title: Continental philosophy

text: Ultimately, the foregoing themes derive from a broadly Kantian thesis that knowledge, experience, and reality are bound and shaped by conditions best understood through philosophical reflection rather than exclusively empirical inquiry.


title: Continental philosophy

text: The history of continental philosophy (taken in the narrower sense of "late modern/contemporary continental philosophy") is usually thought to begin with German idealism. Led by figures like Fichte, Schelling, and later Hegel, German idealism developed out of the work of Immanuel Kant in the 1780s and 1790s and was closely linked with romanticism and the revolutionary politics of the Enlightenment. Besides the central figures listed above, important contributors to German idealism also included Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, Gottlob Ernst Schulze, Karl Leonhard Reinhold, and Friedrich Schleiermacher.


title: Continental philosophy

text: As the institutional roots of "continental philosophy" in many cases directly descend from those of phenomenology, Edmund Husserl has always been a canonical figure in continental philosophy. Nonetheless, Husserl is also a respected subject of study in the analytic tradition. Husserl's notion of a noema, the non-psychological content of thought, his correspondence with Gottlob Frege, and his investigations into the nature of logic continue to generate interest among analytic philosophers.


title: Continental philosophy

text: J. G. Merquior argued that a distinction between analytic and continental philosophies can be first clearly identified with Henri Bergson (1859–1941), whose wariness of science and elevation of intuition paved the way for existentialism. Merquior wrote: "the most prestigious philosophizing in France took a very dissimilar path [from the Anglo-Germanic analytic schools]. One might say it all began with Henri Bergson."


title: Continental philosophy

text: An illustration of some important differences between "analytic" and "continental" styles of philosophy can be found in Rudolf Carnap's "Elimination of Metaphysics through Logical Analysis of Language" (1932; "Überwindung der Metaphysik durch Logische Analyse der Sprache"), a paper some observers have described as particularly polemical. Carnap's paper argues that Heidegger's lecture "What Is Metaphysics?" violates logical syntax to create nonsensical pseudo-statements. Moreover, Carnap claimed that many German metaphysicians of the era were similar to Heidegger in writing statements that were syntactically meaningless.


title: Continental philosophy

text: With the rise of Nazism, many of Germany's philosophers, especially those of Jewish descent or leftist or liberal political sympathies (such as many in the Vienna Circle and the Frankfurt School), fled to the English-speaking world. Those philosophers who remained—if they remained in academia at all—had to reconcile themselves to Nazi control of the universities. Others, such as Martin Heidegger, among the most prominent German philosophers to stay in Germany, aligned themselves with Nazism when it came to power.


title: Continental philosophy

text: Both before and after World War II there was a growth of interest in German philosophy in France. A new interest in communism translated into an interest in Marx and Hegel, who became for the first time studied extensively in the politically conservative French university system of the Third Republic. At the same time the phenomenological philosophy of Husserl and Heidegger became increasingly influential, perhaps owing to its resonances with French philosophies which placed great stock in the first-person perspective (an idea found in divergent forms such as Cartesianism, spiritualism, and Bergsonism). Most important in this popularization of phenomenology was the author and philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre, who called his philosophy "existentialism".


title: Continental philosophy

text: Another major strain of continental thought is structuralism/post-structuralism. Influenced by the structural linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure, French anthropologists such as Claude Lévi-Strauss began to apply the structural paradigm to the humanities. In the 1960s and '70s, post-structuralists developed various critiques of structuralism. Post-structuralist thinkers include Jacques Derrida and Gilles Deleuze. After this wave, most of the late 20th century, the tradition has been carried into the 21st century by Quentin Meillassoux, Tristan Garcia, Francois Laruelle, and others.


title: Continental philosophy

text: From the early 20th century until the 1960s, continental philosophers were only intermittently discussed in British and American universities, despite an influx of continental philosophers, particularly German Jewish students of Nietzsche and Heidegger, to the United States on account of the persecution of the Jews and later World War II; Hannah Arendt, Herbert Marcuse, Leo Strauss, Theodor W. Adorno, and Walter Kaufmann are probably the most notable of this wave, arriving in the late 1930s and early 1940s. However, philosophy departments began offering courses in continental philosophy in the late 1960s and 1970s.


title: Continental philosophy

text: Continental Philosophy features prominently in a number of British and Irish Philosophy departments, for instance at the University of Essex, Warwick, Newcastle, Sussex, Dundee, Aberdeen (Centre for Modern Thought), and University College Dublin; as well as Manchester Metropolitan, Kingston, Staffordshire (postgraduate only), and the Open University.


title: Continental philosophy

text: American university departments in literature, the fine arts, film, sociology, and political theory have increasingly incorporated ideas and arguments from continental philosophers into their curricula and research. North American Philosophy departments offering courses in Continental Philosophy include the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Boston College, Stony Brook University (SUNY), Vanderbilt University, DePaul University, Villanova University, the University of Guelph, The New School, Pennsylvania State University, University of Oregon, Emory University, University of Pittsburgh, Duquesne University, the University of Memphis, University of King's College, and Loyola University Chicago. The most prominent organization for continental philosophy in the United States is the Society for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy (SPEP).


title: Steak and Blowjob Day

text: Steak and Blowjob Day (sometimes Steak & BJ Day or Steak and Knobber Day) is a satirical unofficial holiday created in the United States as a male response to Valentine's Day and celebrated a month later, on March 14. On the day, women are purportedly supposed to cook a filet steak for and perform fellatio on a man in response to cards, chocolate, flowers and other gifts given by men on Valentine's Day.


title: Steak and Blowjob Day

text: The observance has no official status, being a popular Internet meme rather than an actual holiday, but various souvenirs and video clips have been produced about it. It was conceived in 2002 by DJ Tom Birdsey on WFNX radio.


title: Steak and Blowjob Day

text: It has been suggested that Steak and Blowjob Day is a backlash against the feminist movement; the holiday has been criticized as sexist and patriarchal, though it has also been positively received by some, and used as a platform to fundraise for breast cancer research.


title: Steak and Blowjob Day

text: Several websites claim to be the official site of Steak and Blowjob Day, but none of them identify as the creator. The sites concur that the holiday was devised by radio DJ Tom Birdsey in 2002, during a show on WFNX radio station in Boston, Massachusetts. One of the various websites competing to be the 'official' page of the day stated "March 14th henceforth became 'Steak and Blowjob Day.' Simple, effective and self explanatory. No cards, no flowers, no special nights on the town; the name explains it all: just a steak and a BJ. That's it." The "official" websites provide guides on how best to cook steak, and how to best perform fellatio.


title: Steak and Blowjob Day

text: The day of celebration is sometimes suggested to be March 20 instead of March 14, either because the former was proclaimed to be Steak and Knobber Day by another radio host Dave Rickards in 1998, or because the latter coincides with Pi Day, which observes the mathematical constant (pi).


title: Steak and Blowjob Day

text: According to the women's historian Lois Banner, the day appeared to be part of the backlash against the feminist movement, moving toward a version of human interaction inherent to hookup culture, and that men "are really frightened because women are outperforming them". Activist Feminista Jones argues that it limits women's freedom of choice, thus being in the mainstream of traditional patriarchal restriction of female sexual behaviours. The sexual educator Walker Thornton wrote that the day, although silly, emphasized for her the issues she had with the modern worldview of Valentine's Day. "Men's Health" was unsure whether the holiday was actually celebrated, or whether the whole thing was a joke. Spanish soccer newspaper "Diario AS" considers the holiday to be "surreal". Student newspaper "The Brown Daily Herald" discussed the gender and sexual political implications surrounding the meme, suggesting that fellatio is considered by many to be a job the giver must endure as opposed to a form of enjoyment, and in the framing of Steak and Blowjob Day as a "man’s holiday" aimed at obtaining payback for Valentine's Day, this is perpetuated. The Daily Dot considers it a "lame joke gone viral".


title: Steak and Blowjob Day

text: Lifestyle blog "YourTango" felt the idea of such a holiday was an enshrining of male privilege and was, like Valentine's Day, a "silly calendar filler". "The Huffington Post" stated that the day "made them want to gag", and "FHM" and the "Daily Mirror" noted that businesses were cashing in on the unofficial holiday.


title: Steak and Blowjob Day

text: The concept of a men's movement looking to create such a day has caused some controversy and incited opposition, being described as antifeminist or patriarchal. The men's magazine "Maxim" described it as the greatest holiday of all time, whereas "Cosmopolitan" was unsure whether it was an outdated and sexist event or a bawdy celebration of sex and food. One opinion piece on the day suggested it was Neanderthal in trying to force through the idea of a day devoted to the combination of fellatio and steak, and suggested a range of alternatives.


title: Steak and Blowjob Day

text: The holiday has drawn attention from various celebrities, including Christina Aguilera, who encouraged her fans to celebrate it in 2014.


title: Steak and Blowjob Day

text: In 2016, "Instinct" noted that the day is also now being used as a way to successfully raise money for breast cancer research. In Germany, "Bild" noted the day is known as "Schnitzel und Blowjob Tag", or "Schniblo" for short, and in France, female-targeted magazine ' noted it was a day targeted at men, while ' said it was a "most American holiday". In Spain, daily newspaper "El Mundo" noted in Spain it would be called "Día del Solomillo y el Sexo Oral" and that the day joined food and sex, which it opined were two of the greatest pleasures in the world.


title: Bully (2001 film)

text: Bully is a 2001 crime drama film directed by Larry Clark, and starring Brad Renfro, Bijou Phillips, Rachel Miner, Michael Pitt, Leo Fitzpatrick, Daniel Franzese, Kelli Garner, and Nick Stahl. Its plot follows a group of teenagers in South Florida who enact a murder plot against their mutual bully who has emotionally, physically, and sexually abused them for years.


title: Bully (2001 film)

text: The film is based on the murder of Bobby Kent, and its screenplay was adapted by David McKenna (under the pseudonym Zachary Long) and Roger Pullis from the book "Bully: A True Story of High School Revenge" by Jim Schutze. Filming took place in southern Florida in the summer of 2000.


title: Bully (2001 film)

text: "Bully" was given a limited release in the United States on July 14, 2001, and met with mixed critical responses, though many critics noted the film's disturbing and straightforward handling of youth crime and murder.


title: Bully (2001 film)

text: South Florida high school dropouts Ali Willis (Bijou Phillips) and Lisa Connelly (Rachel Miner) befriend Bobby Kent (Nick Stahl) and Marty Puccio (Brad Renfro), employees at a local deli. The four all go out on a double date. Later that evening, in Bobby's parked car, Ali performs oral sex on Bobby, while Lisa and Marty have sex in the back seat. Lisa later learns she is pregnant, but is afraid that the child is Bobby's instead of Marty's, since Bobby raped her after beating Marty unconscious.


