title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: The Sandman later discovered that he is starting to lose the consistency of his body. When the Mad Thinker and the Wizard are unable to find a solution to counter this and the Sandman is hospitalized after collapsing, he is visited by Spider-Man, who took him to the beach that the Sandman visited in his childhood and stayed with him until his body broke down. After that happened, Spider-Man discovered that the Sandman did not die and that he lost the ability to assume a human shape, where he now sports a blob-shaped body. When the Sandman's body is taken over by a future version of the Sandman from Earth-51838 where the sun went out, Spider-Man received some of the Sandman's powers and used them to defeat the Sandman of Earth-51838 and sends him back to his reality using the Multisect and assistance from the Human Torch. After bidding farewell to Spider-Man, the Sandman left to get adjusted to his new form while having developed a fear of his newly-discovered immortality.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: At an unknown beach, Sandman somehow regained his human shape and has lost his sense of direction. Doctor Octopus helped Sandman regain his sense of direction which pleases Kindred.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: The Sandman has the ability to transform his body. He can will his body to be hardened, compacted, dispersed or shaped, or a combination of those qualities, an Earth manipulation of sand and rock particles. More often than not in combat, this ability enables him to absorb most blows with little to no ill effect other than reforming himself, a relatively fast action. His striped shirt and cargo pants are colored sand to make him appear as if he wears clothes. Even when soaked, he was able to stretch his sand molecules, growing to double his size.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: Sandman can mold his arms and hands into shapes, such as a mace or a sledgehammer, to battle Spider-Man and his other enemies. His mass, strength and shape shifting ability correspond to the number of sand and rock particles that comprise him. The more he incorporates (nearby) sand grains and rock granules into his body, the more those qualities are enhanced. Even though he controls every particle in his body, his mind exists in the astral plane. He can turn himself into a sandstorm, which enables him to fly great distances and to suffocate his enemies.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: His body takes on sand's chemical qualities, impervious to many, but not all, elements. Once, cement's ingredients were mixed into Sandman. That mixture turned him into cement that dried, rendering him immobile. Despite this frailty he remained alive, but in a coma-like state for a while before he returned to normal. In addition to his superb endurance, the Sandman possesses superhuman strength several times more than Spider-Man's and on a par with the Thing's.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: In a story with the Wizard, the Wizard fashioned Sandman a green suit with a belt that contained three buttons that allowed various chemicals to mix into the Sandman's body to enable him to change himself into consistencies related to sand. The suit, like the Sandman's usual "clothes", changed into sand with him. Eventually, with the disbanding of the original Frightful Four, the Sandman stopped using the suit.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: Temperature does alter the Sandman. At 3,400 degrees Fahrenheit his body turns into glass, also a form he can control. Unlike the Sandman's fast transformation from sand to glass, his transformation from glass to sand takes time.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: Although he is invulnerable to most physical attacks, even projectiles because they pass through him, water is capable of harming him. There are some exceptions, for example while fighting Venom, the villain's powerful mouth ripped cleanly and swiftly into the Sandman. The amount of sand removed abruptly, and perhaps because of Venom's venoms, left the mass of the Sandman in contortion, crippled beyond immediate repair. The Sandman began to disintegrate, then flowed down a drain, and then washed up onto and into a beach.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: It has been revealed that, while the Sandman can absorb and lose sand, his body must retain one key particle of sand that contains his conscious mind, allowing Spider-Man to defeat him once by isolating that one grain from the rest of the Sandman (although the difficulty involved in setting up these events in the first place makes it impractical to use regularly).


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: "", a sequel to Neil Gaiman's "Marvel 1602" written by Peter David, features the 1602 version of the Marvel Sandman. While he physically resembles Flint Marko, he has the pale skin and glowing eyes of Gaiman's Morpheus. He also alludes to an ability to summon nightmares. In issue #4 he is able to send Ben Grimm to sleep by blowing a vapor or dust at him. Both the Sandman and the Trapster are crushed by falling debris when Bensaylum collapses.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: During the "Secret Wars" storyline in the pages of "", a version of the Sandman lives in the Battleworld domain of the Regency. The Sandman allied himself with the rebel forces at S.H.I.E.L.D. following Regent conquering the world, where part of it became the Battleworld domain of The Regency. When Spider-Man exposes himself and is attacked by the Sinister Six, the Sandman appears and tries to convince Spider-Man to follow him, but Spider-Man does not listen and assume the Sandman is part of the Six. They are captured by Regent and he reads the Sandman's mind to find out S.H.I.E.L.D's location. One of Spot's portals was sewn into the Sandman, and as a last resort, he sacrifices himself to allow the rebels to break in, using the portal in order to stop Regent and rescue Spider-Man.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: The Sandman appears as a member of the Hood's Masters of Evil. He was killed by both Rogue and Marrow during the riot at Santo Rico.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: The Sandman appears in the last issue among the Avengers fighting through Krona's stronghold, in a panel where he defeats the Scorpion.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: In the "Marvel Noir" universe, the Sandman exists, and exhibits slightly different powers than the one in the mainstream Universe. Whilst he cannot externally change into sand, he can alter his internal physiology, and, as Spider-Man noted, his skin can feel like granite. He is an enforcer for the Crime Master.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: In "Marvel Zombies: Dead Days", the Sandman, having become a zombie, appears to attack Wolverine and Magneto alongside several other Spider-Man villains during an attempt to evacuate innocent civilians into a S.H.I.E.L.D. Helicarrier. The six villains are repelled. It is shown in "Marvel Zombies Return" #1 that the Zombie Spider-Man is responsible for infecting this universe's Flint Marko.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: A version of the Sandman similar to a past version of his 616 counterpart appears as part of a version of the Sinister Six. After Zombie Spider-Man teleports into this reality, the Kingpin sends the Six to fight "Spider-Man". The other five members are violently killed by the Zombie Spider-Man and the Sandman flees, later encountering and killing his own reality's Spider-Man out of fear by forcing his own sand body mass down Spider-Man's throat and causing his stomach to bloat to massive proportions before violently exploding out of his chest. He is also disappointed by the seeming betrayal of his enemy, thinking that if Spider-Man is now willing to kill, then the Sandman will also kill. Decades later, the Sandman is infused with a nanite cure developed by Tony Stark and the Zombie Spider-Man that incorporates Wolverine's healing factor, which allows him to safely confront the zombies. Working with a few allies that oppose the murderous zombies, the Sandman springs his trap. All the zombies fall, destroyed from within. Upon his final death, Zombie Spider-Man thanks the Sandman for avenging Aunt May and Mary Jane, to which the Sandman replies, "Good riddance, ya disgusting freak". He is later congratulated by Uatu the Watcher for his great help.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: The Sandman makes a cameo in "Mini-Marvels" when he attacks Spider-Man and the Team Poder while they were playing in a sandbox. He is defeated and turned into a sand castle.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: In "Peter Porker, the Spectacular Spider-Ham" #12, the Sandman appears as a manatee called the Sandmanatee. He later joined the Sinister Swine and was turned to glass.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: In "", the Sandman is a part of an elderly Sinister Six which is under the control of the tyrannical power structure running New York. During the showdown between rebellious citizens at the Mayor's tower, the Sandman encounters his super-powered daughter, Susie, but loses her due to wounds inflicted by the police. As such he abandons the Six and assists Spider-Man in defeating the tyrants.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: In the Ultimate Marvel Universe, Flint Marko is a genetic mutation created by industrialist Justin Hammer who attempts to recreate the Super Soldier Serum. Shortly after Justin Hammer dies of a heart attack during Spider-Man's fight with Doctor Octopus, S.H.I.E.L.D. infiltrates Hammer's factory to obtain experiments Hammer had been working on. Marko uses this opportunity to escape and wreak havoc in New Jersey. S.H.I.E.L.D., with the help of Spider-Man, contains him and imprisons him in a S.H.I.E.L.D holding facility.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: There, he meets fellow genetically altered criminals Green Goblin, Doctor Octopus, Electro, and Kraven the Hunter. Under the Green Goblin's and Doctor Octopus's leadership, they break free and capture Spider-Man. They tie him to a chair, unmask, and humiliate Peter for being a child and for Norman Osborn and Otto Octavius' involvement in his creation. Osborn then blackmails Peter into joining the team, forming the Ultimate Six. Marko participates with the group in an attack on the White House. Iron Man defeats Marko by having S.H.I.E.L.D. Control upload a genetic code sequence into his armor enabling him to subject Marko to a temporary genetic paralysis. After the battle, S.H.I.E.L.D. seals Marko in various jars and keeps them frozen.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: Artist Mark Bagley, who drew the first 100+ issues of "Ultimate Spider-Man", noted in his rough designs for the Ultimate Sandman that he would appear "naked" most of the time. As he wanted to go with the more 'realistic' feel of the Ultimate imprint, he doubted whether Flint Marko's clothing had unstable molecules like his body.


title: Sandman (Marvel Comics)

text: Alongside the rest of the Ultimate Six who are now joined by Vulture, the Sandman plays a role in the "Death of Spider-Man" storyline. Norman Osborn breaks him and the rest out of the Triskelion, and after their escape, informs them that God wishes for them to kill Peter Parker. When Electro is shot by Aunt May, an electric surge knocks out Kraven, the Sandman, and the Vulture.


title: CI/CD

text: In software engineering, CI/CD or CICD is the combined practices of continuous integration (CI) and (more often) continuous delivery or (less often) continuous deployment (CD).


title: CI/CD

text: CI/CD bridges the gaps between development and operation activities and teams by enforcing automation in building, testing and deployment of applications. CI/CD services compile the incremental code changes made by developers, then link and package them into software deliverables. Automated tests verify the software functionality, and automated deployment services deliver them to end users. The aim is to increase early defect discovery, increase productivity, and provide faster release cycles. The process contrasts with traditional methods where a collection of software updates were integrated into one large batch before deploying the newer version. Modern-day DevOps practices involve:


title: CI/CD

text: of software applications throughout its development life cycle. The CI/CD practice, or "CI/CD pipeline", forms the backbone of modern day DevOps operations.


title: Hellenic Army

text: The Hellenic Army (, sometimes abbreviated as ΕΣ), formed in 1828, is the land force of Greece. The term "Hellenic" is the endogenous synonym for "Greek". The Hellenic Army is the largest of the three branches of the Hellenic Armed Forces, also constituted by the Hellenic Air Force (HAF) and the Hellenic Navy (HN). The army is commanded by the chief of the Hellenic Army General Staff (HAGS), which in turn is under the command of Hellenic National Defence General Staff (HNDGS).


