title: Ori and the Blind Forest

text: After the final element, Warmth, is restored in the volcano Mount Horu, Kuro attacks Ori and Sein as the fire from Horu starts to spread. Naru, who had been separated from Gumo, arrives to protect Ori from Kuro. Kuro softens, remembering the pain of losing her children. As the fire spreads and is about to reach her remaining egg, Kuro takes Sein back to the Spirit Tree, which emits a flash of bright light that dissipates the fire and restores the forest, but Kuro is destroyed by the light. Time passes as the forest begins to flourish once more, and Ori watches new spirits being born in the field at the foot of the Spirit Tree. Gumo and Naru watch together from afar, before the latter goes home, where Kuro's last egg now rests, just in time to see it begin to hatch.


title: Ori and the Blind Forest

text: "Ori and the Blind Forest" was developed by Moon Studios, a worldwide collaboration of designers and programmers who have been working on the game for four years before it was released, with Microsoft acquiring the game about a year after development started. One of the lead team members is Thomas Mahler, an artist formerly working with Blizzard Entertainment. According to Microsoft producer Daniel Smith, Moon Studios is not located in any one location, but instead staffers are working from around the world, including Austria, Australia, Israel and the United States. Gameplay programmer David Clark described the team as being inspired by current and classic adventure games, notably the "Rayman" and "Metroid" franchises, and that "Ori" is intended as a "love letter" to those games.


title: Ori and the Blind Forest

text: The designers say they were guided by works such as "The Lion King" and "The Iron Giant" and that it is a "coming-of-age story". The designers were heavily influenced by the work of Hayao Miyazaki, particularly with one of the levels "Valley of the Wind", being a nod to "Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind". The art style is meant to appear hand-drawn, similar to the more recent "Rayman" titles that utilize Ubisoft's UbiArt graphics engine; the game instead uses the Unity engine. The game takes place in one large map, rendered at 1080p and 60 frames per second with no visible loading time as the player explores. According to Mahler, the game's backgrounds are all individual components, with none duplicated as in other similar titles. As an example, Mahler explained, "You see this tree in the background and this mushroom and this rock? That's the one and only place you'll ever see those assets."


title: Ori and the Blind Forest

text: The game was unveiled at E3 2014 during Microsoft's pre-show press conference at the Galen Center; E3 was the first time a number of Moon Studios employees actually met face-to-face. Microsoft's Yusuf Mehdi, in charge of marketing for Xbox One, stated that they considered opening the conference with "Ori", but instead chose "". During E3, attendees waited in long lines to play a demo version of the game, often waiting in queues 7-8 people deep for each of the four consoles featuring the game.


title: Ori and the Blind Forest

text: Sometime after E3, Moon Studios announced on the game website that an Xbox 360 version of "Ori and the Blind Forest" was in development and planned for release sometime in early 2015. In November 2014, Moon Studios updated the status of the game and announced plans to push back the launch of the title into "early 2015" for Xbox One and PC, but no further mention of the Xbox 360 version was made at the time. Asked to clarify the status of the Xbox 360 edition, Moon Studios confirmed it was still in development and would be released later in 2015. , there has been no further announcement on the status of the Xbox 360 release and has been considered cancelled.


title: Ori and the Blind Forest

text: "Ori and the Blind Forest: Definitive Edition" was announced at Gamescom 2015. The expansion contains new areas, mechanics, and artwork. Specifically, it adds in "easy" and "hard" difficulty levels, which alter health and damage inflicted by enemies, and "One Life" mode; it enables fast travel between spirit wells to help traverse the game's world and it enables full backtracking through the map. This version was released on March 11, 2016 for Xbox One, on the one-year anniversary of the game, while the Windows version was released shortly afterwards on April 27, 2016. Those who have already purchased the original game are able to upgrade to the Definitive Edition. In May 2016, Nordic Games announced that they had partnered with Moon Studios and Microsoft to release a retail version of the Definitive Edition for Microsoft Windows. It was released on June 14, 2016.


title: Ori and the Blind Forest

text: Following from Microsoft's working relationship with Nintendo after the release of "Minecraft" and "Cuphead" for the Nintendo Switch and the "Banjo-Kazooie" series receiving representation in the Switch crossover title "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate", The Definitive Edition for Nintendo Switch was announced during Nintendo's Indie World showcase and was released on September 27, 2019.


title: Ori and the Blind Forest

text: "Ori and the Blind Forest" received universal acclaim for the Nintendo Switch version and generally favourable reviews for the Microsoft Windows and Xbox One versions, according to video game review aggregator Metacritic, with praise particularly directed to the game's story, visuals, gameplay, music, exploration, and environmental design. Metacritic gave the Microsoft Windows version 88/100 based on 12 reviews, the Xbox One version 88/100 based on 73 reviews and the Nintendo Switch version 90/100 based on 19 reviews.


title: Ori and the Blind Forest

text: Writing for "Game Informer", Andrew Reiner gave the game a 9.5/10, praising its accessible yet challenging gameplay, well-designed controls, strong storytelling, surprising plot twists, rewarding exploration, orchestrated music, breath-taking and mesmerizing environmental design, as well as the wonderfully scripted challenges, which require players to utilize creative thinking. However, he stated that the combat system in the game is not as refined as the platforming. He named the game "one of the best games of the year" and claimed that "there isn't a bad moment in "Ori and the Blind Forest"". Chris Carter from Destructoid also gave the game a 9.5/10, praising its well-executed and light narrative, satisfying upgrades as well as the visuals, which he compared to the "Rayman" series, but he stated that "[Ori] easily surpasses them in quality." He also praised the game for allowing players to set their own checkpoints anytime. He summarized the review by saying that "it succeeds in being both a great introduction to the genre and a rewarding experience for the hardcore audience" and called the game "a new classic" as a Metroidvania.


title: Ori and the Blind Forest

text: Ray Carsillo from Electronic Gaming Monthly praised the vast variety of environments, the delicate hand-drawn art style, remarkable and memorable story, and the quick save system, which has effectively avoided annoyance and frustration. He also praised the game for putting emphasis on platforming, puzzle-solving, and exploration instead of combat as it allows players to fully appreciate the level design. He also praised the game for capturing the balance between too forgiving and too punishing. However, he criticized the occasional frame rate drops as well as the game for not enabling players to re-enter certain areas after completing their quests (an issue addressed in the Definitive Edition). He stated that the game "is polished enough to rarely break the immersion it inspires. It's one of my favorite titles of 2015 so far and an unforgettable debut for indie developer Moon Studios." Kevin VanOrd from GameSpot gave the game a 9/10, praising its vibrant visuals, carefully designed levels, thrilling and exciting escape sequence, terrific pacing, rewarding challenges, as well as the narrative, which he compared to "Ōkami" and "Panzer Dragoon Orta". He also praised the game's opening sequence, calling it "among the best story sequences of any game." However, he criticized the occasionally frustrating levels.


title: Ori and the Blind Forest

text: Lucas Sullivan from GamesRadar gave the game a score of 8/10, praising its exquisite animation, phenomenal atmosphere, uplifting music, and intuitive gameplay, which he stated "has conveyed a real sense of lightweight agility". However, he criticized the save system, which may lead to constant death, and the difficulty spikes during the escape sequences. He summarized the game by saying that "Completing "Ori"s six-to-nine-hour journey will certainly leave you feeling warm, fuzzy, and accomplishedjust be ready to dig in for some particularly trying segments." Nick Tan from Game Revolution gave the game a 4/5, praising its presentation and platforming but criticizing its short length and low replay value, believing the game "needlessly punishing" in the escape sequences.


title: Ori and the Blind Forest

text: The game has been considered an example of video games becoming closer to art. For example, Chris Melissinos commented that the video game audience was not used to seeing the "dreamlike sensitivity" of its style of art, "usually reserved for high profile animated films".


title: Ori and the Blind Forest

text: According to Moon Studios' Thomas Mahler, "Ori and the Blind Forest" became profitable for Microsoft within one week of the game's launch on Xbox One and PC; and Gennadiy Korol, co-founder of Moon Studios, said the game was profitable for the studio itself within "a couple of weeks." Mahler described Microsoft as being "super-happy" with "Ori" and hinted that the franchise may see a future installment, eventually leading to "Ori and the Will of the Wisps". He stated that the Xbox 360 version of the game was still in development and was at the time expected to launch later in the spring (Q2) of 2015. Although no official statement has confirmed it, the Xbox 360 version has been cancelled and was never released.


title: Ori and the Blind Forest

text: The main characters, Ori and Sein, were announced as a playable fighter in the independent fighting game "Rivals of Aether" on June 12, 2017 and were released in Q2 2017.


title: Ori and the Blind Forest

text: A direct sequel, "Ori and the Will of the Wisps", was announced during E3 2017 and shown again during E3 2018, Gamescom 2018, E3 2019 and The Game Awards 2019. It was released on March 11, 2020.


title: Toothpaste

text: Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used with a toothbrush to clean and maintain the aesthetics and health of teeth. Toothpaste is used to promote oral hygiene: it is an abrasive that aids in removing dental plaque and food from the teeth, assists in suppressing halitosis, and delivers active ingredients (most commonly fluoride) to help prevent tooth decay (dental caries) and gum disease (gingivitis). Owing to differences in composition and fluoride content, not all toothpastes are equally effective in maintaining oral health. The decline of tooth decay during the 20th century has been attributed to the introduction and regular use of fluoride-containing toothpastes worldwide. Large amounts of swallowed toothpaste can be toxic. Common colors for toothpaste include white (sometimes with colored stripes or green tint) and blue.


title: Toothpaste

text: Toothpastes are generally useful to maintain dental health. Toothpastes containing fluoride are effective at preventing tooth decay. Toothpastes may also help to control and remove plaque build-up, promoting healthy gums. A 2016 systematic review indicated that using toothpaste when brushing the teeth does not necessarily impact the level of plaque removal. However, the active ingredients in toothpastes are able to prevent dental diseases with regular use.


title: Toothpaste

text: Toothpastes are derived from a variety of components, the three main ones being abrasives, fluoride, and detergent.


title: Toothpaste

text: Abrasives constitute 8-20% of a typical toothpaste. These insoluble particles are designed to help remove plaque from the teeth. The removal of plaque inhibits the accumulation of tartar (calculus) helping to minimize the risk of gum disease. Representative abrasives include particles of aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)), calcium carbonate (CaCO), magnesium carbonate(MgCo3), sodium bicarbonate, various calcium hydrogen phosphates, various silicas and zeolites, and hydroxyapatite (Ca(PO)OH).


