title: Locus of control

text: Additional research led to the hypothesis that typical expectancy shifts were displayed more often by those who attributed their outcomes to ability, whereas those who displayed atypical expectancy were more likely to attribute their outcomes to chance. This was interpreted that people could be divided into those who attribute to ability (an internal cause) versus those who attribute to luck (an external cause). Bernard Weiner argued that rather than ability-versus-luck, locus may relate to whether attributions are made to stable or unstable causes.


title: Locus of control

text: Rotter (1975, 1989) has discussed problems and misconceptions in others' use of the internal-versus-external construct.


title: Locus of control

text: Rotter (1975) cautioned that internality and externality represent two ends of a continuum, not an either/or typology. "Internals" tend to attribute outcomes of events to their own control. People who have internal locus of control believe that the outcomes of their actions are results of their own abilities. Internals believe that their hard work would lead them to obtain positive outcomes. They also believe that every action has its consequence, which makes them accept the fact that things happen and it depends on them if they want to have control over it or not. "Externals" attribute outcomes of events to external circumstances. People with an external locus of control tend to believe that the things which happen in their lives are out of their control, and even that their own actions are a result of external factors, such as fate, luck, the influence of powerful others (such as doctors, the police, or government officials) and/or a belief that the world is too complex for one to predict or successfully control its outcomes. Such people tend to blame others rather than themselves for their lives' outcomes. It should not be thought, however, that internality is linked exclusively with attribution to effort and externality with attribution to luck (as Weiner's work – see below – makes clear). This has obvious implications for differences between internals and externals in terms of their achievement motivation, suggesting that internal locus is linked with higher levels of need for achievement. Due to their locating control outside themselves, externals tend to feel they have less control over their fate. People with an external locus of control tend to be more stressed and prone to clinical depression.


title: Locus of control

text: Internals were believed by Rotter (1966) to exhibit two essential characteristics: high achievement motivation and low outer-directedness. This was the basis of the locus-of-control scale proposed by Rotter in 1966, although it was based on Rotter's belief that locus of control is a single construct. Since 1970, Rotter's assumption of uni-dimensionality has been challenged, with Levenson (for example) arguing that different dimensions of locus of control (such as beliefs that events in one's life are self-determined, or organized by powerful others and are chance-based) must be separated. Weiner's early work in the 1970s suggested that orthogonal to the internality-externality dimension, differences should be considered between those who attribute to stable and those who attribute to unstable causes.


title: Locus of control

text: This new, dimensional theory meant that one could now attribute outcomes to ability (an internal stable cause), effort (an internal unstable cause), task difficulty (an external stable cause) or luck (an external, unstable cause). Although this was how Weiner originally saw these four causes, he has been challenged as to whether people see luck (for example) as an external cause, whether ability is always perceived as stable, and whether effort is always seen as changing. Indeed, in more recent publications (e.g. Weiner, 1980) he uses different terms for these four causes (such as "objective task characteristics" instead of "task difficulty" and "chance" instead of "luck"). Psychologists since Weiner have distinguished between stable and unstable effort, knowing that in some circumstances effort could be seen as a stable cause (especially given the presence of words such as "industrious" in English).


title: Locus of control

text: Regarding locus of control, there is another type of control that entails a mix among the internal and external types. People that have the combination of the two types of locus of control are often referred to as Bi-locals. People that have Bi-local characteristics are known to handle stress and cope with their diseases more efficiently by having the mixture of internal and external locus of control. People that have this mix of loci of control can take personal responsibility for their actions and the consequences thereof while remaining capable of relying upon and having faith in outside resources; these characteristics correspond to the internal and external loci of control, respectively.


title: Locus of control

text: The most widely used questionnaire to measure locus of control is the 13-item (plus six filler items), forced-choice scale of Rotter (1966). However, this is not the only questionnaire; Bialer's (1961) 23-item scale for children predates Rotter's work. Also relevant to the locus-of-control scale are the Crandall Intellectual Ascription of Responsibility Scale (Crandall, 1965) and the Nowicki-Strickland Scale . One of the earliest psychometric scales to assess locus of control (using a Likert-type scale, in contrast to the forced-choice alternative measure in Rotter's scale) was that devised by W. H. James for his unpublished doctoral dissertation, supervised by Rotter at Ohio State University; however, this remains unpublished.


title: Locus of control

text: Many measures of locus of control have appeared since Rotter's scale. These were reviewed by Furnham and Steele (1993) and include those related to health psychology, industrial and organizational psychology and those specifically for children (such as the Stanford Preschool Internal-External Scale for three- to six-year-olds). Furnham and Steele (1993) cite data suggesting that the most reliable, valid questionnaire for adults is the Duttweiler scale. For a review of the health questionnaires cited by these authors, see "Applications" below.


title: Locus of control

text: The Duttweiler (1984) Internal Control Index (ICI) addresses perceived problems with the Rotter scales, including their forced-choice format, susceptibility to social desirability and heterogeneity (as indicated by factor analysis). She also notes that, while other scales existed in 1984 to measure locus of control, "they appear to be subject to many of the same problems". Unlike the forced-choice format used on Rotter's scale, Duttweiler's 28-item ICI uses a Likert-type scale in which people must state whether they would rarely, occasionally, sometimes, frequently or usually behave as specified in each of 28 statements. The ICI assess variables pertinent to internal locus: cognitive processing, autonomy, resistance to social influence, self-confidence and delay of gratification. A small (133 student-subject) validation study indicated that the scale had good internal consistency reliability (a Cronbach's alpha of 0.85).


title: Locus of control

text: Attributional style (or explanatory style) is a concept introduced by Lyn Yvonne Abramson, Martin Seligman and John D. Teasdale. This concept advances a stage further than Weiner, stating that in addition to the concepts of internality-externality and stability a dimension of globality-specificity is also needed. Abramson et al. believed that how people explained successes and failures in their lives related to whether they attributed these to internal or external factors, short-term or long-term factors, and factors that affected all situations.


title: Locus of control

text: The topic of attribution theory (introduced to psychology by Fritz Heider) has had an influence on locus of control theory, but there are important historical differences between the two models. Attribution theorists have been predominantly social psychologists, concerned with the general processes characterizing how and why people make the attributions they do, whereas locus of control theorists have been concerned with individual differences.


title: Locus of control

text: Significant to the history of both approaches are the contributions made by Bernard Weiner in the 1970s. Before this time, attribution theorists and locus of control theorists had been largely concerned with divisions into external and internal loci of causality. Weiner added the dimension of stability-instability (and later controllability), indicating how a cause could be perceived as having been internal to a person yet still beyond the person's control. The stability dimension added to the understanding of why people succeed or fail after such outcomes. Although not part of Weiner's model, a further dimension of attribution, that of globality-specificity, was added by Abramson, Seligman and Teasdale.


title: Locus of control

text: Locus of control's best known application may have been in the area of health psychology, largely due to the work of Kenneth Wallston. Scales to measure locus of control in the health domain were reviewed by Furnham and Steele in 1993. The best-known are the Health Locus of Control Scale and the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale, or MHLC. The latter scale is based on the idea (echoing Levenson's earlier work) that health may be attributed to three sources: internal factors (such as self-determination of a healthy lifestyle), powerful others (such as one's doctor) or luck (which is very dangerous as lifestyle advice will be ignored – these people are very difficult to help).


title: Locus of control

text: Some of the scales reviewed by Furnham and Steele (1993) relate to health in more specific domains, such as obesity (for example, Saltzer's (1982) Weight Locus of Control Scale or Stotland and Zuroff's (1990) Dieting Beliefs Scale), mental health (such as Wood and Letak's (1982) Mental Health Locus of Control Scale or the Depression Locus of Control Scale of Whiteman, Desmond and Price, 1987) and cancer (the Cancer Locus of Control Scale of Pruyn et al., 1988). In discussing applications of the concept to health psychology Furnham and Steele refer to Claire Bradley's work, linking locus of control to the management of diabetes mellitus. Empirical data on health locus of control in a number of fields was reviewed by Norman and Bennett in 1995; they note that data on whether certain health-related behaviors are related to internal health locus of control have been ambiguous. They note that some studies found that internal health locus of control is linked with increased exercise, but cite other studies which found a weak (or no) relationship between exercise behaviors (such as jogging) and internal health locus of control. A similar ambiguity is noted for data on the relationship between internal health locus of control and other health-related behaviors (such as breast self-examination, weight control and preventive-health behavior). Of particular interest are the data cited on the relationship between internal health locus of control and alcohol consumption.


title: Locus of control

text: Norman and Bennett note that some studies that compared alcoholics with non-alcoholics suggest alcoholism is linked to increased externality for health locus of control; however, other studies have linked alcoholism with increased internality. Similar ambiguity has been found in studies of alcohol consumption in the general, non-alcoholic population. They are more optimistic in reviewing the literature on the relationship between internal health locus of control and smoking cessation, although they also point out that there are grounds for supposing that powerful-others and internal-health loci of control may be linked with this behavior. It is thought that, rather than being caused by one or the other, that alcoholism is directly related to the strength of the locus, regardless of type, internal or external.


title: Locus of control

text: They argue that a stronger relationship is found when health locus of control is assessed for specific domains than when general measures are taken. Overall, studies using behavior-specific health locus scales have tended to produce more positive results. These scales have been found to be more predictive of general behavior than more general scales, such as the MHLC scale. Norman and Bennett cite several studies that used health-related locus-of-control scales in specific domains (including smoking cessation), diabetes, tablet-treated diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, cancer, and heart and lung disease.