title: Hellenic Army

text: The motto of the Hellenic Army is ('Freedom stems from valour'), from Thucydides's "History of the Peloponnesian War (2.43.4)", a remembrance of the ancient warriors that defended Greek lands in old times. The Hellenic Army Emblem is the two-headed eagle with a Greek Cross escutcheon in the centre.


title: Hellenic Army

text: The Hellenic Army is also the main contributor to, and "lead nation" of, the Balkan Battle Group, a combined-arms rapid-response force under the EU Battlegroup structure.


title: Hellenic Army

text: The main missions of the Hellenic Army are the defence of the state's independence and integrity, the safeguarding of national territory, and the decisive contribution to the achievement of the country's policy objectives.


title: Hellenic Army

text: The Hellenic Army traces its origin to the regular units established by the Greek provisional government during the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829). The first of these, an infantry regiment and a small artillery battery, were established in April 1822, and were commanded by European Philhellenes (such as Joseph Balestra and others). Lack of funds however forced its disbandment soon after, and it was not until July 1824 that regular units were reformed, under the Greek Colonel Panagiotis Rodios. In May 1825, the first law on conscription was passed, and the command of the entire regular forces entrusted to the French Colonel Charles Fabvier. Under Fabvier, the regular corps expanded, and for the first time came to include cavalry, military music detachments, and, with Lord Byron's aid, military hospitals.


title: Hellenic Army

text: The governorship of Ioannis Kapodistrias (1828–1831) saw a drastic reorganization of the national military: a Secretariat on Army and Naval Affairs and the Hellenic Army Academy were created, the Army engineering corps was founded (28 July 1829), and a concerted effort was made to reform the various irregular forces into regular light infantry battalions. Throughout these early years, French influence pervaded the Greek regular army, in tactics as well as appearance, as most of the instructors were French—at first Philhellenes, and later serving officers of General Maison's Expeditionary Corps.


title: Hellenic Army

text: After Kapodistrias' assassination in 1831 and in the subsequent internal turmoil over the next two years, however, the regular army all but ceased to exist. The first king of the newly independent Greek kingdom, the Bavarian prince Otto, initially relied on a 4,000-strong German contingent. The royal government re-established the regular army and dissolved the irregular forces that had largely fought the War of Independence. Following the ousting of Otto in 1862, the Army continued relying on the Army Organization Statute of 1833. The Greek royal army in 1860 was approximately 200,000 men. The first major reforms were undertaken in 1877, in response to the Balkan Crisis that eventually led to the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. Among other measures, for the first time the Hellenic Army was briefly subdivided into divisions and brigades. Universal conscription was introduced in 1879, and under the premiership of Charilaos Trikoupis, in 1882–1885 major steps were undertaken to improve the training and education of the officer corps: a French military mission was called to Greece, new schools were founded and Greek officers were sent abroad for studies, and efforts were made to make officers on active service refrain from participating in politics and focus on their professional duties. The Army also underwent its first mobilizations, in July 1880 – April 1882 due to the Greek annexation of Thessaly, and again in September 1885 – May 1886, when Bulgaria annexed Eastern Rumelia. The great financial burden of these long periods of mobilization, however, exhausted the public treasury, and stalled the reform process. The result was that the Hellenic Army was wholly unprepared for war on the outbreak of the Greco-Turkish War of 1897: plans, fortifications and weapons were non-existent, the mass of the officer corps was unsuited to its tasks, and training was inadequate. As a result, the numerically superior, better organized, equipped and led Ottoman forces pushed the Greek forces south out of Thessaly.


title: Hellenic Army

text: The dismal performance of the Hellenic Army in the war of 1897 led to a major reform programme under the administration of Georgios Theotokis (1899–1901, 1903–1904 and 1906–1909). A new Army Organization Statute was issued in 1904 (revised in 1910), purchases of new artillery material (including the 75 mm Schneider-Danglis 06/09 gun) and of the Mannlicher–Schönauer rifle were made, and a new, khaki field uniform was introduced in 1908. Reform was accelerated after the Goudi coup of 1909.


title: Hellenic Army

text: The new government under Eleftherios Venizelos brought a French military mission to train the Hellenic Army. Under its supervision, the Greeks had adopted the triangular infantry division as their main formation, but more importantly, the overhaul of the mobilization system allowed the country to field and equip a far greater number of troops than it had in 1897: while foreign observers estimated a mobilized force of approximately 50,000 men, the Army eventually fielded 125,000, with another 140,000 in the National Guard and reserves.


title: Hellenic Army

text: After the victorious Balkan Wars, the country doubled its territory. During the WWI, a disagreement between King Constantine and Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos caused a National Schism, but eventually a united Greece joined in 1917 the Allies.


title: Hellenic Army

text: As a winner of the war, Greece annexed Western and Eastern Thrace and landed units in 1919 at Asia Minor, starting so the Greco-Turkish War (1919-22), which was unsuccessful for Greece, in 1922.


title: Hellenic Army

text: The country joined WWII with the Allies side in October 1940, when dictator Ioannis Metaxas rejected an Italian ultimatum by Mussolini. In the Greco-Italian War, the Hellenic Army pushed back the Italian and occupied large parts of southern Albania, but after a German invasion (Battle of Greece) fell under the Axis domination.


title: Hellenic Army

text: The exiled Greek government, with units of the Army, were transferred to Middle East, where they continued the war with the Allies.


title: Hellenic Army

text: Leo Niehorster's website shows the higher organisation of the Greek Army on 15 August 1940, with the General Staff of the Army directly supervising five corps, three divisions, and the Thessaloniki Fortress.


title: Hellenic Army

text: After the war, Greece incorporated Dodecanese. Soon the political polarization between leftist/communist and anticommunist forces led to a civil war, which ended with communist defeat.


title: Hellenic Army

text: After a major reorganization which occurred in the last decade, which included the transformation of most Infantry formations into Mechanized Brigades and a parallel reduction of personnel, the Hellenic Army's higher command is the Hellenic Army General Staff.


title: Hellenic Army

text: Although divisions still exist, having the role of forward commands, the Army is mainly organized in brigades, that follow the typical NATO standards consisting of five battalions, three manoeuvre, one artillery, one support and some other company sized formations. According to the latest developments, up to 2015, all active divisions will dissolve, but all brigades will acquire one more manoeuvre battalion, largely eliminating the distinction between mechanized and armoured formations, thus creating a new type brigade, which will be named "Strike Brigade".


title: Hellenic Army

text: There are three classes of personnel in the Hellenic Army, namely professional, volunteer and conscript. There are currently 90,000 personnel on active duty, of which 30,000 are conscripted. The Hellenic Republic has mandatory military service (conscription) as of March 2021 of 12 months for all males between the ages of 18 and 45. Citizens discharged from active service are normally placed in the Reserve and are subject to periodic recall of 1–10 days at irregular intervals. Greek males between the age of 18 and 60 who live in strategically sensitive areas may also be required to serve part-time in the National Guard. During a mobilization the amount of conscripts may exceed 180,000.


title: Hellenic Army

text: Conscript enlisted men and non-commissioned officers wear special rank insignia to differentiate them from volunteers.


title: Hellenic Army

text: Most professional officers graduate from the Evelpidon Military Academy in Athens ("Στρατιωτική Σχολή Ευελπίδων") and the Corps Officers Military Academy in Thessaloniki ("Στρατιωτική Σχολή Αξιωματικών Σωμάτων"), while the rest graduate from various Military Schools according to their specialization.


title: Hellenic Army

text: In the chain of command, graduates of the two military academies in Athens and Thessaloniki are considered higher in seniority compared to professional officers of the same rank who graduate from specialized military schools. The latter officers are followed in seniority by volunteer and finally conscript staff.


title: Hellenic Army

text: During war, the Hellenic army battalions are commanded by either a ranking officer major general or if in a combat mission by another state which in agreement with the Greek state will be commanded by a ranking General of their own.


title: Hellenic Army

text: The heavy equipment and weaponry of the Hellenic Army is mostly of foreign manufacture, from German, French, Italian, American, British and Russian suppliers. A notable exception is the indigenous Leonidas armoured personnel carrier which was built by the Hellenic Vehicles Manufacturer Industry ELVO, such as the ELVO Kentaurus fighting vehicle.


title: Hellenic Army

text: Equipment runs the gamut from state-of-the art to obsolete Cold War inventories; the latter are gradually being retired.


title: Hellenic Army

text: The structure of Hellenic Army ranks has its roots in British military traditions and follows NATO standard rank scale. The rank of "Stratarchis" (Στρατάρχης, equivalent to Field Marshal or General of the Army) though, has been historically used, but is no longer extant. It was first awarded to King Constantine I for his leadership in the Balkan Wars. The rank was subsequently assumed by his successors upon accession, until the abolition of the monarchy. The only regular officer to have been awarded the rank was General Alexander Papagos on 28 October 1949, after he had won the Greek Civil War.


title: Sommelier

text: A sommelier ( or or ; ), or wine steward, is a trained and knowledgeable wine professional, normally working in fine restaurants, who specializes in all aspects of wine service as well as wine and food pairing. The role of the wine steward in fine dining today is much more specialized and informed than that of a "wine waiter". Sommeliers Australia states that the role is strategically on par with that of the "chef de cuisine".


title: Sommelier

text: A sommelier may be responsible for the development of wine lists and books and for the delivery of wine service and training for the other restaurant staff. Working along with the culinary team, they pair and suggest wines that will best complement each particular food menu item. This entails the need for a deep knowledge of how food and wine, beer, spirits and other beverages work in harmony. A professional sommelier also works on the floor of the restaurant and is in direct contact with restaurant patrons. The sommelier has a responsibility to work within the taste preference and budget parameters of the patron.


title: Sommelier

text: In modern times, a sommelier's role may be considered broader than working only with wines, and may encompass all aspects of the restaurant's service, with an enhanced focus on wines, beers, spirits, soft-drinks, cocktails, mineral waters, and tobaccos.


title: Sommelier

text: The modern word is French, deriving from Middle French where it referred to a court official charged with transportation of supplies. This use of the term dates to a period when pack animals would be used to transport supplies. The Middle French probably finds its origin in Old Provençal where a "saumalier" was a pack animal driver. "Sauma" referred to a pack animal or the load of a pack animal. In Late Latin, "sagma" referred to a packsaddle.


