title: Ecumenism

text: Protestants are involved in a variety of ecumenical groups, working in some cases toward organic denominational unity and in other cases for cooperative purposes alone. Because of the wide spectrum of Protestant denominations and perspectives, full cooperation has been difficult at times. Edmund Schlink's "Ökumenische Dogmatik" (1983, 1997) proposes a way through these problems to mutual recognition and renewed church unity.


title: Ecumenism

text: In 1999, the representatives of Lutheran World Federation and Catholic Church signed the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, resolving the conflict over the nature of Justification which was at the root of the Protestant Reformation. On July 18, 2006, delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration. The World Communion of Reformed Churches (representing the "80 million members of Congregational, Presbyterian, Reformed, United, Uniting, and Waldensian churches"), adopted the "Declaration" in 2017.


title: Ecumenism

text: On Reformation Day in 2016, Pope Francis of the Catholic Church travelled to Sweden (where the Lutheran Church is the national Church) to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the Reformation at Lund Cathedral, which serves as the cathedra for the Bishop of Lund of the Church of Sweden, a Lutheran Church. An official press release from the Holy See stated:


title: Ecumenism

text: An ecumenical service was presided over by Bishop Munib Younan, the president of the Lutheran World Federation, , the General Secretary of the LWF, as well as Pope Francis, the leader of the Catholic Church. Representatives from the Anglican Communion, Baptist World Alliance, Eastern Orthodox Church, and Salvation Army also participated in the predominantly Lutheran and Roman Catholic event. Pope Francis, in a joint statement with Bishop Munib A. Younan, stated that "With gratitude we acknowledge that the Reformation helped give a greater centrality to sacred Scripture in the Church's life".


title: Ecumenism

text: Susan Wood, a Sister of Charity, who is a systematic theology professor and chair of the theology department at Marquette University and a former president of the Catholic Theological Society of America, stated that "Since Vatican II, we have acknowledged an imperfect communion between Lutheran and Catholics" and that "There is no substantial difference in Lutheran and Catholic belief in the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist". Wood stated that in the near future intercommunion could happen in places "where people can't get out, like nursing homes and prisons."


title: Ecumenism

text: The Porvoo Communion is a communion that established altar and pulpit fellowship between Churches of the Lutheran and Anglican tradition.


title: Ecumenism

text: The members of the Anglican Communion have generally embraced the Ecumenical Movement, actively participating in such organizations as the World Council of Churches and the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. Most provinces holding membership in the Anglican Communion have special departments devoted to ecumenical relations; however, the influence of Liberal Christianity has in recent years caused tension within the communion, causing some to question the direction ecumenism has taken them.


title: Ecumenism

text: Each member church of the Anglican Communion makes its own decisions with regard to intercommunion. The 1958 Lambeth Conference recommended "that where between two Churches not of the same denominational or confessional family, there is unrestricted "communio in sacris", including mutual recognition and acceptance of ministries, the appropriate term to use is 'full communion', and that where varying degrees of relation other than 'full communion' are established by agreement between two such churches the appropriate term is 'intercommunion'."


title: Ecumenism

text: Full communion has been established between the Anglican Churches of Europe (England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Spain, Portugal and Gibraltar in Europe) and the Lutheran Churches of Northern Europe (Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Estonia, Lithuania, Great Britain and the Latvian Evangelical Lutheran Church Abroad) with the Porvoo Communion.


title: Ecumenism

text: Worldwide, an estimated forty million Anglicans belong to churches that do not participate in the Anglican Communion , a particular organization limited to one province per country. In these Anglican churches, there is strong opposition to the ecumenical movement and to membership in such bodies as the World and National Councils of Churches. Most of these churches are associated with the Continuing Anglican movement or the movement for Anglican realignment. While ecumenicalism in general is opposed, certain Anglican church bodies that are not members of the Anglican Communion—the Free Church of England and the Church of England in South Africa, for example—have fostered close and cooperative relations with other evangelical (if non-Anglican) churches, on an individual basis.


title: Ecumenism

text: One understanding of the ecumenical movement is that it came from the Catholic Church's attempts to reconcile with Christians who had become separated over theological issues. Others see the 1910 World Missionary Conference as the birthplace of the ecumenical movement. Others yet point to the 1920 encyclical of the Eastern Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch Germanus V "To the Churches of Christ Everywhere" that suggested a "fellowship of churches" similar to the League of Nations.


title: Ecumenism

text: Earlier, Nicolaus Ludwig, Count von Zinzendorf, (1700–1760) the renewer of the Moravian Church in the 18th century, was the first person to use the word "ecumenical" in this sense. His pioneering efforts to unite all Christians, regardless of denominational labels, into a "Church of God in the Spirit"—notably among German immigrants in Pennsylvania—were misunderstood by his contemporaries.


title: Ecumenism

text: Nathan Söderblom, Archbishop of Uppsala, the head of the Lutheran Church of Sweden, is known as the architect of the ecumenical movement of the twentieth century. During the First World War, he called on all Christian leaders to work for peace and justice. His leadership of the Christian "Life and Work" movement in the 1920s has led him to be recognised as one of the principal founders of the ecumenical movement. His was instrumental in chairing the World Conference of Life and Work in Stockholm, Sweden in 1925. At the Stockholm Conference in 1925, the culminating event in Söderblom's ecumenical work, Protestant and Orthodox Christians from the major Christian denominations, such as the Lutheran and Anglican Churches, were all present and participating, with the exception of the Catholic Church, which was a much regretted absence. He was a close friend of the English ecumenist George Bell. In 1930 was one of the recipients of the Nobel Prize, Nobel Peace Prize laureate, for the:"Cooperation between Christian Church Communities Brings Peace" and the first clergyman to receive this prize.


title: Ecumenism

text: The contemporary ecumenical movement gained speed through the 1910 Edinburgh Missionary Conference. However this conference would not have been possible without the pioneering ecumenical work of the Christian youth movements: the Young Men's Christian Association (founded 1844), the Young Women's Christian Association (founded 1855), the World Student Christian Federation (founded 1895), and the Federal Council of Churches (founded 1908), predecessor to today's National Council of Churches USA. Led by Methodist layman John R. Mott (former YMCA staff and in 1910 the General Secretary of WSCF), the World Mission conference marked the largest Protestant gathering to that time, with the express purposes of working across denominational lines for the sake of world missions. After the First World War further developments were the "Faith and Order" movement led by Charles Henry Brent, and the "Life and Work" movement led by Nathan Soderblom. In the 1930s, the tradition of an annual World Communion Sunday to celebrate ecumenical ties was established in the Presbyterian Church and was subsequently adopted by several other denominations.


title: Ecumenism

text: After World War I, which had brought much devastation to many people, the church became a source of hope to those in need. In 1948, the first meeting of the World Council of Churches took place. Despite the fact that the meeting had been postponed due to World War II, the council took place in Amsterdam with the theme of "Man’s Disorder and God’s Design". The focus of the church and the council following the gathering was on the damage created by the Second World War. The council and the movement went forward to continue the efforts of unifying the church globally in the mission of helping all those in need, whether it be a physical, emotional, or spiritual need. The movement led to an understanding amongst the churches that, despite difference, they could join together to be an element of great change in the world. To be an agent of hope and peace amongst the chaos and destruction that humans seem to create. More importantly the council and the movement lead to not only ecumenism but to the forming of councils amongst the denominations that connected churches across continental lines. Today, the World Council of Churches sees its role as sharing "the legacy of the one ecumenical movement and the responsibility to keep it alive" and acting "as a trustee for the inner coherence of the movement". Some scholars, such as Antoaneta Sabău, think that ”the features that ecumenism may display today could testify against the idea of a diminished interest in ecumenical matters, and rather for the fact that essential concepts of ecumenism have already become integrative parts of contemporary theologies.”


title: Ecumenism

text: The mutual anathemas (excommunications) of 1054, marking the Great Schism between Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) branches of Christianity, a process spanning several centuries, were revoked in 1965 by Pope Paul VI and the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. The Catholic Church does not regard Orthodox Christians as excommunicated, since they personally have no responsibility for the separation of their churches. In fact, Catholic rules admit the Orthodox to communion and the other sacraments in situations where the individuals are in danger of death or no Orthodox churches exist to serve the needs of their faithful. However, Orthodox churches still generally regard Roman Catholics as excluded from the sacraments and some may even not regard Catholic sacraments such as baptism and ordination as valid.


title: Ecumenism

text: In November 2006, Pope Benedict XVI traveled to Istanbul at the invitation of Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople and participated in the feast day services of St. Andrew the First Apostle, the patron saint of the Church of Constantinople. The Ecumenical Patriarch and Pope Benedict had another historic meeting in Ravenna, Italy in 2007. The Declaration of Ravenna marked a significant rapprochement between the Roman Catholic and Orthodox positions. The declaration recognized the bishop of Rome as the Protos, or first among equals of the Patriarchs. This acceptance and the entire agreement was hotly contested by the Russian Orthodox Church. The signing of the declaration highlighted the pre-existing tensions between the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Moscow Patriarchate. Besides their theological concerns, the Russian Orthodox have continuing concerns over the question of the Eastern Catholic Churches that operate in what they regard as Orthodox territory. This question has been exacerbated by disputes over churches and other property that the Communist authorities once assigned to the Orthodox Church but whose restoration these Churches have obtained from the present authorities.


title: Ecumenism

text: A major obstacle to improved relations between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches has been the insertion of the Latin term filioque into the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed in the 8th and 11th centuries. This obstacle has now been effectively resolved. The Catholic Church now recognizes that the Creed, as confessed at the First Council of Constantinople, did not add "and the Son", when it spoke of the Holy Spirit as proceeding from the Father. When quoting the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, as in the 6 August 2000 document "Dominus Iesus", it does not include "filioque". It views as complementary the Eastern-tradition expression "who proceeds from the Father" (profession of which it sees as affirming that he comes from the Father through the Son) and the Western-tradition expression "who proceeds from the Father and the Son", with the Eastern tradition expressing firstly the Father's character as first origin of the Spirit, and the Western tradition giving expression firstly to the consubstantial communion between Father and Son; and it believes that, provided this legitimate complementarity does not become rigid, it does not affect the identity of faith in the reality of the same mystery confessed.