title: Toothpaste

text: Abrasives, like the dental polishing agents used in dentists' offices, also cause a small amount of enamel erosion which is termed "polishing" action. Some brands contain powdered white mica, which acts as a mild abrasive, and also adds a cosmetically pleasing glittery shimmer to the paste. The polishing of teeth removes stains from tooth surfaces, but has not been shown to improve dental health over and above the effects of the removal of plaque and calculus.


title: Toothpaste

text: The abrasive effect of toothpaste is indicated by its RDA value. Toothpastes with RDA values above 250 are potentially damaging to the surfaces of teeth. The American National Standards Institute and American Dental Association considers toothpastes with an RDA below 250 to be safe and effective for a lifetime of use.


title: Toothpaste

text: Fluoride in various forms is the most popular and effective active ingredient in toothpaste to prevent cavities. Fluoride is present in small amounts in plants, animals, and some natural water sources. The additional fluoride in toothpaste has beneficial effects on the formation of dental enamel and bones. Sodium fluoride (NaF) is the most common source of fluoride, but stannous fluoride (SnF), and sodium monofluorophosphate (NaPOF) are also used. At similar fluoride concentrations, toothpastes containing stannous fluoride have been shown to be more effective than toothpastes containing sodium fluoride for reducing the incidence of dental caries and dental erosion, as well as reducing gingivitis. Some stannous fluoride-containing toothpastes also contain ingredients that allow for better stain and calculus removal. A systematic review revealed stabilised stannous fluoride-containing toothpastes had a positive effect on the reduction of plaque, gingivitis and staining, with a significant reduction in calculus and halitosis compared to other toothpastes. Furthermore, numerous clinical trials have shown gluconate chelated stannous fluoride toothpastes possess superior protection against dental erosion and dentine hypersensitivity compared to other fluoride-containing and fluoride-free toothpastes.


title: Toothpaste

text: Much of the toothpaste sold in the United States has 1,000 to 1,100 parts per million fluoride. In European countries, such as the UK or Greece, the fluoride content is often higher; a sodium fluoride content of 0.312% w/w (1,450 ppm fluoride) or stannous fluoride content of 0.454% w/w (1,100 ppm fluoride) is common. All of these concentrations are likely to prevent tooth decay, according to a 2019 Cochrane review. Concentrations below 1,000 ppm are not likely to be preventive, and the preventive effect increases with concentration. Clinical trials support the use of high fluoride (5,000 ppm fluoride) dentifrices, for prevention of root caries in elderly adults by reducing the amount of plaque accumulated, decreasing the number of mutans streptococci and lactobacilli and possibly promoting calcium fluoride deposits to a higher degree than after the use of traditional fluoride containing dentifrices.


title: Toothpaste

text: Many, although not all, toothpastes contain sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) or related surfactants (detergents). SLS is found in many other personal care products as well, such as shampoo, and is mainly a foaming agent, which enables uniform distribution of toothpaste, improving its cleansing power.


title: Toothpaste

text: Triclosan, an antibacterial agent, is a common toothpaste ingredient in the United Kingdom. Triclosan or zinc chloride prevent gingivitis and, according to the American Dental Association, helps reduce tartar and bad breath. A 2006 review of clinical research concluded there was evidence for the effectiveness of 0.30% triclosan in reducing plaque and gingivitis. Another Cochrane review in 2013 has found that triclosan achieved a 22% reduction in plaque, and in gingivitis, a 48% reduction in bleeding gums. However, there was insufficient evidence to show a difference in fighting periodontitis and there was no evidence either of any harmful effects associated with the use of triclosan toothpastes for more than 3 years. The evidence relating to plaque and gingivitis was considered to be of moderate quality while for periodontitis was low quality. Recently, triclosan has been removed as an ingredient from well-known toothpaste formulations. This may be attributed to concerns about adverse effects associated with triclosan exposure. Triclosan use in cosmetics has been positively correlated with triclosan levels in human tissues, plasma and breast milk, and is considered to have potential neurotoxic effects. Long-term studies are needed to substantiate these concerns.


title: Toothpaste

text: Chlorhexidine is another antimicrobial agent used in toothpastes, however it is more commonly added in mouthwash products. Sodium laureth sulfate, a foaming agent, is a common toothpaste ingredient that also possesses some antimicrobial activities. There are also many commercial products available in the market containing different essential oils, herbal ingredients (e.g. chamomile, neem, chitosan, "Aloe vera"), and natural or plant extracts (e.g. hinokitiol). These ingredients are claimed by the manufacturers to fight plaque, bad breath and prevent gum disease. A 2020 systematic metareview found that herbal toothpastes are as effective as non-herbal toothpastes in reducing dental plaque at shorter period of follow-up (4 weeks). However, this evidence comes from low-quality studies.


title: Toothpaste

text: The stannous (tin) ion, commonly added to toothpastes as stannous fluoride or stannous chloride, has been shown to have antibacterial effects in the mouth. Research has shown that stannous fluoride-containing toothpaste inhibits extracellular polysaccharide (EPS) production in a multispecies biofilm greater than sodium fluoride-containing toothpaste. This is thought to contribute to a reduction in plaque and gingivitis when using stannous fluoride-containing toothpastes when compared to other toothpastes, and has been evidenced through numerous clinical trials. In addition to its antibacterial properties, stabilised stannous fluoride toothpastes have been shown to protect against dental erosion and dentine hypersensitivity, making it a multifunctional component in toothpaste formulations.


title: Toothpaste

text: Toothpaste comes in a variety of colors and flavors, intended to encourage use of the product. The three most common flavorants are peppermint, spearmint, and wintergreen. Toothpaste flavored with peppermint-anise oil is popular in the Mediterranean region. These flavors are provided by the respective oils, e.g. peppermint oil. More exotic flavors include Anethole anise, apricot, bubblegum, cinnamon, fennel, lavender, neem, ginger, vanilla, lemon, orange, and pine. Alternatively, unflavored toothpastes exist.


title: Toothpaste

text: Chemical repair (remineralization) of early tooth decay is promoted naturally by saliva. However, this process can be enhanced by various remineralisation agents. Fluoride promotes remineralization, but is limited by bioavailable calcium. Casein phosphopeptide stabilised amorphous calcium phosphate (CPP-ACP) is a toothpaste ingredient containing bioavailable calcium that has been widely research to be the most clinically effective remineralization agent that enhances the action of saliva and fluoride. Peptide-based systems, hydroxyapatite nanocrystals and a variety of calcium phosphates have been advocated as remineralization agents; however, more clinical evidence is required to substantiate their effectiveness.


title: Toothpaste

text: Agents are added to suppress the tendency of toothpaste to dry into a powder. Included are various sugar alcohols, such as glycerol, sorbitol, or xylitol, or related derivatives, such as 1,2-propylene glycol and polyethyleneglycol. Strontium chloride or potassium nitrate is included in some toothpastes to reduce sensitivity. Two systemic meta-analysis reviews reported that arginine, and calcium sodium phosphosilicate - CSPS containing toothpastes are also effective in alleviating dentinal hypersensitivity respectively. Another randomized clinical trial found superior effects when both formulas were combined.


title: Toothpaste

text: Chlorohexidine mouthwash has been popular for its positive effect on controlling plaque and gingivitis, however, a systemic review studied the effects of chlorohexidine toothpastes and found insufficient evidence to support its use, tooth surface discoloration was observed as a side effect upon using it, which is considered a negative side effect that can affect patients' compliance.


title: Toothpaste

text: Sodium hydroxide, also known as lye or caustic soda, is listed as an inactive ingredient in some toothpaste, for example Colgate Total.


title: Toothpaste

text: A systematic review reported two out of ten studies by the same authors on the same population showed toothpastes with xylitol as an ingredient were more effective at preventing dental caries in permanent teeth of children than toothpastes containing fluoride alone. Furthermore, xylitol has not been found to cause any harmful effects. However, further investigation into the efficacy of toothpastes containing xylitol is required as the currently available studies are of low quality and high risk of bias.


title: Toothpaste

text: Fluoride-containing toothpaste can be acutely toxic if swallowed in large amounts, but instances are exceedingly rare and result from prolonged and excessive use of toothpaste (i.e. several tubes per week). Approximately 15 mg/kg body weight is the acute lethal dose, even though as small amount as 5 mg/kg may be fatal to some children.


title: Toothpaste

text: The risk of using fluoride is low enough that the use of full-strength toothpaste (1350–1500 ppm fluoride) is advised for all ages. However, smaller volumes are used for young children, for example, a smear of toothpaste until three years old. A major concern of dental fluorosis is for children under 12 months ingesting excessive fluoride through toothpaste. Nausea and vomiting are also problems which might arise with topical fluoride ingestion.


title: Toothpaste

text: The inclusion of sweet-tasting but toxic diethylene glycol in Chinese-made toothpaste led to a recall in 2007 involving multiple toothpaste brands in several nations. The world outcry made Chinese officials ban the practice of using diethylene glycol in toothpaste.


title: Toothpaste

text: Reports have suggested triclosan, an active ingredient in many kinds of toothpastes, can combine with chlorine in tap water to form chloroform, which the United States Environmental Protection Agency classifies as a probable human carcinogen. An animal study revealed the chemical might modify hormone regulation, and many other lab researches proved bacteria might be able to develop resistance to triclosan in a way which can help them to resist antibiotics also.


title: Toothpaste

text: PEG is a common ingredient in some of the formulas of toothpastes; it is a hydrophilic polymer that acts as a dispersant in toothpastes. Also, it is used in many cosmetic and pharmaceutical formulas, for example: ointments, osmotic laxatives, some of the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, other medications and household products. However, 37 cases of PEG hypersensitivity (delayed and immediate) to PEG-containing substances have been reported since 1977, suggesting that they have unrecognized allergenic potential.


title: Toothpaste

text: With the exception of toothpaste intended to be used on pets such as dogs and cats, and toothpaste used by astronauts, most toothpaste is not intended to be swallowed, and doing so may cause nausea or diarrhea. Tartar fighting toothpastes have been debated. Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) has been proposed to increase the frequency of mouth ulcers in some people, as it can dry out the protective layer of oral tissues, causing the underlying tissues to become damaged. In studies conducted by the university of Oslo on recurrent aphthous ulcers, it was found that SLS has a denaturing effect on the oral mucin layer, with high affinity for proteins, thereby increasing epithelial permeability. In a double-blind cross-over study, a significantly higher frequency of aphthous ulcers was demonstrated when patients brushed with an SLS-containing versus a detergent-free toothpaste. Also patients with Oral Lichen Planus who avoided SLS-containing toothpaste benefited.