title: Sommelier

text: Though 'sommelier' is a job title potentially anyone may claim, becoming a professional certified sommelier often requires some combination of experience, training, formal education (a bachelor's degree is not required, but individuals may do a two-year associate degree), classes and examinations. It is possible to become a sommelier by starting at the entry level in the hospitality or wine industry and working up, though many choose to become educated and professionally certified by one (or more) of the many certifying bodies. Various certifications are offered by a wide range of educators. A very basic education in wine may be attained over the course of months at a cost in the hundreds of dollars, but advanced professional certification typically requires years of study, practice and experience costing thousands of dollars. It has been noted that a thorough education in wine is still less expensive than typical graduate school costs in the US.


title: Sommelier

text: The Court of Master Sommeliers (CMS), established in 1977, is an independent examining body that offers the 'Master Sommelier Diploma', the 'Advanced Sommelier Certificate', the 'Certified Sommelier Certificate', and the 'Introductory Sommelier Certificate'. It was created under the supervision of the Worshipful Company of Vintners, the Institute of Masters of Wine, the British Hotels & Restaurants Association, the Wine and Spirit Trade Association of Great Britain, and the Wholesale Tobacco Trade Association. Since the Master Sommelier Diploma was introduced in 1969, a total of 249 people from around the world had become Master Sommeliers by the end of 2017.


title: Sommelier

text: The Court also offers intermediate levels of education including the annual "Advanced Sommelier Course", which prepares invited candidates to sit for the Advanced Exam, generally offered 2–3 times per year. Taking the Advanced Course and passing the Advanced Exam are mandatory before sitting for the Masters Exam.


title: Sommelier

text: The "International Sommelier Guild" (ISG) educates and certifies sommeliers in Canada, China and the United States. It was founded in 1982 and the programme consists of Level 1 Wine Fundamentals, Level 2 Wine Fundamentals and a Sommelier Diploma. They also offer a 'Certified Sommelier Instructor' diploma.


title: Sommelier

text: The International Wine Guild was founded in 1998 and is approved and regulated by the Colorado Department of Higher Education. The independent school offers the Level IV 'Guild Master Wine Educator Diploma', the Level III 'Guild Wine Master Diploma and Certification', the Level II 'Advanced Wine Course and Executive Sommelier Certification' and the Level I 'Introductory Wine Sommelier Certification'. The International Wine & Spirits Guild was established to encourage study to develop technical and professional understanding and increased knowledge of wine throughout all areas of the wine, spirits and food service industry. IWSG also offers professional courses and certifications for Wine Judges, Wine Instructors, and in Fine Spirits and Sake.


title: Sommelier

text: The North American Sommelier Association was founded in 2006 and is the official representative in the United States and Canada of the Worldwide Sommelier Association (WSA). Its Certified Sommelier course is divided into three phases but is offered as one entire course and includes extensive class time, lectures, educational visits to wineries, and educational dinners. Unlike other groups, NASA has only two tiers of Sommelier qualification: Silver-Pin and Gold-Pin. The Gold-Pin qualification is obtained through a series of extensive requirements and certifications (Master Wine Taster, Master Of Service...) as well as proof of experience in the industry. Aside from the Sommelier Certification, NASA also provides various smaller proprietary specialization courses, such as 'Italian Wine Specialist', 'American Wine Specialist', 'Spanish Wine Specialist' and various master-classes such as 'Master Of Terroir', 'Master of Sangiovese', 'Master of Service', and 'Master Wine Taster'.


title: Sommelier

text: The National Wine School was founded in 2009 in Los Angeles, California. The school offers ANSI-compliant professional certification for the wine trade in the United States. They offer five levels of wine certification. To earn a sommelier pin, one must complete level three certification. To earn the advanced sommelier pin, the student must complete the level four certification.


title: Sommelier

text: In France, the "Union des Sommeliers" (UDS) was founded in 1907 to ensure social protection for its members, both sommeliers and cellar masters in Paris region. The approach and role of the association developed throughout the years as it lost its autonomy by merging with the "Mutualité Hôtelière" in 1959. Ten years later, sommeliers regained their independence as the "Association des Sommeliers de Paris" (ASP) was founded in 1969. In the same year the "Association de la Sommellerie Internationale" (ASI) was created and federated other organisations in the world, and in 1970 the old UDS was renamed in "Union de la Sommellerie Française", UDSF, which supervises today the 21 regional associations in France (including ASP). The title of "Mention Complémentaire Sommellerie" (MCS) and "Brevet Professionnel de Sommelier" (BP) can be achieved studying for many different approved providers, and the final qualification of "Maître Sommelier" can be achieved after an accurate career assessment, requiring at least 10 years of professional experience.


title: Sommelier

text: In Italy, the Italian Sommelier Association, 'AIS', founded on July 7, 1965, is one of the oldest sommelier associations of the world. It is officially recognised and legally acknowledged by the Italian government. Italian Sommelier Association is part and founding member of the "Worldwide Sommelier Association" (WSA), which is officially recognized throughout the world. It is actually the largest sommelier association ever featuring over 33,000 members only in Italy. AIS / WSA is famous worldwide for its technical tasting approach and methodology, patented food & wine pairing technique, publications, service standards and three-levels course structure which leads to the "Certified Sommelier" qualification. A "Professional Sommelier" qualification and diploma is issued by AIS, after a candidate's career assessment, for those sommeliers actually working in a food and beverage establishment.


title: Sommelier

text: The Wine & Spirit Education Trust, often referred to as 'WSET', does not offer sommelier certifications. Despite this, many sommeliers choose to earn these qualifications due to similar curriculum and the WSET's structured approach that allows one to gain knowledge through tutored coursework.


title: Sommelier

text: Other specialized beverage service roles take on the term "sommelier". These include: beer sommelier (also called a cicerone), water sommelier, coffee sommelier, milk sommelier, and sake sommelier.


title: Arne Næss Jr.

text: Arne Næss Jr. (; born Arne Rudolf Ludvig Raab; 8 December 1937 – 13 January 2004, aged 66) was a Norwegian businessman and the second ex-husband of Diana Ross.


title: Arne Næss Jr.

text: Næss was born in Germany in 1937 to German physician August Oskar German Raab (1901–1993) and Kirsten "Kiki" Dekke Næss (1907–2001), a Norwegian national whose uncle was philosopher and mountaineer Arne Næss. Næss' family lived in Germany during World War II. His parents divorced after the war, and Næss moved to Norway with his mother where they both took her maiden name Næss.


title: Arne Næss Jr.

text: In 1964, Næss moved to New York to work for his uncle Erling Dekke Næss, a shipping magnate and businessman. He started his own business in London in 1968 where he was successful in shipping and oil, and in real estate. He would go on to make a few bad investments in the 1990s in Pyramid scheme Global Money Games. His biggest success was an investment in an IT business, Tandberg Data, and various global real estate investments. At the time of his death in 2004, Næss' shipping empire was reputedly worth some 600 million. He spent his final years in Switzerland.


title: Arne Næss Jr.

text: In 1966, Næss married Filippa Kumlin d'Orey of Sweden and together they had a son, Christoffer, and two daughters, Katinka and folk pop crossover singer Leona Næss. After they divorced, he was in a relationship with Norwegian actress Mari Maurstad. In 1985, Næss met American singer Diana Ross on a trip to the Bahamas. He and Ross married in 1985 and had two sons, Ross Arne Næss (born October 7, 1987) and Evan Olav Næss (born August 26, 1988). Through his marriage, he gained three stepdaughters, Rhonda Ross Kendrick (Ross' daughter with Motown Records founder Berry Gordy), Chudney Ross, and Tracee Ellis Ross; the latter two being Ross' daughters from her first marriage to music executive Robert Ellis Silberstein. The couple divorced in 2000, after it was revealed that Næss fathered a child with Camilla Astrup. Næss spent his remaining five years with Norwegian-born Camilla Astrup; they had two sons, Nicklas and Louis.


title: Arne Næss Jr.

text: By age 19, Næss had already made twenty first ascents of Norwegian mountains. In the 1960s, he focused primarily on his career. In the 1970s, he returned to mountain climbing. In 1985, he led the first Norwegian expedition to Mount Everest. Also participating was British mountaineer Chris Bonington. When asked, during a late-1990s television interview, about the risks of mountaineering, Næss replied, "If I hadn't liked risks, I would rather have played tennis or golf."


title: Arne Næss Jr.

text: Næss was staying with his friend Johann Rupert on 13 January 2004 when he died in a climbing accident while descending from a peak on Rupert's estate in the Groot Drakenstein mountains near the town of Franschhoek outside Cape Town, South Africa. According to police reports, Næss' anchoring equipment loosened from the porous mountainside, leading to a 103 metre fall. He was 66 years old.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Lilyhammer is a crime comedy-drama television series starring Steven Van Zandt about a former New York-based gangster named Frank "The Fixer" Tagliano trying to start a new life in isolated Lillehammer, Norway. The first season premiered on Norwegian NRK1 on 25 January 2012 with a record audience of 998,000 viewers (one fifth of Norway's population), and premiered on Netflix in North America on 6 February 2012, with all eight episodes available in full for streaming on the service. "Lilyhammer" was promoted as "the first time Netflix offered exclusive content".


title: Lilyhammer

text: The spelling of the series title alludes to Tagliano's dog Lily, killed in the first episode during an attempt on Tagliano's life, and the way that Tagliano and some other anglophones pronounce the town's name. The series produced three seasons; the final episode aired 17 December 2014. On 22 July 2015, Van Zandt posted on Twitter that the series had been cancelled, and the following day Netflix confirmed that they were pulling out in November 2022.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Van Zandt's character Frank Tagliano draws parallels with his character Silvio Dante from the HBO series "The Sopranos". They are meant to be different, but most traits are the same between the two.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Frank Tagliano (Steven Van Zandt), a former underboss from New York City in an American Mafia crime family, is placed in the Federal Witness Protection Program after testifying in a trial against Aldo Delucci (Thomas Grube), the new Mafia head who had ordered a hit on him after succeeding his recently deceased brother, Sally Boy Delucci. Frank requests that he be relocated to Lillehammer, where he believes no one will look for him. His new identity is Norwegian-American immigrant Giovanni "Johnny" Henriksen. On a train journey from Oslo to Lillehammer, Johnny impresses teacher Sigrid Haugli (Marian Saastad Ottesen), her son Jonas (Mikael Aksnes-Pehrson), and a man who later turns out to be a civil supervisor. Johnny befriends the Hauglis after doing them a favor, and sometime later, after he and Sigrid spend the night together, Sigrid learns she is pregnant with his twins.