title: Ecumenism

text: Continuing dialogues at both international and national level continues between the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches. A particularly close relationship has grown up between Pope Francis and Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew. Both church leaders have in particular emphasized their common concern for refugees and persecuted Christians in the Middle East. The 2016 Pan-Orthodox Council that was held in Crete aroused great expectations for advances in Church unity. However, not all Orthodox churches participated and, as a result, the Russian Patriarch refused to recognize the council as a truly ecumenical gathering. A major milestone in the growing rapprochement between the Catholic and Orthodox churches was the 12 February 2016 meeting held in Havana, Cuba between Patriarch Kirill and Pope Francis. The two church leaders issued a Joint Declaration of Pope Francis and Patriarch Kirill at the conclusion of their discussions.


title: Ecumenism

text: The decision by the U.S. Episcopal Church to ordain Gene Robinson, an openly gay, non-celibate priest who advocates same-sex blessings, as bishop led the Russian Orthodox Church to suspend its cooperation with the Episcopal Church. Likewise, when the Church of Sweden decided to bless same-sex marriages, the Russian Patriarchate severed all relations with the Church, noting that "Approving the shameful practice of same-sex marriages is a serious blow to the entire system of European spiritual and moral values influenced by Christianity."


title: Ecumenism

text: Bishop Hilarion Alfeyev commented that the inter-Christian community is "bursting at the seams". He sees the great dividing line—or "abyss"—not so much between old churches and church families as between "traditionalists" and "liberals", the latter now dominating Protestantism, and predicted that other Northern Protestant Churches will follow suit and this means that the "ecumenical ship" will sink, for with the liberalism that is materializing in European Protestant churches, there is no longer anything to talk about.


title: Ecumenism

text: Organizations such as the World Council of Churches, the National Council of Churches USA, Churches Uniting in Christ, Pentecostal Charismatic Peace Fellowship and Christian Churches Together continue to encourage ecumenical cooperation among Protestants, Eastern Orthodox, and, at times, Roman Catholics. There are universities such as the University of Bonn in Germany that offer degree courses in "Ecumenical Studies" in which theologians of various denominations teach their respective traditions and, at the same time, seek for common ground between these traditions.


title: Ecumenism

text: The Global Christian Forum (GCF) was founded in 1998 following the proposal of the then General Secretary of the WCC, Rev. Konrad Raiser, that a new, independent space should be created where participants could meet on an equal basis to foster mutual respect and to explore and address together common concerns through a postmodern approach.


title: Ecumenism

text: Influenced by the ecumenical movement, the "scandal of separation" and local developments, a number of United and uniting churches have formed; there are also a range of mutual recognition strategies being practiced where formal union is not feasible. An increasing trend has been the sharing of church buildings by two or more denominations, either holding separate services or a single service with elements of all traditions.


title: Ecumenism

text: Most Traditionalist Catholics (such as Society of Saint Pius X, Society of Saint Pius V, Congregation of Mary Immaculate Queen, Slaves of the Immaculate Heart of Mary etc.) are almost universally opposed to ecumenism with other faith groups. Critics in the Catholic church are often critical of Vatican II documents that promote ecumenism, such as "Nostra aetate" and "Unitatis redintegratio". Catholic opponents to ecumenism often cite preceding papal documents such as "Mortalium Animos" (1928) by Pope Pius XI, who considered the position that the Church of Christ can be divided into sections and that the Unity of the Church has not been achieved as a false opinion. Considering these notions, Pius XI continued "[T]he Apostolic See cannot on any terms take part in [non-Catholic] assemblies, nor is it anyway lawful for Catholics either to support or to work for such enterprises; for if they do so they will be giving countenance to a false Christianity, quite alien to the one Church of Christ. Shall We suffer, what would indeed be iniquitous, the truth, and a truth divinely revealed, to be made a subject for compromise? For here there is question of defending revealed truth." Many traditional-leaning Catholics often strictly interpret the teaching of "Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus" ("outside the Church there is no salvation"), or that salvation can only be found in the church.


title: Ecumenism

text: In November 2015 Pope Francis stirred controversy among Catholics when he addressed a gathering of Lutherans in Rome regarding the issue of inter-communion. Addressing the issue of a whether a Lutheran woman married to a Catholic man and attended mass together could receive communion together, Francis said that while he could not give permission for her to receive communion, if she would pray about it and come forward he could not deny her communion. Cardinal Robert Sarah and Bishop Athanasius Schneider reacted to the pope's comments saying it would almost never be acceptable for a non-Catholic to receive communion. On the matter of inter-communion Sarah said "Inter-communion is not permitted between Catholics and non-Catholics. You must confess the Catholic Faith. A non-Catholic cannot receive Communion. That is very, very clear. It’s not a matter of following your conscience."


title: Ecumenism

text: In early 2019 Barry C. Knestout, the 13th bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Richmond, gave permission to the Episcopal Diocese of Southern Virginia to ordain Susan B. Haynes as the new bishop at St. Bede Catholic Church in Williamsburg, Virginia. The Episcopal Diocese of Southern Virginia does not have a cathedral and usually rotates where it hosts ordinations and other events. However the announcement was met with opposition by many Catholics who objected to holding a non-Catholic worship service and women's bishop ordination in a Catholic church. Over 3,000 people signed an internet petition objecting to the event. On 17 January the Episcopal Diocese of Southern Virginia announced it would no longer hold Haynes' ordination at St. Bede.


title: Ecumenism

text: There are some members of the United Methodist Church who oppose ecumenical efforts which are "not grounded in the doctrines of the Church" due to concerns over theological compromise. For example, an article published in "Catalyst Online: Contemporary Evangelical Perspectives for United Methodist Seminarians" stated that false ecumenism might result in the "blurring of theological and confessional differences in the interests of unity".


title: Ecumenism

text: The Evangelical Wesleyan Church, a Methodist connexion in the conservative holiness movement, teaches in its Book of Discipline that ecumenism with denominations that teach doctrines which contradict Wesleyan-Arminian theology should be avoided:


title: Ecumenism

text: Most churches following the doctrine of Confessional Lutheranism are generally strongly opposed to ecumenical activities. Most notably the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) bars its clergy from worshiping with other faiths, contending "that church fellowship or merger between church bodies in doctrinal disagreement with one another is not in keeping with what the Bible teaches about church fellowship." In keeping with this position, a Connecticut LCMS pastor was asked to apologize by the president of the denomination, and did so, for participating in an interfaith prayer vigil for the 26 children and adults killed at a Newtown elementary school; and a LCMS pastor in New York was suspended for praying at an interfaith vigil in 2001, twelve days after the September 11 attacks. Another conservative Lutheran body, the American Association of Lutheran Churches, is strongly opposed to ecumenical (more accurately, interfaith) dialogue with non-Christian religions and with denominations it identifies as cults.


title: Ecumenism

text: When the was released, many prominent Evangelical figures – particularly of the Calvinist Reformed tradition – opposed it, including John F. MacArthur, D. James Kennedy, Alistair Begg, R. C. Sproul, and Arminian Protestant teacher and televangelist John Ankerberg.


title: Ecumenism

text: William David Walker, who was the first bishop of North Dakota (1883–1896), and Western New York (1897–1917), was strongly opposed to dialogue with other denominations. In his address to the 1914 Convention of the Diocese of Western New York, Walker said that "in my opinion while divided Christendom remains, separated sects are better apart—each peaceably working out its own salvation."


title: Ecumenism

text: Practically, "the whole of Eastern Orthodoxy holds membership in the World Council of Churches". Ecumenical Patriarch Germanus V of Constantinople's 1920 letter To all the Churches of Christ, wherever they may be', urging closer co-operation among separated Christians, and suggesting a 'League of Churches', parallel to the newly founded League of Nations" was an inspiration for the founding of the World Council of Churches. As such "Constantinople, along with several of the other Orthodox Churches, was represented at the Faith and Order Conferences at Lausanne in 1927 and at Edinburgh in 1937. The Ecumenical Patriarchate also participated in the first Assembly of the WCC at Amsterdam in 1948, and has been a consistent supporter of the work of the WCC ever since."


title: Ecumenism

text: However, many of the Eastern Orthodox laity vehemently oppose ecumenism with other Christian denominations. Such people view ecumenism, as well as interfaith dialogue, as potentially pernicious to Eastern Orthodox Church tradition - as a "weakening" of Eastern Orthodoxy itself. In the Eastern Orthodox world, the Theological Committee of the Sacred Community of Mount Athos, arguably the most important center of Orthodox spirituality, has voiced its concerns regarding the ecumenist movement and has expressed opposition to the participation of the Eastern Orthodox Church. They regard modern ecumenism as compromising essential doctrinal stands in order to accommodate other Christians, and object to the emphasis on dialogue leading to intercommunion rather than conversion on the part of participants in ecumenical initiatives. Greek Old Calendarists also claim that the teachings of the Seven Ecumenical Councils forbid changing the church calendar through abandonment of the Julian calendar. The Inter-Eastern Orthodox Theological Conference entitled "Ecumenism: Origins, Expectations, Disenchantment", organized in September 2004 by the Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki, drew negative conclusions on ecumenism. Russian Orthodox bishop Tikhon (Shevkunov) has strongly criticised ecumenism, especially with the Catholic Church, saying "Catholics are not even a church and as a result not even Christian."


