title: Hurricane Maria

text: Three months after the hurricane, 45% of Puerto Ricans still had no power, over 1.5 million people. 14% of Puerto Rico had no tap water; cell service was returning with over 90% of service restored and 86% of cell towers functioning.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: Elaine Duke, the acting Secretary of Homeland Security at the time, recalled years later that President Trump suggested "selling" Puerto Rico in the aftermath of the hurricane. "Can we outsource the electricity? Can we can we sell the island? You know, or divest of that asset?" she remembered him saying. She said the topic was never mentioned again beyond that comment. Former DHS Chief of Staff Miles Taylor said that Trump asked if they could swap Puerto Rico for Greenland, because ""Puerto Rico was dirty and the people were poor."


title: Hurricane Maria

text: Puerto Rico is a major manufacturer of medical devices and pharmaceuticals, which represent 30% of its economy. These factories shut down or greatly reduced production because of the hurricane, and were slowly recovering since. This caused a months long shortage in medical supplies in the United States, especially of IV bags. Small IV bags often come pre-filled with saline or common drugs in solution, and have forced health care providers to scramble behind the scenes for alternative methods of drug delivery. In January 2018, when the shortage was projected to ease, flu season hit and led to a spike in patients.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: By the end of January 2018, approximately 450,000 customers remained without power island-wide. On February 11, an explosion and fire damaged a power substation in Monacillo, causing a large blackout in northern parts of the island, including Caguas, Carolina, Guaynabo, Juncos, San Juan, and Trujillo Alto. Cascading outages affected areas powered by substations in Villa Betina and Quebrada Negrito. Approximately 400 megawatts of electricity production was lost. On March 1, 2018, a second major blackout occurred when a transmission line failed and caused two power stations to shut down; more than 970,000 people lost electricity. Excluding those affected by the second blackout, more than 200,000 people remained without power following Maria on March 2, 2018. Another large-scale blackout occurred on April 12 from a line failure. Less than a week later on April 18, another blackout affected all of Puerto Rico. Rapid transit line passengers required help to disembark stalled trains.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: FEMA was a major supplier of relief in the form of bereavement, food, and other emergency supplies, as well as rebuilding some homes. FEMA's relief efforts in Puerto Rico post-Maria engaged a smaller work force and budget than the agency's efforts in Texas and Florida, in the wake of Hurricanes Harvey and Irma, respectively. FEMA does not rebuild homes to which the owner has no title, which has presented a major obstacle for many Puerto Ricans, who may have erected structures on family plots without procuring legal paperwork beforehand. Compounding the problem in rebuilding the housing infrastructure is the fact that only about 50% of houses in Puerto Rico were covered by insurance policies that protect against wind damage, meaning that homeowners were reliant on their own money, FEMA, or other charities rather than insurance proceeds for rebuilding. Although banks require that people with mortgages have homeowner's insurance, Puerto Rico has a low mortgage penetration rate with only 500,000 active mortgages in a population of 3 million as many homes are fully owned by families and passed to the next generation. In addition, 10% of mortgage holders in Puerto Rico were delinquent at the time (compared to 5.8% on the mainland), an indication of the fragile state of the local economy.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: As a consequence of the hurricane, a population drop of approximately 14% was forecasted, due to an exodus to the mainland United States, according to a research study conducted by the Center for Puerto Rican Studies of Hunter College. In preparation for the 2018 hurricane season, FEMA drastically increased its stockpiles on the island, including 35 times more bottled water, 43 times more tarps, and 16 times more meals as the previous year. FEMA has added three new warehouses on Puerto Rico and pre-positioned emergency power generators at hospitals and water pump stations. The territorial government added satellite and radio equipment at hospitals, to prevent a communications blackout in the event the land and cell phone networks fail again. In addition to FEMA, Direct Relief provided important medical supplies to those affected including insulin and vaccines. A year later, repairs to homes were not completed, schools were shuttered, and residents were suffering from depression.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: As of January 2019, the Department of Housing and Urban Development had allocated nearly $20 billion in grants to aid Puerto Rico's reconstruction. However, many people feel that this amount is insufficient, and worry it will not help the day-to-day lives of ordinary affected Puerto Ricans. About 60% of households that applied for FEMA assistance have been rejected, primarily for lack of proof of ownership. Different legal and inheritance customs in Puerto Rico often result in there being no title deed to a property. Further, there have been accusations that FEMA policies have been applied unfairly. January 2019 has also seen a $600 million cut in food aid to Puerto Rico by the Trump Administration.'


title: Hurricane Maria

text: The deaths of 64 people were initially directly attributed to the hurricane by the government of Puerto Rico.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: In the immediate months following Maria, the initial death toll relayed from the Government of Puerto Rico came into question by media outlets, politicians, and investigative journalists. Scores of people who survived the hurricane's initial onslaught later died from complications in its aftermath. Catastrophic damage to infrastructure and communication hampered efforts to accurately document the total loss of life.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: Investigations into the hurricane's aftermath suggested a wide variety of possible death tolls. On October 11, 2017, "Vox" reported 81 deaths directly or indirectly related to the hurricane, with another 450 deaths awaiting investigation. Furthermore, they indicated 69 people were missing. Official statistics showed increases of about 20% and 27% in overall fatalities in Puerto Rico during September 2017, compared to 2016 and 2015, followed by a decrease of about 10% in October 2017 compared to the previous two Octobers. There were 238 more reported deaths in September and October 2017 than during the same months in 2016, and 336 more compared to September and October 2015. A two-week investigation in November 2017 by CNN of 112 funeral homes—approximately half of the island—found 499  deaths that were said to be hurricane-related between September 20 and October 19. Two scientists, Alexis Santos and Jeffrey Howard, estimated the death toll in Puerto Rico to be 1,085 by the end of November 2017. They used average monthly deaths and the spike in fatalities following the hurricane. The value accounted for only reported deaths, and with limitations to communication, the actual toll could have been even higher. Using a similar method, "The New York Times" indicated an increase of 1,052 fatalities in the 42 days following Maria compared to previous years. Significant spikes in causes of deaths compared to the two preceding Septembers included sepsis (+47%), pneumonia (+45%), emphysema (+43%), diabetes (+31%), and Alzheimer's and Parkinson's (+23%). Robert Anderson at the National Center for Health Statistics conveyed the increase in monthly fatalities was statistically significant and likely driven in some capacity by Hurricane Maria. A Harvard study found an estimated 15 excess deaths in the four months after the hurricane in interviews with 3,299 households, resulting in an estimated 793 to 8,498 excess deaths (with a 95% confidence interval).


title: Hurricane Maria

text: On December 18, 2017, Governor Rosselló ordered a recount and a new analysis of the official death toll. In February 2018, the task of reviewing the death toll was given to The George Washington University – Milken Institute School of Public Health with some assistance from the University of Puerto Rico at the request of researchers from George Washington University. In response to three lawsuits, including one from CNN and Puerto Rico's Center for Investigative Journalism, the Government of Puerto Rico released updated death statistics for the months following Hurricane Maria. Compared to the average deaths in September to December 2013 – 2016, September to December 2017 had 1,427 excess deaths; however, it is unknown how many of these deaths are attributable to the hurricane. The government acknowledged the death toll was greater than 64, but awaited the results of the government commissioned study to determine the true death toll.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: In late August 2018, almost a year after the hurricane, the Milken Institute School of Public Health at George Washington University published their results. They estimated 2,658–3,290 additional people died in the six months after the hurricane over the expected background rate, after accounting for emigration from the island. As result, the official death toll was updated from the initial 64 to an estimated 2,975 by the Governor of Puerto Rico.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: In September 2018, President Trump disputed the revised death toll. Writing on Twitter, Trump claimed that "3000 people did not die in the two hurricanes that hit Puerto Rico", but that the Democrats had inflated the official death toll to "make me look as bad as possible". Trump provided no evidence to support his claims. The response was met with immediate criticism, including from Mayor of San Juan Carmen Yulín Cruz and Florida Congresswoman and fellow Republican Ileana Ros-Lehtinen.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: By September 25, 2017, the U.S. Coast Guard reported that the ports of Crown Bay, East Gregerie Channel, West Gregerie Channel, and Redhook Bay on Saint Thomas; the ports of Krause Lagoon, Limetree Bay, and Frederiksted on Saint Croix, and the port of Cruz Bay on Saint John were open with restrictions. On September 25, 11 flights arrived with 200,000 meals, 144,000 liters of water, and tarps. Troops were activated and deployed to the U.S. Virgin Islands from the Virginia National Guard, the West Virginia National Guard, Missouri National Guard, and UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters from the Tennessee Army National Guard.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: Nearly a month after the hurricane, electricity had been restored to only 16 percent of people in St. Thomas and 1.6 percent of people in St. Croix. Three months after Maria, about half the entire U.S. territory still had no power, and 25% of the U.S. territory had no cell service.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: The U.S. government hurricane response was criticized as inadequate and slow. The U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) did not immediately waive the Jones Act for Puerto Rico, which prevented the commonwealth from receiving any aid and supplies from non-U.S.-flagged vessels from U.S. ports (shipments from non-US ports were unaffected). A DHS Security spokesman said that there would be enough U.S. shipping for Puerto Rico, and that the limiting factors would be port capacity and local transport capacity. The Jones Act was ultimately waived for a period of ten days starting on September 28 following a formal request by Puerto Rico Governor Rosselló.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: San Juan Mayor Carmen Yulín Cruz called the disaster a "terrifying humanitarian crisis" and on September 26 pleaded for relief efforts to be sped up. The White House contested claims that the administration was not responding effectively. General Joseph L. Lengyel, Chief of the National Guard Bureau, defended the Trump Administration's response, and reiterated that relief efforts were hampered by Puerto Rico being an island rather than on the mainland. President Donald Trump responded to accusations that he does not care about Puerto Rico: "Puerto Rico is very important to me, and Puerto Rico—the people are fantastic people. I grew up in New York, so I know many people from Puerto Rico. I know many Puerto Ricans. And these are great people, and we have to help them. The island is devastated."


