title: Dogme 95

text: The use of 'Dogme 95' style filming is in a list of a hostage taker's demands in the "Black Mirror" episode, "The National Anthem".


title: Dogme 95

text: After the release of Byun's film "Interview" (2000), some South Korean films who considered as an influence to Dogme 95 films, but rejected that serves as an actual Dogme; this includes "This Charming Girl" (2004) by Lee Yoon-Ki, "Secret Sunshine" (2007) by Lee Chang-dong, and "The Housemaid" (2010) by Im Sang-soo.


title: Dogme 95

text: Much of Von Trier's works were influenced by the manifesto. His first film after founding the movement was "Breaking the Waves", which was heavily influenced by the movement's style and ethos, although the film broke many of the "rules" laid out by the movement's manifesto, including built sets, and usage of non-diegetic musics and computer graphics. Most of his films since the 1998 film "Idioterne" until "Riget: Exodus".


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Salvador Guerrero IV (born October 20, 1970) better known by his ring names Chavo Guerrero and Chavo Guerrero Jr., is an American professional wrestler. He has previously worked for World Championship Wrestling (WCW), World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment (WWF/WWE), Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA), All Elite Wrestling (AEW), Lucha Underground (LU), Ring of Honor (ROH) and Nación Lucha Libre (NLL).


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: As a singles wrestler, Guerrero Jr. is a former ECW World Champion in WWE, and a six-time Cruiserweight Champion between WWE and WCW. He also achieved success in tag team wrestling, being a five-time world tag team champion – winning the WWE Tag Team Championship twice with Eddie Guerrero as Los Guerreros, the WCW World Tag Team Championship once with Corporal Cajun as the Misfits in Action, and the TNA World Tag Team Championship twice with Hernandez. Between WCW, WWE, and TNA, he has held a dozen total championships and one world championship.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Salvador was born and raised in El Paso, Texas. Guerrero grew up watching wrestling and going to wrestling promotions where he watched his family wrestle. There was also a wrestling ring in the Guerreros' back yard. Chavo played with his uncle Eddie Guerrero constantly in the wrestling ring while practicing moves on each other.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Guerrero made his professional wrestling debut in May 1994 wrestling in Mexico. He toured with New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) during 1996, featuring mainly on the lower card. Guerrero competed in the Best of the Super Junior IV tournament but did not earn enough points to become the victor.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: He joined World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in May 1996. He made his in-ring debut wrestling Steven Regal in a dark match. On July 22—Guerrero's "WCW Monday Nitro" debut—he lost to Dean Malenko via submission. On August 3, 1996 Guerrero received his first title shot in WCW against Ric Flair on "WCW Saturday Night" for the WCW United States Championship. Flair beat Guerrero via submission to retain his championship.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Guerrero's first pay-per-view (PPV) appearance was in a dark match loss to Konnan on WCW Hog Wild. Then at "WCW WorldWide", on August 11, 1996, he and Eddie Guerrero defeated High Voltage. After a series of singles wins, Guerrero faced Diamond Dallas Page after a short feud on Fall Brawl in a losing effort on September 15.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: While in WCW, Chavo shared the limelight with his uncle Eddie, becoming a reluctant ally of his uncle's. As part of their storyline, Eddie continually tried to make Chavo adopt Eddie's cheating tactics, but he often refused to do so. Eventually, Guerrero's treatment at the hands of Eddie would drive him "crazy," and he adopted the gimmick of a psycho fixated with a hobby horse he dubbed "Pepé." This led to a feud with Norman Smiley in which Pepé was thrown into a woodchipper. Another result of his insanity was his inability to join Eddie's Latino World Order stable, which was a take-off of the nWo. On June 14, 1998, Chavo defeated his uncle Eddie at The Great American Bash PPV. In July 1998 at the Bash at the Beach PPV, Guerrero faced Stevie Ray in a "tune up match" before he faced Eddie in a Hair vs Hair match, a match where the winner gets to shave his opponent's hair. Chavo lost via opposum pin and began to shave his own hair off.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: On January 17, 1999 at Souled Out, Guerrero was defeated by Norman Smiley in a match that was booked due to Guerrero's companion Pepe being burnt by Smiley, ending the Pepe gimmick.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Guerrero and Billy Kidman tag teamed for a WCW tag team title tournament held on "Nitro". Guerrero then turned on Kidman after being eliminated from the tournament, starting a feud. Guerrero faced Kidman for the WCW Cruiserweight Championship on WCW Superbrawl 9 on February 21, 1999 but failed to win the championship.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: He was also a member of the comedy stable The Misfits in Action (MIA), consisting of himself, Hugh Morris (better known as Bill DeMott), Lash LeRoux and Van Hammer. They were managed by Major Gunns. Guerrero was billed as "Lieutenant Loco." As Loco, he defeated Daffney for the Cruiserweight Championship in a triangle match also involving Disco Inferno on June 7, 2000 episode of "Thunder". On June 11, 2000 at The Great American Bash, Lt. Loco defeated Disco Inferno to retain the title. Loco lost the championship to Lance Storm a month later on "Nitro". At WCW Mayhem, Loco left the MIA and reverted to Chavo Guerrero Jr.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Guerrero won the Cruiserweight Championship from Mike Sanders on December 6 episode of "Thunder". He retained the title against Rey Mysterio Jr. on February 18, 2001 at the WCW SuperBrawl Revenge. As Cruiserweight Champion, Guerrero engaged in a feud against "Sugar" Shane Helms eventually losing the championship to Helms at WCW Greed.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Guerrero's contract with WCW was one of the twenty-five contracts that were included in WCW's sale to the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). Like most of the wrestling talent that came over with WCW, Guerrero wrestled as a heel under the WCW banner as his WWF debut was as part of The Alliance, a group of WCW and ECW employees who had, in storyline, invaded WWF after their promotion was bought out. On April 13, 2002, Guerrero faced Billy Kidman on an episode of "WWF Metal" for the Cruiserweight Championship and lost the match via pinfall. Guerrero spent time as an undercard wrestler in the company, which was soon rebranded World Wrestling Entertainment, wrestling for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship on numerous occasions.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Soon after returning to the active roster, Guerrero was aligned with his uncle Eddie, forming the tag team Los Guerreros. In contrast to his previous WCW storyline with his uncle, Guerrero fully adopted his uncle's policy of "Lie, Cheat and Steal" to win matches as part of the gimmick. Los Guerreros won the tag team championships at Survivor Series, when they defeated Kurt Angle and Chris Benoit and Edge and Rey Mysterio in a Triple threat tag team elimination match. The duo turned face due to their popularity. On the February 6, 2003 episode of "SmackDown!", Los Guerreros lost their tag team championships to Team Angle. At WrestleMania XIX, they were again defeated by Team Angle in a triple threat match for the tag team titles, also involving the team of Benoit and Rhyno. They continued to feud with Team Angle and won the championships back on the September 18 episode of "SmackDown!". One month later, they lost the titles to Basham Brothers. After losing their tag team championships, Guerrero became jealous of his uncle's growing popularity and WWE Championship ambitions, turned on Eddie, broke from the team, and turned heel again. He was soon joined by his father Chavo Sr. who sided with his son instead of his brother. Guerrero and his father teamed together to defeat Eddie and Kurt Angle on January 22, 2004 episode of "SmackDown!" Eddie, however, defeated Guerrero at the 2004 Royal Rumble to end their feud.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: At No Way Out, Guerrero defeated Rey Mysterio to win the WWE Cruiserweight Championship, following interference from his father (now known as Chavo Classic). At WrestleMania XX, Guerrero successfully defended his title in a 10-man Cruiserweight Open by last eliminating Mysterio. In the following weeks, Guerrero defeated Mysterio, Funaki, Ultimo Dragon, Spike Dudley, Jamie Noble, Nunzio in one-on-one title matches. On the May 6 episode of "SmackDown!", Guerrero issued an open challenge for anyone he had not yet defeated to face him for his title. The challenge was answered by Jacqueline, who defeated Guerrero for the title after she gave him a "low blow." He regained the title at Judgment Day. Guerrero then dropped the title on the May 20 episode of "SmackDown!" to his father, who "accidentally" pinned his son in a Triple Threat match which also involved Spike Dudley. Rey Mysterio later regained the title, and he and Chavo faced each other at The Great American Bash, however Mysterio won the match.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: On the August 26 episode of "SmackDown!", Guerrero suffered a legitimate concussion due to Billy Kidman's shooting star press and had to be taken to the hospital. Guerrero returned as a face two months later, exacting revenge from Kidman, who had turned heel as a result of the injury to Guerrero. Shortly after his feud with Kidman ended, Guerrero returned to his heel persona after receiving a negative reaction while facing then-cruiserweight champion Funaki in a losing effort during a "SmackDown!" show in Japan. Guerrero went on to win the Cruiserweight Championship once again at No Way Out, after eliminating Paul London in a six-way cruiserweight gauntlet match. He lost the title to London in a battle royal a few weeks later; Guerrero was the first person eliminated from the battle royal when everyone else in the match ganged up to throw him out right at the beginning.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: In June, Guerrero became one of the last minute trades in the 2005 WWE Draft, which saw him jump from SmackDown! to the Raw brand. The next week, on "Raw", he denounced his Hispanic heritage in favor of the "Anglo-American way". This came after two weeks of being battered by the Mexican faction, the Mexicools. It led to the changing of his persona to "Kerwin White", a stereotypical, middle-class, white, conservative, Anglo-American man. He dyed his hair blond and often drove a golf cart to the ring which held his golf clubs. Soon after his debut, White started making suggestive remarks towards African Americans, Hispanics, Asian Americans, Native Americans, and other non-White people, specifically directed towards Shelton Benjamin. On the September 5 episode of "Raw", White cost Benjamin a match against Rob Conway. Benjamin defeated White by disqualification the following week when White attacked him with his golf club. At Unforgiven, White was beaten by Benjamin. White then hired Nick Nemeth on the September 26 episode of "Raw" as his new "caddie" to help him in his matches. Reflecting on the Kerwin White character during an interview with Chris Van Vliet in 2020, Guerrero recalled how he pitched being dressed as a member of the Ku Klux Klan on TV to get maximum heat while explained how his gimmick got people of all races to hate him by saying:


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: On the morning of November 13, 2005, Guerrero checked into the same hotel as his uncle, Eddie, in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Guerrero was alerted by hotel security that Eddie did not respond to a wake-up call and upon opening the locked door to the room, Guerrero found his uncle unconscious. Guerrero attempted CPR but Eddie was declared dead when paramedics arrived on the scene. Later that afternoon, Guerrero appeared at a press conference with WWE chairman Vince McMahon to address Eddie's death. These events resulted in Guerrero dropping the Kerwin White gimmick and wrestling under his real name as a face. He defeated John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL) on the November 18, 2005 episode of "SmackDown!", using the "Three Amigos" triple suplexes and the Frog Splash in tribute to Eddie. He also used the cheating tactic, "playing possum," which Eddie made famous: behind the back of the distracted referee, Guerrero gently tossed a steel chair to a dazed Layfield while Guerrero lied down, pretending to have been hit. The referee then turned and, seeing the "unconscious" Guerrero, almost disqualified the oblivious, chair-wielding Layfield but stopped short so the tribute-style match could continue.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: On the February 24, 2006 episode of "SmackDown!", Guerrero attacked Randy Orton when Orton began to insult Eddie and the heritage of the Guerreros. Guerrero was soon dragged out by security. On the February 27 episode of "Raw", Guerrero faced off against Shelton Benjamin in a qualifying match for the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania 22. During the match, Orton interfered and hit Guerrero with the RKO, allowing Benjamin to get the pinfall victory. He proceeded to unsuccessfully challenge Benjamin for the WWE Intercontinental Championship on the April 3 episode of "Raw". In a segment that aired on "WWE Unlimited", an emotional Guerrero decided to quit WWE, in storyline, after believing he had let his family, Eddie, and the fans down and expressed his doubts about being a wrestler.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Guerrero appeared at Judgment Day to support Rey Mysterio. At the Great American Bash, Guerrero interfered in Mysterio's World Heavyweight Championship match, ostensibly to help Mysterio. Guerrero turned heel once again, however, by hitting Mysterio with a steel chair, which allowed challenger King Booker to win the match and the title. On the August 4 episode of "SmackDown!", Guerrero accused Mysterio of using Eddie's name to succeed, claiming that he had disrespected Eddie's memory. Guerrero went on to beat Mysterio at SummerSlam after Vickie Guerrero (Eddie's widow) accidentally knocked Mysterio off the top turnbuckle. On the August 25 episode of "SmackDown!", Vickie came down to the ring to apologize to Mysterio and Guerrero but turned on Mysterio by hitting him in the back with a steel chair. The following week on "SmackDown!", Vickie announced herself as Guerrero's new manager. Mysterio gained his revenge on Guerrero by defeating him in a Falls Count Anywhere match at No Mercy. Guerrero eventually challenged Mysterio to an "I Quit" match on the October 20 episode of "SmackDown!", which Guerrero won after injuring Mysterio's knee.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: A week later, Chris Benoit, another old friend of Eddie's, began feuding with Guerrero and Vickie, and the men would have numerous confrontations over the following weeks. Benoit defeated Guerrero to retain the WWE United States Championship at Survivor Series. After weeks of continued interaction, the two faced off in a United States title rematch at Armageddon that Guerrero lost when he tapped out to a Sharpshooter. Guerrero got yet another rematch the following Friday, losing the match after Vickie hit Benoit with the title belt. Guerrero snapped after the match, knocking over Vickie and attacking Benoit. The feud concluded with Benoit forcing Guerrero to submit in a No Disqualification match.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: At No Way Out, Guerrero won a Cruiserweight Open Match when he pinned Jimmy Wang Yang, thus winning the Cruiserweight Championship from Gregory Helms. On June 24, Guerrero retained his title against Wang Yang at . At The Great American Bash, he lost the Cruiserweight title in another Cruiserweight Open when Hornswoggle pinned Jamie Noble.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Guerrero then turned his attention to Rey Mysterio, whom he had put out of action, in storyline, in 2006. Before Mysterio's return at SummerSlam, Guerrero mocked Mysterio's knee injury and taunted him during matches. He was, however, unable to defeat Mysterio at SummerSlam. On the September 7 episode of "SmackDown!", Guerrero then lost an "I Quit" rematch to Mysterio, after Mysterio assaulted his left knee with a steel chair. This allowed Guerrero to have time off to serve his suspension for violating the WWE Wellness Policy.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Guerrero remained inactive until the December 18, 2007 episode of "ECW", where he appeared after the main event between WWE United States Champion Montel Vontavious Porter and ECW Champion CM Punk and attacked the vulnerable Punk, sending a message that he wanted a title shot. Guerrero challenged Punk to several matches until he finally won the third after interference from World Heavyweight Champion Edge to earn a championship match. On January 22 episode of "ECW", Guerrero defeated Punk in a No Disqualification match to win the ECW title following interference from Edge. In the process he proclaimed Edge and company as his "familia". He then successfully defended his title against Punk at No Way Out and on March 4 episode of "ECW".


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: At WrestleMania XXIV, Guerrero lost the ECW Championship to Kane in a record eleven seconds. Shortly afterward, Bam Neely debuted to act as his bodyguard. Guerrero lost a rematch against Kane at Backlash and also failed to become the number one contender at One Night Stand. After Edge turned on La Familia, Guerrero returned to singles and tag team action with Neely. He also failed to regain the ECW Championship at Unforgiven in a Championship Scramble match, and later against champion Matt Hardy.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Guerrero was drafted to the Raw brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft. He then became involved in the feud between Vickie Guerrero and Santino Marella. At Extreme Rules, Guerrero and Vickie were defeated by Marella in a Hog Pen match. Upon Vickie's departure from WWE, Guerrero continued to feud with Marella and defeated him on the June 18 episode of WWE Superstars. Guerrero next feuded with Hornswoggle, where the two faced off in various types of matches (in which a handicap of some sort was imposed on Guerrero by the various celebrity guests left in charge of Raw every week) with Hornswoggle gaining the wins. Guerrero finally picked up a win when he teamed with Chris Masters to defeat Hornswoggle and Santino Marella in a tag team match on the September 28, 2009 episode of Raw.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: As part of the 2010 WWE Supplemental Draft, Guerrero was drafted back to the SmackDown brand. He started an alliance with Dolph Ziggler, and the duo defeated Christian in a handicap match. On the July 9 episode of "SmackDown", Guerrero competed in a triple threat Money in the Bank qualifying match, along with Ziggler and MVP. Throughout the match, it became apparent that Vickie Guerrero (Ziggler's manager) had told Guerrero and Ziggler to work together to ensure Ziggler qualified for the match. During the match, however, when both MVP and Ziggler were down, Guerrero attempted to pin MVP to win the match himself, turning his back on Vickie and Ziggler, thus ending the alliance.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: On March 8, Guerrero was announced as a NXT Pro to Darren Young for the fifth season of "NXT". On the May 6 episode of "SmackDown," Guerrero commentated on a match between Tyson Kidd and Sin Cara, which Sin Cara won. On the May 13 episode of "SmackDown," Guerrero aided Sin Cara in his match against Daniel Bryan. At Over The Limit, Sin Cara defeated Guerrero, and again on "SmackDown" to end their feud. Afterward, Guerrero mainly appeared on NXT with Darren Young. His last match in WWE was teaming up with JTG and Young against Yoshi Tatsu, Conor O'Brian and Vladimir Kozlov on NXT in a losing effort. On June 25, 2011, at his request, Guerrero was released by WWE, ending his 10-year tenure there.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Guerrero appeared for the first time since his WWE departure at World Wrestling Council (WWC)'s Anniversario event on July 15 and 16, 2011. On July 16, Guerrero defeated El Sensacional Carlitos and Orlando Colón to win the WWC Caribbean Heavyweight Championship. In December 2011, Guerrero took part in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling's India project, Ring Ka King. During the first week of tapings, Guerrero and Bulldog Hart were crowned the promotion's inaugural Tag Team Champions. On July 28, 2012, Guerrero appeared at a Vendetta Pro Wrestling event in Lompoc, California, defeating Joey Ryan for the vacant Vendetta Pro Wrestling Heavyweight Championship, holding the title until October 27, 2012 when he lost it to Chris Masters.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: On August 2, 2014, Guerrero teamed with his father Chavo Guerrero Sr. at Vendetta Pro Wrestling's "Summer Sizzle V – VendettaVersary" event in a "Father & Son vs. Father & Son" Tag Team match against La Familia de Tijuana (Damián 666 and Bestia 666). Los Guerreros picked up the win. Following the match, Damián made a challenge to Guerrero Jr. to a hair-vs-hair match, in which he volunteered to put Bestia's hair on the line against the hair of Guerrero Sr. Guerrero Jr. picked up the win, but Bestia fled the arena, claiming later that he never agreed to the stipulation himself. On September 19, 2014, Guerrero made his debut for Chikara, when he, Hernandez and Homicide, representing LAX, took part in the 2014 King of Trios. They were eliminated from the tournament in the first round by the Golden Trio (Dasher Hatfield, Icarus and Mark Angelosetti).


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: In 2017, Chavo signed with Imperio Lucha Libre to compete in the title tournament for the Imperio Sudamerican Title.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: On July 18, 2012, Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) announced that they had signed Guerrero to a contract. He made his debut on July 26 episode of "Impact Wrestling", aligning himself with Hernandez and beginning a short feud with Gunner and Kid Kash. Guerrero appeared on August 12 at Hardcore Justice, where he teamed with Hernandez to defeat Gunner and Kash. The two subsequently set their sights on the TNA World Tag Team Championship, unsuccessfully challenging champions Bad Influence (Christopher Daniels and Kazarian) for the titles on September 6 episode of "Impact Wrestling". Guerrero and Hernandez ultimately defeated Daniels and Kazarian on October 14 at Bound for Glory, in three-way match, also involving A.J. Styles and Kurt Angle to become the new TNA World Tag Team Champions. On January 25, at the tapings of January 31 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Guerrero and Hernandez lost the TNA World Tag Team Championship to the Dirty Heels (Austin Aries and Bobby Roode).