title: Ecumenism

text: The issue of ecumenism in the Eastern Orthodox Church is tenuous. As Fr. Timothy Evangelinidis of the Orthodox Research Institute notes, "Orthodoxy also sees itself in a fragile position within the Ecumenical Movement. It is neither completely at home within ecumenism, nor is closed to other Christian groups wishing to dialogue with it." Opposition to ecumenism in the Orthodox Church has its roots in the teachings of many modern-day saints and monastics. For example, the popular Greek Saint, Elder Ephraim of Katounakia (died 1998), said when asked about ecumenism, "I went to my cell and prayed, asking Christ to inform me what Ecumenism is. I received his reply, which was that Ecumenism has a spirit of wickedness and is dominated by unclean spirits." Similarly, the well-known Saint Paisios of Mount Athos (died 1994) gave many teachings about ecumenism. In a private letter to a priest named Fr. Haralambos on 23 January,1969, Elder Paisios wrote, "With sadness I must write that among all the unionists [ecumenists] I’ve met, never have I seen them to have either a drop or shred of spirituality." Opposition to ecumenism comes not only from the laity and from monastics, but also from the Orthodox clergy. The popular ROCOR metropolitan Philaret of New York (died 1985) wrote a series of three "sorrowful" epistles from 1969 to 1975 against ecumenism, in which he called ecumenism an "error". The anti-ecumenical words of such prominent and highly-respected figures in the Orthodox Church garners attention from many members of the clergy and laity. Nevertheless, not all Orthodox Christians share such views - some Orthodox retain a more open stance to ecumenism - similar to that of the Patriarch of Constantinople.


title: Ecumenism

text: The state atheism of the former Eastern Bloc, which brought about a persecution of Christians, caused a rise in Christian nationalism in the West, as well as ecumenical cooperation among Christians across denominational lines. For example, the United States, in 1956, adopted "In God We Trust" as its official motto "to differentiate itself from the Soviet Union, its Cold War enemy that was widely seen as promoting atheism." During this time, Christian human rights non-governmental organisations, such as Voice of the Martyrs, were founded in order to provide support to Christians persecuted in the Communist Bloc, also engaging in activities such as Bible smuggling. In the 1990s, the period surrounding the collapse of the Soviet Union led "a surge in the activity of religious groups and interests among broad segments of the population". The revival of the Church occurred in these formerly Communist areas; Christian missionaries also entered the former Eastern Bloc in order to engage in evangelism there, winning people back to Christianity.


title: Ecumenism

text: Christian democracy is a centrist political ideology inspired by Catholic social teaching and Neo-Calvinist theology. Christian democratic political parties came to prominence after World War II after Roman Catholics and Protestants worked together to help rebuild war-torn Europe. From its inception, Christian Democracy fosters an "ecumenical unity achieved on the religious level against the atheism of the government in the Communist countries".


title: Ecumenism

text: The ecumenical symbol pre-dates the World Council of Churches (WCC), formed in 1948, but is incorporated into the official logo of the WCC and many other ecumenical organizations.


title: Ecumenism

text: Although originating in the Wesleyan tradition, and most popular among mainline and evangelical Protestant churches, the "Christian Flag" stands for no creed or denomination, but for Christianity. With regard to the Christian symbolism of the flag:


title: Ecumenism

text: An ecumenical Christian organization, the Federal Council of Churches (now succeeded by the National Council of Churches and Christian Churches Together), adopted the flag on 23 January 1942.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Gustavus Adolphus (9 December <nowiki>[</nowiki>N.S 19 December] 15946 November <nowiki>[</nowiki>N.S 16 November] 1632), also known in English as Gustav II Adolf or Gustav II Adolph, was King of Sweden from 1611 to 1632, and is credited for the rise of Sweden as a great European power (). During his reign, Sweden became one of the primary military forces in Europe during the Thirty Years' War, helping to determine the political and religious balance of power in Europe. He was formally and posthumously given the name Gustavus Adolphus the Great (; ) by the Riksdag of the Estates in 1634.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: He is often regarded as one of the greatest military commanders in modern history, with use of an early form of combined arms. His most notable military victory was the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631. With his resources, logistics, and support, Gustavus Adolphus was positioned to become a major European leader, but he was killed a year later at the Battle of Lützen. He was assisted in his efforts by Count Axel Oxenstierna, the Lord High Chancellor of Sweden, who also acted as regent after his death.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Coming to the throne at the age of 16, Gustavus Adolphus inherited three wars from his father Charles IX of Sweden; border conflicts with Russia and Denmark-Norway, and a dynastic struggle with his first cousin, King Sigismund III Vasa of Poland. Of these, the Danish war was the most serious. During his reign, Sweden rose from the status of a Baltic Sea basin regional power to one of the great powers of Europe and a model of early modern era government. Gustavus Adolphus is known as the "father of modern warfare", or the first modern general. He taught a number of other military commanders, such as Lennart Torstensson, who would go on to expand the boundaries and the power of Swedish Empire after Gustavus Adolphus's death. Spoils meant he became a successful bookraider in Europe, targeting Jesuit collections.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: His contributions to Sweden's rise in power included reformation of the administrative structure. For example, he began Parish Registration of the population, so that the central government could more efficiently tax and conscript the people. He is also widely commemorated by Protestants in Europe as the main defender of their cause during the Thirty Years' War, with multiple churches, foundations and other undertakings named after him, including the Gustav-Adolf-Werk.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Gustavus Adolphus was born in Stockholm on 9 December 1594, eldest son of Duke Charles of the House of Vasa and his second wife, Christina of Holstein-Gottorp. At the time, his cousin Sigismund was both King of Sweden and Poland. The Protestant Duke Charles forced the Catholic Sigismund to abandon the throne of Sweden in 1599, part of the preliminary religious strife before the Thirty Years' War, and reigned as regent before taking the throne as Charles IX of Sweden in 1604. Crown Prince Gustav Adolph had Gagnef-Floda in Dalecarlia as a duchy from 1610. Upon his father's death in October 1611, a sixteen-year-old Gustavus inherited the throne, being declared of age and able to reign himself at seventeen as of 16 December. He also inherited an ongoing succession of occasionally belligerent dynastic disputes with his Polish cousin, Sigismund III, who persisted in his effort to regain the Swedish throne.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: In a round of this dynastic dispute, Gustavus Adolphus invaded Livonia when he was 31, beginning the Polish–Swedish War (1626–29). He intervened on behalf of the Lutherans in Germany, who opened the gates of their cities to him. His reign became known from his actions a few years later when, in June 1630, he landed in Germany, marking the Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War. Gustavus Adolphus intervened on the anti-Imperial side, which at the time was losing to the Holy Roman Empire and its Catholic allies; the Swedish forces would quickly reverse that situation.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Gustavus Adolphus was married to Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg, the daughter of John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, and chose the Prussian city of Elbing as the base for his operations in Germany. He died in the Battle of Lützen in 1632. His death was a great loss to the Lutheran side, resulting in large parts of Germany and other countries, which had been conquered for Lutheranism, to be reconquered for Catholicism (via the Counter-Reformation). His involvement in the Thirty Years' War gave rise to the saying that he was the incarnation of "the Lion of the North" (German: "Der Löwe aus Mitternacht", lit. "The Lion of Midnight").


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Historian Ronald S. Love wrote that in 1560–1660 there were "a few innovators, notably Maurice of Nassau and Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, whom many scholars credit with revolutionary developments in warfare and with having laid the foundations of military practice for the next two centuries." Scholars consider him an extremely able military commander. His integration of infantry, cavalry, logistics, and particularly his use of artillery, earned him the title of the "Father of Modern Warfare".


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Future commanders who studied and admired Gustavus Adolphus include Napoleon I of France and Carl von Clausewitz. His advancements in warfare made Sweden the dominant Baltic power for the next hundred years ("see Swedish Empire"). He is also the only Swedish monarch to be styled "the Great". This decision was made by the Swedish Estates of the Realm when they convened in 1633, making him officially called Gustavus Adolphus the Great ("Gustavus Adolphus Magnus").