title: Locus of control

text: They also argue that health locus of control is better at predicting health-related behavior if studied in conjunction with health value (the value people attach to their health), suggesting that health value is an important moderator variable in the health locus of control relationship. For example, Weiss and Larsen (1990) found an increased relationship between internal health locus of control and health when health value was assessed. Despite the importance Norman and Bennett attach to specific measures of locus of control, there are general textbooks on personality which cite studies linking internal locus of control with improved physical health, mental health and quality of life in people with diverse conditions: HIV, migraines, diabetes, kidney disease and epilepsy.


title: Locus of control

text: During the 1970s and 1980s, Whyte correlated locus of control with the academic success of students enrolled in higher-education courses. Students who were more internally controlled believed that hard work and focus would result in successful academic progress, and they performed better academically. Those students who were identified as more externally controlled (believing that their future depended upon luck or fate) tended to have lower academic-performance levels. Cassandra B. Whyte researched how control tendency influenced behavioral outcomes in the academic realm by examining the effects of various modes of counseling on grade improvements and the locus of control of high-risk college students.


title: Locus of control

text: Rotter also looked at studies regarding the correlation between gambling and either an internal or external locus of control. For internals, gambling is more reserved. When betting, they primarily focus on safe and moderate wagers. Externals, however, take more chances and, for example, bet more on a card or number that has not appeared for a certain period, under the notion that this card or number has a higher chance of occurring.


title: Locus of control

text: Other fields to which the concept has been applied include industrial and organizational psychology, sports psychology, educational psychology and the psychology of religion. Richard Kahoe has published work in the latter field, suggesting that intrinsic religious orientation correlates positively (and extrinsic religious orientation correlates negatively) with internal locus. Of relevance to both health psychology and the psychology of religion is the work of Holt, Clark, Kreuter and Rubio (2003) on a questionnaire to assess spiritual-health locus of control. The authors distinguished between an active spiritual-health locus of control (in which "God empowers the individual to take healthy actions") and a more passive spiritual-health locus of control (where health is left up to God). In industrial and organizational psychology, it has been found that internals are more likely to take positive action to change their jobs (rather than merely talk about occupational change) than externals. Locus of control relates to a wide variety of work variables, with work-specific measures relating more strongly than general measures. In Educational setting, some research has shown that students who were intrinsically motivated had processed reading material more deeply and had better academic performance than students with extrinsic motivation.


title: Locus of control

text: Locus of control has also been applied to the field of consumer research. For example, Martin, Veer and Pervan (2007) examined how the weight locus of control of women (i.e., beliefs about the control of body weight) influence how they react to female models in advertising of different body shapes. They found that women who believe they can control their weight ("internals"), respond most favorably to slim models in advertising, and this favorable response is mediated by self-referencing. In contrast, women who feel powerless about their weight ("externals"), self-reference larger-sized models, but


title: Locus of control

text: only prefer larger-sized models when the advertisement is for a non-fattening product. For fattening products, they exhibit a similar preference for larger-sized models and slim models. The weight locus of control measure was also found to be correlated with measures for weight control beliefs and willpower.


title: Locus of control

text: Locus of control has been linked to political ideology. In the 1972 U.S. presidential election, research of college students found that those with an internal locus of control were substantially more likely to register as a Republican, while those with an external locus of control were substantially more likely to register as a Democratic. A 2011 study surveying students at Cameron University in Oklahoma found similar results, although these studies were limited in scope. Consistent with these findings, Kaye Sweetser (2014) found that Republicans significantly displayed greater internal locus of control than Democrats and Independents.


title: Locus of control

text: Those with an internal locus of control are more likely to be of higher socioeconomic status, and are more likely to be politically involved (e.g., following political news, joining a political organization) Those with an internal locus of control are also more likely to vote.


title: Locus of control

text: The development of locus of control is associated with family style and resources, cultural stability and experiences with effort leading to reward. Many internals have grown up with families modeling typical internal beliefs; these families emphasized effort, education, responsibility and thinking, and parents typically gave their children rewards they had promised them. In contrast, externals are typically associated with lower socioeconomic status. Societies experiencing social unrest increase the expectancy of being out-of-control; therefore, people in such societies become more external.


title: Locus of control

text: The 1995 research of Schneewind suggests that "children in large single parent families headed by women are more likely to develop an external locus of control" Schultz and Schultz also claim that children in families where parents have been supportive and consistent in discipline develop internal locus of control. At least one study has found that children whose parents had an external locus of control are more likely to attribute their successes and failures to external causes. Findings from early studies on the familial origins of locus of control were summarized by Lefcourt: "Warmth, supportiveness and parental encouragement seem to be essential for development of an internal locus". However, causal evidence regarding how parental locus of control influences offspring locus of control (whether genetic, or environmentally mediated) is lacking.


title: Locus of control

text: Locus of control becomes more internal with age. As children grow older, they gain skills which give them more control over their environment. However, whether this or biological development is responsible for changes in locus is unclear.


title: Locus of control

text: Some studies showed that with age people develop a more internal locus of control, but other study results have been ambiguous. Longitudinal data collected by Gatz and Karel imply that internality may increase until middle age, decreasing thereafter. Noting the ambiguity of data in this area, Aldwin and Gilmer (2004) cite Lachman's claim that locus of control is ambiguous. Indeed, there is evidence here that changes in locus of control in later life relate more visibly to increased externality (rather than reduced internality) if the two concepts are taken to be orthogonal. Evidence cited by Schultz and Schultz (2005) suggests that locus of control increases in internality until middle age. The authors also note that attempts to control the environment become more pronounced between ages eight and fourteen.


title: Locus of control

text: Health locus of control is how people measure and understand how people relate their health to their behavior, health status and how long it may take to recover from a disease. Locus of control can influence how people think and react towards their health and health decisions. Each day we are exposed to potential diseases that may affect our health. The way we approach that reality has a lot to do with our locus of control. Sometimes it is expected to see older adults experience progressive declines in their health, for this reason it is believed that their health locus of control will be affected. However, this does not necessarily mean that their locus of control will be affected negatively but older adults may experience decline in their health and this can show lower levels of internal locus of control.


title: Locus of control

text: Age plays an important role in one's internal and external locus of control. When comparing a young child and an older adult with their levels of locus of control in regards to health, the older person will have more control over their attitude and approach to the situation. As people age they become aware of the fact that events outside of their own control happen and that other individuals can have control of their health outcomes.


title: Locus of control

text: A study published in the journal "Psychosomatic Medicine" examined the health effect of childhood locus of control. 7,500 British adults (followed from birth), who had shown an internal locus of control at age 10, were less likely to be overweight at age 30. The children who had an internal locus of control also appeared to have higher levels of self-esteem.


title: Locus of control

text: As Schultz and Schultz (2005) point out, significant gender differences in locus of control have not been found for adults in the U.S. population. However, these authors also note that there may be specific sex-based differences for specific categories of items to assess locus of control; for example, they cite evidence that men may have a greater internal locus for questions related to academic achievement.


title: Locus of control

text: A study made by Takaki and colleagues (2006), focused on the sex or gendered differences with relationship to internal locus of control and self-efficacy in hemodialysis patients and their compliance. This study showed that female people who had high internal locus of control were less compliant in regards to their health and medical advice compared to the male people that participated in this study. Compliance is known to be the degree in which a person's behavior, in this case the patient, has a relationship with the medical advice. For example, a person that is compliant will correctly follow his/her doctor's advice.


title: Locus of control

text: A 2018 study that looked at the relationship between locus of control and optimism among children aged 10–15, however, found that an external locus of control was more prevalent among young girls. The study found no significant differences had been found in internal and unknown locus of control.


title: Locus of control

text: The question of whether people from different cultures vary in locus of control has long been of interest to social psychologists.


title: Locus of control

text: Japanese people tend to be more external in locus-of-control orientation than people in the U.S.; however, differences in locus of control between different countries within Europe (and between the U.S. and Europe) tend to be small. As Berry "et al." pointed out in 1992, ethnic groups within the United States have been compared on locus of control; African Americans in the U.S. are more external than whites when socioeconomic status is controlled. Berry "et al." also pointed out in 1992 how research on other ethnic minorities in the U.S. (such as Hispanics) has been ambiguous. More on cross-cultural variations in locus of control can be found in . Research in this area indicates that locus of control has been a useful concept for researchers in cross-cultural psychology.


title: Locus of control

text: On a less broad scale, Sims and Baumann explained how regions in the United States cope with natural disasters differently. The example they used was tornados. They "applied Rotter's theory to explain why more people have died in tornado[e]s in Alabama than in Illinois". They explain that after giving surveys to residents of four counties in both Alabama and Illinois, Alabama residents were shown to be more external in their way of thinking about events that occur in their lives. Illinois residents, however, were more internal. Because Alabama residents had a more external way of processing information, they took fewer precautions prior to the appearance of a tornado. Those in Illinois, however, were more prepared, thus leading to fewer casualties.


title: Locus of control

text: Later studies find that these geographic differences can be explained by differences in relational mobility. Relational mobility is a measure of how much choice individuals have in terms of whom to form relationships with, including friendships, romantic partnerships, and work relations. Relational mobility is low in cultures with a subsistence economy that requires tight cooperation and coordination, such as farming, while it is high in cultures based on nomadic herding and in urban industrial cultures.