title: Hurricane Maria

text: Mayor Cruz criticized the federal response on September 29 during a news conference. "We are dying and you are killing us with the inefficiency," she said. Trump responded by criticizing her for "poor leadership", and tweeted that the mayor and "others in Puerto Rico ... want everything to be done for them."


title: Hurricane Maria

text: Frustrated with the federal government's "slow and inadequate response", relief group Oxfam announced on October 2 that it planned to get involved in the humanitarian aid effort, sending a team to "assess a targeted and effective response" and support its local partners' on-the-ground efforts. The organization released a statement, saying in part: "While the US government is engaged in relief efforts, it has failed to address the most urgent needs. Oxfam has monitored the response in Puerto Rico closely, and we are outraged at the slow and inadequate response the US Government has mounted," said Oxfam America's president Abby Maxman. "Oxfam rarely responds to humanitarian emergencies in the US and other wealthy countries, but as the situation in Puerto Rico worsens and the federal government's response continues to falter, we have decided to step in. The US has more than enough resources to mobilize an emergency response, but has failed to do so in a swift and robust manner." In an update on October 19, the agency called the situation in Puerto Rico "unacceptable" and called for "a more robust and efficient response from the US government".


title: Hurricane Maria

text: On October 3, 2017, President Trump visited Puerto Rico. He compared the damage from Hurricane Maria to that of Hurricane Katrina, saying: "If you looked—every death is a horror, but if you look at a real catastrophe like Katrina, and you look at the tremendous hundreds and hundreds and hundreds of people that died, and you look at what happened here with really a storm that was just totally overbearing, nobody has seen anything like this ... What is your death count as of this morning, 17?". Trump's remarks were widely criticized for implying that Hurricane Maria was not a "real catastrophe". While in Puerto Rico, Trump also distributed canned goods and paper towels to crowds gathered at a relief shelter and told the residents of the devastated island "I hate to tell you, Puerto Rico, but you've thrown our budget a little out of whack, because we've spent a lot of money on Puerto Rico, and that's fine. We saved a lot of lives."


title: Hurricane Maria

text: On October 12, Trump tweeted, "We cannot keep FEMA, the Military & the First Responders, who have been amazing (under the most difficult circumstances) in P.R. forever!", prompting further criticism from lawmakers in both parties; Mayor Cruz replied, "You are incapable of empathy and frankly simply cannot get the job done." In response to a request for clarification on the tweet from Governor Rosselló, John F. Kelly assured that no resources were being pulled and replied: "Our country will stand with those American citizens in Puerto Rico until the job is done".


title: Hurricane Maria

text: After visiting Puerto Rico about two months after the hurricane, Refugees International issued a report that severely criticized the slow response of the federal authorities, noted poor coordination and logistics, and indicated the island was still in an emergency mode and in need of more help. "Politico" compared the federal response to Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico to that for Hurricane Harvey, which had hit the greater Houston area of Texas a month earlier. Though Maria caused catastrophic damage, the response was slower in quantitative terms.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: A Harvard Humanitarian Initiative analysis of the military deployment in March 2018 said the military mission in Puerto Rico after hurricane was better than critics say but suffered flaws. It concluded that the U.S. military itself performed as well in Puerto Rico as it does in its international relief missions, and that coordination had been greatly improved since Katrina, but that real shortcomings exist in planning for disasters.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: After the official death toll was updated to the estimated 2,975 on August 28, 2018, President Donald Trump stated that he still believed the federal government did a "fantastic job" in its hurricane response. and less than a month later Trump described the federal response to Hurricane Maria as "an incredible, unsung success ... the best job we did was Puerto Rico [compared to hurricanes in Texas and Florida] but nobody would understand that". These remarks received condemnation from Carmen Yulín Cruz and other figures, who cited the near 3,000 death toll as not showing a success.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: A 2021 Inspector General investigation found that the Trump administration erected bureaucratic hurdles which stalled approximately $20 billion in hurricane relief for Puerto Rico.The Washington Post reported that President Donald Trump instructed officials to closely monitor Puerto Rico's disaster relief because he believed the island's government was corrupt. They also reported that he told his staff that he did not want a single dollar of relief funding to go Puerto Rico, instead pressing for the money to go to Florida and Texas. The Trump Administration subsequently obstructed the efforts of the Department of Housing and Urban Development's Inspector General to investigate the delays in federal aid.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: Soon after the hurricane struck, Whitefish Energy, a small Montana-based company with only two full-time employees, was awarded a $300 million contract by PREPA, Puerto Rico's state-run power company, to repair Puerto Rico's power grid, a move considered by many to be highly unusual for several reasons. The company contracted more than 300 personnel, most of them subcontractors, and sent them to the island to carry out work. PREPA cited Whitefish's comparatively small upfront cost of $3.7 million for mobilization as one of the main reasons for contracting them over larger companies. PREPA Executive Director Ricardo Ramos stated: "Whitefish was the only company—it was the first that could be mobilized to Puerto Rico. It did not ask us to be paid soon or a guarantee to pay". No requests for assistance had been made to the American Public Power Association by October 24. The decision to hire such a tiny company was considered highly unusual by many, such as former Energy Department official Susan Tierney, who stated: "The fact that there are so many utilities with experience in this and a huge track record of helping each other out, it is at least odd why [the utility] would go to Whitefish". Several representatives, both Democrats and Republicans, also voiced their concern over the choice to contract Whitefish instead of other companies. As the company was based in Whitefish, Montana, the hometown of US Interior Secretary Ryan Zinke, and one of Zinke's sons had once done a summer internship at Whitefish, Zinke knew Whitefish's CEO personally. These facts led to accusations of privatization and cronyism, though Zinke dismissed these claims and stated that he had no role in securing the contract.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: In a press release on October 27, FEMA stated it did not approve of PREPA's contract with Whitefish and cited "significant concerns". Governor Rosselló subsequently ordered an audit of the contract's budget. DHS Inspector General John Roth led the FEMA audit while Governor Rosselló called for a second review by Puerto Rico's Office of Management and Budget. The governor then demanded that the contract be cancelled; this was executed on October 29.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: On April 18, 2018 (Wednesday), The Associated Press reported that the entire island experienced a blackout. On April 19, 2018 (Thursday), Puerto Rico's power company said that it had restored electricity to all customers affected by an island-wide blackout that was caused by an excavator hitting a transmission line, but tens of thousands of families still remained without normal service seven months after Hurricanes Maria and Irma.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: San Juan Mayor Carmen Yulín Cruz said one week before the blackout that about 700,000 Americans in Puerto Rico did not have power after a line repaired by Montana contracting firm Whitefish Energy had failed. Puerto Rico's electric grid has suffered in the months since Hurricane Maria struck the island. The territory announced earlier in 2018 that it would privatize its power system over its "deficient service".


title: Hurricane Maria

text: Cruiseline French America Line claimed to be working with Whitefish Energy, and that their boat the "Louisiane" would serve as "headquarters for relief services" after Hurricane Maria. Further investigation revealed that the boat had been docked in New Orleans since 2016. French America Line has been accused of scamming customers without delivering on services, and some have alleged the company used proposed "hurricane relief services" as a coverup.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: On April 11, 2018, at the 40th session of the Regional Association Hurricane Committee, the World Meteorological Organization retired the name "Maria" from its rotating name lists, due to the highly extensive amount of damage and loss of life it caused along its path, especially in Dominica, Saint Croix, and Puerto Rico, and it will never again be used to name an Atlantic hurricane. It will be replaced with "Margot" for the 2023 Atlantic hurricane season.


title: Hurricane Maria

text: "Siguiendo La Trayectoria del Huracán María Sobre Puerto Rico" (426 pages; Spanish), by Gilberto Rivera Santiago


title: Eerste Divisie

text: The Eerste Divisie (, ) is the second-highest tier of football in the Netherlands. It is linked with the top-level Eredivisie and with the third-level Tweede Divisie via promotion/relegation systems. It is also known as the Keuken Kampioen Divisie due to sponsorship, while previously it was known as Jupiler League for the same reason.


title: Eerste Divisie

text: The Eerste Divisie consists of 20 clubs, who play each other in a double round-robin league, with each club playing the other club home and away. Each club plays every other club once in the first half of the season before the league takes a winter break around the Christmas and New Year's holiday season. The second half of the season sees the same fixtures as the first half, with the stadiums changed, although the two halves are not played in the same order.


title: Eerste Divisie

text: At the end of each season, the champion and the runner-up of the Eerste Divisie are automatically promoted to the Eredivisie. Seven other clubs enter the "Nacompetitie" , a promotion/relegation playoff that includes the 16th-placed club in the Eredivisie. The following teams qualify for the Nacompetitie:


title: Eerste Divisie

text: If the club that wins a period has qualified for the Nacompetitie by winning a previous period, its place is filled by the next-best club in that period that has not already qualified. Usually, the clubs that qualify for the Nacompetitie turn out to be the 3rd- through 9th-placed clubs in the final table. Clubs in the Nacompetitie face each other in a knock-out system with the number 16 of the Eredivisie for one place in next season's Eredivisie.


title: Eerste Divisie

text: Between seasons 1971–72 and 2008–09 teams could not relegate from the Eerste Divisie. From the 2009–10 season onwards, one team has been relegated from the Eerste Divisie to the "Hoofdklasse" (then the main amateur league of Dutch football). From the 2010–11 to 2015–16 seasons, the KNVB introduced a third and highest amateur tier called "Topklasse", and "Hoofdklasse" clubs have been able to get promoted to that new division.


title: Eerste Divisie

text: Before the 2008–09 season, Hoofdklasse clubs could be promoted by obtaining a professional license. However, only a club going bankrupt or losing its license could result in clubs leaving professional football. The last clubs leaving professional football in that way were FC Wageningen and VCV Zeeland in 1992, and more recently HFC Haarlem and RBC Roosendaal, who went bankrupt in January 2010 and June 2011 respectively. The most recent additions to the league were AGOVV Apeldoorn in 2003 and FC Omniworld in 2005, expanding the league to 19 and later 20 clubs. However, for the 2010–11 season, the league returned to 18 clubs, as HFC Haarlem went bankrupt and FC Oss were relegated to the newly formed Topklasse. The 2012–13 season ended with 16 teams after AGOVV and SC Veendam went bankrupt. Four teams have been added to bring the division back up to 20 teams in 2013. Achilles '29 has been promoted from the Topklasse with the reserve teams of Ajax, FC Twente and PSV being added as well.