title: Toothpaste

text: After using toothpaste, orange juice and other fruit juices are known to have an unpleasant taste if consumed shortly afterwards. Sodium lauryl sulfate, used as a surfactant in toothpaste, alters taste perception. It can break down phospholipids that inhibit taste receptors for sweetness, giving food a bitter taste. In contrast, apples are known to taste more pleasant after using toothpaste. Distinguishing between the hypotheses that the bitter taste of orange juice results from stannous fluoride or from sodium lauryl sulfate is still an unresolved issue and it is thought that the menthol added for flavor may also take part in the alteration of taste perception when binding to lingual cold receptors.


title: Toothpaste

text: Many toothpastes make whitening claims. Some of these toothpastes contain peroxide, the same ingredient found in tooth bleaching gels. The abrasive in these toothpastes, not the peroxide, removes the stains. Whitening toothpaste cannot alter the natural color of teeth or reverse discoloration by penetrating surface stains or decay. To remove surface stains, whitening toothpaste may include abrasives to gently polish the teeth or additives such as sodium tripolyphosphate to break down or dissolve stains. When used twice a day, whitening toothpaste typically takes two to four weeks to make teeth appear whiter. Whitening toothpaste is generally safe for daily use, but excessive use might damage tooth enamel. Teeth whitening gels represent an alternative. A recent systematic review in 2017 concluded that nearly all dentifrices that are specifically formulated for tooth whitening were shown to have a beneficial effect in reducing extrinsic stains, irrespective of whether or not a chemical discoloration agent was added. However, the whitening process can permanently reduce the strength of the teeth, as the process scrapes away a protective outer layer of enamel.


title: Toothpaste

text: Companies such as Tom's of Maine, among others, manufacture natural and herbal toothpastes and market them to consumers who wish to avoid the artificial ingredients commonly found in regular toothpastes. Many herbal toothpastes do not contain fluoride or sodium lauryl sulfate. The ingredients found in natural toothpastes vary widely but often include baking soda, aloe, eucalyptus oil, myrrh, camomile, calendula, neem, toothbrush tree, plant extract (strawberry extract), and essential oils. A systemic review in 2014 found insufficient evidence to determine whether the aloe vera herbal dentifrice can reduce plaque or improve gingival health, as the randomized studies were found to be flawed with high risk of bias.


title: Toothpaste

text: According to a study by the Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, many of the herbal toothpastes being sold in India were adulterated with nicotine.


title: Toothpaste

text: Charcoal has also been incorporated in toothpaste formulas; however, there is no evidence to determine its safety and effectiveness. A 2020 systematic metareview of 24 comparative Randomised controlled trials, involving 1,597 adults aged 18 to 65, showed herbal toothpaste was superior over non-herbal toothpaste, but not to fluoride toothpaste.


title: Toothpaste

text: In the United States toothpaste is regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as a cosmetic, except for ingredients with a medical purpose, such as fluoride, which are regulated as drugs. Drugs require scientific studies and FDA approval in order to be legally marketed in the United States, but cosmetic ingredients do not require pre-approval, except for color additives. The FDA does have labelling and requirements and bans certain ingredients.


title: Toothpaste

text: Striped toothpaste was invented by Leonard Marraffino in 1955. The patent (US patent , issued 1957) was subsequently sold to Unilever, who marketed the novelty under the Stripe brand-name in the early 1960s. This was followed by the introduction of the Signal brand in Europe in 1965 (UK patent 813,514). Although Stripe was initially very successful, it never again achieved the 8% market share that it cornered during its second year.


title: Toothpaste

text: Marraffino's design, which remains in use for single-color stripes, is simple. The main material, usually white, sits at the crimp end of the toothpaste tube and makes up most of its bulk. A thin pipe, through which that carrier material will flow, descends from the nozzle to it. The stripe-material (this was red in Stripe) fills the gap between the carrier material and the top of the tube. The two materials are not in separate compartments, but they are sufficiently viscous that they will not mix. When pressure is applied to the toothpaste tube, the main material squeezes down the thin pipe to the nozzle. Simultaneously, the pressure applied to the main material causes pressure to be forwarded to the stripe material, which thereby issues out through small holes (in the side of the pipe) onto the main carrier material as it is passing those holes.


title: Toothpaste

text: In 1990, Colgate-Palmolive was granted a patent (USPTO ) for two differently colored stripes. In this scheme, the inner pipe has a cone-shaped plastic guard around it, and about halfway up its length. Between the guard and the nozzle-end of the tube is a space for the material for one color, which issues out of holes in the pipe. On the other side of the guard is space for second stripe-material, which has its own set of holes.


title: Toothpaste

text: In 2016, Colgate-Palmolive was granted a patent (USPTO ) for suitable sorts of differently colored toothpastes to be filled directly into tubes to produce a striped mix without any separate compartments. This required adjustment of the diffent components' behavior (rheology) so that stripes are produced when the tube is squeezed.


title: Toothpaste

text: Striped toothpaste should not be confused with layered toothpaste. Layered toothpaste requires a multi-chamber design (e.g. USPTO ), in which two or three layers extrude out of the nozzle. This scheme, like that of pump dispensers (USPTO ), is more complicated (and thus, more expensive to manufacture) than either the Marraffino design or the Colgate designs.


title: Toothpaste

text: The iconic depiction of a wave-shaped blob of toothpaste sitting on a toothbrush is called a “nurdle”.


title: Toothpaste

text: Since 5000 BC, the Egyptians made a tooth powder, which consisted of powdered ashes of ox hooves, myrrh, powdered and burnt eggshells, and pumice. The Greeks, and then the Romans, improved the recipes by adding abrasives such as crushed bones and oyster shells. In the 9th century, Iraqi musician and fashion designer Ziryab invented a type of toothpaste, which he popularized throughout Islamic Spain. The exact ingredients of this toothpaste are unknown, but it was reported to have been both "functional and pleasant to taste". It is not known whether these early toothpastes were used alone, were to be rubbed onto the teeth with rags, or were to be used with early toothbrushes, such as neem-tree twigs and "miswak". During Japan's Edo period, inventor Hiraga Gennai's "Hika rakuyo" (1769) contained advertisements for "Sosekiko", a "toothpaste in a box." Toothpastes or powders came into general use in the 19th century.


title: Toothpaste

text: Tooth powders for use with toothbrushes came into general use in the 19th century in Britain. Most were homemade, with chalk, pulverized brick, or salt as ingredients. An 1866 Home Encyclopedia recommended pulverized charcoal, and cautioned that many patented tooth powders that were commercially marketed did more harm than good.


title: Toothpaste

text: Arm & Hammer marketed a baking soda-based toothpowder in the United States until approximately 2000, and Colgate currently markets toothpowder in India and other countries.


title: Toothpaste

text: An 18th-century American and British toothpaste recipe called for burned bread. Another formula around this time called for dragon's blood (a resin), cinnamon, and burned alum.


title: Toothpaste

text: By 1900, a paste made of hydrogen peroxide and baking soda was recommended for use with toothbrushes. Pre-mixed toothpastes were first marketed in the 19th century, but did not surpass the popularity of tooth-powder until World War I.


title: Toothpaste

text: Together with Willoughby D. Miller, Newell Sill Jenkins developed a toothpaste and named it Kolynos, the first toothpaste containing disinfectants. The name's origin is from Greek "Kolyo nosos" (κωλύω νόσος), meaning "disease prevention". Numerous attempts to produce the toothpaste by pharmacists in Europe have been uneconomic. After returning to the US, he continued experimenting with Harry Ward Foote (1875-1942), professor of chemistry at Sheffield Chemical Laboratory of Yale University. After 17 years of development of Kolynos and clinical trials, Jenkins retired and transferred the production and distribution to his son Leonard A. Jenkins, who brought the first toothpaste tubes on the market on April 13, 1908. Within a few years the company expanded in North America, Latin America, Europe and the Far East. A branch operation opened in London in 1909. In 1937, Kolynos was produced in 22 countries and sold in 88 countries. Kolynos has been sold mainly in South America and in Hungary. Colgate-Palmolive took over the production of American Home Products in 1995 at a cost of one billion US dollars.


title: Toothpaste

text: Fluoride was first added to toothpastes in the 1890s. Tanagra, containing calcium fluoride as the active ingredient, was sold by Karl F. Toellner Company, of Bremen, Germany, based upon the early work of chemist Albert Deninger. An analogous invention by Roy Cross, of Kansas City, Missouri, was initially criticized by the American Dental Association (ADA) in 1937. Fluoride toothpastes developed in the 1950s received the ADA's approval. To develop the first ADA-approved fluoride toothpaste, Procter & Gamble started a research program in the early 1940s. In 1950, Procter & Gamble developed a joint research project team headed by Joseph C. Muhler at Indiana University to study new toothpaste with fluoride. In 1955, Procter & Gamble's Crest launched its first clinically proven fluoride-containing toothpaste. On August 1, 1960, the ADA reported that "Crest has been shown to be an effective anticavity (decay preventative) dentifrice that can be of significant value when used in a conscientiously applied program of oral hygiene and regular professional care."


title: Toothpaste

text: In 1980, the Japanese company, Sangi Co., Ltd., launched APADENT, the world's first remineralizing toothpaste to use a nano-form of hydroxyapatite, the main component of tooth enamel, rather than fluoride, to remineralize areas of mineral loss below the surface of tooth enamel (incipient caries lesions). After many years of laboratory experiments and field trials, its hydroxyapatite ingredient was approved as an active anti-caries agent by the Japanese Ministry of Health in 1993, and given the name Medical Hydroxyapatite to distinguish it from other forms of hydroxyapatite used in toothpaste, such as dental abrasives.


title: Toothpaste

text: In 2006, BioRepair appeared in Europe with the first European toothpaste containing synthetic hydroxylapatite as an alternative to fluoride for the remineralization and reparation of tooth enamel. The "biomimetic hydroxylapatite" is intended to protect the teeth by creating a new layer of synthetic enamel around the tooth instead of hardening the existing layer with fluoride that chemically changes it into fluorapatite.


title: Toothpaste

text: In 1880, Doctor Washington Sheffield of New London, CT manufactured toothpaste into a collapsible tube, Dr. Sheffield's Creme Dentifrice. He had the idea after his son traveled to Paris and saw painters using paint from tubes. In York in 1896, Colgate & Company Dental Cream was packaged in collapsible tubes imitating Sheffield. The original collapsible toothpaste tubes were made of lead.


title: M. A. Yusuff Ali

text: Yusuff Ali Musaliam Veettil Abdul Kader, popularly known as Yusuff Ali M. A (born 15 November 1955) is a UAE-based Indian businessman and billionaire. He is the Chairman and Managing Director of LuLu Group International that owns the LuLu Hypermarket chain worldwide and LuLu International Shopping Mall. With an annual turnover of US$7.4 billion, LuLu Group International employs the largest number of Indians outside India. According to Forbes Middle East, Yusuff Ali was ranked No. 1 in Top 100 Indian business owners in the Arab World 2018.