title: Bully (2001 film)

text: Bobby emotionally and physically abuses Marty, who puts up with his violent tendencies. On one occasion, Bobby rapes Ali while trying to force her to watch gay male pornography with him. Lisa later tells Marty that everyone suspects Bobby is attracted to him. Marty reveals to Lisa that the abuse has been going on since they were boys, starting with Marty taking drugs at an early age, which Marty thinks that Bobby has been using to take advantage of him. Marty and Bobby later go to a gay bar, where Marty is told to strip down to his underwear and dance for money, while Bobby takes pleasure in his humiliation.


title: Bully (2001 film)

text: Lisa eventually proposes that the group murder Bobby. Ali recruits her new boyfriend, the pot-smoking and acid-dropping Donny (Michael Pitt), and his troubled friend, Heather Swallers (Kelli Garner), who has recently been released from rehab; Lisa recruits her cousin, the shy and nerdy Derek Dzvirko (Daniel Franzese). They initially plan to kill Bobby with a gun stolen from Lisa's mother. Ali and Lisa take Bobby to the Everglades, with the plan that Lisa will shoot him while he has sex with Ali, but Lisa finds herself unable to do it. Realizing they need help, the group hire a supposed "hitman", Derek Kaufman (Leo Fitzpatrick), a friend of Ali's who is in actuality a tough-talking young man several years older than them.


title: Bully (2001 film)

text: With Kaufman's help, they orchestrate a new plan: they all drive to a remote canal, where Ali again lures Bobby with sex. Heather haphazardly initiates a signal to begin the murder, and Donny stabs Bobby in the back of the neck. Horrified by the violence, Ali, Heather, and Dzvirko run back to Ali's car. Bobby begs for mercy, but Marty stabs him in the stomach, disemboweling him, before slitting his throat. Kaufman proceeds to bludgeon Bobby with a baseball bat. Lisa witnesses it all, never turning away. They dump Bobby in the swamp, and presume alligators will consume his corpse.


title: Bully (2001 film)

text: Marty later realizes that he left the sheath to his diving knife at the canal. They go to retrieve the sheath, and check on the corpse, which is now being eaten by crabs. Lisa, Dzvirko, Ali, and Heather do not believe they did anything wrong, since they did not directly participate in Bobby's actual death. Lisa decides to dispose of the knife, which is the only evidence linking them to the crime.


title: Bully (2001 film)

text: Unable to maintain the secret, Dzvirko and Lisa reveal to their other friends what they've done, while Ali phones in an anonymous tip to the media, alerting them to Bobby's death. Lisa calls Kaufman and speaks to his younger brother, who says that Kaufman has already been arrested for the murder. Eventually, all the teenagers turn themselves in, with the exception of Marty, who is subsequently arrested. Some time later, the group appear in court, wearing prison jumpsuits, with Lisa visibly pregnant by this time. Marty and Donny begin to argue, leading the others to join in as they each respectively deny their culpability in front of an onlooking courtroom.


title: Bully (2001 film)

text: Title cards reveal their convictions: Derek Kaufman, Donny, and Lisa receive life sentences, Ali receives 40 years, Derek Dzvirko receives 11 years, Heather receives 7 years, and Marty is sentenced to death.


title: Bully (2001 film)

text: The film is based on the July 14, 1993 murder of Bobby Kent at a remote area in Weston, Florida, south of Alligator Alley. Four of the convicted teens, known as the "Broward County Seven", were released after serving brief prison terms. Only three are still serving prison sentences as of May, 2022. The book, "Bully: A True Story of High School Revenge" by Jim Schutze was released in 1998. The film includes two title cards that reveal how several of the perpetrators appealed their sentences and the results of those actions.


title: Bully (2001 film)

text: Larry Clark said he had a hard time acquiring the funding for this movie but with the up-and-coming Bijou Phillips in the leading female role, the financiers finally agreed. Despite this, he stated in a 2016 podcast that he has little to no respect for Phillips, saying "Everybody was fucking her and I just found it disgusting, man. And the first time I met her, she came to me in this club and sat down next to me, put her arm around me, took my cigarette out of my mouth and started smoking it. And she started talking to me, hugging me and kinda feeling me up. She hadn't acted, but that name - because she was in the paper every day for being a club kid and doing nothing - that name got us the money to get financed."


title: Bully (2001 film)

text: "Bully" received mixed reviews from critics and has a "Rotten" rating of 55% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 91 reviews with an average score of 5.8 out of 10. The critical consensus states "With its lingering shots of naked teenage bodies, "Bully" feels more sordidly exploitative than realistic." The film holds a score of 45 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 26 critics indicating 'Mixed or average reviews'.


title: Bully (2001 film)

text: Roger Ebert was one of the film's notable admirers and gave the film four out of four stars and stated in his review "Larry Clark's "Bully" calls the bluff of movies that pretend to be about murder but are really about entertainment. His film has all the sadness and shabbiness, all the mess and cruelty and thoughtless stupidity of the real thing...If the director doesn't have a strong personal feeling about material like this, he shouldn't be making movies about it...Clark is not some objectified, outside adult observer making an after-school special, but an artist who has made a leap into this teenage mindscape...I believe "Bully" is a masterpiece on its own terms, a frightening indictment of a society that offers absolutely nothing to some of its children—and an indictment of the children, who lack the imagination and courage to try to escape. Bobby and his killers deserve one another."


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: O Kadhal Kanmani (), also known as OK Kanmani, is a 2015 Indian Tamil-language romantic comedy film written, directed and produced by Mani Ratnam. The film stars Dulquer Salmaan and Nithya Menen, portraying a young couple in a live-in relationship in Mumbai. Prakash Raj and Leela Samson play supporting roles as an older couple in the film, portraying the younger couple's landlords. The film was said to be a "reflection of the modern mindset of urban India", dealing with issues such as marriage and traditional values. The film featured music composed by A. R. Rahman, cinematography by P. C. Sreeram and editing by Sreekar Prasad.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: Prior to the film's release, the soundtrack was well received and the promotional activity of the film on social media also garnered praise. "O Kadhal Kanmani" was released on 17 April 2015 and won positive reviews from critics, praising the lead pair's performances and the quality of the film's technical aspects. The film became a financial success at the box office, performing extremely well in Indian multiplexes and overseas. It was also the film debut for Bharatanatyam dancer, Leela Samson. The film was later remade into Hindi as "Ok Jaanu" in 2017.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: Aditya Varadarajan is a video game developer who accidentally meets Taara Kalingarayar at his colleague's wedding. He later finds out that she is planning to pursue her studies in Paris. They soon begin to call each other often, go out together, and start to fall in love during a holiday that they take together. They agree that marriage is not for them and decide to have a live-in relationship instead, and Taara moves into Adhi's place, rented from Ganapathy. They wish to spend their time with each other before they go their separate ways for their respective careers. Taara and Adhi live happily, being playful with each other.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: One midnight, Tara has a conversation with Ganapathy. She tells him that she might get her visa approved for going to Paris, and that it is hard for her to leave Adhi and go far away. The next day, Taara goes to Jaipur for her business, and Aditya starts to miss her terribly. Upon seeing the love and patience that Ganapathy has for his wife Bhavani, an Alzheimer's patient, who one day even forgets the way to her own house, they begin to understand the importance of each other's presence in their life.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: Soon, Adhi is selected to develop his skills in video games and to go to US. He tells his colleague that it is hard for him to leave Taara. The next day, both of them make an agreement to enjoy themselves to the maximum for the 10 days left before they separate. Nearing the last day, they begin to have little fights and arguments, which do not last long.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: One day, Bhavani goes missing again, as she did when she forgot her house address. While looking for her, they continue arguing about their relationship. Finally, Adhi proposes to Taara, and they decide to get married. Post marriage, both of them continue to accomplish their own dreams, one in Paris, another in the US. In the post credits, it is shown that Adhi has finished his project in US and has moved to Paris where they reunite and have a baby and arrive in India.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: In early 2014, Mani Ratnam first approached Telugu actor Ram Charan to be a part of the film, but he felt the lead role would not work for him. In August 2014, Madras Talkies had confirmed that Dulquer Salmaan would play the lead role in their forthcoming production and it was reported that Mani Ratnam's regular collaborator, composer A. R. Rahman would also work on the film. Vairamuthu renewed his collaboration with Mani Ratnam and A. R. Rahman to write song lyrics, and stated that the director had told him the film's plot concisely within three minutes and described it as a "beautiful love story" about "two characters and their love and mindset". P. C. Sreeram joined the team later in the month, collaborating with the director after "Alaipayuthey" (2000). During the making of the film, the cinematographer hinted that the film has contents on the lines of Ratnam's "Alaipayuthey" (2000), and that it was also loosely based on a real life incident. In October 2014, the film was revealed to have a working title of "OK Kanmani".


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: Mani Ratnam revealed that he had the fascination for making a film on the gaming culture before "Kadal", and set the story in Mumbai as it was India's gaming hub and a place where a live-in relationship can happen more naturally than in South India. He revealed it was an urban love story, and added that the Mumbai setting was also justified as it dealt with people away from home who become independent of the rules and regulations of a family. The film was earlier wrongly reported to be bilingual in both Tamil and Malayalam; it was made only in Tamil.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: In a press conference at Taj Coromandel in Chennai, Ratnam said that the film is a contemporary take on the new generation, their attitudes and their values. Through the film, Ratnam wanted to portray the change that takes place every five or six years when a new generation comes in with a different set of values.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: The female lead role was initially offered to Alia Bhatt, who opted not to work in a regional film, while Pooja Hegde also refused the offer, citing her commitment to Ashutosh Gowariker's "Mohenjodaro" (2016), which prevented her from working on other films. Parvathy Thiruvothu was also considered, before Nithya Menen was selected. Dulquer and Nithya worked together on "O Kadhal Kanmani" alongside their commitments in Jenuse Mohamed's Malayalam film "100 Days of Love", which eventually released a month before Mani Ratnam's film. The director revealed he first met Dulquer at the audio release function of "Vaayai Moodi Pesavum" (2014) and felt that he was the right choice to play the character Aadi, although he hadn't seen any of the actor's films. Ratnam had only previously seen Nithya Menen's "180" (2011) and "Urumi" (2011), where she had played small roles but was impressed. Ratnam was quoted saying, "I found something alive about her, something real and perfectly beautiful about her. Nithya carries an individuality and is not just a glamorous girl. Like her character in the film, Tara, she has a mind of her own."