title: Locus of control

text: A cross-cultural study found that the relational mobility is lowest in East Asian countries where rice farming is common, and highest in South American countries.


title: Locus of control

text: Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments. It is a related concept introduced by Albert Bandura, and has been measured by means of a psychometric scale. It differs from locus of control by relating to competence in circumscribed situations and activities (rather than more general cross-situational beliefs about control). Bandura has also emphasised differences between self-efficacy and self-esteem, using examples where low self-efficacy (for instance, in ballroom dancing) are unlikely to result in low self-esteem because competence in that domain is not very important (see valence) to an individual. Although individuals may have a high internal health locus of control and feel in control of their own health, they may not feel efficacious in performing a specific treatment regimen that is essential to maintaining their own health. Self-efficacy plays an important role in one's health because when people feel that they have self-efficacy over their health conditions, the effects of their health becomes less of a stressor.


title: Locus of control

text: Smith (1989) has argued that locus of control only weakly measures self-efficacy; "only a subset of items refer directly to the subject's capabilities". Smith noted that training in coping skills led to increases in self-efficacy, but did not affect locus of control as measured by Rotter's 1966 scale.


title: Locus of control

text: The previous section showed how self-efficacy can be related to a person's locus of control, and stress also has a relationship in these areas. Self-efficacy can be something that people use to deal with the stress that they are faced within their everyday lives. Some findings suggest that higher levels of external locus of control combined with lower levels self-efficacy are related to higher illness-related psychological distress. People who report a more external locus of control also report more concurrent and future stressful experiences and higher levels of psychological and physical problems. These people are also more vulnerable to external influences and as a result, they become more responsive to stress.


title: Locus of control

text: Veterans of the military forces who have spinal cord injuries and post-traumatic stress are a good group to look at in regard to locus of control and stress. Aging shows to be a very important factor that can be related to the severity of the symptoms of PTSD experienced by patients following the trauma of war. Research suggests that patients with a spinal cord injury benefit from knowing that they have control over their health problems and their disability, which reflects the characteristics of having an internal locus of control.


title: Locus of control

text: A study by Chung et al. (2006) focused on how the responses of spinal cord injury post-traumatic stress varied depending on age. The researchers tested different age groups including young adults, middle-aged, and elderly; the average age was 25, 48, and 65 for each group respectively. After the study, they concluded that age does not make a difference on how spinal cord injury patients respond to the traumatic events that happened. However, they did mention that age did play a role in the extent to which the external locus of control was used, and concluded that the young adult group demonstrated more external locus of control characteristics than the other age groups to which they were being compared.


title: Travel visa

text: A visa (from the Latin "charta visa", meaning "paper that has been seen") is a conditional authorization granted by a polity to a foreigner that allows them to enter, remain within, or leave its territory. Visas typically include limits on the duration of the foreigner's stay, areas within the country they may enter, the dates they may enter, the number of permitted visits, or if the individual has the ability to work in the country in question. Visas are associated with the request for permission to enter a territory and thus are, in most countries, distinct from actual formal permission for an alien to enter and remain in the country. In each instance, a visa is subject to entry permission by an immigration official at the time of actual entry and can be revoked at any time. Visa evidence most commonly takes the form of a sticker endorsed in the applicant's passport or other travel document but may also exist electronically. Some countries no longer issue physical visa evidence, instead recording details only in immigration databases.


title: Travel visa

text: Historically, immigration officials were empowered to permit or reject entry of visitors on arrival at the frontiers. If permitted entry, the official would issue a visa, when required, which would be a stamp in a passport. Today, travellers wishing to enter another country must often apply in advance for what is also called a visa, sometimes in person at a consular office, by post, or over the Internet. The modern visa may be a sticker or a stamp in the passport, an electronic record of the authorization, or a separate document which the applicant can print before entering and produce on entry to the visited polity. Some countries do not require visitors to apply for a visa in advance for short visits.


title: Travel visa

text: Visa applications in advance of arrival give countries a chance to consider the applicant's circumstances, such as financial security, reason for travel, and details of previous visits to the country. Visitors may also be required to undergo and pass security or health checks upon arrival at the port of entry.


title: Travel visa

text: Some polities which restrict emigration require individuals to possess an exit visa to leave the polity. These exit visas may be required for citizens, foreigners, or both, depending on the policies of the polity concerned. Unlike ordinary visas, exit visas are often seen as an illegitimate intrusion on individuals' right to freedom of movement. Imposition of an exit visa requirement may be seen to violate customary international law, as the right to leave any country is provided for in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.


title: Travel visa

text: Uniquely, the Norwegian special territory of Svalbard is an entirely visa-free zone under the terms of the Svalbard Treaty.


title: Travel visa

text: Some countries—such as those in the Schengen Area—have agreements with other countries allowing each other's citizens to travel between them without visas. The World Tourism Organization announced that the number of tourists requiring a visa before travelling was at its lowest level ever in 2015.


title: Travel visa

text: In western Europe in the late 19th century and early 20th century, passports and visas were not generally necessary for moving from one country to another. The relatively high speed and large movements of people travelling by train would have caused bottlenecks if regular passport controls had been used. Passports and visas became usually necessary as travel documents only after World War I.


title: Travel visa

text: Hitherto, passports and visas were usually the same type of travel documents. In the modern world, visas have become separate secondary travel documents, with passports acting as the primary travel documents.


title: Travel visa

text: Some visas can be granted on arrival or by prior application at the country's embassy or consulate, or through a private visa service specialist who is specialized in the issuance of international travel documents. These agencies are authorized by the foreign authority, embassy, or consulate to represent international travellers who are unable or unwilling to travel to the embassy and apply in person. Private visa and passport services collect an additional fee for verifying customer applications, supporting documents, and submitting them to the appropriate authority. If there is no embassy or consulate in one's home country, then one would have to travel to a third country (or apply by post) and try to get a visa issued there. Alternatively, in such cases visas may be pre-arranged for collection on arrival at the border. The need or absence of need of a visa generally depends on the citizenship of the applicant, the intended duration of the stay, and the activities that the applicant may wish to undertake in the country he or she visits; these may delineate different formal categories of visas, with different issue conditions.


title: Travel visa

text: The issuing authority, usually a branch of the country's foreign ministry or department (e.g. U.S. State Department), and typically consular affairs officers, may request appropriate documentation from the applicant. This may include proof that the applicant is able to support him or herself in the host country (lodging, food), proof that the person hosting the applicant in his or her home really exists and has sufficient room for hosting the applicant, proof that the applicant has obtained health and evacuation insurance, etc. Some countries ask for proof of health status, especially for long-term visas; some countries deny such visas to persons with certain illnesses, such as AIDS. The exact conditions depend on the country and category of visa. Notable examples of countries requiring HIV tests of long-term residents are Russia and Uzbekistan. In Uzbekistan, however, the HIV test requirement is sometimes not strictly enforced. Other countries require a medical test that includes an HIV test, even for a short-term tourism visa. For example, Cuban citizens and international exchange students require such a test approved by a medical authority to enter Chilean territory.


title: Travel visa

text: The issuing authority may also require applicants to attest that they have no criminal convictions, or that they do not participate in certain activities (like prostitution or drug trafficking). Some countries will deny visas if passports show evidence of citizenship of, or travel to, a country that is considered hostile by that country. For example, some Arabic-oriented countries will not issue visas to nationals of Israel and those whose passports bear evidence of visiting Israel.


title: Travel visa

text: Many countries frequently demand strong evidence of intent to return to the home country, if the visa is for a temporary stay, due to potential unwanted illegal immigration. Proof of ties to the visa applicant's country of residence is often demanded to demonstrate a sufficient incentive to return. This can include things such as documented evidence of employment, bank statements, property ownership, and family ties.


title: Travel visa

text: Each country typically has a multitude of categories of visas with various names. The most common types and names of visas include:


title: Travel visa

text: For passing through the country of issue to a destination outside that country. Validity of transit visas are usually limited by short terms such as several hours to ten days depending on the size of the country or the circumstances of a particular transit itinerary.


title: Travel visa

text: For short visits to the visited country. Many countries differentiate between different reasons for these visits, such as:


title: Travel visa

text: Granted for those intending to settle permanently in the issuing country (obtain the status of a permanent resident with a prospect of possible naturalization in the future):


title: Travel visa

text: These are granted to officials doing jobs for their governments, or otherwise representing their countries in the host country, such as the personnel of diplomatic missions.


title: Travel visa

text: Normally visa applications are made at and collected from a consulate, embassy, or other diplomatic mission.


title: Travel visa

text: Also known as visas on arrival (VOA), they are granted at a port of entry. This is distinct from visa-free entry, where no visa is required, as the visitor must still obtain the visa on arrival before proceeding to immigration control.


title: Travel visa

text: An electronic visa (e-Visa or eVisa) is stored in a computer and is linked to the passport number so no label, sticker, or stamp is placed in the passport before travel. The application is done over the internet, and the receipt acts as a visa, which can be printed or stored on a mobile device.


title: Travel visa

text: Visas can also be "single-entry", which means the visa is cancelled as soon as the holder leaves the country; "double-entry", or "multiple-entry", which permits double or multiple entries into the country with the same visa. Countries may also issue re-entry permits that allow temporarily leaving the country without invalidating the visa. Even a business visa will normally not allow the holder to work in the host country without an additional work permit.


