title: Vanessa Bryant

text: Six months after meeting, Laine and Kobe Bryant were engaged. Her engagement ring included a seven-carat diamond. They married on April 18, 2001. The private wedding ceremony was attended by approximately twelve people and was held at the St. Edward Roman Catholic Church in Dana Point, California. After the marriage, she took his last name, becoming Vanessa Marie Bryant.


title: Vanessa Bryant

text: During the 2003 sexual assault case against her husband, Bryant defended him, stating: "I know my husband made the mistake of adultery". A few days later, she received a $4 million eight-carat purple diamond ring leading to speculation that this was a gift for her support. According to David K. Wiggins, a professor of sport studies, her husband had commissioned the ring two months prior.


title: Vanessa Bryant

text: Bryant was a strong influence on her husband. She was the focus of speculation by tabloids. In 2004, Bryant accused Lakers player Karl Malone of acting inappropriately towards her. Malone later apologized while denying making a pass at her. "Sports Illustrated" published a story titled Vanessa-gate about "wife-poaching" by Malone. Other columnist described Bryant as the new Yoko Ono, and she was the subject of a "Saturday Night Live" parody. She was recognized by supporters for challenging the National Basketball Association culture of tolerance of tomcatting.


title: Vanessa Bryant

text: Due to an ectopic pregnancy, Bryant suffered a miscarriage in the spring of 2005. Her second daughter, Gianna Maria-Onore (also referred to as "Gigi"), was born in May 2006.


title: Vanessa Bryant

text: In 2009, Bryant was sued by her housekeeper, Maria Jimenez, who alleged that she verbally abused and humiliated her while she was working at their Newport Coast home. Bryant denied those allegations and countersued Jimenez for breach of a confidentiality agreement.


title: Vanessa Bryant

text: On December 16, 2011, Vanessa filed for divorce from Kobe, citing irreconcilable differences. This sparked speculation of financial ramifications for Kobe, with some estimating Vanessa would receive $75 million. Thirteen months later, the Bryants called off the divorce. In April 2016, David Wharton and Nathan Fenno of the "Los Angeles Times" described Bryant as a contradictory and "at times polarizing public figure".


title: Vanessa Bryant

text: In early December 2016, Bryant gave birth to a third daughter, Bianka Bella, and in January 2019 the Bryants announced they were expecting a fourth daughter. Their fourth and last child, named Capri Kobe, was born in June 2019.


title: Vanessa Bryant

text: On January 26, 2020, Bryant's husband and their daughter Gigi died in the Calabasas helicopter crash. She sued Los Angeles County for invasion of privacy and negligence due to taking pictures of the victims of the crash and improperly sharing them. A trial was set for February 22, 2022. In August 2022, she was awarded $16 million in damages related to the photos in the trial. Vanessa Bryant will donate the proceeds of her multi-million dollar payout she received from her lawsuit against Los Angeles County to the Mamba and Mambacita Sports Foundation.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was a partially annexed territory of Nazi Germany established on 16 March 1939 following the German occupation of the Czech lands. The protectorate's population was mostly ethnic Czech.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: After the Munich Agreement of September 1938, Germany had annexed the German-majority Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. Following the establishment of the independent Slovak Republic on 14 March 1939, and the German occupation of the Czech rump state the next day, German leader Adolf Hitler established the protectorate on 16 March 1939 by a proclamation from Prague Castle. The creation of the protectorate violated the Munich Agreement.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: The protectorate was nominally autonomous and had a dual system of government, with German law applying to ethnic Germans while other residents had the legal status of Protectorate subject and were governed by a puppet Czech administration. During the Second World War, the well-trained Czech workforce and developed industry was forced to make a major contribution to the German war economy. Since the Protectorate was just out of the reach of Allied bombers, the Czech economy was able to work almost undisturbed until the end of the war. The Protectorate administration was deeply involved in the Holocaust in Bohemia and Moravia.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: The state's existence came to an end with the surrender of Germany to the Allies in 1945. After the war, some Protectorate officials were charged with collaborationism but according to the prevailing belief in Czech society, the Protectorate was not entirely rejected as a collaborationist entity.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: Hitler's interest in Czechoslovakia was largely driven by economic demands. The Four-Year Plan that Hitler launched in September 1936 to have the German economy ready for a "total war" by 1940 was faltering by 1937 owing to a shortage of foreign exchange to pay for the vast economic demands imposed by the ambitious armaments targets as Germany lacked many of the necessary raw materials, which had to be imported. The British historian Richard Overy wrote the huge demands of the Four Year Plan "...could not be fully met by a policy of import substitution and industrial rationalization".. In November 1937 at the Hossbach conference, Hitler announced that to stay ahead in the arms race with the other powers that Germany had to seize Czechoslovakia in the very near-future. Czechoslovakia was the world's 7th largest manufacturer of arms, making Czechoslovakia into an important player in the global arms trade.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: After Czechoslovakia was forced to accept the terms of the Munich Agreement of 30 September 1938, Nazi Germany incorporated the ethnic German majority Sudetenland regions along the German border directly into Nazi Germany. Five months later, the Nazis violated the Munich Agreement, when, with Nazi German support, the Slovak parliament declared the independence of the Slovak Republic, Adolf Hitler invited Czechoslovak President Emil Hácha to Berlin and accepted his request for the German occupation of the Czech rump state and its reorganization as a German protectorate to deter Polish and Hungarian aggression.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: Hitler's wish to occupy Czechoslovakia was largely caused by the foreign exchange crisis as Germany had exhausted its foreign exchange reserves by early 1939, and Germany urgently needed to seize the gold of the Czechoslovak central bank to continue the Four Year Plan. The British historian Victor Rothwell wrote that the Czechoslovak reserves of gold and hard currency seized in March 1939 were "invaluable in staving off Germany's foreign exchange crisis".


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: On 16 March when Hitler proclaimed the protectorate, he declared: “For a thousand years the provinces of Bohemia and Moravia formed part of the "Lebensraum" of the German people.”


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: There was no real precedent for this action in German history. The model for the protectorate were the Princely states in India under the Raj. In just in the same way that Indian maharajahs in the Princely states were allowed a nominal independence, but the real power rested with the British resident stationed to monitor the maharajah, Hitler emulated this practice with the Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia as the German media quite explicitly compared the relationship between the Reich Protector, Baron Konstantin von Neurath and President Emil Hacha to that of a British resident and an Indian maharajah. Neurath seems to be chosen as Reich Protector in because as a former foreign minister and a former ambassador to Great Britain, he was well known in London for his avuncular, but dignified manner, which were the personality traits associated with the popular image of a British resident. Hitler believed that emulating the Raj would accept this violation of the Munich Agreement more acceptable to Britain, and as that proved not to be the case the German media launched a lengthy campaign denouncing British "hypocrisy". The German authorities intentionally allowed the protectorate "all the trappings of independence" in order to encourage the Czech inhabitants to collaborate with them. However, despite the protectorate having its own postage stamps and presidential guard, real power lay with the Nazi authorities.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: The population of the protectorate was mobilized for labor that would aid the German war effort, and special offices were organized to supervise the management of industries important to that effort. The Germans drafted Czechs to work in coal mines, in the iron and steel industry, and in armaments production. Consumer-goods production, much diminished, was largely directed toward supplying the German armed forces. The protectorate's population was subjected to rationing. The Czech crown was devalued to the "Reichsmark" at the rate of 10 crowns to 1 "Reichsmark", through actual rate should have been 6 crowns for 1 "Reichsmark", a policy that allowed the Germans to buy everything on the cheap in the protectorate. Inflation was a major problem throughout the existence of the protectorate, which was made worse by the refusal of the German authorities to raise wages to keep up with inflation, making the era a period of decreasing living standards as the crowns brought less and less. Even members of the "volksdeutsche" (ethnic Germans) living in the protectorate complained their living standards had been higher under Czechoslovakia, which was quite a surprise to most of them, who expected their living standards to rise under German rule.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: German rule was moderate by Nazi standards during the first months of the occupation. The Czech government and political system, reorganized by Hácha, continued in formal existence. The Gestapo directed its activities mainly against Czech politicians and the intelligentsia. In 1940, in a secret plan on Germanization of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, it was declared that those considered to be racially Mongoloid and the Czech intelligentsia were not to be Germanized, and that about half of the Czech population were suitable for Germanization. Generalplan Ost assumed that around 50% of Czechs would be fit for Germanization. The Czech intellectual élites were to be removed from Czech territories and from Europe completely. The authors of Generalplan Ost believed it would be best if they emigrated overseas, as even in Siberia, they were considered a threat to German rule. Just like Jews, Poles, Serbs, and several other nations, Czechs were considered to be "Untermenschen" by the Nazi state. The Czechs however, were not subjected to a similar degree of random and organized acts of brutality that their Polish counterparts experienced. This is attributed to the view within the Nazi hierarchy that a large swath of the populace was "capable of Aryanization", such capacity for Aryanization was supported by the position that part of the Czech population had German ancestry. There is also the fact that a relatively restrained policy in Czech lands was partly driven by the need to keep the population nourished and complacent so that it can carry out the vital work of arms production in the factories. By 1939, the country was already serving as a major hub of military production for Germany, manufacturing aircraft, tanks, artillery, and other armaments.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: The Czechs demonstrated against the occupation on 28 October 1939, the 21st anniversary of Czechoslovak independence. The death on 15 November 1939 of a medical student, Jan Opletal, who had been wounded in the October violence, precipitated widespread student demonstrations, and the Germans retaliated. Politicians were arrested "en masse", as were an estimated 1,800 students and teachers. On 17 November, all universities and colleges in the protectorate were closed, nine student leaders were executed, and 1,200 were sent to the Sachsenhausen concentration camp within Nazi Germany; further arrests and executions of Czech students and professors took place later during the occupation. ("See also Czech resistance to Nazi occupation")