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: Prakash Raj accepted to play a role in the film in September 2014 and expressed his excitement at being offered a unique character. Leela Samson, a Bharathanatyam dancer and author, was selected to make her acting debut and portray a retired Carnatic singer in the film, appearing as Prakash Raj's wife. Television anchor Ramya Subramanian was also picked to play Dulquer's friend in the film, and it became her first full-fledged acting role. The rest of the cast consisted of Mani Ratnam's assistant directors Sivakumar Ananth and Chandrika Chandran, while his friends Rama Ramasamy, Prabhu Lakshman and the former manager of Sify, John Devasahayam, were given other roles. Actress Kanika shot for a day in Chennai, to portray a small role in the film as did architect B. V. Doshi. A number of rookie actors, who later went onto feature in larger projects, including Arav, Ashwin Kumar Lakshmikanthan, Ciby Bhuvana Chandran and Pavithra Lakshmi made appearances as colleagues of Dulquer's character.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: Principal photography began from 6 October 2014 with scenes featuring Dulquer Salmaan and Nithya Menen being filmed. Menen revealed that the film would be shot in a short span of time and her portions would be completed by December 2014, while the team swiftly shot scenes at locations in and around Chennai, including near a bank in Parry's Corner. The last leg of filming, started in Mumbai in November 2014 with the shooting lasting for a week. The team shot scenes at Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad and CEPT University during December 2014, with renowned Indian architect B. V. Doshi filming for a guest appearance as Nithya's mentor. The team subsequently moved back to film further outdoor sequences in Mumbai, later that month. Following the schedule, P. C. Sreeram revealed that the film was practically complete and that the film would aim to release in early 2015.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: The game animations for the film were handled by Studio Dreamcatcher, who worked on two versions of a fictional game called Mumbai 2.0, which Dulquer's character develops in the film. A 2D prototype and a 3D 2.0 version were created for the film, while the team also took care of the animation sequences for the end credit segments. The company also took care of character designs, story board and animatics of the lead characters Dulquer, Nithya and John for the 3D sequences. The 2D animated opening title sequence for the film was handled by Mumbai-based animation studio Plexus. The film's title was changed in February 2015 from "OK Kanmani" to "O Kadhal Kanmani" in an attempt to gain an entertainment tax exemption in Tamil Nadu, through the use of a pure Tamil title.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: The soundtrack and film score were composed by A. R. Rahman. The lyrics were written by Vairamuthu whereas Sirivennela Sitaramasastri wrote the Telugu lyrics for the dubbed version. The soundtrack album was noted to be "youthful" with Carnatic themes. Since Leela Samson plays the role of an old Carnatic singer in the film, there is a tinge of Carnatic music in the film. Ratnam wanted an original soundtrack from Rahman that is contemporary as well as trendy. Rahman's son, A. R. Ameen sang the track "Maula Wa Sallim" in Arabic. A first preview of the song "Mental Manadhil (Male version)" was released on 13 March 2015, while the full song was released as a single on 15 March 2015. The soundtrack album was released by Sony Music India on the midnight of 3 April 2015.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: Social media promotions were handled by Chennai-based group, Uptown Ideas, and the film's presence on Facebook and Twitter succeeded in garnering praise and creating anticipation before release. The team had initially been assigned by Mani Ratnam to handle radio promotions, but consequently also managed online marketing and liaised with the director, sending him ideas of potential campaigns for approval. The team established a concept titled OKK Love Stories, with couples from all walks of life encouraged to share their love stories of how they met, keeping with the theme of the film. The first poster of the Tamil and the dubbed Telugu version of the film were released on 14 February 2015. The theatrical trailer was released subsequently released on 1 March 2015.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: On 8 April 2015, the film was awarded a "U/A" certificate by the Central Board of Film Certification because of some "adult content" in the film. The makers then sent the film to the revising committee to acquire a "U" (Universal) certificate, but the status remained unchanged. A dubbed Telugu version was also developed to be released simultaneously titled "OK Bangaram", with actor Nani selected to providing dubbing for Dulquer's character.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: The film was distributed by Studio Green in 350 theatres in Tamil Nadu whereas producer Dil Raju's Sri Venkateswara Creations distributed the Telugu version. "O Kadhal Kanmani" was released worldwide on 17 April 2015.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: "O Kadhal Kanmani" received positive reviews from critics upon release, with International Business Times India calling it "the director's best in recent years" in their initial review round-up.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: Baradwaj Rangan of The Hindu wrote, ""O Kadhal Kanmani" is something of a greatest-hits package of Mani Ratnam", while also singling out Nithya Menen's performance for praise. He added "we’re all going to have our favourite scenes with her" and "if Mani Ratnam keeps employing actors like her, he may not need to write those zingers anymore." Anupama Subramanian of "Deccan Chronicle" wrote, "After a couple of lackluster flicks, master story teller Mani Ratnam is back with a bang with a feel good complete romantic movie "O Kadhal Kanmani". There are a few overall glitches, nevertheless, watch OKK for its fresh approach and feel-good entertainment it offers." She awarded the film 3 stars out of 5. Reviewing for "Firstpost", Latha Srinivasan stated, ""O Kadhal Kanmani" celebrates romance, an emotion that is as old as creation itself (remember Adam and Eve?). Mani Ratnam is back, with a 21st century love story that will charm you." Udhav Naig of "The Hindu" said "Ratnam has made a film that will not only resonate with audiences across India but has also truly retained the Tamil flavor". Naig called it is as one of those films in which everything seems to have come together: music, acting, editing and the cinematography. The critical review board of "Behindwoods" gave the film 3.25 stars out of 5 stating, "Okay, moral of the story – One fine morning, Mani Ratnam got up and decided to make something special for all young people out there. He then makes OK Kanmani, and in style".


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: Critics based at "Sify" stated, "The premise is simple, the story is focused. Technically "OK Kanmani" is superior as both AR Rahman and PC Sreeram have given their career best work for Mani Ratnam as the master craftsman himself is in tremendous form. "O Kadhal Kanmani" is definitely above a notch compared to the mediocre cinema we have been subjected to lately." Sudhish Kamath wrote, "OK Kanmani is unfortunately that Uncle who makes you believe that marriage is the answer to your conflict of living in without any expectations from each other." Haricharan Pudipeddi for "Hindustan Times" said that the film is a refreshing take on romance and relationship. This is his best work in years and this magical spell won't be forgotten easily. By throwing the spotlight on modern India's idea of romance, Ratnam has also succeeded in making us root for an older couple madly in love in "O Kadhal Kanmani"." Karthik Keramalu of "IBN Live" stated that the film is a love letter to the audience. He went on to call the film as, 'Mani Ratnam's timely reflection of our society' which mustn't be missed. He rated the film 5 out of 5. R. S. Prakash of "Bangalore Mirror" wrote, "Mani delves into the plot of live-in relationship, but he has chosen not to go overboard, given the sensitivity of the subject, especially in his part of the world. The screenplay, though a bit implausible at places, flows steadily, carrying the touches of the master filmmaker." Writing for "The Times of India" M. Suganth said, "The filmmaker shows that his touch is in tact and he can still make a romance come alive on screen." The film was rated 3.5 out of 5 by him. Indo-Asian News Service stated, "By throwing the spotlight on modern India’s idea of romance, Ratnam has also succeeded in making us root for an older couple madly in love in “O Kadhal Kanmani”." S. Saraswathi of Rediff.com gave the film 3.5 out of 5 stars claiming that it has, "director's trademark, unique narrative style, realistic characters, and excellent performances coupled with great music and stunning visuals".


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: Madras Talkies made the film at a cost of ₹6 crores and upon release, it immediately became a profitable venture for producers and distributors, amassing ₹14.73 crore from its Tamil and Telugu dubbed version worldwide, within four days of release.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: In Tamil Nadu, "O Kadhal Kanmani" grossed nearly ₹6.30 cr in its first three days, opening at second place behind "Kanchana 2" and experienced particular success in multiplexes as expected.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: "O Kadhal Kanmani" also did "exceptional business" overseas, with theatrical rights sold worldwide for ₹2 crore. The venture managed to gross approximately $714, 000 (₹4.42 crore) from the US market alone, becoming one of the most successful Tamil films of all time in the US, as its acquisition price was very low compared to its business. During the opening weekend, the Tamil version of the film grossed ₹2.76 crs in the USA while the Telugu version grossed a further ₹1.40 crs. Likewise on the opening weekend in Australia, it grossed ₹50.82 lakhs and in the UK, the film has grossed ₹46.62 lakhs. Trade pundits remarked that the film was a "trade favourite" in the overseas market and predicted massive profits for the producers. Ten extra screen were added for the second week of the film in the US, and within a week, it became the second highest-grossing Tamil film of 2015, behind "I". The film subsequently completed its run in the US, finishing at number seven on the all-time list. Similarly in the UK, the film completed a month-long run at the box office, unheralded for a film not featuring an established leading actor.


title: O Kadhal Kanmani

text: A Hindi remake of the film was officially announced in November 2015, with Aditya Roy Kapur and Shraddha Kapoor portraying the lead roles, and directed by Shaad Ali. Karan Johar announced in late 2015 that he would produce the project in association with Mani Ratnam. Titled "OK Jaanu", the film began production in March 2016 and was released in January 2017. Song titles from the film's soundtrack were later used as titles for Tamil films, with "Parandhu Sella Vaa" (2016) beginning production in December 2015 and a film titled "Sinamika" starting in May 2016. A Telugu film titled "Mental Madhilo" also began production in late 2016. In March 2020, the film's choreographer Brindha launched her first film as a director and titled the film as "Hey Sinamika" (2022) with Dulquer in the lead role.


title: Donnie Yen filmography

text: This is the filmography of Hong Kong actor, film director, martial artist and action choreographer Donnie Yen.


title: Major Lazer

text: Major Lazer is an American electronic dance music DJ trio, which includes record producer Diplo, and DJs Walshy Fire and Ape Drums. It originates from Kingston, Jamaica, and was founded in 2008 by Diplo and Switch, with Switch leaving after three years in 2011. He was then replaced by both Jillionaire and Walshy Fire. In June 2019, Jillionaire left the group and was replaced by Ape Drums. Its music spans numerous genres, mixing reggae with dancehall, reggaeton, soca, house and moombahton.