title: Travel visa

text: In some countries, the validity of a visa is not the same as the authorized period of stay. The visa validity then indicates the time period when the entry is permitted into the country. For example, if a visa has been issued to begin on January 1 and to expire on March 30, and the typical authorized period of stay in a country is 90 days, then the 90-day authorized stay starts on the day the passenger enters the country (entrance has to be between 1 January and 30 March). Thus, the latest day the traveller could conceivably stay in the issuing country is 1 July (if the traveller entered on 30 March). This interpretation of visas is common in the Americas.


title: Travel visa

text: With other countries, a person may not stay beyond the period of validity of their visa, which is usually set within the period of validity of their passport. The visa may also limit the total number of days the visitor may spend in the applicable territory within the period of validity. This interpretation of visa periods is common in Europe.


title: Travel visa

text: Once in the country, the validity period of a visa or authorized stay can often be extended for a fee at the discretion of immigration authorities. Overstaying a period of authorized stay given by the immigration officers is considered illegal immigration even if the visa validity period isn't over (i.e., for multiple entry visas) and a form of being "out of status" and the offender may be fined, prosecuted, deported, or even blacklisted from entering the country again.


title: Travel visa

text: Entering a country without a valid visa or visa exemption may result in detention and removal (deportation or exclusion) from the country. Undertaking activities that are not authorized by the status of entry (for example, working while possessing a non-worker tourist status) can result in the individual being deemed liable for deportation—commonly referred to as an illegal alien. Such violation is not a violation of a visa, despite the common misuse of the phrase, but a violation of status; hence the term "out of status".


title: Travel visa

text: Even having a visa does not guarantee entry to the host country. The border crossing authorities make the final determination to allow entry, and may even cancel a visa at the border if the alien cannot demonstrate to their satisfaction that they will abide by the status their visa grants them.


title: Travel visa

text: Some countries that do not require visas for short stays may require a long-stay visa for those who intend to apply for a residence permit. For example, the EU does not require a visa of citizens of many countries for stays under 90 days, but its member states require a long-stay visa of such citizens for longer stays.


title: Travel visa

text: Many countries have a mechanism to allow the holder of a visa to apply to extend a visa. In Denmark, a visa holder can apply to the Danish Immigration Service for a Residence Permit after they have arrived in the country. In the United Kingdom, applications can be made to UK Visas and Immigration.


title: Travel visa

text: In certain circumstances, it is impossible for the holder of the visa to do this, either because the country does not have a mechanism to prolong visas or, most likely, because the holder of the visa is using a short stay visa to live in a country.


title: Travel visa

text: Some foreign visitors sometimes engage in what is known as a "visa run": leaving a country—usually to a neighboring country—for a short period just before the permitted length of stay expires, then returning to the first country to get a new entry stamp in order to extend their stay ("reset the clock"). Despite the name, a visa run is usually done with a passport that can be used for entry without a visa.


title: Travel visa

text: Visa runs are frowned upon by immigration authorities as such acts may signify that the foreigner wishes to reside permanently and might also work in that country; purposes that visitors are prohibited from engaging in and usually require an immigrant visa or a work visa. Immigration officers may deny re-entry to visitors suspected of engaging in prohibited activities, especially when they have done repeated visa runs and have no evidence of spending reasonable time in their home countries or countries where they have the right to reside and work.


title: Travel visa

text: To combat visa runs, some countries have limits on how long visitors can spend in the country without a visa, as well as how much time they have to stay out before "resetting the clock". For example, Schengen countries impose a maximum limit for visitors of 90 days in any 180-day period. Some countries do not "reset the clock" when a visitor comes back after visiting a neighboring country. For example, the United States does not give visitors a new period of stay when they come back from visiting Canada, Mexico, or the Caribbean; instead they are readmitted to the United States for the remaining days granted on their initial entry. Some other countries, e.g. Thailand, allow visitors who arrive by land from neighboring countries a shorter length of stay than those who arrive by air.


title: Travel visa

text: In some cases, a visa run is necessary to activate new visas or change the immigration status of a person. An example would be leaving a country and then returning immediately to activate a newly issued work visa before a person can legally work.


title: Travel visa

text: In general, an applicant may be refused a visa if they do not meet the requirements for admission or entry under that country's immigration laws. More specifically, a visa may be denied or refused when the applicant:


title: Travel visa

text: Even if a traveller does not need a visa, the aforementioned criteria can also be used by border control officials to refuse the traveller's entry into the country in question.


title: Travel visa

text: The main reasons states impose visa restrictions on foreign nationals are to curb illegal immigration, security concerns, and reciprocity for visa restrictions imposed on their own nationals. Typically, nations impose visa restrictions on citizens of poorer countries, along with politically unstable and undemocratic ones, as it is considered more likely that people from these countries will seek to illegally immigrate. Visa restrictions may also be imposed when nationals of another country are perceived as likelier to be terrorists or criminals, or by autocratic regimes that perceive foreign influence to be a threat to their rule. According to Professor Eric Neumayer of the London School of Economics:


title: Travel visa

text: "The poorer, the less democratic, and the more exposed to armed political conflict the target country is, the more likely that visa restrictions are in place against its passport holders. The same is true for countries whose nationals have been major perpetrators of terrorist acts in the past".


title: Travel visa

text: Some countries apply the principle of reciprocity in their visa policy. A country's visa policy is called 'reciprocal' if it imposes visa requirement against citizens of all the countries that impose visa requirements against its own citizens. The opposite is rarely true: a country rarely lifts visa requirements against citizens of all the countries that also lift visa requirements against its own citizens, unless a prior bilateral agreement has been made.


title: Travel visa

text: A fee may be charged for issuing a visa; these are often also reciprocal—hence, if country A charges country B's citizens US$50 for a visa, country B will often also charge the same amount for country A's visitors. The fee charged may also be at the discretion of each embassy. A similar reciprocity often applies to the duration of the visa (the period in which one is permitted to request entry of the country) and the number of entries one can attempt with the visa. Other restrictions, such as requiring fingerprints and photographs, may also be reciprocated. Expedited processing of the visa application for some countries will generally incur additional charges.


title: Travel visa

text: Government authorities usually impose administrative entry restrictions on foreign citizens in three ways - countries whose nationals may enter without a visa, countries whose nationals may obtain a visa on arrival, and countries whose nationals require a visa in advance. Nationals who require a visa in advance are usually advised to obtain them at a diplomatic mission of their destination country. Several countries allow nationals of countries that require a visa to obtain them online.


title: Travel visa

text: The following table lists visa policies of all countries by the number of foreign nationalities that may enter that country for tourism without a visa or by obtaining a visa on arrival with normal passport. It also notes countries that issue electronic visas to certain nationalities. Symbol "+" indicates a country that limits the visa-free regime negatively by only listing nationals who require a visa, thus the number represents the number of UN member states reduced by the number of nationals who require a visa and "+" stands for all possible non-UN member state nationals that might also not require a visa. "N/A" indicates countries that have contradictory information on its official websites or information supplied by the Government to IATA. Some countries that allow visa on arrival do so only at a limited number of entry points. Some countries such as the European Union member states have a qualitatively different visa regime between each other as it also includes freedom of movement.


title: Travel visa

text: Possession of a valid visa is a condition for entry into many countries, and exemption schemes exist. In some cases visa-free entry may be granted to holders of diplomatic passports even as visas are required by normal passport holders ("see: Passport").


title: Travel visa

text: Some countries have reciprocal agreements such that a visa is not needed under certain conditions, e.g., when the visit is for tourism and for a relatively short period. Such reciprocal agreements may stem from common membership in international organizations or a shared heritage:


title: Travel visa

text: Other countries may unilaterally grant visa-free entry to nationals of certain countries to facilitate tourism, promote business, or even to cut expenses on maintaining consular posts abroad.


title: Travel visa

text: Some of the considerations for a country to grant visa-free entry to another country include (but are not limited to):


title: Travel visa

text: To have a smaller worldwide diplomatic staff, some countries rely on other country's (or countries') judgments when issuing visas. For example, Mexico allows citizens of all countries to enter without Mexican visas if they possess a valid American visa that has already been used. Costa Rica accepts valid visas of Schengen/EU countries, Canada, Japan, South Korea, and the United States (if valid for at least 3 months on date of arrival). The ultimate example of such reliance is Andorra, which imposes no visa requirements of its own because it has no international airport and is inaccessible by land without passing through the territory of either France or Spain and is thus "protected" by the Schengen visa system.


title: Travel visa

text: Visa-free travel between countries also occurs in all cases where passports (or passport-replacing documents such as laissez-passer) are not needed for such travel. ("For examples of passport-free travel, see International travel without passports".)


title: Travel visa

text: As of 2019, the "Henley & Partners" passport index ranks the Japanese, Singaporean, and South Korean passports as the ones with the most visa exemptions by other nations, allowing holders of those passports to visit 189 countries without obtaining a visa in advance of arrival.


title: Travel visa

text: However, the Passport Index ranks the United Arab Emirates passport as the one with the most visa exemptions by other nations, allowing holders of this passport to visit 173 countries without obtaining a visa in advance of arrival.


