title: Culver City, California

text: Archaeological evidence suggests a human presence in the area of present-day Culver City since at least 8000 BC. The region was the homeland of the Tongva-Gabrieliño Native Americans. For centuries, native people lived in areas currently part of and surrounding Culver City. California's native people were massacred by waves of Spanish, Mexican and Euro-American invaders through a combination of slavery, disease, relocation, forced labor, imprisonment, broken treaties and a genocidal war of extermination, including paid bounties for dead "Indians".


title: Culver City, California

text: The Spanish and Mexican governments offered concessions and land grants from 1785 to 1846 forming the Ranchos of California. Culver City was founded on the lands of the former Rancho La Ballona and Rancho Rincon de los Bueyes. When Culver City was founded, native, Hispanic or Latino people were not allowed to buy property.


title: Culver City, California

text: In 1861, during the American Civil War, Camp Latham was established by the 1st California Infantry under Col. James H. Carleton and the 1st California Cavalry under Lt. Col. Benjamin F. Davis. Named for California Senator Milton S. Latham, the camp was the first staging area for the training of Union troops and their operations in Southern California. It was located on land of the Rancho La Ballona, on the south bank of Ballona Creek, near what is now the intersection of Jefferson and Overland Boulevards. The post was later moved to Camp Drum, which became the Drum Barracks.


title: Culver City, California

text: Harry Culver first attempted to establish Culver City in 1913. It was officially incorporated on September 20, 1917, and named after its founder. The area benefited from pre-existing transportation links; Culver's first ads read "All roads lead to Culver City". While this slogan might seem welcoming to all, the city was explicitly founded as a whites-only sundown town, as were most of the suburbs and towns outside the downtown and Central Avenue districts of Los Angeles. Culver ran ads promoting "this model little white city", while his close associate, Guy M. Rush, promoted lot sales "restricted to Caucasian race". The city also at times excluded people of non-Christian religious faiths.


title: Culver City, California

text: The weekly "Culver City Call" was the first newspaper in the community. The paper was founded in 1915.


title: Culver City, California

text: The first film studio in Culver City was built by Thomas Ince in 1918 for The Triangle Motion Picture Company. Silent film comedy producer Hal Roach built his studios there in 1919, and Metro Goldwyn Mayer (MGM) took over the Triangle studio complex in 1924. During Prohibition, speakeasies and nightclubs such as the Cotton Club lined Washington Boulevard.


title: Culver City, California

text: Culver Center, one of Southern California's first shopping malls, was completed in 1950 on Venice Boulevard near the Overland Avenue intersection. Many other retail stores, including a Rite Aid and several banks and restaurants, have occupied the center since then.


title: Culver City, California

text: Hughes Aircraft opened its Culver City plant in July 1941. There the company built the H-4 Hercules transport (commonly called the "Spruce Goose"). Hughes was also an active subcontractor during World War II. It developed and patented a flexible feed chute for faster loading of machine guns on B-17 bombers, and manufactured electric booster drives for machine guns. Hughes produced more ammunition belts than any other American manufacturer, and built 5,576 wings and 6,370 rear fuselage sections for Vultee BT-13 trainers.


title: Culver City, California

text: Hughes grew after the war, and in 1953 Howard Hughes donated all his stock in the company to the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. After he died in 1976, the institute sold the company, which made it the second-best-endowed medical research foundation in the world.


title: Culver City, California

text: The Hal Roach Studios were demolished in 1963. In the late 1960s, much of the MGM backlot acreage (lot 3 and other property on Jefferson Boulevard), and the nearby known as RKO Forty Acres, once owned by RKO Pictures and later Desilu Productions, were sold by their owners. In 1976 the sets were razed to make way for redevelopment. Today, the RKO site is the southern expansion of the Hayden Industrial Tract, while the MGM property has been converted into a subdivision and a shopping center known as Raintree Plaza.


title: Culver City, California

text: In the early 1990s, Culver City launched a successful revitalization program in which it renovated its downtown as well as several shopping centers in the Sepulveda Boulevard corridor near Westfield Culver City. Around the same time, Sony's motion picture subsidiaries, Columbia Pictures and TriStar Pictures, moved into the Lorimar Studios lot which was renamed Columbia Studios in 1990 and took on its current name, Sony Pictures Studios, a year later.


title: Culver City, California

text: There was an influx of art galleries and restaurants on the eastern part of the city, which was formally designated the Culver City Art District.


title: Culver City, California

text: The city is surrounded by the Los Angeles neighborhoods of Mar Vista and Palms to the north; Westchester to the south; Mid-City, West Adams, and Baldwin Hills to the east; the Ladera Heights unincorporated area to the southeast; and the L.A. neighborhoods of Venice and Playa Vista to the west, along with the unincorporated area of Marina Del Rey.


title: Culver City, California

text: Culver City's major geographic feature is Ballona Creek, which runs northeast to southwest through most of the city before it drains into Santa Monica Bay in Marina Del Rey.


title: Culver City, California

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , over 99% of which is land.


title: Culver City, California

text: Culver City has a borderline semi-arid (Köppen: "Bsk") and Mediterranean climate ("Csb/Csa"), typical of coastal southern California.


title: Culver City, California

text: Corporations with headquarters in Culver City include Beats Audio, MedMen, National Public Radio (west), NantHealth, Sweetgreen and Sony Pictures Entertainment.


title: Culver City, California

text: According to the city's 2020–21 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city were:


title: Culver City, California

text: Hundreds of movies have been produced on the lots of Culver City's studios: Sony Pictures Studios (originally MGM Studios), Culver Studios, and the former Hal Roach Studios. In 2017, Amazon Studios announced plans to build a studio in Culver City.


title: Culver City, California

text: The Wende Museum possesses a collection of Soviet and East German visual art and everyday artifacts to promote an understanding of Soviet art, history and culture between 1945 and 1991.


title: Culver City, California

text: The architecture of Culver City reflects its history as an early location for film studios and, more recently, as a site for architectural experimentation, particularly for the projects of Eric Owen Moss at the Hayden Tract. The architecture office of Morphosis headquartered here. Styles represented include Mission Revival and Colonial Revival from the city's early days, to the PWA Moderne of the 1930s, to modern, postmodern, and deconstructivist styles from the past few decades. Notable architectural landmarks include:


title: Culver City, California

text: The City of Culver City Parks and Recreation department operates 14 outdoor parks within city limits.


title: Culver City, California

text: In Los Angeles County, Culver City is in the 2nd Supervisorial District, represented by Holly Mitchell.


title: Culver City, California

text: The Culver City station of the Los Angeles Metro E Line sits at the Culver Junction near Venice and Robertson Boulevards in Culver City. The E Line provides a light rail connection from Culver City to Downtown Los Angeles to the east and Downtown Santa Monica to the west, mostly following the right-of-way that the Pacific Electric Santa Monica Air Line used, also known as the Exposition Boulevard line. Culver City station was the western terminus of what was then known as the Expo Line from its opening on June 20, 2012, to the opening of Expo Line phase two on May 20, 2016.


title: Culver City, California

text: Culver CityBus was founded on March 4, 1928, making it the second oldest municipal bus line in California and the oldest public transit bus system still operating in Los Angeles County. Big Blue Bus was founded on April 14, 1928. Culver CityBus operates seven regular bus lines as well as a short-term downtown circulator shuttle.


title: Culver City, California

text: The Culver City Transit Center in the Westfield Culver City parking serves as a bus depot for three Culver CityBus lines and two Metro bus lines. The Washington Fairfax Hub, just across the border of the City of Los Angeles under the I-10 freeway, connects residents to seven bus lines, two operated by Culver CityBus and five operated by Metro.


title: Culver City, California

text: The Baldwin Hills Parklands Link is a shuttle service operated by Los Angeles County that stops at Stoneview Nature Center on weekends only.


title: Culver City, California

text: The city is served by the Los Angeles International Airport, about south of the city. Smaller nearby airports include Santa Monica Airport and Hawthorne Municipal Airport.


title: Culver City, California

text: Culver City is served by Interstate 405 (San Diego Freeway), Interstate 10 (Santa Monica Freeway), and California State Route 90 (Marina Freeway).


title: Culver City, California

text: Culver City is served by the Culver City Police Department, and the Culver City Fire Department, which operates three stations and a fire training facility.


title: Pekingese

text: The Pekingese (also spelled Pekinese) is a breed of toy dog, originating in China. The breed was favored by royalty of the Chinese Imperial court as a companion dog, and its name refers to the city of Peking (Beijing) where the Forbidden City is located. The breed has several characteristics and health issues related to its unique appearance. Because of its desirable characteristics, the Pekingese has been part of the development of designer crossbreeds, such as the Peekapoo (crossed with a poodle) and Peke-a-tese (crossed with a Maltese).


title: Pekingese

text: Modern breeders and dog show judges seem to prefer the long-haired type over the more traditional spaniel-type coat.


title: Pekingese

text: The Pekingese's flat face and large eyes are some of the breed's most obvious characteristics. The body is compact and low to the ground. Pekingese also have a muscular and durable body. The breed's unusual rolling gait may have been deliberately developed through selective breeding, to prevent the court dogs from wandering in ancient times.


title: Pekingese

text: All breed standards allow a wide range of color combinations. The majority of Pekingese are gold, red or sable. Cream, black, white, tan, black-and-tan and occasionally 'blue' or slate grey have appeared in the breed. The latter often has poor pigment and light eyes. Albino Pekingese (white with pink eyes) should not be bred due to health problems associated with albinism.


title: Pekingese

text: A black mask or a self-colored face is equally acceptable in show dogs. Regardless of coat color, the exposed skin of the muzzle, nose, lips and eye rims is black. Due to heavy shedding and to prevent mats, this double-coated breed requires frequent extensive grooming.


