrate:


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: As a result, Fick's first law tells us we can use a partial pressure gradient to control the diffusivity and control the growth of thin films of semiconductors.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: In many realistic situations, the simple Fick's law is not an adequate formulation for the semiconductor problem. It only applies to certain conditions, for example, given the semiconductor boundary conditions: constant source concentration diffusion, limited source concentration, or moving boundary diffusion (where junction depth keeps moving into the substrate).


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: The formulation of Fick's first law can explain a variety of complex phenomena in the context of food and cooking: Diffusion of molecules such as ethylene promotes plant growth and ripening, salt and sugar molecules promotes meat brining and marinating, and water molecules promote dehydration. Fick's first law can also be used to predict the changing moisture profiles across a spaghetti noodle as it hydrates during cooking. These phenomena are all about the spontaneous movement of particles of solutes driven by the concentration gradient. In different situations, there is different diffusivity which is a constant.


title: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: By controlling the concentration gradient, the cooking time, shape of the food, and salting can be controlled.


title: Sauna

text: A sauna (, ), or sudatory, is a small room or building designed as a place to experience dry or wet heat sessions, or an establishment with one or more of these facilities. The steam and high heat make the bathers perspire. A thermometer in a sauna is typically used to measure temperature; a hygrometer can be used to measure levels of humidity or steam. Infrared therapy is often referred to as a type of sauna, but according to the Finnish sauna organisations, infrared is not a sauna.


title: Sauna

text: The oldest known saunas in Finland were made from pits dug in a slope in the ground and primarily used as dwellings in winter. The sauna featured a fireplace where stones were heated to a high temperature. Water was thrown on the hot stones to produce steam and to give a sensation of increased heat. This would raise the apparent temperature so high that people could take off their clothes. The first Finnish saunas were always of a type now called "savusauna"; "smoke sauna". These differed from present-day saunas in that they were operated by heating a pile of rocks called a "kiuas" by burning large amounts of wood for about 6 to 8 hours and then letting out the smoke before enjoying the "löyly", a Finnish term meaning, collectively, both the steam and the heat of a sauna. A properly heated "savusauna" yields heat for up to 12 hours.


title: Sauna

text: As a result of the Industrial Revolution, the sauna evolved to use a wood-burning metal stove with rocks on top, "kiuas" , with a chimney. Air temperatures averaged around but sometimes exceeded in a traditional Finnish sauna. When the Finns migrated to other areas of the globe, they brought their sauna designs and traditions with them. This led to a further evolution of the sauna, including the electric sauna stove, which was introduced in 1938 by Metos Ltd in Vaasa. Although sauna culture is more or less related to Finnish and Estonian culture, the evolution of the sauna took place around the same time in Finland and other Baltic countries; all have valued the sauna, its customs and traditions until the present day.


title: Sauna

text: The sauna became very popular especially in Scandinavia and the German-speaking regions of Europe after the Second World War. German soldiers had experienced Finnish saunas during their fight against the Soviet Union on the Soviet-Finnish front of WWII, where they fought on the same side. Saunas were so important to Finnish soldiers that they built saunas not only in mobile tents but even in bunkers. After the war, the German soldiers brought the custom back to Germany and Austria, where it became popular in the second half of the 20th century. The German sauna culture also became popular in neighbouring countries such as Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg.


title: Sauna

text: Archaeological sites in Greenland and Newfoundland have uncovered structures very similar to traditional Scandinavian farm saunas, some with bathing platforms and "enormous quantities of badly scorched stones".


title: Sauna

text: Areas such as the rocky Orkney islands of Scotland have many ancient stone structures for normal habitation, some of which incorporate areas for fire and bathing. It is possible some of these structures also incorporated the use of steam in a way similar to the sauna, but this is a matter of speculation. The sites are from the Neolithic age, dating to approximately 4000 B.C.E.


title: Sauna

text: The traditional Korean sauna, called the "hanjeungmak", is a domed structure constructed of stone that was first mentioned in the "Sejong Sillok" of the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty in the 15th century. Supported by Sejong the Great, the "hanjeungmak" was touted for its health benefits and used to treat illnesses. In the early 15th century, Buddhist monks maintained "hanjeungmak" clinics, called "hanjeungso", to treat sick poor people; these clinics maintained separate facilities for men and women due to high demand. Korean sauna culture and kiln saunas are still popular today, and Korean saunas are ubiquitous.


title: Sauna

text: The word "sauna" is an ancient Finnish word referring to both the traditional Finnish bath and to the bathhouse itself. In Finnic languages other than Finnish and Estonian, "sauna" and cognates do not necessarily mean a building or space built for bathing. It can also mean a small cabin or cottage, such as a cabin for a fisherman.