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: During World War II, Hitler decided that Neurath was not treating the Czechs harshly enough and adopted a more radical policy in the protectorate. On 29 September 1941, Hitler appointed SS hardliner Reinhard Heydrich as Deputy "Reichsprotektor" ("Stellvertretender Reichsprotektor"). At the same time, he relieved Neurath of his day-to-day duties. For all intents and purposes, Heydrich replaced Neurath as "Reichsprotektor". Under Heydrich's authority Prime Minister Alois Eliáš was arrested (and later executed), the Czech government was reorganized, and all Czech cultural organizations were closed. The Gestapo arrested and murdered people. The deportation of Jews to concentration camps was organized, and the fortress town of Terezín was made into a ghetto way-station for Jewish families.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: On 4 June 1942, Heydrich died after being wounded by Czechoslovak Commandos in Operation Anthropoid. Directives issued by Heydrich's successor, SS-"Oberstgruppenführer" Kurt Daluege, and martial law brought forth mass arrests, executions and the obliteration of the villages of Lidice and Ležáky. In 1943 the German war-effort was accelerated. Under the authority of Karl Hermann Frank, German minister of state for Bohemia and Moravia, within the protectorate, all non-war-related industry was prohibited. Most of the Czech population obeyed quietly until the final months preceding the end of the war, when thousands became involved in the resistance movement.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: For the Czechs of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, German occupation represented a period of oppression. The number of Czech victims of political persecution and murders in concentration camps totalled between 36,000 and 55,000. After Heydrich assumed control of the Protectorate, he instituted martial law and stepped up arrests and executions of resistance fighters. Heydrich allegedly referred to Czechs as "laughing beasts," reflecting Czech subversion and Nazi racial beliefs about the inferiority of Czechs.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: The Jewish population of Bohemia and Moravia (118,000 according to the 1930 census) was virtually annihilated, with over 75,000 murdered. Of the 92,199 people classified as Jews by German authorities in the Protectorate as of 1939, 78,154 were murdered in the Holocaust, or 85 percent.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: Many Jews emigrated after 1939; 8,000 survived at the Terezín concentration camp, which was used for propaganda purposes as a showpiece. Several thousand Jews managed to live in freedom or in hiding throughout the occupation. The extermination of the Romani population was so thorough that the Bohemian Romani language became totally extinct. Romani internees were sent to the Lety and Hodonín concentration camps before being transferred to Auschwitz-Birkenau for gassing. The vast majority of Romani in the Czech Republic today descend from migrants from Slovakia who moved there within post-war Czechoslovakia. The Theresienstadt concentration camp was located in the Protectorate, near the border to the Reichsgau Sudetenland. It was designed to concentrate the Jewish population from the Protectorate and gradually move them to extermination camps, and it also held Western European and German Jews. While not an extermination camp itself, the harsh and unhygienic conditions still resulted in the death of 33,000 of the 140,000 Jews brought to the camp while a further 88,000 were sent to extermination camps, and only 19,000 survived.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: After the establishment of the Protectorate all political parties were outlawed, with the exception of the National Partnership ("Národní souručenství"). Membership of the "Národní souručenství" was closed to women and Jews. In the spring of 1939, about 2,130,000 men joined the group, amounting to between 98%-99% of the Czech male population. However, much of the registration for the "Národní souručenství" was done in the style of a census (a traditional outlet for nationalist feeling in the Czech lands), and the messages advocating joining the "Národní souručenství" emphasized that the group existed to affirm the Czech character of Bohemia-Moravia.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: One spy for the government-in-exile in London reported: "The original, observable chaos and later fear of Gestapo informants and uncertainty has changed to courage and hope. The nation is coming together, not only in the National Solidarity Movement, which the majority did only to avoid losing our national existence, but individuals are coming together and one begins to feel if the nation has a backbone again". This local Czech Fascist party was led by a ruling Presidium until 1942, after which a Vůdce (Leader) for the party was appointed.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: Ultimate authority within the Protectorate was held by the Reich Protector ("Reichsprotektor"), the area's senior Nazi administrator, whose task it was to represent the interests of the German state. The office and title were held by a variety of persons during the Protectorate's existence. In succession these were:


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: Konstantin von Neurath, former Foreign Minister of Nazi Germany (1932–1938) and Minister without Portfolio (1938–1945). He was placed on leave in September 1941 after Hitler's dissatisfaction with his "soft policies", although he still held the title of "Reichsprotektor" until his official resignation in August 1943.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: Reinhard Heydrich, chief of the "SS-Reichssicherheitshauptamt" (Reich Security Main Office) or RSHA. He was officially only a deputy to Neurath, but in reality was granted supreme authority over the entire state apparatus of the Protectorate.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: Kurt Daluege, Chief of the "Ordnungspolizei" (Order Police) or Orpo, in the Interior Ministry, who was also officially a deputy Reich Protector.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: Wilhelm Frick, former Minister of the Interior (1933–1943) and Minister without Portfolio (1943–1945).


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: Next to the Reich Protector there was also a political office of State Secretary (from 1943 known as the State Minister to the Reich Protector) who handled most of the internal security. From 1939 to 1945 this person was Karl Hermann Frank the senior SS and Police Leader in the Protectorate. A command of the "Allgemeine-SS" was also established, known as the SS-Oberabschnitt Böhmen-Mähren. The command was an active unit of the General-SS, technically the only such unit to exist outside of Germany, since most other Allgemeine-SS units in occupied or conquered countries were largely paper commands.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: The Czech State President (Státní Prezident) under the period of German rule from 1939 to 1945 was Emil Hácha (1872–1945), who had been the President of the Second Czechoslovak Republic since November 1938. Rudolf Beran (1887–1954) continued to hold the office of Minister President (Předseda vlády) after the German take-over. He was replaced by Alois Eliáš on 27 April 1939, who was himself also sacked on 2 October 1941 not long after the appointment of Reinhard Heydrich as the new Reich Protector. Because of his contacts with the Czechoslovak Government-in-Exile Eliáš was sentenced to death, and the execution was carried out on 19 June 1942 shortly after Heydrich's own death. From 19 January 1942 the government was led by Jaroslav Krejčí, and from January to May 1945 by Richard Bienert, the former police chief of Prague. When the dissolution of the Protectorate was proclaimed after the Liberation of Prague, a radio call was issued for Bienert's arrest. This resulted in his conviction to a three-year prison term in 1947, during which he died in 1949.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: Aside from the Office of the Minister President, the local Czech government in the Protectorate consisted of the Ministries of Education, Finance, Justice, Trade, the Interior, Agriculture, and Public Labour. The area's foreign policy and military defence were under the exclusive control of the German government. The former foreign minister of Czechoslovakia František Chvalkovský became a Minister without Portfolio and permanent representative of the Czech administration in Berlin.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: The area of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia contained about 7,380,000 inhabitants in 1940. 225,000 (3.3%) of these were of German origin, while the rest were mainly ethnic Czechs as well as some Slovaks, particularly near the border with Slovakia. Ethnic Germans were offered Reich citizenship, while Jews and Czechs were from the outset second-class citizens ("Protectorate subjects", ).