title: Major Lazer

text: Major Lazer has released four full-length albums: "Guns Don't Kill People... Lazers Do" in 2009, "Free the Universe" in 2013, "Peace Is the Mission" in 2015, and "Music Is the Weapon" in 2020. They have also released six EPs, including "Apocalypse Soon" in March 2014, which featured vocal contributions from Pharrell Williams and Sean Paul, and "Know No Better" in 2017, which featured appearances from Camila Cabello, Quavo, Travis Scott, and J Balvin, among others. Major Lazer has also notably produced "Reincarnated", the debut reggae album by Snoop Dogg under his "Snoop Lion" persona. In March 2018, "Billboard" ranked Major Lazer at number five on their 2018 "Billboard" Dance 100 ranking of dance musicians.


title: Major Lazer

text: Originally made up of DJs Diplo and Switch, the two were introduced while working with M.I.A. The duo's first album "Guns Don't Kill People... Lazers Do" was released on June 16, 2009, on Downtown Records. It was recorded in Jamaica at Tuff Gong Studios. Vocalists such as Santigold, Vybz Kartel, Ward 21, Busy Signal, Nina Sky, Amanda Blank, Mr. Vegas, Turbulence, Mapei, T.O.K, Prince Zimboo, Leftside and others contribute guest vocals to the album, as well as additional production from Afrojack, Nebat Drums and Crookers. This is the first release to come out of the label partnership between Downtown Records and Diplo's label Mad Decent. Major Lazer ended a US tour summer of 2009.


title: Major Lazer

text: The album's first single was "Hold the Line", the video for which, directed by Eric Wareheim, was nominated for a MTV Video Award in the Breakthrough Video category. It was also featured in the video game "FIFA 10". The track "Zumbie" has a music video that features comedian Andy Milonakis. Music videos for the songs "Pon de Floor", "Keep It Going Louder", and "Bubble Butt" were directed by Eric Wareheim. In June 2009, Major Lazer were featured for the first time on the cover of the publication "The Fader", in its 62nd issue.


title: Major Lazer

text: Major Lazer performed at the Falls Music & Arts Festival (Lorne, Victoria, Australia) on December 30, 2009, and the Coachella Music Festival in April 2010. They also performed at the Pitchfork Music Festival in July 2010 and the Sasquatch Music Festival on Monday May 30, 2011. Live visuals were created by Pomp&Clout. Major Lazer performed at the 2011 Outside Lands festival in San Francisco.


title: Major Lazer

text: A mixtape with La Roux titled "Lazerproof" was made available for free download on May 26. Diplo posted cover art on his Twitpic. It is the character Major Lazer in War Machine's silver suit, Elly Jackson of La Roux in the signature Iron Man suit, and Whiplash, the villain in the "Iron Man 2" movie. On June 20, 2010, the group released an EP titled "Lazers Never Die". It contained two new songs and three remixes, by Thom Yorke and others. Switch provided production for Beyoncé's "Run the World (Girls)", which sampled "Pon de Floor". Major Lazer also features in the track, "Look at Where We Are", from the extended version of Hot Chip's album "In Our Heads", released June 2011.


title: Major Lazer

text: Major Lazer's live shows previously included hype man Skerrit Bwoy, although he left the group in 2012 to pursue religion. In 2012, Major Lazer began working with Snoop Dogg to produce some tracks that were to be included on his new reggae project. Along with the project came his new alter ego persona known as "Snoop Lion". Switch left the collaborative effort due to "creative differences" as claimed by Diplo. He departed in late 2011 and was replaced with DJ/Producers Jillionaire and Walshy Fire. Also, Boaz van de Beatz, artist from Mad Decent (record label of Diplo), has collaborated with most of the group albums and is considered a member of the group.


title: Major Lazer

text: In September 2012, Major Lazer announced that its upcoming album, "Free the Universe", would be released on March 12, 2013, on Mad Decent. They also announced Fall 2012 tour dates.


title: Major Lazer

text: Major Lazer partly produced UK singer Rita Ora's debut album, "Ora". Major Lazer worked with No Doubt for their sixth studio album, "Push and Shove". The album's title track features producers Major Lazer and Jamaican reggae artist Busy Signal, and was released as a promotional single in August 2012.


title: Major Lazer

text: Major Lazer launched their Fall Tour 2012 in October, with shows in Oakland, Washington, D.C., Boston, and New York City, among others.


title: Major Lazer

text: In February 2013, Major Lazer signed with indie record label Secretly Canadian. At the same time, they announced the new release date, April 16, for their album "Free the Universe". They also announced the Free the Universe 2013 World Tour, which ran through the spring of 2013.


title: Major Lazer

text: On February 8, 2015, during the Grammy Award ceremony, Diplo revealed details of the third Major Lazer album. He confirmed that the album would incorporate artists such as Ariana Grande, Ellie Goulding and Pusha T, and would be titled "Peace is the Mission".


title: Major Lazer

text: The first single, "Lean On", was a collaboration with French producer DJ Snake and featured vocals from Danish recording artist MØ. It was released March 2, 2015. The song was first offered to Rihanna and then Nicki Minaj, who both turned it down; however Major Lazer later expressed that no one could have done a better job than MØ in the recording. The song reached number 4 on the US Billboard's Hot 100 chart and number 2 in the UK charts. It also became Spotify's most streamed song of all time, receiving universally positive reviews while reaching over 2 billion views on YouTube, making it the twelfth most viewed video on the site.


title: Major Lazer

text: Four promotional singles were released; "Roll the Bass" March 23, 2015, "Night Riders", a collaboration with Travi$ Scott, 2 Chainz, Pusha T and Mad Cobra, released April 20, 2015, and "Too Original", a collaboration with Elliphant and Jovi Rockwell, released on May 11, 2015. On June 2, 2015, a lyric video was released for "Be Together", a collaboration with Wild Belle, making it the fourth promotional single.


title: Major Lazer

text: The second single from the album, titled "Powerful", featured English singer-songwriter Ellie Goulding and Jamaican singer Tarrus Riley. It was released simultaneously with the album, and was added to BBC Radio 1's playlist on June 21, 2015. It reached the Top 10 in Australia and Poland.


title: Major Lazer

text: In an interview with "inthemix" on May 22, 2015, Walshy Fire announced that Major Lazer's fourth studio album would be titled "Music Is the Weapon" and that it would be released late 2015 or early 2016. The album never arrived in 2015 or 2016, though Diplo did reveal on April 27, 2015, during an interview with Belgian radio station Studio Brussel that Major Lazer was working on a new track with Belgian singer Selah Sue, and that it might appear on their next album. Selah Sue herself had confirmed this during an earlier interview with the same radio station on May 4, 2015.


title: Major Lazer

text: "Peace Is The Mission" was released on June 1, 2015. It featured artists such as Machel Montano, Wild Belle, Pusha T, Ellie Goulding, and Ariana Grande. It peaked at number 12 on the "Billboard" 200 chart and received general critical success.


title: Major Lazer

text: On November 27, 2015, Major Lazer released a re-issue of their third studio album "Peace is the Mission", re-titled as "Peace is the Mission: Extended". It featured five additional songs, including a collaboration with Dutch electro house DJ MOTi (featuring Ty Dolla $ign, Wizkid, and Kranium), a remix of their previous track "Light It Up" featuring Nyla and Fuse ODG, and a cover of Frank Ocean's "Lost" featuring previous collaborator and Danish recording artist MØ.


title: Major Lazer

text: On November 5, 2015, Major Lazer featured on Katy B<nowiki>'s single "</nowiki>Who Am I<nowiki>"</nowiki> alongside Craig David.


title: Major Lazer

text: Exactly one year after "Peace is the Mission" was released, Major Lazer announced a new remix album titled "Peace Is the Mission: Remixes". It featured remixes of selected tracks from their third studio album, including "Lean On", "Powerful", "Be Together", "Night Riders", and "Roll the Bass". Major Lazer had over 27 million tags in music identification service Shazam in 2015. This, along with Diplo's other collaboration Jack Ü, gave Diplo the greatest number of Shazams in 2015.


title: Major Lazer

text: On July 22, 2016, a new track titled "Cold Water", featuring vocals from MØ and Justin Bieber, was released by Major Lazer. It debuted at No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100, and number 1 in several other countries including on the UK Official Charts, making it their most popular single yet. On September 30, 2016, "Believer", a collaboration with Dutch production duo Showtek, was released as the second single from Major Lazer's upcoming fourth album. The album's title, "Music Is the Weapon", had been announced in May 2015, and was set to have "a few more club songs, a few more festival songs" than "Peace is the Mission", but to be "in the same spectrum."


title: Major Lazer

text: On December 6, 2016, Major Lazer released a promotional single for "Music Is the Weapon", titled "My Number". The song is a collaboration with Bad Royale that samples "54-46 That's My Number", which Pitchfork describes as "a genre-defining classic from legendary ska/reggae group Toots and the Maytals." The song contains newly recorded vocals from frontman Toots Hibbert specifically designed for Major Lazer, changing the original lyrics to incorporate the group into the song while keeping the original melody.


title: Major Lazer

text: Following the success of singles "Cold Water" and "Believer", Major Lazer released their third single titled "Run Up" January 26, 2017. The song features Canadian musician PartyNextDoor and rapper Nicki Minaj, serving as a follow-up to the tropical, laid-back sound of "Cold Water". "Music Is the Weapon", however, still failed to arrive, prompting rumors that Major Lazer would not be releasing an album after all. However, in 2018, Diplo stated that the album will be released in 2019 and that it will be their last.


title: Major Lazer

text: On June 1, 2017, Major Lazer released a six-song extended play titled "Know No Better", with the title track featuring Camila Cabello, Travis Scott, and Quavo. The EP's second single, "Sua Cara", features Brazilian musicians Anitta and Pabllo Vittar. Several remixes of the EP's title track have since been released.


title: Major Lazer

text: On October 19, 2018, Major Lazer released a compilation album titled "Major Lazer Essentials", a 10-year anniversary record that includes all of Major Lazer's greatest hits, and new songs including "Blow That Smoke", featuring Tove Lo, which was released October 17, 2018.


title: Major Lazer

text: On May 10, 2019, Major Lazer released the song "Can't Take It from Me", featuring Skip Marley, as the new lead single for their fourth studio album. In June 2019, Jillionaire left the group to focus on solo projects, and was replaced by American DJ and record producer Ape Drums. The album's second single, "Que Calor", featuring J Balvin and El Alfa, was released September 11, 2019. The album's fifth single, "Lay Your Head on Me", featuring Marcus Mumford of the band Mumford & Sons, was released on March 26, 2020.