title: Eerste Divisie

text: Since the 2016–17 season there is optional relegation to the third-tier, amateur Tweede Divisie. Clubs in the Tweede Divisie had to announce in mid-season if they want to be eligible for promotion. Only if one of those clubs won the Tweede Divisie championship is a team relegated from the Eerste Divisie.


title: Eerste Divisie

text: The remainder of the 2019–20 season was cancelled amid the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, thus there were no promotions or relegations. Before the cancellation, the KNVB met in December 2019 and ruled that promotion to the second division and relegation to the third were suspended until 2022–23, and that the lowest-ranked Eerste Divisie Jong team will exchange places with its highest-ranked Tweede Divisie counterpart.


title: Eerste Divisie

text: Clubs with larger fanbases suffered relegation in the 2000s, with Roda JC setting the Eerste Divisie attendance record at 16,150 during their home game against NEC Nijmegen in the 2014–15 season. NAC Breda bettered it a season later in their home match against Go Ahead Eagles, which had an attendance of 17,800 people.


title: Eerste Divisie

text: Blauw Wit, De Volewijckers and DWS merged into FC Amsterdam, which folded in 1982. Reformed as Blauw-Wit Amsterdam, defunct in 2015.<br>


title: Eerste Divisie

text: Both pools have their own finals, the finals are played against the winner of Match A and Match B of the semi-finals.


title: Nude recreation

text: Nude recreation refers to recreational activities which some people engage in while nude. Historically, the ancient Olympics were nude events. There remain some societies in Africa, Oceania, and South America that continue to engage in everyday public activities—including sports—without clothes, while in most of the world nude activities take place in either private spaces or separate clothing optional areas in public spaces. Occasional events, such as nude bike rides, may occur in public areas where nudity is not otherwise allowed.


title: Nude recreation

text: While nude recreational activities may include sports such as tennis or volleyball, nude sporting activities are usually recreational rather than competitive or organized.


title: Nude recreation

text: Recreation is any human activity done for pleasure (or "play") during leisure time as opposed to those activities that are necessary for survival. Historically, this means that recreation only existed after human society reached the stage where leisure time existed, perhaps during the late stone age (Upper Paleolithic), as shown by the first appearance of cave paintings and musical instruments.


title: Nude recreation

text: Modern concepts of recreation begin with ancient civilizations. Sport is any activity recognized as requiring physical skill. Any sport may be recreational for the participants, while viewing sports is a recreation for spectators.


title: Nude recreation

text: Naturism, or nudism, is a cultural movement practicing, advocating, and defending personal and social nudity, most but not all of which takes place on private property. The term also refers to a lifestyle based on personal, family, or social nudity. Research indicates that contrary to public opinion, naturists are otherwise typical members of society who engage in social activities such as volleyball,


title: Nude recreation

text: In keeping with their basic function, naturist clubs and resorts feature recreational activities. Naturist recreation also includes cruise ships, which offer a variety of activities.


title: Nude recreation

text: Naturist venues also host special events, such as New Year's Eve parties. Florida Young Naturists organizes seasonal "bashes" at several Florida nudist/naturist clubs and resorts.


title: Nude recreation

text: People across the globe are encouraged on World Naked Gardening Day (WNGD), held in May each year, to tend their gardens in the nude. WNGD was organized by the Body Freedom Collaborative. Since May is a cold month in New Zealand, the New Zealand Naturist Federation has instituted a National Nude Gardening Day in October.


title: Nude recreation

text: Some nude or "clothing optional" recreation occurs in public spaces as occasional exceptions to social norms.


title: Nude recreation

text: Clothing optional beaches in the United States vary in the degree to which they are separated from the non-nude public, and whether nudity is officially permitted by local authorities or merely tolerated although illegal. In the Miami metropolitan area, the clothing optional section of Haulover Park is marked only by signs, and is sanctioned and maintained by Miami-Dade County. The beach features food, beach chair, and umbrella concessions; and showers. In contrast, several California state beaches with clothing optional areas are isolated by steep cliffs and have no facilities outside the parking areas. The long-standing tradition of nudity on these beaches is tolerated. These include Gray Whale Cove State Beach near Pacifica, California, and Black's Beach in San Diego.


title: Nude recreation

text: all beaches are clothing optional. Beaches in some holiday destinations, such as Crete, are also clothing-optional, except some central urban beaches. There are two centrally located clothes-optional beaches in Barcelona.


title: Nude recreation

text: In a survey by The Daily Telegraph, Germans and Austrians were most likely to have visited a nude beach (28%), followed by Norwegians (18%), Spaniards (17%), Australians (17%), and New Zealanders (16%). Of the nationalities surveyed, the Japanese (2%) were the least likely to have visited a nude beach. This result may indicate the lack of nude beaches in Japan; however, the Japanese are open with regard to family bathing nude at home and at onsen (hot springs).


title: Nude recreation

text: A clothing-optional bike ride is a cycling event in which nudity is permitted or expected. There are many clothing-optional cycling events around the world. Some rides are political, recreational, artistic or a unique combination. Some are used to promote topfreedom, a social movement to accord women and girls the right to be topless in public where men and boys have that right. Many of the political rides have their roots from Critical Mass and are often described or categorized as a form of political protest, street theatre, party-on-wheels, streaking, public nudity and clothing-optional recreation; thus, they attract a wide range of participants.


title: Nude recreation

text: The Solstice Cyclists (also known as The Painted [Naked] Cyclists of the Solstice Parade, or The Painted Cyclists) is an artistic, non-political, clothing-optional bike ride celebrating the Summer Solstice. It is the unofficial start of the Summer Solstice Parade & Pageant since 1992, an event produced by the Fremont Arts Council in the Fremont district of Seattle.


title: Nude recreation

text: World Naked Bike Rides (WNBRs) are annual clothing-optional bike rides in which each city's participants plan, meet and ride en masse on human-powered transport to "deliver a vision of a cleaner, safer, body-positive world" by attracting attention to a healthy alternative for vehicles that depend on fossil fuels; the naked body is used as a symbol for the vulnerability of humans to pollution, and of cyclists to the traffic in cities. WNBRs have taken place all over the world since 2004 involving thousands of people. These take place in mostly western cities, where cyclists ride either partially or totally nude in a light-hearted attempt to draw attention to the danger of depending on fossil fuels.


title: Nude recreation

text: In spite of the lighthearted atmosphere, the annual World Naked Bike Rides are probably the most visible expression of the effort to promote healthier transport modes, including walking, cycling and public transport, which have been a mainstay of green-alternative politics for decades, while no politician of the conservative or social democrat traditions appeal to people to drive less, buy fewer cars, and get on their bikes instead.


title: Nude recreation

text: Body art (such as body painting) is a common form of creative expression used to promote body freedom, and is often a part of other clothing optional events. Because the body is technically covered, if completed in private full body painting does not violate laws against public nudity, leaving the police to make case by case decisions based upon other laws.


title: Nude recreation

text: An arts collective in Bushwick, Brooklyn has celebrated a Bodypainting Day annually since 2014, with 45 models and 25 artists participating in 2019.


title: Nude recreation

text: Nude bowling offers naturists a chance to enjoy indoor recreation during cold weather or in locations where outdoor opportunities are limited. These activities are usually held in commercial bowling alleys willing to rent their facility to nudist groups for a period of time to restrict participation to just the members of the group.


title: Nude recreation

text: When A J Hackett opened the world's first commercial bungee jumping site at Kawarau Bridge near Queenstown, New Zealand, customers who performed the jump in the nude were granted free entry. This offer was later withdrawn because too many jumpers were taking advantage of it, but the site remains clothing-optional. Billy Connolly famously bungee-jumped nude from the bridge during his 2004 World Tour of New Zealand.


title: Nude recreation

text: Since 2006 there has been an annual naked bungee jump at WildPlay park on Vancouver Island as a fund raiser for the Victoria Branch of BC Schizophrenia Society. The 2019 event drew more than 100 participants.


title: Nude recreation

text: Nude hiking, also known as naked walking or freehiking, is a sub-category of the modern form of social nudity.


title: Nude recreation

text: Neither nude hiking nor skinny-dipping are expressly prohibited by the US Forest Service, which instead applies laws against disorderly conduct as necessary. Nudity was advocated by Colin Fletcher in his popular 1968 book, the Complete Walker.


title: Nude recreation

text: In the United Kingdom, Stephen Gough, known as The Naked Rambler, received much media coverage for walking naked from Land's End to John o' Groats in 2003–2004 and again in 2005–2006.


title: Nude recreation

text: Conversely to Gough's experiences, in 2005 and 2006 the European Alps were crossed naked during a one-week hiking tour, and there was little media coverage. No one was arrested or troubled, and there was no police involvement. Most naked hikers report friendly reactions from people they meet.


title: Nude recreation

text: Some jurisdictions have regulations formally prohibiting nude hiking, and can impose fines or other punishments. A local bylaw to this effect was adopted, for example, by the 2009 General Meeting ("Landsgemeinde") of the residents of the Swiss canton Appenzell Innerrhoden. In nearby Appenzell Ausserrhoden, the court of second instance ""Obergericht"" reinforced an unpaid fine of 100 Swiss francs for naked hiking and added the court's cost of another 3330 Swiss Francs.


title: Nude recreation

text: In February 2013, the Leopold Museum of Vienna opened its doors to nude museum goers for an exhibit entitled "Nude Men from 1800 to Today". More than sixty visitors attended in the nude.


title: Nude recreation

text: In June 2013, the Portland Art Museum in Oregon admitted nude participants prior to the nighttime World Naked Bike Ride for a special exhibit called "Cyclepedia" on the art of bicycle design. Hundreds of patrons saw the exhibit in the nude.