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Gustavus Adolphus was the main figure responsible for the success of Swedish arms during the Thirty Years' War and led his nation to great prestige. As a general, Gustavus Adolphus employed mobile artillery on the battlefield, as well as very aggressive tactics, where attack was stressed over defense, and mobility and cavalry initiative were emphasized.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Among other innovations, he installed an early form of combined arms in his formations, where the cavalry could attack from the safety of an infantry line reinforced by cannon, and retire again within to regroup after their foray. Inspired by the reform of Maurice of Nassau, he adopted much shallower infantry formations than were common in the pike and shot armies of the era, with formations typically fighting in 5 or 6 ranks, occasionally supported at some distance by another such formation—the gaps being the provinces of the artillery and cavalry as noted above.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: His artillery were themselves different—in addition to the usual complements of heavy cannon, he introduced light mobile guns for the first time into the Renaissance battlefield. These were grouped in batteries supporting his more linearly deployed formations, replacing the cumbersome and unmaneuverable traditional deep squares (such as the Spanish tercios that were up to 50 ranks deep) used in other pike and shot armies of the day. In consequence, his forces could redeploy and reconfigure very rapidly, confounding his enemies. He created the modern Swedish Navy, which transported troops and supplies to the Continental battlefront.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Carl von Clausewitz and Napoleon Bonaparte considered him one of the greatest generals of all time, an evaluation agreed with by George S. Patton and others. He was also renowned for his constancy of purpose and the equality of his troops—no one part of his armies was considered better or received preferred treatment, as was common in other armies where the cavalry were the elite, followed by the artillery, and both disdained the lowly infantry. In Gustavus Adolphus's' army the units were extensively cross-trained. Both cavalry and infantry could service the artillery, as his heavy cavalry did when turning captured artillery on the opposing Catholic tercios at First Breitenfeld.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Pikemen could shoot—if not as accurately as those designated musketeers—so a valuable firearm could be kept in the firing line. His infantrymen and gunners were taught to ride, if needed. Napoleon thought highly of the achievement and copied the tactics. However, recent historians have challenged his reputation. B. H. Liddell Hart says it is an exaggeration to credit him with a uniquely disciplined conscript army, or call his the first military state to fight a protracted war on the continent. He argues that he improved existing techniques and used them brilliantly. Richard Brzezinski says his legendary status was based on inaccurate myths created by later historians. Many of his innovations were developed by his senior staff.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Gustavus Adolphus's politics in the conquered territory of Estonia also show progressive tendencies. In 1631 he forced the nobility to grant the peasants greater autonomy. He also encouraged education, opening a school in Tallinn in 1631, today known as Gustav Adolf Grammar School (). On 30 June 1632, Gustavus Adolphus signed the Foundation Decree of Academia Dorpatensis in Estonia, today known as the University of Tartu.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Despite significant hardships for the common people, the period of Swedish rule over Estonia has been idealized in Estonian folklore as the "good old Swedish times" (Estonian: vana hea Rootsi aeg), which has been attributed to comparisons with the following era under the Russian Tsars.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: I had carefully learned to understand, about that experience which I could have upon things of rule, how fortune is failing or great, subject to such rule in common, so that otherwise I would have had scant reason to desire such a rule, had I not found myself obliged to it through God’s bidding and nature. Now it was of my acquaintance, that inasmuch as God had let me be born a prince, such as I then am born, then my good and my destruction were knotted into one with the common good; for every reason then, it was now my promise that I should take great pains about their well-being and good governance and management, and thereabout bear close concern.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Gustavus Adolphus inherited three wars from his father when he ascended the throne: against Denmark-Norway, which had attacked Sweden earlier in 1611; against Russia, due to Sweden having tried to take advantage of the Russian Time of Troubles; and against Poland-Lithuania, due to King Charles's having deposed King Sigismund III, his nephew, as King of Sweden.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: The war against Denmark-Norway (Kalmar War) was concluded in 1613 with a peace that did not cost Sweden any territory, but it was forced to pay a heavy indemnity to Denmark-Norway (Treaty of Knäred). During this war, Gustavus Adolphus let his soldiers plunder towns and villages, and as he met little resistance from Danish forces in Scania, they pillaged and devastated twenty-four Scanian parishes. His memory in Scania has been negative because of that fear. The largest destroyed settlement was the Town Væ, which two years later was replaced by Danish-Norwegian King Christian IV as the nearby Christiansted (after the Swedification process, spelled Kristianstad), the last Scanian town to be founded by a Danish king.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: The war against Russia (Ingrian War) ended in 1617 with the Treaty of Stolbovo, which excluded Russia from the Baltic Sea. The final inherited war, the war against Poland, ended in 1629 with the Truce of Altmark, which transferred the large province of Livonia to Sweden and freed the Swedish forces for the subsequent intervention in the Thirty Years' War in Germany, where Swedish forces had already established a bridgehead in 1628.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: The electorate of Brandenburg was especially torn apart by a quarrel between the Protestant and Catholic parties. The Brandenburg minister and diplomat baron influenced Gustavus Adolphus to support and protect the Protestant side in Germany. When Gustavus Adolphus began his push into northern Germany in June–July 1630, he had just 4,000 troops. He was soon able to consolidate the Protestant position in the north, however, using reinforcements from Sweden and money supplied by France at the Treaty of Bärwalde.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: After Swedish plundering in Brandenburg (1631) endangered the system of retrieving war contributions from occupied territories, "marauding and plundering" by Swedish soldiers was prohibited. Meanwhile, a Catholic army under Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly was laying waste to Saxony. Gustavus Adolphus met Tilly's army and won a decisive victory at the First Battle of Breitenfeld in September 1631. He then marched across Germany, establishing his winter quarters near the Rhine, making plans for the invasion of the rest of the Holy Roman Empire.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: In March 1632, Gustavus Adolphus invaded Bavaria, an ally of the Emperor. He forced the withdrawal of his Catholic opponents at the Battle of Rain, marking the high point of the campaign. In the summer of that year, he sought a political solution that would preserve the existing structure of states in Germany, while guaranteeing the security of its Protestants. But achieving these objectives depended on his continued success on the battlefield.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Gustavus Adolphus is reported to have entered battle without wearing any armor, proclaiming, "The Lord God is my armor!" However, it is more likely that he simply wore a padded cuirass rather than going into battle wearing no battle protection whatsoever. In 1627, near Dirschau in Prussia, a Polish soldier shot him in the muscles above his shoulders. He survived, but the doctors could not remove the bullet, so from that point on, he could not wear iron armor and two fingers of his right hand were paralyzed. The plate cuirass normally worn by important officers at that time was replaced by a buff coat made of moose hide, which would have serious consequences later.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: On 6 November 1632, Gustavus encountered the Imperial Army under Albrecht von Wallenstein at Lützen. The subsequent battle was one of the most decisive battles of the Thirty Years' War. Gustavus was killed when, at a crucial point in the battle, he became separated from his troops while leading a cavalry charge on his wing. Lützen was a Protestant victory, but the Protestants lost one of its most important leaders, which caused the Protestant campaign to lose direction and suffer a crushing defeat at Nördlingen.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Towards 1:00 pm, in the thick mix of gun smoke and fog covering the field, the king was separated from his fellow riders and suffered multiple shots. A bullet crushed his left arm below the elbow. Almost simultaneously his horse suffered a shot to the neck that made it hard to control. In the mix of fog and smoke from the burning town of Lützen the king rode astray behind enemy lines. There he sustained yet another shot in the back, was stabbed and fell from his horse.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Lying on the ground, he received a final, fatal shot to the temple. His fate remained unknown for some time. However, when the gunnery paused and the smoke cleared, his horse was spotted between the two lines, Gustavus Adolphus himself not on it and nowhere to be seen. His disappearance stopped the initiative of the hitherto successful Swedish right wing, while a search was conducted. His partly stripped body was found an hour or two later, and evacuated from the field in a Swedish artillery wagon.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: As late as the 19th century several stories were retold about Gustav Adolphus's death. In most of them the assassin was named as Prince , who was next to the king on the occasion and was thought to be acting on behalf of the enemy. When King Charles XII of Sweden was shown purported evidence in 1707 he dismissed the theory out of doubt that ""any prince could be so ungrateful"".


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: In February 1633, the Riksdag of the Estates gave him the title "Gustavus Adolphus the Great", or "Gustav Adolf den Store" in Swedish, the only Swedish monarch to be so honoured.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: As those Vasa princes who descended from deposed monarchs were excluded from the throne and Gustavus Adolphus's younger brother had died ten years before, his young daughter Christina became his successor, with Maria Eleonora and other ministers governing on her behalf. He left one other known child, his illegitimate son Gustav, Count of Vasaborg.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Gustavus Adolphus is widely commemorated by Protestants in Europe as the main defender of their cause during the Thirty Years' War, with multiple churches, foundations and other undertakings named after him. He became a symbol of Swedish pride, and his name is attached to city squares in major Swedish cities like Stockholm, Gothenburg and Helsingborg. Gustavus Adolphus Day is celebrated in Sweden and Finland each year on 6 November, the day the king died at Lützen. One of the traditions on this day is the Gustavus Adolphus pastry. In Finland, the day is also called "the Swedish day". Gustavus Adolphus College, a Lutheran college in St. Peter, Minnesota, is also named for him.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: The Gustav-Adolf-Werk (GAW) of the Evangelical Church in Germany, founded on the bicentennial celebration of the Battle of Lützen, has as its object the aid of other churches and commemorates Gustavus' legacy. It is responsible for taking care of the Diaspora work of the EKD and has separate branches internationally. The organization in Austria is called the Gustav-Adolf-Verein. The project of forming such a society was first broached in connection with the bicentennial celebration of the Battle of Lützen on 6 November 1832.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: A proposal to collect funds for a monument to Gustavus Adolphus was agreed to, and it was suggested by Superintendent Grossmann that the best memorial to Gustavus Adolphus would be the formation of a union for propagating his ideas. It quickly gained popularity in Germany. The lack of political correctness received some criticism; however, the organization used GAW as its brand in the meanwhile. The Swedish royal family visited the GAW headquarters in Leipzig on the 400th birthday of Gustavus Adolphus, in 1994.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: The German Socialist Franz Mehring wrote a biography of Gustavus Adolphus with a Marxist perspective on the actions of the Swedish king during the Thirty Years' War. In it, he makes a case that the war was fought over economics and trade rather than religion. The Swedes discovered huge deposits of copper, which were used to build brass cannon. The cottage-industrial growth stimulated an armaments industry.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: In his book "Ofredsår" ("Years of Warfare"), the Swedish historian and author Peter Englund argues that there was probably no single all-important reason for the king's decision to go to war. Instead, it was likely a combination of religious, security, as well as economic considerations. This view is supported by German historian Johannes Burkhardt, who writes that Gustavus entered the 30 Years War exactly 100 years after the publication of the Confessio Augustana, the core confession of faith of the Lutheran Church, and let himself be praised as its saviour. Yet Gustavus Adolphus's own "manifesto of war" does not mention any religious motivations at all but speaks of political and economic reasons.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Sweden would have to maintain its integrity in the face of several provocations and aggressions by the Habsburg Empire. The manifesto was written by scholar Johann Adler Salvius in a style common of the time that promotes a "just war". Burkhardt argues that traditional Swedish historiography constructed a defensive interest in security out of that by taking the manifesto's text for granted. But to defend Stockholm, the occupation of the German Baltic territories would have been an extreme advance and the imperial Baltic Sea fleet mentioned as a threat in the manifesto had never reached more than a quarter of the size of the Swedish fleet.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Moreover, it was never maintained to challenge Sweden but to face the separatist Netherlands. So if ruling the Baltic Sea was a goal of Swedish strategy, the conquests in Germany were not a defensive war but an act of expansion. From Swedish Finland, Gustavus Adolphus advanced along the Baltic Sea coast and eventually to Augsburg and Munich and he even urged the Swiss Confederacy to join him. This was no longer about Baltic interests but the imperial capital of Vienna and the alpine passes that were now in close reach of the Swedish army.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: Burkhardt points out that the Gothic legacy of the Swedes, coalesced as a political program. The Swedish king was also ""Rex Gotorum"" (), and the list of kings was traced back to the Gothic rulers to construct continuity. Prior to his embarkment to northern Germany, Gustavus urged the Swedish nobility to follow the example of conquests set by their Gothic ancestors. Had he lived longer, it would have been likely that Gustavus had reached out for the imperial crown of the Holy Roman Empire.