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: The Nazis aimed for the protectorate to become fully Germanized. Marriages between Czechs and Germans became a problem for the Nazis. In 1939, the Nazis did not ban sexual relations between Germans and Czechs and no law prohibited Jews from marrying Czechs. The Nazis made German women who married any non-Germans lose their Reich citizenship whereas Czech women who married German men were accepted into the German "Volk". Czech families aiming to improve their lives in the protectorate encouraged their Czech daughters to marry German men as it was one way to save a family business.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: Hitler had approved a plan designed by Konstantin von Neurath and Karl Hermann Frank, which projected the Germanization of the "racially valuable" half of the Czech population after the end of the war. This consisted mainly of industrial workers and farmers. The undesirable half contained the intelligentsia, whom the Nazis viewed as "ungermanizable" and potential dangerous instigators of Czech nationalism. Some 9,000 Volksdeutsche from Bukovina, Dobruja, South Tyrol, Bessarabia, Sudetenland and the Altreich were settled in the protectorate during the war. The goal was to create a German settlement belt from Prague to Sudetenland, and to turn the surroundings of Olomouc (Olmütz), České Budějovice (Budweis), Brno (Brünn) and the area near the Slovak border into German enclaves.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: Further integration of the protectorate into the Reich was carried out by the employment of German apprentices, by transferring German evacuee children into schools located in the protectorate, and by authorizing marriages between Germans and "assimilable" Czechs. Germanizable Czechs were allowed to join the Reich Labour Service and to be admitted to German universities.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: In common with the other "submerged" nations of Eastern Europe, the Czech "intelligentsia" had an immense prestige as the bearers and protectors of the national culture, who would keep the Czech language and culture alive when the Czech nation was "submerged". No segment of the Czech "intelligentsia" faced more pressure to conform to the occupation policy than school teachers. Frank called the teachers "the most dangerous wing of the "intelligentsia"" while Heydrich referred to the teachers as "the training core of the opposition Czech government [in exile in London]". To keep their jobs, teachers were required to demonstrate fluency in German and were supposed to greet their students with the fascist salute while saying ""Sieg Heil!"" ("Hail Victory!"). School inspectors made surprise visits to the classrooms and all chairpersons of the exam boards had to be ethnic Germans. Some teachers and students were Gestapo informers, which spread a climate of mistrust and paranoia across the school system as both teachers and students never knew whom to trust. One teacher recalled: "The Gestapo even had informers and agents amongst the children. Uncertainty and mistrust destroyed any feeling of comradeship among the children".


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: Despite these pressures, a number of Czech teachers quietly inserted "anti-"Reich"" ideas into their lessons while refusing to greet their students with ""Sieg Heil!"". Especially under Frank, the teachers suffered harshly. In the first six months of 1944, about 1,000 Czech teachers were either executed or imprisoned. By 1945, about 5,000 Czech teachers were imprisoned in the concentration camps, where a fifth died. By the end of the occupation, about 40% of all Czech teachers had been fired with the figure reaching 60% in Prague.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: For administrative purposes the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was divided into two Länder: Böhmen (Bohemia) and Mähren (Moravia). Each of these was further subdivided into "Oberlandratsbezirke", each comprising a number of "Bezirke".


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: For party administrative purposes the Nazi Party extended its Gau-system to Bohemia and Moravia when the Protectorate was established. This step divided the remaining parts of Bohemia and Moravia up between its four surrounding "Gaue":


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: The resulting government overlap led to the usual authority conflicts typical of the Nazi era. Seeking to extend their own powerbase and to facilitate the area's Germanization the Gauleiters of the surrounding districts continually agitated for the liquidation of the Protectorate and its direct incorporation into the German Reich. Hitler stated as late as 1943 that the issue was still to be decisively settled.


title: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

text: Like in other occupied countries, the German military in Bohemia and Moravia was commanded by a "Wehrmachtbefehlshaber". Through the year, the headquarter received several different names because of the complex structure of the "Reichsprotektorat": "Wehrmachtbevollmächtigter beim Reichsprotektor in Böhmen und Mähren", "Wehrmachtbefehlshaber beim Reichsprotektor in Böhmen und Mähren" and "Wehrmachtbefehlshaber beim deutschen Staatsminister in Böhmen und Mähren".


title: Psychological projection

text: Psychological projection is the process of misinterpreting what is "inside" as coming from "outside". It forms the basis of empathy by the projection of personal experiences to understand someone else's subjective world. In its malignant forms, it is a defense mechanism in which the ego defends itself against disowned and highly negative parts of the self by denying their existence in themselves and attributing them to others, breeding misunderstanding and causing untold interpersonal damage. A bully may project their own feelings of vulnerability onto the target, or a person who is confused may project feelings of confusion and inadequacy onto other people. Projection incorporates blame shifting and can manifest as shame dumping. Projection has been described as an early phase of introjection.


title: Psychological projection

text: A prominent precursor in the formulation of the projection principle was Giambattista Vico. In 1841, Ludwig Feuerbach was the first enlightenment thinker to employ this concept as the basis for a systematic critique of religion.


title: Psychological projection

text: The Babylonian Talmud (500 AD) notes the human tendency toward projection and warns against it: "Do not taunt your neighbour with the blemish you yourself have." Religious people of the Christian faith believe that in the New Testament, Jesus also warned against projection: "Why do you look at the speck of sawdust in your brother's eye and pay no attention to the plank in your own eye? How can you say to your brother, 'Let me take the speck out of your eye,' when all the time there is a plank in your own eye? You hypocrite, first take the plank out of your own eye, and then you will see clearly to remove the speck from your brother's eye."


title: Psychological projection

text: Projection () was conceptualised by Sigmund Freud in his letters to Wilhelm Fliess, and further refined by Karl Abraham and Anna Freud. Freud considered that, in projection, thoughts, motivations, desires, and feelings that cannot be accepted as one's own are dealt with by being placed in the outside world and attributed to someone else. What the ego refuses to accept is split off and placed in another.


title: Psychological projection

text: Freud would later come to believe that projection did not take place arbitrarily, but rather seized on and exaggerated an element that already existed on a small scale in the other person. (The related defence of projective identification differs from projection in that the other person is expected to become identified with the impulse or desire projected outside, so that the self maintains a connection with what is projected, in contrast to the total repudiation of projection proper.)


title: Psychological projection

text: Melanie Klein saw the projection of good parts of the self as leading potentially to over-idealisation of the object. Equally, it may be one's conscience that is projected, in an attempt to escape its control: a more benign version of this allows one to come to terms with outside authority.


title: Psychological projection

text: Projection tends to come to the fore in normal people at times of personal or political crisis but is more commonly found in narcissistic personality disorder or borderline personality disorder.


title: Psychological projection

text: Carl Jung considered that the unacceptable parts of the personality represented by the Shadow archetype were particularly likely to give rise to projection, both small-scale and on a national/international basis. Marie-Louise Von Franz extended her view of projection, stating that "wherever known reality stops, where we touch the unknown, there we project an archetypal image".