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Guerrero and Hernandez received their rematch for the titles on March 10 at Lockdown, but were again defeated by Aries and Roode in a three-way match, also involving Daniels and Kazarian. On following episode of "Impact Wrestling", Guerrero and Hernandez were set for another shot at the titles, but the two were ambushed by the Aces & Eights before the match could start. The title match took place the following week, where Guerrero and Hernandez failed again to regain the TNA World Tag Team Championship, following interference from Daniels and Kazarian. On the next episode of "Impact Wrestling", Guerrero and Hernandez defeated Daniels and Kazarian to earn another shot at the TNA World Tag Team Championship. Guerrero and Hernandez received their title shot on April 11 episode of "Impact Wrestling", where they defeated Aries and Roode in a Two-out-of-Three Falls match, with the added stipulation that they would have to break up if they lost, to regain the TNA World Tag Team Championship. On June 2 at Slammiversary XI, Guerrero and Hernandez lost the TNA World Tag Team Championship to Gunner and James Storm in a fatal four-way elimination match, also involving Austin Aries and Bobby Roode and Bad Influence. On the following episode of "Impact Wrestling", Guerrero was defeated by Hernandez in a 2013 Bound for Glory Series qualifying match. On December 12, Guerrero collected a briefcase in the Feast or Fired match, which was revealed the following week to contain a pink slip meaning he was fired from TNA. Guerrero's profile was later removed from the official site, and TNA issued a press release confirming his release as legitimate.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: In September 2014, it was reported that Guerrero had signed with "Lucha Underground". Guerrero wrestled in the first match of the debut episode of "Lucha Underground" on October 29, losing to Blue Demon Jr. On November 5 episode, Guerrero used a chair to attack both Blue Demon Jr. and Sexy Star, who was Guerrero's tag partner earlier in the episode, turning Heel in the process. On January 7, 2015, episode (taped October 5, 2014), Guerrero participated in a 20-men Aztec Warfare battle royal to become the inaugural Lucha Underground Champion. However, he was attacked by Blue Demon and eliminated by Sexy Star. On January 18, 2015, (aired February 18) Guerrero was defeated by Mil Muertes and left "Lucha Underground".


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: On May 20, 2015, Guerrero appeared in a video where he offered his help to Aztec Dragon to save his protegeé, Black Lotus. However, on June 3, Guerrero attacked Lotus, aligned himself with Dario Cueto and The Crew. Guerrero returned to "Lucha Underground" on June 10 (taped March 22, 2015), defeating Blue Demon Jr.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: On January 10, 2016, Guerrero won the vacant Gift of the Gods Championship in a match also involving Aero Star, El Siniestro de la Muerte, Joey Ryan, Sexy Star, Texano, and Willie Mack, though he lost the championship a week later to Cage. On November 3 Guerrero lost to Rey Mysterio in a "loser leaves Lucha Underground" match and per stipulation had to leave the temple.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Guerrero returned in Aztec Warfare 4 on the season 4 premiere, entering at number 17 and making it to the final 3 before being eliminated by Pentagon Dark. During the second part of Ultima Lucha Cuatro, Chavo saved his cousin Shaul Guerrero from being assaulted by Famous B, turning him back into a face.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: In 2019, Guerrero and fellow professional wrestler Alberto El Patron created their own promotion, Nación Lucha Libre. The promotion debuted on July 11 with their first show that featured wrestling from El Patron, El Hijo del Fantasma, L.A. Park, Thunder Rosa, Bestia 666, and Bandido. Three days later their promotion debuted their weekly show on Imagen TV in Mexico. Nación Lucha Libre closed down on January 8, 2020.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: On September 13, 2019, he made an appearance for TNA, now known as Impact Wrestling at their Operation Override Twitch special. In the match, he defended his World Class Championship against MVP. Due to the disqualification finish, the two had a rematch at the following night's Victory Road Impact Plus Monthly Specials.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Guerrero made his All Elite Wrestling debut on the July 21, 2021 episode of "AEW Dynamite", where he was presented as the "executive consultant" for Andrade El Idolo in what was his first appearance on TNT since he lost to the then-new WCW Cruiserweight Champion Shane Helms in the final episode of "WCW Monday Nitro" on March 26, 2001. However, their partnership was short-lived when El Idolo turned on him on September 11, 2021, after interfering in his match against PAC.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: After it, Guerrero took time off to film Young Rock in Australia. During this time, he was removed from the roster website.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: On April 1, 2022, during Ring of Honor (ROH) Supercard of Honor XV, at the Curtis Culwell Center in Garland, Texas, Guerrero reappeared on the card's main event as Bandido's manager. The match was to determine the Undisputed ROH Champion. Bandido lost the match, in part thanks to Guerrero interfering in the match in two occasions, which did not go well with Bandido.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: He has appeared in at least 19 video games, including WCW games (WCW/nWo Revenge), and WWE games such as WWE Survivor Series, WWE Smackdown! Here Comes The Pain, WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw, WWE Smackdown! vs Raw 2006, WWE Smackdown vs Raw 2007, WWE Smackdown vs Raw 2008, WWE Smackdown vs Raw 2009, WWE Smackdown vs Raw 2010, WWE Smackdown vs Raw 2011 and WWE '12.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Chavo was in two documentaries about Rey Mysterio called "Rey Mysterio: The Biggest Little Man" and "Rey Mysterio: 619". He was also featured in "Viva La Raza: The Legacy of Eddie Guerrero".


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Guerrero also has his own internet show/podcast called "The Chavo Show" on GeekNation. He has appeared on various other podcasts such as Chris Jericho's "Talk is Jericho" and Roddy Piper's "Piper's Pit" podcast.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Chavo Guerrero also has his own craft beer, "Los Guerreros" brewed and canned at Alosta Brewing Co. Covina, California.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Guerrero's acting career has consisted of minor roles over the years. Starting in 1996 when he appeared in the TV show "Red Shoe Diaries", in which he played a wrestler.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: He played a character named Eddie on the Investigation Discovery series "Detective" in 2017 on episode titled "Warm Revolver".


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: He made an appearance as the fictional wrestler James Vasquez also known as El Mayordomo on the NBC TV series Grimm's fifth-season episode "Silence of the Slams". The episode aired on March 18, 2016. Also in 2016 Chavo played as a character named "Silas" in "Fight to the Finish", an action/sport/romance and was directed by Warren Sheppard. He also played a character named "Tex-Mex" in the movie 2016 "Vigilante Diaries", an action movie.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: In 2017 and 2018 Guerrero served as a fight coordinator for the Netflix TV show GLOW, training the cast as professional wrestlers. His uncle Mando Guerrero held the same position in the original GLOW series that inspired the Netflix show. Guerrero made cameos for two episodes of the second season as the wrestler Chico Guapo.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Guerrero worked with Lion Forge Studios to create "Chavo Guerrero's Warrior's Creed" in which he stars as the main character. The first issue was published in June 2016. At least four issues of the comic have been published. The comics were written by author Fabian Nicieza.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: Chavo is the son of Salvador "Chavo" Guerrero and Nancy Vasquez. He married his wife Shari in 1998 and has two sons with her.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: On August 30, 2007, Guerrero, along with nine other WWE wrestlers were named by "Sports Illustrated" as having been given illegal steroids not in compliance with the WWE's Talent Wellness program. Guerrero received somatropin, nandrolone, and anastrozole between April 2005 and May 2006. Chris Benoit, Eddie Guerrero, and Brian Adams were also discovered to have been given steroids prior to their deaths during this investigation, as well as Sylvain Grenier.


title: Chavo Guerrero Jr.

text: In July 2016, Guerrero and his father were named part of a class action lawsuit filed against WWE which alleged that wrestlers incurred traumatic brain injuries during their tenure and that the company concealed the risks of injury. The suit was litigated by attorney Konstantine Kyros, who has been involved in a number of other lawsuits against WWE. The lawsuit was dismissed by US District Judge Vanessa Lynne Bryant in September 2018.


title: Dharamshala

text: Dharamshala (; also spelled Dharamsala) is the winter capital of Himachal Pradesh, India. It serves as administrative headquarters of the Kangra district after being relocated from Kangra, a city located away from Dharamshala, in 1855.


title: Dharamshala

text: The city has been selected as one of a hundred in India to be developed as a smart city under Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi's flagship "Smart Cities Mission". On 19 January 2017, the Chief Minister of Himachal Pradesh, Virbhadra Singh, declared Dharamshala as the second capital of Himachal Pradesh, making it the third national administrative division of India to have two capitals after the state of Maharashtra and the union territory of Jammu and Kashmir.


title: Dharamshala

text: Dharamshala is a municipal corporation city in the upper reaches of the Kangra Valley and is surrounded by dense coniferous forest consisting mainly of stately Deodar cedar trees. The suburbs include McLeod Ganj, Bhagsunag, Dharamkot, Naddi, Forsyth Ganj, Kotwali Bazar (the main market), Kaccheri Adda (government offices such as the court, police, post, etc.), Dari, Ramnagar, Sidhpur, and Sidhbari (where the Karmapa is based). This place is also famous for its Himachal Pradesh Cricket Association Stadium (2003), which offers opportunities to the youth of state to prepare for their future in the game. McLeod Ganj town, lying in the upper reaches, is known worldwide for being the home of the Dalai Lama. On 29 April 1959, the 14th Dalai Lama (Tenzin Gyatso) established the Tibetan exile administration in the north Indian hill station of Mussoorie. In May 1960, the Central Tibetan Administration (CTA) was moved to Dharamshala, making it the centre of the Tibetan exile world in India. Following the 1959 Tibetan uprising there was an influx of Tibetan refugees who followed the 14th Dalai Lama. His presence and the Tibetan population have made Dharamshala a destination for Indian and foreign tourists, including students studying Tibet.


title: Dharamshala

text: Although the majority of tea gardens in Kangra District are located in and around Palampur, Dharamshala also has several tea gardens which are prominently situated around Sheela Chowk and extend northwards to Khaniyara. The other tea gardens are at Kunal Pathri. The tea is known as Dharamsala or Kangra tea, and is very popular across India and the rest of the world. Traditionally known for Kangra green tea, Dharamshala now produces all teas including black tea, green tea, oolong tea and white teas, in addition to the popular Kashmiri Kahwa and Masala Chai.