title: Travel visa

text: Normally, visas are valid for entry only into the country that issued the visa. Countries that are members of regional organizations or party to regional agreements may, however, issue visas valid for entry into some or all of the member states of the organization or agreement:


title: Travel visa

text: Exit visas may be required to leave some countries. Many countries limit the ability of individuals to leave in certain circumstances, such as those with outstanding legal proceedings or large government debts. Despite this, the term "exit visa" is generally limited to countries that systematically restrict departure, where the right to leave is not automatic. Imposing a systematic requirement for exit permission may be seen to violate the right to freedom of movement, which is found in the UDHR and forms part of customary international law.


title: Travel visa

text: Countries implementing exit visas vary in who they require to obtain one. Some countries permit the free movement of foreign nationals while restricting their own citizens. Others may limit the exit visa requirement to resident foreigners in the country on work visas, such as in the Kafala system.


title: Travel visa

text: Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates all have an exit visa requirement for alien foreign workers. This is part of their "kafala" work visa sponsorship system. Consequently, at the end of a foreign worker's employment period, the worker must secure clearance from their employer stating that the worker has satisfactorily fulfilled the terms of their employment contract or that the worker's services are no longer needed. The exit visa can also be withheld if there are pending court charges that need to be settled or penalties that have to be meted out. In September 2018, Qatar lifted the exit visa requirement for most workers. Persons are generally free to leave Israel, except for those who are subject to a stay of exit order.


title: Travel visa

text: Nepal requires its citizens emigrating to the United States on an H-1B visa to present an exit permit issued by the Nepali Ministry of Labour. This document is called a work permit and needs to be presented to Nepali immigration to leave Nepal.


title: Travel visa

text: Uzbekistan was the last remaining country of the former USSR that required an exit visa, which was valid for a two-year period. The practice was abolished in 2019. There had been explicit United Nations complaint about this practice.


title: Travel visa

text: North Korea requires that its citizens obtain an exit visa stating the traveller's destination country and time to be spent abroad before leaving the country. Additionally, North Korean authorities also require North Korean citizens obtain a re-entry visa from a North Korean embassy or North Korean mission abroad before being allowed back into North Korea.


title: Travel visa

text: The government of the People's Republic of China requires its citizens to obtain a two-way permit (visiting), or one-way permit (emigrate) issued by the People's Republic of China's authorities, prior to visiting Hong Kong or Macau. The two-way permit and one-way permit are a "de facto" exit visa for Hong Kong- or Macau-bound trips for citizens of the People's Republic of China.


title: Travel visa

text: Singapore operates an Exit Permit scheme in order to enforce the national service obligations of its male citizens and permanent residents. Requirements vary according to age and status:


title: Travel visa

text: Taiwan and South Korea also require male citizens who are older than a certain age but have not fulfilled their military duties to register with local Military Manpower Administration office before they pursue international travels, studies, business trips, and/or performances. Failure to do so is a felony in those countries and violators would face up to 3 years of imprisonment.


title: Travel visa

text: During the Fascist period in Italy, an exit visa was required from 1922 to 1943. Nazi Germany required exit visas from 1933 to 1945.


title: Travel visa

text: The Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies required exit visas both for emigration and for those who wanted to leave the Soviet Union for a shorter period.


title: Travel visa

text: Some countries, including the Czech Republic, require that an alien who needs a visa on entry be in possession of a valid visa upon exit. To satisfy this formal requirement, exit visas sometimes need to be issued.


title: Travel visa

text: Russia requires an exit visa if a visitor stays past the expiration date of their visa. They must then extend their visa or apply for an exit visa and are not allowed to leave the country until they show a valid visa or have a permissible excuse for overstaying their visa (e.g., a note from a doctor or a hospital explaining an illness, missed flight, lost or stolen visa). In some cases, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs can issue a return-Home certificate that is valid for ten days from the embassy of the visitor's native country, thus eliminating the need for an exit visa.


title: Travel visa

text: A foreign citizen granted a temporary residence permit in Russia needs a temporary resident visa to take a trip abroad (valid for both exit and return). It is also colloquially called an "exit visa". Not all foreign citizens are subject to that requirement. Citizens of Germany, for example, do not require this exit visa.


title: Travel visa

text: In March 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the United Kingdom required everyone leaving England to fill out an exit form detailing their address, passport number, destination, and reason to travel. Permitted reasons to travel included for work or volunteering, education, medical or compassionate reasons such as weddings and funerals. Travellers may be required to carry evidence to support their reason to travel.


title: Travel visa

text: The government of Cuba announced in October 2012 its plans to remove exit visa requirements effective 14 January 2013, albeit with some exceptions.


title: Travel visa

text: Guatemala requires any foreigner who is a permanent resident to apply for a multiple 5-year exit visa.


title: Travel visa

text: The United States of America does not require exit visas. Since 1 October 2007, however, the U.S. government requires "all" foreign and U.S. nationals "departing" the United States by air to hold a valid passport (or certain specific passport-replacing documents). Even though travellers might not require a passport to enter a certain country, they "will" require a valid passport booklet (booklet only, U.S. Passport Card not accepted) to depart the United States in order to satisfy the U.S. immigration authorities. Exemptions to this requirement to hold a valid passport include:


title: Travel visa

text: In addition, green card holders and certain other aliens must obtain a certificate of compliance (also known as a "sailing permit" or "departure permit") from the Internal Revenue Service proving that they are up-to-date with their US income tax obligations before they may leave the country. While the requirement has been in effect since 1921, it has not been stringently enforced, but in 2014 the House Ways and Means Committee has considered beginning to enforce the requirement as a way to increase tax revenues.


title: Travel visa

text: Australia, citing COVID-19 concerns, in 2020 banned outward travel by both Australian citizens and permanent residents, unless they requested and were granted an exemption. In August 2021 this ban was extended to people who are ordinarily resident in countries other than Australia as well. Exceptions apply to business travel and travel for "compelling reasons" for three months or longer, among others.


title: Travel visa

text: On 1 November 2021, after 20 months, the exit permit system was scrapped and New South Wales and Victoria officially re-opened their borders in addition to ending quarantine requirements on arrival for fully vaccinated individuals. However, on 27 November 2021, 72-hour quarantine requirements were reinstated over concerns about the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant.


title: Travel visa

text: The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) of the United Nations has issued various "Visa Openness Report"s.


title: Rangoli

text: Rangoli is an art form that originates from in the Indian subcontinent, in which patterns are created on the floor or a tabletop using materials such as powdered lime stone, red ochre, dry rice flour, coloured sand, quartz powder, flower petals, and coloured rocks. It is an everyday practice in many Hindu households, however the colours are preferred during festivals and other important celebrations as it is time consuming. Rangolis are usually made during Diwali or Tihar, Onam, Pongal, and other Hindu festivals in the Indian subcontinent, and are most often made during Diwali. Designs are passed from one generation to the next, keeping both the art form and the tradition alive.


title: Rangoli

text: Rangoli have different names based on the state and culture. Rangoli hold a significant role in the everyday life of a Hindu household especially historically when the flooring of houses were untiled. They are usually made outside the threshold of the main entrance, in the early mornings after cleaning the area. Traditionally, the postures needed to make a rangoli are a kind of exercise for women to straighten their spines. The rangoli represents the happiness, positivity and liveliness of a household, and is intended to welcome Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and good luck. It is believed that a Hindu household without a clean entrance and rangoli is an abode of "daridra" (bad luck).


title: Rangoli

text: The purpose of rangoli is beyond decoration. Traditionally either powdered calcite and limestone or cereal powders are used for the basic design. The limestone is capable of preventing insects from entering the household, and the cereal powders attract insects and keep them from entering the household. Using cereal powders for rangoli is also believed as "panch-mahabhoota Seva" because insects and other dust microbes are fed. Design depictions may vary as they reflect traditions, folklore, and practices that are unique to each area. Rangoli are traditionally made by girls or women, although men and boys create them as well. In a Hindu household, basic rangoli is an everyday practice. The usage of colours and vibrant designs are showcased during occasions such as festivals, auspicious observances, marriage celebrations and other similar milestones and gatherings.


title: Rangoli

text: Rangoli designs can be simple geometric shapes, depictions of deities, or flower and petal shapes appropriate to the given celebrations. They can also be made with elaborate designs crafted by numerous people. The geometric designs may also represent powerful religious symbols, placed in and around household "yagna" shrines. Historically, basic designs were drawn around the cooking areas for the purpose of discouraging insects and pathogens. Synthetic colours are a modern variation. Other materials include red brick powder and even flowers and petals, as in the case of flower rangoli.


title: Rangoli

text: Over time, imagination and innovative ideas in rangoli art have also been incorporated. Rangoli have been commercially developed in places such as five star hotels. Its traditional charm, artistry and importance continue today.


title: Rangoli

text: From Sanskrit word "रङ्ग" which means "colour". "Rangoli" is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘"rangavalli’."


title: Rangoli

text: In middle India mainly in Chhattisgarh Rangoli is called Chaook and is generally drawn at the entrance of a house or any other building. Powdered quartz, dried rice flour or other forms of white dust powder is used for drawing Chaooks. Although there are numerous traditional Chaook patterns, many more can be created depending on the creativity of the person who draws it. It is considered auspicious as it signifies showering of good luck and prosperity on the house and in the family. It is not drawn like a Bolka picture. Patterns are created based on certain systems. Generally, women get up early in the morning and clean the area just outside the entrance of their houses with cow dung, sprinkle the area with water and draw the Chaook. In Maharashtra and Karnataka, rangoli are drawn on the doors of homes so that evil forces attempting to enter are repelled.