title: Sauna

text: The sauna known in the western world today originates from Northern Europe. In Finland, there are built-in saunas in almost every house, including communal saunas in the older apartment buildings; since the 80s, private saunas have often been built into the bathrooms of typical Finnish flats in apartment buildings, sometimes even in student housing. Helsinki even has a sauna built into one of the gondolas of a ferris wheel, SkyWheel Helsinki.


title: Sauna

text: Under many circumstances, temperatures approaching and exceeding would be completely intolerable and possibly fatal to a person exposed to them for long periods of time. Saunas overcome this problem by controlling the humidity. The hottest Finnish saunas have relatively low humidity levels in which steam is generated by pouring water on the hot stones. This allows air temperatures that could evaporate water to be tolerated and even enjoyed for longer periods of time. Steam baths, such as the Turkish bath, where the humidity approaches 100%, will be set to a much lower temperature of around to compensate. The "wet heat" would cause scalding if the temperature were set much higher.


title: Sauna

text: In a typical Finnish sauna, the temperature of the air, the room and the benches are above the dew point even when water is thrown on the hot stones and vaporised. Thus, they remain dry. In contrast, the sauna bathers are at about , which is below the dew point, so that water is condensed on the bathers' skin. This process releases heat and makes the steam feel hot.


title: Sauna

text: Finer control over the perceived temperature can be achieved by choosing a higher-level bench for those wishing for a hotter experience, or a lower-level bench for a more moderate temperature. A good sauna has a relatively small temperature gradient between the various seating levels. Doors need to be kept closed and used quickly to maintain the temperature and to keep the steam inside.


title: Sauna

text: Some North American, Western European, Japanese, Russian, and South African public sport centres and gyms include sauna facilities. They may also be present at public and private swimming pools. As an additional facility, a sauna may have one or more jacuzzis. In some spa centers, there are the so-called special "snow rooms," also known as cold saunas or cryotherapy. Operating at a temperature of , the user is in the sauna for a period of only about 3 minutes.


title: Sauna

text: According to the Guinness Book of World Records, the world's largest sauna is the Koi Sauna in the Thermen & Badewelt Sinsheim, Germany. It measures 166 square meters, holds 150 people and sports a koi aquarium.


title: Sauna

text: A modern sauna with an electric stove usually takes about 15-30 minutes to heat up. Some users prefer taking a shower beforehand to speed up perspiration in the sauna. When in the sauna, people often sit on a towel for hygiene and put a towel over their heads if the face feels too hot but the body feels comfortable. In Russia, a felt "banya hat" may be worn to shield the head from the heat; this allows the wearer to increase the heat on the rest of the body. The temperature of one's bath can be controlled via:


title: Sauna

text: The heat will be greatest closest to the stove. Heating from the air will be lower on the lower benches as the hot air rises. The heat given by the steam can be very different in different parts of the sauna. As the steam rises directly upwards, it will spread across the roof and travel out towards the corners, where it will then be forced downwards. Consequently, the heat of fresh steam may sometimes be felt most strongly in the furthest corners of the sauna. Users increase the duration and the heat gradually over time as they adapt to the sauna. When pouring water onto the stove, it will cool down the rocks, but carry more heat into the air via advection, making the sauna warmer.


title: Sauna

text: Perspiration is the result of autonomic responses trying to cool the body. Users are advised to leave the sauna if the heat becomes unbearable, or if they feel faint or ill. Some saunas have a thermostat to adjust the temperature, but the owner of the sauna and the other bathers expect to be consulted before changes are made. The sauna stove and rocks are very hot--one must stay well clear of them to avoid burns, particularly when water is thrown on the rocks, which creates an immediate blast of steam. Combustibles on, or near the stove have been known to cause fires. Contact lenses dry out in the heat. Jewelry or anything metallic, including glasses, will get hot in the sauna and can cause discomfort or burning.


title: Sauna

text: The temperature on different parts of the body can be adjusted by shielding one's body with a towel. Shielding the face with a towel has been found to reduce the perception of heat.


title: Sauna

text: Cooling down by immersing oneself in water (in a shower, lake or pool) is a part of the sauna cycle and is as important as the heating. However, it is advisable that healthy people and heart patients alike should take some precautions if plunging into very cold water straight after coming from the hot room, as the rapid cooling of the body produces considerable circulatory stress. It is considered good practice to take a few moments after exiting a sauna before entering a cold plunge, and to enter a plunge pool or a lake by stepping into it gradually, rather than immediately immersing oneself fully. In summer, a session is often started with a cool shower.


title: Sauna

text: In some countries the closest and most convenient access to a sauna is at a gymnasium. Some public pools, major sports centres and resorts also contain a sauna. Therapeutic sauna sessions are often carried out in conjunction with physiotherapy or hydrotherapy; these are gentle exercises that do not exacerbate symptoms.


title: Sauna

text: There has been widespread research into the health benefits and risks that come from sauna usage; most studies have focused on the Finnish sauna specifically. Sauna bathing leads to mild heat stress, which activates heat shock proteins responsible for repairing misfolded proteins, promoting longevity as well as protection against muscle atrophy and chronic illness.