title: Pekingese

text: Pekingese weigh from and stand about at the withers; however, they can be smaller. These smaller Pekingese are commonly referred to as "sleeve" Pekingese or just "sleeves". The name is taken from ancient times, when emperors would carry the smallest of the breed in their sleeves. A Pekingese over 14 lbs. is disqualified in the show ring.


title: Pekingese

text: The Pekingese is slightly longer than tall when measured from the forechest to the rear. The overall outline is an approximate ratio of 3 high to 5 long.


title: Pekingese

text: The leading cause of death for Pekingese, as for many other Toy breeds, is trauma. Primary health concerns include neurological and cardiovascular defects, e.g., congestive heart failure. When diagnosed early and successfully treated with medication, a Pekingese with this condition can live many years. A heart murmur is a potential indicator, and must be evaluated by a veterinary cardiologist. Often the murmur does not surface until the dog is six years old, so it is difficult to screen in a puppy.


title: Pekingese

text: As a result of breeding for an increasingly flattened face, its brachycephaly can lead to health issues in some Pekingese. Therefore other potential concerns in the breed are eye issues and breathing problems, resulting from its tiny skull and flattened face. Furthermore, skin allergies (including hotspots) and eye ulcers may develop spontaneously. Pekingese may also develop keratoconjunctivitis sicca (dry eye) progressive retinal atrophy, along with glaucoma, in which buildup of ocular fluid places pressure on the eye, resulting in drainage. Improper development of the eye's filtration angles is the leading cause.


title: Pekingese

text: The Pekingese must be kept indoors, as their flattened faces and nasal structure can cause them to develop breathing problems, making it difficult for them to regulate their body temperature in hot weather. Their long spines, relative to their legs, make them vulnerable to back injuries. Care should be taken when picking them up to give adequate support to the back: one hand under the chest, the other under the abdomen. As an achondroplasiac breed, some Pekingese find stairs difficult, and older dogs may not be able to go up or down stairs alone. To avoid injury, they should also be discouraged or prevented from leaping from furniture and other heights; pet stairs may be useful to access beds.


title: Pekingese

text: In an effort to address potential breathing difficulties caused by the breed's flat face, the Kennel Club (UK) significantly changed the breed standard in October 2008, removing the clause that the "profile [should be] flat with nose well up between eyes" and adding instead that the "muzzle must be evident". This was in response to public opinion following the BBC programme, Pedigree Dogs Exposed. The breed standards of two other brachycephalic breeds, the Pug and English Bulldog, were soon also changed.


title: Pekingese

text: Keeping the Pekingese coat healthy and presentable requires daily brushing and a trip to the groomer every 8–12 weeks. Dogs intended as a house pet may be kept in a puppy cut, which requires less maintenance than a show coat. It is important to remove foreign materials from the eyes daily, and clean the creases on the face to prevent sores (hot spots). It is also necessary to keep and maintain the long fur in the rear end (aka the "trousers" or "skirt") clean and well-groomed, as the area is prone to soiling. In cold climates, the trousers may accumulate clumps of snowballs.


title: Pekingese

text: Due to their abundance of fur, it is important to keep the Pekingese cool. The breed is prone to have heatstroke when exposed to high temperatures.


title: Pekingese

text: Pekingese exercise needs are minimal. Due to their extremely short snouts, they are at a higher risk for breathing difficulties (most notably brachycephalic obstructed airway syndrome). Because of this, they are rarely capable of more than 30 minutes of exercise per day. It is important to monitor their breathing while exercising, especially if in the heat. If the Pekingese begins wheezing, exercise should cease immediately. After running, they should rest in a cool place until their breathing returns to normal. They must have access to plenty of water before, during, and after exercise to prevent overheating and dehydration.


title: Pekingese

text: The breed emerged in China from several kinds of small dog owned by aristocratic families. Unlike the others, it could only be owned by members of the Chinese Imperial Palace.


title: Pekingese

text: During the Second Opium War, in 1860, the Old Summer Palace in Beijing was sacked and set ablaze by a combined Anglo-French expeditionary force, after the Xianfeng Emperor had fled with all of his court members to Chengde.


title: Pekingese

text: A British soldier, Captain John Hart Dunne came across a lone pekingese, which he brought back to England. It was the first of the breed to survive the voyage. He presented her to Queen Victoria, who named it "Looty".


title: Pekingese

text: It is often said that during the sack of the palace grounds, a contingent of British and French troops entered one of the palaces. An elderly aunt of the emperor had remained behind, but when the troops entered the palace she committed suicide. She was found dead with five Pekingese beside her body. They were taken by the troops before the Summer Palace was burnt to the ground. Lord John Hay took a pair, later called "Schloff" and "Hytien", and gave them to his sister, the Duchess of Wellington, wife of Henry Wellesley, 3rd Duke of Wellington. Sir George Fitzroy took another pair, and gave them to his cousins, the Duke and Duchess of Richmond and Gordon. The fifth was the one found by captain Dunne. However the tale has no support from contemporary documents, while both Hay and Fitzroy may well have acquired pekes from some source, they were serving Naval officers expected to stay with their ships guarding the entrance to Beijing.


title: Pekingese

text: The Empress Dowager Cixi presented Pekingese to several Americans, including John Pierpont Morgan and Alice Lee Roosevelt Longworth, daughter of Theodore Roosevelt, who named it "Manchu".


title: Pekingese

text: The first Pekingese in Ireland was introduced by Dr. Heuston. He established smallpox vaccination clinics in China. The effect was dramatic. In gratitude, the Chinese minister, Li Hongzhang presented him with a pair of Pekingese. They were named "Chang" and "Lady Li". Dr. Heuston founded the Greystones kennel.


title: Pekingese

text: Around the turn of the century, Pekingese dogs became popular in Western countries. They were owned by such arbiters of fashion as Alexandra of Denmark, wife of Edward VII, and Elsie de Wolfe, popular American interior decorator. Later, they were owned by Rumer Godden, who wrote in her autobiography that "I do not like dogs except very large ones and one or two with such character that they cannot be denied; Pekingese are not dogs but something more" and by Auberon Waugh, who on one occasion fancifully boasted that one of his dogs shared his love of "The Daily Telegraph" and hatred for "The Sunday Times".


title: Pekingese

text: In recent years, their popularity has declined, eclipsed by similar breeds such as the Shih Tzu. However, in 2021 a Pekingese named Wasabi won the Westminster dog show, the fourth time a Pekingese won Best in Show at Westminster.


title: Pekingese

text: According to the 1948 publication "Dogs In Britain, A Description of All Native Breeds and Most Foreign Breeds in Britain" by Clifford LB Hubbard, the Sleeve Pekingese is a true miniature of the standard-sized dog, and was also known as the Miniature Pekingese. The name "Sleeve Pekingese" came from the custom of carrying these small dogs in the capacious sleeves of the robes worn by members of the Chinese Imperial Household. Hubbard indicated that this tradition appeared to be early Italian rather than Chinese, but its adoption by the Chinese Imperial Household led to dogs being bred as small as possible and to practices aimed at stunting their growth: giving puppies rice wine, holding newborns tightly for hours at a time or putting the puppies into tight-fitting wire mesh waistcoats. These practices were apparently forbidden by Dowager Empress Cixi.


title: Pekingese

text: In Hubbard's time, the term "Sleeve" was applied in Britain to a miniature Pekingese no more than 6–7 pounds in weight, often appearing to be only about 3–4 pounds. Mrs Flander's "Mai Mai" weighed only a little over 4 pounds and many other breeders had bred true miniatures of a similar size. He noted that miniatures may appear in a litter bred from full-sized Pekingese and were exhibited in classes for dogs less than 7 pounds at the major dog shows in Britain. In 1946 (when Hubbard wrote his book), the Sleeve Pekingese had a strong following with the most popular colours being cream and white, with white being considered particularly attractive. He illustrated the description with a white Sleeve Pekingese bred by Mrs Aileen Adam.


title: The Hellbound Heart

text: The Hellbound Heart is a horror novella by Clive Barker, first published in November 1986 by Dark Harvest in the third volume of its "Night Visions" anthology series. The story features a hedonist criminal acquiring a mystical puzzle box, the Lemarchand Configuration, which can be used to summon the Cenobites, demonic beings who do not distinguish between pain and pleasure. He escapes the Cenobites and, with help, resorts to murder to restore himself to full life. Later on, the puzzle box is found by another.


title: The Hellbound Heart

text: Along with introducing Barker's Cenobites, the story was the basis for the 1987 film "Hellraiser" (written and directed by Barker) and its franchise. One Cenobite in particular, nameless in the original novella but nicknamed "Pinhead" by the production crew and fans, became a popular villain among horror movie fans. This character appeared in later Barker prose with the official names "the Hell Priest" and "the Cold Man".


title: The Hellbound Heart

text: The original novella was re-released as a standalone title by HarperPaperbacks in 1991, after the success of the first film, along with an audiobook recorded by Clive Barker and published by Simon & Schuster Audioworks in 1988. The story retains the gory, visceral style Barker introduced in his anthology series "The Books of Blood".


