title: Concept

text: The classical theory of concepts, also referred to as the empiricist theory of concepts, is the oldest theory about the structure of concepts (it can be traced back to Aristotle), and was prominently held until the 1970s. The classical theory of concepts says that concepts have a definitional structure. Adequate definitions of the kind required by this theory usually take the form of a list of features. These features must have two important qualities to provide a comprehensive definition. Features entailed by the definition of a concept must be both "necessary" and "sufficient" for membership in the class of things covered by a particular concept. A feature is considered necessary if every member of the denoted class has that feature. A feature is considered sufficient if something has all the parts required by the definition. For example, the classic example "bachelor" is said to be defined by "unmarried" and "man". An entity is a bachelor (by this definition) if and only if it is both unmarried and a man. To check whether something is a member of the class, you compare its qualities to the features in the definition. Another key part of this theory is that it obeys the "law of the excluded middle", which means that there are no partial members of a class, you are either in or out.


title: Concept

text: The classical theory persisted for so long unquestioned because it seemed intuitively correct and has great explanatory power. It can explain how concepts would be acquired, how we use them to categorize and how we use the structure of a concept to determine its referent class. In fact, for many years it was one of the major activities in philosophy—concept analysis. Concept analysis is the act of trying to articulate the necessary and sufficient conditions for the membership in the referent class of a concept. For example, Shoemaker's classic "Time Without Change" explored whether the concept of the flow of time can include flows where no changes take place, though change is usually taken as a definition of time.


title: Concept

text: Given that most later theories of concepts were born out of the rejection of some or all of the classical theory, it seems appropriate to give an account of what might be wrong with this theory. In the 20th century, philosophers such as Wittgenstein and Rosch argued against the classical theory. There are six primary arguments summarized as follows:


title: Concept

text: Prototype theory came out of problems with the classical view of conceptual structure. Prototype theory says that concepts specify properties that members of a class tend to possess, rather than must possess. Wittgenstein, Rosch, Mervis, Berlin, Anglin, and Posner are a few of the key proponents and creators of this theory. Wittgenstein describes the relationship between members of a class as "family resemblances". There are not necessarily any necessary conditions for membership; a dog can still be a dog with only three legs. This view is particularly supported by psychological experimental evidence for prototypicality effects. Participants willingly and consistently rate objects in categories like 'vegetable' or 'furniture' as more or less typical of that class. It seems that our categories are fuzzy psychologically, and so this structure has explanatory power. We can judge an item's membership of the referent class of a concept by comparing it to the typical member—the most central member of the concept. If it is similar enough in the relevant ways, it will be cognitively admitted as a member of the relevant class of entities. Rosch suggests that every category is represented by a central exemplar which embodies all or the maximum possible number of features of a given category. Lech, Gunturkun, and Suchan explain that categorization involves many areas of the brain. Some of these are: visual association areas, prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, and temporal lobe.


title: Concept

text: The Prototype perspective is proposed as an alternative view to the Classical approach. While the Classical theory requires an all-or-nothing membership in a group, prototypes allow for more fuzzy boundaries and are characterized by attributes. Lakoff stresses that experience and cognition are critical to the function of language, and Labov's experiment found that the function that an artifact contributed to what people categorized it as. For example, a container holding mashed potatoes versus tea swayed people toward classifying them as a bowl and a cup, respectively. This experiment also illuminated the optimal dimensions of what the prototype for "cup" is.


title: Concept

text: Prototypes also deal with the essence of things and to what extent they belong to a category. There have been a number of experiments dealing with questionnaires asking participants to rate something according to the extent to which it belongs to a category. This question is contradictory to the Classical Theory because something is either a member of a category or is not. This type of problem is paralleled in other areas of linguistics such as phonology, with an illogical question such as "is /i/ or /o/ a better vowel?" The Classical approach and Aristotelian categories may be a better descriptor in some cases.


title: Concept

text: Theory-theory is a reaction to the previous two theories and develops them further. This theory postulates that categorization by concepts is something like scientific theorizing. Concepts are not learned in isolation, but rather are learned as a part of our experiences with the world around us. In this sense, concepts' structure relies on their relationships to other concepts as mandated by a particular mental theory about the state of the world. How this is supposed to work is a little less clear than in the previous two theories, but is still a prominent and notable theory. This is supposed to explain some of the issues of ignorance and error that come up in prototype and classical theories as concepts that are structured around each other seem to account for errors such as whale as a fish (this misconception came from an incorrect theory about what a whale is like, combining with our theory of what a fish is). When we learn that a whale is not a fish, we are recognizing that whales don't in fact fit the theory we had about what makes something a fish. Theory-theory also postulates that people's theories about the world are what inform their conceptual knowledge of the world. Therefore, analysing people's theories can offer insights into their concepts. In this sense, "theory" means an individual's mental explanation rather than scientific fact. This theory criticizes classical and prototype theory as relying too much on similarities and using them as a sufficient constraint. It suggests that theories or mental understandings contribute more to what has membership to a group rather than weighted similarities, and a cohesive category is formed more by what makes sense to the perceiver. Weights assigned to features have shown to fluctuate and vary depending on context and experimental task demonstrated by Tversky. For this reason, similarities between members may be collateral rather than causal.


title: Concept

text: According to the theory of ideasthesia (or "sensing concepts"), activation of a concept may be the main mechanism responsible for the creation of phenomenal experiences. Therefore, understanding how the brain processes concepts may be central to solving the mystery of how conscious experiences (or qualia) emerge within a physical system e.g., the sourness of the sour taste of lemon. This question is also known as the hard problem of consciousness. Research on ideasthesia emerged from research on synesthesia where it was noted that a synesthetic experience requires first an activation of a concept of the inducer. Later research expanded these results into everyday perception.


title: Concept

text: There is a lot of discussion on the most effective theory in concepts. Another theory is semantic pointers, which use perceptual and motor representations and these representations are like symbols.


title: Max Winkler (director)

text: Max Daniel Winkler (born August 18, 1983) is an American screenwriter and film and television director. His credits include directing the film "Ceremony" (2010), starring Michael Angarano and Uma Thurman. The film was Winkler's feature film directorial debut.


title: Max Winkler (director)

text: Born in Los Angeles, California, he is the son of Stacey Weitzman and actor Henry Winkler. He is of Jewish descent, and his grandparents were Holocaust survivors. As a child, he had a small role in the 1993 film "Cop and a Half", a film his father directed.