title: Sauna

text: There is significant evidence that lifelong exposure to sauna (once a week or more) reduces the risk of sudden cardiac death; and that risk reduction is correlated with duration and frequency of use; this reduction is more pronounced when sauna bathing is combined with exercise, compared with either of these practices alone. Tentative evidence supports that the heat stress from saunas can reduce blood pressure and arterial stiffness, and therefore also decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease. These benefits are more pronounced in persons with low cardiovascular function. Evidence exists for the benefit of sauna on people with heart failure. Frequent sauna usage (4-7 times per week) is associated with a decreased risk of neurovascular diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and stroke. Individuals suffering from musculoskeletal disorders could have symptomatic improvement from sauna, and it could be beneficial for Glaucoma. It can also relieve the symptoms of respiratory illness and reduce its risk. Weight loss in obese people and improvement of appetite loss present with normal body weight is achieveable with sauna bathing.


title: Sauna

text: Evidence for the use of sauna for depression or skin disorders is insufficient, but the frequency of sauna sessions is correlated with a diminished risk of developing psychosis, and it might be beneficial for psoriasis.


title: Sauna

text: Sauna bathing coupled with alcohol consumption or dehydration increases the risk of sudden death; the use of narcotic drugs, such as cocaine, also increases the risk. Being severely obese, having high blood pressure, or being diabetic all serve as reasons to decrease the duration of sauna sessions. Individuals prone to postural hypotension or severe valvular heart disease should use sauna cautiously to reduce the risk of a drop in blood pressure. In people with cardiovascular disease, sauna usage is generally safe, as long as their condition is stable. However, sauna bathing is contraindicated in persons with unstable angina and severe aortic stenosis. A one-year study in Finland showed that only 67 (2.6%) of sudden deaths in saunas were non-accidental, mostly due to coronary heart disease. Pregnant women can use saunas as long as their core temperature does not exceed , as this may be teratogenic. Genital heat stress from frequent sauna sessions could cause male infertility.


title: Sauna

text: Today there are a wide variety of sauna options. Heat sources include wood, electricity, gas and other more unconventional methods such as solar power. There are wet saunas, dry saunas, infrared saunas, smoke saunas, and steam saunas. There are two main types of stoves: continuous heating and heat storage type. Continuously heating stoves have a small heat capacity and can be heated up on a fast on-demand basis, whereas a heat storage stove has a large heat (stone) capacity and can take much longer to heat.


title: Sauna

text: Smoke sauna (Finnish "savusauna", Estonian "suitsusaun", Võro "savvusann") is one of the earliest forms of the sauna. It is simply a room containing a pile of rocks, but without a chimney. A fire is lit directly under the rocks and after a while the fire is extinguished. The heat retained in the rocks, and the earlier fire, becomes the main source for heating the sauna. Following this process, the ashes and embers are removed from the hearth, the benches and floor are cleaned, and the room is allowed to air out and freshen for a period of time. The smoke deposits a layer of soot on every surface, so if the benches and back-rests can be removed while the fire is alight the amount of cleaning necessary is reduced. Depending on size of the stove and the airing time, the temperature may be low, about , while the humidity is relatively high. The tradition almost died out in Finland, but was revived by enthusiasts in the 1980s. These are still used in present-day Finland by some enthusiasts, but usually only on special occasions such as Christmas, New Year's, Easter, and "juhannus" (Midsummer). Smoke saunas are popular in the southern Estonia and smoke sauna tradition in Võrumaa was added into UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists in 2014.


title: Sauna

text: The smoke-sauna stove is also used with a sealed stone compartment and chimney (a heat storage-stove) which eliminates the smoke odour and eye irritation of the smoke sauna. A heat storage stove does not give up much heat in the sauna before bathing since the stone compartment has an insulated lid. When the sauna bath is started and the "löyly" shutter opened a soft warmth flow into the otherwise relatively cold () sauna. This heat is soft and clean because, thanks to combustion, the stove stones glow red, even white-hot, and are freed of dust at the same time. When bathing the heat-storage sauna will become as hot as a continuous fire-type sauna () but more humid. The stones are usually durable heatproof and heat-retaining peridotite. The upper part of the stove is often insulated with rock wool and firebricks. Heat-storing stoves are also found with electric heating, with similar service but no need to maintain a fire.


title: Sauna

text: A continuous fire stove, instead of stored heat, is a relatively recent invention. There is a firebox and a smokestack, and stones are placed in a compartment directly above the firebox. It takes a shorter time to heat than the heat-storage sauna, about one hour. A fire-heated sauna requires manual labor in the form of maintaining the fire during bathing; the fire can also be seen as a hazard.


title: Sauna

text: Fire-heated saunas are common in cottages, where the extra work of maintaining the fire is not a problem.