title: Psychological projection

text: Psychological projection is one of the medical explanations of bewitchment used to explain the behavior of the afflicted children at Salem in 1692. The historian John Demos wrote in 1970 that the symptoms of bewitchment displayed by the afflicted girls could have been due to the girls undergoing psychological projection of repressed aggression.


title: Psychological projection

text: Jung wrote, "All projections provoke counter-projection when the object is unconscious of the quality projected upon it by the subject." Thus, what is unconscious in the recipient will be projected back onto the projector, precipitating a form of mutual acting out.


title: Psychological projection

text: In a rather different usage, Harry Stack Sullivan saw counter-projection in the therapeutic context as a way of warding off the compulsive re-enactment of a psychological trauma, by emphasizing the difference between the current situation and the projected obsession with the perceived perpetrator of the original trauma.


title: Psychological projection

text: Drawing on Gordon Allport's idea of the expression of self onto activities and objects, projective techniques have been devised to aid personality assessment, including the Rorschach ink-blots and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).


title: Psychological projection

text: Projection may help a fragile ego reduce anxiety, but at the cost of a certain dissociation, as in dissociative identity disorder. In extreme cases, an individual's personality may end up becoming critically depleted. In such cases, therapy may be required which would include the slow rebuilding of the personality through the "taking back" of such projections.


title: Psychological projection

text: The method of managed projection is a projective technique. The basic principle of this method is that a subject is presented with their own verbal portrait named by the name of another person, as well as with a portrait of their fictional opposition (V. V. Stolin, 1981).


title: Psychological projection

text: The technique is suitable for application in psychological counseling and might provide valuable information about the form and nature of their self-esteem