title: Dharamshala

text: "Dharamshala" (Devanagari: धर्मशाला; ITRANS: Dharmashala; IAST: Dharmaśālā) is a Hindi word (derived from Sanskrit) that is a compound of "dharma" (धर्म) and "shālā" (शाला). Literally, "House or place of Dharma".


title: Dharamshala

text: In common Hindi usage, the word "dharamshala" refers to a shelter or rest house for spiritual pilgrims. Traditionally, such "dharamshalas" (pilgrims' rest houses) were commonly constructed near pilgrimage destinations (often in remote areas) to give visitors a place to sleep for the night. When the first permanent settlement was created in the place now called Dharamshala, there was one such pilgrims' rest house on the site, and the settlement took its name from that "Dharamshala".


title: Dharamshala

text: Before the British Raj, Dharamshala and its surrounding area was under the Sikh Empire of Lahore. Under the British Raj, the regions were part of undivided province of Punjab, and was ruled by the governors of Punjab from Lahore. The Katoch dynasty that earlier ruled this region had been reduced to status of jagirdars (of Kangra-Lambagraon) under the Treaty of Jawalamukhi, signed in 1810 between Sansar Chand Katoch and Maharaja Ranjit Singh of the Sikh Empire. The indigenous people of the Dharamshala area (and the surrounding region) are the Gaddis, a predominantly Hindu group who traditionally lived a nomadic or semi-nomadic transhumant lifestyle. Due to the lack of permanent settlements in the area, some Gaddis lost their seasonal pastures and farmland when the British and the Gurkhas arrived to settle.


title: Dharamshala

text: In 1860, the 66th Gurkha Light Infantry was moved from Kangra, Himachal Pradesh to Dharamshala, which was at first made a subsidiary cantonment. An ideal position for the new base was found on the slopes of the Dhauladhar Hills, near the site of a Hindu sanctuary, or "Dharamshala", hence the name of the town. The Battalion was later renamed the historic 1st Gurkha Rifles, this was the beginning of the legend of the Gurkhas, also known as the 'Bravest of the Brave'. Consequently, fourteen Gurkha platoon villages grew from this settlement, and exist to this day, namely Dari, Ramnagar, Shyamnagar, Dal, Totarani, Khanyara, Sadher, Chaandmaari, Sallagarhi, Sidhbari, Yol, and so on. The Gurkhas worshipped at the ancient Shiva temple of Bhagsunag. The Gurkhas referred to Dharamshala as 'Bhagsu' and referred to themselves as Bhagsuwalas.


title: Dharamshala

text: The 21st Gurkha Regiment from Dharamshala performed heroic feats during World War I and the North West Frontier Province campaigns. The Gurkha cantonment then reached its zenith during World War II, when battalions from Dharamshala made history. Many place names in the town still retain their former cantonment terminologies: Depot Bazaar, Pensioners' Lines, Tirah Lines (named after the 19th century Tirah Campaign), Bharatpore Lines (named after the 1826 Battle of Bharatpore).


title: Dharamshala

text: The eighth earl Lord Elgin, Viceroy of India died here (at the 1st Gurkha Rifles Officers' Mess) in 1863 and is buried in the cemetery of St. John in the Wilderness, a small Anglican church distinguished by its stained-glass windows. Dharamshala became a popular hill station for the British working in or near Delhi, offering a cool respite during the hot summer months.


title: Dharamshala

text: In 1905, the Kangra valley suffered a major earthquake. On 4 April of that year, the earth shook, demolishing much of the cantonment and the neighbouring city of Kangra, Himachal Pradesh as well as the Bhagsunag temple. Altogether, the 1905 Kangra earthquake killed 20,000 people. "1,625 persons perished at Dharamsāla alone, including 15 Europeans and 112 of the Gurkha garrison."


title: Dharamshala

text: The Gurkhas rebuilt the town along with the temple, which today is acknowledged as the 1st Gurkha Rifles' heritage. The British had planned to make Dharamshala the summer capital of India, but moved to Shimla after the disaster.


title: Dharamshala

text: Not only did the Gurkhas of Dharmshala make a major contribution to India's defence, many were freedom fighters for the Indian National Army, which had been founded by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. The Indian National Army Captain Ram Singh Thakur, a Gurkha from the village of Khanyara, composed some of India's most popular and stirring patriotic songs, including "Kadam Kadam Badaye Ja". He is acknowledged so by the Netaji Research Bureau, Kolkata. The important contribution of the noted Gurkha social commentator, the late Master Mitrasen Thapa, from the village of Totarani, has been acknowledged by the Himachal Pradesh government. Recently, a park dedicated to the memory of the late Brigadier Sher Jung Thapa, MVC, the 'Hero of Skardu', has been opened alongside the road between Lower and Upper Dharamshala.


title: Dharamshala

text: The Tibetan settlement of Dharamshala began in 1959, when the Dalai Lama had to flee Tibet and Jawaharlal Nehru, the then Prime Minister of India allowed him and his followers to settle in McLeod Ganj, a former colonial British summer picnic spot 10 kilometers to the north of Dharamshala. "Nehru was delighted with the 'forgotten ghost-town wasting in the woods', and offered it to the Dalai Lama." There they established the "government-in-exile" in 1960 and the Namgyal Monastery. Dharamshala had been connected with Hinduism and Buddhism for a long time, many monasteries having been established there in the past, by Tibetan immigrants in the 19th century.


title: Dharamshala

text: In 1970, Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama opened the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives which houses over 80,000 manuscripts and other important resources related to Tibetan history, politics and culture. It is considered one of the most important institutions for Tibetology in the world; the new director is Geshe Lahkdor, the old translator of the Dalai Lama.


title: Dharamshala

text: Several thousand Tibetan exiles have now settled in the area; most live in and around McLeod Ganj in Upper Dharamshala, where they have built monasteries, temples and schools. It has become an important tourist destination with many hotels and restaurants, leading to growth in tourism and commerce.


title: Dharamshala

text: Dharamshala is the winter capital of Himachal Pradesh. The Legislative Assembly is at Sidhbari, near the Chinmaya Tapovan Ashram, and the winter sessions of the government are held there. Dharamshala is also a famous bird-watching spot in India.


title: Dharamshala

text: Due to a lack of uniform observance of transliteration and transcription conventions for Hindi (and the Devanagari script in which Hindi is written), the name of the town has been transcribed into English (and other languages using Romanic scripts) variously as "Dharamshala", "Dharamsala" and, less frequently, "Dharmshala" and "Dharmsala". These four permutations result from two variables: the transcription of the word धर्म (dharma)—particularly the second syllable (र्म)—and that of the third syllable (शा).


title: Dharamshala

text: A strict transliteration of धर्म as written would be 'dharma' . In the modern spoken Hindi of the region, however, there is a common metathesis in which the vowel and consonant sounds in the second syllable of certain words (including धर्म) are transposed, which changes 'dharma' to 'dharam' (pronounced somewhere between and , depending on the speaker). Thus, if the goal of the transcription is phonetic accord with modern spoken Hindi, then 'dharam' and 'dharm' are both legitimate options. Regarding the third syllable, the Devanagari श corresponds to the English "sh" sound, . Thus शाला is transcribed in English as 'shala'.


title: Dharamshala

text: Therefore, the most accurate phonetic transcription of the Hindi धर्मशाला into Roman script for common (non-technical) English usage is either 'Dharamshala' or, less commonly, 'Dharmshala', both of which render the "sh" () sound of "श" in English as 'sh' to convey the correct native pronunciation, 'Dharam"sh"ala' or 'Dharm"sh"ala' ). Nonetheless, the alternate spelling 'Dharamsala' continues to be used in some cases despite its inaccuracy, and all four spelling permutations can be found in the English language materials of the local and state governments, in publications, and on the Internet. Regardless of spelling variations, the correct native pronunciation is with the "sh" sound (). In actual practice, the spelling variant that is most common and most concordant with standards of transcription and native pronunciation is 'Dharamshala'. The official Indian English spelling is 'Dharamshala'.


title: Dharamshala

text: The city is divided into two distinct sections. Kotwali Bazaar and the surrounding markets are referred to as "Lower Dharamshala" or just "Dharamshala." Further up the mountain is McLeod Ganj. A steep, narrow road connects McLeod Ganj from Dharamshala and is only accessible to taxis and small cars, while a longer road winds around the valley for use by buses and trucks. McLeod Ganj is surrounded by pine, Himalayan oak, and rhododendron.


title: Dharamshala

text: Dharamshala has a monsoon influenced, humid subtropical climate (Köppen: "Cwa"). Summer starts in early April and peaks in May when temperatures can reach , and lasts until the start of June. From June to mid-September is the monsoon season, when up to 3,000 mm (120 inches) of rainfall can be experienced, making Dharamshala one of the wettest places in the state. Autumn is mild and lasts from October to the end of November.


title: Dharamshala

text: Autumn temperatures average around . Winter starts in December and continues until late February. Snow and sleet are common during the winter in upper Dharamshala (including McLeodganj, Bhagsu Nag and Naddi). Lower Dharamshala receives little frozen precipitation except hail. The snowfall of 7 January 2012 was heaviest recorded in recent times. It was caused by deep low pressure entering the Kangra district. Winter is followed by a short, pleasant spring until April. Historically, the Dhauladhar mountains used to remain snow-covered all year long; however, in recent years they have been losing their snow blanket during dry spells.


title: Dharamshala

text: As of the 2001 India census, Dharamshala had a population of 30,764. As per the 2015, it has a population of 53,543 Since its area increased as it became Municipal corporation. Males constitute 55% of the population and females 45%. Dharamshala has an average literacy rate of 87%, higher than the national average of 74.04%: male literacy is 90% and female literacy is 83%. In Dharamshala, 9% of the population is under 6 years of age.


title: Dharamshala

text: The languages residents of Dharamsala most commonly speak are Gaadi, Kangri, Hindi, English, Tibetan, Nepali and Pahari.


title: Dharamshala

text: Dharamshala was upgraded from a Municipal Council to a Corporation in 2015. It has 17 wards under its jurisdiction. Onkar Singh Nehria is currently serving as the Mayor of the town unanimously.