title: M. A. Yusuff Ali

text: In 2006, he started his large business ventures in India, by starting a convention centre cum hotel at his native place Thrissur, Kerala namely Lulu Convention Centre. In 2013, Yusuff Ali acquired 4.99% of the Thrissur-based Catholic Syrian Bank (CSB) and 4.99% shares of Thrissur based Dhanlaxmi Bank. Also in 2013, he increased his stake in the Aluva-based Federal Bank to 4.47%. In 2014 Yusuff Ali acquired 2% stake of South Indian Bank - another Thrissur based bank. In 2016, Yusuff Ali purchased the Scotland Yard Building in London. , he held a 9.37% share in Cochin International Airport. He has bought a 10% stake in the UK-based trading firm, East India Company, and a 40% stake in its fine foods subsidiary for around $85 million in total. The Lulu Bolgatty International Convention Centre on Bolghatty Island is one of the largest convention centres in South Asia, along with the third largest Grand Hyatt branded hotel in the same campus. His First Mall in India was LuLu International Shopping Mall, Kochi started in 2013, then in 2019, he started his second shopping mall in India at Triprayar, Thrissur, Kerala, the Y Mall. In October 2021, he started his third shopping mall in India, Global Mall, at Rajaji Nagar, Bengaluru, Karnataka. In December 2021, Lulu group opened their fourth mall in India at Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.


title: M. A. Yusuff Ali

text: Yusuff Ali was born in a Muslim family in Nattika in Thrissur district of Kerala on 15 November 1955. He did his schooling in Karanchira at St. Xavier's High School. He holds a diploma in Business Management and Administration.


title: M. A. Yusuff Ali

text: After his studies, he left India in 1973 to Abu Dhabi, where his paternal uncle, M K Abdullah, the chairman and the founder of the LuLu Group of Companies, was doing business. He developed the import and wholesale distribution of the group and ventured into the supermarket business by launching Lulu Hypermarket. He started his first Lulu Hypermarket in the 1990s, a time when the UAE's retail sector witnessed a major change, with the traditional groceries and supermarkets yielding place to large neighborhood stores and hypermarkets. While the entry of Continent (now Carrefour) in 1995 changed the face of retail business in Dubai, Yusuff Ali took charge of Abu Dhabi's retail sector by rolling out LuLu Hypermarket.


title: M. A. Yusuff Ali

text: LuLu Group International commenced its operations as a family business venture. After joining the business, Yusuff Ali diversified the business to include import and distribution of frozen products from Europe and the United States. The products were available not only in Abu Dhabi but also in other Emirates. The business was soon expanded to include both food and non-food categories. The group also started cold storages, meat, and food processing plants, large-scale import and distribution to hotel groups, catering companies, and shipping services. By the 1980s, the group had a sizable share of the wholesale and retail food market in the UAE.


title: M. A. Yusuff Ali

text: The group has grown into an international group with operations spread over three continents. The group's flagship retail chain of LuLu Hypermarkets and Supermarkets is currently rated as one of the major players in the Middle East retail sector with more than 100 stores in Arab states of the Persian Gulf. Apart from the hypermarkets, supermarkets and department stores, the group also owns several shopping malls, namely, Khalidiyah Mall, Al Raha Mall, Al Wahda Mall, Mushriff Mall, Madinat Zayed Mall, Mazyad Mall, Ramli Mall, RAK Mall, Al Foah Mall, Al Khor Mall, Riyadh Avenue Mall in Saudi Arabia and Oman Avenues Mall spread across the GCC states.


title: M. A. Yusuff Ali

text: LuLu International Shopping Mall in Kochi, Kerala was opened on 10 March 2013. It is the group's first retail venture in India, and currently the largest shopping mall in India. LuLu International Shopping Mall in Thiruvananthapuram was opened in 2021. The Group has a vast organizational structure of over 40,000 employees, representing 37 different nationalities, out of which more than 25,000 are Indians. Retail business is the mainstay of the Group with operations in major Middle Eastern and African countries like UAE, Oman, Qatar, Kuwait, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Egypt and Kenya, having Retail Sourcing and manufacturing bases located in Far East, India, Africa and Guangzhou in China. Indian operations mainly include Food Processing, Export of Food & Non food products and convention center with bases in Delhi, Mumbai, Kochi, Thiruvananthapuram, Chennai, Lucknow and Thrissur. Deloitte has ranked the Group as one of the fastest growing retailers in the world.


title: M. A. Yusuff Ali

text: Yusuff Ali is very closely involved in many social, charitable and humanitarian activities both in India as well as in the Arab states of the Gulf. He has done various philanthropic activities across the globe. As part of its Global CSR policy, the LuLu Group joined hands with Dubai Cares and adopted schools in Gaza and Nepal. Yusuff Ali contributed and took initiative to open a multi-faith funeral centre for the Indian community in Sharjah that spread across 8.3 acres. He also took initiative to sell and promote organic products grown by the special needs community in UAE through LuLu Hypermarkets Yusuff Ali donated generously towards the Gujarat earthquake, Tsunami Relief Fund in Asia, and Typhoon and flood relief in other parts of the world. He also donated Rs 9.5 crores for relief and rehabilitation of Kerala flood victims in August 2018. He is also actively involved in ensuring the social, economic and religious welfare of expatriate Indians in the Persian Gulf region. He played a major role in finding land for the Christian community in the region to build churches, and secure cremation grounds for the Hindu populace in the Gulf region. M. A. Yusuff Ali also extended help to Indians during the amnesty period in the Persian Gulf when hundreds of Indians lost their livelihood. He helped rehabilitate people who lost their livelihood in the Calicut market fire as well. Yusuff Ali had pledged to donate Rs 50 million for the flood-hit south Indian state of Kerala in the event of the 2019 Kerala floods.


title: M. A. Yusuff Ali

text: He is married, with three children, and lives in Abu Dhabi, UAE. His elder daughter Sabeena is married to billionaire businessman Shamsheer Vayalil. His second daughter Shafeena is married to Adeeb Ahamed who runs Lulu International Exchange and Twenty14 Holdings, the group's hospitality investments division.


title: M. A. Yusuff Ali

text: On the 11th of April, 2021 the helicopter in which M.A. Yusuff Ali, his wife and three others including the pilots crash landed in a swamp near Kochi, Kerala. Fortunately both were uninjured and were taken to a nearby hospital for first aid. The private helicopter owned by the businessman had suffered a technical glitch due to adverse weather.


title: Law School (TV series)

text: Law School () is a South Korean television series starring Kim Myung-min, Kim Bum, Ryu Hye-young, and Lee Jung-eun. It premiered on JTBC on April 14, 2021 and aired every Wednesday and Thursday at 21:00 KST. The episodes are available for streaming on Netflix.


title: Law School (TV series)

text: Set in Hankuk University Law School, the series tells the story of students and professors in the law school who come across an unusual case.


title: Law School (TV series)

text: A professor at a prestigious law school and his students get involved in an unprecedented case. A drama about the process of prospective lawyers realizing authenticity, law, and justice.


title: Law School (TV series)

text: During a supervised mock trial class, a law school professor is found dead at the school, and Professor Yang is arrested as the main suspect. Kang Sol, Han Joon-Hwi, and other students at Hankuk work together to reveal the truth behind Professor Seo's death and prove Professor Yang's innocence.


title: Law School (TV series)

text: The then network-less project was first announced by the production company Gonggamdong House in June 2018 under the working title "Law School Monsters", making it South Korea's first law school television series, with Seo In ("Judge vs. Judge") as the writer. JTBC acquired the broadcasting rights in the summer of 2020.


title: Law School (TV series)

text: In mid-September 2020, JTBC confirmed that Kim Myung-min, Kim Bum, Ryu Hye-young, and Lee Jung-eun would star in the series.


title: Law School (TV series)

text: Kim Seok-yoon, who previously collaborated with actors Kim Myung-min and Kim Bum on the "Detective K" film series, joined the project as the director. He is also a co-producer for the series, together with Gonggamdong House's Choi Sai-rack.


title: Mpemba effect

text: The Mpemba effect is the name given to the observation that a liquid (typically water) which is initially hot can freeze faster than the same liquid which begins cold, under otherwise similar conditions. There is disagreement about its theoretical basis and the parameters required to produce the effect.


title: Mpemba effect

text: The Mpemba effect is named after Tanzanian schoolboy Erasto Bartholomeo Mpemba (1950–2020) whose story of it in 1963 became highly popularized. The discovery and noted observations of it, however, originate in ancient times, having been said by Aristotle to be common knowledge.


title: Mpemba effect

text: The phenomenon, when taken to mean "hot water freezes faster than cold", is difficult to reproduce or confirm because this statement is ill-defined.


title: Mpemba effect

text: "There exists a set of initial parameters, and a pair of temperatures, such that given two bodies of water identical in these parameters, and differing only in initial uniform temperatures, the hot one will freeze sooner."


title: Mpemba effect

text: Even with this definition it is not clear, however, whether "freezing" refers to the point at which water forms a visible surface layer of ice, the point at which the entire volume of water becomes a solid block of ice, or when the water reaches .


title: Mpemba effect

text: The above definition suggests simple ways in which the effect might be observed, such as if a warmer temperature melts the frost on a cooling surface, thereby increasing thermal conductivity between the cooling surface and the water container. Alternatively, the Mpemba effect might "not" be evident in situations and under circumstances that could at first seem to qualify for it.


title: Mpemba effect

text: Various effects of heat on the freezing of water were described by ancient scientists such as Aristotle: "The fact that the water has previously been warmed contributes to its freezing quickly: for so it cools sooner. Hence many people, when they want to cool water quickly, begin by putting it in the sun. So the inhabitants of Pontus when they encamp on the ice to fish (they cut a hole in the ice and then fish) pour warm water round their reeds that it may freeze the quicker, for they use the ice like lead to fix the reeds." Aristotle's explanation involved "antiperistasis": "...the supposed increase in the intensity of a quality as a result of being surrounded by its contrary quality."


title: Mpemba effect

text: Early modern scientists such as Francis Bacon noted: "Slightly tepid water freezes more easily than that which is utterly cold."


title: Mpemba effect

text: René Descartes wrote in his "Discourse on the Method", relating the phenomenon to his vortex theory: "One can see by experience that water that has been kept on a fire for a long time freezes faster than other, the reason being that those of its particles that are least able to stop bending evaporate while the water is being heated."