title: Psychological projection

text: Some studies were critical of Freud's theory. Research on social projection supports the existence of a false-consensus effect whereby humans have a broad tendency to believe that others are similar to themselves, and thus "project" their personal traits onto others. This applies to both good and bad traits; it is not a defense mechanism for denying the existence of the trait within the self. A study of the empirical evidence for a range of defense mechanisms by Baumeister, Dale, and Sommer (1998) concluded, "The view that people defensively project specific bad traits of their own onto others as a means of denying that they have them is not well supported." However, Newman, Duff, and Baumeister (1997) proposed a new model of defensive projection in which the repressor's efforts to suppress thoughts of their undesirable traits make those trait categories highly accessible—so that they are then used all the more often when forming impressions of others. The projection is then only a byproduct of the real defensive mechanism.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Hirving Rodrigo Lozano Bahena (born 30 July 1995) is a Mexican professional footballer who plays as a winger for club Napoli and the Mexico national team. He is popularly known by his nickname Chucky.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Lozano began his career with Pachuca, winning the 2016 Clausura and the 2016–17 CONCACAF Champions League, playing in 152 games and scoring 44 goals for the team. In June 2017, he signed for Dutch side PSV Eindhoven and won the Eredivisie in his first season in the Netherlands, and also finished as the team's top scorer. In 2019, Lozano signed for Napoli for a reported €42 million, making him the most expensive Mexican player of all time.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Participating with various youth teams, Lozano won the 2015 CONCACAF U-20 Championship and played at the 2016 Summer Olympics. He made his senior international debut in February 2016 and represented the nation at the Copa América Centenario, 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup, 2018 FIFA World Cup and 2022 FIFA World Cup.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Born in Mexico City, 11-year-old Lozano joined the youth academy of C.F. Pachuca in 2006. After starring in the lower leagues, he was called up to the first team by Gabriel Caballero. On 8 February 2014, Lozano made his Liga MX debut against Club América, in which he scored five minutes after his substitution in the 1–0 win at the Estadio Azteca. In his debut tournament with the first team – the Clausura 2014 – Lozano finished runner-up with Pachuca, even scoring the third goal in the 3–2 first leg final win over sibling club Club León. On 30 August, he scored his first brace in the 2–1 victory over León.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: On 19 September 2015, Lozano scored an equalizer seven minutes after Dorados de Sinaloa scored first in a league match where Pachuca went on to win 2–1. On 27 February 2016, Lozano scored the first and only goal of the encounter on the first minute of the match against Toluca, with the win placing them first place on the general table. On 19 March, Lozano scored his first hat-trick in Pachuca's 6–0 defeat of Veracruz. Lozano contributed two goals during the semifinal legs of the Clausura championship against León, leading his side to a 3–2 aggregate victory. Pachuca won the league title after they defeated Monterrey 2–1 on aggregate in the finals of the Clausura tournament. He was subsequently included in the tournament's Best XI.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: On 16 July 2016, Lozano scored a brace and contributed an assist in the first league match against León, winning 5–1. On 13 September, during the 2016–17 CONCACAF Champions League group stage, he scored four goals in their 11–0 defeat of Police United, helping Pachuca set the record for the biggest win in the history of the competition. He was named CONCACAF Champions League Player of the Week for his performance. Lozano finished the Apertura tournament as the highest-scoring Mexican player with 7 goals, and was again included in the Best XI.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: On the opening matchday of the Clausura 2017, on 17 January, he scored a hat-trick against León in Pachuca's 4–2 victory. In April, during the second leg of the CONCACAF Champions League semifinals against FC Dallas, Lozano scored twice within the last 10 minutes of the match to help lead Pachuca to a 3–1 win (4–3 on aggregate) to qualify to the finals. The following month, Pachuca won the CONCACAF Champions League by defeating fellow Mexican club Tigres UANL, with Lozano winning the Golden Boot as the competition's top scorer with 8 goals, as well as the Best Young Player Award.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: On 19 June 2017, following a lengthy transfer saga which had Lozano linked to a number of European clubs, including Manchester United, Manchester City, Benfica and Ajax, it was announced that Dutch club PSV Eindhoven had secured the signing of Lozano on a six-year contract. He temporarily left the Mexican national side which was in Russia for the Confederations Cup in order to secure the transfer. He became the fifth Mexican player to join PSV.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Lozano made his competitive debut for PSV in the Europa League qualifiers against Croatian side Osijek, playing in both legs as they failed to make the group stage as a result of a 2–0 aggregate score. On 12 August, Lozano scored on his Eredivisie debut with PSV against AZ Alkmaar. He started and played 84 minutes in his team's 3–2 victory, receiving a standing ovation from the home fans as he was subbed off. A week later, he scored once again and provided an assist in PSV's 4–0 win over NAC Breda. The following week, Lozano scored again in PSV's 2–0 victory against Roda JC; he became the first player to score in his first three games with PSV, and he was later named Eredivisie Player of the Month for the month of August. On 10 September 2017, Lozano received his first red card for PSV in a 2–0 defeat against SC Heerenveen.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: On 17 February 2018, Lozano received his second red card of the season, again during a league match against Heerenveen, for making contact with defender Lucas Woudenberg's face. He was handed a three-match suspension which was ultimately upheld by the KNVB disciplinary committee after a failed appeal by PSV. Lozano made his return on 18 March, scoring the second goal in PSV's 3–0 victory over VVV Venlo, his 14th goal of the season.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Lozano won the Eredivisie title with PSV following their 3–0 win over rivals Ajax on 15 April. He ended the season as the team's highest scorer in the league with 17 league goals and providing 11 assists.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Lozano appeared as a second-half substitute in PSV's first match of the 2018–19 season, against Feyenoord in the 2018 Johan Cruyff Shield. With the match tied 0–0 at full time and going into penalties, Lozano successfully converted one but ended on the losing side of a 6–5 loss. On 11 August, Lozano scored in PSV's 2018–19 Eredivisie opener against FC Utrecht, scoring the third goal in their 4–0 victory. He scored again the following week in a 2–1 victory over Fortuna Sittard. Three days later, Lozano made his UEFA Champions League debut against BATE; he scored PSV's second goal in their 3–2 victory in the first-leg of the playoff qualification round.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: On 15 September, he would score two goals against ADO in a 7–0 thrashing, with former Pachuca teammate Érick Gutiérrez contributing the assist for the second goal three minutes after being substituted in. Three days later, he made his UEFA Champions League group stage debut against Barcelona, playing all ninety minutes in PSV's 4–0 defeat. His performance led him to be included in the league's best XI for September. Lozano scored another brace on 6 October against VVV, scoring the first and final goal in PSV's 4–0 victory. On 20 October, he was directly involved in half of PSV's goals in their 6–0 victory over FC Emmen, contributing two assists and one goal. Four days later, he scored his first goal in the Champions League group stage as PSV drew 2–2 with Tottenham Hotspur, also managing to send Hugo Lloris off with a red card due to an outside-of-the-box infraction. On 24 November, Lozano would score twice and provide an assist in PSV's 3–0 victory over SC Heerenveen. Lozano scored in PSV's 1–1 draw with Inter Milan in the final group stage match of the Champions League on 11 December. He was subsequently named in the Champions League breakthrough team of 2018.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: On 25 April 2019, during a match against Willem II, Lozano was stretchered off the field after a challenge from Freek Heerkens. It was initially thought that the player may have suffered cruciate ligament damage and was facing a lengthy spell on the sidelines, however that was eventually ruled out. The club later released a statement stating Lozano would miss the remainder of the season.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: On 23 August 2019, Lozano officially joined Italian club Napoli. He reportedly signed a five-year contract with a transfer fee of US$46.5 million (€42 million), making Lozano Napoli's most expensive signing at the time, as well as the highest transfer fee paid for a Mexican player, and the largest fee received by PSV Eindhoven for a player. Eight days later, Lozano made his Serie A debut as a second-half substitute against Juventus in Turin, scoring his side's second goal in a 4–3 defeat.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Following Carlo Ancelotti's sacking for mediocre results, Gennaro Gattuso was named as the new manager, with Lozano initially receiving little to no playing time. On 16 June 2020, he was asked to leave training by Gattuso, accusing him for lack of effort. Two days later, he appeared as an unused substitute in Napoli's Coppa Italia victory against Juventus, defeating them 4–2 in a penalty shoot-out following a scoreless draw, becoming the first Mexican to win a title with an Italian club. During the final fixtures of his first season with Napoli, Lozano received more playing time, finishing with 26 league matches and netting 4 goals.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Napoli faced Parma in their opening league match of the 2020–21 season, where Lozano was in the starting line-up in the 2–0 win. The following week against Genoa saw Lozano score his first brace with the club in a 6–0 victory. The following month, he scored his second brace against Atalanta in a 4–1 victory. On 26 November, he scored his first Europa League goal in a group stage match against Croatian side Rijeka, sealing a 2–0 home victory. Following a 2–1 win over Sampdoria, in which he scored and contributed an assist, sports newspaper "La Gazzetta dello Sport" praised Lozano's performance, highlighting his improved form compared to that of his first season with Napoli.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: On 24 January 2021, he scored his team's only goal in a 3–1 away defeat to Hellas Verona, which was clocked at 8.95 seconds from the start of the match, making it the third-fastest goal in the Serie A, the club's fastest goal, and Lozano's personal fastest. Four days later, in the Coppa Italia quarter-final match against Spezia, he scored his 100th goal across all competitions. He finished his second season with 32 league matches, notching 11 goals as the club's second highest scorer.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Lozano scored his first goal of the season on 20 September, the fourth in a 4–0 victory over Udinese at the Stadio Friuli. It was his 60th goal in Europe, surpassing Nery Castillo as the fifth-highest scoring Mexican in Europe. On 9 December, during Napoli's final Europa League group stage match against Leicester City, Lozano suffered a head injury after colliding with Wilfred Ndidi's knee in the 40th minute, being stretchered off the field. He returned to action four days later as a starter in the 1–0 defeat to A.C. Milan. On 6 January 2022, Napoli announced that Lozano had tested positive for COVID-19.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: On 13 January, fully recovered from COVID-19, Lozano made his return as a 63rd-minute substitute in the Coppa Italia round of 16 match against Fiorentina, only to be sent off after twenty minutes following a late challenge on Nicolás González. Four days later, he scored his first brace of the season in Napoli's 2–0 league win over Bologna.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: In December 2014, Lozano was called up by Sergio Almaguer to participate with the under-20 side in the CONCACAF U-20 Championship. In the first group stage match against Cuba, he scored a brace and added four assists in Mexico's 9–1 win, placing them first in their group. He went on to score three more goals and notched another assist in the tournament. Mexico went on to win the tournament, defeating Panama in a penalty shoot-out 4–2 following a 1–1 draw thus earning entry to the 2015 FIFA U-20 World Cup in New Zealand. Finishing with five goals, he was proclaimed the Golden Boot winner along with United States midfielder Romain Gall; Lozano was also named in the tournament's Best XI.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: In May 2015, Lozano was then called up to participate in the U-20 World Cup, where he would appear in all three group stage matches. Mexico would finish last in the group.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: On 18 September 2015, Lozano was selected by coach Raúl Gutiérrez to play in the CONCACAF Olympic Qualifying Championship. He scored Mexico's second goal in the 2–0 semi-final win over Canada.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Mexico ultimately won the tournament after defeating Honduras 2–0 in the final, with Lozano being awarded the tournament's Golden Ball as well as being included in the tournament's Best XI.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: On 7 July 2016, Lozano was named in the 18-man squad that would participate in that year's Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In Mexico's third group stage match against South Korea on 10 August, Lozano was sent off in stoppage time after shoving a Korean player. Mexico lost the match 1–0, finishing third in their group and were thus eliminated from the competition.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Lozano was included in the provisional roster for the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup by Miguel Herrera but was cut from the final list, remaining in the Provisional List if someone else got injured. Lozano received his first call-up to the senior national team in February 2016 under coach Juan Carlos Osorio. On 10 February, Lozano earned his first cap as a starter in the friendly against Senegal, assisting fellow Pachuca teammate Rodolfo Pizarro in the second goal as Mexico won the match 2–0. The following month, Lozano scored his first international goal in the 39th minute of the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifying third round match against Canada, which Mexico won 3–0. He was included in Mexico's 23-man squad to participate at the Copa América Centenario. He appeared in all matches of the tournament, culminating in a quarter-final exit.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: On 8 June 2017, Lozano was named in Mexico's 23-man squad for the FIFA Confederations Cup in Russia. In their final group stage match against the hosts, Lozano scored the second goal in a 2–1 win after chasing a long clearance from Héctor Herrera and beating goalkeeper Igor Akinfeev to the ball towards the edge of the box, allowing Lozano to nip in and head it into the open net. His performance led him to be named man of the match.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: On 1 September 2017, Lozano scored the only goal in the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifying match against Panama, thus booking Mexico's qualification to the tournament. On 10 November, he scored his first brace with the national team in a 3–3 draw against Belgium, scoring off a lobbed ball from Héctor Herrera on the 56th minute and scoring off a volley following a rebound from his first shot off of goalkeeper Thibaut Courtois two minutes later.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: On 4 June 2018, Lozano was named in Mexico's 23-man squad for the World Cup. On 17 June, he scored the lone goal, thanks to an assist by Javier Hernández, in the opening group match win over defending champions Germany, where he was subsequently named FIFA's Man of the Match. In Mexico's second match against South Korea, Lozano provided the assist to Javier Hernández in scoring the second goal in their 2–1 win. Lozano also started in the final group fixture against Sweden, and in the round-of-16 match against Brazil.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Lozano was included in coach Gerardo Martino's preliminary squad for the 2019 CONCACAF Gold Cup, however he was subsequently ruled out of the tournament after having not fully recovered from a knee injury suffered while playing with PSV.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: On 10 July 2021, Lozano suffered an injury to the head when he crashed into Trinidad and Tobago goalkeeper, Marvin Phillip who kneed Lozano on the head which also caused Lozano to have an eye gash and a neck injury and had to wear a cervical collar on the way to the hospital. It was confirmed that Lozano would miss out the rest of the 2021 Gold Cup and would miss out around 4–6 weeks.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Mainly right-footed, Lozano is generally deployed on the left wing, but can also play on the right or as a central striker. A versatile and creative player, with good technique and an eye for goal, Lozano's shooting and crossing abilities have produced good returns of goals and assists for club and country. Lozano's style of play has been described as: "Playing on the left side of a 4–2–3–1 the vast majority of the time, right-footed Lozano has all the attributes of a classic inverted winger. Possessing great power in his right foot, he's often dangerous when shooting after cutting in from the left-hand side. [...] [He] is equally adept at creating chances as well as scoring them, with a strong left-foot he's able to deliver crosses after taking the ball down the line, although he elects to cut inside more often than choosing to go outside the opposition full-back. Lozano also has quite good creative vision, particularly for a 20 year-old." He has also been described as being "[q]uick with or without the ball and possessing a powerful and accurate shot." Although more widely known for his offensive prowess, he also offers a high defensive work rate through his speed and constant pressing on the ball when not in possession, willing to chase down loose balls and often forcing defenders and goalkeepers to clear the ball long, thus allowing his team to win the ball back quickly, or even managing to steal the ball himself. As a result, Lozano was PSV's highest-pressing player during his stay at the Dutch club. His diminutive stature and agile playing style has been cited as the reason for being the victim of various fouls, at one point becoming the most-fouled-on player in various seasons of the Liga MX.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Lozano has been criticized for a lack of discipline: railing against authority during his time with Pachuca, being involved in on-field incidents with little provocation, and picking up eight red cards despite at a young age: five with Pachuca, one with the Mexico U-23 team, and two red cards in his first season at PSV (tied with 2 other players for the most in the 2017–18 season).