title: Dharamshala

text: Dharamshala also has lush tea gardens that produce its popular Kangra tea. Traditionally known for Kangra green tea, Dharamshala now produces a variety of teas, including black, green, oolong and white teas, along with Kashmiri Kahwa and Masala Chai. Tea gardens at Mann Tea Estate are owned and operated by the Dharmsala Tea Company, which conducts guided tours of the tea gardens and factory, and offers tea tastings. Kangra green tea is considered to be among the best in India, and has also been found to contain the highest anti-oxidant levels of all green teas produced in India.


title: Dharamshala

text: The city is divided into two distinct sections. Kotwali Bazaar and the surrounding markets are referred to as "Lower Dharamshala" or just "Dharamshala" and upper Dharamshala or places such as McLeodganj, Dharamkot, etc.


title: Dharamshala

text: In the city of Dharamshala, Maximus Mall and Gold Multiplex Cinema are open now on the National Highway Road in the Chilgari area, near Kotwali Bazaar and the main bus stand in Lower Dharamshala, in addition to the traditional shopping street called as Kotwali Bazaar. Maximus mall is the second biggest mall in the state after Purnam Mall, Bilaspur. It has CCD, KFC, Pizza Hut, Kapsons, Moti Mahal Restaurant, Sketchers, Aurelia, Baskin Robins and many reputed international brands. Another mall The Hillside Mall is situated in the Kotwali that includes a Domino's Pizza Restaurant.


title: Dharamshala

text: Further, Dharamshala Skyway, a mountain Cable Car between the cities of Dharamshala and McLeod Ganj has become operational from 19th Jan 2022.


title: Dharamshala

text: Dharamshala is a starting point to a number of trekking trails that especially includes lead trekkers across Dhauladhar into the upper Ravi Valley and Chamba district. En route, trekkers cross through forests of deodar, pine, oak and rhododendron, and pass streams and rivers and wind along vertiginous cliff tracks, and the occasional lake waterfall and glacier.


title: Dharamshala

text: A two-kilometer amble takes one to Bhagsu, and then a further three-kilometer walk will lead the trekkers to Dharamkot. If one wishes to go on a longer walk then he/she can trek eight-kilometers to Triund. The snow line of Ilaqa Got is just a five-kilometer walk.


title: Dharamshala

text: DIFF was established in 2012. It is presented by White Crane Arts & Media trust, established by filmmakers Ritu Sarin and Tenzing Sonam to promote contemporary art, cinema and independent media practices in the Himalayan region.


title: Dharamshala

text: Buses of all classes (deluxe, air-conditioned, and regular) ply daily between Dharamshala and major cities such as Chandigarh, Delhi, and Shimla through NH 154 and NH 503.


title: Dharamshala

text: Dharamshala town is reached by Gaggal Airport codes|DHM|VIGG, about 12 km to the town's south and about 10 km north of Kangra town.


title: Dharamshala

text: Pathankot, some 90 km away, is the nearest broad gauge railway head. The Kangra Valley Railway, a narrow gauge railway line connecting Pathankot to Jogindernagar, can also be used to reach the town via rail. This line is well-known for picturesque views of the Kangra valley from it. The nearest station to Dharamshala on this line is Chamunda Marg, located about 22 km southeast.


title: Dharamshala

text: To Exlpore Dharamshala and Mcleodganj Town by taxi & cab service, There is Two registered Taxi union and One online working company with the name of "HIMALAYA CAB" Registered with Himachal Pradesh Tourism in Dharamshala city.


title: Dharamshala

text: A 1.8 km long ropeway called "Dharamshala Skyway" connecting Dharamshala and Mcleodganj via cable car was inaugurated in January 2022.


title: Dharamshala

text: Himachal Pradesh Cricket Association Stadium (HPCAS) is a cricket stadium of international reputation, which serves as the home ground to the Himachal Pradesh state cricket team and for the IPL team Kings XI Punjab to a limited extent. By virtue of its natural backdrop, it is one of the most attractive cricket stadiums in the world. It is also one of the highest altitude Cricket Stadiums in the world. In addition to Ranji matches, some international matches are held here. The HPCA International Cricket Stadium is located near the Government Degree College, Dharmashala. The first One day International held at the ground was played between India and England on Sunday, 27 January 2013 which England won by 7 wickets. In May 2011, a match between Kings XI Punjab and Chennai Superkings was held here which was attended by the Dalai Lama.


title: Dharamshala

text: The snow-capped mountains can be easily viewed throughout the year. An additional feature is the Dharamshala College nearby which is surrounded by pine trees on one side.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The social structure of the United Kingdom has historically been highly influenced by the concept of social class, which continues to affect British society today. British society, like its European neighbours and most societies in world history, was traditionally (before the Industrial Revolution) divided hierarchically within a system that involved the hereditary transmission of occupation, social status and political influence. Since the advent of industrialisation, this system has been in a constant state of revision, and new factors other than birth (for example, education) are now a greater part of creating identity in Britain.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Although definitions of social class in the United Kingdom vary and are highly controversial, most are influenced by factors of wealth, occupation, and education. Until the Life Peerages Act 1958, the Parliament of the United Kingdom was organised on a class basis, with the House of Lords representing the hereditary upper class and the House of Commons representing everybody else. The British monarch is usually viewed as being at the top of the social class structure.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: British society has experienced significant change since the Second World War, including an expansion of higher education and home ownership, a shift towards a service-dominated economy, mass immigration, a changing role for women and a more individualistic culture. These changes have had a considerable impact on the social landscape. However, claims that the UK has become a classless society have frequently been met with skepticism. Research has shown that social status in the United Kingdom is influenced by, although separate from, social class.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: This change in terminology corresponded to a general decrease in significance ascribed to hereditary characteristics, and increase in the significance of wealth and income as indicators of position in the social hierarchy.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The "class system" in the United Kingdom is widely studied in academia but no definition of the word "class" is universally agreed to. Some scholars may adopt the Marxist view of class where persons are classified by their relationship to means of production, as owners or as workers, which is the most important factor in that person's social rank. Alternatively, Max Weber developed a three-component theory of stratification under which "a person’s power can be shown in the social order through their status, in the economic order through their class, and in the political order through their party. The biggest current study of social class in the United Kingdom is the Great British Class Survey. Besides these academic models, there are myriad popular explanations of class in Britain. In the work "Class", Jilly Cooper quotes a shopkeeper on the subject of bacon: "When a woman asks for back I call her 'madam'; when she asks for streaky I call her 'dear'."


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The United Kingdom never experienced the sudden dispossession of the estates of the nobility, which occurred in much of Europe after the French Revolution or in the early 20th century, and the British nobility, in so far as it existed as a distinct social class, integrated itself with those with new wealth derived from commercial and industrial sources more comfortably than in most of Europe. Opportunities resulting from consistent economic growth and the expanding British Empire also enabled some from much poorer backgrounds (generally men who had managed to acquire some education) to rise through the class system.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The historian David Cannadine sees the period around 1880 as a peak after which the position of the old powerful families declined rapidly, from a number of causes, reaching a nadir in the years after the Second World War, symbolised by the widespread destruction of country houses. However their wealth, if not their political power, has rebounded strongly since the 1980s, benefiting from greatly increased values of the land and fine art which many owned in quantity.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Meanwhile, the complex British middle classes had also been enjoying a long period of growth and increasing prosperity, and achieving political power at the national level to a degree unusual in Europe. They avoided the strict stratification of many Continental middle classes, and formed a large and amorphous group closely connected at their edges with both the gentry and aristocracy and the labouring classes. In particular the great financial centre of the City of London was open to outsiders to an unusual degree, and continually expanding and creating new employment.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The British working class, on the other hand, was not notable in Europe for prosperity, and early modern British travellers often remarked on the high standard of living of the farmworkers and artisans of the Netherlands, though the peasantry in other countries such as France were remarked on as poorer than their English equivalents. Living standards certainly improved greatly over the period, more so in England than other parts of the United Kingdom, but the Industrial Revolution was marked by extremely harsh working conditions and poor housing until about the middle of the 19th century.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: At the time of the formation of Great Britain in 1707, England and Scotland had similar class-based social structures. Some basic categories covering most of the British population around 1500 to 1700 are as follows. This social model was in force until the 20th century.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The social grade classification created by the National Readership Survey over 50 years ago achieved widespread usage during the 20th century in marketing and government reports and statistics.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The UK Office for National Statistics (ONS) produced a new socio-economic classification in 2001. The reason was to provide a more comprehensive and detailed classification to take newer employment patterns into account.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: On 2 April 2013 analysis of the results of a survey, which was conducted by the BBC in 2011 and developed in collaboration with academic experts, was published online in the journal "Sociology". The results released were based on a survey of 160,000 residents of the United Kingdom most of whom lived in England and described themselves as "white." Class was defined and measured according to the amount and kind of economic, cultural, and social resources, "capitals", reported. Economic capital was defined as income and assets; cultural capital as amount and type of cultural interests and activities, and social capital as the quantity and social status of their friends, family and personal and business contacts. This theoretical framework was inspired by that of Pierre Bourdieu, who published his theory of social distinction in 1979.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Analysis of the survey revealed seven classes: a wealthy "elite;" a prosperous salaried "middle class" consisting of professionals and managers; a class of technical experts; a class of ‘new affluent’ workers, and at the lower levels of the class structure, in addition to an ageing traditional working class, a ‘precariat’ characterised by very low levels of capital, and a group of emergent service workers. The fracturing of the middle sectors of the social structure into distinguishable factions separated by generational, economic, cultural, and social characteristics was considered notable by the authors of the research.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Members of the elite class are the top 6% of British society with very high economic capital (particularly savings), high social capital, and very 'highbrow' cultural capital. Occupations such as chief executive officers, IT and telecommunications directors, marketing and sales directors; functional managers and directors, solicitors, barristers and judges, financial managers, higher education teachers, dentists, doctors and advertising and public relations directors were strongly represented. However, those in the established and 'acceptable' professions, such as academia, law and medicine are more traditional upper middle class identifiers, with IT and sales being the preserve of the economic if not social middle class.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Members of the established middle class, about 25% of British society, reported high economic capital, high status of mean social contacts, and both high highbrow and high emerging cultural capital. Well-represented occupations included electrical engineers, occupational therapists, social workers, midwives, environmental professionals, quality assurance and regulatory professionals, town planning officials, and special needs teaching professionals.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The technical middle class, about 6% of British society, shows high economic capital, very high status of social contacts, but relatively few contacts reported, and moderate cultural capital. Occupations represented include medical radiographers, aircraft pilots, pharmacists, natural and social science professionals and physical scientists, and business, research, and administrative positions.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: New affluent workers, about 15% of British society, show moderately good economic capital, relatively poor status of social contacts, though highly varied, and moderate highbrow but good emerging cultural capital. Occupations include electricians and electrical fitters; postal workers; retail cashiers and checkout operatives; plumbers and heating and ventilation technicians; sales and retail assistants; housing officers; kitchen and catering assistants; quality assurance technicians.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The traditional working class, about 14% of British society, shows relatively poor economic capital, but some housing assets, few social contacts, and low highbrow and emerging cultural capital. Typical occupations include electrical and electronics technicians; care workers; cleaners; van drivers; electricians; residential, day, and domiciliary care.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The emergent service sector, about 19% of British society, shows relatively poor economic capital, but reasonable household income, moderate social contacts, high emerging (but low highbrow) cultural capital. Typical occupations include bar staff, chefs, nursing auxiliaries and assistants, assemblers and routine operatives, care workers, elementary storage occupations, customer service occupations, and musicians.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The precariat, about 15% of British society, shows poor economic capital, and the lowest scores on every other criterion. Although some members of this class are unemployed, many hold jobs. Members of this class include about 6% of all cleaners, 5% of all van drivers, 4% of all care workers, 4% of all carpenters and joiners, 3% of all caretakers, 3% of all leisure and travel service occupations, 3% of all shopkeepers and proprietors, and 2% of all retail cashiers.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The immigrants social class numbered approximately 9.5 million in the United Kingdom at the time of publication.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The term "underclass" is used to refer to those people who are "chronically unemployed", and in many instances have been for generations. The term was invented in the US in the late 20th Century. Evidence could not be found through field research to support the notion of an ‘underclass’ with a separate sub-culture amongst the long-term unemployed, yet it has become a key word in the British lexicon due to the essays that the American New-Right sociologist Charles Murray was invited to write in 1989 for the Sunday Times.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: There is a contention that there are homologies between the meaning context and tenor of the abusive word "chav" and the term "underclass" in media discourses: the obvious difference being the former relates to supposed dispositions of a social class in consumption and the later to difficulties of a social class in productive labour relations. The educational special adviser, Charlie Taylor follows Michael Gove in conceiving of an "educational underclass", and felt the majority of those involved in the 2011 England riots could be considered to be members. The BBC journalist, Mark Easton, felt that, in the justificatory responses he heard in the aftermath of those riots, it would be easy to concur with the politician Iain Duncan Smith's 2008 theory of "an underclass" that exhibited "creeping expansion".