title: Rangoli

text: During the festival of Onam in Kerala, flowers are laid down for each of the ten days of the celebration, the design growing larger and more complex every day. In Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, and many parts of Maharashtra, the rangoli or Kolam is drawn upon the ground or floor daily. The designs are geometric and symmetrical मूल्यतः shapes but the materials used are similar rangoli: powdered quartz, rice flour or slurry is used. In Rajasthan the Mandana are painted on walls. Mmandne, various festivals, major festivals and can be categorized based on seasons. Different shapes depending on the size of it also can be shared. Kumaon's "writing beat 'or in a variety of plotting symbols Thapa, artistic designs, Bellbutoan is used. Alikhthap of society apart – separated by different groups – different icons and art media is used. In Odisha, the Murja is put at the aangan of every home in front of the Tulsi plant called "Tulasi chahura". The rangoli patterns mostly are dedicated to Lord Krishna and Lord Jagannath. The Murja festival is observed during the auspicious month of Kartika ending on Kartika Purnima.In West Bengal,Alponas are created using rice flour.Alponas are similar to kolams and are created during major festvals that bengalis celebrate like Durga Puja,Kali Puja,Saraswati Puja,Kojagori Lakshmi Puja and Jogodhatri Puja.


title: Rangoli

text: Shape, design and material can be influenced by regional traditions. A square grid is common in North India as is a hexagonal grid in South India; Onam Rangoli are typically circular. In North India, the colour is most often based on gypsum (chirodi), in South India on rice flour and Onam Rangoli are typically flower based. The rapid and widespread migration and mixing of people within India can be seen by the way these styles are now freely adopted and mixed across the country. It is also becoming common to see experimentation like sawdust-based floating rangoli, freeform designs, and exotic materials.


title: Rangoli

text: It is particularly notable that the Tamil version of the rangoli, the Kolam, prizes symmetry, complexity, precision, and intricacy rather than the flamboyance of rangoli found in North India. Many people find it enjoyable to try and figure out how such intricate designs are drawn with a grid, and hence, it allows the mind to be exercised.


title: Rangoli

text: The rangoli's most important element is being colourful. These are auspicious symbols that have a central role in the design. The design are passed down from one generation to the next as they are made – and is required to make these symbols. Traditionally, each new generation learns the art and thus a family keeps the tradition intact. Some major symbols used in rangoli are the lotus flower and its leaves, mango, Tue vase, fish, different kind of birds like parrots, swans, and peacocks, human figures, and foliage. Oftentimes rangoli is made on special occasions like Diwali. Some special patterns for Diwali Rangoli are the Diya also called Deep, Ganesha, Lakshmi, flowers or birds of India. The patterns include the face of Hindu deities, geometric shapes peacock motifs, and round floral designs. Many of these motifs are traditional and are handed down by the previous generations. This makes rangoli a representation of India's rich heritage and the fact that it is a land of festivals and colour. People celebrate rangoli with davali patterns.


title: Rangoli

text: The materials used to make the rangoli are easily found everywhere. Therefore, this art is prevalent in all homes, rich and poor. Normally the major ingredients used to make rangoli are: Pise rice solution, the dried powder made from leaves, colour, charcoal, burned soil, sawdust, and similar substances. Rangoli is also created using coloured powdered quartz, rice, dry flour, flower petals, turmeric (pasupu), vermillion (sindooram) and coloured sand.


title: Rangoli

text: The background of rangoli uses a clear floor or wall or Llype is used. Rangoli can be made in a yard in the middle, corners, or as a bell is created around.


title: Rangoli

text: Dehri gateway is another tradition of making rangoli. God's seat, depending on lamp, place of worship and sacrifice on the altar is a tradition of decorating rangoli.


title: Rangoli

text: Mandala is a diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically, a time-microcosm of the universe, but it originally meant to represent wholeness and a model for the organizational structure of life itself, a cosmic diagram that shows the relation to the infinite and the world that extends beyond and within various minds and bodies. It also represents the spiritual journey, starting from outside to the inner core, through layers.


title: Rangoli

text: There are two primary ways to make a rangoli, dry and wet, referring to the materials used to create the outline and (if desired) fill that outline with colour. Using a white material like chalk, sand, paint or flour, the artist marks a centre-point on the ground and cardinal points around it, usually in a square, hexagon or circle depending on region and personal preference. Ramifying that initially-simple pattern creates what is often an intricate and beautiful design. Motifs from nature (leaves, petals, feathers) and geometric patterns are common. Less common but by no means rare are representational forms (like a peacock, icon or landscape). "Readymade Rangoli" patterns, often as stencils or stickers, are becoming common, making it easier to create detailed or precise designs.


title: Rangoli

text: Once the outline is complete, the artist may choose to illuminate it with colour, again using either wet or dry ingredients like paints, coloured rice-water, gypsum powder, coloured sand or dry pigments. The artist might also choose unprocessed materials like seeds, grains, spices, leaves or flower petals to achieve lifelike hues. Modern materials like crayons, dyes or dyed fabrics, acrylic paints and artificial colouring agents are also becoming common, allowing for brilliant and vibrant colour choices. A newer but less artificial method involves using cement coloured with marble powder. This rather precise method requires training, but beautiful portraits can be drawn in this medium.


title: Rangoli

text: In Sri Vaishnavism, it is said that Andal, one among the twelve Alvars, worshipped the deity Krishna, and was married to him in the month of Margaḻi. During this month, several unmarried women get up before dawn, and draw a rangoli to welcome the deity. Mentions of rangoli creation are also found in Hindu literature. There are also references of rangoli in legends such as Ramayana - at Sita's wedding pavilion where there is a discussion about rangoli. The cultural development of rangoli in the south originated in the era of the Chola rulers.


title: Mark Valley

text: Mark Thomas Valley (born December 24, 1964) is an American film and television actor, best known for his roles as Brad Chase in the TV drama "Boston Legal", Oliver Richard in the NBC drama "Harry's Law", FBI Special Agent John Scott in the Fox sci fi series "Fringe", Christopher Chance in Fox's action drama "Human Target", and Tommy Sullivan in ABC's "Body of Proof".


title: Mark Valley

text: Valley was born in Ogdensburg, New York. A 1987 graduate from the United States Military Academy (USMA) at West Point, New York with a degree in mathematics.


title: Mark Valley

text: He served in Berlin, where he played rugby for the U.S. military team, The Berlin Yanks Rugby Football Club. Valley saw action in Operation Desert Storm as platoon leader detailed from the 18th Engineer Brigade to the 73rd Engineer Company, 3-2 Air Defense Artillery Battalion, 7th Transportation Group.


title: Mark Valley

text: Valley obtained his first role, on "The Innocent" (1993), while serving in the U.S. Army in Germany. He landed the role of "Father Pete" on "Another World" in 1993. He later took over the role of Jack Deveraux on the NBC Daytime soap opera "Days of Our Lives" from 1994 to 1997. In 2003, Valley played Detective Eddie Arlette, an American police officer in London, on the short-lived "Keen Eddie".


title: Mark Valley

text: He played Brad Chase on "Boston Legal", a spinoff of the television series "The Practice". Valley also appeared on the television series "ER" as Richard Lockhart, Abby Lockhart's ex-husband. In 2008 he appeared on "Fringe", as FBI agent John Scott. Valley played the lead in Fox's drama "Human Target".


title: Mark Valley

text: In 2012, Valley joined ABC's "Body of Proof" as a series regular. He played Det. Tommy Sullivan, Dana Delany's love interest. He also co-starred alongside Delany in her short-lived series "Pasadena" in 2001.