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: The Swedish composer Franz Berwald composed the choral work "Gustaf Adolph den stores seger och död vid Lützen" ("Gustav Adolf the Great's Victory and Death near Lützen") in 1845. He is also the protagonist of Max Bruch’s 1898 choral work "Gustav Adolf".


title: Gustavus Adolphus

text: He is also a significant supporting character in the best-selling alternate history book series, "1632", written by American historian, writer, and editor Eric Flint (first published in 2000).


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: Rawhide is an American Western TV series starring Eric Fleming and Clint Eastwood. The show aired for eight seasons on the CBS network on Friday nights, from January 9, 1959, to September 3, 1965, before moving to Tuesday nights from September 14, 1965, until December 7, 1965, with a total of 217 black-and-white episodes. The series was produced and sometimes directed by Charles Marquis Warren, who also produced early episodes of "Gunsmoke". The show is fondly remembered by many for its theme, "Rawhide".


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: Spanning years, "Rawhide" was the sixth-longest running American television Western, exceeded only by 8 years of "Wagon Train", 9 years of "The Virginian", 14 years of "Bonanza", 18 years of "Death Valley Days", and 20 years of "Gunsmoke".


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: Set in the 1860s, "Rawhide" portrays the challenges faced by the drovers of a cattle drive. Most episodes are introduced with a monologue by Gil Favor (Eric Fleming), trail boss. In a typical "Rawhide" story, the drovers come upon people on the trail and involve themselves in other people's affairs, usually encountering various corrupt individuals. Many times, one or more of the crew venture into a nearby town and encounter some trouble from crooked townspeople or lawless politicians from which they need to be rescued. Rowdy Yates (Clint Eastwood) was young and at times impetuous in the earliest episodes, and Favor had to keep a tight rein on him.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: Favor is a savvy and strong leader, who always plays "square" with his fellow men – a tough customer who can handle the challenges and get the job done. (Producer Charles Warren called on the diary written in 1866 by trail boss George C. Duffield to shape the character of Favor.) Although Favor had the respect and loyalty of the men who worked for him, the people, including Yates, are insubordinate to him a few times, after working too hard or after receiving a tongue lashing. Favor has to fight at times and usually wins.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: Some "Rawhide" stories were easy in production terms, but the peak form of the show was convincing and naturalistic, and sometimes brutal. Its story lines ranged from parched plains to anthrax, ghostly riders to wolves, cattle raiding, bandits, murderers, and others. A frequent story line was the constant need to find water for the cattle. The scout spent much of his time looking for water, sometimes finding that water holes and even rivers had dried up. In some ways, the show was similar to the TV series "Wagon Train", which had debuted on NBC on September 18, 1957. For example, neither the wagon train nor the herd moved very much.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: "Rawhide" frequently dealt with controversial topics. Robert Culp played an ex-soldier on the drive who had become dangerously addicted to morphine. Mexican drover Jesús faced racism at times from outside of the crew.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: Several shows deal with the aftermath of the American Civil War, which ended four years earlier. The "Poco Tiempo" episode reveals that Yates' father's name was Dan, that Yates came from Southwestern Texas, that he joined the Confederate States Army at 16, and that he was later held in a federal prison camp.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: Favor also served in the CSA as a captain. "Incident on the Edge of Madness" in season one, guest-starring Lon Chaney Jr., had Favor's old commanding officer attempting to enlist the aid of Favor and his men to start the "New Confederacy of Panama" much to Favor's dismay. In that same episode, Favor and Nolan were revealed to have been in the Confederate forces up on Marye's Heights at the Battle of Fredericksburg, and they "felt shamed" at killing so many Union soldiers.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: Some American Indians demanded cattle as payment for going through their land. Rough characters were in the shows, and in one episode, Gil Favor is tortured by having his face held near a fire. In "Incident of the Town in Terror", people think that a sick Yates has "the plague" (anthrax), and they enforce at gunpoint a quarantine of the cattle drovers outside the town. Also, cattle rustlers were around, including Commancheros.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: On occasions, "Rawhide" was eerily atmospheric. "Incident with an Executioner" featured a mysterious dark rider (Dan Duryea) seen on the hillside following the herd, "Incident of the Haunted Hills" featured a sacred Indian burial ground, "Incident of the Druid Curse" and season two's "Incident of the Murder Steer" (where anyone sighting a rogue steer with "Murder" carved on its side soon after dies, based on an actual legend of the Old West). The series also featured episodes with ghost towns, cattle with horns lit up by St. Elmo's fire at dusk, cowboys struck by lightning, plus a strange, totally enclosed gypsy wagon, apparently steering itself, repeatedly turning up, all stand out as curiously "spooky" tales for a bustling dusty cattle drive; the show's often stark incidental music suited these stories perfectly.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: In episode 67, "Incident Near the Promised Land" (most episode titles began with "Incident" until Bruce Geller and Bernard L. Kowalski became the producers for season six), the cattle drive finally reached Sedalia for the first time in the series. Unusually, episode 68 continues on from that, where the cattle have been sold and the men celebrate in town and decide on their futures with even Favor thinking of leaving the business. Instead of the usual ending, wherein Favor gives the command "Head 'em up! Move 'em out!" and the cattle move off, this episode had the end titles over a view of a Sedalia street.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: Episode 69 has Favor visiting his two daughters, Gillian and Maggie, who live with their aunt Eleanor Bradley in Philadelphia. In episode 70, a number of the men are back together and heading back to San Antonio about 650 miles away, with a herd of horses (used in the titles) instead of cattle. Episode 71 has a new cattle drive ready to go, but the owner of 1600 of the cattle wants to be in charge, so Favor reluctantly signs on as a ramrod, but after problems, Favor becomes boss again at the end of the show. These five episodes made up one storyline instead of the usual single-episode stories, which could have been set anywhere in the West.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: Favor had many bad moments in the series, but none worse than the "Lost Herd" episode. Close to drive's finish, Favor wants to beat another herd to town to get the best prices. He takes a narrow shortcut; due to thunder and lightning, the herd stampedes over the cliffs, leaving him just 9 out of 3000 cattle when the drive reaches town. He does not have the money to pay the drovers and has to face the owner (Royal Dano) whose cattle he has lost, knowing that he might never work in the business again.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: From the second season, episodes began to feature individual cast members, notably Clint Eastwood's Yates (sole star in "Incident on the Day of the Dead", which opens season two); later, both Scout Pete Nolan (Sheb Wooley) and even cook G. W. Wishbone (Paul Brinegar) were featured as leads, while Fleming's Gil Favor remained in overall charge.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: Pete Nolan (Wooley), the scout, departs as a regular cast member after "The Deserter's Patrol" (season four, episode 18, 9 Feb 1962), but returns for a single episode "Reunion" (episode 26, 6 April 1962), and for a further nine episodes in season seven from "Texas Fever" (episode 18, 5 February 1965).


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: Charles H. Gray's character Clay Forester, having played a villain in three episodes of season four (from "The Inside Man", episode six), then reforms and replaces Nolan as scout from "The Greedy Town" (season four, episode 19). Gray remained in the regular cast for the rest of seasons four and five (though in a number of later episodes, he is credited but not seen).


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: In the eighth and final season of "Rawhide", Fleming left the series after an apparent disagreement with the producers. "Rawhide" had fallen in the ratings, from sixth in 1960–61 to 13th, 22nd, then 44th. Eric Fleming, who played Favor, was let go. "They fired me because they were paying me a million dollars a year" (actually $220,000), Fleming told "TV Guide" in 1965. Cast members Sheb Wooley, James Murdock, Rocky Shahan, and Robert Cabal were also let go. Eastwood was promoted to series star as Yates finally becomes the trail boss. This outcome was hinted at in earlier episodes when Favor indicates he is training Yates to replace him as trail boss. The impression given is this was a later cattle drive with Yates now in charge, at a time after Favor had either "retired" or given up as boss, presumably having made his money or opted for a career change, since no mention is ever made onscreen of him or the reason for his absence in the final season's episodes. In its casting of the series, Robert Carricart was originally cast as George Washington Wishbone but was replaced by Paul Brinegar. Carricart only played the role for the series unaired pilot.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: John Ireland as Jed Colby and Raymond St Jacques as Simon Blake also joined the "Rawhide" cast at this time, plus semiregular minor cast member David Watson as Ian Cabot. With Fleming gone, ratings plunged and the revised format only lasted 13 episodes before "Rawhide" was suddenly cancelled in midseason.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: Filming for the first season of "Rawhide" took place at Universal-International Studios in Hollywood. The extensive railroad scenes in the third season were filmed in one month on the Sierra Railroad in Tuolumne County, California.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: The show had a grueling production schedule, being mostly weekly with a three- to four-month break between seasons. After the first season of 22 episodes, seasons two to seven were each 30 episodes. Often, the only way the lead actors could get a break was if they were said to be off on business. On rare occasions, the show featured a small number of the actors and some misfortune, maybe in a town, which would give the others time off.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: Eric Fleming drowned at the age of 41 when a canoe flipped over on location while filming the movie "High Jungle" in 1966.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: The theme song's lyrics were written by Ned Washington in 1958. It was composed by Dimitri Tiomkin and sung by pop singer Frankie Laine. The theme song became very popular, and was covered several times and featured in movies such as "The Blues Brothers" and "Shrek 2".


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: The eighth and final season's title sequence was animated by Ken Mundie of DePatie-Freleng Enterprises.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: In Region 2, "Rawhide" has been released in Scandinavia: Season 1, by Noble Entertainment, two boxes, 2009–2010, season one re-releasing in January 2014 by Soulmedia, seasons 2 and 3, by Soulmedia (season 2 in two boxes, and season 3 in four boxes). No more seasons will be released in Scandinavia.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: Revelation Films has released the first three seasons on DVD in the UK. Season 4 will be released on March 23, 2015, followed by season 5 on June 22, 2015. They are released as complete season sets rather than two volumes.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: In Region 4, Madman Entertainment has released all eight seasons on DVD in Australia, with each season in one box. Season 8, the Final Season, was released on October 5, 2011. DVD releases play heavily on Clint Eastwood's later fame, depicting him in the foreground as the chief character and crediting: "Clint Eastwood in...", but the original show credits for seasons one to seven actually depict the late Eric Fleming (as Gil Favor) being the lead cast member, with Eastwood as co-star (excepting a few later episodes where Eastwood is the sole star).