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: It may be that the unskilled working class once worked as manual labourers. It may be that they typically left school as soon as legally permissible and it may be that many were not able to take part in higher education.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: It may be that be that many would go on to work in semi-skilled and unskilled jobs in raw materials extraction/processing, in assembly and in machine shops of Britain's major car factories, steel mills, coal mines, foundries and textile mills in the highly industrialised cities and pit towns and villages in the West Midlands, North of England, South Wales and the Scottish Lowlands. However, since the mid-1970s and early-1980s, some might contend that de-industrialisation has shattered many of these communities, resulting, some might contend, in a complete deterioration in quality of life and a reversal in rising living standards for the industrial working class. It may be that many dropped in status to join the working poor and it may be that many fell into permanent reliance on social security. It may be that some dropped out altogether and joined the black market economy, and it may be that a few managed, perhaps through geographic fortune of other industries in the local area, to ascend to the lower middle class.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: It has been argued that with the decline in manufacturing and increase in the service sector, lower-paid office workers are effectively working-class. Call centres in particular, have sprung up in former centres of industry. However, since the early-2000s; there has been a trend for many call centres to close down in the UK and outsource their jobs to India and other jurisdictions, as part of cost-cutting measures.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The Mosaic 2010 groups where the proportion of residents in NRS social grade D was rated "high" in the 2010 Mosaic Index are "Residents with sufficient incomes in right-to-buy social housing" and "Families in low-rise social housing with high levels of benefit need".


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: During the post-war era, white working-class Britons witnessed a big rise in their standard of living. As noted by Denys Blakeway in 2008:


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: "The white working-class have prospered hugely since the war. They have experienced unparalleled growth in disposable income and today they are now richer than their parents and grandparents could ever have imagined. There are shared values in white working-class culture but I think it is incredibly difficult to put your finger on exactly what it is that defines "white working-class" because a lot of them are shared by the middle class, such as football and the pub."


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: This class of people would be in skilled industrial jobs or tradesmen, traditionally in the construction and manufacturing industry, but in recent decades showing entrepreneurial development as the stereotypical white van man, or self-employed contractors. It may be that these people would speak in regional accents and it may be that they would have completed craft apprenticeships rather than a university education. The only Mosaic 2010 group where the proportion of residents in NRS social grade C2 was rated "high" in the 2010 Mosaic Index is "Residents with sufficient incomes in right-to-buy social housing".


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: An example of what the BBC described as a "normal, working-class Boltonian" was Fred Dibnah, a small-scale company director in the construction industry (and therefore also an example of the small employer class, rather than the routine class, in NS-SEC). A fictional example from the literary traditional of the working-class novel is Arthur Seaton, in the novel "Saturday Night and Sunday Morning". A lathe operator at a bicycle factory, he regards his father's apparently subservient generation with contempt, and at the close of the novel (made explicit in the film version) plans to buy his own home.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The British lower middle class primarily consists of office workers. In the nineteenth century, the middle and lower middle classes were able to live in suburbs due to the development of horse-drawn omnibuses and railways. One radical Liberal politician (Charles Masterman), writing in 1909 used "the Middle Classes" and "the suburbans" synonymously. In the early twenty-first century, there were no Mosaic 2010 geodemographic groups where the proportion of residents in NRS social grade C1 was rated as "high" or "low" in the 2010 Index; it was rated as "average" in all Mosaic groups, whether these were of a suburban, rural, city or small-town nature.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: They are typically employed in relatively unskilled service sector jobs (such as in retail sales or travel agents), or work in local government or are factory and other industrial building owners. Prior to the expansion in higher education from the 1960s onwards, members of this class generally did not have a university education.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Members of the lower middle class typically speak in local accents, although relatively mild. Votes in this area are split and minority parties will have a stronger proportion. The comedy character Hyacinth Bucket is a satirical stereotype for this social group.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The middle class in Britain often consists of people with tertiary education and may have been educated at either state or private schools.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Typical jobs include: accountants, architects, solicitors, surveyors, social workers, teachers, managers, specialist IT workers, engineers, doctors, university-educated nurses and civil servants. Displays of conspicuous consumption are considered vulgar by them; instead they prefer to channel excess income into investments, especially property.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Members of the middle class are often politically and socially engaged (a Mori poll in 2005 found 70% of grades AB voted at the 2005 general election compared to 54% of grades DE) and might be regular churchgoers (a YouGov poll in 2014 found 62% of those attending church at least once a month were NRS grades ABC1), might sit on local committees and governing boards or stand for political office. Education is greatly valued by the middle classes: they will make every effort to ensure their children get offered a place at university; they may send their children to a private school, hire a home tutor for out of school hours so their child learns at a faster rate, or go to great lengths to get their children enrolled into good state or selective grammar schools; such as moving house into the catchment area.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: They also value culture and make up a significant proportion of the book-buying and theatre-going public. They typically read broadsheet newspapers rather than tabloids. The only Mosaic 2010 geodemographic type where the proportion of residents in NRS social grade B was rated as "high" in the 2010 index was "People living in brand new residential developments". The middle classes particularly of England and Wales are often popularly referred to as "Middle England".


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The comedy character Margo Leadbetter is a satirical stereotype for this group, as is Jilly Cooper's Howard Weybridge.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The upper middle class in Britain broadly consists of people who were born into families which have traditionally possessed high incomes, although this group is defined more by family background than by job or income. Although RP is not exclusive to any social class, some members of this stratum, in England, traditionally used General British Pronunciation natively.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The upper middle class are traditionally educated at independent schools, preferably one of the "major" or "minor" "public schools" which themselves often have pedigrees going back for hundreds of years and charge fees of as much as £44,000 per year per pupil (as of 2022).


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: A minority of upper-middle-class families may also have ancestry that directly connects them to the upper classes. Armorial bearings in the form of an escutcheon may denote such past status. A lesser status historically directly relevant to the upper middle class is that of squire or lord of the manor, however, these property rights are no longer prevalent.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Although such categorisations are not precise, popular contemporary examples of upper-middle-class people may include Boris Johnson, Catherine, Princess of Wales, David Cameron, and Matthew Pinsent (athlete).