title: Lilyhammer

text: After a wolf kills Jonas's lamb, and the locals complain that authorities are doing nothing about it, and citizens are prohibited from killing wildlife, Johnny enlists his new friends, brothers Torgeir (Trond Fausa Aurvåg) and Roar Lien (Steinar Sagen), to help him hunt the predator. After killing the wolf and hiding its carcass "mob-style" (by wrapping it in a tarp, weighting down the body, and dropping it into an open fishing hole in an ice lake) the hunters hide in a cabin owned by Jan Johansen (Fridtjov Såheim), a local NAV worker with whom Johnny has developed a frictional relationship, and Johnny blackmails him with naked photos of underage girls Johnny took from the cabin.


title: Lilyhammer

text: The supervisor, who heard shots and saw the Lien brothers in the woods the night Johnny killed the wolf, reported them to the police. However, when Johnny's neighbour, police chief Laila Hovland (Anne Krigsvoll), and police officer Geir Tvedt (Kyrre Hellum) question the trio, the supervisor— remembering Johnny's favor on the train—says he misidentified the Lien brothers and the hunters he saw must have been youth from Oslo.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Hovland and Tvedt become suspicious of Johnny when Johnny opens the Flamingo nightclub. When the local biker gang attempts to start a war with Johnny, Johnny hires the gang to deliver the club's alcohol supply. Johnny invests in an apartment complex and is promised his own penthouse. Eventually, Johnny is told the apartments are meant for families, and he schemes his way out of the deal, making a profit. Meanwhile, Geir edits a photo of Johnny to make Johnny appear to be a terrorist and presents the photo to Laila, who dismisses it. Geir is later suspended after he mistakes a toy gun Johnny is holding for a real gun during a local ski race and interrupts the race to tackle Johnny. Laila gives Geir the gift of a trip to Graceland in Memphis to visit the home of Geir's idol, Elvis. While stopped in New York, Geir learns that Johnny bears a similarity to vanished criminal Frank Tagliano and attempts to investigate.


title: Lilyhammer

text: In New York, Geir befriends a transsexual who uses her knowledge of underworld hangouts to show Geir where Geir might collect information about Johnny. Aldo learns of Geir's appearance and sends hitman Robert Grasso (Tim Ahern) and Aldo's nephew Jerry (Greg Canestrari) to interrogate Geir and find information regarding Frank's location. While being interrogated, Geir attacks his captors but is shot and killed in the struggle. When Aldo learns that Geir was from Lillehammer, he sends Robert and Jerry to Norway. Meanwhile, in Lillehammer, Johnny purchases a penthouse and invites Sigrid and Jonas to move in. When a mysterious beating occurs, Laila finds a connection between Johnny and the beating. Torgeir – who previously remarked upon Johnny's unusual knowledge of guns for a restaurant owner – informs Johnny of the hitmen and becomes curious about Johnny's true identity. When Torgeir later confronts Johnny, Johnny lies and says he is a CIA agent wanted by the criminals from his past.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Eventually, Robert and Jerry kidnap Jonas, and Johnny gives chase through a nearby amusement park. Jonas manages to escape, and Robert kills Jerry. Johnny makes a deal with Robert, providing his ring as evidence for Aldo, in New York, that Johnny died in a mutually fatal shootout with Jerry. Laila discovers the two burying Jerry's body, but allows them to go after learning that Jerry was responsible for Geir's death. When Sigrid learns of Jonas's abduction, she breaks up with Johnny.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Eight months later, British thief Duncan Hammer (Paul Kaye) arrives in Lillehammer, looking to sell a Ferrari through car salesman Dag. However, Dag owes money to Johnny and his crew, which now includes the bikers and Jan. When Johnny and Torgeir capture Dag, Torgeir, Roar, Arne (Tommy Karlsen Sandum), and Roy, the leader of the biker gang, "borrow" the Ferrari and film themselves speeding across Lillehammer's longest bridge. On the way, they hit a moose and destroy the car. Jan learns that his old fling Randi (Henriette Steenstrup) is in charge of the refugee centre and blackmails her into selling Johnny a partnership in the centre, at one-tenth its market value. Johnny and Sigrid's twins are christened. When Duncan interrogates Dag about the gang's location, he corners Torgeir in the Flamingo. Before Duncan can kill them, Torgeir stabs him through the throat with a knitting needle, and the Flamingo gang hires Arne to dispose of the body.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Johnny relocates Indian IT employee Gareth to Lillehammer, to become his crew's hacker. African refugee Balotelli (Momodou Lamin Touray) is about to be deported back to Africa, but Jan and Johnny intervene and employ Balotelli as the Flamingo's head chef. Duncan's brother Tony (Tony Pitts) and uncle Terry (Alan Ford) arrive in Lillehammer to find Duncan. Eventually, Tony and Terry kidnap Roar and hold him for ransom. Johnny and Torgeir lure the gangsters to an ice lake, where they rescue Roar and leave Tony and Terry to freeze to death.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Johnny wins Citizen of the Year, and Torgeir befriends local millionaire Lars Olafsen (Henrik Mestad). Lars becomes an investor in the Flamingo and convinces Johnny to fire Torgeir. Reluctantly, Johnny agrees and fires him. However, he later re-hires Torgeir and cuts Lars out of the club's future investments. Meanwhile, a bank robbery in Oslo results in the thieves' stealing files on Johnny's relocation. Laila moves to Oslo and becomes a successful writer. She is replaced by Mette Hansen (Silje Torp Færavaag), who sleeps with Torgeir and leads a raid on the Flamingo. Johnny hires his old friend, criminal Thomas Aune (Kyrre Haugen Sydness), to help him track down the thieves.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Torgeir and Roar's mother, Belinda (Maylen Feragen), leaves a religious cult and returns home. Belinda's boyfriend from the cult, Swedish gangster Stanley Olsson (Johannes Brost), proposes to her and makes Johnny his best man and Roar his toastmaster. Torgeir and Roar hold a bachelor party for Stanley at the club, but Stanley begins to mistreat the dancers. The brothers kick him out of the club and leave him to wander home by himself. The next morning, Torgeir and Roar learn Stanley had raped their neighbor's sheep. They tell Johnny, who has Stanley abducted and sent back to Sweden. During Jan's birthday party, Randi walks in and finds him flirting with the dancers. She leaves and files a report on the refugee centre and herself, causing it to close down.


title: Lilyhammer

text: The crew tracks down the thieves, only to learn that Thomas and his friend are working with them. Johnny's crew raids the thieves' hideout and takes the stolen items from the heist. Johnny locks up his relocation file in his safe, and he gives the stolen jewelry to Hansen. In turn, Hansen returns the items to the bank, becomes a national hero, and gets a promotion to Oslo. Thomas, now aware of Johnny's past, goes to New York, where he plans to sell the information to Delucci. When a farmer owes money to Johnny, he promises Johnny's crew a reindeer herd. Johnny's crew plans to create an avalanche and collect insurance money, but Torgeir backs out because he did not want to harm the innocent animals, and the plan is ruined.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Johnny and Sigrid's twins begin at a local kindergarten, and Johnny falls for their teacher, Tiril (Viktoria Winge). However, Tiril says that relationships between teachers and parents are forbidden, so Johnny enrolls his children in another school. After hearing how Tiril's grandfather raced reindeer in the north, Johnny decides to bring reindeer racing to Lillehammer. Johnny informs Lars of the idea, and they begin promoting the reindeer race. In New York, Robert learns of Thomas's presence and kills him and his accomplice. Jan returns to the refugee centre and tells Randi to rescind the complaint report. Randi refuses, and Jan pushes her into a wall, accidentally killing her.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Having discovered Randi's body and suspecting Jan, Johnny meets with him, and Jan confesses. Johnny advises Jan to disappear somewhere that he couldn't possibly be found, prompting Jan to emigrate to Iraq through his connections. Robert appears in Lillehammer and tells Johnny to return to New York to kill Delucci. Johnny, Torgeir, Roar, and Arne pose as Norwegian tour guides and sneak into a party held by Delucci in his home. On the balcony, they corner and shoot Delucci before pushing him to the street below. During a boat ride to the Statue of Liberty, Torgeir finds out that he won the lead in a local tribute to "Glee", and the group returns to Lillehammer. Eight months later, the reindeer race is a success. Johnny and his friends watch from a rooftop and Johnny embraces his twin infants.


title: Lilyhammer

text: The third season begins with Torgeir and Roar visiting Rio de Janeiro so that Roar can meet Alex, a woman he met online. Roar falls head over heels for her and the two plan to be married. Back in Lillehammer, Johnny gazes out his window at a Norwegian holiday festival with costumed participants, including a boy in a tiger costume, in the street below. Johnny looks towards a window across the way and spies a beautiful blonde girl dressed in a cheerleader costume. A man approaches her from behind in what appears to be the beginnings of a lovemaking session but suddenly the man strikes the woman.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Johnny runs downstairs, sprints across the street, and attempts to enter the building where the violence is taking place. The glass front doors are locked, and a dismissive clerk inside mouths, "We're closed", through the glass. Johnny breaks through the glass, grabs keys, and rushes up to where the woman is being beaten. He bursts into the room and drags the man off the woman. A one-armed woman enters behind Johnny and promptly shoots him.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Shot and bleeding, Johnny staggers back down to the snow-covered street where he collapses and hallucinates that a tiger is approaching him. When he regains consciousness he is in a hospital bed. In Rio, Torgeir learns of this and returns to Norway, unable to be Roar's Best Man. The bride's brother, Oscarito, takes his place. On the day of the wedding Oscarito asks Roar to "perform a small favor" for him – transporting two gym bags to the yacht where the wedding is to take place. Overcoming his reluctance, Roar agrees in order to win favor with his bride's brother. Unbeknownst to Roar, the bags contain cocaine, and Roar and Oscarito are arrested and thrown into jail.