title: The Hellbound Heart

text: Frank Cotton is a hedonistic criminal selfishly devoted to sensual experience even if it harms others. Believing he has indulged in every pleasure the world can offer, Frank pursues rumours of the Lemarchand Configuration, a puzzle box said to open a "schism" or portal to an extradimensional realm of unfathomable pleasure ruled by beings called the Cenobites. In Düsseldorf, Frank obtains the box and returns with it to his deceased grandmother's home in England. Solving the box, he is confused and horrified when the Cenobites – horribly scarified creatures whose bodies have been modified to the point that they appear sexless and in constant pain – arrive. The Cenobites warn he cannot renege on their agreement once it is made, but Frank still eagerly accepts the offer of experiences he has never known before. With Frank as their newest "experiment", the Cenobites subject him to total sensory overload and he realises their devotion to sadomasochism is so extreme and their personalities so removed from humanity that they no longer differentiate between pain and pleasure and have no care to ever stop even if their subject no longer wishes the experience. Frank is taken to the Cenobite realm, a hellish dimension where he will be subjected to an eternity of torture.


title: The Hellbound Heart

text: Sometime later, Frank's brother, Rory, moves into the home in England with his wife Julia. Unknown to Rory, Julia had an affair with Frank a week before their wedding and has lusted after him since. While in the attic, Rory accidentally cuts his hand and bleeds on the spot where Frank was taken by the Cenobites. The blood, mixed with semen Frank had left on the floor before he was taken, opens a dimensional schism. Frank returns, his body now reduced to a desiccated corpse by the Cenobites' experiments. Julia later finds him and promises to restore his body so he can truly live and they can be together.


title: The Hellbound Heart

text: While Rory works, Julia seduces men at bars and brings them to the attic where she murders them. Frank feeds on their bodies, causing his own to slowly regenerate. Kirsty, a friend of Rory's who has romantic feelings for him, suspects Julia is having an affair. Rory suspects the same and while attempting to catch Julia in the act at his request, Kirsty encounters Frank, who attempts to kill her. Kirsty grabs the puzzle box, using it as a weapon before fleeing. She collapses on the street from exhaustion and wakes up in a hospital later. While waiting, she solves the box and inadvertently summons a Cenobite. The Cenobite explains the box is called the Lemarchand Configuration and realizes Kirsty summoned it by accident, but then remarks this does not matter. The Cenobite intends to take Kirsty now that it is here, but she then reveals Frank is alive on Earth again. Though skeptical that one of their experiments could have escaped, the Cenobite is intrigued. It agrees that if Kirsty leads them to Frank and he confirms his identity, they will take him back and perhaps leave her alone.


title: The Hellbound Heart

text: The Cenobite seems to vanish and Kirsty returns to the house. Rory and Julia claim they killed Frank but Kirsty realizes the man she is speaking to is Frank wearing Rory's skin. Another altercation ensues, during which Frank inadvertently kills Julia. Kirsty then baits Frank into admitting his true name out loud. The Cenobites appear, ensnare Frank and return him to their realm, telling Kirsty to leave. Downstairs, Kirsty sees Julia's disembodied head calling for help. The leader of the Cenobites, a being called the Engineer, then appears and seems to take away Julia as well before briefly bumping into Kirsty. After leaving the house, Kirsty realizes the Engineer gave her the puzzle box to watch over until another seeks it out.


title: The Hellbound Heart

text: Looking at the box's surface, Kirsty imagines she sees Julia and Frank's faces but not Rory's. She wonders if there are other puzzles that may unlock doors to a paradise where Rory resides, but laments that she may never find one and that broken hearts might be puzzles that cannot be solved.


title: The Hellbound Heart

text: Barker worked as a male prostitute in the '70s, and his experiences made him want to tell a story about "good and evil in which sexuality was the connective tissue". The look of the cenobites was inspired by S&M clubs, such as an underground club called Cellblock 28 in New York, where people were getting pierced for fun. When he directed and wrote the film adaptation, Barker considered naming the film "Sadomasochists from Hell".


title: The Hellbound Heart

text: A film adaptation was released in 1987, written and directed by Barker, which subsequently spawned nine sequels, a remake, and a multimedia franchise. In the film, Rory is renamed Larry Cotton. Kirsty is named Kirsty Cotton and is Larry's daughter from a previous marriage rather than a friend and co-worker who has a romantic crush on him. The Lemarchand Configuration is also referred to in the film series as the "Lament Configuration".


title: The Hellbound Heart

text: A full-cast audio adaptation of the novella was released in 2018, adapted by Paul Kane and produced by Bafflegab Productions. It starred Alice Lowe as Kirsty, Neve McIntosh as Julia, and Tom Meeten as both Frank and Rory. Other roles are played by Evie Dawnay, Chris Pavlo, Nicholas Vince, Scott Brooksbank, and Lisa Bowerman (famous for her portrayal of Bernice Summerfield and her work with Big Finish Productions).


title: The Hellbound Heart

text: The audio play is a faithful adaptation of the original novella. As in the novella, several Cenobites appear but are not named. In the audio play's ending, there is no mention of the Engineer taking away Julia. Kirsty finds herself entrusted with the puzzle box and says she does not want it, but the voices of the Cenobites tell her she has no choice and now belongs to the box. She does not wonder about the existence of puzzle boxes that can lead to Heavens as well as Hells.


title: The Hellbound Heart

text: The novella received two sequels, "The Scarlet Gospels" written by Clive Barker and published in 2015, and "Hellraiser: The Toll" published in 2018, written by Mark Alan Miller with the story by Clive Barker. The Cenobites are briefly mentioned in passing (as "the Surgeons") in the book "Weaveworld".


title: The Hellbound Heart

text: "The Scarlet Gospels" cements that the Cenobites live in the same reality as Clive Barker's occult detective Harry D'Amour. The same novel involves the Cenobite Pinhead, identifying him as "The Hell Priest" and "The Cold Man".


title: Rose Williams (actress)

text: Rose Victoria Williams is an English actress from Ealing, London. She is best known for her work as Princess Claude in "Reign" and as Charlotte Heywood in "Sanditon".


title: Rose Williams (actress)

text: Williams was born in Ealing, West London on the 18th February 1994. Her mother worked as a costume designer and her father as a gardener.


title: Rose Williams (actress)

text: Her first job was at a clothing store in Dover Street Market when she was 17 years old. She studied fashion and decided at the age of 18 to pursue acting.


title: Rose Williams (actress)

text: Williams appeared in "Casualty", "Reign", "Medici", and "Curfew", before appearing in "Changeland" with Seth Green and Macaulay Culkin.


title: Rose Williams (actress)

text: Williams plays the lead in the 2019 Andrew Davies adaptation of "Sanditon", the unfinished novel by Jane Austen. Her role in "Reign" required her to be based in Toronto for three years, during which time she visited Los Angeles frequently.


title: Rose Williams (actress)

text: Williams had the lead role in British horror film "The Power", also starring Emma Rigby, about a nurse in 1970’s London. Williams also has a supporting role in the film adaptation "Mrs. Harris Goes to Paris" starring Lesley Manville.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: Disobedience is a 2017 romantic drama film directed by Sebastián Lelio and written by Lelio and Rebecca Lenkiewicz, based on the 2006 novel of the same name by Naomi Alderman. The film stars Rachel Weisz, Rachel McAdams, and Alessandro Nivola. Set in North London, it tells the story of a woman who returns to the strict Orthodox Jewish community for her father's funeral after living in New York for many years, having been estranged from her father and ostracised by the community for a reason that becomes clearer as the story unfolds. The film was produced by Weisz, Ed Guiney, and Frida Torresblanco.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: "Disobedience" had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on 10 September 2017. It was released in the United States on 27 April 2018, by Bleecker Street and in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 30 November 2018, by Curzon Artificial Eye.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: The film received some positive reviews, with critics praising the performances of Weisz, McAdams, and Nivola, Lelio's direction, and the screenplay. It was nominated for the British Independent Film Awards, GLAAD Media Awards, and Dorian Awards for Best Picture.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: United Kingdom rating company British Board of Film Classification has rated the movie 15 (for strong sex).