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The British "upper class" is statistically very small and consists of the peerage, gentry and hereditary landowners, among others. Those in possession of a hereditary title (for example, a dukedom, a marquessate, an earldom, a viscountcy, a barony, a baronetcy, or a Scottish lordship of parliament) are typically members of the upper class, while those in possession or right to a coat of arms are typically at least members of the upper middle class.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Traditionally, upper class children were brought up at home by a nanny for the first few years of their lives, and then home schooled by private tutors. From the late-nineteenth century, it became increasingly popular for upper-class families to mimic the middle classes in sending their children to public schools, which had been predominantly founded to serve the educational needs of the middle class.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Nowadays, when children are old enough, they may attend a prep school or pre-preparatory school. Moving into secondary education, it is still commonplace for upper-class children to attend a public school, although it is not unheard of for certain families to send their children to state schools. Continuing education goals can vary from family to family; it may, in part, be based on the educational history of the family. In the past, both the British Army and Royal Navy have been the institutions of choice. Equally, the clergy, as well as academia, particularly within the arts and humanities divisions of Britain's oldest and most prestigious universities (Oxbridge), have been traditional career paths amongst the upper class - indeed until 1840 the majority of Oxbridge graduates were destined for ordination.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Received Pronunciation, also known as RP or BBC English, was a term introduced as way of defining "standard" English, but the accent has acquired a certain prestige from being associated with the middle (and above) classes in the South East, the wealthiest part of England. Use of RP by people from the "regions" outside the South East can be indicative of a certain educational background, such as public school or elocution lessons.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: "The Queen's English" was once a synonym for RP. However, the Queen and some other older members of the aristocracy are now perceived as speaking in a way that is both more old-fashioned and higher class than "general" RP. Phoneticians call this accent "Conservative Received Pronunciation". The Queen's pronunciation has, however, also changed over the years. The results of the Harrington & al. study can be interpreted either as a change, in a range not normally perceptible, in the direction of the mainstream RP of a reference corpus of 1980s newsreaders, or showing subtle changes that might well have been influenced by the vowels of Estuary English.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: BBC English was also a synonym for RP; people seeking a career in acting or broadcasting once learnt RP as a matter of course if they did not speak it already. However, the BBC and other broadcasters are now much more willing to use (indeed desire to use) regional accents.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Language and writing style have consistently been one of the most reliable indicators of class, although pronunciation did not become such an indicator until the late-nineteenth century. The variations between the language employed by the upper classes and non-upper classes have, perhaps, been best documented by linguistics Professor Alan Ross's 1954 article on U and non-U English usage, with "U" representing upper and upper middle class vocabulary of the time, and "Non-U" representing lower middle class vocabulary. The discussion was furthered in "Noblesse Oblige" and featured contributions from, among others, Nancy Mitford. The debate was revisited in the mid-1970s, in a publication by Debrett's called "U and Non-U Revisited". Ross also contributed to this volume, and it is remarkable to notice how little the language (amongst other factors) changed in the passing of a quarter of a century.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: In England, the upper class or prestige dialect is almost always a form of RP; however, some areas have their "own" prestige dialect, distinct from both RP and the working-class dialect of the region.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: England has a wider variety of regional dialects than larger English-speaking countries such as Australia or the United States, and many of England's dialect have working class or lower middle class connotations. However, there is a tradition of linguistic study of dialects in England and many members of the middle classes, such as Alexander John Ellis and Harold Orton, were fascinated by the linguistics of working-class speech. Arthur Balfour, a 19th-century politician and an aristocrat, gave a large financial donation for the production of the "English Dialect Dictionary", compiled by the working-class Joseph Wright.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Historically and still today, the traditional upper class is identified as the aristocracy, and social climbers tend to aspire for their descendants to be eventually absorbed by it. Due to the fact that most titles in Britain are either substantive, i.e. owned by only one person at a time and passed down on death, or non-hereditary, the aristocracy largely consists of untitled individuals. It is divided into two groups. The Peers of the Realm (the owners of the substantive titles Baron, Lord of Parliament, Viscount, Earl, Marquess or Duke), their wives and, disputedly, their immediate families form the Peerage, which is associated with the House of Lords. Baronets, Knights, Esquires and Gentlemen form the Gentry and their titles do not carry and never carried any substantive privileges. They are considered "commoners" before the law because they may stand for election to the House of Commons. The rank of Gentleman is the lowest to which male-line descendants of Peers and the titled gentry can fall; thus, male-line descendants of Peers belong to the Gentry unless they receive a Peerage themselves.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: An English citizen with arms registered in the College of Arms, or a Scottish citizen in the Lyon Court, can be referred to as armigerous and is considered (at least) a member of the untitled nobility, a Gentleman. Any British citizen can apply for arms from their respective authority but only those of sufficient social standing, those who are already Gentlemen through means other than armigerousness, would be granted arms. Typically, wealth alone is not seen as a reason to grant arms. Arms in and of themselves are imperfectly aligned with social status, in that many of high status will have no right to arms whilst, on the other hand, those entitled to arms by descent can include branches of families from anywhere on the social scale.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Nevertheless, a right to bear arms under the Law of Arms is, by definition, linked either to the personal acquisition of social status, inspiring application for a personal grant of arms, or to descent from a person who did so in the past. Rightly or wrongly, therefore, the use of a coat of arms is linked to social prestige. Technically, a grant of arms is a "confirmation" of gentility or nobility, which must be acquired either through a military commission or one of the offices that traditionally come with personal gentility, or through extraordinary achievements or proving a lifestyle befitting to the traditional gentry. Nevertheless, as many people who would not be considered traditional landed gentry (yet) are granted arms, it can be said that a grant of arms is comparable to an act of ennoblement as it is practiced in Liechtenstein, Belgium or Spain, despite coming not from the Monarch directly but from one of the two supreme heraldic officers - Garter King of Arms, or Lord Lyon King of Arms.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Britain is unique in the fact that it is possible to acquire social nobility - a kind of "noblesse d'apparence" - solely by demonstrating social standing and an appropriate lifestyle, and thus, the rank of gentleman can be accorded to a non-armiger not holding a traditionally ennobling office, something that generally has been made impossible on the Continent at the end of the Middle Ages. Until arms are granted, gentility can be challenged and derogated if social status is lost.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: In the early twentieth century, it was argued by heraldic writers such as Arthur Charles Fox-Davies that only those with a right to a coat of arms could correctly be described (if men) as gentlemen and of noble status; however, even at the time this argument was controversial, and it was rejected by other writers such as Oswald Barron and Horace Round. Rather, it can be said that not all gentlemen are armigers, but all armigers are (at least) gentlemen.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Thus, apart from receiving a peerage, baronetcy or a knighthood, it is possible to grow into the traditional British nobility by maintaining status for several generations ("It takes three generations to make a gentleman") or extraordinary achievement, usually in combination with acquiring a traditional country house with land. The process is completed by the acquisition of arms.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: In the Order of Malta, where proof of technical nobility is a requirement of certain grades of membership, British members must still base their proof upon an ancestral right to a coat of arms. CILANE, the European federation of nobility associations, also considers all British armigers as noble and the granting of arms in Britain as an act of ennoblement or confirmation of nobility.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: The relationship between armigerousness and nobility is evidenced in frequent intermarriage between the peerage and the untitled gentry, and by the fact that the younger son of a younger son of a younger son of a Duke and an armiger with a new grant of arms share the same rank - that of gentleman.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Because of the unique British system of aristocracy, it can be said that Britain lacks an established explicitly non-noble upper class (haute bourgeoisie or patriciate), as families that would fall into this category on the Continent are absorbed into the aristocracy in Britain.


title: Social class in the United Kingdom

text: Until the 20th century, feudal titles - Lordships of the Manor in England and Feudal Baronies in Scotland - were largely owned by the traditional nobility, and many are still in the hands of the landed gentry, of Peers and even of the Royal Family. They are incorporeal hereditaments just like hereditary peerages, baronetcies and coats of arms but can, unlike them, be freely bequeathed to an appointed heir or even sold. In the late 20th century, it became fashionable for foreign businessmen without a social or historical connection to the British upper class, often without any connection to Britain at all, to purchase them solely with the intent to use the title. This development was accelerated by the Abolition of Feudal Tenure Act in Scotland, which came into force in 2004 and detached Scottish feudal baronies from the manorial houses, the rights and the lands they were attached to (an analogous separation had already occurred in England centuries ago). Thus, feudal titles can not be regarded a mark of nobility by themselves anymore, unless they are held under the same conditions as they were in feudal society.


title: Izabella Scorupco

text: Izabella Scorupco (born Izabela Dorota Skorupko; 4 June 1970) is a Polish born Swedish-American actress, singer and model. She is best known for having played Bond girl Natalya Simonova in the 1995 James Bond film "GoldenEye". She is also known for her cover of the Shirley & Company song "Shame, Shame, Shame" which was released in 1992 and became a European hit.


title: Izabella Scorupco

text: Scorupco was born to Lech, a musician, and Magdalena Skorupko, a doctor, in Białystok, Poland, in 1970. When she was one year old, her parents separated, and she remained with her mother. In 1978, they moved to Bredäng in Stockholm, Sweden, where Scorupco learned to speak Swedish, English and French.


title: Izabella Scorupco

text: On 25 December 1996, Scorupco married Polish ice hockey player Mariusz Czerkawski. They had one daughter together, Julia (born 16 September 1997). They divorced in 1998.


title: Izabella Scorupco

text: On 30 January 2003, Scorupco married an American, Jeffrey Raymond; they have a son, Jakob (born 24 July 2003). They divorced in 2015. She now lives in Los Angeles and New York City. Since 2017, Scorupco has been in a relationship with Karl Rosengren. They married on 6 October 2019. In 2014, Scorupco became an American citizen.


title: Izabella Scorupco

text: In the late 1980s, Scorupco travelled throughout Europe working as a model, and appeared on the cover of "Vogue". In 1987, she was discovered by director Staffan Hildebrand and starred in the film "Ingen kan älska som vi" ("Nobody can love like us"). In the early 1990s, she had a brief but successful career as a pop singer, releasing the album "IZA", which was certified gold in Sweden in 1991. Her 1992 cover version of "Shame, Shame, Shame" was a hit in several European countries.


title: Izabella Scorupco

text: In 2011, Scorupco reprised her singing career, duetting with Swedish musician Peter Jöback in his single "Jag Har Dig Nu" and featuring in the song's music video. She also starred in Jöback's short extension film "La vie, L'amour, La mort". Scorupco went on to host the spring 2012 series of "Sweden's Next Top Model" but did not continue it for a second series.


title: Izabella Scorupco

text: Scorupco moved into comedy in July 2013 when she was named to a lead role in a Swedish romantic comedy film, "Micke & Veronica", alongside David Hellenius. It premiered on 25 December 2014.


title: Tulu language

text: Tulu () is a Dravidian language whose speakers are concentrated in Dakshina Kannada and the southern part of Udupi of Karnataka in south-western India and in the northern parts of the Kasaragod district of Kerala. The native speakers of Tulu are referred to as "Tuluva" or Tulu people and the geographical area is unofficially called Tulu Nadu.