title: Lilyhammer

text: As Johnny recovers from his gunshot wounds, he befriends a young autistic boy. The boy, now recognized as the tiger boy from earlier, is quiet and reclusive, but Johnny is able to communicate with him through their shared love for old-school gangster movies such as "Angels with Dirty Faces". The boy possesses an encyclopedic memory and builds a gingerbread display with the getaway car of the woman that shot him, displaying the exact license plate number of the car. Johnny then hires former Police Chief Laila Hovland as a Personal Investigator to find the people that shot him.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Johnny's associate Dag has a Christmas tree delivery business that doesn't pan out. Wearing a diving suit, he intentionally drives the truck carrying the trees into a lake to collect the insurance. Also in the truck is the plastic wrap used to dispose of Randi's body. Laila is an investigator for the insurance company and the police get surveillance video of Dag in a dry suit in his truck. Dag realizes his predicament and goes back to the truck wreckage to recover the plastic wrap (which would implicate Johnny and his crew). While diving to get the wrap, Dag accidentally cuts his oxygen line and ends up in a coma. Jan Johansen returns from Iraq and confesses to the murder of his former lover Randi. Having converted to Islam and having taken a new Islamic name, Jan goes to prison and suffers the ire of former Lillehammer citizens he tormented while a government bureaucrat. In prison, Jan undergoes hypnosis therapy and contrives a story in which Dag murdered Randi, framing Dag for the murder while Dag is in a coma.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Johnny recovers from his injuries and tends to Roar's situation. He meets with the Norwegian Foreign Minister to have Roar freed from the prison in Brazil. The Foreign Minister also juggles a situation with a beached whale and local environmental activists. When he joins Johnny and Torgeir in Rio, protesters prevent the minister from meeting with a Brazilian official that could help to release Roar. Johnny later drugs the minister's water while he practices roller skiing in Rio and blackmails him to release Roar. Once the whale is returned to the ocean, the Brazilian official meets with Johnny and the foreign minister. Johnny uses his American-style negotiating skills, parlaying purchases for a rainforest fund in exchange for Roar's release.


title: Lilyhammer

text: While in prison, Roar gets into a fight with a known telenovela filmmaker and another inmate. This results in Oscarito getting stabbed. While Roar is still in prison, Johnny begins an affair with Roar's fiancée Alex. Once Johnny secures his release, the three return to Lillehammer with Alex remaining in Rio. Once they return to Lillehammer, Johnny deals with those that shot him earlier. However, during Johnny's time in Rio, Roy and Laila investigate massage parlors owned by Lithuanians. While Roy, Arne, and another associate are receiving massages, the Lithuanians discover their association with Johnny and the three escape half-naked. When they hide out at the Flamingo, the Lithuanian man Johnny witnessed abusing the woman comes in and throws a Molotov cocktail into the Flamingo, thus severely burning Johnny's club. When Johnny returns to his business, he's angry and sucker punches Roy.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Johnny eventually tracks down and hires the woman beaten in the first episode, and uses her in a gambit to abduct the Lithuanians that shot him. Once they do, they take the three Lithuanians to a farm where they plan on shipping them back to Lithuania. While marching the three to a car, Torgeir accidentally shoots the one-armed woman with a flare gun. The other two happily return to Lithuania.


title: Lilyhammer

text: While the Flamingo is being repaired, Torgeir falls in love with contractor Birgitte. Torgeir tries to get selected to perform a ski jump honoring the anniversary of the 1994 Winter Olympics, and Johnny negotiates this for him. Torgeir performs the jump perfectly, and overcomes his previous failures – an injury he suffered in 1994 that kept him from performing in the games that year.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Johnny starts a wine business using Israeli grapes, which draws protests from pro-Palestine activists. Johnny has his crew intimidate the main activist into dropping the protests by imitating Mossad. A New York mob associate finds himself in need of Johnny's assistance after a failed hit on a man touring the world talking about healthy Italian food, ordered by the boss in New York. This man, Tommy, enjoys Frank's small crew and setup in Lillehammer and attempts to extort local citizens and kick up to Johnny. Tommy throws a party at the Flamingo that Johnny doesn't approve of, and cracks form between the two. Tommy eventually splits from Johnny and tries to form his own crew. Meanwhile, Alex comes to Lillehammer from Rio to unite with Johnny and splits with Roar.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Roar had returned to Rio at the behest of the telenovela director he met in the Rio prison. Acting in a telenovela, he became a small star in Brazil. However, he is accosted by favela criminals whose cocaine he and Oscarito misplaced. Meanwhile, Torgeir experiences hallucinations of Duncan Hammer from S2. Hammer appears to Torgeir while he's involved with Birgitte, eventually leading to some problems between the two especially now that Birgitte found she was pregnant with Torgeir's child. This eventually leads to total dissociation from Torgeir, hallucinating that he himself is Hammer. He goes on a rampage, getting in fights and vandalizing businesses before being knocked out and sent to the hospital. The hospital discovers he was suffering from a blood clot in his brain, and dissolves the clot. Torgeir then stops having hallucinations and comes to terms with his killing of Hammer. He decides to leave Lillehammer and Johnny's crew to raise his child with Birgitte.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Once the police believe that Jan falsely confessed to the murder, he is released from prison and gets his old job back at the NAV. He goes to a seminar, meets another woman and starts a relationship with her. They have sex while she is driving and she hits and kills Sigrid's father. When Johnny consoles Sigrid over her loss, Alex decides to split with Johnny at Roar's suggestion. Alex begins a relationship with Tommy, and Tommy forms his small crew.


title: Lilyhammer

text: Eventually things come to a head when Tommy's crew conflicts with Johnny's. A hitman sent by Tommy's boss in New York kills Tommy. Roar returns to Johnny and his brother, and Alex goes back to Brazil. Eventually, Johnny tracks down the car that killed Sigrid's father and traces it to Jan's cabin where he and his lover are staying. Johnny figures out Jan was somehow behind Sigrid's father's death, and decides to kill Jan once and for all. With the rest of the loose ends tied up, the season completed.


title: Lilyhammer

text: In the last episode, Bruce Springsteen makes a cameo appearance as Frank's other brother, working as an undertaker in New York.


title: Lilyhammer

text: The first series was shot on location during 2011, with post-production finishing in November and originally intended to be aired on NRK1 on 1 January 2012. The Norwegian broadcast was put on hold, because of a conflict between NRK1 and the producers about product placements, which were illegal at the time under Norwegian law. The series premiered in Norway on 25 January 2012. It was commissioned by NRK1 from Norwegian Rubicon TV AS, in association with Netflix and German-owned distributor Red Arrow International.


title: Lilyhammer

text: The second season was filmed on location both in Norway and New York City during the first four months of 2013. Production was delayed due to Van Zandt's schedule with Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band's Wrecking Ball World Tour. Van Zandt was replaced on the Australian leg of the tour by guitarist Tom Morello so that filming could proceed.


title: Lilyhammer

text: The third season began filming in January 2014, with Netflix remaining the exclusive U.S. broadcaster. Season 3 was shot on location in Lillehammer, Lofoten, and Oslo in Norway, New York City, and Rio de Janeiro.


title: Lilyhammer

text: According to "Rolling Stone", Van Zandt is responsible for most of the show's musical soundtrack. "I did the whole score myself for free. I did it from my own studio."


title: Lilyhammer

text: "Lilyhammer" premiered in Norway on 25 January 2012. On 6 February 2012, the show began streaming on Netflix in Canada and the US. From 11 September 2012, it was transmitted on BBC Four in the UK. The series was bought by SBS in Australia. The series has been sold to over 130 countries worldwide. On 22 July 2015, Steven van Zandt posted on Twitter that the series had been cancelled, and the following day Netflix confirmed that they were pulling out. NRK, who owns the rights to the series, remained optimistic that a deal could be made with another company for a fourth season.


title: Enceladus

text: Enceladus is the sixth-largest moon of Saturn (19th largest in the Solar System). It is about in diameter, about a tenth of that of Saturn's largest moon, Titan. Enceladus is mostly covered by fresh, clean ice, making it one of the most reflective bodies of the Solar System. Consequently, its surface temperature at noon only reaches , far colder than a light-absorbing body would be. Despite its small size, Enceladus has a wide range of surface features, ranging from old, heavily cratered regions to young, tectonically deformed terrain.


title: Enceladus

text: Enceladus was discovered on August 28, 1789, by William Herschel, but little was known about it until the two Voyager spacecraft, "Voyager 1" and "Voyager 2", flew by Saturn in 1980 and 1981. In 2005, the spacecraft "Cassini" started multiple close flybys of Enceladus, revealing its surface and environment in greater detail. In particular, "Cassini" discovered water-rich plumes venting from the south polar region. Cryovolcanoes near the south pole shoot geyser-like jets of water vapor, molecular hydrogen, other volatiles, and solid material, including sodium chloride crystals and ice particles, into space, totaling about per second. More than 100 geysers have been identified. Some of the water vapor falls back as "snow"; the rest escapes and supplies most of the material making up Saturn's E ring. According to NASA scientists, the plumes are similar in composition to comets. In 2014, NASA reported that "Cassini" had found evidence for a large south polar subsurface ocean of liquid water with a thickness of around . The existence of Enceladus' subsurface ocean has since been mathematically modelled and replicated.


title: Enceladus

text: These geyser observations, along with the finding of escaping internal heat and very few (if any) impact craters in the south polar region, show that Enceladus is currently geologically active. Like many other satellites in the extensive systems of the giant planets, Enceladus is trapped in an orbital resonance. Its resonance with Dione excites its orbital eccentricity, which is damped by tidal forces, tidally heating its interior and driving the geological activity.


title: Enceladus

text: "Cassini" performed chemical analysis of Enceladus's plumes, finding evidence for hydrothermal activity, possibly driving complex chemistry. Ongoing research on "Cassini" data suggests that Enceladus's hydrothermal environment could be habitable to some of Earth's hydrothermal vent's microorganisms, and that plume-found methane could be produced by such organisms.


title: Enceladus

text: Enceladus was discovered by William Herschel on August 28, 1789, during the first use of his new 40-foot telescope, then the largest in the world, at Observatory House in Slough, England. Its faint apparent magnitude ("H" = +11.7) and its proximity to the much brighter Saturn and Saturn's rings make Enceladus difficult to observe from Earth with smaller telescopes. Like many satellites of Saturn discovered prior to the Space Age, Enceladus was first observed during a Saturnian equinox, when Earth is within the ring plane. At such times, the reduction in glare from the rings makes the moons easier to observe. Prior to the "Voyager" missions the view of Enceladus improved little from the dot first observed by Herschel. Only its orbital characteristics were known, with estimations of its mass, density and albedo.


title: Enceladus

text: Enceladus is named after the giant Enceladus of Greek mythology. The name, like the names of each of the first seven satellites of Saturn to be discovered, was suggested by William Herschel's son John Herschel in his 1847 publication "Results of Astronomical Observations made at the Cape of Good Hope". He chose these names because Saturn, known in Greek mythology as Cronus, was the leader of the Titans.