title: Mark Valley

text: He has a daughter, Sherri, born in 1987. He married Anna Torv, his "Fringe" co-star, in December 2008. In April 2010, it was reported that the couple had separated. In 2021, it was reported that the couple divorced back in 2009.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: The "South Dakota" class was a group of four fast battleships built by the United States Navy. They were the second class of battleships to be named after the 40th state; the first were designed in the 1920s and canceled under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: Four ships comprised the class: , , , and . They were designed to the same treaty standard displacement limit of as the preceding and had the same main battery of nine 16"/45 caliber Mark 6 guns in three-gun turrets, but were more compact and better protected. The ships can be visually distinguished from the earlier vessels by their single funnel, compared to twin funnels in the "North Carolina"s. According to naval historians William Garzke and Robert Dulin, the "South Dakota" design was the best "treaty battleship" ever built.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: Construction began shortly before World War II, with Fiscal Year (FY) 1939 appropriations. Commissioning through the summer of 1942, the four ships served in both the Atlantic, ready to intercept possible German capital ship sorties, and the Pacific, in carrier groups and shore bombardments. All four ships were retired shortly after World War II; "South Dakota" and "Indiana" were scrapped in the 1960s, "Massachusetts" and "Alabama" were retained as museum ships.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: The preceding two s had been assigned to the FY1937 building program, and in 1936, the General Board met to discuss the two battleships to be allocated to FY1938. The General Board argued for two more "North Carolina"s, but Admiral William H. Standley, the Chief of Naval Operations, wanted the ships to be of a new design. That meant construction could not begin by 1938, so the ships were assigned to FY1939. Design work started in March 1937 and the draft for two battleships was formally approved by the Secretary of the Navy on 23 June. More specific characteristics for the two ships were ironed out, and those were approved on 4 January 1938. The ships were formally ordered on 4 April 1938.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: Due to the deteriorating international situations in Europe and Asia, Congress authorized a further two battleships of the new design, for a total of four, under the Deficiency Authorization of 25 June 1938. The "Escalator Clause" of the Second London Naval Treaty had been activated in the U.S. Navy so it could begin work on the follow-on s, but Congress was willing to approve only the 35,000-ton battleships. A number of deficiencies in the preceding "North Carolina"s were to be fixed in the "South Dakota"s; these included insufficient underwater protection and turbine engines not of the most recent technology.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: The "North Carolina"s also did not have sufficient space to act as fleet flagships, so the lead ship of the new class was designed with an extra deck on the conning tower specifically for this purpose, although the increase in space and weight from this necessitated removal of two twin 5-inch dual-purpose (DP) gun mounts.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: There was a great deal of debate on the requirements for the new battleships. The design board drew up a number of proposals; one called for a ship with nine guns in three triple turrets, deck armor that would have made the ship immune to plunging fire out to , and a top speed of at least . The belt armor was a much more intractable problem; the 16-inch gun could penetrate of plate, the thickest in an American battleship at the time, even at . To proof the ship against her own armament—a characteristic known as "balanced armor"—the main belt would have to be increased to , which would have increased the weight of the vessel to prohibitive levels. To mitigate this problem, sloped armor was proposed; it was infeasible to use inclined armor in an external belt, because it would compromise stability to a dangerous degree. Instead, an internal armor belt was constructed behind unarmored hull plates. This had serious drawbacks, however; it complicated the construction process, and if the armored belt was damaged, the external plating would have to be cut away first before the belt could be repaired.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: To minimize the drawbacks of the inclined belt, it sloped outward from the keel, then back in towards the armored deck. This meant that shells fired at relatively close range would hit the upper portion of the belt at an angle, which maximized armor protection. However, the effectiveness of the upper portion of the belt was degraded at longer ranges, because plunging fire would strike it at an angle closer to the perpendicular, increasing their ability to penetrate the armor. It did reduce the area that needed to be covered by the armored deck, which saved additional weight. This enabled the upper belt to be thicker, which to an extent ameliorated the vulnerability to plunging fire. Because the belt was internal, it provided the opportunity to extend it to the inner portion of the double bottom, which gave the ship better underwater protection than the "North Carolina"s. Ultimately, the complex double incline belt armor was abandoned when it became apparent that a single slanted belt could provide similar protection, and save several hundred tons of weight.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: The size of the hull was also a problem: a longer hull generally equates to a higher top speed, but requires more armor to protect it. In order to keep a higher top speed on a shorter hull, higher-performance machinery is required. Since the "South Dakota" design was much shorter than the preceding "North Carolina"s— compared to , respectively—the new ships would need improved machinery than would otherwise have been used in shorter hulls in order to retain the same speed as the longer ships. The design initially called for a top speed of at least , which was deemed sufficient to keep up with opposing battleships and outrun surfaced submarines. However, in late 1936, cryptanalysts deciphered radio traffic from the Japanese navy which revealed that the battleship was capable of speeds in excess of .


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: To counter this, it was determined a top speed of was possible if the power plant from "North Carolina" could be reduced in size enough to fit in the tighter hull of "South Dakota". In order to do so the boilers were positioned directly above the turbines in the same arrangement to have been used in the 1916 s. The boilers were then rearranged several times so they were staggered with the turbines, eventually ending directly alongside the turbines. The propulsion system was arranged as close together as possible, and the evaporators and distilling equipment were placed in the machinery rooms. This provided enough additional space behind the armored belt to add a second plotting room.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: By this time, the design process had established that the hull was to be between perpendiculars and incorporate the single internal sloped armor belt. However, in case of rejection by the General Board, naval architects produced a series of alternatives. Among these were longer, faster ships armed with 14-inch guns in triple turrets, slower ships with 14-inch guns in quadruple turrets, improved versions of the "North Carolina" class, and a ship of armed with nine 16-in guns in a similar configuration to the "North Carolina"s.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: Arguments arose, frequently over the issue of speed; the Commander in Chief, United States Fleet (CINCUS) refused to allow the new ship to drop below , the Battle Force argued at least was necessary to maintain homogeneity in the line of battle, and the president of the War College maintained a fast ship was optimal, but the navy would continue to operate the older battleships until the 1950s and so a higher speed was not strictly necessarythough, crucially, it would mean the class would have been too slow to act in what would emerge as the most critical role for battleships, as escorts for fast carrier task forces. The primary 666-ft design was the only plan that could meet the specified requirements for speed, protection, and the nine 16-inch guns. By late 1937 a proposed design was agreed on, requiring only small modifications to save weight and increase the fields of fire. Berths for the crew, even the staterooms for senior officers, along with mess halls were reduced in size, and ventilation ports were completely removed, forcing the ship to rely completely on artificial air circulation.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: This ultimate insistence on speed presaged the development of the next generation of battleships, the largest, fastest, and final built by the U.S. Navy, the "Iowa" class:


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: The "South Dakota"-class battleships were long at the waterline, overall, and in beam. The design standard displacement was , approximately 1.2% overweight; when the ships were commissioned in 1942, the considerable increase in anti-air armament from the contract design increased standard displacement to ("Indiana"s calculated value on 12 April 1942). Full load displacement was when commissioned, with a mean draft of at this displacement. At the design combat displacement of , the mean draft was while metacentric height was . The addition of more anti-aircraft mounts during the ships' service in World War II increased the full load displacement considerably towards the end of the war; by 1945, "South Dakota"s full load displacement was some , and "Massachusetts" reached up to at emergency load.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: The hull featured a bulbous bow, triple bottom under the armored citadel, and skegs, characteristics shared by all American fast battleships. Unlike the preceding "North Carolina"-class and the subsequent "Iowa"-class, the "South Dakota"s mounted the outboard propulsion shafts in skegs rather than the inboard ones. Compared to the "North Carolina"s, the slightly shorter hull form resulted in improved maneuverability, and the vibration problems had been considerably reduced.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: The "South Dakota"-class battleships carried a main battery of nine /45 caliber Mark 6 guns in three three-gun turrets, identical to the "North Carolina"-class. Two of these turrets were placed in a superfiring pair forward; the third turret was mounted aft of the main superstructure. These guns fired a Mark 8 armor-piercing (AP) shell at a rate of two per minute per gun. The guns could either use a full propellant charge of , a reduced charge of , or a reduced flashless charge of . This provided a muzzle velocity of for the AP shell with the full propellant charge, while the reduced version provided a correspondingly lower muzzle velocity of . 130 shells were stowed for each gun, which came to a total of 1,170. The guns in all three turrets could elevate to 45 degrees, but only I and III turrets could depress to −2 degrees; the superfiring II turret was not able to depress. This enabled a maximum range of with the Mark 8 projectile. The turrets were able to train 150 degrees in both directions from the centerline, which enabled a wide arc of fire. The guns could be elevated or depressed at a rate of 12 degrees per second, and the turrets could train at 4 degrees per second.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: "South Dakota" was built as a fleet flagship, with an extra deck on her conning tower for extra command space, so her secondary battery had sixteen /38 caliber Mark 12 guns in eight Mark 28 Mod 0 twin dual-purpose (DP) mounts, four on either side of the superstructure. This was two turrets fewer than her sister ships who had ten twin DP mounts of twenty guns, five on either side of the ship. These turrets weighed and could depress their guns to −15 degrees and elevate them to 85 degrees. The guns fired a variety of different projectiles, including anti-aircraft (AA), illumination, and white phosphorus (WP) shells, at a rate of fire of 15–22 rounds per minute. The AA shells were and weighed between , depending on the variant. The illumination and white phosphorus shells were slightly smaller, at long; the illumination rounds weighed and the WP shells were .


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: The guns used three different charges, depending on the situation: a full charge, a full flashless charge, and a reduced charge. The standard full charge weighed , the flashless charge was slightly heavier at , and the reduced charge was significantly smaller, at . Both full charges provided a muzzle velocity of in new guns, but as continued fire wore down the barrels, muzzle velocity degraded slightly, to . The reduced charge's muzzle velocity was correspondingly lower, at . Each gun was supplied with 450 rounds, and was expected to fire 4,600 shells before it was worn enough to warrant replacement. At the maximum effective elevation to engage surface targets, 45 degrees, the guns could hit targets up to away. The maximum height at which aircraft could be engaged was .