title: Max Winkler (director)

text: On October 13, 2021, Winkler had his first child, a daughter named Frankie, with wife Jessica Barden.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: Trompe-l'œil ( , ; ) is an artistic term for the highly realistic optical illusion of three-dimensional space and objects on a two-dimensional surface. "Trompe l'oeil", which is most often associated with painting, tricks the viewer into perceiving painted objects or spaces as real. Forced perspective is a related illusion in architecture.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: The phrase, which can also be spelled without the hyphen and ligature in English as "trompe l'oeil", originates with the artist Louis-Léopold Boilly, who used it as the title of a painting he exhibited in the Paris Salon of 1800. Although the term gained currency only in the early 19th century, the illusionistic technique associated with "trompe-l'œil" dates much further back. It was (and is) often employed in murals. Instances from Greek and Roman times are known, for instance in Pompeii. A typical "trompe-l'œil" mural might depict a window, door, or hallway, intended to suggest a larger room.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: A version of an oft-told ancient Greek story concerns a contest between two renowned painters. Zeuxis (born around 464 BC) produced a still life painting so convincing that birds flew down to peck at the painted grapes. A rival, Parrhasius, asked Zeuxis to judge one of his paintings that was behind a pair of tattered curtains in his study. Parrhasius asked Zeuxis to pull back the curtains, but when Zeuxis tried, he could not, as the curtains were included in Parrhasius's painting—making Parrhasius the winner.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: A fascination with perspective drawing arose during the Renaissance. But also Giotto began using perspective at the end of 1200 with the cycle of Assisi in Saint Francis stories. Many Italian painters of the late Quattrocento, such as Andrea Mantegna (1431–1506) and Melozzo da Forlì (1438–1494), began painting illusionistic ceiling paintings, generally in fresco, that employed perspective and techniques such as foreshortening to create the impression of greater space for the viewer below. This type of "trompe l'œil" illusionism as specifically applied to ceiling paintings is known as "di sotto in sù", meaning "from below, upward" in Italian. The elements above the viewer are rendered as if viewed from true vanishing point perspective. Well-known examples are the Camera degli Sposi in Mantua and Antonio da Correggio's (1489–1534) "Assumption of the Virgin" in the Parma Cathedral.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: Similarly, Vittorio Carpaccio (1460–1525) and Jacopo de' Barbari (c. 1440 – before 1516) added small trompe l'œil features to their paintings, playfully exploring the boundary between image and reality. For example, a painted fly might appear to be sitting on the painting's frame, or a curtain might appear to partly conceal the painting, a piece of paper might appear to be attached to a board, or a person might appear to be climbing out of the painting altogether—all in reference to the contest of Zeuxis and Parrhasius.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: Perspective theories in the 17th century allowed a more fully integrated approach to architectural illusion, which when used by painters to "open up" the space of a wall or ceiling is known as "quadratura". Examples include Pietro da Cortona's "Allegory of Divine Providence" in the Palazzo Barberini and Andrea Pozzo's "Apotheosis of St Ignatius" on the ceiling of the Roman church of Sant'Ignazio in Campo Marzio.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: The Mannerist and Baroque style interiors of Jesuit churches in the 16th and 17th centuries often included such "trompe-l'œil" ceiling paintings, which optically "open" the ceiling or dome to the heavens with a depiction of Jesus', Mary's, or a saint's ascension or assumption. An example of a perfect architectural "trompe-l'œil" is the illusionistic dome in the Jesuit church, Vienna, by Andrea Pozzo, which is only slightly curved, but gives the impression of true architecture.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: "Trompe-l'œil" paintings became very popular in Flemish and later in Dutch painting in the 17th century arising from the development of still life painting. The Flemish painter Cornelis Norbertus Gysbrechts created a chantourné painting showing an easel holding a painting. Chantourné literally means 'cutout' and refers to a trompe l'œil representation designed to stand away from a wall. The Dutch painter Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten was a master of the "trompe-l'œil" and theorized on the role of art as the lifelike imitation of nature in his 1678 book, the "Introduction to the Academy of Painting, or the Visible World" ("Inleyding tot de hooge schoole der schilderkonst: anders de zichtbaere werelt", Rotterdam, 1678).


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: A fanciful form of architectural "trompe-l'œil", quodlibet, features realistically rendered paintings of such items as paper knives, playing cards, ribbons, and scissors, apparently accidentally left lying around.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: "Trompe-l'œil" can also be found painted on tables and other items of furniture, on which, for example, a deck of playing cards might appear to be sitting on the table. A particularly impressive example can be seen at Chatsworth House in Derbyshire, where one of the internal doors appears to have a violin and bow suspended from it, in a trompe l'œil painted around 1723 by Jan van der Vaart. Another example can be found in the Painted Hall at the Old Royal Naval College, Greenwich, London. This Wren building was painted by Sir James Thornhill, the first British born painter to be knighted and is a classic example of the Baroque style popular in the early 18th century. The American 19th-century still-life painter William Harnett specialized in "trompe-l'œil". In the 20th century, from the 1960s on, the American Richard Haas and many others painted large "trompe-l'œil" murals on the sides of city buildings, and from beginning of the 1980s when German Artist Rainer Maria Latzke began to combine classical fresco art with contemporary content "trompe-l'œil" became increasingly popular for interior murals. The Spanish painter Salvador Dalí utilized the technique for a number of his paintings.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: "Trompe-l'œil", in the form of "forced perspective", has long been used in stage-theater set design, so as to create the illusion of a much deeper space than the existing stage. A famous early example is the Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza, with Vincenzo Scamozzi's seven forced-perspective "streets" (1585), which appear to recede into the distance.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: "Trompe-l'œil" is employed in Donald O'Connor's famous "Running up the wall" scene in the film "Singin' in the Rain" (1954). During the finale of his "Make 'em Laugh" number he first runs up a real wall. Then he runs towards what appears to be a hallway, but when he runs up this as well we realize that it is a large "trompe-l'œil" mural. More recently, Roy Andersson has made use of similar techniques in his feature films.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: Matte painting is a variant of "trompe-l'œil", and is used in film production with elements of a scene are painted on glass panels mounted in front of the camera.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: Elsa Schiaparelli frequently made use of "trompe-l'œil" in her designs, most famously perhaps in her Bowknot Sweater, which some consider to be the first use of "trompe-l'œil" in fashion. The Tears Dress, which she did in collaboration with Salvador Dalí, features both appliqué tears on the veil and "tromp-l'œil" tears on the dress itself.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: Fictional" trompe-l'œil" appears in many Looney Tunes, such as the Road Runner cartoons, where, for example, Wile E. Coyote paints a tunnel on a rock wall, and the Road Runner then races through the fake tunnel. This is usually followed by the coyote's foolishly trying to run through the tunnel after the road runner, only to smash into the hard rock-face. This sight gag was employed in "Who Framed Roger Rabbit".


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: In Chicago's Near North Side, Richard Haas used a 16-story 1929 apartment hotel converted into a 1981 apartment building for "trompe-l'œil" murals in homage to Chicago school architecture. One of the building's sides features the Chicago Board of Trade Building, intended as a reflection of the building located two miles south.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: Several contemporary artists use chalk on pavement or sidewalk to create "trompe-l'œil" works, a technique called street painting or "pavement art". These creations last only until washed away, and therefore must be photographed to be preserved. Practitioners of this form include Julian Beever, Edgar Mueller, Leon Keer, and Kurt Wenner.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: The Palazzo Salis of Tirano, Italy, has over centuries and throughout the palace used "trompe l'œil" in place of more expensive real masonry, doors, staircases, balconies, and draperies to create an illusion of sumptuousness and opulence.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: "Trompe-l’œil" in the form of illusion architecture and Lüftlmalerei is common on façades in the Alpine region.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: "Trompe l'œil," in the form of "illusion painting", is also used in contemporary interior design, where illusionary wall paintings experienced a renaissance since around 1980. Significant artists in this field are the German muralist Rainer Maria Latzke, who invented, in the 1990s, a new method of producing illusion paintings, frescography, and the English artist Graham Rust.