title: Sauna

text: The most common modern sauna types are those with electric stoves. The stones are heated up and kept on temperature using electric heating elements. There is a thermostat and a timer (typically with eight hours' maximum delay time, followed by one hour's continuous heating time) on the stove. This type of heating is generally used only in urban saunas.


title: Sauna

text: Many cultures have sweat baths, though some have more spiritual uses while others are purely secular. In Ancient Rome there was the "thermae" or "balneae" (from Greek βαλανεῖον "balaneîon"), traits of which survive in the Turkish or Arab "hammam". In the Americas there is the Nahuatl (Aztec) "temāzcalli" , Maya "zumpul-ché", and the Mixtec "Ñihi"; in Canada and the United States, a number of First Nations and Native American cultures have various kinds of spiritual sweat lodges (Lakota: "inipi", Anishinaabemowin "madoodiswan"). In Europe we find the Estonian "saun" (almost identical to the Finnish sauna), Russian "banya", Latvian "pirts", the European Jews' "shvitz", and the Swedish "bastu". In Asia the Japanese "Mushi-Buro" and the Korean "jjimjilbang". The Karo people of Indonesia have the "oukup". In some parts of Africa there is the "sifutu".


title: Sauna

text: <mapframe zoom="1" width=450 height=200 text="Countries that visit the sauna naked are blue while those who wear swim wear are red (for Sources the chaptors below)">


title: Sauna

text: Although cultures in all corners of the world have imported and adapted the sauna, many of the traditional customs have not survived the journey. Today, public perception of saunas, sauna "etiquette" and sauna customs vary hugely from country to country. In many countries sauna going is a recent fashion and attitudes towards saunas are changing, while in others traditions have survived over generations.


title: Sauna

text: In Africa, the majority of sauna facilities are found in a more upmarket hotel, spa and health club environments and predominantly share both sauna heater technology and design concepts as applied in Europe. Even though outdoor temperatures remain warmer and more humid, this does not affect the general application or intended sauna experience offered within these commercial environments offering a traditional sauna and or steam shower experience.


title: Sauna

text: In Iran, most gyms, hotels and almost all public swimming pools have indoor saunas. It is very common for swimming pools to have two saunas which are known in Persian as سونای خشک "dry sauna" and سونای بخار "steam sauna", with the dry type customarily boasting a higher temperature. A cold-water pool (and/or more recently a cold Jacuzzi) is almost always accompanied and towels are usually provided. Adding therapeutic or relaxing essential oils to the rocks is common. In Iran, unlike Finland, sitting in a sauna is mostly seen as part of the spa/club culture, rather than a bathing ritual. It is most usually perceived as a means for relaxation or detoxification (through perspiration). Having a sauna room on private property is considered a luxury rather than a necessity. Public saunas are segregated and nudity is prohibited.


title: Sauna

text: In Japan, many saunas exist at sports centers and public bathhouses (sentō). The saunas are almost always gender separated, often required by law, and nudity is a required part of proper sauna etiquette. While right after World War II, public bathhouses were commonplace in Japan, the number of customers have dwindled as more people were able to afford houses and apartments equipped with their own private baths as the nation became wealthier. As a result, many sentōs have added more features such as saunas in order to survive.


title: Sauna

text: In Korea, saunas are essentially public bathhouses. Various names are used to describe them, such as the smaller mogyoktang, outdoor oncheon, and the elaborate jjimjilbang. The word "sauna" is used a lot for its 'English appeal'; however, it does not strictly refer to the original Fennoscandian steam rooms that have become popular throughout the world. The konglish word "sauna" (사우나) usually refers to bathhouses with Jacuzzis, hot tubs, showers, steam rooms, and related facilities.


title: Sauna

text: In Laos, herbal steam sauna or hom yaa in Lao, is very popular especially with women and is available in every village. Many women apply yogurt or a paste blend based on tamarind on their skin as a beauty treatment. The sauna is always heated by wood fire and herbs are added either directly to the boiling water or steam jet in the room. The sitting lounge is mix gender but the steam rooms are gender separated. Bael fruit tea known in lao as "muktam" tea is usually served.


title: Sauna

text: In Australia and Canada, saunas are found mainly in hotels, swimming pools, and health clubs and if used by both men and women, nudity is often forbidden, even if implicitly. In gyms or health clubs with separate male and female change rooms, nudity is permitted; however, members are usually asked to shower before using the sauna and to sit on a towel.


title: Sauna

text: In Canada, saunas have increasingly become a fixture of cottage culture, which shares many similarities with its Finnish counterpart (mökki).


title: Sauna

text: Public saunas can be found throughout the Netherlands and Flanders, both in major cities and in smaller municipalities, mixed-gender nudity is the generally accepted rule. Some saunas might offer women-only (or "bathing suit only") times for people who are less comfortable with mixed-gender nudity; "Algemeen Dagblad" reported in 2008 that women-only, bathing suit-required times are drawing Muslim women in the Netherlands to the sauna.