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: The ships had a variety of anti-aircraft weapons, and the weapons mounted changed over time. Initially, the ships were designed to mount twelve machine guns and twelve autocannon. By March 1942, when "South Dakota" was completed, the anti-aircraft battery was modified to eight .50-inch and twenty-eight 1.1-inch machine guns and sixteen Oerlikon autocannon. In September of that year, the .50-inch guns were removed and the number of 1.1-inch guns reduced to 20. In their place, the 20mm guns were increased to 16 weapons, and 16 Bofors guns were added, in four quadruple mounts.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: In February 1943, the 1.1-inch guns and 1 Oerlikon gun were replaced with an additional 52 Bofors guns, for a total of 68. In December 1944, the battery was again upgraded, with 72 Oerlikon and 72 Bofors guns. In March 1945, the battery was modified for the last time: 5 Oerlikon were added and 4 Bofors were removed. This provided the maximum number of anti-aircraft guns, at 145 guns. The other three ships followed a similar pattern of upgrades to the anti-aircraft armament.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: The "South Dakota"s had eight Babcock & Wilcox three-drum express type boilers that had a steam pressure of and a temperature of . The steam drove four geared turbines, one for each propeller shaft. General Electric provided the turbines for the "South Dakota" and the "Massachusetts", while identical machinery for "Indiana" and "Alabama" were provided by Westinghouse. Similar to the "North Carolina"-class, the machinery was divided into four machinery spaces, each with two boilers and one set of turbines in order to ensure isolation of main propulsion machinery. No longitudinal bulkheads were fitted in the machinery spaces; this was to reduce the risk of asymmetric flooding and capsizing.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: The vessels had four screws, with the two outboard screws mounted in skegs. Two semi-balanced rudders were mounted behind the two inboard screws. As completed, the ships had all four-bladed propellers, but vibration tests would result in the ships of the class having different propeller blade arrangements throughout the war. The "Massachusetts" and "Alabama" had five blades in the outboard propellers and four blades inboard, while the "Indiana" had three blades inboard. The power output was , while overloading permitted up to , which drove the ships at a design speed of . The displacement of the vessels gradually increased over World War II, mainly due to additional light anti-aircraft gun placements and greater fuel oil carriage to refuel smaller escorts. By 1945, the "Alabama" achieved at on . The ships carried about of fuel oil, which gave a range of at .


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: Each ship had seven 1,000 kW ship service turbogenerators (SSTG) as well as two 200 kW emergency diesel generators. Total electrical power output was 7,000 kW at 450 volts alternating current.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: The "South Dakota"s were able to reap the benefits of developments in radar technology during World War II. By the end of the war, the ships were equipped with air and surface-search radars and radar fire-control. When commissioned, the ships were equipped with the SC air-search radar. This radar would eventually get replaced by the SK and SK-2 air-search radar. The main battery directors were fitted with Mark 3 fire-control radar, which were replaced by the Mark 8 starting in 1942. This radar gave these ships a significant advantage over ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, which for the most part relied on optical systems.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: The Mark 37 directors for the secondary batteries were fitted with the Mark 4 radar. With this system and the VT fused shells, the secondary batteries became formidable anti-air weapons, as well as being capable of using against surface targets. The Mark 4 was eventually replaced by the Mark 12/22.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: Unlike the preceding "North Carolina"-class battleships, the "South Dakota"s were designed to be resistant against 16-inch shellfire. The protection zone against the 2,240 lb projectile fired by the 16-inch/45 cal. guns of the was . To remain within treaty displacement limits, the belt armor was only slightly thicker while being considerably more inclined; this necessitating an internal belt arrangement in order to retain adequate waterline beam for stability.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: Abreast of the Special Treatment Steel (STS) outer hull plating, the "South Dakota"s' internal armor belt consists of thick Class A Krupp cemented (K.C.) armor mounted on thick STS plate, and was inclined 19° from the vertical. This was equal to of vertical belt armor at . The belt armor extended to the triple bottom with a Class B homogeneous Krupp-type lower belt and tapered from its maximum thickness of down to at the lowest portion at the triple bottom. This feature was chosen to protect against penetration of heavy-caliber gun projectiles that managed to hit the ship below the waterline. The ends of the armored citadel are protected by thick traverse bulkheads. The horizontal deck protection is made of three layers: a STS weather deck (also called "bomb deck"), a combined Class B and STS second deck, and a STS splinter deck over the machinery spaces. Over the magazines, the splinter deck is replaced with a STS third deck. The immune zone of the side armor against the 16-inch guns used by the "South Dakota"s themselves was smaller due to the introduction of the 2,700 lbs Mark 8 Super Heavy shell; against such a shell, the armor was effective only at ranges between .


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: The "South Dakota"s had considerable main battery turret protection; the turret face plates are Class B, the sides are Class A, the rear is Class A, and the roof is Class B. The barbettes are protected by Class A armor thick along the centerline and on the sides. Secondary battery turrets and handling spaces are protected by STS. The conning tower is protected by thick armor.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: The underwater protection was an internal "bulge" that consists of four longitudinal torpedo bulkheads forming a multi-layered system designed to absorb the energy from an underwater explosion equivalent to 700 pounds of TNT (1.3 GJ). The protection system was designed for the torpedo bulkheads to deform and absorb energy while several compartments were liquid loaded in order to disrupt the gas bubble and stop fragments; the total system depth was . Notably, the armor belt itself, which extended to the triple bottom where it tapered to , formed the third torpedo bulkhead. The lower edge of the belt was welded to the triple bottom structure and the joint was reinforced with buttstraps due to the structural discontinuity from the slight knuckle. It was hoped that extending the armor belt to the triple bottom as one of the torpedo bulkheads can help increase the protection of the system compared to the one used by the previous "North Carolina"-class. However, caisson tests in 1939 indicated that the "South Dakota" system was "less" effective due to the rigidity of the armor belt causing force of the detonation to significantly displace the final holding bulkhead inwards despite remaining watertight. This and several further subscale caisson tests resulted in several modifications, including the system's liquid loading scheme; whereas the "North Carolina"s had the third and fourth outboard compartments liquid loaded, the "South Dakota"s had the outer two compartments filled with liquid, typically fuel oil, while the inner two compartments were void spaces; this was done to mitigate the listing potential from a torpedo strike. The system saw further strengthening and refinements in the subsequent "Iowa" class, which shared similar geometries.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: "South Dakota"s keel was laid on 5 July 1939 by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation of Camden, New Jersey. She was launched on 7 June 1941 and commissioned on 20 March 1942. She went on a shakedown cruise in June after her fitting out was complete. In August–September, the battleship voyaged from the Atlantic to the Pacific through the Panama Canal; she struck a coral reef soon after arriving in the Tonga Islands and had to sail to the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard for repairs, which took about a month. "South Dakota" was then assigned to escort the aircraft carrier as part of Task Force (TF) 16; joined by TF 17 soon after, the combined fleet—now known as TF 61—was ordered to "make a sweep of the Santa Cruz Islands and then move southwest to block any Japanese forces approaching Guadalcanal." This led to the Battle of Santa Cruz, where in escorting "Enterprise", "South Dakota" was credited with shooting down 26 Japanese planes. The battleship was hit once by a -bomb on Turret I during the action.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: On 30 October 1942, "South Dakota" and the destroyer collided while the latter was investigating a sonar contact with a submarine. Both ships were able to continue to Nouméa, where repaired them. The battleship joined the "North Carolina"-class battleship and four destroyers to form TF 64. The ships intercepted a Japanese bombardment force on the night of 14–15 November, and, in a battle now known as the Second Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, they damaged the cruisers and in addition to forcing the battleship and destroyer to be scuttled. During the battle, a power failure incapacitated "South Dakota" and she received considerable topside damage—42 shells hit the ship, knocking out radio communications and three fire control radars along with destroying the main radar set.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: Partial repairs courtesy of ' crew allowed "South Dakota" to sail for New York; after the ship's arrival on 18 December 1942, she was given an overhaul and the battle damage was completely fixed. Departing the yard on 25 February 1943, "South Dakota" underwent sea trials before escorting in North Atlantic operations until mid-April, when she joined the British Home Fleet. This deployment lasted until 1 August; the ship then traveled to Norfolk and then the Pacific, arriving at Efate on 14 September. Moving to Fiji on 7 November, she joined Battleship Divisions 8 and 9, which supported Allied forces in the Battle of Tarawa, among other battles. Along with five other battleships, she fired upon Nauru Island on 6 December 1943.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: 29 January 1944 saw the ship bombard Roi-Namur before she moved away to protect the carriers assigned to provide air support for multiple amphibious assaults on islands within Kwajalein Atoll. "South Dakota" provided anti-aircraft support for various fast carrier task forces until June, when she bombarded Saipan and Tinian. The battleship took part in the so-called "Marianas Turkey Shoot", where more than 300 attacking Japanese aircraft were shot down, though she was hit by a 500-pound bomb on the main deck that killed 24 and wounded 27.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: For the rest of World War II, "South Dakota" operated in the Pacific mostly as a carrier escort; the only times she did not was when she received an overhaul at the Puget Sound Navy Yard from July–August 1944, when five tanks of gunpowder for the 16-inch guns exploded on 6 May (putting the ship out of action until 1 June), and when she bombarded Okinawa (24 March 19 April), the Kamaishi Steel Works on Honshu (14 July and 9 August), and Hamamatsu on Honshū (29–30 July). "South Dakota" was present at the Surrender of Japan aboard on 2 September 1945; she left Tokyo Bay on 20 September for the west coast of the United States. The battleship set sail for Philadelphia on 3 January 1946 to be overhauled; she was designated as part of the Atlantic Reserve Fleet there in June. Decommissioned on 31 January 1947, "South Dakota" remained idle until she was stricken from the Naval Register on 1 June 1962 and sold for scrap to the Lipsett Division of Luria Brothers and Company, Inc. on 25 October.


title: South Dakota-class battleship (1939)

text: The ship is memorialized at Sioux Falls, South Dakota, where memorabilia and parts of the battleship are displayed within an outline of the main deck. A screw from "South Dakota" is on display outside the U.S. Navy Museum in Washington, D.C.