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: OK Go's music video for "The Writing's on the Wall" uses a number of "trompe-l'œil" illusions alongside other optical illusions, captured through a one-shot take. "Trompe-l'œil " illusions have been used as gameplay mechanics in video games such as "The Witness" and "Superliminal".


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: Japanese filmmaker and animator Isao Takahata regarded achieving a sense of "trompe-l'œil" to be important for his work, stating that an animated world should feel as if it "existed right there" so that "people believe in a fantasy world and characters that no one has seen in reality."


title: Trompe-l'œil

text: Tourists attractions employing large-scale illusory art allowing visitors to photograph themselves in fantastic scenes have opened in several Asian countries, such as the Trickeye Museum and Hong Kong 3D Museum.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: The McMartin preschool trial was a day care sexual abuse case in the 1980s, prosecuted by the Los Angeles District Attorney Ira Reiner. Members of the McMartin family, who operated a preschool in Manhattan Beach, California, were charged with hundreds of acts of sexual abuse of children in their care. Accusations were made in 1983, arrests and the pretrial investigation took place from 1984 to 1987, and trials ran from 1987 to 1990. The case lasted seven years but resulted in no convictions, and all charges were dropped in 1990. By the case's end, it had become the longest and most expensive series of criminal trials in American history. The case was part of day-care sex-abuse hysteria, a moral panic over alleged Satanic ritual abuse in the 1980s and early 1990s.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: In 1983, Judy Johnson, mother of one of the Manhattan Beach, California preschool's young students, reported to the police that her son had been sodomized by her estranged husband and also by McMartin teacher Ray Buckey. Ray Buckey was the grandson of school founder Virginia McMartin and son of administrator Peggy McMartin Buckey. Johnson's belief that her son had been abused began when her son had painful bowel movements. What happened next is still disputed. Some sources state that at that time, Johnson's son denied her suggestion that his preschool teachers had molested him, whereas others say he confirmed the abuse.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: In addition, Johnson also made several more accusations, including that people at the daycare had sexual encounters with animals, that "Peggy drilled a child under the arms" and "Ray flew in the air." Ray Buckey was questioned, but was not prosecuted due to lack of evidence. The police then sent a form letter to about 200 parents of students at the McMartin school, stating that their children might have been abused, and asking the parents to question their children. The text of the letter read:


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: This Department is conducting a criminal investigation involving child molestation (288 P.C.) Ray Buckey, an employee of Virginia McMartin's Pre-School, was arrested September 7, 1983 by this Department.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: The following procedure is obviously an unpleasant one, but to protect the rights of your children as well as the rights of the accused, this inquiry is necessary for a complete investigation.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Records indicate that your child has been or is currently a student at the pre-school. We are asking your assistance in this continuing investigation. Please question your child to see if he or she has been a witness to any crime or if he or she has been a victim. Our investigation indicates that possible criminal acts include: oral sex, fondling of genitals, buttock or chest area, and sodomy, possibly committed under the pretense of "taking the child's temperature." Also photos may have been taken of children without their clothing. Any information from your child regarding having ever observed Ray Buckey to leave a classroom alone with a child during any nap period, or if they have ever observed Ray Buckey tie up a child, is important.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Please complete the enclosed information form and return it to this Department in the enclosed stamped return envelope as soon as possible. We will contact you if circumstances dictate same.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: We ask you to please keep this investigation strictly confidential because of the nature of the charges and the highly emotional effect it could have on our community. Please do not discuss this investigation with anyone outside your immediate family. Do not contact or discuss the investigation with Raymond Buckey, any member of the accused defendant's family, or employees connected with the McMartin Pre-School.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: THERE IS NO EVIDENCE TO INDICATED THAT THE MANAGEMENT OF VIRGINIA MCMARTIN'S PRE-SCHOOL HAD ANY KNOWLEDGE OF THIS SITUATION AND NO DETRIMENTAL INFORMATION CONCERNING THE OPERATION OF THE SCHOOL HAS BEEN DISCOVERED DURING THIS INVESTIGATION. ALSO, NO OTHER EMPLOYEE IN THE SCHOOL IS UNDER INVESTIGATION FOR ANY CRIMINAL ACT.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Johnson was diagnosed with and hospitalized for acute paranoid schizophrenia and in 1986 was found dead in her home from complications of chronic alcoholism before the preliminary hearing concluded.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Several hundred children were then interviewed by the Children's Institute International (CII), a Los Angeles-based abuse therapy clinic run by Kee MacFarlane. The interviewing techniques used during investigations of the allegations were highly suggestive and invited children to pretend or speculate about supposed events. By spring of 1984, it was claimed that 360 children had been abused. Astrid Heppenstall Heger performed medical examinations and took photos of what she believed to be minute scarring, which she stated was caused by anal penetration. Journalist John Earl believed that her findings were based on unsubstantiated medical histories. Later research demonstrated that the methods of questioning used on the children were extremely suggestive, leading to false accusations. Others believe that the questioning itself may have led to false memory syndrome among the children questioned. Only 41 of the original 360 children ultimately testified in the grand jury and pretrial hearings, and fewer than a dozen testified at the actual trials.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Michael P. Maloney, a clinical psychologist and professor of psychiatry, reviewed videotapes of the children's interviews. Maloney, testifying as an expert witness on interviewing children, was highly critical of the techniques used, referring to them as improper, coercive, directive, problematic and adult-directed in a way that forced the children to follow a rigid script. He concluded that "many of the kids' statements in the interviews were generated by the examiner." Transcripts and recordings of the interviews contained far more speech from adults than children and demonstrated that, despite the highly coercive interviewing techniques used, initially the children were resistant to interviewers' attempts to elicit disclosures. The recordings of the interviews were instrumental in the jury's refusal to convict, by demonstrating how children could be coerced to giving vivid and dramatic testimonies without having experienced actual abuse. The techniques used were shown to be contrary to the existing guidelines in California for the investigation of cases involving children and child witnesses.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Some of the accusations were described as "bizarre", overlapping with accusations that mirrored the emerging satanic ritual abuse panic. It was alleged that, in addition to having been sexually abused, they saw witches fly, traveled in a hot-air balloon, and were taken through underground tunnels. When shown a series of photographs by Danny Davis (the McMartins' lawyer), one child identified actor Chuck Norris as one of the abusers.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Some of the abuse was alleged to have occurred in secret tunnels beneath the school. Several excavations turned up evidence of old buildings on the site and other debris from before the school was built, but no evidence of any secret chambers or tunnels was found. There were claims of orgies at car washes and airports, and of children being flushed down toilets to secret rooms where they would be abused, then cleaned up and presented back to their parents. Some child interviewees talked of a game called "naked movie star" and suggested they were forcibly photographed nude. During trial testimony, some children stated that the "naked movie star" game was actually a rhyming taunt used to tease other children—"What you say is what you are, you're a naked movie star"—and had nothing to do with having naked pictures taken.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Judy Johnson, who made the initial allegations, made bizarre and impossible statements about Raymond Buckey, including that he could fly. Though the prosecution asserted Johnson's mental illness was caused by the events of the trial, Johnson had admitted to them that she was mentally ill beforehand. Evidence of Johnson's mental illness was withheld from the defense for three years and, when provided, was in the form of sanitized reports that excluded Johnson's statements, at the order of the prosecution. One of the original prosecutors, Glenn Stevens, left the case in protest and stated that other prosecutors had withheld evidence from the defense, including the information that Johnson's son did not actually identify Ray Buckey in a series of photographs. Stevens also accused Robert Philibosian, the deputy district attorney on the case, of lying and withholding evidence from the court and defense lawyers in order to keep the Buckeys in jail and prevent access to exonerating evidence.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Two trials were conducted for the McMartin preschool case. The first lasted from July 13, 1987, to January 18, 1990, while the second lasted from May 7, 1990, to July 27, 1990.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: On March 22, 1984, Virginia McMartin, Peggy McMartin Buckey, Ray Buckey, Ray's sister Peggy Ann Buckey and teachers Mary Ann Jackson, Betty Raidor, and Babette Spitler were charged with 115 counts of child abuse, later expanded to 321 counts of child abuse involving 48 children.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: In the 20 months of preliminary hearings, the prosecution, led by attorney Lael Rubin, presented their theory of sexual abuse. The children's testimony during the preliminary hearings was inconsistent. Michelle Smith and Lawrence Pazder, co-authors of the now-discredited Satanic ritual abuse autobiography "Michelle Remembers", met with the parents and children involved in the case, and were believed by the initial prosecutor Glenn Stevens to have influenced the children's testimony.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: In 1986, a new district attorney, Ira Reiner, called the evidence "incredibly weak" and dropped all charges against Virginia McMartin, Peggy Ann Buckey, Mary Ann Jackson, Betty Raidor and Babette Spitler. Peggy McMartin Buckey and Ray Buckey remained in custody awaiting trial; Peggy McMartin's bail had been set at $1 million and Ray Buckey had been denied bail.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: The first trial opened on July 13, 1987. During the trial, the prosecution presented seven medical witnesses. The defense attempted to rebut them with several witnesses, but the judge limited them to one in order to save time. In their summation, the prosecution argued that they had seven experts on this issue, when the defense only had one.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: In 1989, Peggy Anne Buckey's appeal to have her teaching credentials re-instated after their suspension was granted. The judge ruled that there was no credible evidence or corroboration to lead to the license being suspended, and that a review of the videotaped interviews with McMartin children "reveal[ed] a pronounced absence of any evidence implicating [Peggy Ann] in any wrongdoing and ... raises additional doubts of credibility with respect to the children interviewed or with respect to the value of CII interviewing techniques themselves." The following day the state credentialing board in Sacramento endorsed the ruling and restored Buckey's right to teach.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: In October 1987, jailhouse informant George Freeman was called as a witness and testified that Ray Buckey had confessed to him while sharing a cell. Freeman later attempted to flee the country and confessed to perjury in a series of other criminal cases in which he manufactured testimony in exchange for favorable treatment by the prosecution, in several instances fabricating jailhouse confessions of other inmates. In order to guarantee his testimony during the McMartin case, Freeman was given immunity to previous charges of perjury.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: On January 18, 1990, after three years of testimony and nine weeks of deliberation by the jury, Peggy McMartin Buckey was acquitted on all counts. Ray Buckey was cleared on 52 of 65 counts, and freed on bail after more than five years in jail. Nine of 11 jurors at a press conference following the trial stated that they believed the children had been molested but the evidence did not allow them to state who had committed the abuse beyond a reasonable doubt. Eleven out of the thirteen jurors who remained by the end of the trial voted to acquit Buckey of the charges; the refusal of the remaining two to vote for a not guilty verdict resulted in the deadlock. The media overwhelmingly focused on the two jurors who voted guilty at the expense of those who believed Buckey was not guilty.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Ray Buckey was retried later on 6 of the 13 counts of which he was not acquitted in the first trial. The second trial opened on May 7, 1990, and resulted in another hung jury on July 27, 1990. The prosecution then gave up trying to obtain a conviction, and the case was closed with all charges against Ray Buckey dismissed. He had been jailed for five years without ever being convicted of committing any crime.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: In 1988, "The New York Times" reported that the case "attracted national attention when the authorities speculated that hundreds of children might have been molested and subjected to satanic rituals" and "has teetered on the brink of mistrial".