title: Mpemba effect

text: The Scottish scientist Joseph Black investigated a special case of this phenomenon comparing previously-boiled with unboiled water; the previously-boiled water froze more quickly. Evaporation was controlled for. He discussed the influence of stirring on the results of the experiment, noting that stirring the unboiled water led to it freezing at the same time as the previously-boiled water, and also noted that stirring the very-cold unboiled water led to immediate freezing. Joseph Black then discussed Fahrenheit's description of supercooling of water (although the term supercooling had not then been coined), arguing, in modern terms, that the previously-boiled water could not be as readily supercooled.


title: Mpemba effect

text: The effect is named after Tanzanian Erasto Mpemba. He described it in 1963 in Form 3 of Magamba Secondary School, Tanganyika, when freezing ice cream mix that was hot in cookery classes and noticing that it froze before the cold mix. He later became a student at Mkwawa Secondary (formerly High) School in Iringa. The headmaster invited Dr. Denis Osborne from the University College in Dar es Salaam to give a lecture on physics. After the lecture, Mpemba asked him the central question: "If you take two similar containers with equal volumes of water, one at and the other at , and put them into a freezer, the one that started at freezes first. Why?" Mpemba was at first ridiculed by both his classmates and his teacher. After initial consternation, however, Osborne experimented on the issue back at his workplace and confirmed Mpemba's finding. They published the results together in 1969, while Mpemba was studying at the College of African Wildlife Management.


title: Mpemba effect

text: Mpemba and Osborne described placing samples of water in beakers in the icebox of a domestic refrigerator on a sheet of polystyrene foam. They showed the time for "freezing to start" was longest with an initial temperature of and that it was much less at around . They ruled out loss of liquid volume by evaporation as a significant factor and the effect of dissolved air. In their setup, most heat loss was found to be from the liquid surface.


title: Mpemba effect

text: David Auerbach has described an effect that he observed in samples in glass beakers placed into a liquid cooling bath. In all cases the water supercooled, reaching a temperature of typically before spontaneously freezing. Considerable random variation was observed in the time required for spontaneous freezing to start and in some cases this resulted in the water which started off hotter (partially) freezing first.


title: Mpemba effect

text: In 2016, Burridge and Linden defined the criterion as the time to reach , carried out experiments, and reviewed published work to date. They noted that the large difference originally claimed had not been replicated, and that studies showing a small effect could be influenced by variations in the positioning of thermometers: "We conclude, somewhat sadly, that there is no evidence to support meaningful observations of the Mpemba effect."


title: Mpemba effect

text: In controlled experiments the effect can entirely be explained by undercooling and the time of freezing was determined by what container was used.


title: Mpemba effect

text: Philip Ball, a reviewer for "Physics World" wrote: "Even if the Mpemba effect is real — if hot water can sometimes freeze more quickly than cold — it is not clear whether the explanation would be trivial or illuminating."


title: Mpemba effect

text: Ball pointed out that investigations of the phenomenon need to control a large number of initial parameters (including type and initial temperature of the water, dissolved gas and other impurities, and size, shape and material of the container, and temperature of the refrigerator) and need to settle on a particular method of establishing the time of freezing, all of which might affect the presence or absence of the Mpemba effect. The required vast multidimensional array of experiments might explain why the effect is not yet understood.


title: Mpemba effect

text: "New Scientist" recommends starting the experiment with containers at , respectively, to maximize the effect. In a related study, it was found that freezer temperature also affects the probability of observing the Mpemba phenomenon as well as container temperature does.


title: Mpemba effect

text: While the actual occurrence of the Mpemba effect is a matter of controversy, several theoretical explanations could explain its occurrence. In 2017, two research groups independently and simultaneously found a theoretical Mpemba effect and also predicted a new "inverse" Mpemba effect in which heating a cooled, far-from-equilibrium system takes less time than another system that is initially closer to equilibrium. Lu and Raz yield a general criterion based on Markovian statistical mechanics, predicting the appearance of the inverse Mpemba effect in the Ising model and diffusion dynamics. Lasanta and co-workers predict also the direct and inverse Mpemba effects for a granular gas in a far-from-equilibrium initial state. In this last work, it is suggested that a very generic mechanism leading to both Mpemba effects is due to a particle velocity distribution function that significantly deviates from the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. James Brownridge, a radiation safety officer at the State University of New York, has said that supercooling is involved. Several molecular dynamics simulations have also supported that changes in hydrogen bonding during supercooling takes a major role in the process.


title: Mpemba effect

text: Tao and co-workers proposed yet another possible explanation, on the basis of results from vibrational spectroscopy and modelling with density functional theory-optimized water clusters, they suggest that the reason might lie in the vast diversity and peculiar occurrence of different hydrogen bonds. Their key argument is that the number of strong hydrogen bonds increases as temperature is elevated. The existence of the small strongly-bonded clusters facilitates in turn the nucleation of hexagonal ice when warm water is rapidly cooled down.


title: Battle of Uhud

text: The Battle of Uhud (, ) was fought on Saturday, 23 March 625 AD (7 Shawwal, 3 AH), in the valley north of Mount Uhud. The Qurayshi Meccans, led by Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, commanded an army of 3,000 men toward Muhammad's stronghold in Medina. The battle was the only battle throughout the Muslim–Quraysh War in which the Muslims did not manage to defeat their enemy and it came just a year after the Battle of Badr.


title: Battle of Uhud

text: Abu Sufyan became the "de facto" leader of the Quraish after the death of Amr ibn Hishām at Badr nine months prior. Wanting to avenge the Meccan's losses at the Battle of Badr, he marched upon Medina from Makkah on 10 December 624 AD with a force three times stronger than that of the Meccans at Badr. Another reason for the battle was to protect the trade route of Abu Sufyan's caravans. The Battle of Uhud was the second military encounter between the Meccans and the Muslims and the first one in which the Muslims were on the defensive side. The Muslims readied for war soon afterward and the two armies fought in the valley below the northern face of Mount Uhud.


title: Battle of Uhud

text: Although outnumbered, the Muslims gained the early initiative and forced the Meccan lines back, thus leaving much of the Meccan camp unprotected. When the battle looked to be only one step away from a decisive Muslim victory, a serious mistake was committed by a part of the Muslim army, which altered the outcome of the battle. A breach of Muhammad's orders by the Muslim archers, who left their assigned posts to despoil the Meccan camp, allowed a surprise attack from the Meccan cavalry, led by Meccan war veteran Khalid ibn al-Walid, which brought chaos to the Muslim ranks. Many Muslims were killed, and Muhammad himself was severely injured. The Muslims had to withdraw up the slopes of Uhud. The Meccans did not pursue the Muslims further, as the mountain of Uhud had tough terrain, but marched back to Mecca declaring victory. For the Muslims, the battle was a significant setback. Although they had been close to routing the Meccans a second time, their breach of Muhammad's orders in favor of collecting Meccan spoils reaped severe consequences. The two armies would meet again in 627 at the Battle of the Trench, in which the Muslims would, yet again, have to defend Medina from the Meccans and others.


title: Battle of Uhud

text: At the Battle of Badr in March 624, the Meccans lost 140 of their men (70 were killed, while another 70 were taken captive) including Amr ibn Hishām, Muhammad's antagonist, who led the army at Badr against the Muslims. Muslims consider Muhammad's victory at Badr was caused due to divine intervention and the Muslims during Muhammad's time believed they were assured such victories in the future. After the death of several important leaders at Badr, the leadership of the Quraysh passed to Abu Sufyan who forbade the mourning of the losses at Badr. Eager to exact revenge upon Muhammad, he vowed to conduct a retaliatory raid on the city of Medina. Several months later, Abu Sufyan accompanied a party of 200 men to the city, obtaining temporary residence with the chief of the Jewish tribe, Banu Nadir, and learning more about the situation in Madinah. He and his party then left Madinah, burning down two houses and laying waste to some fields in fulfillment of his vow. Further skirmishes between the Meccans and the Muslims would occur thereafter. A few months later, Abu Sufyan gathered a combined force of over 3,000 men to retaliate against the Muslims for the losses at Badr.


title: Battle of Uhud

text: At the head of a 3,000-strong army, Abu Sufyan ibn Harb set forth toward Madinah to avenge the Meccans' defeat at Badr. They encamped on the pastures north of the city, hoping that the Muslims would come out to meet them. According to the early Muslim historian Ibn Ishaq, a number of Meccan women are said to have accompanied Abu Sufyan's army to boost their morale, including Hind bint 'Utbah, Abu Sufyan's wife.


title: Battle of Uhud

text: A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army's presence and numbers late on Thursday, 20 December 624. The next morning, a Muslim council-of-war convened, and there was a dispute over how to best repel the Meccans. Muhammad and many of the wise senior figures suggested that it would be safer to fight within Medina and take advantage of its heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued that the Meccans were destroying their crops and that huddling in the strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad eventually conceded to the wishes of the latter and readied the Muslim force for battle.


title: Battle of Uhud

text: A group of approximately 1,000 Muslim men set out northward from Madinah toward Mount Uhud late on Friday, 21 December 624. Early the next morning, they took a position on the lower slopes of the hill of Uhud. Shortly before the battle commenced, 'Abdallah ibn Ubayy, chief of the Khazraj, along with 300 other men, withdrew their support for Muhammad and returned to Medina, with reports suggesting Ibn Ubayy's discontent with the plan to march out from Medina to meet the Meccans. Ibn Ubayy and his followers would later receive censure in the Qur'an for this act.


title: Battle of Uhud

text: The Muslim force, now numbering around 700 encamped on the slopes of Uhud, facing Madinah, with their back protected by the mountain. Before the battle, Muhammad had assigned 50 archers on a nearby rocky hill at the west side of the Muslim camp. This was a strategic decision in order to shield the vulnerable flanks of the outnumbered Muslim army; the archers on the hill were to protect the left flank, while the right flank was to be protected by the Mount of Uhud situated on the east side of the Muslim camp. Protecting the flanks of the Muslim army meant that the Meccan army would not be able to turn around the Muslim camp, and thus the Muslim army wouldn't be surrounded or encircled by the Meccan cavalry, keeping in mind that the Meccan cavalry outnumbered the Muslim cavalry with 50-to-1. Muhammad ordered the Muslim archers to not leave their positions on the hill unless ordered to do so by him, making it clear by uttering these words to the archers, "If you see us prevail and start to take spoils, do not come to assist us. And if you see us get vanquished and birds eat from our heads, do not come to assist us."