title: Hirving Lozano

text: He has been compared to Uruguayan striker Luis Suárez, in both playing style and personality. Lozano has cited Rafael Márquez and Damián Álvarez as players he grew up idolizing.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Early in his career, Lozano was considered to be one of the best young players in the world. In 2015, he was named by "Don Balón" as one of the best players in the world born after 1994. Upon his arrival to PSV Eindhoven, he was named among the top Eredevisie young players to watch for the 2017–18 season. FIFA named Lozano in their list of young stars of 2017. Multiple sources considered him a breakout star of the 2018 FIFA World Cup. He was listed on Goal.com's 2018 "Goal 50" list of the fifty best players in the world. He was also included in "The Guardian"'s 2018 list of "The 100 best footballers in the world". "FourFourTwo" included Lozano in their 2018 list of the "100 Best Football Players in the World".


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Lozano has a younger brother named Bryan Mauricio who is also a footballer, playing as a midfielder for Club Universidad Nacional.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Lozano married his girlfriend Ana Obregón in 2014, whom he met while playing for Pachuca. The pair have two children; a daughter born in 2014, and a son born in 2017.


title: Hirving Lozano

text: Lozano is popularly known by his nick name "Chucky", after the doll of the "Child's Play" horror film series. He reportedly got the moniker during his youth career, as he used to hide under team-mates' beds and scare them.


title: Ivory

text: Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals is the same, regardless of the species of origin, but ivory contains structures of mineralised collagen. The trade in certain teeth and tusks other than elephant is well established and widespread; therefore, "ivory" can correctly be used to describe any mammalian teeth or tusks of commercial interest which are large enough to be carved or scrimshawed.


title: Ivory

text: Besides natural ivory, ivory can also be produced synthetically, hence (unlike natural ivory) not requiring the retrieval of the material from animals. Tagua nuts can also be carved like ivory.


title: Ivory

text: The trade of finished goods of ivory products has its origins in the Indus Valley. Ivory is a main product that is seen in abundance and was used for trading in Harappan civilization. Finished ivory products that were seen in Harappan sites include kohl sticks, pins, awls, hooks, toggles, combs, game pieces, dice, inlay and other personal ornaments.


title: Ivory

text: Ivory has been valued since ancient times in art or manufacturing for making a range of items from ivory carvings to false teeth, piano keys, fans, and dominoes. Elephant ivory is the most important source, but ivory from mammoth, walrus, hippopotamus, sperm whale, orca, narwhal and warthog are used as well. Elk also have two ivory teeth, which are believed to be the remnants of tusks from their ancestors.


title: Ivory

text: The national and international trade in natural ivory of threatened species such as African and Asian elephants is illegal. The word "ivory" ultimately derives from the ancient Egyptian "âb, âbu" ("elephant"), through the Latin "ebor-" or "ebur".


title: Ivory

text: Both the Greek and Roman civilizations practiced ivory carving to make large quantities of high value works of art, precious religious objects, and decorative boxes for costly objects. Ivory was often used to form the white of the eyes of statues.


title: Ivory

text: There is some evidence of either whale or walrus ivory used by the ancient Irish. Solinus, a Roman writer in the 3rd century claimed that the Celtic peoples in Ireland would decorate their sword-hilts with the 'teeth of beasts that swim in the sea'. Adomnan of Iona wrote a story about St Columba giving a sword decorated with carved ivory as a gift that a penitent would bring to his master so he could redeem himself from slavery.


title: Ivory

text: The Syrian and North African elephant populations were reduced to extinction, probably due to the demand for ivory in the Classical world.


title: Ivory

text: The Chinese have long valued ivory for both art and utilitarian objects. Early reference to the Chinese export of ivory is recorded after the Chinese explorer Zhang Qian ventured to the west to form alliances to enable the eventual free movement of Chinese goods to the west; as early as the first century BC, ivory was moved along the Northern Silk Road for consumption by western nations. Southeast Asian kingdoms included tusks of the Indian elephant in their annual tribute caravans to China. Chinese craftsmen carved ivory to make everything from images of deities to the pipe stems and end pieces of opium pipes.


title: Ivory

text: In Japan, ivory carvings became popular in the 17th century during the Edo period, and many "netsuke" and "kiseru", on which animals and legendary creatures were carved, and "inro", on which ivory was inlaid, were made. From the mid-1800s, the new Meiji government's policy of promoting and exporting arts and crafts led to the frequent display of elaborate ivory crafts at World's fair. Among them, the best works were admired because they were purchased by Western museums, wealthy people, and the Japanese Imperial family.


title: Ivory

text: The Buddhist cultures of Southeast Asia, including Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, traditionally harvested ivory from their domesticated elephants. Ivory was prized for containers due to its ability to keep an airtight seal. It was also commonly carved into elaborate seals utilized by officials to "sign" documents and decrees by stamping them with their unique official seal.


title: Ivory

text: In Southeast Asian countries, where Muslim Malay peoples live, such as Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, ivory was the material of choice for making the handles of kris daggers.


title: Ivory

text: In the Philippines, ivory was also used to craft the faces and hands of Catholic icons and images of saints prevalent in the Santero culture.


title: Ivory

text: Tooth and tusk ivory can be carved into a vast variety of shapes and objects. Examples of modern carved ivory objects are okimono, netsukes, jewelry, flatware handles, furniture inlays, and piano keys. Additionally, warthog tusks, and teeth from sperm whales, orcas and hippos can also be scrimshawed or superficially carved, thus retaining their morphologically recognizable shapes.


title: Ivory

text: As trade with Africa expanded during the first part of the 1800s, ivory became readily available. Up to 90 percent of the ivory imported into the United States was processed, at one time, in Connecticut where Deep River and Ivoryton in 1860s became the centers of ivory milling, in particular, due to the demand for ivory piano keys.


title: Ivory

text: Ivory usage in the last thirty years has moved towards mass production of souvenirs and jewelry. In Japan, the increase in wealth sparked consumption of solid ivory "hanko" – name seals – which before this time had been made of wood. These "hanko" can be carved out in a matter of seconds using machinery and were partly responsible for massive African elephant decline in the 1980s, when the African elephant population went from 1.3 million to around 600,000 in ten years.


title: Ivory

text: Before plastics were introduced, ivory had many ornamental and practical uses, mainly because of the white color it presents when processed. It was formerly used to make cutlery handles, billiard balls, piano keys, Scottish bagpipes, buttons and a wide range of ornamental items.