title: Enceladus

text: Geological features on Enceladus are named by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) after characters and places from Burton's translation of "The Book of One Thousand and One Nights". Impact craters are named after characters, whereas other feature types, such as fossae (long, narrow depressions), dorsa (ridges), planitiae (plains), sulci (long parallel grooves), and rupes (cliffs) are named after places. The IAU has officially named 85 features on Enceladus, most recently Samaria Rupes, formerly called Samaria Fossa.


title: Enceladus

text: Enceladus is a relatively small satellite composed of ice and rock. It is a scalene ellipsoid in shape; its diameters, calculated from images taken by "Cassini's" ISS (Imaging Science Subsystem) instrument, are between the sub- and anti-Saturnian poles, between the leading and trailing hemispheres, and between the north and south poles. Enceladus is only one-seventh the diameter of Earth's Moon. It ranks sixth in both mass and size among the satellites of Saturn, after Titan (), Rhea (), Iapetus (), Dione () and Tethys ().


title: Enceladus

text: Enceladus is one of the major inner satellites of Saturn along with Dione, Tethys, and Mimas. It orbits at from Saturn's center and from its cloud tops, between the orbits of Mimas and Tethys. It orbits Saturn every 32.9 hours, fast enough for its motion to be observed over a single night of observation. Enceladus is currently in a 2:1 mean-motion orbital resonance with Dione, completing two orbits around Saturn for every one orbit completed by Dione. This resonance maintains Enceladus's orbital eccentricity (0.0047), which is known as a forced eccentricity. This non-zero eccentricity results in tidal deformation of Enceladus. The dissipated heat resulting from this deformation is the main heating source for Enceladus's geologic activity. Enceladus orbits within the densest part of Saturn's E ring, the outermost of its major rings, and is the main source of the ring's material composition.


title: Enceladus

text: Like most of Saturn's larger satellites, Enceladus rotates synchronously with its orbital period, keeping one face pointed toward Saturn. Unlike Earth's Moon, Enceladus does not appear to librate more than 1.5° about its spin axis. However, analysis of the shape of Enceladus suggests that at some point it was in a 1:4 forced secondary spin–orbit libration. This libration could have provided Enceladus with an additional heat source.


title: Enceladus

text: Plumes from Enceladus, which are similar in composition to comets, have been shown to be the source of the material in Saturn's E ring. The E ring is the widest and outermost ring of Saturn (except for the tenuous Phoebe ring). It is an extremely wide but diffuse disk of microscopic icy or dusty material distributed between the orbits of Mimas and Titan.


title: Enceladus

text: Mathematical models show that the E ring is unstable, with a lifespan between 10,000 and 1,000,000 years; therefore, particles composing it must be constantly replenished. Enceladus is orbiting inside the ring, at its narrowest but highest density point. In the 1980s some suspected that Enceladus is the main source of particles for the ring. This hypothesis was confirmed by "Cassini's" first two close flybys in 2005.


title: Enceladus

text: The CDA "detected a large increase in the number of particles near Enceladus", confirming it as the primary source for the E ring. Analysis of the CDA and INMS data suggest that the gas cloud "Cassini" flew through during the July encounter, and observed from a distance with its magnetometer and UVIS, was actually a water-rich cryovolcanic plume, originating from vents near the south pole.


title: Enceladus

text: Visual confirmation of venting came in November 2005, when ISS imaged geyser-like jets of icy particles rising from Enceladus's south polar region. (Although the plume was imaged before, in January and February 2005, additional studies of the camera's response at high phase angles, when the Sun is almost behind Enceladus, and comparison with equivalent high-phase-angle images taken of other Saturnian satellites, were required before this could be confirmed.)


title: Enceladus

text: "Voyager 2" was the first spacecraft to observe Enceladus's surface in detail, in August 1981. Examination of the resulting highest-resolution imagery revealed at least five different types of terrain, including several regions of cratered terrain, regions of smooth (young) terrain, and lanes of ridged terrain often bordering the smooth areas. In addition, extensive linear cracks and scarps were observed. Given the relative lack of craters on the smooth plains, these regions are probably less than a few hundred million years old. Accordingly, Enceladus must have been recently active with "water volcanism" or other processes that renew the surface. The fresh, clean ice that dominates its surface makes Enceladus the most reflective body in the Solar System, with a visual geometric albedo of 1.38 and bolometric Bond albedo of . Because it reflects so much sunlight, its surface only reaches a mean noon temperature of , somewhat colder than other Saturnian satellites.


title: Enceladus

text: Observations during three flybys on February 17, March 9, and July 14, 2005, revealed Enceladus's surface features in much greater detail than the "Voyager 2" observations. The smooth plains, which "Voyager 2" had observed, resolved into relatively crater-free regions filled with numerous small ridges and scarps. Numerous fractures were found within the older, cratered terrain, suggesting that the surface has been subjected to extensive deformation since the craters were formed. Some areas contain no craters, indicating major resurfacing events in the geologically recent past. There are fissures, plains, corrugated terrain and other crustal deformations. Several additional regions of young terrain were discovered in areas not well-imaged by either "Voyager" spacecraft, such as the bizarre terrain near the south pole. All of this indicates that Enceladus's interior is liquid today, even though it should have been frozen long ago.


title: Enceladus

text: Impact cratering is a common occurrence on many Solar System bodies. Much of Enceladus's surface is covered with craters at various densities and levels of degradation. This subdivision of cratered terrains on the basis of crater density (and thus surface age) suggests that Enceladus has been resurfaced in multiple stages.


title: Enceladus

text: "Cassini" observations provided a much closer look at the crater distribution and size, showing that many of Enceladus's craters are heavily degraded through viscous relaxation and fracturing. Viscous relaxation allows gravity, over geologic time scales, to deform craters and other topographic features formed in water ice, reducing the amount of topography over time. The rate at which this occurs is dependent on the temperature of the ice: warmer ice is easier to deform than colder, stiffer ice. Viscously relaxed craters tend to have domed floors, or are recognized as craters only by a raised, circular rim. Dunyazad crater is a prime example of a viscously relaxed crater on Enceladus, with a prominent domed floor.


title: Enceladus

text: "Voyager 2" found several types of tectonic features on Enceladus, including troughs, scarps, and belts of grooves and ridges. Results from "Cassini" suggest that tectonics is the dominant mode of deformation on Enceladus, including rifts, one of the more dramatic types of tectonic features that were noted. These canyons can be up to 200 km long, 5–10 km wide, and 1 km deep. Such features are geologically young, because they cut across other tectonic features and have sharp topographic relief with prominent outcrops along the cliff faces.


title: Enceladus

text: Evidence of tectonics on Enceladus is also derived from grooved terrain, consisting of lanes of curvilinear grooves and ridges. These bands, first discovered by "Voyager 2", often separate smooth plains from cratered regions. Grooved terrains such as the Samarkand Sulci are reminiscent of grooved terrain on Ganymede. However, unlike those seen on Ganymede, grooved topography on Enceladus is generally more complex. Rather than parallel sets of grooves, these lanes often appear as bands of crudely aligned, chevron-shaped features. In other areas, these bands bow upwards with fractures and ridges running the length of the feature. "Cassini" observations of the Samarkand Sulci have revealed dark spots (125 and 750 m wide) located parallel to the narrow fractures. Currently, these spots are interpreted as collapse pits within these ridged plain belts.


title: Enceladus

text: In addition to deep fractures and grooved lanes, Enceladus has several other types of tectonic terrain. Many of these fractures are found in bands cutting across cratered terrain. These fractures probably propagate down only a few hundred meters into the crust. Many have probably been influenced during their formation by the weakened regolith produced by impact craters, often changing the strike of the propagating fracture. Another example of tectonic features on Enceladus are the linear grooves first found by "Voyager 2" and seen at a much higher resolution by "Cassini". These linear grooves can be seen cutting across other terrain types, like the groove and ridge belts. Like the deep rifts, they are among the youngest features on Enceladus. However, some linear grooves have been softened like the craters nearby, suggesting that they are older. Ridges have also been observed on Enceladus, though not nearly to the extent as those seen on Europa. These ridges are relatively limited in extent and are up to one kilometer tall. One-kilometer high domes have also been observed. Given the level of resurfacing found on Enceladus, it is clear that tectonic movement has been an important driver of geology for much of its history.


title: Enceladus

text: Two regions of smooth plains were observed by "Voyager 2". They generally have low relief and have far fewer craters than in the cratered terrains, indicating a relatively young surface age. In one of the smooth plain regions, Sarandib Planitia, no impact craters were visible down to the limit of resolution. Another region of smooth plains to the southwest of Sarandib is criss-crossed by several troughs and scarps. "Cassini" has since viewed these smooth plains regions, like Sarandib Planitia and Diyar Planitia at much higher resolution. "Cassini" images show these regions filled with low-relief ridges and fractures, probably caused by shear deformation. The high-resolution images of Sarandib Planitia revealed a number of small impact craters, which allow for an estimate of the surface age, either 170 million years or 3.7 billion years, depending on assumed impactor population.


title: Enceladus

text: The expanded surface coverage provided by "Cassini" has allowed for the identification of additional regions of smooth plains, particularly on Enceladus's leading hemisphere (the side of Enceladus that faces the direction of motion as it orbits Saturn). Rather than being covered in low-relief ridges, this region is covered in numerous criss-crossing sets of troughs and ridges, similar to the deformation seen in the south polar region. This area is on the opposite side of Enceladus from Sarandib and Diyar Planitiae, suggesting that the placement of these regions is influenced by Saturn's tides on Enceladus.


title: Enceladus

text: Images taken by "Cassini" during the flyby on July 14, 2005, revealed a distinctive, tectonically deformed region surrounding Enceladus's south pole. This area, reaching as far north as 60° south latitude, is covered in tectonic fractures and ridges. The area has few sizable impact craters, suggesting that it is the youngest surface on Enceladus and on any of the mid-sized icy satellites; modeling of the cratering rate suggests that some regions of the south polar terrain are possibly as young as 500,000 years or less. Near the center of this terrain are four fractures bounded by ridges, unofficially called "tiger stripes". They appear to be the youngest features in this region and are surrounded by mint-green-colored (in false color, UV–green–near IR images), coarse-grained water ice, seen elsewhere on the surface within outcrops and fracture walls. Here the "blue" ice is on a flat surface, indicating that the region is young enough not to have been coated by fine-grained water ice from the E ring. Results from the visual and infrared spectrometer (VIMS) instrument suggest that the green-colored material surrounding the tiger stripes is chemically distinct from the rest of the surface of Enceladus. VIMS detected crystalline water ice in the stripes, suggesting that they are quite young (likely less than 1,000 years old) or the surface ice has been thermally altered in the recent past. VIMS also detected simple organic (carbon-containing) compounds in the tiger stripes, chemistry not found anywhere else on Enceladus thus far.