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: The media coverage was generally skewed towards an uncritical acceptance of the prosecution's viewpoint. David Shaw of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote a series of articles, which later won the Pulitzer Prize, discussing the flawed and skewed coverage presented by his own paper on the trial. It was only after the case that coverage of the flaws in the evidence and events presented by witnesses and the prosecution were discussed.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Wayne Satz, at the time a reporter for the Los Angeles ABC affiliate television station KABC, reported on the case and the children's allegations. He presented an unchallenged view of the children's and parents' claims. Satz later entered into a romantic relationship with Kee MacFarlane, the social worker at the Children's Institute International, who was interviewing the children. Another instance of media conflict of interest occurred when David Rosenzweig, the editor at the "Los Angeles Times" overseeing the coverage, became engaged to marry Lael Rubin, the prosecutor.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: The case lasted seven years and cost $15 million, the longest and most expensive criminal case in the history of the United States legal system, and ultimately resulted in no convictions. The McMartin preschool was closed and the building was dismantled. In 2005, one of the children (as an adult) retracted the allegations of abuse.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Never did anyone do anything to me, and I never saw them doing anything. I said a lot of things that didn't happen. I lied. ... Anytime I would give them an answer that they didn't like, they would ask again and encourage me to give them the answer they were looking for. ... I felt uncomfortable and a little ashamed that I was being dishonest. But at the same time, being the type of person I was, whatever my parents wanted me to do, I would do.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Mary A. Fischer in an article in "Los Angeles" magazine said the case was "simply invented", and transmogrified into a national "cause celebre" by the misplaced zeal of six people: Judy Johnson, a seriously mentally ill mother who died of alcoholism; Jane Hoag, the detective who investigated the complaints; Kee MacFarlane, the social worker who interviewed the children; Robert Philibosian, the district attorney who was in a losing battle for re-election; Wayne Satz, the television reporter who first reported the case, and Lael Rubin, the prosecutor.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: In 1990 Peggy, Ray, and Peggy Ann Buckey spoke to the National Association of State Vocal Organizations about their experiences. Peggy Ann and Ray Buckey attended the 1997 "Day of Contrition" conference in Salem, Massachusetts. They were joined by other victims and experts of the day-care sex-abuse hysteria.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: In many states, laws were passed allowing children to testify on closed-circuit TV so the children would not be traumatized by facing the accused. The arrangement was supported in "Maryland v. Craig", in which the United States Supreme Court ruled that closed circuit testimony was permissible where it was limited to circumstances with a likelihood that a minor may be harmed by testifying in open court. The case also influenced how very young children were questioned for evidence in court cases with concerns over their capacity for suggestibility and false memories. The case and others like it also affected the investigation of allegations by young children. Normal police procedure is to record using video, tape or notes in interviews with alleged victims. The initial interviews with children by the CII were recorded, and demonstrated to the jury members in the trial the coercive and suggestive techniques used by CII staff to produce allegations.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: These interviews were instrumental in the jury members failing to produce a guilty verdict against Buckey, and several similar trials with similar interviewing techniques produced similar not guilty verdicts when juries were allowed to view the recordings. In response, prosecutors and investigators began "abandoning their tape recorders and notepads" and a manual was produced for investigating child abuse cases that urged prosecutors and investigators not to record their interviews.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: In 1990, parents who believed their children had been abused at the preschool hired archaeologist E. Gary Stickel to investigate the site. In May 1990, Stickel claimed he found evidence of tunnels, consistent with the children's accounts, under the McMartin Preschool using ground-penetrating radar.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Others have disagreed with Stickel's conclusions. John Earl wrote in 1995 that the concrete slab floor was undisturbed except for a small patch where the sewer line was tapped into. Once the slab was removed, there was no sign of any materials to line or hold up any tunnels, and the concrete floor would have made it impossible for the defendants to fill in any tunnels once the abuse investigation began. The article concluded that disturbed soil under the slab was from the sewer line and construction fill buried under the slab before it was poured. Further, Earl noted that some fill from beneath the concrete slab was dated to the year 1940.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: W. Joseph Wyatt's 2002 report concluded that the so-called tunnels under the preschool were more plausibly explained as a series of adjacent rubbish pits used by the owners of the site before the preschool's construction in 1966. Materials found during the excavation included bottles predominantly dated to the 1930s and '40s, as well as tin-can fragments, plywood, inner tubes, professionally-butchered livestock bones, four small containers of trash, and a former owner's old mail box.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Only three small items found near the edge of the concrete slab were dated after 1966. Wyatt suggested one of these – a fragment of a plastic snack bag – was most likely dragged into the pit by rats or other scavengers, just as Stickel himself had suggested likely happened for other debris that didn't fit his tunnel theory. The remaining items, per Wyatt, had likely been left by a plumber digging from adjacent to the building to avoid damaging the concrete pad. Moreover, Wyatt speculated that Stickel's conclusions were colored by his collaboration with the parents of the McMartin children.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Shortly after investigation into the McMartin charges began, the funds to research child sexual abuse greatly increased, notably through the budget allocated for the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect (NCCAN). The agency's budget increased from $1.8 million to $7.2 million between 1983 and 1984, increasing to $15 million in 1985, making it the greatest source of funding for child abuse and neglect prevention in the United States. The majority of this budget went toward studies on sexual abuse with only $5 million going towards physical abuse and neglect.


title: McMartin preschool trial

text: Federal funding was also used to arrange conferences on ritual abuse, providing an aura of respectability as well as allowing prosecutors to exchange tips on the best means of obtaining convictions. A portion of the funds were used to publish the book "Behind the Playground Walls", which used a sample of children drawn from the McMartin families. The book claimed to study the effects of "reported" rather than actual abuse but portrayed all of the McMartin children as actual victims of abuse despite a lack of convictions during the trials and without mentioning questions about the reality of the accusations. Another grant of $173,000 went to David Finkelhor who used the funds to investigate allegations of day care sexual abuse throughout the country, combining the study of verified crimes by admitted pedophiles and unverified accusations of satanic ritual abuse.


title: B Positive

text: B Positive is an American television sitcom created by Marco Pennette, who is also the show's executive producer along with Chuck Lorre for Chuck Lorre Productions and Warner Bros. Television. The multicamera series premiered on CBS on November 5, 2020 as a Thursday-night entry in the 2020–21 television season.


title: B Positive

text: In May 2021, the series was renewed for a second season, which premiered on October 14, 2021. In May 2022, the series was canceled after two seasons.


title: B Positive

text: The series initially follows Drew, a therapist and newly divorced father with B-positive blood who needs a kidney donor. When he is unable to find a donor within his family, a woman from his past named Gina offers him one of her kidneys.


title: B Positive

text: Following Drew's successful transplant surgery, the Season 2 focus shifts to Gina, who inherits a large sum of money and buys the retirement home where she works, while Drew reassesses his life goals and sets out to rediscover himself.


title: B Positive

text: The sitcom is inspired by the true story of series creator Marco Pennette, who received a kidney transplant in 2013.


title: B Positive

text: The series was among the 14 pilots ordered by CBS in February 2020 and was fast tracked to series the following March, as the pilot had already been completed before production at Warner Bros. Television was suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The pilot was the only pilot completed for the 2020–21 television season for any of the broadcast networks in advance of the upfronts. On May 8, 2020, CBS picked up the series, and CTV followed soon after, picking up the series on June 23, 2020. On October 26, 2020, Jim Patterson joined the series as an executive producer and co-showrunner. The series premiered on November 5, 2020. On December 21, 2020, CBS gave the series a five-episode back order, making the total number of episodes ordered to 18. On May 15, 2021, CBS renewed the series for a second season which premiered on October 14, 2021. On October 15, 2021, it was reported that creator and co-showrunner Marco Pennette had left the series at the end of the first season and Patterson would continue to serve as showrunner for the second season. On May 12, 2022, CBS canceled the series after two seasons.


title: B Positive

text: On February 19, 2020, it was announced that Annaleigh Ashford had been cast in the pilot. On March 2, 2020, it was announced that Kether Donohue and Sara Rue had joined the cast. The following day, it was announced that Thomas Middleditch had joined the cast in the lead role. Alongside the series picked up announcement, it was reported that Kamryn Kunody was cast in a starring role. On August 11, 2020, Maggie Elizabeth Jones joined the cast in a recasting, replacing Kunody. On September 25, 2020, Terrence Terrell was cast as a series regular. On October 12, 2020, Izzy G was cast to replace Jones in a second recasting while Linda Lavin, Briga Heelan, Darryl Stephens, Bernie Kopell, and David Anthony Higgins were cast in recurring roles and Darien Sills-Evans was cast to guest star. On September 1, 2021, Lavin, Higgins, and Stephens were promoted to series regulars while Hector Elizondo, Jane Seymour, Ben Vereen, Celia Weston, Jim Beaver, and Anna Maria Horsford joined cast in recurring roles for the second season. Weston was to play the character of Meredith, but the role was recast with Priscilla Lopez in the role. On October 5, 2021, it was reported that Michelle Ortiz joined the cast in a recasting, replacing Rosa Salazar for the second season. On October 27, 2021, it was announced that D.B. Sweeney was cast in a recurring role for the second season.