title: Sauna

text: A sauna session can be a social affair in which the participants disrobe and sit or recline in temperatures typically between . This induces relaxation and promotes sweating. People use a bundle of birch twigs with fresh leaves (Finnish: "vihta" or "vasta"; Estonian: "viht"), to slap the skin and create further stimulation of the pores and cells.


title: Sauna

text: The sauna is an important part of daily life, and families bathe together in the home sauna. There are at least 2 million saunas in Finland according to official registers. The Finnish Sauna Society believes the number can actually be as high as 3.2 million saunas (population 5.5 million). Many Finns take at least one a week, and much more when they visit their summer cottage in the countryside. Here the pattern of life tends to revolve around the sauna, and a nearby lake used for cooling off.


title: Sauna

text: Sauna traditions in Estonia are almost identical to Finland as saunas have traditionally held a central role in the life of an individual. Ancient Estonians believed saunas were inhabited by spirits. In folk tradition sauna was not only the place where one washed but also used as the place where brides were ceremoniously washed, where women gave birth and the place the dying made their final bed. The folk tradition related to the Estonian sauna is mostly identical to that surrounding the Finnish sauna. On New Year's Eve, a sauna would be held before midnight to cleanse the body and spirit for the upcoming year.


title: Sauna

text: In the United Kingdom and much of Southern Europe, single-gender saunas are the most common type. Nudity is expected in the segregated saunas but usually forbidden in the mixed saunas. This is a source of confusion when residents of these nations visit the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany and Austria or vice versa. Sauna sessions tend to be shorter, and cold showers are shunned by most. In the United Kingdom, where public saunas are becoming increasingly fashionable, the practice of alternating between the sauna and the jacuzzi in short seatings (considered a "faux pas" in Northern Europe) has emerged. Foreign visitors should also be aware that some small establishments advertised as "saunas" are in fact brothels, and it is rare to have a legitimate sauna with no other health spa or gym facilities in the UK.


title: Sauna

text: In Portugal, the steam baths were commonly used by the Castrejos people, prior to the arrival of the Romans in the western part of the Iberian Peninsula. The historian Strabo spoke of Lusitans traditions that consisted of having steam bath sessions followed by cold water baths. Pedra Formosa is the original name given to the central piece of the steam bath in pre-Roman times.


title: Sauna

text: In Germany, Austria, Luxembourg and South Tyrol (but rarely in the remainder of Italy), most public swimming pool complexes have sauna areas; in these locales, nudity is the generally accepted rule, and benches are expected to be covered by people's towels. These rules are strictly enforced in some public saunas. Separate single-sex saunas for both genders are rare, most places offer women-only and mixed-gender saunas, or organise women-only days for the sauna once a week. Loud conversation is not usual as the sauna is seen as a place of healing rather than socialising. Contrary to Russia and Nordic countries, pouring water on hot stones to increase humidity ("Aufguss", lit: "Onpouring") is not normally done by the sauna visitors themselves; larger sauna areas have a person in charge (the "Saunameister") for that, either an employee of the sauna complex or a volunteer. Aufguss sessions can take up to 10 minutes, and take place according to a schedule. During an Aufguss session, the Saunameister uses a large towel to circulate the hot air through the sauna, intensifying sweating and the perception of heat. Once the Aufguss session has started it is not considered good manners to enter the sauna, as opening the door would cause loss of heat (Sauna guests are expected to enter the sauna just in time before the Aufguss. Leaving the session is allowed, but grudgingly tolerated). Aufguss sessions are usually announced by a schedule on the sauna door. An Aufguss session in progress might be indicated by a light or sign hung above the sauna entrance. Cold showers or baths shortly after a sauna, as well as exposure to fresh air in a special balcony, garden or open-air room ("Frischluftraum") are considered a must.


title: Sauna

text: In German-speaking Switzerland, customs are generally the same as in Germany and Austria, although you tend to see more families (parents with their children) and young people. Also in respect to socialising in the sauna the Swiss tend more to be like the Finns, Scandinavians or Russians. Also in German-speaking countries, there are many facilities for washing after using the sauna, with 'dunking pools' (pools of very cold water in which a person dips themselves after using the sauna) or showers. In some saunas and steam rooms, scented salts are given out which can be rubbed into the skin for extra aroma and cleaning effects.


title: Sauna

text: Hungarians see the sauna as part of wider spa culture. Mixed genders use the sauna together and wear swimsuits. Single-sex saunas are rare, as well as those which tolerate nudity. Some Hungarian saunas have so-called "snow rooms" that look like little cages with snow and icicles, where visitors can cool down for a couple of minutes after each sauna session.