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: On the Region 1 DVD sets, the episode "Incident of the Roman Candles" is included on both the Season One DVD set and the Season Two Volume One DVD set.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: Similarly, the episode "Abilene" is included on both the Season Four Volume Two DVD set and the Season Five Volume Two DVD set.


title: Rawhide (TV series)

text: In 1961, Signet Books published a paperback original novel called "Rawhide" by Frank C. Robertson based upon the television show. Eric Fleming as Gil Favor and Clint Eastwood as Rowdy Yates are both on the front cover of the book. The book follows Favor, Yates, Wishbone, and others as they try to get their herd to Sedalia ahead of a rival's herd. The book was published multiple times with the last run printed in 1986.


title: Marc Mezvinsky

text: Marc Mezvinsky (born December 10, 1977) is an American investor and managing director at TPG. He has served previously as vice chairman at Social Capital. He is the husband of Chelsea Clinton, daughter of former President Bill Clinton and former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton.


title: Marc Mezvinsky

text: Mezvinsky was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and grew up attending a Conservative Jewish synagogue and Friends' Central School, a Quaker school outside of Philadelphia. His parents are both former Democratic members of the U.S. House of Representatives. His father is Edward Mezvinsky (b. 1937) and his mother is Marjorie Margolies (b. 1942).


title: Marc Mezvinsky

text: Mezvinsky has 10 brothers and sisters, including five adopted siblings. His mother wrote a book, "They Came to Stay," about her experiences adopting children from Korea and Vietnam as a single woman. The Mezvinskys took a number of refugee families into their home and arranged surgeries and adoptions for distressed children from abroad.


title: Marc Mezvinsky

text: Mezvinsky graduated from Stanford University in 2000, earning a BA in religious studies and philosophy. He then attended Pembroke College, Oxford, where he received his MA in Politics, Philosophy and Economics.


title: Marc Mezvinsky

text: Mezvinsky first met Chelsea Clinton as a teenager at a 1993 Democratic political retreat in Hilton Head, South Carolina as Mezvinsky's parents had both been members of Congress and were friends with the Clintons in the 1990s. They were first reported to be a couple in 2005, and became engaged in 2009. In July 2010, Mezvinsky married Chelsea Clinton in an interfaith ceremony in Rhinebeck, New York.


title: Marc Mezvinsky

text: On September 26, 2014, Chelsea Clinton gave birth to their daughter Charlotte Clinton Mezvinsky. On June 18, 2016, Clinton gave birth to their son Aidan Clinton Mezvinsky. On July 22, 2019, she gave birth to their second son, Jasper Clinton Mezvinsky.


title: Marc Mezvinsky

text: Mezvinsky serves on the board of the Pembroke College Foundation and the Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, an organization dedicated to transforming the future of medicine through collaboration and patient-centered research. He also served on the board of Madison Square Park Conservancy.


title: Marc Mezvinsky

text: After graduation, he worked at Goldman Sachs as an emerging markets foreign exchange strategist, and later went on to join the global macro proprietary trading desk. He served as senior partner at 3G Capital before leaving to start his own hedge fund, Eaglevale Partners, a traditional multi-strategy investment fund, focused on currencies, commodities and bonds. Eaglevale Partners closed in 2016. Mezvinsky joined Social Capital as Vice Chairman in 2017 where he helped the firm manage its business development and growing portfolio of companies. He left Social Capital in the spring of 2018.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Richard Albert Vermeil (; born October 30, 1936) is a former American football coach who served as a head coach in the National Football League (NFL) for 15 seasons. He was the head coach of the Philadelphia Eagles for seven seasons, the St. Louis Rams for three, and the Kansas City Chiefs for five. Prior to the NFL, he was the head football coach at Hillsdale High School from 1960 to 1962, Napa Junior College in 1964, and UCLA from 1974 to 1975. With UCLA, Vermeil led the team to victory in the 1976 Rose Bowl. Vermeil's NFL tenure would see him improve the fortunes of teams that had a losing record before he arrived and bring them all to the playoffs by his third season, which included a Super Bowl title with the Rams.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Becoming Philadelphia's head coach in 1976, Vermeil took over for a team that had not qualified for the postseason, won a playoff game, or clinched their division since 1960. He ended each of these droughts between 1978 and 1980 en route to the Eagles' first Super Bowl appearance in Super Bowl XV. Retiring after the 1982 season, Vermeil spent 15 years away from the NFL until he returned in 1997 with the Rams, who had not achieved a winning season or playoff berth since 1989. Vermeil again ended these droughts during the 1999 season, also obtaining the Rams' first winning season in St. Louis. The season culminated with the Rams winning Super Bowl XXXIV over the Tennessee Titans, which was their first Super Bowl victory, their first championship since 1951, and their only NFL title in St. Louis. Vermeil retired a second time following the Super Bowl, but returned with the Chiefs in 2001. During the 2003 season, he guided the Chiefs to their first division title and postseason berth since 1997, although he did not win any playoff games. He retired for the final time in 2005.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil holds the distinction of being named Coach of the Year on the high school, junior college, collegiate, and professional levels. He was the Pacific-8 Coach of the Year during UCLA's 1975 championship season, also becoming the first to receive the honor, and the NFL Coach of the Year during the Rams' 1999 championship season. Vermeil was inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2022.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil was born in Calistoga, California, one of four children. He worked at his father's auto repair shop as a teenager and played at quarterback on the Calistoga High School football team. After graduating from Calistoga High in 1954, Vermeil enrolled at Napa Junior College (now Napa Valley College). He transferred to San Jose State College (now University) after two years at Napa. After one year as a backup quarterback on the 1956 San Jose State Spartans football team, Vermeil became starting quarterback on the 1957 team, throwing for 580 yards, one touchdown, and nine interceptions on a team that finished 3–7.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil completed a bachelor's degree in 1958 and master's degree in 1959 at San Jose State, both in physical education.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil began his football coaching career as assistant coach for Del Mar High School in San Jose in 1959. Then from 1960 to 1962, he was head coach at Hillsdale High School in San Mateo. Moving up to the junior college level, he was defensive backfield coach at the College of San Mateo in 1963.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: In his first head coaching position, Vermeil returned to Napa Junior College in 1964, leading the Chiefs to a 7–2 record, best in the school history. While at Napa JC his younger brother Al played for him. From 1965 to 1968, Vermeil was an assistant coach at Stanford under John Ralston.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil shares the distinction of being hired as one of the NFL's first special teams coaches with Hall of Fame Coach Marv Levy. Vermeil was hired by George Allen's Los Angeles Rams in 1969 the same year Levy was hired by Jerry Williams, then Head Coach of the Philadelphia Eagles. Except for 1970, when Vermeil was an assistant coach with UCLA, he would remain with the Rams until 1974 when he was named as head coach by UCLA.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: As the head coach for the UCLA Bruins, Vermeil compiled a 15–5–3 record in two seasons (1974–75), including a 9–2–1 record in 1975 when he led the Bruins to their first conference championship in 10 years, and a win in the Rose Bowl over an undefeated and number 1 ranked Ohio State team. He was inducted into the Rose Bowl Hall of Fame as a member of the Class of 2014.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil began his NFL head coaching career in 1976 with the Philadelphia Eagles, taking over after the team went 4–10 the previous year.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: After suffering through two losing seasons under Vermeil, the Eagles made the playoffs for the first time in 18 seasons in 1978. That 1978 season featured breakthrough years by NFL stars Ron Jaworski, Wilbert Montgomery, and one of the greatest games in Eagles history—the seminal Miracle at the Meadowlands. The Eagles were losing to the New York Giants with seconds to play but when the Giants fumbled the ball, Eagles' cornerback Herman Edwards recovered it and ran it back for a touchdown and a miraculous 19–17 victory. In the 1979 season, Vermeil's Eagles went 11–5 and won their first playoff game since the 1960 NFL Championship Game.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: In the 1980 season, Vermeil led the Eagles to Super Bowl XV after defeating the Dallas Cowboys for the NFC championship. The Eagles lost the Super Bowl to Oakland, 27–10. Philadelphia recorded a 10–6 record in 1981, but was eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by a 9–7 New York Giants team that was playing with their starting quarterback (Phil Simms) and middle linebacker (Brad Van Pelt) out with injuries. After the Eagles ended the 1982 season with a dismal 3–6 record in a 9-game season shortened by a players' strike, Vermeil retired for the first time on January 10, 1983, citing occupational burnout.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil's time with the Eagles is featured in the 2006 movie "Invincible" in which the movie depicts open tryouts and how 30-year Philadelphia native Vince Papale made the team. In actuality, Vermeil had seen tape of Papale playing semi-pro ball in Philadelphia and invited him to a workout and a subsequent tryout.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: For the next 15 years, Vermeil spent time working as a sports announcer for CBS and ABC. Following the 1994 season, the Eagles fired Rich Kotite and owner Jeffrey Lurie inquired about bringing back Vermeil as coach. However, the Eagles and Vermeil could not come to a contractual agreement. The Eagles would eventually hire Ray Rhodes to be their head coach. Vermeil issued a statement saying, "I'm not going to beg Jeffrey Lurie to coach this football team."