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: The old Rav Krushka succumbs to illness while delivering a sermon on free will to his Orthodox Jewish congregation in North London. Ronit, the Rav's estranged daughter who lives and works in New York City as a photographer, returns to London.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: Ronit arrives at the home of her childhood friend, Dovid Kuperman, a chosen disciple of her father, as members of her father's congregation pay their respects to the deceased. Ronit fails to fit in, behaving in a manner not conforming to Orthodox culture. Despite his surprise at Ronit's visit, Dovid insists she stay with him. Ronit is surprised to discover that Esti, a childhood friend to both of them, is now Dovid's wife.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: Ronit and her two friends attend Shabbat dinner at Ronit's uncle's house. Ronit tries to ask her uncle about selling the house but he says they cannot discuss business on the Sabbath. Ronit is questioned by the other party guests about changing her name and is told to take her mother's candlesticks so she may one day give them to her children. One of the guests tells Ronit that she should get married because it is what should be done. Ronit says that if she had stayed here she probably would have been married off, but she would have been suicidal. She leaves to walk home, joined by Dovid and Esti, and talk about her father.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: Ronit visits her uncle Moshe at his office to discuss the disposition of her father's house but discovers her father has left all of his possessions to the synagogue, and is only allowed in the house to retrieve personal items. Esti accompanies her, and after the two women reminisce about their memories of the Rav's house, Esti tenderly kisses Ronit, who initially resists before reciprocating. Esti confesses to having asked Ronit to be notified of her father's death out of a desire to see her again.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: Esti reveals her unhappiness with her life choices, taken based on the Rav's advice and her strong belief in HaShem. After being caught in a romantic tryst resulting in Ronit's departure from the community, neither Ronit nor Esti have been with other women. While Ronit is bisexual, Esti admits that she is a lesbian. On the way home, they stop at a nearby park and kiss in an empty tennis court, but are spotted by a couple from the congregation. Esti walks away unseen, but the couple identify Ronit and suspect that the other woman was Esti, despite Ronit's unconvincing denial.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: The next day, Esti, who works as a teacher at the local Jewish school, is called into the headmistress' office after the couple deliver a complaint about Esti and Ronit's behaviour. At the synagogue, Dovid is asked to take over the Rav's duties. He is warned about Ronit, but insists that he keeps his house in order. Meanwhile, Ronit tells a shaken Esti that she is leaving the next day, without attending her father's hesped. The two of them sneak away to a hotel room in central London for passionate sex. After, Esti tells Ronit that she thought of her often, imagining her New York apartment and keeping track of the time difference. Esti brings up the memory of the Rav walking in on them when they were young girls. Ronit says she regrets never taking his portrait. Ronit then tells Esti that she wants to take her picture. Esti is initially shy but poses with Ronit's cigarette.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: Esti arrives home late and turns down Dovid when he tries to initiate intimacy. The next morning Esti feels sick. Later that morning Dovid informs Esti that Mrs Shapiro had made a formal complaint, and he asks her to tell him the truth. Esti confesses that she kissed Ronit and expresses her feelings, but Dovid tells her that Ronit is taking advantage of her. Esti denies this and says that she wanted this to happen, causing Dovid to leave. Ronit, who overhears the argument, suggests that Esti should leave Dovid.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: Dovid attends to his duties at the synagogue, clearly preoccupied. At dinner that night, Ronit announces that she has booked a flight and is leaving that night without attending the hesped, to Esti's dismay. That night, after Dovid falls asleep, Esti goes to a drugstore and purchases a pregnancy test. Later in a hotel room, she begins Shuckling against a cabinet and crying.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: The next morning, Ronit is about to board her flight when Dovid calls her and reports that Esti is missing. Ronit and Dovid search spend the day looking for Esti. They return to his home at night to find Esti already there. She reveals that she is pregnant, but asks for her freedom from Dovid, stating she wants to give her unborn child a chance to decide whether or not to be part of their community. Dovid leaves, upset.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: Ronit and Esti attend the Rav's hesped, which is to be given by Dovid in front of the entire congregation. After the opening Zemirot, Ronit invites Esti to come live with her in New York. Dovid begins to speak but is unable to follow his prepared text. Instead, he reminds the congregation of the sermon the Rav was delivering on the freedom to choose right before he died. Under the guise of addressing the congregation, he releases Esti from their marriage, and then publicly turns down the offer of becoming the congregation's new spiritual guide. Esti finds him outside and they embrace. Dovid motions for Ronit to join in their embrace, finally reconciling their old friendship.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: The next morning, Ronit departs for New York, cordially bidding Dovid and Esti goodbye. As Ronit's cab is driving away, Esti chases after Ronit and gives her a final kiss, and they confess their love for each other. Ronit tells Esti that she will be a brilliant mother, and they promise to keep in touch. Ronit makes a detour to her father's grave to bid him a final goodbye and take a picture of his grave.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: On 29 September 2016, it was reported that Rachel Weisz was set to produce and star in an adaptation of the Naomi Alderman novel "Disobedience"; with Ed Guiney and Frida Torresblanco as co-producers, and Sebastián Lelio directing from a script by Lelio and Rebecca Lenkiewicz. On 4 October 2016, Rachel McAdams joined the cast, followed by Alessandro Nivola as McAdams's husband on 7 December 2016. The film was co-financed by Film4 Productions and FilmNation Entertainment. Matthew Herbert joined the production to compose the film score.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: In May 2017, Curzon Artificial Eye acquired U.K. distribution rights from FilmNation Entertainment, and international distribution rights were acquired by Roadshow (Australia), Mars Films (France), Cinema SRL (Italy), Lev Films (Israel), Pathé (Switzerland), and Sony Pictures Worldwide Acquisitions for various territories. Bleecker Street acquired the U.S. distribution rights in September 2017, and Mongrel Media acquired the rights for Canada.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: "Disobedience" had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on 10 September 2017. The film premiered in the United States at the Tribeca Film Festival in the Spotlight Narrative section on 24 April 2018. The film was released theatrically in the U.S. as a limited release on 27 April 2018, in Australia on 14 June and on 30 November in the United Kingdom.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: The United Kingdom rating company British Board of Film Classification has rated the movie 15 (for strong sex).


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: By contrast the German rating company FSK has rated the movie FSK 0 (released without age restriction).


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: "Disobedience" grossed $3.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $4.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $8.0 million.


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: The film debuted in five cinemas in New York City and Los Angeles and made $241,276 in its opening weekend (a per-venue average of $48k), ranking as the fourth-best opening average for the year to that point, after "Isle Of Dogs" ($60k), "" ($55k) and "Black Panther" ($50k).


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 84% based on 209 reviews, and an average rating of 7.20/10. The website's critical consensus states, ""Disobedience" explores a variety of thought-provoking themes, bolstered by gripping work from leads Rachel Weisz, Rachel McAdams, and Alessandro Nivola." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 74 out of 100, based on 38 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: Andrew Barker of "Variety" gave the film a positive review, writing that "Disobedience" "may not catapult Lelio beyond the arthouse world, but it's yet another triumph in what's shaping up to be a major career." David Rooney of "The Hollywood Reporter" also gave the film a positive review writing, "Beautifully acted by Rachel Weisz, Rachel McAdams and Alessandro Nivola as the three points of a melancholy romantic triangle, this is a deeply felt drama that exerts a powerful grip."


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: Writing for "Rolling Stone", Peter Travers gave the film 3.5 stars out of 4, describing it as "a gorgeously acted, written and directed spellbinder...that never preaches or judges. Without dialogue, Lelio creates a whole world that can be read eloquently and movingly on the faces of two superb actresses who give unstintingly to its creation."


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: David Ehrlich from "IndieWire" praised the importance of the subject, the outstanding acting and good direction, saying: "A fraught and emotionally nuanced love story about the tension between the life we’re born into and the one we want for ourselves...Both Weisz and McAdams do a phenomenal job of negotiating who their characters are versus who their characters feel as though they have to be...Lelio builds to a beautiful and powerfully ambiguous moment that brings all the major characters together."


title: Disobedience (2017 film)

text: Peter Bradshaw from "The Guardian" praised the performances, direction, and score saying, "Rachel Weisz, Rachel McAdams and Alessandro Nivola are at the top of their game...The drama is expertly controlled by Lelio, lit and shot in muted and subdued colour tones by cinematographer Danny Cohen and it has a very interesting musical score by Matthew Herbert...This is richly satisfying and powerfully acted work."


title: Race and intelligence

text: Discussions of race and intelligence – specifically, claims of differences in intelligence along racial lines – have appeared in both popular science and academic research since the modern concept of race was first introduced. With the inception of IQ testing in the early 20th century, differences in average test performance between racial groups were observed, though these differences have fluctuated and in many cases steadily decreased over time. Further complicating the issue, modern science has shown race to be a social construct rather than a biological reality, and intelligence has no undisputed definition. The validity of IQ testing as a metric for human intelligence is itself disputed. Today, the scientific consensus is that genetics does not explain differences in IQ test performance between groups, and that observed differences are environmental in origin.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Pseudoscientific claims of inherent differences in intelligence between races have played a central role in the history of scientific racism. The first tests showing differences in IQ scores between different population groups in the United States were the tests of United States Army recruits in World War I. In the 1920s, groups of eugenics lobbyists argued that these results demonstrated that African Americans and certain immigrant groups were of inferior intellect to Anglo-Saxon white people, and that this was due to innate biological differences. In turn, they used such beliefs to justify policies of racial segregation. However, other studies soon appeared, contesting these conclusions and arguing instead that the Army tests had not adequately controlled for environmental factors, such as socioeconomic and educational inequality between black people and white people. Later observations of phenomena such as the Flynn effect and disparities in access to prenatal care also highlighted ways in which environmental factors affect group IQ differences. In recent decades, as understanding of human genetics has advanced, claims of inherent differences in intelligence between races have been broadly rejected by scientists on both theoretical and empirical grounds.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Claims of differences in intelligence between races have been used to justify colonialism, slavery, racism, social Darwinism, and racial eugenics. Racial thinkers such as Arthur de Gobineau relied crucially on the assumption that black people were innately inferior to white people in developing their ideologies of white supremacy. Even Enlightenment thinkers such as Thomas Jefferson, a slave owner, believed black people to be innately inferior to white people in physique and intellect. At the same time, prominent examples of African-American genius such the autodidact and abolitionist Frederick Douglass, the pioneering sociologist W. E. B. Du Bois, and the poet Paul Laurence Dunbar stood as high-profile counterexamples to widespread stereotypes of black intellectual inferiority.


title: Race and intelligence

text: The first practical intelligence test was developed between 1905 and 1908 by Alfred Binet in France for school placement of children. Binet warned that results from his test should not be assumed to measure innate intelligence or used to label individuals permanently. Binet's test was translated into English and revised in 1916 by Lewis Terman (who introduced IQ scoring for the test results) and published under the name Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales. In 1916 Terman wrote that Mexican-Americans, African-Americans, and Native Americans have a mental "dullness [that] seems to be racial, or at least inherent in the family stocks from which they come."


title: Race and intelligence

text: The US Army used a different set of tests developed by Robert Yerkes to evaluate draftees for World War I. Based on the Army's data, prominent psychologists and eugenicists such as Henry H. Goddard, Harry H. Laughlin, and Princeton professor Carl Brigham wrote that people from southern and eastern Europe were less intelligent than native-born Americans or immigrants from the Nordic countries, and that black Americans were less intelligent than white Americans. The results were widely publicized by a lobby of anti-immigration activists, including the conservationist and theorist of scientific racism Madison Grant, who considered the so-called Nordic race to be superior, but under threat because of immigration by "inferior breeds." In his influential work, "A Study of American Intelligence," psychologist Carl Brigham used the results of the Army tests to argue for a stricter immigration policy, limiting immigration to countries considered to belong to the "Nordic race".