title: Nude recreation

text: Two sections of the "English Gardens" in Munich, Schönfeldwiese and Schwabingerbach are officially designated as clothing optional, although nude sunbathing may be found in other locations. There are three clothing optional areas on the Isar River, and at the Feldmochinger See. Berlin also has a number of nude sunbathing areas. A section of Bois de Vincennes in Paris has, since 2017, been designated for naturists and is open from April to October. To recognize its third anniversary, a naturist picnic was held in June, 2019.


title: Nude recreation

text: A number of colleges and universities have a tradition of nude parties, often as experiments in social interaction that run counter to the perfect bodies seen in the media. The Pundits at Yale has been throwing naked parties since 1995. At Brown the party is hosted by an off-campus housing cooperative, and at Wellesley it is a charity event for which the administration provides security. At other institutions such as Wesleyan, Columbia, MIT, Bowdoin and Amherst the parties may be more impromptu events in dorms or off-campus.


title: Nude recreation

text: There have been a number of restaurants (commonly referred to as nude, naked or clothing-free restaurants) where diners were legally at liberty to be nude.


title: Nude recreation

text: The Amrita restaurant in Japan, now closed, had strict rules of entry for its naked party. Other nude restaurants have included The Bunyadi in London, Innato on the Canary Island of Tenerife, and L'Italo Americano in Milan, all of which also closed.


title: Nude recreation

text: O'naturel was Paris, France's first naked restaurant, located in the 12th arrondissement. The restaurant opened in November 2017 and served French cuisine. In January 2019, sibling owners Mike and Stéphane Saada announced plans to end operations in February 2019.


title: Nude recreation

text: There are a number of bars and restaurants directly accessible from the clothing-optional beach at Orient Bay, Saint Martin, in the Caribbean, which allow varying degrees of nudity. Although essentially wiped out in 2017 by Hurricane Irma, they are slowly being rebuilt.


title: Nude recreation

text: An invitation-only event with naked Tango Milonga dancing was held in a small town in Germany. Starkers!, a monthly naked club night, was held in London from 2003 onwards.


title: Nude recreation

text: Traditionally practiced with a minimum of clothing, coed nude yoga has been introduced in London, Boston, New York City and Seattle.


title: Nude recreation

text: Woodstock in 1969 was the first example of widespread, spontaneous nudity at a music festival. The Nambassa festivals held in New Zealand in the 1970s continued this phenomenon. Of the 75,000 patrons who attended the 1979 Nambassa three-day counterculture festival, an estimated 35% chose to remove their clothing, preferring complete or partial nudity. In the 21st century, music festivals such as Coachella have returned to being outdoor concerts whose attendees tend toward costumes rather than nudity, however there may be the occasional nude event. "The Meredith Gift" is a nude running race at the Meredith Music Festival near the town of Meredith in Victoria, Australia.


title: Nude recreation

text: While including music, Burning Man is a more diverse arts and culture event where "camps" range from non-sexual nudity to overtly sexually themed nudity. Since 2004 there has been a naked bike ride known as the "Naked Pub Crawl". The Folsom Street Fair held in San Francisco is a leather and BDSM-themed fair. Nudist festivals are held to celebrate particular days of the year, and in many such events nude bodypainting is also common, such as Neptune Day Festival held in Koktebel, Crimea to depict mythological events.


title: Nude recreation

text: Organized by the Federación Nudista de México (Mexican Nudist Federation) since 2016 when Zipolite beach nudity was legalized, Festival Nudista Zipolite occurs annually on the first weekend of February.


title: Nude recreation

text: In Israel there was an area for public nudity in several festivals such as: "Bombamela", "Bereshit" and "Shantipi". The largest naturist festival that is dedicated to public nudity is the "Pashut" desert festival, that takes places twice a year and is open also to tourists, although most of the participants are locals.


title: Nude recreation

text: It was a norm in Ancient Greece for athletes to exercise and compete in the nude. The Greek practice to compete and exercise was strongly inspired by their gods and heroes. For the gods and heroes nudity was a part of their identity and a way to display their physical energy and power which the athletes attempted to honour and emulate. Athletes from Greece and from Greek colonies came together for the Olympic Games and the other Panhellenic Games. They competed nude in almost all disciplines with the exception of chariot races, although there are depictions of nude chariot racers.


title: Nude recreation

text: The word "gymnasium" (Latin; from Greek "gymnasion", being derived from Greek "gymnos," meaning "naked" or "nude"), originally denoted a place for socializing and engaging in both intellectual education and physical pursuits, training facility for competitors in public sports, and physical education of young men as future soldiers and (certainly in democracies) citizens (compare ephebos), is another testimony of nudity in physical exercises said to encourage aesthetic appreciation of the body. In some countries including Germany the word is still used for higher secondary school education. The more recent form "gym" is an abbreviation of "gymnasium."


title: Nude recreation

text: Many indigenous peoples in Africa and South America train and compete in sport competitions naked. Nuba peoples in South Sudan and Xingu tribes in the Amazon basin region in Brazil, for example, wrestle naked, whereas Dinka, Surma and Mursi in South Sudan and Ethiopia, arrange stick fights.


title: Nude recreation

text: Miniten is a tennis-like game created by naturists in the 1930s, in order to provide a suitable game for naturist clubs which often lacked sufficient land to accommodate full-sized tennis courts. The original rules were drawn up by Mr R. Douglas Ogden, a Manchester-based businessman with an interest in sporting activities. Instead of racquets, players use wooden bats known as "thugs", which are shaped like a box around the player's hand. The sport is run by the Amateur Miniten Association.


title: Nude recreation

text: The 1974 book "The Zen of Running" recommends running barefoot and "as undressed as possible" to get "well bathed by sun and air".


title: Nude recreation

text: A nude run called "Carrera Nudista de Sopelana" also takes place annually in summer in Sopelana (Bilbao/Spain) since 1999.


title: Nude recreation

text: A nude rugby match was held in Dunedin, New Zealand, each winter from 2002 to 2014, as pre-match entertainment for the first professional rugby game of the season. In more recent years it has become sporadic as organizers have other demands on their time.


title: Nude recreation

text: Tambaba Beach in João Pessoa, Paraíba, the first naturist beach in Brazil, is known for surfing including hosting a nude surfing tournament.


title: Nude recreation

text: At the beginning of the Victorian period in England, men and boys typically swam naked in the sea near bathing machines that were used by women. There were some efforts to designate separate beach sections for males and females. In the latter half of the 19th century, moral pressures led some town councils to establish zones for the women and men to bathe separately. There are very few records of magistrates enforcing the bylaws. Drawers came into use in the 1860s. In 1895, "The Daily Telegraph", "Standard", "Daily Graphic" and "Daily Mail" newspapers ran a campaign to reintroduce mixed bathing at all resorts. As sex-segregated beaches in town disappeared, bathing costumes for men became part of the commercial package and nude bathing ceased.


title: Nude recreation

text: In the 1920s, schools and YMCAs in the United States built swimming pools for purposes of physical fitness and swimming instruction. Pool chlorination was not available, and there were concerns about disease. In addition, fibers from cotton and wool swimsuits could clog pool filters. Nude swimming allowed for swimmers to be visually inspected to check for open wounds or other signs of infectious disease. In 1926, the American Public Health Association (APHA) standards handbook recommended that indoor swimming pools used by men adopt nude bathing policies and that indoor swimming pools used by women require swimsuits "of the simplest type". Swimming policies at American high schools and junior high schools were influenced by APHA guidelines. From 1926 until 1962, every edition of the guidelines recommended nude swimming for males. School swimming classes were sex-segregated.


title: Nude recreation

text: led the APHA to abandon its recommendation of nude pool swimming for males in 1962. However, the custom of enforced nude swimming for males did not immediately cease. During the 1970s, cultural and legal changes led to the gradual abandonment of enforced nude male swimming in schools. Federal Title IX rules mandating equality in physical education classes led most schools to switch to co-educational gym classes by 1980, making nude swimming culturally unacceptable.


title: Nude recreation

text: In 2005, an article in "The New York Times" asserted that it was not uncommon for private clubs to give patrons opportunities for nude swimming. "The Times" added that clubs sometimes held male-only or female-only sessions.


title: Nude recreation

text: In many countries in the 21st century, nude swimming mostly takes place at nude beaches, naturist facilities, private swimming pools, or secluded or segregated public swimming areas. Some Western countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom, have no laws prohibiting nude swimming in public areas, but some countries around the world strictly enforce various laws against public nudity, including nude swimming. Some jurisdictions which maintain laws against public nudity may turn a blind eye to incidents of skinny dipping depending on the circumstances, as police officers on the spot decline to make arrests.


title: Nude recreation

text: Naturists/nudists were early adopters of volleyball shortly after its invention in the late 19th century. Records of regular games in clubs can be found as early as the 1920s. Given the outdoor nature of nudism/naturism a beach version of volleyball was naturally adopted. By the 1960s, a volleyball court could be found in almost all nudist/naturist clubs.


title: Nude recreation

text: Volleyball was perfect for naturism/nudism since most clubs were small and a volleyball court didn't require much space but involved many people. The game was also inclusive in that it supported varying levels of athleticism and did not require much equipment. But most importantly, it was ideal for nude play since there was no need for a team uniform or protective equipment.


title: Nude recreation

text: A large (over 70 teams) nude volleyball tournament has been held each fall since 1971 at White Thorn Lodge in western Pennsylvania and several smaller tournaments occur each year in the United States.


title: SAS: Red Notice

text: SAS: Red Notice (also known as SAS: Rise of the Black Swan) is a 2021 British action thriller film directed by Magnus Martens, based on the novel of the same name by Andy McNab and starring Sam Heughan, Ruby Rose, Andy Serkis, Hannah John-Kamen, Tom Hopper, Noel Clarke, Owain Yeoman, Ray Panthaki, Anne Reid and Tom Wilkinson. Sky Cinema released "SAS: Red Notice" in the United Kingdom on 12 March 2021.