title: B Positive

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 84% with an average rating of 5.8/10, based on 19 reviews. The website's critics consensus states, ""B Positive" familiar sitcom trappings are elevated by its charming cast—especially the weird and winsome comedic stylings of Tony winner Annaleigh Ashford." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 62 out of 100, based on 14 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Sasheer Zamata

text: Sasheer Zamata Moore (; born May 6, 1986) is an American actress and comedian known for her work as a cast member on "Saturday Night Live" from 2014 to 2017 as well as her leading roles in the TV series "Woke" (2020–2022) and "Home Economics" (2021–present). She has served as a celebrity ambassador for the American Civil Liberties Union.


title: Sasheer Zamata

text: Zamata is the daughter of American parents, Ivory Steward and Henry Moore, a lieutenant colonel in the US Air Force. She was born in Okinawa, Japan, because of her father's military career. She is the great-granddaughter of Leroy Washington Mahon, a formerly enslaved man who founded the town of Fargo, Arkansas.


title: Sasheer Zamata

text: Zamata was raised in Indianapolis, Indiana. She is a graduate of Pike High School. She stated her parents named her after the alien flower-like crystal called the "Sahsheer" from the "" episode "By Any Other Name".


title: Sasheer Zamata

text: She attended the University of Virginia, and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree. Zamata was a founding member of the University's long-form improv comedy troupe, Amuse Bouche. While a student at UVA, she participated in the Disney College Program for one semester, where she portrayed various costumed characters.


title: Sasheer Zamata

text: Zamata has performed regularly at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre in New York City since 2009. She co-starred in the ABC News hidden camera series "Would You Fall for That?" and was a cast member on MTV's series "Hey Girl". Zamata also appeared in sketches on "Totally Biased with W. Kamau Bell" and "Inside Amy Schumer". She stars in the webseries "Pursuit of Sexiness". Additionally, she has appeared in sketches for CollegeHumor.


title: Sasheer Zamata

text: Videos on Zamata's YouTube channel include impersonations of Michelle Obama, Rihanna, Nicki Minaj, Tyra Banks, and Beyoncé.


title: Sasheer Zamata

text: Zamata also voices the character Sally in "" Zombie mode. In 2021, Zamata voiced the character Mary in "Muppets Haunted Mansion".


title: Sasheer Zamata

text: In 2014, Zamata joined the cast of NBC's "Saturday Night Live" ("SNL") during its 39th season. She joined the "SNL" cast amid a season in which TV critics and black comedians had criticized the show for not being ethnically diverse (specifically, not hiring any black female cast members at the start of the new season and only having five of them in the near-40 years the show has been on the air). Zamata was the first black female cast member on "SNL" since biracial Maya Rudolph departed midway through the show's 33rd season in 2007.


title: Sasheer Zamata

text: Zamata debuted on "SNL" as a featured player in the January 18, 2014 episode hosted by Drake, in which she impersonated Rihanna. She was promoted to repertory player in the first episode of Season 41. Some of her recurring characters include Janelle, a teenage girl who hosts a YouTube channel called "How 2 Dance with Janelle" but is unaware of how her developing sexuality is coming off to viewers, and Keeley, a contestant on an African-American centric version of "Jeopardy!" called "Black Jeopardy!" Some of her celebrity impressions have included the aforementioned Rihanna, Michelle Obama, Kerry Washington, Nicki Minaj, Beyoncé, Solange Knowles, Diana Ross, Lupita Nyong'o, and Taraji P. Henson. She left the show in 2017 after the season 42 finale.


title: Sasheer Zamata

text: Zamata was named a celebrity ambassador to the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) in 2015, and began work with the Women's Rights Project. The ACLU Women's Rights project seeks to break down gender biases and "ensure equal economic opportunities, educational equity, and an end to gender-based violence". She has spoken out on gender discrimination in the U.S. today, and has advocated for equal rights among women of color, in particular. In an interview with "Allure", Zamata opened up about her experiences with discrimination and colorism. She has stated that although she has often been stigmatized for her darker skin tone, she hopes to turn her experiences into a message of self-acceptance and body positivity for women in all shades.


title: Rugby football

text: Canadian football and, to a lesser extent, American football were once considered forms of rugby football, but are seldom now referred to as such. The governing body of Canadian football, Football Canada, was known as the Canadian Rugby Union as late as 1967, more than fifty years after the sport parted ways with rugby rules.


title: Rugby football

text: Rugby football started about 1845 at Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire, England, although forms of football in which the ball was carried and tossed date to the Middle Ages (see medieval football). Rugby football spread to other English public schools in the 19th century and across the British Empire as former pupils continued to play it.


title: Rugby football

text: Rugby football split into two codes in 1895, when twenty-one clubs from the North of England left the Rugby Football Union to form the Northern Rugby Football Union (renamed the Rugby Football League in 1922) at the George Hotel, Huddersfield, over payments to players who took time off work to play ("broken-time payments"), thus making rugby league the first code to turn professional and pay players. Rugby union turned professional one hundred years later, following the 1995 Rugby World Cup in South Africa. The respective world governing bodies are World Rugby (rugby union) and the Rugby League International Federation (rugby league).


title: Rugby football

text: Following the 1895 split in rugby football, the two forms rugby league and rugby union differed in administration only. Soon the rules of rugby league were modified making limited tackle counts (6) and allowing for both teams shared possession of the football, resulting in two distinctly different forms of rugby.


title: Rugby football

text: The Olympic form of rugby is known as Rugby Sevens (based on rugby union format). In this form of the game, each team has seven players on the field at one time playing seven-minute halves. The rules and pitch size are the same as rugby union.


title: Rugby football

text: Although rugby football was codified at Rugby School, many rugby playing countries had pre-existing football games similar to rugby.


title: Rugby football

text: Forms of traditional football similar to rugby have been played throughout Europe and beyond. Many of these involved handling of the ball, and scrummaging formations. For example, New Zealand had Ki-o-rahi, Australia marn grook, Japan kemari, Georgia lelo burti, the Scottish Borders Jeddart Ba' and Cornwall Cornish hurling, Central Italy Calcio Fiorentino, South Wales cnapan, East Anglia Campball, Ireland caid, an ancestor of Gaelic football, and France had La Soule.


title: Rugby football

text: In 1871, English clubs met to form the Rugby Football Union (RFU). In 1892, after charges of professionalism (compensation of team members) were made against some clubs for paying players for missing work, the Northern Rugby Football Union, usually called the Northern Union (NU), was formed. The existing rugby union authorities responded by issuing sanctions against the clubs, players, and officials involved in the new organization. After the schism, the separate clubs were named "rugby league" and "rugby union".


title: Rugby football

text: Rugby union is both a professional and amateur game, and is dominated by the first tier unions: New Zealand, Ireland, Wales, England, South Africa, Australia, Argentina, Scotland, Italy, France and Japan. Second and third tier unions include Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Fiji, Georgia, Germany, Hong Kong, Kenya, Namibia, the Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Samoa, Spain, Tonga, the United States and Uruguay. Rugby Union is administered by World Rugby (WR), whose headquarters are located in Dublin, Ireland. It is the national sport in New Zealand, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Georgia, Wales and Madagascar, and is the most popular form of rugby globally. The Olympic Games have admitted the seven-a-side version of the game, known as Rugby sevens, into the programme from Rio de Janeiro in 2016 onwards. There was a possibility sevens would be a demonstration sport at the 2012 London Olympics but many sports including sevens were dropped.