title: Race and intelligence

text: In the 1920s, some US states enacted eugenic laws, such as Virginia's 1924 Racial Integrity Act, which established the one-drop rule (of 'racial purity') as law. Many scientists reacted negatively to eugenicist claims linking abilities and moral character to racial or genetic ancestry. They pointed to the contribution of environment (such as speaking English as a second language) to test results. By the mid-1930s, many psychologists in the US had adopted the view that environmental and cultural factors played a dominant role in IQ test results. The psychologist Carl Brigham repudiated his own earlier arguments, explaining that he had come to realize that the tests were not a measure of innate intelligence.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Discussions of the issue in the United States, especially in the writings of Madison Grant, influenced German Nazi claims that the "Nordics" were a "master race." As American public sentiment shifted against the Germans, claims of racial differences in intelligence increasingly came to be regarded as problematic. Anthropologists such as Franz Boas, Ruth Benedict, and Gene Weltfish did much to demonstrate that claims about racial hierarchies of intelligence were unscientific. Nonetheless, a powerful eugenics and segregation lobby funded largely by textile-magnate Wickliffe Draper continued to use intelligence studies as an argument for eugenics, segregation, and anti-immigration legislation.


title: Race and intelligence

text: As the desegregation of the American South gained traction in the 1950s, debate about black intelligence resurfaced. Audrey Shuey, funded by Draper's Pioneer Fund, published a new analysis of Yerkes' tests, concluding that black people really were of inferior intellect to white people. This study was used by segregationists to argue that it was to the advantage of black children to be educated separately from the superior white children. In the 1960s, the debate was revived when William Shockley publicly defended the view that black children were innately unable to learn as well as white children. Arthur Jensen expressed similar opinions in his "Harvard Educational Review" article, "How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?," which questioned the value of compensatory education for African-American children. He suggested that poor educational performance in such cases reflected an underlying genetic cause rather than lack of stimulation at home or other environmental factors.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Another revival of public debate followed the appearance of "The Bell Curve" (1994), a book by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray that supported the general viewpoint of Jensen. A statement in support of Herrnstein and Murray titled "Mainstream Science on Intelligence," was published in "The Wall Street Journal" with 52 signatures. "The Bell Curve" also led to critical responses in a statement titled "" of the American Psychological Association and in several books, including "The Bell Curve Debate" (1995), "Inequality by Design" (1996) and a second edition of "The Mismeasure of Man" (1996) by Stephen Jay Gould.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Some of the authors proposing genetic explanations for group differences have received funding from the Pioneer Fund, which was headed by J. Philippe Rushton until his death in 2012. Arthur Jensen, who jointly with Rushton published a 2005 review article arguing that the difference in average IQs between blacks and whites is partly due to genetics, received $1.1 million from the Pioneer Fund. According to Ashley Montagu, "The University of California's Arthur Jensen, cited twenty-three times in "The Bell Curve"s bibliography, is the book's principal authority on the intellectual inferiority of blacks."


title: Race and intelligence

text: The Southern Poverty Law Center lists the Pioneer Fund as a hate group, citing the fund's history, its funding of race and intelligence research, and its connections with racist individuals. Other researchers have criticized the Pioneer Fund for promoting scientific racism, eugenics and white supremacy.


title: Race and intelligence

text: The concept of intelligence and the degree to which intelligence is measurable are matters of debate. There is no consensus about how to define intelligence; nor is it universally accepted that it is something that can be meaningfully measured by a single figure. A recurring criticism is that different societies value and promote different kinds of skills and that the concept of intelligence is therefore culturally variable and cannot be measured by the same criteria in different societies. Consequently, some critics argue that it makes no sense to propose relationships between intelligence and other variables.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Correlations between scores on various types of IQ tests led English psychologist Charles Spearman to propose in 1904 the existence of an underlying factor, which he referred to as ""g"" or "general intelligence", a trait which is supposed to be innate. More recent proponents of this view include Arthur Jensen. This view, however, has been contradicted by a number of studies showing that education and changes in environment can significantly improve IQ test results.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Other psychometricians have argued that, whether or not there is such a thing as a general intelligence factor, performance on tests relies crucially on knowledge acquired through prior exposure to the types of tasks that such tests contain. This means that comparisons of test scores between persons with widely different life experiences and cognitive habits do not reveal their relative innate potentials.


title: Race and intelligence

text: The majority of anthropologists today consider race to be a sociopolitical phenomenon rather than a biological one, a view supported by considerable genetics research. The current mainstream view in the social sciences and biology is that race is a social construction based on folk ideologies that construct groups based on social disparities and superficial physical characteristics. state, "Race is a socially constructed concept, not a biological one. It derives from people's desire to classify." The concept of human "races" as natural and separate divisions within the human species has also been rejected by the American Anthropological Association. The official position of the AAA, adopted in 1998, is that advances in scientific knowledge have made it "clear that human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups" and that "any attempt to establish lines of division among biological populations [is] both arbitrary and subjective." A more recent statement from the American Association of Physical Anthropologists (2019) declares that "Race does not provide an accurate representation of human biological variation. It was never accurate in the past, and it remains inaccurate when referencing contemporary human populations. Humans are not divided biologically into distinct continental types or racial genetic clusters."


title: Race and intelligence

text: In studies of human intelligence, race is almost always determined using self-reports rather than analyses of genetic characteristics. According to psychologist David Rowe, self-report is the preferred method for racial classification in studies of racial differences because classification based on genetic markers alone ignore the "cultural, behavioral, sociological, psychological, and epidemiological variables" that distinguish racial groups. Hunt and Carlson disagreed, writing that "Nevertheless, self-identification is a surprisingly reliable guide to genetic composition," citing a study by . Sternberg and Grigorenko disputed Hunt and Carlson's interpretation of Tang's results as supporting the view that racial divisions are biological; rather, "Tang et al.'s point was that ancient geographic ancestry rather than current residence is associated with self-identification and not that such self-identification provides evidence for the existence of biological race."


title: Race and intelligence

text: Anthropologist C. Loring Brace and geneticist Joseph Graves also disagree with the idea that cluster analysis and the correlation between self-reported race and genetic ancestry support the notion of biological races. They argue that while it is possible to find biological and genetic variation corresponding roughly to the groupings normally defined as races, this is true for almost all geographically distinct populations. The cluster structure of the genetic data is dependent on the initial hypotheses of the researcher and the populations sampled. When one samples continental groups, the clusters become continental; if one had chosen other sampling patterns, the clusters would be different. concludes that, while differences in particular allele frequencies can be used to identify populations that loosely correspond to the racial categories common in Western social discourse, the differences are of no more biological significance than the differences found between any human populations (e.g., the Spanish and Portuguese).


title: Race and intelligence

text: The study of human intelligence is one of the most controversial topics in psychology, in part because of difficulty reaching agreement about the meaning of "intelligence" and objections to the assumption that intelligence can be meaningfully measured by IQ tests. Claims that there are innate differences in intelligence between racial and ethnic groups—which go back at least to the 19th century—have been criticized both for relying on specious assumptions and research methods and for serving as an ideological framework for discrimination and racism.


title: Race and intelligence

text: In a 2012 study of tests of different components of intelligence, Hampshire et al. expressed disagreement with the view of Jensen and Rushton that genetic factors must play a role in IQ differences between races, stating that "it remains unclear, however, whether population differences in intelligence test scores are driven by heritable factors or by other correlated demographic variables such as socioeconomic status, education level, and motivation. More relevantly, it is questionable whether they [population differences in intelligence test scores] relate to a unitary intelligence factor, as opposed to a bias in testing paradigms toward particular components of a more complex intelligence construct." According to Jackson and Weidman,


title: Race and intelligence

text: In the US, individuals identifying themselves as Asian generally tend to score higher on IQ tests than Caucasians, who tend to score higher than Hispanics, who tend to score higher than African Americans. Nevertheless, greater variation in IQ scores exists within each ethnic group than between them. A 2001 meta-analysis of the results of 6,246,729 participants tested for cognitive ability or aptitude found a difference in average scores between black people and white people of 1.1 standard deviations. Consistent results were found for college and university application tests such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (N = 2.4 million) and Graduate Record Examination (N = 2.3 million), as well as for tests of job applicants in corporate settings (N = 0.5 million) and in the military (N = 0.4 million).


title: Race and intelligence

text: In response to the controversial 1994 book "The Bell Curve", the American Psychological Association (APA) formed a task-force of eleven experts, which issued a report "" in 1996. Regarding group differences, the report reaffirmed the consensus that differences within groups are much wider than differences between groups, and that claims of ethnic differences in intelligence should be scrutinized carefully, as such claims had been used to justify racial discrimination. The report also acknowledged problems with the racial categories used, as these categories are neither consistently applied, nor homogeneous (see also race and ethnicity in the United States).


title: Race and intelligence

text: In the UK, some African groups have higher average educational attainment and standardized test scores than the overall population. In 2010–2011, white British pupils were 2.3% less likely to have gained 5 A*–C grades at GCSE than the national average, whereas the likelihood was 21.8% above average for those of Nigerian origin, 5.5% above average for those of Ghanaian origin, and 1.4% above average for those of Sierra Leonian origin. For the two other African ethnic groups on which data was available, the likelihood was 23.7% below average for those of Somali origin and 35.3% below average for those of Congolese origin. In 2014, Black-African pupils of 11 language groups were more likely to pass Key Stage 2 Maths 4+ in England than the national average. Overall, the average pass rate by ethnicity was 86.5% for white British (N = 395,787), whereas it was 85.6% for Black-Africans (N = 18,497). Nevertheless, several Black-African language groups, including Yoruba, Igbo, Hausa, Akan, Ga, Swahili, Edo, Ewe, Amharic speakers, and English-speaking Africans, each had an average pass rate above the white British average (total N = 9,314), with the Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, and Amhara having averages above 90% (N = 2,071). In 2017–2018, the percentage of pupils getting a strong pass (grade 5 or above) in the English and maths GCSE (in Key Stage 4) was 42.7% for whites (N = 396,680) and 44.3% for Black-Africans (N = 18,358).