title: Major Lazer

text: In a 2019 interview with "Complex Magazine", Diplo revealed that the album would be titled "Lazerism", but the name was later changed back to the original title, "Music Is the Weapon", and was released on October 23, 2020.


title: Major Lazer

text: A Major Lazer animated series premiered April 16, 2015, on FXX. Diplo serves as co-creator and executive producer of the show.


title: Rockwell (musician)

text: Kennedy William Gordy (born March 15, 1964), better known by his stage name Rockwell, is an American singer. He is most well known for his hit 1984 single "Somebody's Watching Me" which features Michael Jackson on the chorus vocals. He is the son of Motown founder Berry Gordy. Other relatives include singers Redfoo, Rhonda Ross Kendrick, and Sky Blu; they are his half-siblings and half-nephew, respectively.


title: Rockwell (musician)

text: Kennedy William Gordy is the son of Motown founder and CEO Berry Gordy and Margaret Norton. His father named him Kennedy William after John F. Kennedy and William "Smokey" Robinson.


title: Rockwell (musician)

text: To avoid the appearance of nepotism, he secured his record deal without his father's knowledge. Motown actually came up with the name Rockwell and the young Gordy agreed to the change because he believed he "rocked well."


title: Rockwell (musician)

text: In 1984, Rockwell had his biggest single, "Somebody's Watching Me", with childhood friend Michael Jackson singing the chorus lyrics and Jermaine Jackson singing backup. "Somebody's Watching Me" became a Gold-certified #2 song in the US, which also peaked at #6 in the UK. It held #1 on Billboard's R&B chart for five weeks. Follow-up singles underperformed, with "Obscene Phone Caller" being Rockwell's only other Top 40 single. It reached #35 on the Billboard Hot 100. Rockwell released two more albums before ending his musical career with Motown.


title: Rockwell (musician)

text: Rockwell was not the first member of the Gordy family to hit "Billboard"s Hot 100 as a recording artist. His uncle, Robert Gordy, reached the longer reaches of the chart in 1958 with "Everyone Was There", recording under the name of Bob Kayli.


title: Rockwell (musician)

text: Rockwell is the son of Berry Gordy. Rockwell's paternal half-sister is actress Rhonda Ross Kendrick, the eldest child of Diana Ross, the latter of whom is of no relation to Rockwell.


title: Rockwell (musician)

text: Rockwell is also closely related to the group LMFAO through his half-brother Redfoo (Stephen Kendal Gordy, son of Berry Gordy and Nancy Leiviska) and his half-nephew Sky Blu (Skyler Austen Gordy, son of his half-brother Berry Gordy IV and his wife Valerie Robeson).


title: Rockwell (musician)

text: In July 2010, Rockwell married Nicole Moore. In 2013, he filed for divorce. The couple have no children together.


title: Rockwell (musician)

text: On November 29, 2018, Rockwell was arrested in Hollywood for allegedly beating a female associate with a chair at the Magic Castle Hotel after she approached him and demanded payment. Rockwell was released from jail on December 1, 2018, on a $30,000 bail. On January 7, 2019, the woman, who suffered multiple injuries from the attack and had undergone surgery to repair a broken arm, filed a lawsuit against Rockwell in Los Angeles for personal injury, claiming damages exceeding $25,000.


title: Fireworks

text: Fireworks are a class of low explosive pyrotechnic devices used for aesthetic and entertainment purposes. They are most commonly used in fireworks displays (also called a fireworks show or pyrotechnics), combining a large number of devices in an outdoor setting. Such displays are the focal point of many cultural and religious celebrations.


title: Fireworks

text: Fireworks take many forms to produce four primary effects: noise, light, smoke, and floating materials (confetti most notably). They may be designed to burn with colored flames and sparks including red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple and silver. They are generally classified by where they perform, either 'ground' or 'aerial'. Aerial fireworks may have their own propulsion (skyrocket) or be shot into the air by a mortar (aerial shell).


title: Fireworks

text: Most fireworks consist of a paper or pasteboard tube or casing filled with the combustible material, often pyrotechnic stars. A number of these tubes or cases may be combined so as to make when kindled, a great variety of sparkling shapes, often variously colored. A skyrocket is a common form of firework, although the first skyrockets were used in warfare. The aerial shell, however, is the backbone of today's commercial aerial display, and a smaller version for consumer use is known as the festival ball in the United States.


title: Fireworks

text: Fireworks were originally invented in China. China remains the largest manufacturer and exporter of fireworks in the world.


title: Fireworks

text: 'Silent' fireworks displays are becoming popular due to concerns that noise effects traumatize pets, wildlife, and some humans. However these are not a new type of firework and they are not completely silent. "Silent firework displays" refers to displays which simply exclude large, spectacular, noisy fireworks and make greater use of smaller, quieter devices.


title: Fireworks

text: The earliest fireworks came from China during the Song dynasty (960–1279). Fireworks were used to accompany many festivities. The art and science of firework making has developed into an independent profession. In China, pyrotechnicians were respected for their knowledge of complex techniques in mounting firework displays.


title: Fireworks

text: During the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), people threw bamboo stems into a fire to produce an explosion with a loud sound. In later times, gunpowder packed into small containers was used to mimic the sounds of burning bamboo. Exploding bamboo stems and gunpowder firecrackers were interchangeably known as "baozhu" (爆竹) or "baogan" (爆竿). It was during the Song dynasty that people manufactured the first firecrackers comprising tubes made from rolled sheets of paper containing gunpowder and a fuse. They also strung these firecrackers together into large clusters, known as "bian" (lit. "whip") or "bianpao" (lit. "whip cannon"), so the firecrackers could be set off one by one in close sequence. By the 12th and possibly the 11th century, the term "baozhang" (爆仗) was used to specifically refer to gunpowder firecrackers.


title: Fireworks

text: During the Song dynasty, many of the common people could purchase various kinds of fireworks from market vendors. Grand displays of fireworks were also known to be held. In 1110, a large fireworks display in a martial demonstration was held to entertain Emperor Huizong of Song (r. 1100–1125) and his court. A record from 1264 states that a rocket-propelled firework went off near the Empress Dowager Gong Sheng and startled her during a feast held in her honor by her son Emperor Lizong of Song (r. 1224–1264). Rocket propulsion was common in warfare, as evidenced by the "Huolongjing" compiled by Liu Bowen (1311–1375) and Jiao Yu (fl. c. 1350–1412). In 1240 the Arabs acquired knowledge of gunpowder and its uses from China. A Syrian named Hasan al-Rammah wrote of rockets, fireworks, and other incendiaries, using terms that suggested he derived his knowledge from Chinese sources, such as his references to fireworks as "Chinese flowers".


title: Fireworks

text: Colored fireworks were developed from earlier (possibly Han dynasty or soon thereafter) Chinese application of chemical substances to create colored smoke and fire. Such application appears in the "Huolongjing" (14th century) and "Wubeizhi" (preface of 1621, printed 1628), which describes recipes, several of which used low-nitrate gunpowder, to create military signal smokes with various colors. In the "Wubei Huolongjing" (武備火龍經; Ming, completed after 1628), two formulas appears for firework-like signals, the "sanzhangju" (三丈菊) and "baizhanglian" (百丈蓮), that produces silver sparkles in the smoke. In the "Huoxilüe" (火戲略; 1753) by Zhao Xuemin (趙學敏), there are several recipes with low-nitrate gunpowder and other chemical substances to tint flames and smoke. These included, for instance, arsenical sulphide for yellow, copper acetate (verdigris) for green, lead carbonate for lilac-white, and mercurous chloride (calomel) for white. The Chinese pyrotechnics were described by the French author Antoine Caillot (1818): "It is certain that the variety of colours which the Chinese have the secret of giving to flame is the greatest mystery of their fireworks." Similarly, the English geographer Sir John Barrow (ca. 1797) wrote "The diversity of colours indeed with which the Chinese have the secret of cloathing fire seems to be the chief merit of their pyrotechny."


title: Fireworks

text: Fireworks were produced in Europe by the 14th century, becoming popular by the 17th century. Lev Izmailov, ambassador of Peter the Great, once reported from China: "They make such fireworks that no one in Europe has ever seen." In 1758, the Jesuit missionary Pierre Nicolas le Chéron d'Incarville, living in Beijing, wrote about the methods and composition of Chinese fireworks to the Paris Academy of Sciences, which published the account five years later. Amédée-François Frézier published his revised work "Traité des feux d'artice pour le spectacle" (Treatise on Fireworks) in 1747 (originally 1706), covering the recreational and ceremonial uses of fireworks, rather than their military uses. "Music for the Royal Fireworks" was composed by George Frideric Handel in 1749 to celebrate the Peace treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which had been declared the previous year.


title: Fireworks

text: "Prior to the nineteenth century and the advent of modern chemistry they [fireworks] must have been relatively dull and unexciting." Bertholet in 1786 discovered that oxidations with potassium chlorate resulted in a violet emission. Subsequent developments revealed that oxidations with the chlorates of barium, strontium, copper, and sodium result in intense emission of bright colors. The isolation of metallic magnesium and aluminium marked another breakthrough as these metals burn with an intense silvery light.


title: Fireworks

text: Improper use of fireworks is dangerous, both to the person operating them (risks of burns and wounds) and to bystanders; in addition, they may start fires on landing. For this reason, the use of fireworks is legally restricted in many countries. In such countries, display fireworks are restricted for use by professionals; smaller consumer versions may or may not be available to the public.


title: Fireworks

text: Birds and animals, both domestic and wild, can be frightened by their noise, leading to them running away, often into danger, or hurting themselves on fences or in other ways in an attempt to escape the perceived danger. Frightened birds also may abandon nests and not return to complete rearing their young.


title: Fireworks

text: Fireworks produce smoke and dust that may contain residues of heavy metals, sulfur-coal compounds and some low concentration toxic chemicals. These by-products of fireworks combustion will vary depending on the mix of ingredients of a particular firework. (The color green, for instance, may be produced by adding the various compounds and salts of barium, some of which are toxic, and some of which are not.) Some fishers have noticed and reported to environmental authorities that firework residues can hurt fish and other water-life because some may contain toxic compounds (such as antimony sulfide or arsenic). This is a subject of much debate due to the fact that large-scale pollution from other sources makes it difficult to measure the amount of pollution that comes specifically from fireworks. The possible toxicity of any fallout may also be affected by the amount of black powder used, type of oxidizer, colors produced and launch method.