title: Tulu language

text: The Indian census report of 2011 reported a total of 1,846,427 native Tulu speakers in India. The 2001 census had reported a total of 1,722,768 native speakers. There is some difficulty in counting Tulu speakers who have migrated from their native region as they are often counted as Kannada speakers in Indian census reports.


title: Tulu language

text: Separated early from Proto-South Dravidian, Tulu has several features not found in Tamil–Kannada. For example, it has the pluperfect and the future perfect, like French or Spanish, but formed without an auxiliary verb.


title: Tulu language

text: Tulu is the primary spoken language in Tulu Nadu, consisting of the Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts in the western part of Karnataka and the northern part of Kasaragod district of Kerala. A significant number of native Tulu speakers are found in Kalasa and Mudigere taluks of Chikkamagaluru district and also found in Thirthahalli taluks of Shivamogga district. Non-native speakers of Tulu include those who are residents in the Tulunadu region but who speak the Beary language, the Havyaka language and also Konkani and Koraga as their mother tongues. Apart from Tulu Nadu, a significant emigrant population of Tulu speakers are found in Maharashtra, Bangalore, Chennai, the English-speaking world, and the Gulf countries.


title: Tulu language

text: The various medieval inscriptions of Tulu from the 15th century are in the Tulu script. Two Tulu epics named "Sri Bhagavato" and "Kaveri" from the 17th century were also written in the same script. The Tulu language is known for its oral literature in the form of epic poems called "pardana". The "Epic of Siri" and the legend of Koti and Chennayya belong to this category of Tulu literature.


title: Tulu language

text: Tulu belongs to the southern branch of the family of Dravidian languages. It descends directly from Proto-South Dravidian, which in turn descends directly from Proto-Dravidian, the hypothesized language from which all extant Dravidian languages ultimately descend. The Tulu language originates in the southern part of India.


title: Tulu language

text: Linguist P. Gururaja Bhat specified in "Tulunadu" (a research book) that originated from the word (), where means 'cow' and refers to the place dominated by the or cowherd ().


title: Tulu language

text: Linguist has suggested that the word means 'that which is connected with water'. (jackfruit) means 'watery' in Tulu. Other water-related words in Tulu include , , , , , and . In Kannada, there are words such as meaning 'that which has characteristics of water' and .


title: Tulu language

text: Tulu is not an official language of India or any other country. Efforts are being made to include Tulu in the 8th Schedule of the Constitution. In December 2009, during the First Vishwa Tulu Sammelan organized at Ujire-Dharmastala, then Karnataka Chief Minister B. S. Yediyurappa promised to send a fresh proposal on including the Tulu language in the eighth schedule of the constitution. In August 2017, an online campaign was organized to include Tulu in 8th schedule of constitution In October 2017, when prime minister Narendra Modi, visited Dharmasthala Temple the same demand was presented in front of him. Similarly, in 2018, a Member of Parliament from the Kasargod constituency, P. Karunakaran, also raised the same demand for inclusion of Tulu language in the 8th schedule of the constitution. On 19 February 2020, Vedavyas Kamath who is a member of the Mangaluru (south) segment of the Legislative Assembly, submitted a memorandum to chief minister B. S. Yediyurappa and to the minister for tourism, Kannada and culture, C. T. Ravi, seeking official status for the Tulu language. In February 2020, another MLA from Moodbidri Umanath Kotian urged the state government to put pressure on the union government to add the Tulu language to the eighth schedule during the assembly session. In July 2021, members of the three main parties in Karnataka politics: BJP, Congress and Janata Dal (Secular), lent their support to the idea.


title: Tulu language

text: The oldest available inscriptions in Tulu are from the period between 7th and 8th century AD. These inscriptions are in the Tulu script and are found in areas in and around Barkur which was the capital of Tulu Nadu during the Vijayanagar period. Another group of inscriptions is found in the "Ullur" "Subrahmanya" Temple near Kundapura. Many linguists like S.U. Panniyadi and L. V. Ramaswami Iyer as well as P.S. Subrahmanya suggested that Tulu is among the oldest languages in the Dravidian family which branched independently from its Proto-Dravidian roots nearly 2500 years ago. This assertion is based on the fact that Tulu still preserves many aspects of the Proto-Dravidian language.


title: Tulu language

text: This dating of Tulu is also based on the fact that the region where Tulu is natively spoken was known to the ancient Tamils as Tulu Nadu. Also, the Tamil poet Mamular who belongs to the Sangam Age (200 BCE) describes Tulu Nadu and its dancing beauties in one of his poems. In the Kannada Halmidi inscriptions, one finds mention of the Tulu country as the kingdom of the Alupas. The region was also known to the Greeks of the 2nd century as "Tolokoyra" (Tulu Country). The Charition mime, a Greek play belonging to the 2nd century BC, has its plot centered around the coastal Karnataka, where Tulu is mainly spoken. The play is mostly in Greek, but the Indian characters in the play are seen speaking a language different from Greek. There is considerable ambiguity regarding the Indian language in the play, though all scholars agree the Indian language is Dravidian, there is considerable dispute over which form of it. Noted German Indologist E. Hultzsch (1857–1927) was the first to suggest that the language was Dravidian. The dispute regarding the language in the play is yet to be settled, but scholars agree that the dispute arises from the fact that Old Kannada, Old Tamil, and Tulu during the time when the play was written were perhaps dialectical variations of the same proto-language, and that over the years they evolved into their present forms as separate languages.


title: Tulu language

text: Found largely in Karnataka, it is spoken primarily within the Indian state. Dating back several hundred years, the language has developed numerous defining qualities. The Tulu people follow a saying which promotes leaving negative situations and finding newer, more positive ones. The language, however, is not as popular as others which means it could become endangered and extinct very soon. The influence of other mainstream languages is a present danger for the Tulu language. Today, it is spoken by nearly 1.8 million people around the globe. Large parts of the language are altered and changed constantly because it is commonly passed down through oral tradition. Oral traditions within Tulu have meant that certain phrases have not always maintained the same meaning or importance.


title: Tulu language

text: According to Malayalam works like the Keralolpathi, the region stretching from the Chandragiri river, now part of the Kasaragod district, Kerala, to Gokarna, now part of Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka, was ruled by the Alupas and was known as Alva Kheda. This kingdom was the homeland of the Tulu-speaking people.


title: Tulu language

text: However, the present-day Tulu linguistic majority area is confined to the region of Tulu Nadu, which comprises the districts of part of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi in the Indian state of Karnataka and the northern part of Kasaragod district of Kerala up to the river Payaswani, also known as Chandragiri. The cities of Mangalore, Udupi and Kasaragod are the centres of Tulu culture.


title: Tulu language

text: Even today Tulu is widely spoken in the Dakshina Kannada, partially in Udupi district of Karnataka state and to some extent in Kasaragod of Kerala. Efforts are also being made to include Tulu in the list of official languages of India. As a whole, Tulu is largely contained to the southern part of India. The Indian state of Karnataka is where the language seems to thrive in the present day. Some of the major cities within the Tulu culture include Mangalore and Kasaragod.


title: Tulu language

text: The various historical inscriptions of Tulu found around Barkur and Kundapura are in the Tigalari script. Historically, Brahmins of Tulu Nadu and Havyaka Brahmins used the Tigalari script to write Vedas and other Sanskrit works. The Tigalari script is descended from the Brahmi through the Grantha script. It is a sister script of the Malayalam script. However, very few works written in vernacular languages like Kannada and Tulu are available. Hence, the Tigalari script was employed by Tulu Brahmins to write Tulu and Kannada languages apart from the Kannada script. The National Mission for Manuscripts has conducted several workshops on this script with the help of a scholar, Keladi Gunda Jois. In the 18th century, the use of the Kannada script for writing Tulu and non-availability of print in the Tigalari script contributed to the marginalization of the Tigalari script. The script is studied by few scholars and manuscriptologists for research and religious purposes. The Kannada script has become the contemporary script for the Tulu language gradually. All contemporary works and literature are done in the Kannada script.


title: Tulu language

text: The Tulu alphabet resembles the Malayalam script in many ways. It is also similar to many characters found in the Tigalari alphabet. This is from the same region in the state of Karnataka. The Tigalari and Kannada alphabets include a stress on vowels with "a" and "o" sounds. Other vowels include sounds such as "au" "am" and "ah". Numerous consonants have their own origin from the Dravidian languages like "kha" "gha" "dha" and "jha". These are derived from the Tigalari alphabet.


title: Tulu language

text: Five short and five long vowels ("a", "ā", "e", "ē", "u", "ū", "i", "ī", "o", "ō") are common in Dravidian languages. Like Kodava Takk (and also like Konkani and Sinhala), Tulu also has an like vowel, generally occurring word-finally which is from the old ai. The Kannada script does not have a symbol to specifically represent this vowel, which is often written as a normal "e". For example, the first person singular form and the third person singular masculine of a verb are spelled identically in all tenses, both ending in "e", but are pronounced differently: the terminating "e" in the former sounds nearly like ‘a’ in the English word ‘man’ ( , "I make"), while that in the latter like ‘e’ in ‘men’ ( , "he makes").


title: Tulu language

text: In his grammar of 1932, S. U. Paniyadi used a special vowel sign to denote Tulu /ɛ/ in the Kannada script: according to Bhat, he used two s for this purpose (usually, a means the crest that a Kannada character like has), and the same convention was adopted by Upadhyaya in his 1988 Tulu Lexicon. The long counterpart of this vowel occurs in some words. In all dialects, the pair /e/ and /ɛ/ contrasts.


title: Tulu language

text: Additionally, like Kodava Takk and Toda, and like Malayalam and Tamil , Tulu has an -like vowel (or schwa ) as a phoneme, which is romanized as "ŭ" (ISO), "ɯ", or "u̥". Both J. Brigel and A. Männer say that it is pronounced like "e" in the French "je". Bhat describes this phoneme as /ɯ/. However, if it is like Malayalam "half-u", or may be a better description. /ɛ/ formed from previous ai and previous /u/ split into modern /u, ɯ/; long versions of /ɛ, ɯ/ are extremely restricted. In the Kannada script, Brigel and Männer used a virama (halant), , to denote this vowel. Bhat says a is used for this purpose, but apparently he too means a virama.