title: Race and intelligence

text: During the 20th century, raw scores on IQ tests were rising; this score increase is known as the "Flynn effect," named after James R. Flynn. In the United States, the increase was continuous and approximately linear from the earliest years of testing to about 1998 when the gains stopped and some tests even showed decreasing test scores. For example, the average scores of black people on some IQ tests in 1995 were the same as the scores of white people in 1945. As one pair of academics phrased it, "the typical African American today probably has a slightly higher IQ than the grandparents of today's average white American."


title: Race and intelligence

text: Flynn has argued that, given that these changes took place between one generation and the next, it is highly unlikely that genetic factors could have accounted for the increasing scores, which must then have been caused by environmental factors. The importance of the Flynn effect in the debate over the causes of the black/white IQ gap lies in demonstrating that environmental factors may cause changes in test scores on the scale of 1 standard deviation. This had previously been doubted.


title: Race and intelligence

text: A separate phenomenon from the Flynn effect has been the discovery that the IQ gap was gradually closing over the last decades of the 20th century, as black test-takers increased their average scores relative to white test-takers. For instance, Vincent reported in 1991 that the black–white IQ gap was decreasing among children, but that it was remaining constant among adults. Similarly, a 2006 study by Dickens and Flynn estimated that the difference between mean scores of black people and white people closed by about 5 or 6 IQ points between 1972 and 2002, a reduction of about one-third. In the same period, the educational achievement disparity also diminished. Reviews by Flynn and Dickens, Mackintosh, and Nisbett "et al." accept the gradual closing of the gap as a fact.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Environmental factors including childhood lead exposure, low rates of breast feeding, and poor nutrition are significantly correlated with poor cognitive development and functioning. For example, childhood exposure to lead, associated with homes in poorer areas, is associated with an average IQ drop of 7 points, and iodine deficiency causes a fall, on average, of 12 IQ points. Such impairments may sometimes be permanent, but in some cases they be partially or wholly compensated for by later growth.


title: Race and intelligence

text: The first two years of life are critical for malnutrition, the consequences of which are often irreversible and include poor cognitive development, educability, and future economic productivity. The African American population of the United States is statistically more likely to be exposed to many detrimental environmental factors such as poorer neighborhoods (noise, crime, limited outdoor space, and other impoverishments), air pollution (diesel exhaust, smoke, industrial emissions, ultrafine particulates, etc.), subpar schools (insufficient funding, neglect, and disruption of schooling for myriad reasons), malnutrition (high levels of nutritionally bankrupt processed foods), and subpar prenatal and postnatal health care (inadequate funding).


title: Race and intelligence

text: Mackintosh points out that, for American black people, infant mortality is about twice as high as for white people, and low birth weight is twice as prevalent. At the same time, white mothers are twice as likely to breastfeed their infants, and breastfeeding is directly correlated with IQ for low-birth-weight infants. In this way, a wide number of health-related factors which influence IQ are unequally distributed between the two groups.


title: Race and intelligence

text: The Copenhagen consensus in 2004 stated that lack of both iodine and iron has been implicated in impaired brain development, and this can affect enormous numbers of people: it is estimated that one-third of the total global population is affected by iodine deficiency. In developing countries, it is estimated that 40% of children aged four and under have anaemia because of insufficient iron in their diets.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Other scholars have found that simply the standard of nutrition has a significant effect on population intelligence, and that the Flynn effect may be caused by increasing nutrition standards across the world. James Flynn has himself argued against this view.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Some recent research has argued that the retardation caused in brain development by infectious diseases, many of which are more prevalent in non-white populations, may be an important factor in explaining the differences in IQ between different regions of the world. The findings of this research, showing the correlation between IQ, race and infectious diseases was also shown to apply to the IQ gap in the US, suggesting that this may be an important environmental factor. It is also suggested that "the Flynn effect may be caused in part by the decrease in the intensity of infectious diseases as nations develop."


title: Race and intelligence

text: A 2013 meta-analysis by the World Health Organization found that, after controlling for maternal IQ, breastfeeding was associated with IQ gains of 2.19 points. The authors suggest that this relationship is causal but state that the practical significance of this gain is debatable; however, they highlight one study suggesting an association between breastfeeding and academic performance in Brazil, where "breastfeeding duration does not present marked variability by socioeconomic position." Colen and Ramey (2014) similarly find that controlling for sibling comparisons within families, rather than between families, reduces the correlation between breastfeeding status and WISC IQ scores by nearly a third, but further find the relationship between breastfeeding duration and WISC IQ scores to be insignificant. They suggest that "much of the beneficial long-term effects typically attributed to breastfeeding, per se, may primarily be due to selection pressures into infant feeding practices along key demographic characteristics such as race and socioeconomic status." Reichman estimates that no more than 3 to 4% of the black–white IQ gap can be explained by black–white disparities in low birth weight.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Several studies have proposed that a large part of the gap can be attributed to differences in quality of education. Racial discrimination in education has been proposed as one possible cause of differences in educational quality between races. According to a paper by Hala Elhoweris, Kagendo Mutua, Negmeldin Alsheikh and Pauline Holloway, teachers' referral decisions for students to participate in gifted and talented educational programs were influenced in part by the students' ethnicity.


title: Race and intelligence

text: The Abecedarian Early Intervention Project, an intensive early childhood education project, was also able to bring about an average IQ gain of 4.4 points at age 21 in the black children who participated in it compared to controls. Arthur Jensen agreed that the Abecedarian project demonstrated that education can have a significant effect on IQ, but also declared his view that no educational program thus far had been able to reduce the black–white IQ gap by more than a third, and that differences in education are thus unlikely to be its only cause.


title: Race and intelligence

text: A series of studies by Joseph Fagan and Cynthia Holland measured the effect of prior exposure to the kind of cognitive tasks posed in IQ tests on test performance. Assuming that the IQ gap was the result of lower exposure to tasks using the cognitive functions usually found in IQ tests among African American test takers, they prepared a group of African Americans in this type of tasks before taking an IQ test. The researchers found that there was no subsequent difference in performance between the African-Americans and white test takers. Daley and Onwuegbuzie conclude that Fagan and Holland demonstrate that "differences in knowledge between black people and white people for intelligence test items can be erased when equal opportunity is provided for exposure to the information to be tested". A similar argument is made by David Marks who argues that IQ differences correlate well with differences in literacy suggesting that developing literacy skills through education causes an increase in IQ test performance.


title: Race and intelligence

text: A 2003 study found that two variables—stereotype threat and the degree of educational attainment of children's fathers—partially explained the black–white gap in cognitive ability test scores, undermining the hereditarian view that they stemmed from immutable genetic factors.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Different aspects of the socioeconomic environment in which children are raised have been shown to correlate with part of the IQ gap, but they do not account for the entire gap. According to a 2006 review, these factors account for slightly less than half of one standard deviation.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Other research has focused on different causes of variation within low socioeconomic status (SES) and high SES groups.


title: Race and intelligence

text: In the US, among low SES groups, genetic differences account for a smaller proportion of the variance in IQ than among high SES populations. Such effects are predicted by the "bioecological" hypothesis—that genotypes are transformed into phenotypes through nonadditive synergistic effects of the environment. suggest that high SES individuals are more likely to be able to develop their full biological potential, whereas low SES individuals are likely to be hindered in their development by adverse environmental conditions. The same review also points out that adoption studies generally are biased towards including only high and high middle SES adoptive families, meaning that they will tend to overestimate average genetic effects. They also note that studies of adoption from lower-class homes to middle-class homes have shown that such children experience a 12 to 18 point gain in IQ relative to children who remain in low SES homes. A 2015 study found that environmental factors (namely, family income, maternal education, maternal verbal ability/knowledge, learning materials in the home, parenting factors, child birth order, and child birth weight) accounted for the black–white gap in cognitive ability test scores.


title: Race and intelligence

text: A number of studies have reached the conclusion that IQ tests may be biased against certain groups. The validity and reliability of IQ scores obtained from outside the United States and Europe have been questioned, in part because of the inherent difficulty of comparing IQ scores between cultures. Several researchers have argued that cultural differences limit the appropriateness of standard IQ tests in non-industrialized communities.


title: Race and intelligence

text: A 1996 report by the American Psychological Association states that intelligence can be difficult to compare across cultures, and notes that differing familiarity with test materials can produce substantial differences in test results; it also says that tests are accurate predictors of future achievement for black and white Americans, and are in that sense unbiased. The view that tests accurately predict future educational attainment is reinforced by Nicholas Mackintosh in his 1998 book "IQ and Human Intelligence", and by a 1999 literature review by .


title: Race and intelligence

text: James R. Flynn, surveying studies on the topic, notes that the weight and presence of many test questions depends on what sorts of information and modes of thinking are culturally valued.