title: Sauna

text: In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, saunas have a long tradition and are often found as part of recreational facilities, as well as public swimming pools. Many people are regular goers, while many never go. Saunas became more popular after about the year 2000, when large aquaparks and wellness centers began to include them. Nudity is increasingly tolerated, and many places prohibit the use of swimsuits; however, most people cover themselves with a towel. Showers are typically semi-private. Having men and women only days was the norm in the past, but today, men-only facilities are rare, while women-only hours are sometimes provided.


title: Sauna

text: In Norway and Sweden saunas are found in many places, and are known as 'badstu' or 'bastu' (from 'badstuga' "bath cabin, bath house"). In Norway and Sweden, saunas are common in almost every public swimming pool and gym. The public saunas are generally single-sex and may or may not permit use of swimwear. Rules for swimwear and towels for sitting on or covering yourself differ between saunas. Removing body hair in the sauna, staring at other's nudity or spreading odors is considered impolite.


title: Sauna

text: In Latvia, Lithuania and many regions of Russia sauna-going plays a central social role. These countries also have the tradition of massaging fellow sauna-goers with leafy, wet birch bunches: "slota" in Latvian, "vanta" in Lithuanian, "venik" (веник) in Russian. In Latvian, sauna is "pirts", in Lithuanian, it is "pirtis".


title: Sauna

text: In Russian-speaking communities the word "banya" (Russian: Баня) is widely used also when referring to a public bath. In Russia, public "banya" baths are strictly single-sex, while in Finland, Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia, both types occur. During wintertime, sauna-goers often run outdoors for either ice swimming or, in the absence of lake, just to roll around in the snow naked and then go back inside. Russian traditional "banya" is quite similar to Finnish sauna, despite the popular misconception that the Finnish sauna is very dry.


title: Sauna

text: In modern Russia, there are three different types of saunas. The first one, previously very popular especially during the 20th century, is the public sauna or the "banya", (also known as the Russian banya), as it is referred to among the locals, is similar in context to public bathhouses in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. The banya is a large setting with many different rooms. There is at least one sauna (Finnish style), one cold pool of water, a relaxation area, another sauna where fellow-sauna goers beat other fellow-sauna goers with the leafy birch, a shower area, a small cafeteria with a TV and drinks, and a large common area that leads to the other areas. In this large area, there are marble bed-like structures where people lie down and receive a massage either by another sauna-member or by a designated masseur. In the resting area, there are also other bed-like structures made of marble or stone attached to the ground where people lie down to rest between different rounds of sauna or at the very end of their banya session. There is also a large public locker area where one keeps one's clothes as well as two other more private locker areas with individual doors that can lock these two separate locker rooms.


title: Sauna

text: The second type of sauna is the Finnish sauna type one can find in any gym throughout the world or a hotel. It could be in the locker room or mixed (i. e. male and female together). Attitudes towards nudity are very liberal and people are less self-conscious about their nude bodies.


title: Sauna

text: The third type of sauna is one that is rented by a group of friends. It is similar to the public banya bath house type, except that it is usually more modern and luxurious, and is often rented by groups of friends by the hour for the use of partying and socialising. Here it can be single-sex or mixed-sex.


title: Sauna

text: In the United States, the earliest saunas that arrived with the colonists were Swedish "bastu"s in the colony New Sweden around the Delaware River. The Swedish Governor at the time had a bathhouse on Tinicum Island. Today sauna culture enjoys its greatest popularity in the Lake Superior Region, specifically the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, especially the Keweenaw Peninsula, and parts of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa, which are home to large populations of Swedish and particularly Finnish Americans. Duluth, Minnesota, at its peak, had as many as 14 public saunas. Indeed, among Finnish farms in Great Lakes "sauna country", the cultural geographer Matti Kaups, found that 90% had sauna structures - more even than the farms in Finland. Elsewhere, sauna facilities are normally provided at health clubs and at hotels, but there is no tradition or ritual to their use. To avoid liability, many saunas operate at only moderate temperatures and do not allow pouring water on the rocks. A wider range of sauna etiquette is usually acceptable in the United States compared to other countries, with the exception that most mixed-sex saunas usually require some clothing such as a bathing suit to be worn. These are uncommon, however, as most saunas are either small private rooms or in the changing rooms of health clubs or gyms. There are few restrictions and their use is casual; bathers may enter and exit the sauna as they please, be it nude, with a towel, dripping wet in swimsuits or even in workout clothes (the latter being very unusual). Like many aspects of US culture, there are few prescribed conventions and the bather should remain astute to "read" the specific family or community's expectations. Besides the Finnish Americans, the older generation of Korean-Americans still uses the saunas as it is available to them. Sauna societies are beginning to emerge in colleges across America, with the first one being formed at Gustavus Adolphus College.


title: Sauna

text: A cultural legacy of Eastern European Jews in America is the culture of 'shvitz', which used to be widespread in the East Coast and occasionally in the Pacific West Coast.