title: Enceladus

text: One of these areas of "blue" ice in the south polar region was observed at high resolution during the July 14, 2005, flyby, revealing an area of extreme tectonic deformation and blocky terrain, with some areas covered in boulders 10–100 m across.


title: Enceladus

text: The boundary of the south polar region is marked by a pattern of parallel, Y- and V-shaped ridges and valleys. The shape, orientation, and location of these features suggest they are caused by changes in the overall shape of Enceladus. As of 2006 there were two theories for what could cause such a shift in shape: the orbit of Enceladus may have migrated inward, leading to an increase in Enceladus's rotation rate. Such a shift would lead to a more oblate shape; or a rising mass of warm, low-density material in Enceladus's interior may have led to a shift in the position of the current south polar terrain from Enceladus's southern mid-latitudes to its south pole. Consequently, the moon's ellipsoid shape would have adjusted to match the new orientation. One problem of the polar flattening hypothesis is that both polar regions should have similar tectonic deformation histories. However, the north polar region is densely cratered, and has a much older surface age than the south pole. Thickness variations in Enceladus's lithosphere is one explanation for this discrepancy. Variations in lithospheric thickness are supported by the correlation between the Y-shaped discontinuities and the V-shaped cusps along the south polar terrain margin and the relative surface age of the adjacent non-south polar terrain regions. The Y-shaped discontinuities, and the north–south trending tension fractures into which they lead, are correlated with younger terrain with presumably thinner lithospheres. The V-shaped cusps are adjacent to older, more heavily cratered terrains.


title: Enceladus

text: Following "Voyager's" encounters with Enceladus in the early 1980s, scientists postulated it to be geologically active based on its young, reflective surface and location near the core of the E ring. Based on the connection between Enceladus and the E ring, scientists suspected that Enceladus was the source of material in the E ring, perhaps through venting of water vapor. Readings from "Cassini's" 2005 passage suggested that cryovolcanism, where water and other volatiles are the materials erupted instead of silicate rock, had been discovered on Enceladus. The first "Cassini" sighting of a plume of icy particles above Enceladus's south pole came from the Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) images taken in January and February 2005, though the possibility of a camera artifact delayed an official announcement. Data from the magnetometer instrument during the February 17, 2005, encounter provided evidence for a planetary atmosphere. The magnetometer observed a deflection or "draping" of the magnetic field, consistent with local ionization of neutral gas. In addition, an increase in the power of ion cyclotron waves near the orbit of Enceladus was observed, which was further evidence of the ionization of neutral gas. These waves are produced by the interaction of ionized particles and magnetic fields, and the waves' frequency is close to the gyrofrequency of the freshly produced ions, in this case water vapor. During the two following encounters, the magnetometer team determined that gases in Enceladus's atmosphere are concentrated over the south polar region, with atmospheric density away from the pole being much lower. The Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph (UVIS) confirmed this result by observing two stellar occultations during the February 17 and July 14 encounters. Unlike the magnetometer, UVIS failed to detect an atmosphere above Enceladus during the February encounter when it looked over the equatorial region, but did detect water vapor during an occultation over the south polar region during the July encounter.


title: Enceladus

text: "Cassini" flew through this gas cloud on a few encounters, allowing instruments such as the ion and neutral mass spectrometer (INMS) and the cosmic dust analyzer (CDA) to directly sample the plume. (See 'Composition' section.) The November 2005 images showed the plume's fine structure, revealing numerous jets (perhaps issuing from numerous distinct vents) within a larger, faint component extending out nearly from the surface. The particles have a bulk velocity of , and a maximum velocity of . "Cassini's" UVIS later observed gas jets coinciding with the dust jets seen by ISS during a non-targeted encounter with Enceladus in October 2007.


title: Enceladus

text: The combined analysis of imaging, mass spectrometry, and magnetospheric data suggests that the observed south polar plume emanates from pressurized subsurface chambers, similar to Earth's geysers or fumaroles. Fumaroles are probably the closer analogy, since periodic or episodic emission is an inherent property of geysers. The plumes of Enceladus were observed to be continuous to within a factor of a few. The mechanism that drives and sustains the eruptions is thought to be tidal heating. The intensity of the eruption of the south polar jets varies significantly as a function of the position of Enceladus in its orbit. The plumes are about four times brighter when Enceladus is at apoapsis (the point in its orbit most distant from Saturn) than when it is at periapsis. This is consistent with geophysical calculations which predict the south polar fissures are under compression near periapsis, pushing them shut, and under tension near apoapsis, pulling them open.


title: Enceladus

text: Much of the plume activity consists of broad curtain-like eruptions. Optical illusions from a combination of viewing direction and local fracture geometry previously made the plumes look like discrete jets.


title: Enceladus

text: The extent to which cryovolcanism really occurs is a subject of some debate. At Enceladus, it appears that cryovolcanism occurs because water-filled cracks are periodically exposed to vacuum, the cracks being opened and closed by tidal stresses.


title: Enceladus

text: Before the "Cassini" mission, little was known about the interior of Enceladus. However, flybys by "Cassini" provided information for models of Enceladus's interior, including a better determination of the mass and shape, high-resolution observations of the surface, and new insights on the interior.


title: Enceladus

text: Initial mass estimates from the Voyager program missions suggested that Enceladus was composed almost entirely of water ice. However, based on the effects of Enceladus's gravity on "Cassini", its mass was determined to be much higher than previously thought, yielding a density of 1.61 g/cm. This density is higher than those of Saturn's other mid-sized icy satellites, indicating that Enceladus contains a greater percentage of silicates and iron.


title: Enceladus

text: Castillo et al. (2005) suggested that Iapetus and the other icy satellites of Saturn formed relatively quickly after the formation of the Saturnian subnebula, and thus were rich in short-lived radionuclides. These radionuclides, like aluminium-26 and iron-60, have short half-lives and would produce interior heating relatively quickly. Without the short-lived variety, Enceladus's complement of long-lived radionuclides would not have been enough to prevent rapid freezing of the interior, even with Enceladus's comparatively high rock–mass fraction, given its small size. Given Enceladus's relatively high rock–mass fraction, the proposed enhancement in Al and Fe would result in a differentiated body, with an icy mantle and a rocky core. Subsequent radioactive and tidal heating would raise the temperature of the core to 1,000 K, enough to melt the inner mantle. However, for Enceladus to still be active, part of the core must have also melted, forming magma chambers that would flex under the strain of Saturn's tides. Tidal heating, such as from the resonance with Dione or from libration, would then have sustained these hot spots in the core and would power the current geological activity.


title: Enceladus

text: In addition to its mass and modeled geochemistry, researchers have also examined Enceladus's shape to determine if it is differentiated. Porco et al. (2006) used limb measurements to determine that its shape, assuming hydrostatic equilibrium, is consistent with an undifferentiated interior, in contradiction to the geological and geochemical evidence. However, the current shape also supports the possibility that Enceladus is not in hydrostatic equilibrium, and may have rotated faster at some point in the recent past (with a differentiated interior). Gravity measurements by "Cassini" show that the density of the core is low, indicating that the core contains water in addition to silicates.


title: Enceladus

text: Evidence of liquid water on Enceladus began to accumulate in 2005, when scientists observed plumes containing water vapor spewing from its south polar surface, with jets moving 250 kg of water vapor every second at up to into space. Soon after, in 2006 it was determined that Enceladus's plumes are the source of Saturn's E Ring. The sources of salty particles are uniformly distributed along the tiger stripes, whereas sources of "fresh" particles are closely related to the high-speed gas jets. The "salty" particles are heavier and mostly fall back to the surface, whereas the fast "fresh" particles escape to the E ring, explaining its salt-poor composition of 0.5–2% of sodium salts by mass.


title: Enceladus

text: Gravimetric data from "Cassini"'s December 2010 flybys showed that Enceladus likely has a liquid water ocean beneath its frozen surface, but at the time it was thought the subsurface ocean was limited to the south pole. The top of the ocean probably lies beneath a thick ice shelf. The ocean may be deep at the south pole.


title: Enceladus

text: Measurements of Enceladus's "wobble" as it orbits Saturn—called libration—suggests that the entire icy crust is detached from the rocky core and therefore that a global ocean is present beneath the surface. The amount of libration (0.120° ± 0.014°) implies that this global ocean is about deep. For comparison, Earth's ocean has an average depth of 3.7 kilometers.


title: Enceladus

text: The "Cassini" spacecraft flew through the southern plumes on several occasions to sample and analyze its composition. As of 2019, the data gathered is still being analyzed and interpreted. The plumes' salty composition (-Na, -Cl, -CO) indicates that the source is a salty subsurface ocean.


title: Enceladus

text: The INMS instrument detected mostly water vapor, as well as traces of molecular nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of simple hydrocarbons such as methane, propane, acetylene and formaldehyde. The plumes' composition, as measured by the INMS, is similar to that seen at most comets. "Cassini" also found traces of simple organic compounds in some dust grains, as well as larger organics such as benzene (), and complex macromolecular organics as large as 200 atomic mass units, and at least 15 carbon atoms in size.


title: Enceladus

text: The mass spectrometer detected molecular hydrogen (H) which was in "thermodynamic disequilibrium" with the other components, and found traces of ammonia ().


title: Enceladus

text: A model suggests that Enceladus's salty ocean (-Na, -Cl, -CO) has an alkaline pH of 11 to 12. The high pH is interpreted to be a consequence of serpentinization of chondritic rock that leads to the generation of H, a geochemical source of energy that could support both abiotic and biological synthesis of organic molecules such as those that have been detected in Enceladus's plumes.


title: Enceladus

text: Further analysis in 2019 was done of the spectral characteristics of ice grains in Enceladus's erupting plumes. The study found that nitrogen-bearing and oxygen-bearing amines were likely present, with significant implications for the availability of amino acids in the internal ocean. The researchers suggested that the compounds on Enceladus could be precursors for "biologically relevant organic compounds".