title: Battle of Uhud

text: The Meccan army positioned itself facing the Muslim lines, with the main body led by Abu Sufyan, and the left and right flanks commanded by Ikrimah ibn Abu Jahl, son of Amr ibn Hishām and Khalid ibn al-Walid, respectively. 'Amr ibn al-'As was commander of the cavalry and his task was to coordinate the attack between the cavalry wings. They attacked with their initial charge led by the Medinan exile Abu ‘Amir. Thwarted by a shower of stones from the Muslims, Abu ‘Amir and his men were forced to retreat to the camps behind the Meccan lines. The Meccan standard-bearer Talhah ibn Abi Talhah al-‘Abdari, advanced and challenged the enemy to a duel. Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin of Muhammad, rushed forth and struck Talhah down in a single blow. Talhah's brother, Uthman, ran forward to pick up the fallen banner — the Meccan women willing him on with songs and the loud beating of timbrels. Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib emerged from the Muslim ranks, bringing him to a similar fate as Talhah. It was their family that was responsible for the Meccan army's standard-bearing, and thus one by one, Talhah's brothers and sons went to retrieve the Meccan banner and fight unsuccessfully until they all eventually perished. Following the duels, general engagement between the two armies commenced. Meccan confidence quickly began to dissolve as the Muslims swept through their ranks.


title: Battle of Uhud

text: The Meccan army was pushed back, and repeated attempts by its cavalry to overrun the left Muslim flank were negated by the Muslim archers. Enjoying the best of these early encounters, the Muslims pierced through the Meccan lines, with victory appearing certain. However, it was the detachment of the Muslim archers, disobeying Muhammad's strict orders to remain stationary, that would shift the outcome of the battle, as most of them ran downhill to join in the advance and despoil the Meccan camp, leaving the flank vulnerable.


title: Battle of Uhud

text: At this critical juncture, the Meccan cavalry, led by Khalid ibn al-Walid, exploited this move and attacked the remaining minority of Muslim archers who refused to disobey Muhammad's orders and were still positioned on the hill. From there, the Meccans were then able to target and overrun the Muslim flank and rear. Confusion ensued, and numerous Muslims were killed. The most notable of the killed Muslims was Hamza, who had been thrown down in a surprise attack by the javelin of the Ethiopian slave of Jubayr ibn Mut'im, Wahshi ibn Harb. While the Meccan riposte strengthened, rumors circulated that Muhammad too had perished. It emerged, however, that Muhammad had only been wounded—due to missiles of stone which resulted in a gash on his forehead and lip. It is recorded that 'Ali ibn Abi Talib alone remained, fending off the assaults of Khalid's cavalrymen. According to Ibn Atheer, "The Prophet became the object of the attack of various units of the army of Quraish from all sides. Ali attacked, in compliance with Muhammad's orders, every unit that made an attack upon him and dispersed them or killed some of them, and this thing took place a number of times in Uhud." After fierce hand-to-hand combat, most of the Muslims managed to withdraw and regroup higher up on the slopes of Uhud. A small faction was cut off and tried to make its way back to Medina, though many of these were killed. The Meccans' chief offensive arm, its cavalry, was unable to ascend the slopes of Uhud in pursuit of the Muslims, and so the fighting ceased. Hind and her companions are said to have mutilated the Muslim corpses, cutting off their ears and noses; making them into anklets. Hind is reported to have cut open the corpse of Hamza, taking out his liver which she then attempted to eat. Abu Sufyan, after some brief verbal exchanges with Muhammad's companion, Ibn Ishaq records this exchange as follows:


title: Battle of Uhud

text: Abu Sufyan then decided to return to Mecca without pressing his advantage of re-attacking the wounded muslims of Madinah.


title: Battle of Uhud

text: The battle is generally believed by scholars to be a defeat for the Muslims, as they had incurred greater losses than the Meccans. Chase F. Robinson, writing in the "Encyclopaedia of Islam", states the notion that "the Muslims suffered a disheartening defeat is clear enough." Other scholars such as William Montgomery Watt disagree, noting that while the Muslims did not win, the Meccans had failed to achieve their strategic aim of destroying Muhammad and his followers; and that the Meccans' untimely withdrawal indicated weakness on their part. The battle is also noted for the emergence of the military leadership and stratagem of Khalid ibn al-Walid, who would later become the most famous of all Arab generals during the Islamic expansion era, in conquering the Sassanid Empire and Byzantine-held Syria.


title: Battle of Uhud

text: Muhammad and the Muslims buried the dead on the battlefield, returning home that evening. The Meccans retired for the evening at a place called "Hamra al-Asad", a few miles away from Medina. The next morning, Muhammad sent out a small force to scout the Meccan army on their way home. According to Watt, this was because Muhammad realized that a show of force was required to speed the Meccans away from the Medinan territory. The Meccans, not wanting to be perceived as being chased away, remained nearby for a few days before leaving.


title: Battle of Uhud

text: For the Muslims, the battle held a religious dimension as well as a military one. They had expected another victory like at Badr, which was considered a sign of God's favor upon them. At Uhud, however, they had barely held off the invaders and had lost a great many men. A verse of the Qur'an revealed soon after the battle cited the Muslims' disobedience and desire for loot as the cause for this setback:


title: Battle of Uhud

text: According to the Qur'an, then, the misfortunes at Uhud — largely the result of the rear guard abandoning their position in order to seek booty — were partly a punishment and partly a test for steadfastness. Firestone observes that such verses provided inspiration and hope to the Muslims, sacralizing future battles that they would experience. He adds that rather than demoralizing the Muslims, the battle seemed to reinforce the solidarity between them.


title: Battle of Uhud

text: Abu Sufyan, whose position as leader was no longer disputed, set about forging alliances with surrounding nomadic tribes in order to build up strength for another advance on Medina. The success of the Meccans' rousing of tribes against Muhammad reaped disastrous consequences for him and the Muslims with two main losses: one was where a Muslim party had been invited by a chieftain of the Ma'unah tribe, who were then killed as they approached by the tribe of Sulaym; while the other was when the Muslims had sent out instructors to a tribe which stated it wanted to convert to Islam — the instructors had been led into an ambush by the guides of the would-be Muslim tribe, and were subsequently killed. Soon thereafter, Muhammad became convinced that the Jewish tribe Banu Nadir harbored enmity towards him and were plotting to kill him. The Banu Nadir were expelled from Medina after a fifteen-day siege, with some relocating to the oasis of Khaybar and others to Syria. Abu Sufyan, along with the allied confederate tribes, would attack Medina in the Battle of the Trench, two years after the events at Uhud (in 627).


title: Battle of Uhud

text: The event is mentioned in the Quranic verse according to the Muslim scholar Safiur Rahman Mubarakpuri, as well as , .


title: Battle of Uhud

text: The Muslim Mufassir Ibn Kathir's commentary on this verse in his book Tafsir ibn Kathir is as follows:


title: Battle of Uhud

text: Safiur Rahman Mubarakpuri mentions that this incident is also mentioned in the Sunni hadith collection Sahih al-Bukhari. mentions:


title: Battle of Uhud

text: This event is mentioned in Ibn Ishaq's biography of Muhammad. Most of the information available about the events is derived from the "sira—maghazi" traditions (biographical narratives and documentation of military campaigns) of the early centuries of Islam. The general sequence of the events gained consensus early on, as demonstrated in the text of Ibn Ishaq, an early biographer of Muhammad. Accounts of the battle are derived mainly from descendants of the participants. Much of the basic narrative and chronology, according to Robinson, is reasonably authentic, although some of the more elaborate details — such as the exact scale of the Muslim defeat — may be doubtful or difficult to ascertain.


title: Battle of Uhud

text: Ibn al-Athir gives the names of 85 Muslims killed in the battle of Uhud. Of these, 75 were Medinans (43 from the Banu Khazraj and 32 from the Banu Aws) and 10 were Muhajirun (Emigrants) from Mecca. Moreover, 46 of the 85 martyrs of Uhud had also participated in the earlier battle of Badr. Some the martyrs of Uhud include:


title: Battle of Uhud

text: Muhammad showed his ability as a general by choosing the battlefield of Uhud. He decided according to the will of Muslims to fight in an open country but was aware of the superior mobility of the Meccans. He knew that an encounter in the open country would expose the infantry wings to envelopment and neutralize the Meccan mobility factor


title: Battle of Uhud

text: Thus, he decided to hold high ground with Mount Uhud in their rear, which provided security from any attack from the rear. Moreover, as the front was of approximately of and on one flank, he rested Mount Einein and on other flank were the defiles of Mount Uhud and so, in military language, he refused both wings to the Meccan cavalry. The only approach from which they could be taken from the rear was protected by the deployment of archers.


title: Battle of Uhud

text: The battle of Uhud is the second of the two main battles featured in Moustapha Akkad's 1976 film centering on the life of Muhammad, "Mohammad, Messenger of God". The other battle featured is the battle of Badr. The battle of Uhud is also depicted in the 2004 animated film, "", directed by Richard Rich, and in the 2012 TV series Farouk Omar. The cave in Mount Uhud where Muhammad rested temporarily during the battle has also received recent media attention in the light of proposals by some Salafi scholars for it to be destroyed.


title: Dan Abrams

text: Daniel Abrams (born May 20, 1966) is an American media entrepreneur, television host, legal commentator, and author. He is currently the host of the prime-time show "Dan Abrams Live" on NewsNation, "On Patrol: Live" on Reelz and "The Dan Abrams Show: Where Politics Meets The Law" on SiriusXM's P.O.T.U.S. channel. He is also the Chief Legal Analyst of ABC News.


title: Dan Abrams

text: Abrams was the host of "Live PD" on the A&E cable network and created and hosts "Court Cam," a Law&Crime production on A&E. He was formerly an anchor of "Nightline". Abrams also worked as the chief legal correspondent and analyst for NBC News and general manager of MSNBC, and doubled as an anchor for the same network. He began his professional career in 1994 as a reporter for "Court TV", covering, among others, the O. J. Simpson murder trial.


title: Dan Abrams

text: Daniel Abrams was born in Manhattan; he is Jewish, the son of Efrat and well-known attorney Floyd Abrams, an expert on constitutional law. He is a 1984 graduate of Riverdale Country School. Abrams received his B.A. "cum laude" in political science from Duke University in 1988. While at Duke, he anchored newscasts on the student-run channel Cable 13 and was vice president of the student body. Abrams received a J.D. from Columbia Law School.


title: Dan Abrams

text: Abrams worked as a reporter for Court TV from May 1994 to June 1997, where he covered the O. J. Simpson case, the International War Crimes Tribunal from the Netherlands, and the assisted-suicide trials of Dr. Jack Kevorkian from Michigan.


title: Dan Abrams

text: After leaving Court TV, Abrams was a general assignment correspondent for NBC News from 1997 to 1999 at which time he was named Chief Legal Correspondent. Abrams then began hosting his own show at MSNBC, and "The Abrams Report" began in 2001. Abrams hosted "The Abrams Report" until he accepted the lead managerial position at MSNBC. Abrams held the position of General Manager of MSNBC from June 12, 2006, until October 2007. Abrams left to concentrate on his program "Live with Dan Abrams", which replaced "Scarborough Country" due to Joe Scarborough's move to mornings. This show would eventually be revamped and renamed "Verdict with Dan Abrams", which aired until August 21, 2008. MSNBC announced on August 19, 2008, that Air America Radio host Rachel Maddow would take over that time slot beginning September 8, 2008. At that time, Abrams took on additional duties with NBC News including substituting as an anchor on the "Today" show.