title: Ivory

text: Synthetic substitutes for ivory in the use of most of these items have been developed since 1800: the billiard industry challenged inventors to come up with an alternative material that could be manufactured; the piano industry abandoned ivory as a key covering material in the 1970s.


title: Ivory

text: Ivory can be taken from dead animals – however, most ivory came from elephants that were killed for their tusks. For example, in 1930 to acquire 40 tons of ivory required the killing of approximately 700 elephants. Other animals which are now endangered were also preyed upon, for example, hippos, which have very hard white ivory prized for making artificial teeth. In the first half of the 20th century, Kenyan elephant herds were devastated because of demand for ivory, to be used for piano keys.


title: Ivory

text: During the Art Deco era from 1912 to 1940, dozens (if not hundreds) of European artists used ivory in the production of chryselephantine statues. Two of the most frequent users of ivory in their sculptured artworks were Ferdinand Preiss and Claire Colinet.


title: Ivory

text: Owing to the rapid decline in the populations of the animals that produce it, the importation and sale of ivory in many countries is banned or severely restricted. In the ten years preceding a decision in 1989 by CITES to ban international trade in African elephant ivory, the population of African elephants declined from 1.3 million to around 600,000. It was found by investigators from the Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) that CITES sales of stockpiles from Singapore and Burundi (270 tonnes and 89.5 tonnes respectively) had created a system that increased the value of ivory on the international market, thus rewarding international smugglers and giving them the ability to control the trade and continue smuggling new ivory.


title: Ivory

text: Since the ivory ban, some Southern African countries have claimed their elephant populations are stable or increasing, and argued that ivory sales would support their conservation efforts. Other African countries oppose this position, stating that renewed ivory trading puts their own elephant populations under greater threat from poachers reacting to demand. CITES allowed the sale of 49 tonnes of ivory from Zimbabwe, Namibia and Botswana in 1997 to Japan.


title: Ivory

text: In 2007, under pressure from the International Fund for Animal Welfare, eBay banned all international sales of elephant-ivory products. The decision came after several mass slaughters of African elephants, most notably the 2006 Zakouma elephant slaughter in Chad. The IFAW found that up to 90% of the elephant-ivory transactions on eBay violated their own wildlife policies and could potentially be illegal. In October 2008, eBay expanded the ban, disallowing any sales of ivory on eBay.


title: Ivory

text: A more recent sale in 2008 of 108 tonnes from the three countries and South Africa took place to Japan and China. The inclusion of China as an "approved" importing country created enormous controversy, despite being supported by CITES, the World Wide Fund for Nature and Traffic. They argued that China had controls in place and the sale might depress prices. However, the price of ivory in China has skyrocketed. Some believe this may be due to deliberate price fixing by those who bought the stockpile, echoing the warnings from the Japan Wildlife Conservation Society on price-fixing after sales to Japan in 1997, and monopoly given to traders who bought stockpiles from Burundi and Singapore in the 1980s.


title: Ivory

text: A 2019 peer-reviewed study reported that the rate of African elephant poaching was in decline, with the annual poaching mortality rate peaking at over 10% in 2011 and falling to below 4% by 2017. The study found that the "annual poaching rates in 53 sites strongly correlate with proxies of ivory demand in the main Chinese markets, whereas between-country and between-site variation is strongly associated with indicators of corruption and poverty." Based on these findings, the study authors recommended action to both reduce demand for ivory in China and other main markets and to decrease corruption and poverty in Africa.


title: Ivory

text: In 2006, nineteen African countries signed the "Accra Declaration" calling for a total ivory trade ban, and twenty range states attended a meeting in Kenya calling for a 20-year moratorium in 2007.


title: Ivory

text: The use and trade of elephant ivory have become controversial because they have contributed to seriously declining elephant populations in many countries. It is estimated that consumption in Great Britain alone in 1831 amounted to the deaths of nearly 4,000 elephants. In 1975, the Asian elephant was placed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which prevents international trade between member states of species that are threatened by trade. The African elephant was placed on Appendix I in January 1990. Since then, some southern African countries have had their populations of elephants "downlisted" to Appendix II, allowing the domestic trade of non-ivory items; there have also been two "one off" sales of ivory stockpiles.


title: Ivory

text: In June 2015, more than a ton of confiscated ivory was crushed in New York City's Times Square by the Wildlife Conservation Society to send a message that the illegal trade will not be tolerated. The ivory, confiscated in New York and Philadelphia, was sent up a conveyor belt into a rock crusher. The Wildlife Conservation Society has pointed out that the global ivory trade leads to the slaughter of up to 35,000 elephants a year in Africa. In June 2018, Conservative MEPs’ Deputy Leader Jacqueline Foster MEP urged the EU to follow the UK's lead and introduce a tougher ivory ban across Europe.


title: Ivory

text: China was the biggest market for poached ivory but announced they would phase out the legal domestic manufacture and sale of ivory products in May 2015. In September of the same year, China and the U.S. announced they would "enact a nearly complete ban on the import and export of ivory." The Chinese market has a high degree of influence on the elephant population.


title: Ivory

text: Trade in the ivory from the tusks of dead woolly mammoths frozen in the tundra has occurred for 300 years and continues to be legal. Mammoth ivory is used today to make handcrafted knives and similar implements. Mammoth ivory is rare and costly because mammoths have been extinct for millennia, and scientists are hesitant to sell museum-worthy specimens in pieces. Some estimates suggest that 10 million mammoths are still buried in Siberia.


title: Ivory

text: Fossil walrus ivory from animals that died before 1972 is legal to buy and sell or possess in the United States, unlike many other types of ivory.