title: Fireworks

text: Perchlorate salts, when in solid form, dissolve and move rapidly in groundwater and surface water. Even in low concentrations in drinking water supplies, perchlorate ions are known to inhibit the uptake of iodine by the thyroid gland. As of 2010, there are no federal drinking water standards for perchlorates in the United States, but the


title: Fireworks

text: US Environmental Protection Agency has studied the impacts of perchlorates on the environment as well as drinking water.


title: Fireworks

text: Several U.S. states have enacted drinking water standard for perchlorates, including Massachusetts in 2006. California's legislature enacted AB 826, the Perchlorate Contamination Prevention Act of 2003, requiring California's Department of Toxic Substance Control (DTSC) to adopt regulations specifying best management practices for perchlorate-containing substances. The Perchlorate Best Management Practices were adopted on 31 December 2005 and became operative on 1 July 2006. California issued drinking water standards in 2007. Several other states, including Arizona, Maryland, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, and Texas have established non-enforceable, advisory levels for perchlorates.


title: Fireworks

text: The courts have also taken action with regard to perchlorate contamination. For example, in 2003, a federal district court in California found that Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) applied because perchlorate is ignitable and therefore a "characteristic" hazardous waste.


title: Fireworks

text: Pollutants from fireworks raise concerns because of potential health risks associated with hazardous by-products. For most people the effects of exposure to low levels of toxins from many sources over long periods are unknown. For persons with asthma or multiple chemical sensitivity the smoke from fireworks may aggravate existing health problems.


title: Fireworks

text: Pollution is also a concern because fireworks often contain heavy metals as source of color. However, gunpowder smoke and the solid residues are basic, and as such the net effect of fireworks on acid rain is debatable. What is not disputed is that most consumer fireworks leave behind a considerable amount of solid debris, including both readily biodegradable components as well as nondegradable plastic items. Concerns over pollution, consumer safety, and debris have restricted the sale and use of consumer fireworks in many countries. Professional displays, on the other hand, remain popular around the world.


title: Fireworks

text: Others argue that alleged concern over pollution from fireworks constitutes a red herring, since the amount of contamination from fireworks is minuscule in comparison to emissions from sources such as the burning of fossil fuels. In the US, some states and local governments restrict the use of fireworks in accordance with the Clean Air Act which allows laws relating to the prevention and control of outdoor air pollution to be enacted. Few governmental entities, by contrast, effectively limit pollution from burning fossil fuels such as diesel fuel or coal. Coal-fueled electricity generation alone is a much greater source of heavy metal contamination in the environment than fireworks.


title: Fireworks

text: Some companies within the U.S. fireworks industry claim they are working with Chinese manufacturers to reduce and ultimately hope to eliminate of the pollutant perchlorate.


title: Fireworks

text: Fireworks are illegal in most Australian states and territories, unless part of a display by a licensed pyrotechnician and with a permit. However Tasmania, ACT and Northern Territory allow consumer use with a permit (dependent on calendar date and circumstances). On 1 July for Territory Day you can freely use fireworks without a permit in the Northern Territory.


title: Fireworks

text: The use, storage and sale of commercial-grade fireworks in Canada is licensed by Natural Resources Canada's Explosive Regulatory Division (ERD). Unlike their consumer counterpart, commercial-grade fireworks function differently, and come in a wide range of sizes from up to or more in diameter. Commercial grade fireworks require a Fireworks Operator Certificate (FOC), obtained from the ERD by completing a one-day safety course. There are two categories of FOC: one for pyrotechnics (those used on stage and in movies) and another for display fireworks (those used in dedicated fireworks shows). Each requires completion of its own course, although there are special categories of FOC which allow visiting operators to run their shows with the assistance of a Canadian supervisor.


title: Fireworks

text: The display fireworks FOC has two levels: assistant (which allows you to work under a qualified supervisor until you are familiar with the basics), and fully licensed. A fully licensed display fireworks operator can also be further endorsed for marine launch, flying saucers, and other more technically demanding fireworks displays.


title: Fireworks

text: The pyrotechnician FOC has three levels: pyrotechnician (which allows work under a supervisor), supervising pyrotechnician, and special effects pyrotechnician (which allows the fabrication of certain types of pyrotechnic devices). Additionally, a special effects pyrotechnician can be endorsed for the use of detonating cord.


title: Fireworks

text: Since commercial-grade fireworks are shells which are loaded into separate mortars by hand, there is danger in every stage of the setup. Setup of these fireworks involves the placement and securing of mortars on wooden or wire racks; loading of the shells; and if electronically firing, wiring and testing. The mortars are generally made of FRE (fiber-reinforced epoxy) or HDPE (high-density polyethylene). Older mortars made of sheet steel have been banned by most countries due to the problem of shrapnel produced during a misfire.


title: Fireworks

text: Setup of mortars in Canada for an oblong firing site require that a mortar be configured at an angle of 10 to 15 degrees down-range with a safety distance of at least down-range and surrounding the mortars, plus distance adjustments for wind speed and direction. In June 2007, the ERD approved circular firing sites for use with vertically fired mortars with a safety distance of at least radius, plus distance adjustments for wind speed and direction.


title: Fireworks

text: Loading of shells is a delicate process, and must be done with caution, and a loader must ensure not only the mortar is clean, but also make sure that no part of their body is directly over the mortar in case of a premature fire. Wiring the shells is a painstaking process; whether the shells are being fired manually or electronically, any "chain fusing" or wiring of electrical ignitors, care must be taken to prevent the fuse (an electrical match, often incorrectly called a squib) from igniting. If the setup is wired electrically, the electrical matches are usually plugged into a "firing rail" or "breakout box" that runs back to the main firing board; from there, the Firing Board is simply hooked up to a car battery, and can proceed with firing the show when ready.


title: Fireworks

text: Since commercial-grade fireworks are so much larger and more powerful, setup, and firing crews are always under great pressure to ensure they safely set up, fire, and clean up after a show.


title: Fireworks

text: In Chile, the manufacture, importation, possession and use of fireworks is prohibited to unauthorized individuals; only certified firework companies can legally use fireworks. As they are considered a type of explosive, offenders can in principle be tried before military courts, although this is unusual in practice.


title: Fireworks

text: The European Union's policy is aimed at harmonising and standardising the EU member states' policies on the regulation of production, transportation, sale, consumption and overall safety of fireworks across Europe.


title: Fireworks

text: In Belgium, each municipality can decide how to regulate fireworks. During New Year's Eve, lighting fireworks without a licence is allowed in 35% of the 308 Flemish municipalities, in around 50% a permit from the burgemeester (mayor) is required, and around 14% of municipalities have banned consumer fireworks altogether.


title: Fireworks

text: In Finland those under 18 years old haven't been allowed to buy any fireworks since 2009. Safety goggles are required. The use of fireworks is generally allowed on the evening and night of New Year's Eve, 31 December. In some municipalities of Western Finland it is allowed to use fireworks without a fire station's permission on the last weekend of August. With the fire station's permission, fireworks can be used year-round.


title: Fireworks

text: In Germany, amateurs over 18 years old are allowed to buy and ignite fireworks of Category F2 for several hours on 31 December and 1 January; each German municipality is authorised to limit the number of hours this may last locally. The sale of Category F3 and F4 fireworks to consumers is prohibited. Lighting fireworks is forbidden near churches, hospitals, retirement homes and wooden or thatch-roofed buildings. All major German cities organise professional fireworks shows.


title: Fireworks

text: In addition to the previously existing regulations, there was a nationwide ban on the sale of category F2 fireworks to consumers on New Year's Eve 2020/2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic, with the aim to relieve the burden on hospitals by reducing the number of emergencies due to injuries caused by fireworks on New Year's Eve.


title: Fireworks

text: In 2015, the Italian town of Collecchio mandated silent fireworks, being among the first to make the switch without losing the beauty of the visual displays.


title: Fireworks

text: In the Netherlands, fireworks cannot be sold to anyone under the age of 16. It may only be sold during a period of three days before a new year. If one of these days is a Sunday, that day is excluded from sale and sale may commence one day earlier.


title: Fireworks

text: In the Republic of Ireland, fireworks are illegal and possession is punishable by huge fines and/or prison. However, around Halloween a large amount of fireworks are set off, due to the ease of being able to purchase from Northern Ireland.


title: Fireworks

text: In Sweden, fireworks can only be purchased and used by people 18 or older. Fire crackers used to be banned, but are now allowed under European Union fireworks policy.


title: Fireworks

text: In Iceland, the Icelandic law states that anyone may purchase and use fireworks during a certain period around New Year's Eve. Most places that sell fireworks in Iceland make their own rules about age of buyers, usually it is around 16. The people of Reykjavík spend enormous sums of money on fireworks, most of which are fired as midnight approaches on 31 December. As a result, every New Year's Eve the city is lit up with fireworks displays.


title: Fireworks

text: Fireworks in New Zealand are available from 2 to 5 November, around Guy Fawkes Day, and may be purchased only by those 18 years of age and older (up from 14 years pre-2007). Despite the restriction on when fireworks may be sold, there is no restriction regarding when fireworks may be used. The types of fireworks available to the public are multi-shot "cakes", Roman candles, single shot shooters, ground and wall spinners, fountains, cones, sparklers, and various novelties, such as smoke bombs and Pharaoh's serpents. Consumer fireworks are also not allowed to be louder than 90 decibels.


title: Fireworks

text: In Norway, fireworks can only be purchased and used by people 18 or older. Sale is restricted to a few days before New Year's Eve. Rockets are not allowed.


title: Fireworks

text: Fireworks in the UK have become more strictly regulated since 1997. Since 2005, the law has been harmonised gradually, in accordance with other EU member state laws.


title: Fireworks

text: Fireworks are mostly used in England, Scotland and Wales around Diwali, in late October or early November, and Guy Fawkes Night, 5 November. In the UK, responsibility for the safety of firework displays is shared between the Health and Safety Executive, fire brigades and local authorities. Currently, there is no national system of licensing for fireworks operators, but in order to purchase display fireworks, operators must have licensed explosives storage and public liability insurance.


title: Fireworks

text: Fireworks cannot be sold to people under the age of 18 and are not permitted to be set off between 11pm and 7am with exceptions only for:


title: Fireworks

text: The maximum legal NEC (net explosive content) of a UK firework available to the public is two kilograms. Jumping jacks, strings of firecrackers, shell firing tubes, bangers and mini-rockets were all banned during the late 1990s. In 2004, single-shot air bombs and bottle rockets were banned, and rocket sizes were limited. From March 2008 any firework with more than 5% flashpowder per tube has been classified 1.3G. The aim of these measures was to eliminate "pocket money" fireworks, and to limit the disruptive effects of loud bangs.