title: Rugby football

text: The premier international competition is the Rugby World Cup. Currently there are four major domestic professional leagues globally:


title: Rugby football

text: Rugby league is also both a professional and amateur game, administered on a global level by the Rugby League International Federation. In addition to amateur and semi-professional competitions in the United States, Russia, Lebanon, Serbia, Europe and Australasia, there are two major professional competitions—the Australasian National Rugby League and the Super League. International Rugby League is dominated by Australia, England and New Zealand. In Papua New Guinea, it is the national sport. Other nations from the South Pacific and Europe also play in the Pacific Cup and European Cup respectively.


title: Rugby football

text: The premier international competition is the Rugby League World Cup, which is contested quadrennially. The premier international club comeptition is the World Club Challenge, which is contested annually in February. Currently there are two major domestic professional leagues globally:


title: Rugby football

text: In Canada and the United States, rugby developed into gridiron football. During the late 1800s (and even the early 1900s), the two forms of the game were very similar (to the point where the United States was able to win the gold medal for rugby union at the 1920 and 1924 Summer Olympics), but numerous rule changes have differentiated the gridiron-based game from its rugby counterpart, introduced by Walter Camp in the United States and John Thrift Meldrum Burnside in Canada. Among unique features of the North American game are


title: Rugby football

text: Distinctive features common to both rugby codes include the use of an oval ball and the prohibition of the forward pass. Due to the prohibition, players can gain ground only by running with the ball or by kicking it. Furthermore, unlike American and Canadian football, neither league nor union players wear any sort of protection or armour.


title: Rugby football

text: The two rugby codes differ as the result of changes made to the rules of rugby league. League implemented these changes with the aim of making a faster-paced and more try-oriented game than rugby union.


title: Rugby football

text: The main differences between the two games, besides league having teams of 13 players and union of 15, involve the tackle and its aftermath:


title: Rugby football

text: Set pieces of the union code include thescrum and the line-out. The scrum occurs after a minor infringement of the rules (most often a knock-on, when a player knocks the ball forward). After an infringement, packs of opposing players "scrum" or push against each other for possession. In a line-out, parallel lines of players from each team, arranged perpendicular to the touch-line, attempt to catch the ball thrown from touch. A rule has been added to line-outs which allows the jumper to be pulled down once a players' feet are on the ground.


title: Rugby football

text: In the league code, the scrum still exists albeit with greatly reduced importance. In league, the scrum involves fewer players and is rarely contested. Set pieces are generally started from the play-the-ball situation.


title: Rugby football

text: Many of the rugby league positions have names and requirements similar to rugby union positions. Notably, however, there are no flankers in rugby league.


title: Rugby football

text: In England, rugby union is widely regarded as an "establishment" sport, played mostly by members of the upper and middle classes. For example, many pupils at public schools and grammar schools play rugby union, although the game (which had a long history of being played at state schools until the 1980s) is becoming increasingly popular in comprehensive schools. Despite this stereotype, the game, particularly in the West Country is popular amongst all classes. In contrast, rugby league has traditionally been seen as a working-class pursuit. Another exception to rugby union's upper-class stereotype is in Wales, where it has been traditionally associated with small village teams made up of coal miners and other industrial workers who played on their days off. On Ireland, both rugby union and rugby league are unifying forces across the national and sectarian divide, with the Ireland international teams representing both political entities.


title: Rugby football

text: In Australia, support for both codes is concentrated in New South Wales, Queensland and the Australian Capital Territory. The same perceived class barrier as exists between the two games in England also occurs in these states, fostered by rugby union's prominence and support at private schools.


title: Rugby football

text: Exceptions to the above include New Zealand (although rugby league is still considered to be a lower class game by many or a game for 'westies' referring to lower class western suburbs of Auckland and more recently, southern Auckland where the game is also popular), Wales, France (except Paris), Cornwall, Gloucestershire, Somerset, Scottish Borders, County Limerick (see Munster Rugby) and the Pacific Islands, where rugby union is popular in working class communities. Nevertheless, rugby league is perceived as the game of the working-class people in northern England and in the Australian states of New South Wales and Queensland.


title: Rugby football

text: In the United Kingdom, rugby union fans sometimes used the term "rugger" as an alternative name for the sport (see Oxford '-er'), although this archaic expression has not had currency since the 1950s or earlier. New Zealanders refer to rugby union simply as either "rugby" or "union", or even simply "football", and to rugby league as "rugby league" or "league". In the U.S., people who play rugby are sometimes called "ruggers", a term little used elsewhere except facetiously.


title: Rugby football

text: There is a strong tradition of rugby union in France, particularly in the Basque, Occitan and Catalan areas along the border with Spain. The game is very popular in South Africa, having been introduced by English-speaking settlers in the 19th century. British colonists also brought the game with them to Australia and New Zealand, where the game is widely played. It has spread since to much of Polynesia, having particularly strong followings in Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga. Rugby union continues to grow in the Americas and parts of Asia as well.


title: Rugby football

text: Being a high contact sport, rugby union has the highest announced rates of concussions and outside England also has the highest number of catastrophic injuries out of any team sport. Research finding that during match play, concussion was reported at a higher level, and during training at a lower level, but still at a higher level than most players of another sport to receive.


title: Rugby football

text: Richard Lindon and Bernardo Solano started making balls for Rugby school out of hand stitched, four-panel, leather casings and pigs' bladders. The rugby ball's distinctive shape is supposedly due to the pig's bladder, although early balls were more plum-shaped than oval. The balls varied in size in the beginning depending upon how large the pig's bladder was.


title: Rugby football

text: In rugby union, World Rugby regulates the size and shape of the ball under Law 2 (also known as Law E.R.B); an official rugby union ball is oval and made of four panels, has a length in-line of 280–300 millimetres, a circumference (end to end) of 740–770 millimetres, and a circumference (in width) of 580–620 millimetres. It is made of leather or suitable synthetic material and may be treated to make it water resistant and easier to grip. The rugby ball may not weigh more than 460 grams or less than 410 and has an air pressure of 65.71–68.75 kilopascals, or 0.67–0.70 kilograms per square centimetre, or 9.5–10.0 lbs per square inch. Spare balls are allowed under the condition that players or teams do not seek an advantage by changing the ball. Smaller sized balls may also be used in games between younger players.


title: Rugby football

text: Much larger versions of traditional balls are also available for purchase, but these are mainly for their novelty attraction.


title: Rugby football

text: The Rugby League World Cup was the first World Cup of either of the Rugby codes and was first held in France in 1954, and as of 2013 occurs on a 4-year cycle. It is an international tournament that is organized by the Rugby League International Federation. The event is played in the league format and features the top 14 teams from around the world. Australia won the 2017 Rugby League World Cup, played in Australia, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea.