title: SAS: Red Notice

text: The Black Swans are a family-owned private military company led by American citizens William Lewis and his adult children Grace and Oliver. SAS commander George Clements hires them to clear a remote village in Georgia for a transnational Britgaz gas pipeline. The contractors are sent in to give the villagers one final offer for their land, but are instead ambushed as they enter the village. Infuriated by the resistance, the Black Swans massacre the villagers. Their atrocities are secretly filmed, leading to red notices and accusations of crimes against humanity. The International Criminal Court demands that the UK extradite the accused, who live in North London, to the Hague to stand trial. Prime Minister Atwood secretly orders Clements to kill William on the scene instead of arresting to cover up his involvement.


title: SAS: Red Notice

text: SAS operator Tom Buckingham plans to takes his girlfriend, Dr. Sophie Hart, on a romantic train journey from London to Paris where he intends to propose to her. Tom is from a wealthy family; he is unsure whether he truly loves Sophie, but wants to go through with the proposal. Sophie, for her part, is unsure whether they understand each other. William and Grace, having been tipped off about the impending SAS raid, discuss their options at their base of operations in Hampstead Heath; William rejects the idea of fleeing the country, claiming that the government values them too much. Tom subdues and tranquilizes a Black Swan mercenary; he is fired upon by additional contractors from the windows of the building, leading to the SAS to begin their assault. The SAS troopers kill or tranquilize a number of Black Swan troops as they storm into the building and secure the main floors. William is sitting in the dining room, but there is no sign or Grace or Ollie. Tom heads off to search the upper floors for Grace; Clements orders the other SAS troopers to leave him alone with William, who he kills. It's revealed that Grace and Ollie had escaped the estate prior to the raid.


title: SAS: Red Notice

text: Grace kills a train inspector as the train makes its way towards the Channel Tunnel; Tom discovers the body and alerts the SAS that Grace is aboard. Tipped off about the discovery, Grace and the remnants of the Black Swans hijack their train while it is en route in the Channel Tunnel, taking all of the passengers on board hostage at gunpoint. Tom leaves the train to investigate a fire set by the contractors prior to the start of the operation; using his military skills, Tom escapes from the Black Swans in the tunnel. Ollie and his men kill several hostages in the process of taking control of the train; Grace warns the hostages than anyone fleeing the stopped train will be killed.


title: SAS: Red Notice

text: The Black Swans lock down the tunnel to try and prevent a rescue team from entering. The same contact who had tipped Grace off about the raid alerts her to Tom's actions, and the contractors demand the hostages turn in all their phones. Clements and the PM are worried that Grace will reveal that their actions in Georgia were ordered by the British government, and the PM orders Clements to ensure Grace is killed this time. Sophie volunteers to provide medical aid to the passengers wounded when the Black Swans took over the train. A SAS team discover that the only way to get into the section of tunnel with the hijacked train is with a breaching charge, which will alert the hijackers. Clements arrives and demands that the SAS team launch an immediate assault on the train, despite objections from his subordinates.


title: SAS: Red Notice

text: Tom attempted to get Grace to leave the train, but she refuses, asking him to save a wounded girl instead. The SAS assault is a failure; several Black Swans and SAS troopers are killed in the exchange of gunfire, and the SAS troops retreat. Tom manages to successfully get the girl off the train under the cover of the firefight. Grace contacts the SAS forces and asks for a $500 million ransom from Britgaz or else she will blow up the tunnel and reveal the secret Britgaz Gas Pipeline in the tunnel.


title: SAS: Red Notice

text: Tom regularly updates his position and sends intelligence to Declan Smith, a member of the SAS Counter Insurgency Team and his friend. Declan is revealed to be the Black Swans' contact, and the one who'd sent the first rescue team into a trap. After inviting Clements to negotiate, Grace records their conversation. Grace finds out via Declan that Tom's girlfriend is on the train and takes her hostage. Tom takes Ollie hostage after killing a number of Black Swan troops and returns to the train but fails to save Sophie; Grace shoots her brother in the vest to knock him down, giving her a free shot at Tom. He manages to create an explosion, however, and escapes the train car. Grace and her other troops, including a sore but otherwise unhurt Ollie, prepare to evacuate the train. Grace escapes with Sophie through the gas pipeline, while Ollie stays behind to try and hold off Tom. Tom kills Ollie after a short fight and resumes his pursuit of Grace. Grace's team uploads the video of Clements and tries to escape among the hostages, but SAS snipers kill them. Upon not finding Grace among the hostages, Clements realises that Declan is guilty.


title: SAS: Red Notice

text: Once out of the pipe, Grace blows up the pipeline, and Tom narrowly escapes. Clements and all of the SAS operatives appear to be killed in the explosion excluding Declan. Grace stabs Sophie on her thigh and runs away. Sophie says she finally understands Tom and asks him to catch Grace instead of being with her. After catching up with Grace and killing her, Tom realises that he loves Sophie. During their trip, Tom proposes to Sophie. She refuses at first, believing him incapable of love, but agrees after seeing his emotional reaction. The UK PM and Britgaz representative are questioned, and all blame is transferred to Declan, the sole surviving member of Grace's team. Tom and Sophie get married in Spain, during which Tom is briefed by his superior, Clements, who survived the explosion, to find Declan. Sophie encourages Tom to go after Declan as the film ends.


title: SAS: Red Notice

text: It was announced in November 2018 that filming had begun in Budapest on the film. Filming continued to February 2019, including London and Paris.


title: SAS: Red Notice

text: Sky Cinema released the film on 12 March 2021. In February 2021, Vertical Entertainment and Redbox Entertainment acquired U.S. distribution rights to the film and set it for a 16 March 2021 release.


title: SAS: Red Notice

text: Warner Bros. Home Entertainment released "SAS: Red Notice" on DVD and Blu-ray under Universal Pictures Home Entertainment on 12 July 2021. The film was retitled "SAS: Rise of the Black Swan" on Netflix to avoid confusion with the Netflix-produced film "Red Notice", which was also released in 2021.


title: SAS: Red Notice

text: According to the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 52% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 21 reviews; the average rating is 5.10/10. The critics consensus reads: "Whether it's called "SAS: Red Notice" or "SAS: Rise of the Black Swan", this is a thoroughly mediocre action thriller."


title: Dante's Peak

text: Dante's Peak is a 1997 American disaster thriller film directed by Roger Donaldson, written by Leslie Bohem, and starring Pierce Brosnan, Linda Hamilton, and Charles Hallahan. The film is set in the fictional town of Dante's Peak where the inhabitants fight to survive a volcanic eruption from a long dormant stratovolcano that has suddenly woken up. The film was released on February 7, 1997, under the production of Universal Pictures and Pacific Western Productions. It received negative reviews from critics and became an average success. Nevertheless, it has since gained a cult following among disaster film aficionados. It was the last film in which Charles Hallahan starred before his death nine months later in November 1997.


title: Dante's Peak

text: It is the third film collaboration between Gale Anne Hurd and Hamilton, who both previously worked in the first "Terminator" films.


title: Dante's Peak

text: USGS volcanologist Harry Dalton and his partner-turned-fiancée Marianne attempt to escape an ongoing eruption in Colombia. As they venture out, a piece of debris smashes through the roof of the truck, killing Marianne.


title: Dante's Peak

text: Four years later, Harry is assigned by his superior Dr. Paul Dreyfus to investigate seismic activity near the town of Dante's Peak, Washington, a town that borders a dormant stratovolcano. Harry arrives and meets Mayor Rachel Wando with her children Graham and Lauren. Rachel offers to take Harry with them as they see her former mother-in-law Ruth Wando, an elderly hermit who lives near the lake at the base of the volcano.


title: Dante's Peak

text: While exploring, they find dead trees, dead squirrels, and two people scalded to death in a hot spring. Harry instructs Paul to bring a USGS team to monitor the volcano, but their initial survey finds no indications of volcanic activity. Paul advises against Harry putting the town on alert. Still, Harry tries to convince Rachel to prepare for a disaster while developing a relationship with her and the children.


title: Dante's Peak

text: One day, Harry and his co-worker Terry examine the summit's crater until a rock slide traps Terry, causing him to suffer a broken leg. Both men are rescued by a helicopter. Days go by showing no signs of any threat or activity. Paul decides that no danger is imminent and the USGS team begins preparing to leave.


title: Dante's Peak

text: When Harry goes to say goodbye to Rachel, they discover that the town's water supply has been contaminated with sulfur dioxide. The next morning, seismic readings and gas levels rise dramatically. Finally convinced that the volcano will erupt and with the National Guard unavailable until the next day, Paul gives Harry permission to put the town on alert.


title: Dante's Peak

text: As a town meeting takes place at the high school, an earthquake strikes and the eruption begins. Harry and Rachel go to retrieve the children only to discover that they have gone to get Ruth, who refused to leave her home. Just as they reach Ruth and the children, a lava flow engulfs Ruth's cabin and destroys the vehicles both parties used to get there. The five flee across the lake in a motorboat, but the lake has become acidic due to sulfur-rich gases emitted from the volcano dissolving in the water to form sulfuric acid, destroying the motor and eating away at the boat. Ruth jumps out of the boat to help it to shore, suffering severe chemical burns and eventually dying. Harry and the Wandos take a Forest Service ranger's truck to continue down the mountain and save Ruth's dog Roughy as they cross a lava flow in their path.


title: Dante's Peak

text: Meanwhile, the National Guard helps the USGS team evacuate. As they leave, a lahar created by the melting ice breaks the upstream dam. While the rest of the team gets across, Paul and his van fails to clear the bridge before it is washed away by the flood, throwing Paul overboard to his death.


title: Dante's Peak

text: Harry and the Wandos arrive at the remains of the town. Harry retrieves a distress radiobeacon from the USGS equipment and learns that the volcano is due for one last eruption. Moments later, the volcano violently rips itself apart in a massive lateral blast, triggering a pyroclastic flow which obliterates everything in its path within seconds. With no way out of town, Harry and the Wandos reach a mine where Graham likes to hang out. The USGS team, watching the eruption from afar, presume Harry to be dead. Inside the mine, Harry realizes that he left the beacon in the truck. When he goes back for it, aftershocks cause rocks and debris to fall. Harry suffers a broken arm and is trapped in the truck, but is able to activate the beacon.