title: Sauna

text: The sweat lodge, used by a number of Native American and First Nations traditional ceremonial cultures, is a location for a spiritual ceremony. The focus is on the ceremony, and the sweating is only secondary. Unlike sauna traditions, and most forcefully in the case of the Inipi, the sweat lodge ceremonies have been robustly defended as an exclusively Native expression of spirituality rather than a recreational activity.


title: Sauna

text: A Finnish word "löyly" is strictly connected to the sauna. It can be translated as "sauna steam" and refers to the steam vapour created by splashing water on the heated rocks. In many languages related to Finnish, there is a word corresponding to "löyly". The same approximate meaning is used across the Finnic languages such as in Estonian "leil". Originally this word meant "spirit" or "life", as in e. g. Hungarian "lélek" and Khanty "lil", which both mean "soul", referring to the sauna's old, spiritual essence. The same dual meaning of both "spirit" and "(sauna) steam" is also preserved in the Latvian word "gars". There is an old Finnish saying, "saunassa ollaan kuin kirkossa",—one should behave in the sauna as in church.


title: Sauna

text: "Saunatonttu", literally translated as "sauna elf", is a little gnome or tutelary spirit that was believed to live in the sauna. He was always treated with respect, otherwise, he might cause much trouble for people. It was customary to warm up the sauna just for the "tonttu" every now and then, or to leave some food outside for him. It is said that he warned the people if a fire was threatening the sauna or punished people who behaved improperly in it—for example, slept, or played games, argued, were generally noisy or behaved otherwise immorally there. Such creatures are believed to exist in different cultures. The Russian banya has an entirely corresponding character called a "bannik".


title: Sauna

text: In Thailand, women spend hours in a makeshift sauna tent during a month following childbirth. The steam is typically infused with several herbs. It is believed that the sauna helps the new mother's body return to its normal condition more quickly.


title: Sauna

text: Sauna culture has been registered in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity under two entries: "Smoke sauna tradition in Võromaa" in 2014 and "Sauna culture in Finland" in 2020.


title: Sauna

text: The physical phenomena occurring inside a sauna (heat, fluid dynamics, convection, radiation, etc.) can be modeled in order to study and optimize the design (thermal comfort for instance, avoidance of the 'pain zone' in the sense of the 'Stoll curve', etc.)


title: Sauna

text: An international scientific journal about the sauna is currently planned, the International Journal of Sauna Studies, focused on three main themes: health, history and culture, technology and design.


title: Frank Nitti

text: Frank Ralph Nitto (born Francesco Raffaele Nitto, ; January 27, 1886 – March 19, 1943), known as Frank Nitti, was an Italian-American organized crime figure based in Chicago. The first cousin and bodyguard of Al Capone, Nitti was in charge of all money flowing through the operation. Nitti later succeeded Capone as acting boss of the Chicago Outfit.


title: Frank Nitti

text: Nitti was born Francesco Raffaele Nitto on January 27, 1886, in the small town of Angri, province of Salerno, Campania, Italy. He was the second child of Luigi and Rosina (Fezza) Nitto and a first cousin of Al Capone. His father died in 1888, when Frank was two years old, and within a year his mother married Francesco Dolendo. Although two children were born to the couple, neither survived—leaving Francesco and his older sister, Giovannina, the only children. Francesco Dolendo emigrated to the United States in July 1890, and the rest of the family followed in June 1893 when Nitti was seven. The family settled at 113 Navy Street, Brooklyn, New York City. Little Francesco attended public school and worked odd jobs after school to support the family. His 15-year-old sister married a 24-year-old man. His mother gave birth to his half-brother Raphael, in 1894, and another child, Gennaro, in 1896. He quit school after the seventh grade, and worked as a pinsetter, factory worker, and barber. Al Capone's family lived nearby, and Nitti was friends with Capone's older brothers and their criminal gang (the Navy Street Boys).


title: Frank Nitti

text: A worsening relationship with Dolendo urged him to leave home when Nitti was 14, in 1900, to work in various local factories. Around 1910, at the age of 24, he left Brooklyn. The next several years of his life are poorly documented, and little can be ascertained. He may have worked in the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn around 1911. He probably moved to Chicago around 1913, working as a barber and making the acquaintance of gangsters Alex Louis Greenberg and Dion O'Banion. He married Chicagoan Rosa (Rose) Levitt in Dallas, Texas, on October 18, 1917. The couple's movements after their marriage remain uncertain. By 1918, Nitti had settled there at 914 South Halsted Street. Nitti quickly renewed his contacts with Greenberg and O'Banion, becoming a jewel thief, liquor smuggler, and fence. Through his liquor smuggling activities, Nitti came to the attention of Chicago crime boss John "Papa Johnny" Torrio and Torrio's newly arrived soldier, Al Capone. Nitti, being a newcomer, and familiar with the Texas area, became a partner in the Galveston crime syndicate run by Johnny Jack Nounes. He is reported to have stolen a large sum of money from Nounes and fellow mobster Dutch Voight in 1924, after which Nitti fled back to Chicago. Years later he was spotted at a Houston bar, which was brought to the attention of Nounes and Voight. The two Galveston mobsters found Nitti, drove him back to Galveston, and made him return the money he had stolen.