title: Race and intelligence

text: According to a 2008 article in the journal "Intelligence", a survey found that most researchers in the field of intelligence measurement do not believe there is robust evidence for the claim that IQ tests are racially or culturally biased. This finding is similar to that of a 2003 survey.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Stereotype threat is the fear that one's behavior will confirm an existing stereotype of a group with which one identifies or by which one is defined; this fear may in turn lead to an impairment of performance. Testing situations that highlight the fact that intelligence is being measured tend to lower the scores of individuals from racial-ethnic groups who already score lower on average or are expected to score lower. Stereotype threat conditions cause larger than expected IQ differences among groups. Psychometrician Nicholas Mackintosh considers that there is little doubt that the effects of stereotype threat contribute to the IQ gap between black people and white people.


title: Race and intelligence

text: A large number of studies have shown that systemically disadvantaged minorities, such as the African American minority of the United States, generally perform worse in the educational system and in intelligence tests than the majority groups or less disadvantaged minorities such as immigrant or "voluntary" minorities. The explanation of these findings may be that children of caste-like minorities, due to the systemic limitations of their prospects of social advancement, do not have "effort optimism", i.e. they do not have the confidence that acquiring the skills valued by majority society, such as those skills measured by IQ tests, is worthwhile. They may even deliberately reject certain behaviors that are seen as "acting white." Research published in 1997 indicates that part of the black–white gap in cognitive ability test scores is due to racial differences in test motivation.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Some researchers have suggested that stereotype threat should not be interpreted as a factor in real-life performance gaps, and have raised the possibility of publication bias. Other critics have focused on correcting what they claim are misconceptions of early studies showing a large effect. However, numerous meta-analyses and systematic reviews have shown significant evidence for the effects of stereotype threat, though the phenomenon defies over-simplistic characterization. For instance, one meta-analysis found that with female subjects "subtle threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and moderately explicit cues" while with minorities "moderately explicit stereotype threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and subtle cues".


title: Race and intelligence

text: Some researchers have argued that studies of stereotype threat may in fact systematically under-represent its effects, since such studies measure "only that portion of psychological threat that research has identified and remedied. To the extent that unidentified or unremedied psychological threats further undermine performance, the results underestimate the bias."


title: Race and intelligence

text: Although IQ differences between individuals have been shown to have a large hereditary component, it does not follow that mean group-level disparities (between-group differences) in IQ necessarily have a genetic basis. The scientific consensus is that there is no evidence for a genetic component behind IQ differences between racial groups. Growing evidence indicates that environmental factors, not genetic ones, explain the racial IQ gap.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Geneticist Alan R. Templeton argued that the question about the possible genetic effects on the test score gap is muddled by the general focus on "race" rather than on populations defined by gene frequency or by geographical proximity, and by the general insistence on phrasing the question in terms of heritability. Templeton pointed out that racial groups neither represent sub-species nor distinct evolutionary lineages, and that therefore there is no basis for making claims about the general intelligence of races. He argued that, for these reasons, the search for possible genetic influences on the black–white test score gap is "a priori" flawed, because there is no genetic material shared by all Africans or by all Europeans. , on the other hand, argued that by using genetic cluster analysis to correlate gene frequencies with continental populations it might be possible to show that African populations have a higher frequency of certain genetic variants that contribute to differences in average intelligence. Such a hypothetical situation could hold without all Africans carrying the same genes or belonging to a single evolutionary lineage. According to Mackintosh, a biological basis for the observed gap in IQ test performance thus cannot be ruled out on "a priori" grounds.


title: Race and intelligence

text: More recent research attempting to identify genetic loci associated with individual-level differences in IQ has yielded promising results, which led the editorial board of "Nature" to issue a statement differentiating this research from the "racist" pseudoscience which it acknowledged has dogged intelligence research since its inception. It characterized the idea of genetically determined differences in intelligence between races as definitively false.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Twin studies of intelligence have reported high heritability values. However, these studies have been criticized for being based on questionable assumptions. When used in the context of human behavior genetics, the term "heritability" can be misleading, as it does not necessarily convey information about the relative importance of genetic or environmental factors on the development of a given trait, nor does it convey the extent to which that trait is genetically determined. Arguments in support of a genetic explanation of racial differences in IQ are sometimes fallacious. For instance, hereditarians have sometimes cited the failure of known environmental factors to account for such differences, or the high heritability of intelligence within races, as evidence that racial differences in IQ are genetic.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Psychometricians have found that intelligence is substantially heritable within populations, with 30–50% of variance in IQ scores in early childhood being attributable to genetic factors in analyzed US populations, increasing to 75–80% by late adolescence. In biology heritability is defined as the ratio of variation attributable to genetic differences in an observable trait to the trait's total observable variation. The heritability of a trait describes the proportion of variation in the trait that is attributable to genetic factors within a particular population. A heritability of 1 indicates that variation correlates fully with genetic variation and a heritability of 0 indicates that there is no correlation between the trait and genes at all. In psychological testing, heritability tends to be understood as the degree of correlation between the results of a test taker and those of their biological parents. However, since high heritability is simply a correlation between child and parents, it does not describe the causes of heritability which in humans can be either genetic or environmental.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Therefore, a high heritability measure does not imply that a trait is genetic or unchangeable. In addition, environmental factors that affect all group members equally will not be measured by heritability, and the heritability of a trait may also change over time in response to changes in the distribution of genetic and environmental factors. High heritability does not imply that all of the heritability is genetically determined; rather, it can also be due to environmental differences that affect only a certain genetically defined group (indirect heritability).


title: Race and intelligence

text: The figure to the right demonstrates how heritability works. In each of the two gardens the difference between tall and short cornstalks is 100% heritable, as cornstalks that are genetically disposed for growing tall will become taller than those without this disposition. But the difference in height between the cornstalks to the left and those on the right is 100% environmental, as it is due to different nutrients being supplied to the two gardens. Hence, the causes of differences within a group and between groups may not be the same, even when looking at traits that are highly heritable.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Spearman's hypothesis states that the magnitude of the black–white difference in tests of cognitive ability depends entirely or mainly on the extent to which a test measures general mental ability, or "g". The hypothesis was first formalized by Arthur Jensen, who devised the statistical "method of correlated vectors" to test it. If Spearman's hypothesis holds true, then the cognitive tasks that have the highest "g"-load are the tasks in which the gap between black and white test takers are greatest. Jensen and Rushton take this to show that the cause of "g" and the cause of the gap are the same—in their view, genetic differences.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Flynn has criticized Jensen's basic assumption that confirmation of Spearman's hypothesis would support a partially genetic explanation for IQ differences. He argues that, no matter what the causes are of average group IQ differences, one would expect the differences to be greater for more complex tasks. Flynn thus sees the correlation between "g"-loading and the test score gap to offer no clue to the cause of the gap.


title: Race and intelligence

text: A number of IQ studies have been done on the effect of similar rearing conditions on children from different races. The hypothesis is that this can be determined by investigating whether black children adopted into white families demonstrated gains in IQ test scores relative to black children reared in black families. Depending on whether their test scores are more similar to their biological or adoptive families, that could be interpreted as supporting either a genetic or an environmental hypothesis. Critiques of such studies question whether the environment of black children—even when raised in white families—is truly comparable to the environment of white children. Several reviews of the adoption study literature have suggested that it is probably impossible to avoid confounding biological and environmental factors in this type of study. Another criticism by is that adoption studies on the whole tend to be carried out in a restricted set of environments, mostly in the medium-high SES range, where heritability is higher than in the low-SES range.


title: Race and intelligence

text: The Minnesota Transracial Adoption Study (1976) examined the IQ test scores of 122 adopted children and 143 nonadopted children reared by advantaged white families. The children were restudied ten years later. The study found higher IQ for white people compared to black people, both at age 7 and age 17. Acknowledging the existence of confounding factors, Scarr and Weinberg, the authors of the original study, did not consider that it provided support for either the hereditarian or environmentalist view.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Frydman and Lynn (1989) showed a mean IQ of 119 for Korean infants adopted by Belgian families. After correcting for the Flynn effect, the IQ of the adopted Korean children was still 10 points higher than that of the Belgian children.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Reviewing the evidence from adoption studies, Mackintosh finds that environmental and genetic variables remain confounded and considers evidence from adoption studies inconclusive, and fully compatible with a 100% environmental explanation. Similarly, Drew Thomas argues that race differences in IQ that appear in adoption studies are in fact an artifact of methodology, and that East Asian IQ advantages and black IQ disadvantages disappear when this is controlled for.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Most people have ancestry from different geographical regions. In particular, African Americans typically have ancestors from both Africa and Europe, with, on average, 20% of their genome inherited from European ancestors. If racial IQ gaps have a partially genetic basis, one might expect black people with a higher degree of European ancestry to score higher on IQ tests than black people with less European ancestry, because the genes inherited from European ancestors would likely include some genes with a positive effect on IQ. Geneticist Alan Templeton has argued that an experiment based on the Mendelian "common garden" design, where specimens with different hybrid compositions are subjected to the same environmental influences, are the only way to definitively show a causal relation between genes and group differences in IQ. Summarizing the findings of admixture studies, he concludes that they have shown no significant correlation between any cognitive ability and the degree of African or European ancestry.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Studies have employed different ways of measuring or approximating relative degrees of ancestry from Africa and Europe. Some studies have used skin color as a measure, and others have used blood groups. surveys the literature and argues that the blood groups studies may be seen as providing some support to the genetic hypothesis, even though the correlation between ancestry and IQ was quite low. He finds that studies by , Willerman, Naylor & Myrianthopoulos (1970) did not find a correlation between degree of African/European ancestry and IQ. The latter study did find a difference based on the race of the mother, with children of white mothers with black fathers scoring higher than children of black mothers and white fathers. Loehlin considers that such a finding is compatible with either a genetic or an environmental cause. All in all Loehlin finds admixture studies inconclusive and recommends more research.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Reviewing the evidence from admixture studies considers it to be inconclusive because of too many uncontrolled variables. quotes a statement by to the effect that admixture studies have not provided a shred of evidence in favor of a genetic basis for the IQ gap.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Mental chronometry measures the elapsed time between the presentation of a sensory stimulus and the subsequent behavioral response by the participant. This reaction time (RT) is considered a measure of the speed and efficiency with which the brain processes information. Scores on most types of RT tasks tend to correlate with scores on standard IQ tests as well as with "g", and no relationship has been found between RT and any other psychometric factors independent of "g". The strength of the correlation with IQ varies from one RT test to another, but Hans Eysenck gives 0.40 as a typical correlation under favorable conditions. According to Jensen, individual differences in RT have a substantial genetic component, and heritability is higher for performance on tests that correlate more strongly with IQ. Nisbett argues that some studies have found correlations closer to 0.2, and that a correlation is not always found.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Several studies have found differences between races in average reaction times. These studies have generally found that reaction times among black, Asian and white children follow the same pattern as IQ scores. Black–white differences in reaction time, however, tend to be small (average effect size .18). have argued that reaction time is independent of culture and that the existence of race differences in average reaction time is evidence that the cause of racial IQ gaps is partially genetic. Responding to this argument in "Intelligence and How to Get It", Nisbett points to the study in which a group of Chinese Americans had longer reaction times than a group of European Americans, despite having higher IQs. Nisbett also mentions findings in and suggesting that movement time (the measure of how long it takes a person to move a finger after making the decision to do so) correlates with IQ just as strongly as reaction time, and that average movement time is faster for black people than for white people. considers reaction time evidence unconvincing and comments that other cognitive tests that also correlate well with IQ show no disparity at all, for example the habituation/dishabituation test. He further comments that studies show that rhesus monkeys have shorter reaction times than American college students, suggesting that different reaction times may not tell us anything useful about intelligence.