title: Dan Abrams

text: In March 2011, Abrams left NBC to become the Chief Legal Analyst for ABC News and a substitute anchor on "Good Morning America". ABC announced in June 2013 that Abrams would become the network's Chief Legal Affairs Anchor, as well as an anchor of "Nightline". He stepped down from his full time role as "Nightline" anchor in December 2014 to focus on his expanding media businesses and returned to his freelance role as the network's Chief Legal Analyst. In 2020, The Poynter Report described Abrams as the "go-to analyst on legal affairs."


title: Dan Abrams

text: From October 2016 to June 2020, Abrams hosted the A&E show "Live PD", which followed police officers live across the United States as they patrol their communities. Using dash-cam footage, handheld low-light-capable cameras, and fixed-camera rigs, Abrams analyzed each incident with analysts Tom Morris Jr. and Sean "Sticks" Larkin as the police work occurs. He was also co-host of "Grace vs. Abrams", in which Abrams and legal commentator Nancy Grace debated high-profile crime cases. In 2019, Abrams signed on to produce and host "Court Cam", a new show that takes viewers inside America's courtrooms. "Live PD" was canceled on June 10, 2020, in the wake of protests against police brutality following the murder of George Floyd and the destruction of the video footage of the killing of Javier Ambler.


title: Dan Abrams

text: On July 19, 2021, Nexstar announced that Abrams would join NewsNation to host a nightly prime-time show called "Dan Abrams Live", which premiered on September 27, 2021.


title: Dan Abrams

text: On June 8th, 2022, the Wall Street Journal announced that Abrams would return as host and executive producer for "On Patrol: Live", a new show on Reelz following the same format as A&E's cancelled Live PD. "On Patrol: Live" premiered on July, 22nd 2022.


title: Dan Abrams

text: On July 29, 2009, Abrams and Michael Lewittes launched "Gossip Cop", a media watchdog site that patrols the celebrity gossip universe. The site has been described by its designer, Rex Sorgatz, as "TMZ meets Smoking Gun". The site rates gossip rumors on a 0–10 scale. For the month of May 2013, the site reported over 8 million unique visitors. In 2019 "Gossip Cop" was acquired by Gateway Blend.


title: Dan Abrams

text: In September 2009, Abrams started "Mediaite", a news site he described as "appreciating the celebrity of the media." The site combines editorial content with analytic rankings of media personalities. In mid-2015, it had over 7 million unique visitors per month.


title: Dan Abrams

text: "Geekosystem" was launched on January 25, 2010. "Geekosystem" covered "geek" culture, following developments in science, technology, as well as internet memes and Internet culture. Abrams described the site upon launch as "a broader interest site that will celebrate and cover everything from technology and science fiction to video games and comics."


title: Dan Abrams

text: Abrams's foray into fashion, "Styleite", debuted on March 25, 2010. Functioning for fashion the way "Mediaite" did for journalism, "Styleite" launched with both news and opinion content, as well as a fashion version of the "Power Grid," which ranks designers, models, writers, and others in the style business based on influence and following. Abrams rebranded "Styleite" as "Runway Riot" in 2015, appointing model Iskra Lawrence as managing editor. "RunwayRiot.com" is marketed as a fashion site for "plus-sized women."


title: Dan Abrams

text: Launched in May 2010, "SportsGrid" offers a mix of sports news, video clips and other media tracking both sports and the media world surrounding it. Like the other Abrams Media properties, the site features a Power Grid "tabulated by using a specially developed algorithm that pools a variety of metrics, including TV ratings; Web traffic and circulation counts; attendance; number of Twitter followers; on-field performance for players and coaches; and franchise values." In 2013, SportsGrid was acquired by Anthem Media Group in a stock and cash deal.


title: Dan Abrams

text: In 2011, Abrams Media started "The Mary Sue", a sister site to "Geekosystem" with the goal of "highlighting women in the geek world, and providing a prominent place for the voices of geek women." Based on its rapid growth and high engagement, in 2014, Abrams folded "Geekosystem" into "The Mary Sue". On July 3, 2022, The Mary Sue was acquired by GAMURS Group.


title: Dan Abrams

text: In May 2012, Abrams launched a site focused on the personalities and lifestyles of chefs. Rather than recipes or techniques, "The Braiser"s topics consist of chefs who "have gone from being food icons to becoming mainstream celebrities," according to an interview Abrams gave to "The New York Times" in late April. It was nominated for a James Beard Foundation Award in 2014. By 2015, "The Braiser" had gone on "a short hiatus" with plans for a relaunch, but saw no further activity as of 2019.


title: Dan Abrams

text: In 2016, Abrams started "LawNewz", a legal news website which also live streams trials as part of its online network. The new live trial network, slated as the new Court TV, launched on February 24, 2017, with A&E Networks taking a stake in the site. On November 13, 2017, "LawNewz" was rebranded to "Law&Crime" and is available on most OTT platforms and many cable systems in the United States.


title: Dan Abrams

text: On October 15, 2018, Abrams launched his new media service, "Ambo TV", a Christian TV streaming service "dedicated to broadcasting Christian sermons with an in-studio discussion." It was announced that the service would be available to the public in November 2018. The station will be located at new studios built especially for "Ambo TV" at Abrams Media studios in Herald Square in New York City and will feature live programming on the weekends.


title: Dan Abrams

text: In December 2020, Abrams launched "Whiskey Raiders", a site that uses a proprietary algorithm to rate whiskeys on a scale from 50 to 100. Abrams purchased Jay West's spirit review site, "t8ke.review", as part of the launch.


title: Dan Abrams

text: Abrams has published articles in "The New York Times", "The Wall Street Journal", "USA Today" magazine, "The American Lawyer", and the "Yale Law and Policy Review". He has also written for online magazines such as "The Huffington Post", "Daily Beast", and Mediaite.


title: Dan Abrams

text: In March 2010, Abrams published the book "Man Down: Proof Beyond a Reasonable Doubt That Women Are Better Cops, Drivers, Gamblers, Spies, World Leaders, Beer Tasters, Hedge Fund Managers and Just About Everything Else". The book was #10 on "The Washington Post" best seller list of July 17, 2011, and has been translated into Russian, Indonesian, Croatian, Swedish and Hebrew, among other languages.


title: Dan Abrams

text: Abrams' second book, "Lincoln's Last Trial: The Murder Case That Propelled Him to the Presidency", tells the true story of Abraham Lincoln's last murder trial. The book was released in June 2018, and spent five weeks on the New York Times Bestseller list for hardcover non-fiction. Mental Floss rated the book #1 on their list "56 Best Books of 2018."


title: Dan Abrams

text: Abrams’ third book, "Theodore Roosevelt for the Defense: The Courtroom Battle to Save His Legacy", published on May 21, 2019, and became a New York Times bestseller. Theodore Roosevelt accused his former friend and ally, now turned rival, Republican Party leader William Barnes Jr. of political corruption. Barnes responded by suing Roosevelt for an enormous sum that could have financially devastated him.


title: Dan Abrams

text: Abrams' fourth book, "John Adams Under Fire: The Founding Father's Fight for Justice in the Boston Massacre Murder Trial," published on March 3, 2020, and became a New York Times bestseller. The book describes how, in 1770, British soldiers shot and killed five civilians. As John Adams would later remember, "On that night the formation of American independence was born". Yet when the British soldiers faced trial, the young lawyer Adams was determined that they receive a fair one. He volunteered to represent them, keeping the peace in a powder keg of a colony, and in the process created some of the foundations of what would become United States law.


title: Dan Abrams

text: Abrams' fifth book, "Kennedy's Avenger: Assassination, Conspiracy, and the Forgotten Trial of Jack Ruby" was published in June 2021. It tells the story of the trial of Jack Ruby, the infamous night club owner who shot and killed Lee Harvey Oswald.


title: Dan Abrams

text: Abrams' latest book, "Alabama v. King: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Criminal Trial That Launched the Civil Rights Movement " was published in May 2022. With help from Dr. King's lawyer, Fred D. Gray, and frequent collaborator David Fisher, Abrams details Dr. King's arrest and trial as he became the face of the Montgomery Bus Boycott movement.


title: Dan Abrams

text: Abrams has made other on-air appearances covering law, politics, and to promote his books, including on all three late night talk shows. He has appeared on "Jimmy Kimmel Live", "The Late Show with Stephen Colbert" on CBS and the "Tonight Show" on NBC.


title: Dan Abrams

text: In June 2012, Abrams had his first child with girlfriend Florinka Pesenti, who was part of the winning team on "The Amazing Race 3". They had a daughter in 2021.


title: Dan Abrams

text: Abrams was a co-owner with David Zinczenko of the restaurant The Lion in Manhattan's Greenwich Village neighborhood. The Lion closed in 2015.


title: Dan Abrams

text: Abrams's sister, Ronnie Abrams, was nominated for a federal judgeship by Barack Obama in 2011. She received her commission on March 23, 2012.


title: Dan Abrams

text: In 2021 Abrams purchased Laurel Lake Vineyards on Long Island's North Fork, which he relaunched in Summer 2021 under a name inspired by his two children, Ev&Em Vineyards.


title: Trabzon

text: Trabzon (; Ancient Greek: Tραπεζοῦς ("Trapezous"), Ophitic Pontic Greek: Τραπεζούντα ("Trapezounta"); Georgian: ტრაპიზონი ("Trapizoni")), historically known as Trebizond in English, is a city on the Black Sea coast of northeastern Turkey and the capital of Trabzon Province. Trabzon, located on the historical Silk Road, became a melting pot of religions, languages and culture for centuries and a trade gateway to Persia in the southeast and the Caucasus to the northeast. The Venetian and Genoese merchants paid visits to Trabzon during the medieval period and sold silk, linen and woolen fabric.


title: Trabzon

text: Both republics had merchant colonies within the city – Leonkastron and the former "Venetian castle" – that played a role to Trabzon similar to the one Galata played to Constantinople (modern Istanbul). Trabzon formed the basis of several states in its long history and was the capital city of the Empire of Trebizond between 1204 and 1461. During the early modern period, Trabzon, because of the importance of its port, again became a focal point of trade to Persia and the Caucasus.