title: Enceladus

text: During the flyby of July 14, 2005, the Composite Infrared Spectrometer (CIRS) found a warm region near the south pole. Temperatures in this region ranged from 85 to 90 K, with small areas showing as high as , much too warm to be explained by solar heating, indicating that parts of the south polar region are heated from the interior of Enceladus. The presence of a subsurface ocean under the south polar region is now accepted, but it cannot explain the source of the heat, with an estimated heat flux of 200 mW/m, which is about 10 times higher than that from radiogenic heating alone.


title: Enceladus

text: Several explanations for the observed elevated temperatures and the resulting plumes have been proposed, including venting from a subsurface reservoir of liquid water, sublimation of ice, decompression and dissociation of clathrates, and shear heating, but a complete explanation of all the heat sources causing the observed thermal power output of Enceladus has not yet been settled.


title: Enceladus

text: Heating in Enceladus has occurred through various mechanisms ever since its formation. Radioactive decay in its core may have initially heated it, giving it a warm core and a subsurface ocean, which is now kept above freezing through unidentified mechanisms. Geophysical models indicate that tidal heating is a main heat source, perhaps aided by radioactive decay and some heat-producing chemical reactions. A 2007 study predicted the internal heat of Enceladus, if generated by tidal forces, could be no greater than 1.1 gigawatts, but data from "Cassini's" infrared spectrometer of the south polar terrain over 16 months, indicate that the internal heat generated power is about 4.7 gigawatts, and suggest that it is in thermal equilibrium.


title: Enceladus

text: The observed power output of 4.7 gigawatts is challenging to explain from tidal heating alone, so the main source of heat remains a mystery. Most scientists think the observed heat flux of Enceladus is not enough to maintain the subsurface ocean, and therefore any subsurface ocean must be a remnant of a period of higher eccentricity and tidal heating, or the heat is produced through another mechanism.


title: Enceladus

text: Tidal heating occurs through the tidal friction processes: orbital and rotational energy are dissipated as heat in the crust of an object. In addition, to the extent that tides produce heat along fractures, libration may affect the magnitude and distribution of such tidal shear heating. Tidal dissipation of Enceladus's ice crust is significant because Enceladus has a subsurface ocean. A computer simulation that used data from "Cassini" was published in November 2017, and it indicates that friction heat from the sliding rock fragments within the permeable and fragmented core of Enceladus could keep its underground ocean warm for up to billions of years. It is thought that if Enceladus had a more eccentric orbit in the past, the enhanced tidal forces could be sufficient to maintain a subsurface ocean, such that a periodic enhancement in eccentricity could maintain a subsurface ocean that periodically changes in size. A more recent analysis claimed that "a model of the tiger stripes as tidally flexed slots that puncture the ice shell can simultaneously explain the persistence of the eruptions through the tidal cycle, the phase lag, and the total power output of the tiger stripe terrain, while suggesting that eruptions are maintained over geological timescales." Previous models suggest that resonant perturbations of Dione could provide the necessary periodic eccentricity changes to maintain the subsurface ocean of Enceladus, if the ocean contains a substantial amount of ammonia. The surface of Enceladus indicates that the entire moon has experienced periods of enhanced heat flux in the past.


title: Enceladus

text: The "hot start" model of heating suggests Enceladus began as ice and rock that contained rapidly decaying short-lived radioactive isotopes of aluminium, iron and manganese. Enormous amounts of heat were then produced as these isotopes decayed for about 7 million years, resulting in the consolidation of rocky material at the core surrounded by a shell of ice. Although the heat from radioactivity would decrease over time, the combination of radioactivity and tidal forces from Saturn's gravitational tug could prevent the subsurface ocean from freezing. The present-day radiogenic heating rate is 3.2 ergs/s (or 0.32 gigawatts), assuming Enceladus has a composition of ice, iron and silicate materials. Heating from long-lived radioactive isotopes uranium-238, uranium-235, thorium-232 and potassium-40 inside Enceladus would add 0.3 gigawatts to the observed heat flux. The presence of Enceladus's regionally thick subsurface ocean suggests a heat flux ~10 times higher than that from radiogenic heating in the silicate core.


title: Enceladus

text: Because no ammonia was initially found in the vented material by INMS or UVIS, which could act as an antifreeze, it was thought such a heated, pressurized chamber would consist of nearly pure liquid water with a temperature of at least , because pure water requires more energy to melt.


title: Enceladus

text: In July 2009 it was announced that traces of ammonia had been found in the plumes during flybys in July and October 2008. Reducing the freezing point of water with ammonia would also allow for outgassing and higher gas pressure, and less heat required to power the water plumes. The subsurface layer heating the surface water ice could be an ammonia–water slurry at temperatures as low as , and thus less energy is required to produce the plume activity. However, the observed 4.7 gigawatts heat flux is enough to power the cryovolcanism without the presence of ammonia.


title: Enceladus

text: Mimas, the innermost of the round moons of Saturn and directly interior to Enceladus, is a geologically dead body, even though it should experience stronger tidal forces than Enceladus. This apparent paradox can be explained in part by temperature-dependent properties of water ice (the main constituent of the interiors of Mimas and Enceladus). The tidal heating per unit mass is given by the formula


title: Enceladus

text: where "ρ" is the (mass) density of the satellite, "n" is its mean orbital motion, "r" is the satellite's radius, "e" is the orbital eccentricity of the satellite, "μ" is the shear modulus and "Q" is the dimensionless dissipation factor. For a same-temperature approximation, the expected value of "q" for Mimas is about 40 times that of Enceladus. However, the material parameters "μ" and "Q" are temperature dependent. At high temperatures (close to the melting point), "μ" and "Q" are low, so tidal heating is high. Modeling suggests that for Enceladus, both a 'basic' low-energy thermal state with little internal temperature gradient, and an 'excited' high-energy thermal state with a significant temperature gradient, and consequent convection (endogenic geologic activity), once established, would be stable. For Mimas, only a low-energy state is expected to be stable, despite its being closer to Saturn. So the model predicts a low-internal-temperature state for Mimas (values of "μ" and "Q" are high) but a possible higher-temperature state for Enceladus (values of "μ" and "Q" are low). Additional historical information is needed to explain how Enceladus first entered the high-energy state (e.g. more radiogenic heating or a more eccentric orbit in the past).


title: Enceladus

text: The significantly higher density of Enceladus relative to Mimas (1.61 vs. 1.15 g/cm), implying a larger content of rock and more radiogenic heating in its early history, has also been cited as an important factor in resolving the Mimas paradox.


title: Enceladus

text: It has been suggested that for an icy satellite the size of Mimas or Enceladus to enter an 'excited state' of tidal heating and convection, it would need to enter an orbital resonance before it lost too much of its primordial internal heat. Because Mimas, being smaller, would cool more rapidly than Enceladus, its window of opportunity for initiating orbital resonance-driven convection would have been considerably shorter.


title: Enceladus

text: Enceladus is losing mass at a rate of 200 kg/second. If mass loss at this rate continued for 4.5 Gyr, the satellite would have lost approximately 30% of its initial mass. A similar value is obtained by assuming that the initial densities of Enceladus and Mimas were equal. It suggests that tectonics in the south polar region is probably mainly related to subsidence and associated subduction caused by the process of mass loss.


title: Enceladus

text: In 2016, a study of how the orbits of Saturn's moons should have changed due to tidal effects suggested that all of Saturn's satellites inward of Titan, including Enceladus (whose geologic activity was used to derive the strength of tidal effects on Saturn's satellites), may have formed as little as 100 million years ago.


title: Enceladus

text: Enceladus ejects plumes of salted water laced with grains of silica-rich sand, nitrogen (in ammonia), and organic molecules, including trace amounts of simple hydrocarbons such as methane (), propane (), acetylene () and formaldehyde (), which are carbon-bearing molecules. This indicates that hydrothermal activity —an energy source— may be at work in Enceladus's subsurface ocean. In addition, models indicate that the large rocky core is porous, allowing water to flow through it, transferring heat and chemicals. It was confirmed by observations and other research. Molecular hydrogen (), a geochemical source of energy that can be metabolized by methanogen microbes to provide energy for life, could be present if, as models suggest, Enceladus's salty ocean has an alkaline pH from serpentinization of chondritic rock.


title: Enceladus

text: The presence of an internal global salty ocean with an aquatic environment supported by global ocean circulation patterns, with an energy source and complex organic compounds in contact with Enceladus's rocky core, may advance the study of astrobiology and the study of potentially habitable environments for microbial extraterrestrial life. Geochemical modeling results concerning not-yet-detected phosphorus indicate the moon meets potential abiogenesis-requirements. The presence of a wide range of organic compounds and ammonia indicates their source may be similar to the water/rock reactions known to occur on Earth and that are known to support life. Therefore, several robotic missions have been proposed to further explore Enceladus and assess its habitability; some of the proposed missions are: Journey to Enceladus and Titan (JET), Enceladus Explorer (En-Ex), Enceladus Life Finder (ELF), Life Investigation For Enceladus (LIFE), and Enceladus Life Signatures and Habitability (ELSAH).


title: Enceladus

text: On April 13, 2017, NASA announced the discovery of possible hydrothermal activity on Enceladus's sub-surface ocean floor. In 2015, the Cassini probe made a close fly-by of Enceladus's south pole, flying within of the surface, as well as through a plume in the process. A mass spectrometer on the craft detected molecular hydrogen (H) from the plume, and after months of analysis, the conclusion was made that the hydrogen was most likely the result of hydrothermal activity beneath the surface. It has been speculated that such activity could be a potential oasis of habitability.


title: Enceladus

text: The presence of ample hydrogen in Enceladus's ocean means that microbes – if any exist there – could use it to obtain energy by combining the hydrogen with carbon dioxide dissolved in the water. The chemical reaction is known as "methanogenesis" because it produces methane as a byproduct, and is at the root of the tree of life on Earth, the birthplace of all life that is known to exist.


title: Enceladus

text: The two Voyager spacecraft made the first close-up images of Enceladus. "Voyager 1" was the first to fly past Enceladus, at a distance of 202,000 km on November 12, 1980. Images acquired from this distance had very poor spatial resolution, but revealed a highly reflective surface devoid of impact craters, indicating a youthful surface. "Voyager 1" also confirmed that Enceladus was embedded in the densest part of Saturn's diffuse E ring. Combined with the apparent youthful appearance of the surface, "Voyager" scientists suggested that the E ring consisted of particles vented from Enceladus's surface.