title: Race and intelligence

text: A number of studies have reported a moderate statistical correlation between differences in IQ and brain size between individuals in the same group. Some scholars have reported differences in average brain sizes between racial groups, although this is unlikely to be a good measure of IQ as brain size also differs between men and women, but without significant differences in IQ. At the same time newborn black children have the same average brain size as white children, suggesting that the difference in average size could be accounted for by differences in environment. Several environmental factors that reduce brain size have been demonstrated to disproportionately affect black children.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Archaeological evidence does not support claims by Rushton and others that black people's cognitive ability was inferior to white people's during prehistoric times.


title: Race and intelligence

text: The ethics of research on race and intelligence has long been a subject of debate: in a 1996 report of the American Psychological Association; in guidelines proposed by Gray and Thompson and by Hunt and Carlson; and in two editorials in "Nature" in 2009 by Steven Rose and by Stephen J. Ceci and Wendy M. Williams.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Steven Rose maintains that the history of eugenics makes this field of research difficult to reconcile with current ethical standards for science.


title: Race and intelligence

text: On the other hand, James R. Flynn has argued that had there been a ban on research on possibly poorly conceived ideas, much valuable research on intelligence testing (including his own discovery of the Flynn effect) would not have occurred.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Jensen and Rushton argued that what they believe to be biological differences in intelligence between races raises questions about the worthiness of policies such as affirmative action and promotion of diversity.


title: Race and intelligence

text: Many have argued for increased interventions in order to close the gaps. Flynn writes that "America will have to address all the aspects of black experience that are disadvantageous, beginning with the regeneration of inner city neighborhoods and their schools." Especially in developing nations, society has been urged to take on the prevention of cognitive impairment in children as a high priority. Possible preventable causes include malnutrition, infectious diseases such as meningitis, parasites, cerebral malaria, in utero drug and alcohol exposure, newborn asphyxia, low birth weight, head injuries, lead poisoning and endocrine disorders.


title: Kwashiorkor

text: Kwashiorkor ( , ) is a form of severe protein malnutrition characterized by edema and an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates. It is thought to be caused by sufficient calorie intake, but with insufficient protein consumption (or lack of good quality protein), which distinguishes it from marasmus. Recent studies have found that a lack of antioxidant micronutrients such as β-carotene, lycopene, other carotenoids, and vitamin C as well as the presence of aflatoxins may play a role in the development of the disease. However, the exact cause of kwashiorkor is still unknown. Inadequate food supply is correlated with occurrences of kwashiorkor; occurrences in high income countries are rare. It occurs amongst weaning children to ages of about five years old.


title: Kwashiorkor

text: Conditions analogous to kwashiorkor were well documented around the world throughout history. However, Jamaican pediatrician Cicely Williams introduced the term in 1935, two years after she published the disease's first formal description. Williams was the first to conduct research on kwashiorkor and differentiate it from other dietary deficiencies. She was the first to suggest that this might be a deficiency of protein. The name is derived from the Ga language of coastal Ghana, translated as "the sickness the baby gets when the new baby comes" or "the disease of the deposed child", and reflecting the development of the condition in an older child who has been weaned from the breast when a younger sibling comes. Breast milk contains amino acids vital to a child's growth. In at-risk populations, kwashiorkor may develop after children are weaned from breast milk and begin consuming a diet high in carbohydrates, including maize, cassava or rice.


title: Kwashiorkor

text: Kwashiorkor is a type of severe acute malnutrition (SAM). SAM is a category, composed of two conditions: marasmus and kwashiorkor. Both kwashiorkor and marasmus fall under the umbrella of protein–energy malnutrition (PEM). These diseases are oftentimes discussed together, but are distinctly separate conditions of malnutrition. Kwashiorkor is marked by an array of metabolic disturbances of uncertain etiology. In contrast, marasmus is more clearly a syndrome of energy deficiency, which is marked by weight loss. On physical exam, kwashiorkor is also distinguished from marasmus by the presence of edema. When children present with both kwashiorkor and marasmus, the condition is referred to as "marasmic-kwashiorkor". In general, kwashiorkor is marked by more profound serum depletions of antioxidant molecules and minerals, relative to marasmus.


title: Kwashiorkor

text: Wellcome classification is a system for classifying protein-energy malnutrition in children based on weight for their age and based on presence of edema. Other classifications include Gomez classification and Waterlow classification.


title: Kwashiorkor

text: The defining sign of kwashiorkor in children is bilateral pitting edema in the feet. Edema may also involve the hands, trunk, and face. Unlike marasmus, where the liver is usually depleted of fat and reduced in size, kwashiorkor is characterized by an enlarged fatty liver. This fatty liver of undernutrition phenotype is often accompanied by evidence of inflammation and fibrosis. In addition to liver steatosis, kwashiorkor is marked by a parallel pattern of multi-organ dysfunction. Organs affected in children with kwashiorkor include the kidneys, heart, and nervous system". Other findings that are often encountered on physical exam include a distended abdomen, hair thinning, loss of teeth, skin or hair depigmentation, and dermatitis. Children with kwashiorkor often develop irritability and anorexia. Generally, kwashiorkor is treated by introducing a high quality source of protein to the diet. Ready to use therapeutic food (RUTF) and F-100 milk powder, which both incorporate skim milk powder, are both approved for the treatment of kwashiorkor. These products are designed for use in low resource settings. The limited number of kwashiorkor cases that occur in high resource settings, where there is good access to advanced therapeutic tools, are typically treated with partially hydrolyzed or elemental enteral formulas, with parenteral nutrition provided in extreme cases.


title: Kwashiorkor

text: The precise etiology of kwashiorkor remains unclear. Several hypotheses have been proposed that are associated with and explain some, but not all aspects of the pathophysiology of kwashiorkor. They include, but are not limited to protein deficiency causing hypoalbuminemia, amino acid deficiency, oxidative stress, and gut microbiome changes.


title: Kwashiorkor

text: Kwashiorkor is a severe form of malnutrition associated with a low protein diets. The extreme lack of protein causes an osmotic imbalance in the gastrointestinal system causing swelling of the gut diagnosed as an edema or retention of water.


title: Kwashiorkor

text: Extreme fluid retention observed in individuals suffering from kwashiorkor is accompanied by irregularities in the lymphatic system as well as disruptions of capillary exchange. The lymphatic system serves three major purposes: fluid recovery, immunity, and lipid absorption. Victims of kwashiorkor commonly exhibit reduced ability to recover fluids, immune system failure, and low lipid absorption. Fluid recovery by the lymphatic system is accomplished by re-vascularization of fluid and macromolecules from the interstitial space, allowing these constituents of whole blood to be returned to the venous circulation. Compromised fluid recovery may contribute to the phenomenon of extravascular fluid accumulation in kwashiorkor.


title: Kwashiorkor

text: The low protein theory for the pathogenesis of kwashiorkor has been used to teach that capillary exchange between the lymphatic system and circulating blood is impaired by a reduced oncotic (i.e. colloid osmotic pressure, COP) in the blood, as a consequence of inadequate protein intake, so that the hydrostatic pressure gradient, which favors extravasation of fluid from small vessels, is not overcome. Proteins, mainly albumin, are responsible for creating the COP observed in the blood and tissue fluids. The difference in the COP of the blood and tissue tends to favor the reentry of fluid from the extravascular space, into the circulatory system. This tendency is opposed by the venous hydrostatic pressure, which tends to favor the exit of fluid from small vessels, into the interstitial space. The low protein theory for the pathogenesis of kwashiorkor held that a deficiency of serum proteins, caused by inadequate protein intake, disrupted this balance, and thus impaired the return flow of fluid from the interstitium into the capillary and venous structures. It has been taught that this is what accounts for the accumulation of extravascular fluid in kwashiorkor, and the subsequent pedal edema and abdominal distension.