title: Fireworks

text: In the United States, the laws governing fireworks vary widely from state to state, or from county to county. Federal, state, and local authorities govern the use of display fireworks in the United States. At the federal level, the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) regulates consumer fireworks through the Federal Hazardous Substances Act (FHSA). The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) sets forth a set of codes that give the minimum standards of display fireworks use and safety in the U.S. Both state and local jurisdictions can further add restrictions on the use and safety requirements of display fireworks. There are currently 46 states in the United States in which fireworks are legal for consumer use.


title: Fireworks

text: Pyrotechnical competitions are held in many countries. The most prestigious fireworks competition is the Montreal Fireworks Festival, an annual competition held in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Another magnificent competition is Le Festival d'Art Pyrotechnique held in the summer annually at the Bay of Cannes in Côte d'Azur, France. The World Pyro Olympics is an annual competition amongst the top fireworks companies in the world. It is held in Manila, Philippines.


title: Fireworks

text: Enthusiasts in the United States have formed clubs which unite hobbyists and professionals. The groups provide safety instruction and organize meetings and private "shoots" at remote premises where members shoot commercial fireworks as well as fire pieces of their own manufacture. Clubs secure permission to fire items otherwise banned by state or local ordinances. Competition among members and between clubs, demonstrating everything from single shells to elaborate displays choreographed to music, are held. One of the oldest clubs is Crackerjacks, Inc., organized in 1976 in the Eastern Seaboard region.


title: Fireworks

text: Though based in the US, membership of the Pyrotechnics Guild International, Inc. (PGI) is open to all. Founded in 1969, its annual convention hosts some the world's biggest and best fireworks displays occur. Aside from the nightly firework shows, the highlight of the convention is a unique event where individual classes of hand-built fireworks are competitively judged, ranging from simple fireworks rockets to extremely large and complex aerial shells. Some of the biggest, best, most intricate fireworks displays in the United States take place during the convention week.


title: Fireworks

text: In the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland there are many fireworks displays, during Halloween. The sale of fireworks is strongly restricted in the Republic of Ireland, although many illegal fireworks are sold throughout October or smuggled from Northern Ireland. The maximum punishment for possessing fireworks without a licence, or lighting fireworks in a public place, is a €10,000 fine and a five-year prison sentence.


title: Fireworks

text: Two firework displays on All Hallows' Eve in the United States are the "Happy Hallowishes" show at Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom "Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween Party" event, which began in 2005, and the "Halloween Screams" at Disneyland Park, which began in 2009.


title: Fireworks

text: In Australia, fireworks displays are frequently used in the celebration of public holidays, particularly New Year's Eve and Australia Day. The most famous is the Sydney New Year's Eve "Midnight Fireworks". In the Northern Territory, "Cracker Night" is celebrated every 1 July on Territory Day, where residents are allowed to buy and use fireworks without a permit.


title: Fireworks

text: In France, fireworks are traditionally displayed on the eve of Bastille day (14 July) to commemorate the French revolution and the storming of the Bastille on that same day in 1789. Every city in France lights up the sky for the occasion with a special mention to Paris that offers a spectacle around the Eiffel Tower.


title: Fireworks

text: Indians throughout the world celebrate with fireworks as part of their popular "festival of lights" (Diwali) in Oct-Nov every year.


title: Fireworks

text: During the summer in Japan, are held nearly every day someplace in the country, numbering more than 200 during August alone. The festivals consist of large fireworks shows, the largest of which use between 100,000 and 120,000 rounds (Tondabayashi, Osaka), and can attract more than 800,000 spectators. Street vendors set up stalls to sell various drinks and staple Japanese food (such as yakisoba, okonomiyaki, takoyaki, kakigōri (shaved ice), and traditionally held festival games, such as "kingyo-sukui", or goldfish scooping.


title: Fireworks

text: Even today, men and women attend these events wearing the traditional yukata, summer kimono, or jinbei, and gather in large social circles of family or friends to sit picnic-like, eating and drinking, while watching the show.


title: Fireworks

text: Sumidagawa Fireworks Festival is one of the many being celebrated annually throughout Japan in summer.


title: Fireworks

text: Fireworks have been used in Malta for hundreds of years. When the islands were ruled by the Order of St John, fireworks were used on special occasions such as the election of a new Grand Master, the appointment of a new Pope or the birth of a prince.


title: Fireworks

text: Nowadays, fireworks are used in village feasts throughout the summer. The Malta International Fireworks Festival is also held annually.


title: Fireworks

text: Pyrotechnics experts from around the world have competed in Monte Carlo, Monaco, since 1966. The festival runs from July to August every year, and the winner returns in 18 November for the fireworks display on the night before the National Day of Monaco. The event is held in Port Hercule, beginning at around 9:30pm every night, depending on the sunset.


title: Fireworks

text: The Singapore Fireworks Celebrations (previously the Singapore Fireworks Festival) is an annual event held in Singapore as part of its National Day celebrations. The festival features local and foreign teams which launch displays on different nights. While currently non-competitive in nature, the organizer has plans to introduce a competitive element in the future.


title: Fireworks

text: The annual festival has grown in magnitude, from 4,000 rounds used in 2004, to 6,000 in 2005, to more than 9,100 in 2006.


title: Fireworks

text: One of the biggest occasions for fireworks in the UK is Guy Fawkes Night held each year on 5 November, to celebrate the foiling of the Catholic Gunpowder Plot on 5 November 1605, an attempt to kill King James I. "The Guardian" newspaper said in 2008 that Britain's biggest Guy Fawkes night events were:


title: Fireworks

text: America's earliest settlers brought their enthusiasm for fireworks to the United States. Fireworks and black ash were used to celebrate important events long before the American Revolutionary War. The very first celebration of Independence Day was in 1777, six years before Americans knew whether or not the new nation would survive the war; fireworks were a part of all festivities. In 1789, George Washington's inauguration was accompanied by a fireworks display.. George Marshall was an American naval hero during the War of 1812 and other campaigns. He was a Master Gunner and pyrotechnics specialist who wrote " Marshall's Practical Marine Gunnery" in 1822. The book outlines chemical formulas for the composition of fireworks. This early fascination with fireworks' noise and color continues today with fireworks displays commonly included in Independence Day celebrations.


title: Fireworks

text: In 2004, Disneyland, in Anaheim, California, pioneered the commercial use of aerial fireworks launched with compressed air rather than gunpowder. The display shell explodes in the air using an electronic timer. The advantages of compressed air launch are a reduction in fumes, and much greater accuracy in height and timing. The Walt Disney Company is now the largest consumer of fireworks in the world.


title: Fireworks

text: In addition to large public displays, people often buy small quantities of fireworks for their own celebrations. Fireworks on general sale are usually less powerful than professional fireworks. Types include firecrackers, rockets, cakes (multishot aerial fireworks), and smoke balls.


title: Fireworks

text: Colors in fireworks are usually generated by pyrotechnic stars—usually just called stars—which produce intense light when ignited. Stars contain four basic types of ingredients.


title: Fireworks

text: Some of the more common color-producing compounds are tabulated here. The color of a compound in a firework will be the same as its color in a flame test (shown at right). Not all compounds that produce a colored flame are appropriate for coloring fireworks, however. Ideal colorants will produce a pure, intense color when present in moderate concentration.


title: Fireworks

text: The color of sparks is limited to red/orange, yellow/gold and white/silver. This is explained by light emission from an incandescent solid particle in contrast to the element-specific emission from the vapor phase of a flame. Light emitted from a solid particle is defined by black-body radiation. Low boiling metals can form sparks with an intensively colored glowing shell surrounding the basic particle. This is caused by vapor phase combustion of the metal.


title: Fireworks

text: The brightest stars, often called Mag Stars, are fueled by aluminium. Magnesium is rarely used in the fireworks industry due to its lack of ability to form a protective oxide layer. Often an alloy of both metals called magnalium is used.


title: Fireworks

text: Many of the chemicals used in the manufacture of fireworks are non-toxic, while many more have some degree of toxicity, can cause skin sensitivity, or exist in dust form and are thereby inhalation hazards. Still others are poisons if directly ingested or inhaled.


title: Fireworks

text: The following table lists the principal elements used in modern pyrotechnics. Some elements are used in their elemental form such as particles of titanium, aluminium, iron, zirconium, and magnesium. These elements burn in the presence of air (O2) or oxidants (perchlorate, chlorate). Most elements in pyrotechnics are in the form of salts.


title: Fireworks

text: A cake is a cluster of individual tubes linked by fuse that fires a series of aerial effects. Tube diameters can range in size from , and a single cake can have more than 1,000 shots. The variety of effects within individual cakes is often such that they defy descriptive titles and are instead given cryptic names such as "Bermuda Triangle", "Pyro Glyphics", "Waco Wakeup", and "Poisonous Spider", to name a few. Others are simply quantities of shells fused together in single-shot tubes.


title: Fireworks

text: A shell containing several large stars that travel a short distance before breaking apart into smaller stars, creating a crisscrossing grid-like effect. Strictly speaking, a crossette star should split into 4 pieces which fly off symmetrically, making a cross. Once limited to silver or gold effects, colored crossettes such as red, green, or white are now very common.


title: Fireworks

text: A spherical break of colored stars, similar to a peony, but with stars that leave a visible trail of sparks.


title: Fireworks

text: Essentially the same as a peony shell, but with fewer and larger stars. These stars travel a longer-than-usual distance from the shell break before burning out. For instance, if a peony shell is made with a star size designed for a shell, it is then considered a dahlia. Some dahlia shells are cylindrical rather than spherical to allow for larger stars.


title: Fireworks

text: A type of Chrysanthemum or Peony, with a center cluster of non-moving stars, normally of a contrasting color or effect.


title: Fireworks

text: Inserts that propel themselves rapidly away from the shell burst, often resembling fish swimming away.


title: Fireworks

text: Named for the shape of its break, this shell features heavy long-burning tailed stars that only travel a short distance from the shell burst before free-falling to the ground. Also known as a waterfall shell. Sometimes there is a glittering through the "waterfall".


title: Fireworks

text: Kamuro is a Japanese word meaning "boys haircut", which is what this shell resembles when fully exploded in the air. It is a dense burst of glittering silver or gold stars which leave a heavy glitter trail and shine bright in the night's sky.


title: Fireworks

text: A mine (a.k.a. pot à feu) is a ground firework that expels stars and/or other garnitures into the sky. Shot from a mortar like a shell, a mine consists of a canister with the lift charge on the bottom with the effects placed on top. Mines can project small reports, serpents, small shells, as well as just stars. Although mines up to diameter appear on occasion, they are usually between in diameter.