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil returned to coaching with the St. Louis Rams in 1997. His first two years with the Rams were abysmal: the Rams won 5 and lost 11 games in 1997, and the following season they went 4–12. The 1999 season looked to start just as badly, when new starting quarterback Trent Green was injured in the pre-season. However, Green's injury allowed then-unknown Kurt Warner to start. Under Warner, the Rams offense exploded, and they finished the 1999 season with a record of 13–3 in one of the biggest single-year turnarounds in NFL history. Vermeil led the Rams to their first Super Bowl victory in Super Bowl XXXIV with a 23–16 win over the Tennessee Titans. He was also named NFL Coach of the Year for the second time for the 1999 season. He walked away from coaching again after the Rams' Super Bowl victory.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil signed with the Kansas City Chiefs on January 12, 2001 despite his retirement following the Super Bowl win with the Rams. His first season with the Chiefs was substandard, finishing with a 6–10 record, their worst record since 1988. Vermeil and the Chiefs made some major changes for the 2002 season, where the Chiefs would improve to 8–8. The Chiefs had the NFL's best offense in 2002, led by Priest Holmes, Trent Green, Tony Gonzalez, Dante Hall, and offensive linemen Willie Roaf and Will Shields. In 2003 the Chiefs started the season 9–0 and finished with a 13–3 record, making the playoffs and winning the AFC West. They also had the NFL's top ranked offense for the second straight year. The Chiefs went 7–9 in 2004, even though they had the NFL's top ranked offense for the third consecutive year under Offensive Coordinator Al Saunders. The Chiefs performed poorly due to their soft defense, which was ranked 31st out of 32 teams in the league.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil returned with the Chiefs for the 2005 season with one of the NFL's best offenses, and an improved defense. In 2005 Vermeil and Saunders uncharacteristically included more high risk calls. Pro Bowl running back and team leader Priest Holmes suffered a season-ending injury against the San Diego Chargers in the eighth week of the season. However, his injury allowed the emerging Larry Johnson to start in his place. Under Johnson, the Chiefs' offense continued at its usual explosive pace. On December 31, Vermeil announced that he would retire at the conclusion of the 2005 season, and the next day he led the Chiefs to a 37–3 rout over the Cincinnati Bengals. However, the Chiefs failed to make the playoffs, despite their 10–6 record.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil is remembered for his frequent emotional breakdowns during press conferences, including crying when getting emotional. This display of emotion has helped make him a popular coach among fans. Vermeil lives in the historic Country Club Plaza district of Kansas City. When not in Kansas City, the entire Vermeil family enjoys spending time and working on "The Ranch", a homestead located outside Philadelphia in rural Chester County, Pennsylvania. He is also a huge supporter of the Chester County Council Boy Scouts of America and is a recipient of the Silver Beaver Award, which was coincidentally awarded at the same time he was named head coach of the Chiefs in 2001. His annual golf invitational has brought in over US$1 million to the Council's operational fund.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil partnered with OnTheEdge Winery and produced his own self-proclaimed "Garage Cabernet" wine, named in honor of his father, Jean Louis Vermeil. Vermeil was actually once reprimanded by the NFL when during a game he promised kicker Morten Andersen a bottle of Cabernet Sauvignon if he could kick the game-winning field goal versus Oakland. Andersen made the kick, but upon hearing about the offer, the NFL reminded Vermeil and the Chiefs that the $500 bottle of wine was considered a performance-based incentive bonus not written into Andersen's contract, and the gift was disallowed.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil and former Redskins head coach Joe Gibbs are close friends. It was under his recommendation that Gibbs hired his former offensive coordinator and 2005 USA Today's Offensive Coach of the Year Al Saunders as a top assistant coach.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil has been portrayed in several films. The 2006 film, "Invincible", showed Vermeil (played by Greg Kinnear) when he was head coach of Philadelphia and gave Vince Papale an opportunity to play for the Eagles. In the 2021 film "American Underdog", Vermeil is portrayed by Dennis Quaid when he gave Kurt Warner an opportunity to play for the St. Louis Rams. Vermeil is known for his exceptional judge of character capabilities and decisions to give chance to underdogs.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: During his first retirement, Vermeil worked as a game analyst for both CBS (1983–87) and ABC Sports (1988–96), most of the time paired with Brent Musburger. Currently, Vermeil works as a game analyst on broadcasts of college football and NFL games on NFL Network, with work during the 2006 Insight Bowl. Vermeil also served as head coach in the 2012 and 2013 editions of the NFLPA Collegiate Bowl.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: A Coors Light commercial featuring manipulated archival footage of Vermeil at a press conference debuted in 2006.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: On November 2, 2008, Vermeil was honored by the St. Louis Rams organization with the placing of his name on the "Ring of Honor" around the inside of the Edward Jones Dome in St. Louis.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil had a short cameo in the 2011 film "The Greening of Whitney Brown", set in Chester County, in which he plays a football coach for the local middle school.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: The 2001 book autobiography "Touched: The Jerry Sandusky Story" () includes a quote in a forward from Vermeil: "He could very well be the Will Rogers of the coaching profession." In 2011 former Penn State defensive coach Sandusky was arrested on 40 counts of child sexual abuse. A 2011 account about the book said "Sandusky paints a picture of himself as someone who would consistently take risks in pursuit of what he often refers to as 'mischief'" and there are many other citations and quotes which look "different in light of the horrendous allegations". After the firing of PSU president Graham B. Spanier, it was reported that Vermeil on November 8, 2011, "told [Philadelphia] Action News, 'I don’t think there's anything that could discolor the quality of Joe Paterno's legacy.'" Vermeil also served on the Honorary Board of Sandusky's Second Mile children's foundation, along with Philadelphia Eagles coach Andy Reid, Matt Millen from ESPN, actor Mark Wahlberg and football player Franco Harris, among others. It was reported on November 11, 2011, that Vermeil hadn't "spoken to [Sandusky] since the scandal broke. 'It's a blindside,' Vermeil said. 'That's all I can say.' 'If it's true, he's a sick man. He had an illness none of us knew about. That's all.'"


title: Dick Vermeil

text: The Broadcast Pioneers of Philadelphia named Vermeil their Person of the Year in 1985 and inducted him into their Hall of Fame in 2003.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil served as head coach for the National Team in the NFLPA Collegiate Bowl from 2012-2014, leading his team to victory in each of his three appearances.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: In August 2015, Vermeil bought a 2.5% share of the Philadelphia Soul arena football team. With Vermeil owning a minority stake of the team, the Philadelphia Soul won ArenaBowl XXIX in 2016 & ArenaBowl XXX in 2017.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: In 2020, he was named coaching finalist for the Pro Football Hall of Fame's "Centennial Slate." He was again up for the class of 2021, but was among the coaches part of the final cut. He was chosen as the coaching finalist for the class of 2022.


title: Dick Vermeil

text: Vermeil and his wife, Carol, have three children and 11 grandchildren. Vermeil's nephew, Louie Giammona, played in the NFL for Vermeil with the Philadelphia Eagles. Giammona also played for the New York Jets.


title: No Exit

text: No Exit (, ) is a 1944 existentialist French play by Jean-Paul Sartre. The play was first performed at the Théâtre du Vieux-Colombier in May 1944. The play begins with three characters who find themselves waiting in a mysterious room. It is a depiction of the afterlife in which three deceased characters are punished by being locked into a room together for eternity. It is the source of Sartre's especially famous phrase "L'enfer, c'est les autres" or "Hell is other people", a reference to Sartre's ideas about the and the perpetual ontological struggle of being caused to see oneself as an object from the view of another consciousness.


title: No Exit

text: English translations have also been performed under the titles In Camera, No Way Out, Vicious Circle, Behind Closed Doors, and Dead End. The original title, "Huis clos" ("closed door"), is the French equivalent of the legal term "in camera" (Latin: "in a chamber"), referring to a private discussion behind closed doors.


title: No Exit

text: Three damned souls, Joseph Garcin, Inèz Serrano, and Estelle Rigault, are brought to the same room in Hell and locked inside by a mysterious valet. They had all expected torture devices to punish them for eternity, but instead, find a plain room furnished in the style of the French 'Second Empire'. At first, none of them will admit the reason for their damnation: Garcin says that he was executed for being an outspoken pacifist, while Estelle insists that a mistake has been made; Inèz, however, is the only one to demand that they all stop lying to themselves and confess to their moral crimes. She refuses to believe that they have all ended up in the room by accident and soon realizes that they have been placed together to make each other miserable. She deduces that they are to be one another's torturers.


title: No Exit

text: Garcin suggests that they try to leave each other alone and to be silent, but Inèz starts to sing about execution and Estelle vainly wants to find a mirror to check on her appearance. Inèz tries to seduce Estelle by offering to be her "mirror" by telling her everything she sees but ends up frightening her instead. It is soon clear that Inèz is attracted to Estelle, Estelle is attracted to Garcin, and Garcin is not attracted to either of the two women.


title: No Exit

text: After arguing, they decide to confess to their crimes so they know what to expect from each other. Garcin cheated on and mistreated his wife, and was executed by firing squad for desertion; Inèz is a manipulative sadist who seduced her cousin's wife, Florence, while living with them and convinced her to leave her husband—the cousin was later hit and killed by a tram and Florence asphyxiated herself and Inèz by flooding the room with gas while they slept—and Estelle had an affair and then killed the resulting child, prompting the child's father to commit suicide. Despite their revelations, they continue to get on each other's nerves. Garcin finally begins giving in to the lascivious Estelle's escalating attempts to seduce him, which drives Inèz crazy. Garcin is constantly interrupted by his own guilt, however, and begs Estelle to tell him that he is not a coward for attempting to flee his country during wartime. While she complies, Inèz mockingly tells him that Estelle is just feigning attraction to him so that she can be with a man—any man.


title: No Exit

text: This causes Garcin to abruptly attempt an escape. After his trying to open the door repeatedly, it inexplicably and suddenly opens, but he is unable to bring himself to leave, and the others remain as well. He says that he will not be saved until he can convince Inèz that he is not cowardly. She refuses, saying that he is obviously a coward, and promising to make him miserable forever. Garcin concludes that rather than torture devices or physical punishment, "hell is other people." Estelle tries to persevere in her seduction of Garcin, but he says that he cannot make love while Inèz is watching. Estelle, infuriated, picks up a paper knife and repeatedly stabs Inèz. Inèz chides Estelle, saying that they are all already dead, and even furiously stabs herself to prove that point. As Estelle begins to laugh hysterically at the idea of them being dead and trapped together forever, the others join in a prolonged fit of laughter before Garcin finally concludes, ""Eh bien, continuons..."" ("Well then, let's get on with it...").