title: Dante's Peak

text: Days later, Terry notices that the beacon has been activated and the USGS dispatches search and rescue teams. Harry and the Wandos are freed from the mine, reunited with Harry's team, and airlifted out by helicopter.


title: Dante's Peak

text: As the credits roll, the camera pans over the obliterated town and turns to the volcano with its upper half now reduced to a Mount St. Helens-like caldera.


title: Dante's Peak

text: Exterior shots of the Point Dume Post Office in Malibu, California, were used as the USGS's David A. Johnston Cascades Volcano Observatory headquarters in Vancouver, Washington. The facility was named in honor of David A. Johnston, a young scientist who had precisely predicted the volatility of the May 18, 1980, Mount St. Helens eruption and perished during the event.


title: Dante's Peak

text: The scene involving the geological robot and the trapped scientist was shot inside the crater of Mount St. Helens, as evinced by a brief appearance of Mount Adams, a dormant peak east of Mount St. Helens, as the film focuses on the scientists. The scene itself was actually filmed on the tarmac of Van Nuys Airport, while the Mount Adams image was composited in later. Production was completed on August 31, 1996.


title: Dante's Peak

text: Extensive special effects surrounding certain aspects of the film, such as the lava and pyroclastic flows, were created by Digital Domain, Banned from the Ranch Entertainment, and CIS Hollywood. The computer-generated imagery was mostly coordinated and supervised by Patrick McClung, Roy Arbogast, Lori J. Nelson, Richard Stutsman, and Dean Miller. Although the film uses considerable amounts of CGI, the volcanic ash in the film was created using cellulose insulation manufactured by Regal Industries in Crothersville, Indiana. Between visuals, miniatures, and animation, over 300 technicians were directly involved in the production aspects of the special effects.


title: Dante's Peak

text: The original score was co-composed by John Frizzell and James Newton Howard. Howard wrote the main theme (heard during the opening titles) and a number of cues, while Frizzell wrote the bulk of the score.


title: Dante's Peak

text: Thirty minutes of the score was released by Varèse Sarabande; the short album length being due to high orchestra fees at the time of release. An expanded bootleg exists that contains almost the entire score.


title: Dante's Peak

text: The contents of the CD release can also be found on the region 1 DVD, and Blu-ray on an alternate audio track during the 'Creating a Volcano' documentary.


title: Dante's Peak

text: The "Main Titles" cue is also featured on Varèse's "The Towering Inferno and Other Disaster Classics" compilation album.


title: Dante's Peak

text: The film was released on February 7, 1997 in 2,657 theatres. It debuted at #2 at the box office behind the special edition re-release of "Star Wars"; it took in $18 million in its opening weekend. After eight weeks in theatres, it had grossed $67.1 million in the United States and $111.0 million overseas, for a total of $178 million worldwide.


title: Dante's Peak

text: Unlike "Volcano", "Dante's Peak" received mostly negative reviews compared to the generally mixed reviews of its rival. Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a 28% rating based on 32 reviews, compared to a 50% rating from 46 reviews for "Volcano". The consensus states: ""Dante's Peak" works when things are on fire, but everything else from dialogue to characters is scathingly bad." However, critic Byron Lafayette of Under The Lens, praised the film for "Showcasing practical effects and doing its best to be a realistic take on what would happen if a Volcano erupted in a small town"


title: Dante's Peak

text: The film attracted geologists to create dedicated "information page" to reach out to students interested in science, including the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the University of Maryland. The fact-checking on USGS's information page concluded "in many but not all respects, the movie's depiction of eruptive hazards hits close to the mark". On the other hand, two professors at the Lewis-Clark State College panned the movie for understating the negative effects of a possible false alarm.


title: Kemalism

text: Kemalism (, also archaically "Kamâlizm"), also known as Atatürkism (), or The Six Arrows (), is the founding official ideology of the Republic of Turkey. Kemalism, as it was implemented by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, was defined by sweeping political, social, cultural and religious reforms designed to separate the new Turkish state from its Ottoman predecessor and embrace a Western-style modernized lifestyle, including the establishment of secularism/laicism (), state support of the sciences, free education, and many more. Most of those were first introduced to and implemented in Turkey during Atatürk's presidency through his reforms.


title: Kemalism

text: Many of the root ideas of Kemalism began during the late Ottoman Empire under various reforms to avoid the imminent collapse of the Empire, beginning chiefly in the early 19th-century Tanzimat reforms. The mid-century Young Ottomans attempted to create the ideology of Ottoman nationalism, or Ottomanism, to quell the rising ethnic nationalism in the Empire and introduce limited democracy for the first time while maintaining Islamist influences. In the early 20th century, the Young Turks abandoned Ottoman nationalism in favor of early Turkish nationalism, while adopting a secular political outlook. After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, Atatürk, influenced by both the Young Ottomans and the Young Turks, as well as by their successes and failures, led the declaration of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, borrowing from the earlier movements' ideas of secularism and Turkish nationalism, while bringing about, for the first time, free education and other reforms that have been enshrined by later leaders into guidelines for governing Turkey.


title: Kemalism

text: Kemalism is a modernization philosophy that guided the transition between the multi-religious, multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire to the secular, democratic, and unitary Republic of Turkey. Kemalism sets the boundaries of the social process in the Turkish Reformation. Atatürk was the founder of Kemalism, and his doctrine was implemented as state ideology, but Atatürk refrained from being dogmatic and described his and his spiritual heirs' guide to be science and reason:


title: Kemalism

text: There are six principles ("ilke") of the ideology: Republicanism (), Populism (), Nationalism (), Laicism (), Statism (), and Reformism (). Together, they represent a kind of Jacobinism, defined by Atatürk himself as a method of employing political despotism to break down the social despotism prevalent among the traditionally-minded Turkish-Muslim population, caused by, he believed, the bigotry of the "ulema".


title: Kemalism

text: Republicanism () in the Kemalist framework replaced the absolute monarchy of the Ottoman dynasty with the rule of law, popular sovereignty and civic virtue, including an emphasis on liberty practiced by citizens. Kemalist republicanism defines a type of constitutional republic, in which representatives of the people are elected, and must govern in accordance with existing constitutional law limiting governmental power over citizens. The head of state and other officials are chosen by election rather than inheriting their positions, and their decisions are subject to judicial review. In defending the change from the Ottoman State, Kemalism asserts that all laws of the Republic of Turkey should be inspired by actual needs here on Earth as a basic tenet of national life. Kemalism advocates a republican system as the best representative of the wishes of the people.


title: Kemalism

text: Among the many types of republic, the Kemalist republic is a representative, liberal parliamentary democracy with a Parliament chosen in general elections, a president as head of state elected by Parliament and serving for a limited term, a prime minister appointed by the president, and other ministers appointed by Parliament. The Kemalist president does not have direct executive powers, but has limited veto powers, and the right to contest with referendum. The day-to-day operation of government is the responsibility of the Council of Ministers formed by the prime minister and the other ministers. There is a separation of powers between the executive (president and Council of Ministers), the legislative (Parliament) and the judiciary, in which no one branch of government has authority over another—although parliament is charged with the supervision of the Council of Ministers, which can be compelled to resign by a vote of no-confidence.


title: Kemalism

text: The Kemalist republic is a unitary state in which three organs of state govern the nation as a single unit, with one constitutionally created legislature. On some issues, the political power of government is transferred to lower levels, to local elected assemblies represented by mayors, but the central government retains the principal governing role.


title: Kemalism

text: Populism () is defined as a social revolution aimed to transfer the political power to citizenship. Kemalist populism intends not only to establish popular sovereignty but also the transfer of the social-economic transformation to realize a true populist state. However, Kemalists reject class conflict and collectivism. Kemalist populism believes national identity is above all else. Kemalist populism envisions a sociality that emphasizes class collaboration and national unity like solidarism. Populism in Turkey is to create a unifying force that brings a sense of the Turkish state and the power of the people to bring in that new unity.


title: Kemalism

text: Kemalist populism is an extension of the Kemalist modernization movement, aiming to make Islam compatible with the modern nation-state. This included state supervision of religious schools and organizations. Mustafa Kemal himself said "everyone needs a place to learn religion and faith; that place is a "", not a "madrasa"". This was intended to combat the "corruption" of Islam by the "ulema". Kemal believed that during the Ottoman period, the "ulema" had come to exploit the power of their office and manipulate religious practices to their own benefit. It was also feared that, were education not brought under state control, unsupervised "madrasa"s could exacerbate the rising problem of "tarikat" insularity that threatened to undermine the unity of the Turkish state.


title: Kemalism

text: Kemalist social theory (populism) does not accept any adjectives placed before the definition of a nation [a nation of ...] Sovereignty must belong solely to people without any term, condition, etc.:


title: Kemalism

text: Populism was used against the political domination of sheiks, tribal leaders, and Islamism (Islam as a political system) of the Ottoman Empire. Initially, the declaration of the republic was perceived as ""Returning to the days of the first caliphs"". However, Atatürk's nationalism aimed to shift the political legitimacy from autocracy (by the Ottoman dynasty), theocracy (based in the Ottoman caliphate), and feudalism (tribal leaders) to the active participation of its citizenry, the Turks. Kemalist social theory wanted to establish the value of Turkish citizenship. A sense of pride associated with this citizenship would give the needed psychological spur for people to work harder and achieve a sense of unity and national identity. Active participation, or the "will of the people", was established with the republican regime and Turkishness replacing the other forms of affiliations that had been promoted in the Ottoman Empire (such as the allegiance to the different millets that eventually led to divisiveness in the empire). The shift in affiliation was symbolized with:


title: Kemalism

text: The motto "Ne mutlu Türküm diyene" was promoted against such mottoes as "long live the Sultan," "long live the Sheikh", or "long live the Caliph."


title: Kemalism

text: Laicism () in Kemalist ideology aims to banish religious interference in government affairs, and vice versa. It differs from the passive Anglo-American concept of secularism, but is similar to the concept of laïcité in France.