title: Fireworks

text: A large shell containing several smaller shells of various sizes and types. The initial burst scatters the shells across the sky before they explode. Also called a bouquet shell. When a shell contains smaller shells of the same size and type, the effect is usually referred to as "Thousands". Very large bouquet shells (up to ) are frequently used in Japan.


title: Fireworks

text: A shell containing a relatively few large comet stars arranged in such a way as to burst with large arms or tendrils, producing a palm tree-like effect. Proper palm shells feature a thick rising tail that displays as the shell ascends, thereby simulating the tree trunk to further enhance the "palm tree" effect. One might also see a burst of color inside the palm burst (given by a small insert shell) to simulate coconuts.


title: Fireworks

text: A spherical break of colored stars that burn without a tail effect. The peony is the most commonly seen shell type.


title: Fireworks

text: A shell with stars specially arranged so as to create a ring. Variations include smiley faces, hearts, and clovers.


title: Fireworks

text: A Roman candle is a long tube containing several large stars which fire at a regular interval. These are commonly arranged in fan shapes or crisscrossing shapes, at a closer proximity to the audience. Some larger Roman candles contain small shells (bombettes) rather than stars.


title: Fireworks

text: A shell intended to produce a loud report rather than a visual effect. Salute shells usually contain flash powder, producing a quick flash followed by a very loud report resembling military artillery. Titanium may be added to the flash powder mix to produce a cloud of bright sparks around the flash. Salutes are commonly used in large quantities during finales to create intense noise and brightness. They are often cylindrical in shape to allow for a larger payload of flash powder, but ball shapes are common and cheaper as well. Salutes are also called Maroons.


title: Fireworks

text: A shell containing a fast burning tailed or charcoal star that is burst very hard so that the stars travel in a straight and flat trajectory before slightly falling and burning out. This appears in the sky as a series of radial lines much like the legs of a spider.


title: Fireworks

text: An effect created by large, slow-burning stars within a shell that leave a trail of large glittering sparks behind and make a sizzling noise. The "time" refers to the fact that these stars burn away gradually, as opposed to the standard brocade "rain" effect where a large amount of glitter material is released at once.


title: Fireworks

text: Similar to a chrysanthemum, but with long-burning silver or gold stars that produce a soft, dome-shaped weeping willow-like effect.


title: Dolby Digital

text: Dolby Digital, originally synonymous with Dolby AC-3, is the name for what has now become a family of audio compression technologies developed by Dolby Laboratories. Formerly named Dolby Stereo Digital until 1995, the audio compression is lossy (except for Dolby TrueHD), based on the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) algorithm. The first use of Dolby Digital was to provide digital sound in cinemas from 35 mm film prints; today, it is also used for applications such as TV broadcast, radio broadcast via satellite, digital video streaming, DVDs, Blu-ray discs and game consoles.


title: Dolby Digital

text: The main basis of the Dolby AC-3 multi-channel audio coding standard is the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), a lossy audio compression algorithm. It is a modification of the discrete cosine transform (DCT) algorithm, which was first proposed by Nasir Ahmed in 1972 and was originally intended for image compression. The DCT was adapted into the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) by J.P. Princen, A.W. Johnson and Alan B. Bradley at the University of Surrey in 1987.


title: Dolby Digital

text: Dolby Laboratories adapted the MDCT algorithm along with perceptual coding principles to develop the AC-3 audio format for cinema needs. The AC-3 format was released as the Dolby Digital standard in February 1991. Dolby Digital was the earliest MDCT-based audio compression standard to be released, and was followed by other MDCT-based audio compression standards for home and portable usage, such as Sony's ATRAC (1992), the MP3 standard (1993) and AAC (1997).


title: Dolby Digital

text: "Batman Returns" was the first film to be announced as using Dolby SR-D (Spectral Recording-Digital) technology when it premiered in theaters in the summer of 1992. Dolby Digital cinema soundtracks are optically recorded on a 35 mm release print using sequential data blocks placed between every perforation hole on the sound track side of the film. A constant bit rate of 320 kbit/s is used. A charge-coupled device (CCD) scanner in the image projector picks up a scanned video image of this area, and a processor correlates the image area and extracts the digital data as an AC-3 bitstream. The data is then decoded into a 5.1 channel audio source. All film prints with Dolby Digital data also have Dolby Stereo analogue soundtracks using Dolby SR noise reduction and such prints are known as Dolby SR-D prints. The analogue soundtrack provides a fall-back option in case of damage to the data area or failure of the digital decoding; it also provides compatibility with projectors not equipped with digital soundheads. Almost all current release cinema prints are of this type and may also include SDDS data and a timecode track to synchronize CD-ROMs carrying DTS soundtracks.


title: Dolby Digital

text: The simplest way of converting existing projectors is to add a so-called "penthouse" digital soundhead above the projector head. However, for new projectors it made sense to use dual analogue/digital soundheads in the normal optical soundhead position under the projector head. To allow for the dual-soundhead arrangement the data is recorded 26 frames ahead of the picture. If a penthouse soundhead is used, the data must be delayed in the processor for the required amount of time, around 2 seconds. This delay can be adjusted in steps of the time between perforations, (approximately 10.4 ms).


title: Dolby Digital

text: , Dolby Digital in film sound mixing has mostly been replaced with Dolby Surround 7.1, with the more advanced Dolby Atmos technology also gaining in popularity. While the majority of movie theaters currently utilize Dolby Digital, virtually all films released today are mixed in Dolby Surround 7.1 and Dolby Atmos. Also more theaters are gradually upgrading to Dolby Surround 7.1, which completes by 2028, with premium formats adopting Dolby Cinema.


title: Dolby Digital

text: Dolby Digital has similar technologies, included in Dolby Digital EX, Dolby Digital Live, Dolby Digital Plus, Dolby Digital Surround EX, Dolby Digital Recording, Dolby Digital Cinema, Dolby Digital Stereo Creator and Dolby Digital 5.1 Creator.


title: Dolby Digital

text: Dolby Digital is the common version containing up to six discrete channels of sound. The most elaborate mode in common use involves five channels for normal-range speakers () (right, center, left, right surround, left surround) and one channel ( allotted audio) for the subwoofer driven low-frequency effects. Mono and stereo modes are also supported. AC-3 supports audio sample-rates up to 48 kHz.


title: Dolby Digital

text: In 1991, a limited experimental release of "" in Dolby Digital played in 3 US theatres. In 1992, "Batman Returns" is the first movie to be released in Dolby Digital. In 1995, the LaserDisc version of "Clear and Present Danger" featured the first home theater Dolby Digital mix, quickly followed by "True Lies", "Stargate", "Forrest Gump", and "Interview with the Vampire" among others.


title: Dolby Digital

text: Dolby Digital EX is similar in practice to Dolby's earlier Pro Logic format, which utilized matrix technology to add a center surround channel and single rear surround channel to stereo soundtracks. EX adds an extension to the standard 5.1 channel Dolby Digital codec in the form of matrixed rear channels, creating 6.1 or 7.1 channel output.


title: Dolby Digital

text: It provides an economical and backwards-compatible means for 5.1 soundtracks to carry a sixth, center back surround channel for improved localization of effects. The extra surround channel is matrix encoded onto the discrete "left surround" and "right surround" channels of the 5.1 mix, much like the front center channel on Dolby Pro Logic encoded stereo soundtracks. The result can be played without loss of information on standard 5.1 systems, or played in 6.1 or 7.1 on systems with Surround EX decoding and added speakers. A number of DVDs have a Dolby Digital Surround EX audio option.


title: Dolby Digital

text: The theater version of "Dolby Digital Surround EX" was introduced in 1999, when Dolby and Skywalker Sound, a division of Lucasfilm Ltd., codeveloped "Dolby Digital Surround EX"™ for the release of "". Dolby Digital Surround EX has since been used on the DVD releases of the "Star Wars" prequel and original trilogies.


title: Dolby Digital

text: Dolby Digital Live (DDL) is a real-time encoding technology for interactive media such as video games. It converts any audio signals on a PC or game console into a 5.1-channel 16-bit/48 kHz Dolby Digital format at 640 kbit/s and transports it via a single S/PDIF cable. A similar technology known as DTS Connect is available from competitor DTS. An important benefit of this technology is that it enables the use of digital multichannel sound with consumer sound cards, which are otherwise limited to digital PCM stereo or analog multichannel sound because S/PDIF over RCA, BNC, and TOSLINK can only support two-channel PCM, Dolby Digital multichannel audio, and DTS multichannel audio. HDMI was later introduced, and it can carry uncompressed multichannel PCM, lossless compressed multichannel audio, and lossy compressed digital audio. However, Dolby Digital Live is still useful with HDMI to allow transport of multichannel audio over HDMI to devices that are unable to handle uncompressed multichannel PCM.


title: Dolby Digital

text: Dolby Digital Live is available in sound cards using various manufacturers' audio chipsets. The SoundStorm, used for the Xbox game console and certain nForce2 motherboards, used an early form of this technology. DDL is available on motherboards with codecs such as Realtek's ALC882D, ALC888DD and ALC888H. Other examples include some C-Media PCI sound cards and Creative Labs' X-Fi and Z series sound cards, whose drivers have enabled support for DDL.


title: Dolby Digital

text: NVIDIA later decided to drop DDL support in their motherboards due to the cost of involved royalties, leaving an empty space in this regard in the sound cards market.


title: Dolby Digital

text: Then in June 2005 came Auzentech, which with its X-Mystique PCI card, provided the first consumer sound card with Dolby Digital Live support.


title: Dolby Digital

text: Initially no Creative X-Fi based sound cards supported DDL (2005~2007) but a collaboration of Creative and Auzentech resulted in the development of the Auzentech Prelude, the first X-Fi card to support DDL. Originally planned to extend DDL support to all X-Fi based sound cards (except the 'Xtreme Audio' line which is incapable of DDL hardware implementation), the plan was dropped because Dolby licensing would have required a royalty payment for all X-Fi cards and, problematically, those already sold.


title: Dolby Digital

text: In 2008, Creative released the X-Fi Titanium series of sound cards which fully supports Dolby Digital Live while leaving all PCI versions of Creative X-Fi still lacking support for DDL.


title: Dolby Digital

text: Since September 2008, all Creative X-Fi based sound cards support DDL (except the 'Xtreme Audio' and its based line such as Prodigy 7.1e, which is incapable of DDL in hardware). X-Fi's case differs.