title: No Exit

text: Joseph Garcin – He is a journalist who lived in the barracks in Rio and died after refusing to fight in an unnamed war. His cowardice and callousness caused his young wife to die "of grief" after his execution. He was unfaithful to his wife – he even recalls, without any sympathy, bringing home another woman one night, and his wife bringing them their morning coffee after hearing their engagement all night. Initially, he hates Inèz because she understands his weakness, and wants Estelle because he feels that if she treats him as a man he will become manly. However, by the end of the play he understands that because Inèz understands the meaning of cowardice and wickedness, only absolution at her hands can redeem him (if indeed redemption is possible). In a later translation and adaptation of the play by American translator Paul Bowles, Garcin is renamed Vincent Cradeau.


title: No Exit

text: Inèz Serrano – Inèz is the second character to enter the room. A lesbian postal clerk, she turned a wife against her husband, twisting the wife's perception of her spouse and the subsequent death of the man who is also her cousin. Inèz seems to be the only character who understands the power of opinion, manipulating Estelle's and Garcin's opinions of themselves and of each other throughout the play. She is honest about the evil deeds she, Garcin, and Estelle have done. She frankly acknowledges the fact that she is a cruel person.


title: No Exit

text: Estelle Rigault – Estelle is a high-society woman, who married an older man for his money and had an affair with a younger man. To her, the affair is merely an insignificant fling, but her lover becomes emotionally attached to her and she bears him a child. She drowns the child by throwing it off the balcony of a hotel into the sea, which drives her lover to commit suicide. Throughout the play she tries to get at Garcin, seeking to define herself as a woman in relation to a man. Her sins are deceit and murder (which also motivated a suicide). She lusts over "manly men", which Garcin himself strives to be.


title: No Exit

text: Valet – The Valet enters the room with each character, but his only real dialogue is with Garcin. We learn little about him, except that his uncle is the head valet, and that he does not have any eyelids, which links to Garcin because Garcin's eyelids are atrophied.


title: No Exit

text: The play was widely praised when it was first performed. Upon its 1946 American premiere at the Biltmore Theatre, critic Stark Young described the play as "a phenomenon of the modern theatre – played all over the continent already", in "The New Republic", and wrote that "It should be seen whether you like it or not."


title: No Exit

text: A one-act chamber opera based on the play was created by composer Andy Vores. The production had its world premiere on April 25, 2008 at the Boston Conservatory’s Zack Theatre. Vores' opera premiered in Chicago in October 2009 by Chicago Opera Vanguard.


title: No Exit

text: "Talk Show from Hell", a modern parody by Jean-Noel Fenwick, was produced by the Open Fist Theatre in Los Angeles, California, in 2000. Mike Schur has compared his show "The Good Place", which involves a demon trying to design a novel type of hell in which the inhabitants create one another's torments, to Sartre's play.


title: The Devil's Own

text: The Devil's Own is a 1997 American action thriller film starring Harrison Ford and Brad Pitt, with Rubén Blades, Natascha McElhone, Julia Stiles, Margaret Colin, and Treat Williams in supporting roles. It was the final film directed by Alan J. Pakula, who died the next year, and the final film photographed by Gordon Willis, who retired soon after. The film was written by Vincent Patrick, David Aaron Cohen, and Kevin Jarre. The plot revolves around a member of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (Pitt) who comes to the United States to obtain black market anti-aircraft missiles to shoot down British helicopters in Northern Ireland. The plan is complicated by an Irish-American policeman (Ford), whom the IRA member has come to regard as family.


title: The Devil's Own

text: During the year 1972, eight-year-old Frankie McGuire witnesses a masked man shoot his father dead for Irish republican sympathies. Twenty years later in Belfast, Frankie and three other IRA members engage in a shootout with the British Army and undercover agents from the Special Reconnaissance Unit. One gunman is killed and another, Desmond, is mortally wounded; Frankie and his close friend Sean Phelan flee. Frankie's commander Martin MacDuff, seeing a British Army helicopter circling above, decides that the IRA needs Stinger missiles to fight back.


title: The Devil's Own

text: Frankie soon travels to New York City with an alias of "Rory Devaney" to buy these missiles. American Judge Peter Fitzsimmons, a longtime supporter of the IRA, provides him with a temporary job as a construction worker and arranges for him to stay with NYPD Sergeant Tom O'Meara, his wife Sheila, and their three daughters on Staten Island. Thinking that "Rory" is an Irish immigrant who needs a place to live while he finds work, the O'Meara family warmly welcome Frankie into their household and he soon becomes a trusted member of the family.


title: The Devil's Own

text: Meanwhile, Sean also arrives in New York City and meets up with Frankie. Before long, Sean acquires an old fishing boat for him and Frankie to smuggle the missiles. Frankie meets with black market arms dealer and Irish mobster Billy Burke, and they cut a deal to exchange the missiles for payment in six to eight weeks. Judge Fitzsimmons obtains the money from his usual connections and has Megan Doherty, another IRA operative posing as his family's nanny, deliver it to Frankie. Megan later calls Frankie to warn him that MacDuff was killed by British authorities and that they must postpone the deal.


title: The Devil's Own

text: Meanwhile, Tom's partner, Eddie Diaz, fatally shoots an unarmed thief in the back as he runs away. Torn between his duty to protect his partner and his moral obligation to tell the truth, Tom decides to retire from the force. After a meal where Tom tells Sheila about his decision, the two of them drive home only to be confronted by masked intruders. As Tom fights the intruders, Sheila rushes to call 911. Just then, Frankie arrives and tries to help Tom, but the intruders have guns and force Frankie and Tom to stop resisting. As police sirens approach, the intruders decide to leave the men and make their escape.


title: The Devil's Own

text: Frankie leaves and proceeds to a bar that Burke owns. He confronts Burke for ordering the attack and shoots one of his men in the knee. Burke is uncowed and demands that Frankie pay him for the missiles, revealing that he has Sean as a hostage. Realizing he has no choice, Frankie returns to the O'Meara house, where he hid the money that he got from Megan.


title: The Devil's Own

text: While Frankie is away meeting with Burke, Tom has gone down to the basement where Frankie had been staying. Seeing that the couch pillows had been sliced, Tom realizes that the masked intruders must have been looking for something related to Frankie. As he walks around the basement, he accidentally discovers an empty space under the bathroom floorboards. When he checks it, he discovers a duffel bag containing wads of cash.


title: The Devil's Own

text: When Frankie returns, he is confronted by Tom with the money. Frankie decides to reveal his true identity and ask Tom to give him the money and let him leave. Tom refuses and, when Eddie arrives, the two of them arrest Frankie. En route to the police station, they get stuck in a traffic jam. While Eddie goes to talk to a driver of a stalled vehicle, Frankie slips his cuffed arms over his legs, grabs Tom's gun, and jumps out of the car. Eddie tries to shoot him and Frankie is forced to shoot Eddie in self-defense. This altercation gives Tom enough time to clamber out of the car and break off the key in the trunk lock, preventing Frankie from getting the duffel bag of money. Frankie runs off.


title: The Devil's Own

text: After Eddie's death, Tom meets with the FBI and their British counterparts, who ask him questions about Frankie. Tom realizes that the government agents intend to not just find and arrest Frankie, but to kill him.


title: The Devil's Own

text: Frankie arrives at the warehouse where Burke said they would do the exchange. Burke and his henchmen are waiting for Frankie, who walks nonchalantly, his duffel bag swung over his shoulder. One of the henchmen pats Frankie down and confirms that he is unarmed. Frankie asks Burke if he has the weapons and Burke shows him a bunch of boxes containing missiles. Then Burke has another henchmen pull something out of the trunk and toss it at Frankie's feet. With horror, Frankie realizes that it is Sean's severed head. With guns pointed at him, Frankie releases the duffel bag, which Burke assumes contains the money. Instead, it contains a bomb rigged to the zipper. When the bomb goes off, Frankie uses the confusion to grab one of the henchmen's guns and use his military skills to kill Burke and his henchmen. He then jumps in the van containing the missiles and drives off.


title: The Devil's Own

text: At the Fitzsimmons' residence, Frankie has Megan alert his comrades in Ireland that he will be leaving right away to deliver the missiles. While Frankie is upstairs with Megan, Tom crashes the Fitzsimmons' cocktail party and confronts the judge. He then recognizes Megan from a photo in Frankie's bag. Tom runs after Megan upstairs just in time to see Frankie escaping onto the roof. Tom persuades Megan to reveal where Frankie is going by convincing her that the authorities are trying to kill Frankie and he is the only one who can save Frankie's life.


title: The Devil's Own

text: Pulling up to the boat dock out of Frankie's line of sight, Tom sneaks up as Frankie gets the boat ready to sail. Jumping onto the boat as it leaves the dock, Tom has a final standoff with Frankie. The two men shoot at each other through the glass of the bridge. Tom falls down, wounded, and looks up as Frankie steps out onto the deck. Frankie points his gun at Tom but then his hand begins to shake. Realizing that he too has been shot, Frankie drops the gun and collapses onto the deck. Tom pulls himself close to Frankie and they embrace each other, recognizing that both were fighting for causes they believe in. Frankie dies, and Tom, though badly wounded, steers the boat back to shore.


title: The Devil's Own

text: The film's origins date back to the 1980s, it began as a pitch by producers Lawrence Gordon and Robert F. Colesberry, the producers hired screenwriter Kevin Jarre to write the first draft, as Gordon recalled "Jarre had disappeared for a couple of years and came back with a wonderful screenplay". Gordon acquired the script in 1990. In 1991, Gordon took the script to Brad Pitt, who was not yet well-known at the time, Pitt enthusiastically accepted the script, which Gordon recalled "was supposed to be a gritty, low-budget thriller with Brad as the only star", the project began moving forward towards pre-production, however the project was left at a standstill due to Pitt's none too impressive acting credits at the time, as well as the politically controversial subject matter on which the story was based. In the ensuing years interest in the project was renewed thanks to Pitt's performances in "Legends of the Fall", "Interview with the Vampire", and "12 Monkeys", but the studio was of the opinion that Pitt could not carry a major film alone. Pitt visited Belfast in preparation for the role and suffered bruises after he was attacked on the city's Falls Road after being mistaken for a protestant.