title: Kemalism

text: The roots of Kemalist secularism lie in the reform efforts in the late Ottoman Empire, especially the Tanzimat period and the later Second Constitutional Era. The Ottoman Empire was an Islamic state in which the head of the Ottoman state held the position of the Caliph. The social system was organized according to various systems, including the religiously organized Millet system and Shari'ah law, allowing religious ideology to be incorporated into the Ottoman administrative, economic, and political system. This way of life is today defined as Islamism (political Islam): "the belief that Islam should guide social and political as well as personal life". In the Second Constitutional Era, the Ottoman Parliament pursued largely secular policies, although techniques of religious populism and attacks on other candidates' piety still occurred between Ottoman political parties during elections. These policies were stated as the reason for the countercoup of 1909 by Islamists and absolute monarchists. The secular policies of the Ottoman parliament also factored in the Arab Revolt during World War I.


title: Kemalism

text: When secularism was implemented in the fledgling Turkish state, it was initiated by the abolition of the centuries-old caliphate in March 1924. The office of Shaykh al-Islām was replaced with the Presidency of Religious Affairs (). In 1926, the "mejelle" and shari'ah law codes were abandoned in favor of an adapted Swiss Civil Code and a penal code modeled on the German and Italian codes. Other religious practices were done away with, resulting in the dissolution of Sufi orders and the penalization of wearing a "fez", which was viewed by Atatürk as a tie to the Ottoman past.


title: Kemalism

text: Atatürk was profoundly influenced by the triumph of "laïcité" in France. Atatürk perceived the French model as the authentic form of secularism. Kemalism strove to control religion and transform it into a private affair rather than an institution interfering with politics, as well as scientific and social progress. "Sane reason," and "the liberty of [one's] fellow man," as Atatürk once put it. It is more than merely creating a separation between state and religion. Atatürk has been described as working as if he were Leo the Isaurian, Martin Luther, the Baron d'Holbach, Ludwig Büchner, Émile Combes, and Jules Ferry rolled into one in creating Kemalist secularism. Kemalist secularism does not imply nor advocate agnosticism or nihilism; it means freedom of thought and independence of the institutions of the state from the dominance of religious thought and religious institutions. The Kemalist principle of laicism is not against moderate and apolitical religion, but against religious forces opposed to and fighting modernization and democracy.


title: Kemalism

text: According to the Kemalist perception, the Turkish state is to stand at an equal distance from every religion, neither promoting nor condemning any set of religious beliefs. Kemalists, however, have called for not only separation of church and state but also a call for the state control of the Turkish Muslim religious establishment. For some Kemalists, this means that the state must be at the helm of religious affairs, and all religious activities are under the supervision of the state. This, in turn, drew criticism from the religious conservatives. Religious conservatives were vocal in rejecting this idea, saying that to have a secular state, the state can't control the activities of religious institutions. Despite their protest, this policy was officially adopted by the 1961 constitution.


title: Kemalism

text: Kemalism must stamp out the religious element within society. After Turkish independence from the Western powers, all education was under the control of the state in both secular and religious schools. It centralized the education system, with one curriculum in both religious and secular public schools, in the hope this would eliminate or lessen the appeal of religious schools. The laws were meant to abolish the Sufi religious schools or orders "(tarikats)" and their lodges "(tekkes)". Titles like "sheikh" and "dervish" were abolished, and their activities were banned by the government. The day of rest was changed by the government from Friday to Sunday. But the restrictions on personal choice extended to both religious duty and naming. Turks had to adopt a surname and were not allowed to perform the hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).


title: Kemalism

text: The Kemalist form of separation of state and religion sought the reform of a complete set of institutions, interest groups (such as political parties, unions, and lobbies), the relationships between those institutions, and the political norms and rules that governed their functions (constitution, election law). The biggest change in this perspective was the abolishment of the Ottoman caliphate on March 3, 1924, followed by the removal of its political mechanisms. The article stating that "the established religion of Turkey is Islam" was removed from the constitution on April 10, 1928.


title: Kemalism

text: From a political perspective, Kemalism is anti-clerical, in that it seeks to prevent religious influence on the democratic process, which was a problem even in the largely secular politics of the Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire, when even non-religiously affiliated political parties like the Committee of Union and Progress and the Freedom and Accord Party feuded over matters such as the Islamic piety of their candidates in the Ottoman elections of 1912. Thus, in the Kemalist political perspective, politicians cannot claim to be the protector of any religion or religious sect, and such claims constitute sufficient legal grounds for the permanent banning of political parties.


title: Kemalism

text: The Ottoman social system was based on religious affiliation. Religious insignia extended to every social function. Clothing identified citizens with their own particular religious grouping; headgear distinguished rank and profession. Turbans, fezes, bonnets, and head-dresses denoted the sex, rank, and profession — both civil and military — of the wearer. Religious insignia outside of worship areas became banned.


title: Kemalism

text: While Atatürk considered women's religious coverings as antithetical to progress and equality, he also recognized that headscarves were not such a danger to the separation of church and state to warrant an outright ban. But the Constitution was amended in 1982, following the 1980 coup by the Kemalist-leaning military, to prohibit women's use of Islamic coverings such as the "hijab" at higher education institutions. Joost Lagendijk, a member of the European Parliament and chair of the Joint Parliamentary Committee with Turkey, has publicly criticized these clothing restrictions for Muslim women, whereas the European Court of Human Rights has ruled in numerous cases that such restrictions in public buildings and educational institutions do not constitute a violation of human rights.


title: Kemalism

text: Reformism () is a principle which calls for the country to replace the traditional institutions and concepts with modern institutions and concepts. This principle advocated the need for fundamental social change through reform as a strategy to achieve a modern society. The core of the reform, in the Kemalist sense, was an accomplished fact. In a Kemalist sense, there is no possibility of return to the old systems because they were deemed backward.


title: Kemalism

text: The principle of reformism went beyond the recognition of the reforms made during Atatürk's lifetime. Atatürk's reforms in the social and political spheres are accepted as irreversible. Atatürk never entertained the possibility of a pause or transition phase during the course of the progressive unfolding or implementation of the reform. The current understanding of this concept can be described as "active modification". Turkey and its society, taking over institutions from Western Europe, must add Turkish traits and patterns to them and adapt them to Turkish culture, according to Kemalism. The implementation of the Turkish traits and patterns of these reforms takes generations of cultural and social experience, which results in the collective memory of the Turkish nation.


title: Kemalism

text: Nationalism (): The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a nation state from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire. Atatürk's nationalism originates from the social contract theories, especially from the civic nationalist principles advocated by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and his Social Contract. The Kemalist perception of social contract was facilitated by the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "millet" system and the ineffective Ottomanism. Atatürk's nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakup, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".


title: Kemalism

text: Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish Nation" () as a nation of Turkish people who always love and seek to exalt their family, country and nation, who know their duties and responsibilities towards the democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law, founded on human rights, and on the tenets laid down in the preamble to the constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Atatürk defines the Turkish Nation by saying


title: Kemalism

text: Similar to its CUP predecessors, it can be said that Kemalism endorsed social Darwinism in some way by desiring the Turkish youth to be healthy and physically strong.


title: Kemalism

text: Kemalist criteria for national "identity" or simply being Turkish () refers to a shared language, and/or shared values defined as a common history, and the will to share a future. Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish people" as:


title: Kemalism

text: Membership is usually gained through birth within the borders of the state and also the principle of jus sanguinis. The Kemalist notion of nationality is integrated into the Article 66 of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Every citizen is recognized as a Turk, regardless of ethnicity, belief, and gender, etc. Turkish nationality law states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.


title: Kemalism

text: Kemalists saw non-Muslims as only nominal citizens, and they have often been treated as second-class citizens in the Republic of Turkey. The identity of Kurds in Turkey was denied for decades with Kurds described as "Mountain Turks". Kemal stated in 1930:


title: Kemalism

text: In 2005, the Article 301 of the Turkish Penal code made it a crime to insult Turkishness (), but under pressure of the EU, this was changed in 2008 to protect the "Turkish nation" instead of Turkish ethnicity in 2008, an 'imagined' nationhood of people living within the National Pact () borders.


title: Kemalism

text: Kemalism focused on the nation-state's narrower interests, renouncing the concern for the "Outside Turks".


title: Kemalism

text: Pan-Turkism was an ethnocentric ideology [to unite all ethnically Turkic nations] while Kemalism is polycentric [united under a " common will"] in character. Kemalism wants to have an equal footing among the mainstream world civilizations. Pan-Turkists have consistently emphasized the special attributes of the Turkic peoples, and wanted to unite all of the Turkic peoples. Kemalism wants an equal footing (based on respect) and does not aim to unite the people of Turkey with all the other Turkic nations. Most Kemalists were not interested in Pan-Turkism and from 1923 to 1950 (the single state period) reacted with particular firmness. Further more, Atatürk opposed Pan-Turkism in his book Nutuk as following:


title: Kemalism

text: However, Atatürk owned the idea of taking Turkicness as one of the identities of Turkish nation. Turkish History Thesis started under Atatürk's order and administration, which contained ethno-racial ideas based on Turkish origins coming from Central Asia. Also Atatürk era high school books contained education of Orkhon alphabet and a unit under the title of "Greater Turkic history and Civilization". The book also gave detailed information about empires which are Turkic such as Göktürks or "claimed to be Turkic" such as Scythians, Xiongnu, and so on.


title: Kemalism

text: With the supports of newly founded Turkish Republic, Pan-Turkist organization known as "Turkish Hearths", re-established in Atatürk's era to get Turkists' support during the revolutions. Atatürk was frequently giving speeches on Turkish Hearths after important events occurred in Turkey. Also reopening of Turkish magazine "Türk Yurdu" which was an organ of Turkish Hearts, was supported. Later, in 1931, Turkish Hearts were closed by Atatürk after they lost their non-political stance, because of their Pan-Turkist views and movements; and with all of its premises, it merged to the ruling party CHP.