title: Trabzon

text: The Turkish name of the city is Trabzon. It is historically known in English as Trebizond. The first recorded name of the city is the Greek ('), referencing the table-like central hill between the Zağnos (İskeleboz) and Kuzgun streams on which it was founded (' meant "table" in Ancient Greek; note the table on the coin in the figure). In Latin, Trabzon was called ', which is a latinization of its ancient Greek name. Both in Pontic Greek and Modern Greek, it is called ('). In Ottoman Turkish and Persian, it is written as . During Ottoman times, "Tara Bozan" was also used. In Laz it is known as ("T'amt'ra") or "T'rap'uzani", in Georgian it is ("T'rap'izoni") and in Armenian it is "Trapizon". The 19th-century Armenian travelling priest Byjiskian called the city by other, native names, including "Hurşidabat" and "Ozinis". Western geographers and writers used many spelling variations of the name throughout the Middle Ages. These versions of the name, which have incidentally been used in English literature as well, include: "Trebizonde" (Fr.), "Trapezunt" (German), "Trebisonda" (Sp.), "Trapesunta" (It.), "Trapisonda", "Tribisonde", "Terabesoun", "Trabesun", "Trabuzan", "Trabizond" and "Tarabossan".


title: Trabzon

text: Before the city was founded as a Greek colony the area was dominated by Colchians (Caucasian) and Chaldian (Anatolian) tribes. The Hayasa, who had been in conflict with the Central-Anatolian Hittites in the 14th century BC, are believed to have lived in the area south of Trabzon. Later Greek authors mentioned the Macrones and the Chalybes as native peoples. One of the dominant Caucasian groups to the east were the Laz, who were part of the monarchy of the Colchis, together with other related Georgian peoples.


title: Trabzon

text: The city was founded in classical antiquity in 756 BC as Tραπεζούς ("Trapezous"), by Milesian traders from Sinope. It was one of a number (about ten) of Milesian "emporia" or trading colonies along the shores of the Black Sea. Others included Abydos and Cyzicus in the Dardanelles, and nearby Kerasous. Like most Greek colonies, the city was a small enclave of Greek life, and not an empire unto its own, in the later European sense of the word. As a colony, Trapezous initially paid tribute to Sinope, but early banking (money-changing) activity is suggested to have occurred in the city already in the 4th century BC, according to a silver drachma coin from Trapezus in the British Museum, London. Cyrus the Great added the city to the Achaemenid Empire, and was possibly the first ruler to consolidate the eastern Black Sea region into a single political entity (a satrapy).


title: Trabzon

text: Trebizond's trade partners included the Mossynoeci. When Xenophon and the Ten Thousand mercenaries were fighting their way out of Persia, the first Greek city they reached was Trebizond (Xenophon, "Anabasis", 5.5.10). The city and the local Mossynoeci had become estranged from the Mossynoecian capital, to the point of civil war. Xenophon's force resolved this in the rebels' favor, and so in Trebizond's interest.


title: Trabzon

text: Up until the conquests of Alexander the Great the city remained under the dominion of the Achaemenids. While the Pontus was not directly affected by the war, its cities gained independence as a result of it. Local ruling families continued to claim partial Persian heritage, and Persian culture had some lasting influence on the city; the holy springs of Mt. Minthrion to the east of the old town were devoted to the Persian-Anatolian Greek god Mithra. In the 2nd century BC, the city with its natural harbours was added to the Kingdom of Pontus by Pharnaces I. Mithridates VI Eupator made it the home port of the Pontic fleet, in his quest to remove the Romans from Anatolia.


title: Trabzon

text: After the defeat of Mithridates in 66 BC, the city was first handed to the Galatians, but it was soon returned to the grandson of Mithradates, and subsequently became part of the new client Kingdom of Pontus. When the kingdom was finally annexed to the Roman province of Galatia two centuries later, the fleet passed to new commanders, becoming the "Classis Pontica". The city received the status of civitas libera, extending its judicial autonomy and the right to mint its own coin. Trebizond gained importance for its access to roads leading over the Zigana Pass to the Armenian frontier or the upper Euphrates valley. New roads were constructed from Persia and Mesopotamia under the rule of Vespasian. In the next century, the emperor Hadrian commissioned improvements to give the city a more structured harbor. The emperor visited the city in the year 129 as part of his inspection of the eastern border (limes). A mithraeum now serves as a crypt for the church and monastery of Panagia Theoskepastos ("Kızlar Manastırı") in nearby Kizlara, east of the citadel and south of the modern harbor.


title: Trabzon

text: Trebizond was greatly affected by two events over the following centuries: in the civil war between Septimius Severus and Pescennius Niger, the city suffered for its support of the latter, and in 257 the city was pillaged by the Goths, despite reportedly being defended by "10,000 above its usual garrison", and being defended by two bands of walls.


title: Trabzon

text: Although Trebizond was rebuilt after being pillaged by the Goths in 257 and the Persians in 258, the city did not soon recover. Only in the reign of Diocletian appears an inscription alluding to the restoration of the city; Ammianus Marcellinus could only write of Trebizond that it was "not an obscure town." Christianity had reached Trebizond by the third century, for during the reign of Diocletian occurred the martyrdom of Eugenius and his associates Candidius, Valerian, and Aquila. Eugenius had destroyed the statue of Mithras which overlooked the city from Mount Minthrion (Boztepe), and became the patron saint of the city after his death. Early Christians sought refuge in the Pontic Mountains south of the city, where they established Vazelon Monastery in 270 AD and Sumela Monastery in 386 AD. As early as the First Council of Nicea, Trebizond had its own bishop. Subsequently, the Bishop of Trebizond was subordinated to the Metropolitan Bishop of Poti. Then during the 9th century, Trebizond itself became the seat of the Metropolitan Bishop of Lazica.


title: Trabzon

text: By the time of Justinian, the city served as an important base in his Persian Wars, and Miller notes that a portrait of the general Belisarius "long adorned the church of St. Basil." An inscription above the eastern gate of the city, commemorated the reconstruction of the civic walls at Justinian's expense following an earthquake. At some point before the 7th century the university (Pandidakterion) of the city was reestablished with a quadrivium curriculum. The university drew students not just from the Byzantine Empire, but from Armenia as well.


title: Trabzon

text: The city regained importance when it became the seat of the theme of Chaldia. Trebizond also benefited when the trade route regained importance in the 8th to 10th centuries; 10th-century Muslim authors note that Trebizond was frequented by Muslim merchants, as the main source transshipping Byzantine silks into eastern Muslim countries. According to the 10th century Arab geographer Abul Feda it was regarded as being largely a Lazian port. The Italian maritime republics such as the Republic of Venice and in particular the Republic of Genoa were active in the Black Sea trade for centuries, using Trebizond as an important seaport for trading goods between Europe and Asia. Some of the Silk Road caravans carrying goods from Asia stopped at the port of Trebizond, where the European merchants purchased these goods and carried them to the port cities of Europe with ships. This trade provided a source of revenue to the state in the form of custom duties, or "kommerkiaroi", levied on the goods sold in Trebizond. The Greeks protected the coastal and inland trade routes with a vast network of garrison forts.


title: Trabzon

text: Following the Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, Trebizond came under Seljuk rule. This rule proved transient when an expert soldier and local aristocrat, Theodore Gabras took control of the city from the Turkish invaders, and regarded Trebizond, in the words of Anna Comnena, "as a prize which had fallen to his own lot" and ruled it as his own kingdom. Supporting Comnena's assertion, Simon Bendall has identified a group of rare coins he believes was minted by Gabras and his successors. Although he was killed by the Turks in 1098, other members of his family continued his de facto independent rule into the next century.


title: Trabzon

text: The Empire of Trebizond was formed after Georgian expedition in Chaldia, commanded by Alexios Komnenos a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Located at the far northeastern corner of Anatolia, it was the longest surviving of the Byzantine successor states. Byzantine authors, such as Pachymeres, and to some extent Trapezuntines such as Lazaropoulos and Bessarion, regarded the Trebizond Empire as being no more than a Lazian border state. Thus from the point of view of the Byzantine writers connected with the Lascaris and later with the Palaiologos, the rulers of Trebizond were not emperors.


title: Trabzon

text: Geographically, the Empire of Trebizond consisted of little more than a narrow strip along the southern coast of the Black Sea, and not much further inland than the Pontic Mountains. However, the city gained great wealth from the taxes it levied on the goods traded between Persia and Europe via the Black Sea. The Mongol siege of Baghdad in 1258 diverted more trade caravans towards the city. Genoese and to a lesser extent Venetian traders regularly came to Trebizond. To secure their part of the Black Sea trade, the Genoese bought the coastal fortification "Leonkastron", just west of the winter harbour, in the year 1306. The Venetians likewise built a trading outpost in the city, a few hundred meters to the west of the Genoese. In between these two Italian colonies settled many other European traders, and it thus became known as the "European Quarter". Small groups of Italians continued to live in the city until the early decades of the 20th century. One of the most famous persons to have visited the city in this period was Marco Polo, who ended his overland return journey at the port of Trebizond, and sailed to his hometown Venice with a ship; passing by Constantinople (Istanbul) on the way, which was retaken by the Byzantines in 1261.


title: Trabzon

text: Together with Persian goods, Italian traders brought stories about the city to Western Europe. Trebizond played a mythical role in European literature of the late middle ages and the Renaissance. Miguel de Cervantes and François Rabelais gave their protagonists the desire to possess the city. Next to literature, the legendary history of the city – and that of the Pontus in general – also influenced the creation of paintings, theatre plays and operas in Western Europe throughout the following centuries.


title: Trabzon

text: The city also played a role in the early Renaissance; The western takeover of Constantinople, which formalized Trebizond's political independence, also led Byzantine intellectuals to seek refuge in the city. Especially Alexios II of Trebizond and his grandson Alexios III were patrons of the arts and sciences. After the great city fire of 1310, the ruined university was reestablished. As part of the university Gregory Choniades opened a new academy of astronomy, which housed the best observatory outside Persia. Choniades brought with him the works of Shams al-Din al-Bukhari, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini from Tabriz, which he translated into Greek. These works later found their way to western Europe, together with the astrolabe. The observatory Choniades built would become known for its accurate solar eclipse predictions, but was probably used mostly for astrological purposes for the emperor and/or the church. Scientists and philosophers of Trebizond were among the first western thinkers to compare contemporaneous theories with classical Greek texts. Basilios Bessarion and George of Trebizond travelled to Italy and taught and published works on Plato and Aristotle, starting a fierce debate and literary tradition that continues to this day on the topic of national identity and global citizenship. They were so influential that Bessarion was considered for the position of Pope, and George could survive as an academic even after being defamed for his heavy criticism of Plato.


title: Trabzon

text: The Black Death arrived at the city in September 1347, probably via Kaffa. At that time the local aristocracy was engaged in the Trapezuntine Civil War.