title: Frank Nitti

text: Under Torrio's successor Al Capone, Nitti's reputation soared. Nitti ran Capone's liquor smuggling and distribution operation, importing whisky from Canada and selling it through a network of speakeasies around Chicago. Nitti was one of Capone's top lieutenants, trusted for his leadership skills and business acumen. Because Nitti's ancestry was from the same town as Capone's, he was able to help Capone penetrate the Sicilian and Camorra underworld in a way Capone alone never could. Capone thought so highly of Nitti that when he went to prison in 1929, he named Nitti as a member of a triumvirate that ran the mob in his place. Nitti was head of operations, with Jake "Greasy Thumb" Guzik as head of administration and Tony "Joe Batters" Accardo as head of enforcement. Despite his nickname, "The Enforcer", Nitti used Mafia soldiers and others to commit violence rather than do it himself. In earlier days, Nitti had been one of Capone's trusted personal bodyguards, but as he rose in the organization, Nitti's business instinct dictated that he must personally avoid the "dirty work", for which hitmen were paid. Frank and Rose divorced in 1928, and shortly thereafter he married Anna Ronga, daughter of a mob doctor and former neighbor of the Nittis in the 1920s. The couple adopted a son, Joseph, through the Tennessee Children's Home Society.


title: Frank Nitti

text: In 1931, both Nitti and Capone were convicted of tax evasion and sent to prison; however, Nitti received an 18-month sentence served at the United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth, while Capone was sent away for 11 years. When Nitti was released on March 25, 1932, he took his place as the new boss of the Capone Gang.


title: Frank Nitti

text: While some revisionist historians claim that Nitti was a mere "front boss" while Paul "The Waiter" Ricca was the actual boss of the Chicago Outfit, both contemporary and modern accounts confirm that Capone's successor was indeed Nitti. According to Nitti biographer Mars Eghigian, Nitti's age, brilliance, and reputation in the underworld made him Capone's personal choice for successor, rather than younger, less experienced mobsters such as Ricca or Murray Humphreys. In actuality, Ricca was merely the acting boss of the Chicago Outfit for a six-month period between Capone's October 1931 imprisonment and Nitti's March 1932 release. With the recently released Nitti paranoid about violating his federal parole, Ricca was acting in the capacity of emissary that same month when he was arrested with Lucky Luciano, Meyer Lansky, and other mobsters by Chicago police and prominently photographed. This picture caused some to incorrectly conclude that Ricca was the new boss of the Chicago mob.


title: Frank Nitti

text: With Nitti calling the shots, the Chicago Outfit branched out from prostitution and gambling into other areas, including control of labor unions (which led to the extortion of many businesses). On December 19, 1932, a team of Chicago police, headed by Detective Sergeants Harry Lang and Harry Miller, raided Nitti's office in Room 554 at 221 N. LaSalle Street in Chicago. Lang shot Nitti three times in the back and neck. He then shot himself (a minor flesh wound) to make the shooting look like self-defense, claiming that Nitti had shot him first.


title: Frank Nitti

text: Court testimony later insisted that the murder attempt was personally ordered by newly elected Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak, who supposedly wanted to eliminate the Chicago Outfit in favor of gangsters who answered to him. Nitti survived the shooting and in February 1933 was acquitted of attempted murder. During that same trial, Miller testified that Lang received $15,000 (equal to $ today) to kill Nitti. Another uniformed officer who was present at the shooting testified that Nitti was shot while unarmed. Harry Lang and Harry Miller were both fired from the police force and each fined $100 (equal to $ today) for simple assault.


title: Frank Nitti

text: Two months later, Cermak was shot and killed by Giuseppe Zangara while he was talking to President-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt; Roosevelt was Zangara's target, but missed. A conspiracy theory emerged sometime before 1999, originating in Chicago, asserting that Zangara was a hired killer working for Nitti. John William Tuohy, author of numerous books on organized crime in Chicago, after reviewing Secret Service records, described in detail in a 2002 article his interpretation of how and why Cermak was the real target and the relationship of the shooting to the rampant gang violence in Chicago. The theory is enhanced by numerous researchers, citing their analysis of court testimony, asserting that Cermak had directed an assassination attempt on Nitti fewer than three months earlier.


title: Frank Nitti

text: Anna Nitto died on November 19, 1940, in Mercy Hospital, Chicago, from an unspecified internal ailment. Nitti married Annette (Toni) Caravetta on May 14, 1942; she was widowed almost a year later when he committed suicide.