title: Ivory

text: A species of hard nut is gaining popularity as a replacement for ivory, although its size limits its usability. It is sometimes called vegetable ivory, or tagua, and is the seed endosperm of the ivory nut palm commonly found in coastal rainforests of Ecuador, Peru and Colombia.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Colonial Nigeria was ruled by the British Empire from the mid-nineteenth century until 1960 when Nigeria achieved independence. British influence in the region began with the prohibition of slave trade to British subjects in 1807. Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually over the 19th century, but Britain did not effectively occupy the area until 1885. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area in the 1885 Berlin Conference.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: From 1886 to 1899, much of the country was ruled by the Royal Niger Company, authorised by charter, and governed by George Taubman Goldie. In 1900, the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and Northern Nigeria Protectorate passed from company hands to the Crown. At the urging of Governor Frederick Lugard, the two territories were amalgamated as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, while maintaining considerable regional autonomy among the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos). Progressive constitutions after World War II provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which Nigeria gained its independence.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Through a progressive sequence of regimes, the British imposed Crown Colony government on much of the area of West Africa which came to be known as Nigeria, a form of rule which was both autocratic and bureaucratic. After initially adopting an indirect rule approach, in 1906 the British merged the small Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate into a new Colony of Southern Nigeria, and in 1914 that was combined with the Northern Nigeria Protectorate to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in London and in Nigeria.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labor. The essential basis of this system was a money economy—specifically the British pound sterling—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in Nigeria to the present day.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: In the 1700s, the British Empire and other European powers had settlements and forts in West Africa but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. Adam Smith wrote in 1776 that the African societies were better established and more populous than those of the Americas, thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possess many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the East Indies, they have not yet established in either of those countries such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of America.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the Sierra Leone Colony in 1787 as a refuge for freed slaves, the independent missionary movement intended to bring Christianity to the Edo Kingdom, and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based African Association.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the West Indies, India, and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: European slave trading from West Africa began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the Bight of Benin (also known as the Slave Coast) became the next most important hub. Ouidah (now part of Benin) and Lagos were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the Portuguese Empire. In the Bight of Biafra, the major ports were Old Calabar (Akwa Akpa), Bonny and New Calabar. Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area. In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: In 1807 the Parliament of the United Kingdom enacted the Slave Trade Act, prohibiting British subjects from participating in the Atlantic slave trade. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the blockade of Africa. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule. This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed Freetown in Sierra Leone, declaring it a Crown Colony in 1808.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the Edo Empire. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had abolished slavery following the French Revolution, although it briefly re-established it in its Caribbean colonies under Napoleon. France sold Louisiana to the United States in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain Saint-Domingue from the Haitian Revolution. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars, it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Lagos became a major slave port in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the human trafficking which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by Portuguese and Spanish. By 1826–1850 the British Royal Navy was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians. Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat. Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Portuguese Roman Catholic priests who accompanied traders and officials to the West African coast introduced Christianity to the Edo Empire in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the Catholic missionaries waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the Church of England's Church Missionary Society (CMS). Other Protestant denominations from Great Britain, Canada, and the United States also opened missions and, in the 1860s, Roman Catholic religious orders established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the Igbo; the CMS worked among the Yoruba.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed Samuel Ajayi Crowther as the first Anglican Bishop of the Niger. Crowther, a liberated Yoruba slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some African Christian communities formed their own independent churches.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: The principal commodities of legitimate trade were palm oil and palm kernels, which were used in Europe to make soap and as lubricants for machinery before petroleum products were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 billion a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where palm trees grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined slavery and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Initially, most palm oil (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the Ngwa, Nri Kingdom, Awka and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the Niger Delta for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the domestic economy, especially to grow the staple food crop, yams, in northern Igboland for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade. Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire. To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly subsistence to the production of palm oil as a cash crop.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: The Niger Delta and Calabar, which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crew, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Because of the hazards of climate and tropical diseases for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta, and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at Onitsha, where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the Government of the United Kingdom appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, John Beecroft was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from Dahomey to Cameroon. Beecroft was the British representative to Fernando Po, where the African Slave Trade Patrol of the Royal Navy was stationed.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: In 1850, the British created a "Court of Equity" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local Efik traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the Bight of Biafra.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the Industrial Revolution of 1750–1790.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794 the African Association in Great Britain commissioned Mungo Park, an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to Muslim Arab slave traders. In 1805 he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than , passing through the western portions of the Sokoto Caliphate, before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near Bussa.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer Hugh Clapperton learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it. His servant, Richard Lander, and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, quinine had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a Liverpool merchant, Macgregor Laird, opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, Heinrich Barth, who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul John Beecroft to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king Akintoye of Lagos sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy bombarded Lagos in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a treaty with the newly installed Oba Akintoye, who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a Crown Colony in 1861 via the Lagos Treaty of Cession.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of Lagos Colony was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from Dahomey and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the emirate of Ilorin, the British Governor—assisted by the CMS—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Colonial Lagos was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both Victorian and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the Empire of Brazil and Spanish Cuba. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British Colonial Office in London.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Captain John Glover, the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the Nigerian Police Force.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the Maria Theresa dollar, to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the pound sterling. In 1891, the African Banking Corporation founded the Bank of British West Africa in Lagos.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: After the Berlin Conference of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the Oil Rivers Protectorate, which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the equity courts established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: In 1894 the territory was redesignated the Niger Coast Protectorate and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as Lokoja, the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: The legitimate trade in commodities attracted a number of British merchants to the Niger River, as well as some men who had been formerly engaged in the slave trade but who now changed their line of wares. The large companies that subsequently opened depots in the delta cities and in Lagos were as ruthlessly competitive as the delta towns themselves and frequently used force to compel potential suppliers to agree to contracts and to meet their demands. To some extent, competition amongst these companies undermined their collective position vis-à-vis, local merchants.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: In the 1870s, therefore, George Taubman Goldie began amalgamating companies into the United African Company, soon renamed the National African Company. Ultimately, this became the Royal Niger Company.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: The Royal Niger Company established its headquarters far inland at Lokoja, which was the main trading port of the company, from where it began to assume responsibility for the administration of areas along the Niger and Benue rivers where it maintained depots. It soon gained a virtual monopoly over trade along the River


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: The company interfered in the territory along the Niger and the Benue, sometimes becoming embroiled in serious conflicts when its British-led native constabulary intercepted slave raids or attempted to protect trade routes. The company negotiated treaties with Sokoto, Gwandu and Nupe that were interpreted as guaranteeing exclusive access to trade in return for the payment of annual tribute. Officials of the Sokoto Caliphate considered these treaties quite differently; from their perspective, the British were granted only extraterritorial rights that did not prevent similar arrangements with the Germans and the French and certainly did not surrender sovereignty.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Even before gaining its charter, the Company signed treaties with local leaders which granted it broad sovereign powers. One 1885 treaty read:


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: We, the undersigned King and Chiefs […] with the view to the bettering of the condition of our country and people, do this day cede to the National Africa Company (Limited), their heirs and assigns, forever, the whole of our territory […] We also give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to settle all native disputes arising from any cause whatever, and we pledge ourselves not to enter into any war with other tribes without the sanction of the said National Africa Company (Limited).


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: We also understand that the said National African Company (limited) have full power to mine, farm, and build in any portion of our territory. We bind ourselves not to have any intercourse with any strangers or foreigners except through the said national African Company (Limited), and we give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to exclude all other strangers and foreigners from their territory at their discretion.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: In consideration of the foregoing, the said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves not to interfere with any of the native laws or customs of the country, consistently with the maintenance of order and good government … [and] agree to pay native owners of land a reasonable amount for any portion they may require.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: The said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves to protect the said King and Chiefs from the attacks of any neighbouring tribes (Ibid.).


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: The company considered itself the sole legitimate government of the area, with executive, legislative and judicial powers all subordinate to the rule of a council created by the company board of directors in London. The council was headed by a Governor. The Deputy Governor served as political administrator for company territory and appointed three officials in Nigeria to carry out the work of administration. These were the Agent-General, the Senior Judicial Officer, and the Commandant of the Constabulary. However, the company did accept that local kings could act as partners in governance and trade. It, therefore, hired native intermediaries who could conduct diplomacy, trade and intelligence work in the local area.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: The company, as was common among European businesses in Africa, paid its native workers in barter. At the turn of the century, top wages were four bags of salt (company retail price, 3s 9d) for a month of work. Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. Goods were made available on credit to African middlemen, who were expected to trade them at a pre-arranged price and deliver the proceeds to the company. The company's major imports to the area included gin and low-quality firearms.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: By the 1880s, the National African Company became the dominant commercial power, increasing from 19 to 39 stations between 1882 and 1893. In 1886, Taubman secured a royal charter and his company became the Royal Niger Company. The charter allowed the company to collect customs and make treaties with local leaders.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Under Goldie's direction, the Royal Niger Company was instrumental in depriving France and Germany of access to the region. Consequently, he may well deserve the epithet of the "father of Nigeria", which historians accorded him. He definitely laid the basis for British claims.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: The Royal Niger Company had its own armed forces. This included a river fleet which it used for retaliatory attacks on uncooperative villages.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Britain's imperialistic posture became more aggressive towards the end of the century. The appointment of Joseph Chamberlain as colonial secretary in 1895 especially marked a shift towards new territorial ambitions of the British Empire. Economically, local colonial administrators also pushed for the imposition of British colonial rule, believing that trade and taxation conducted in British pounds would prove far more lucrative than a barter trade which yielded only inconsistent customs duties.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: In 1892 the British Armed Forces set out to fight the Ijebu Kingdom, which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy. Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British Maxims, the earliest machine gun. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of Yorubaland, which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war. By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: In 1896–1897 the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a larger retaliatory force captured Benin City and drove Ovonramwen, the Oba of Benin, into exile.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the Aro Confederacy, the British launched the Anglo-Aro War of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive. The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: A campaign against the Sokoto Caliphate began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured Kano in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906. Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903., In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: The Fulani in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.


title: Colonial Nigeria

text: Concrete plans for transition to Crown rule—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a "Memorandum on British possessions in West Africa", which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between Lagos Colony, the Niger Coast Protectorate and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources. In the same year, the British created the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel Frederick Lugard. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.