title: Kemalism

text: Atatürk also described his opinions about Timur, a Central Asian Turkic military commander as "If I lived in Timur's timeline, I wouldn't be able to accomplish his work but if he lived in my timeline, he would do greater than I did".


title: Kemalism

text: Kemalist center of view focused on the Turkish people, within both living and historical cultures and peoples of Anatolia, especially Hittites, and the culture and civilization of Turkic peoples.


title: Kemalism

text: Turanism centered the nation as the union of all Turanian peoples (Tungus, Hungarians, Finns, Mongols, Estonians and Koreans) stretching from the Altai Mountains in Eastern Asia to the Bosphorus. Kemalism had a narrower definition of language, which sought to remove (purify) the Persian, Arabic, Greek, Latin, etc. words from the Turkish language and replace them with either Turkic originated words or derive new words with Turkic roots. Turanist leaders, such as Enver Pasha, wanted an evolving language common to all Turanian peoples, minimizing differences and maximizing similarities between them.


title: Kemalism

text: Kemalism gave an important place to Hittites and the Hittite symbolism to construct the Turkish identity and nationhood. Kemalist researchers, such as Ahmet Ağaoğlu (who was an advisor to Atatürk and a politician who played an important role on creating Turkey's constitution of 1924), believed in that the nation has to portray Hittites as a world-domineering Turkish race with firm roots in Anatolia.


title: Kemalism

text: Modern genetic researches on Turkish samples show that Anatolian Turks are mixage of Turkic tribes and Anatolian natives, however, unlike Kemalist thoughts, these two admixtures aren't originated from same ethnicity, race or identity.


title: Kemalism

text: Statism (): Atatürk made clear in his statements and policies that Turkey's complete modernization was very much dependent on economic and technological development. The principle of Kemalist statism is generally interpreted to mean that the state was to regulate the country's general economic activities and engage in areas where private enterprises are not willing to do so. This was the result of post-revolutionary Turkey needing to redefine the relationship between societal and international capitalism. The revolution left Turkey in ruins, as the Ottoman Empire was focused on raw materials and was an open market in the international capitalist system. Post-revolutionary Turkey has been largely defined by its agricultural society, which includes many landlords and merchants. The control of people in the Turkish economy is quite evident from 1923 to the 1930s, but they still managed, through foreign joint investment, to establish a state economic enterprise. However, after the 1930s depression, there was a shift to more inward-looking development strategies during an era generally referred to as "etatism". During this era, the state had an active involvement in both capital accumulation and investment as well as in taking the interest of private businesses into consideration. The state often stepped into economic areas that the private sector did not cover, either due to not being strong enough or having simply failed to do so. These were often infrastructure projects and power stations, but also iron and steel industries, while the masses shouldered the burden of the capital accumulation.


title: Kemalism

text: The Republican People's Party (CHP) was established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk on September 9, 1923, not long before the declaration of the Republic of Turkey on October 29. The Republican People's Party did not attempt to update or define the philosophical roots of it party Kemalism from the 1940s to the 1960s. However, since the 1960s, there has been a move to the left-of-center. The supporter of the left-of-center accepts the tented of the Kemalism also entrained the idea that structural changes brought forth by the government are necessary for modernization. Later in the 1970s, the CHP had to make fundamental changes to its party platform as the country Abandonment of Kemalism. The party thought several programs as being labeled the democratic left. Most still believe in the six principles of Kemalism while others seek to reduce the role of statism in Turkish society. The Turkish Justice Minister Mahmut Esat Bozkurt equated the Kemalist policies to the Italian fascism of Benito Mussolini. Bozkurt is also mentioned together with Ahmet Cevat Emre and Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu as one of the few who introduced the term Kemalism with its political aspects.


title: Kemalism

text: The six principles were solidified on 5 February 1937, 14 years after establishment of the Republic of Turkey.


title: Kemalism

text: Both the military coup of 1960 and the military coup of 1980 were followed by fundamental revisions of the Turkish Constitution. The texts of the new constitutions were approved by popular referendum in each case.


title: Kemalism

text: In the 1961 Constitutional Law Article 1, Clause 1 states "The Turkish State is a Republic." Article 2, Clause 1:


title: Kemalism

text: In the 1982 Constitutional Law Article 1, Clause 1 states "The Turkish State is a Republic." Article 2, Clause 1:


title: Kemalism

text: Only the principles of secularism, nationalism and democracy were maintained in each change to the constitution. The 1961 Constitution more strongly emphasized human rights, the rule of law, and the welfare state than the original 1924 constitution, while the 1982 constitution focused on the peace of the community and national solidarity, but also explicitly referenced some of Atatürk's principles and included them as well.


title: Kemalism

text: In the 1920s and 1930s, Turkey's domestic transformations and the evolution of the Kemalist system of ideological and political principles were closely observed in Germany, France, Britain, the US, and beyond, including several nations farther East. In recent years, scholarly interest in the transnational history of Kemalism has expanded. Some scholars have focused on the interwar period in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Albania, Yugoslavia, and Egypt to reveal how, as a practical tool, Kemalism was relocated as a global movement, whose influence is still felt today. Some scholars have examined the impact of Atatürk's reforms and his image on the Jewish community in British-ruled Palestine before the establishment of Israel, some went farther East—to Persia, Afghanistan, China, India, and other parts of the Muslim world—to assess the influence wielded by Mustafa Kemal and his modernization project. These works explore perceptions of Kemalism that are mostly positive in their respective countries providing few critical insights into Kemalism's evolution and its reception as an ideological project.


title: Kemalism

text: Against this background, one of the critical partners of Turkey in the interwar period – the Soviet Union, its leaders, party bureaucrats, journalists and scholars initially interpreted Kemalism as an ideological ally in the struggle against the West. Since the late 1920s until the 1950s, Kemalism was viewed negatively by the Communists. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Soviet position returned to normalization. Views and analyses of Soviet leaders, diplomats, party functionaries, and scholars helps us grasp the underlying dynamics behind these changing attitudes. Placing them in the larger context of republican history—delineating phases in the Kemalist paradigm of development and discerning its various rises and falls—will enrich our knowledge of the transnational history of Kemalism.


title: Kemalism

text: The Nazis viewed Kemalist Turkey as a "postgenocidal paradise" worthy of emulation. Nazis often stated that Nazism and Kemalism were very similar. In 1933, Nazis openly admired Kemalist Turkey. Hitler described Mustafa Kemal as the "star in the darkness".


title: Kemalism

text: Although Kemalist secularism has deep roots in Enlightenment era thought, the postmodernist movement in Western philosophy has, since the 1960s and 1970s, cast the Enlightenment in a negative light. Postmodernist thinkers like Jacques Derrida have assaulted the Western hegemony and imperialism associated with European colonialism. The declining appeal of secularism, perceived as a Western value, has given occasion to postmodernist cultural relativism emphasizing the populist appeal of collective religious identities like the political Islam espoused by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's AKP.


title: Bishop

text: A bishop is an ordained clergy member who is entrusted with a position of authority and oversight in a religious institution.


title: Bishop

text: In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance of dioceses. The role or office of bishop is called episcopacy. Organizationally, several Christian denominations utilize ecclesiastical structures that call for the position of bishops, while other denominations have dispensed with this office, seeing it as a symbol of power. Bishops have also exercised political authority.


title: Bishop

text: Traditionally, bishops claim apostolic succession, a direct historical lineage dating back to the original Twelve Apostles or Saint Paul. The bishops are by doctrine understood as those who possess the full priesthood given by Jesus Christ, and therefore may ordain other clergy, including other bishops. A person ordained as a deacon, priest (i.e. presbyter), and then bishop is understood to hold the fullness of the ministerial priesthood, given responsibility by Christ to govern, teach and sanctify the Body of Christ (the Church). Priests, deacons and lay ministers co-operate and assist their bishops in pastoral ministry.


title: Bishop

text: Some Pentecostal and other Protestant denominations have bishops who oversee congregations, though they do not claim apostolic succession.


title: Bishop

text: The English term "bishop" derives from the Greek word , meaning "overseer"; Greek was the language of the early Christian church. However, the term did not originate in Christianity. In Greek literature, the term had been used for several centuries before the advent of Christianity. It later transformed into the Latin , Old English , Middle English and lastly "bishop".


title: Bishop

text: In the early Christian era the term was not always clearly distinguished from (literally: "elder" or "senior", origin of the modern English word "priest"), but is used in the sense of the order or office of bishop, distinct from that of presbyter, in the writings attributed to Ignatius of Antioch (died ).


title: Bishop

text: The earliest organization of the Church in Jerusalem was, according to most scholars, similar to that of Jewish synagogues, but it had a council or college of ordained presbyters (). In Acts 11:30 and Acts 15:22, a collegiate system of government in Jerusalem is chaired by James the Just, according to tradition the first bishop of the city. In Acts 14:23, the Apostle Paul ordains presbyters in churches in Anatolia. The word "presbyter" was not yet distinguished from "overseer" (, later used exclusively to mean "bishop"), as in Acts 20:17, Titus 1:5–7 and 1 Peter 5:1. The earliest writings of the Apostolic Fathers, the Didache and the First Epistle of Clement, for example, show the church used two terms for local church offices—presbyters (seen by many as an interchangeable term with or overseer) and deacon.


title: Bishop

text: In the First epistle to Timothy and Epistle to Titus in the New Testament a more clearly defined episcopate can be seen. Both letters state that Paul had left Timothy in Ephesus and Titus in Crete to oversee the local church. Paul commands Titus to ordain presbyters/bishops and to exercise general oversight.


title: Bishop

text: Early sources are unclear but various groups of Christian communities may have had the bishop surrounded by a group or college functioning as leaders of the local churches. Eventually the head or "monarchic" bishop came to rule more clearly, and all local churches would eventually follow the example of the other churches and structure themselves after the model of the others with the one bishop in clearer charge, though the role of the body of presbyters remained important.


title: Bishop

text: Eventually, as Christendom grew, bishops no longer directly served individual congregations. Instead, the metropolitan bishop (the bishop in a large city) appointed priests to minister each congregation, acting as the bishop's delegate.