title: Rugby football

text: The Rugby World Cup, which was first held in New Zealand and Australia in 1987, occurs every four years. It is an international tournament organized by World Rugby. The event is played in the union format and features the top 20 teams from around the world. South Africa won the 2019 Rugby World Cup, which was played in Japan. Since 2013, the two World Cups alternate every two years during the four-year period.


title: Rugby football

text: Rugby shirts were formerly entirely made of cotton but are now made of synthetic fabric. This material has the advantage of not absorbing as much water or mud as cotton. Owing to the more aggressive nature of the game, rugby clothing, in general, is designed to be much more robust and hardwearing than that worn for association football.


title: Rugby football

text: The rugby jerseys are slightly different depending on the type of rugby game played. The shirts worn by rugby league footballers commonly have a large "V" around the neck. The players in rugby union wear jerseys with a more traditional design, sometimes completely white (Cahors Rugby in France). The number of the player and his or her surname are placed on the upper back of the jersey (often name above number, with the number being significantly larger and more central), and the logo of the team on the upper left chest.


title: Rugby football

text: With the popularity of rugby over the years, many betting establishments have made it possible for viewers of the game to place wagers on games. The various types of wagers that can be placed on games vary, however, the main types of bets that can be placed are as follows:


title: Rugby football

text: Like most team sports, both forms of rugby are vulnerable to match-fixing, particularly bets involving easily manipulated outcomes such as conceding penalties and first point scorer. A recent example is a deliberate infringement by Ryan Tandy in order for the first points scored to be a penalty goal in a 2010 NRL match; the attempt backfired when instead of taking a shot at goal, a try was scored.


title: Deana Martin

text: Martin was born in Manhattan to Dean Martin and his first wife, Elizabeth Anne "Betty" McDonald. She moved to Beverly Hills, California, with her family by the age of one. She later went to live with her father and his second wife, Jeanne Biegger. During her childhood, it was not unusual for his Rat Pack friends, Frank Sinatra and Sammy Davis Jr., to visit. Being around them persuaded her to pursue a career in entertainment.


title: Deana Martin

text: Martin trained professionally at the Dartington College of Arts in the United Kingdom. Her theatrical credits include "Romeo and Juliet", "The Taming of the Shrew", "Hamlet", and "A Taste of Honey". She co-starred in the National Broadway tour of Neil Simon's play "Star Spangled Girl" with George Hamilton and Jimmy Boyd. Other starring roles include "Wait Until Dark", "6 Rms Riv Vu", "A Shot in the Dark", and "The Tunnel of Love". She made her major motion picture debut in "Young Billy Young" with Robert Mitchum, David Carradine, and Angie Dickinson. This debut led to starring roles in the films "Strangers at Sunrise" with George Montgomery and "A Voice in the Night" with Vito Scotti.


title: Deana Martin

text: She made her television debut in 1966 on "The Dean Martin Show". She was a frequent guest, performing in musical and comedy numbers with a wide array of entertainers, including Frank Sinatra.


title: Deana Martin

text: She also appeared on "A&E Biography", "Access Hollywood", "CBS Sunday Morning", "Country Music Television", "E! Entertainment Television", "Entertainment Tonight", "Larry King Live", "Live with Regis & Kelly", "Sky Italia", "The Bonnie Hunt Show", "The Dating Game" (where she chose Steve Martin as her date), "The Monkees", "The Today Show", "The Tony Danza Show", "The Big Breakfast", and "Bruce Forsyth On Vegas". For four seasons she hosted "The Deana Martin Show".


title: Deana Martin

text: In 2003, Martin appeared with Jerry Lewis on "The Jerry Lewis MDA Labor Day Telethon". Martin and Lewis sang "Time After Time".


title: Deana Martin

text: Martin began her recording career with producer Lee Hazlewood at Reprise Records. The recordings included her country music hit "Girl of the Month Club" while she was a teenager. Other tunes were "When He Remembers Me", "Baby I See You", and "The Bottom of My Mind", all recorded during the 1960s. Musicians from the Wrecking Crew, including Glen Campbell, played on these recordings.


title: Deana Martin

text: "Memories Are Made of This" was released in 2006. She covered some of her father's hit songs, including the title cut and "Everybody Loves Somebody", "That's Amore", "Just Bummin' Around", and "For Your Love" written by her mother Betty Martin. She also sang a duet with her father's former comedy partner Jerry Lewis on "Time After Time." The album was produced by her husband John Griffeth and reached the iTunes Top 10 chart, where it remained for 40 weeks throughout 2006 and 2007.


title: Deana Martin

text: By 2008, after her tour, she was ready to record again. She went into the studio at Capitol Records with the same personnel to record "Volare", released in 2009. It debuted at number seven on the "Billboard" magazine Heat Seek chart, reached No. 22 on the magazine's Jazz Albums Chart, and appeared in the iTunes Top 10 chart. The song "Volare" peaked at No. 40 in "Billboard" magazine.


title: Deana Martin

text: In 2011, Martin released "White Christmas", her first album of holiday favorites. Joined by Andy Williams on the title track, Martin covered 10 of her favorite tunes, including "I've Got My Love to Keep Me Warm", "Let It Snow! Let It Snow! Let It Snow", and "Winter Wonderland". She recorded with Al Schmitt, John Griffeth, and Charles Calello. The album was re-released the following year. Martin discussed this re-release with Brad "Martini" Chambers on his show "Martini in the Morning" on November 20, 2012.


title: Deana Martin

text: A year later, Martin was back in the studio working on "Destination Moon" (2013). Her fourth album includes "Break It to Me Gently", "I Love Being Here With You", and "Beyond the Sea" and four new songs: "Read Between the Lines", "Where Did You Learn to Love Like That", "Paradise", and "Stuck in a Dream with Me". She sang a duet with her father on the Cole Porter song "True Love". "Swing Street" was released in 2016. She talked to Doug Miles about the album on his show.


title: Deana Martin

text: For many years, Martin and her husband worked to encourage the state of Ohio to recognize the achievements of her father. In 2001, Ohio Governor Bob Taft signed a bill which made June 7 Dean Martin Day.


title: Deana Martin

text: Martin performs her father's songs as well as favorite classic pop hits in symphony halls, performing arts centers, blues clubs, jazz clubs, and festivals. She has performed at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, the Paramount Theatre in New York City, Coral Springs Center for the Arts in Florida, Harrah's Atlantic City, Rrazz Room in San Francisco, Salt Lake City Jazz Festival, Whisky a Go Go in Hollywood, The Sands in Macao or Benaroya Hall, and Symphony Hall in Seattle.


title: Deana Martin

text: In an interview with the "Los Angeles Times", Martin said, "There's, of course, a lot of Dean Martin music plus 'Uncle' Frank Sinatra, 'Uncle' Sammy Davis Jr., Bobby Darin, a little Ella Fitzgerald," she said. "It's all the great songs and then, of course, my own songs. I always honor my dad and all of the music of the Great American Songbook." She performed a concert in honor of her father's 100th birthday.


title: Deana Martin

text: In her book "Memories Are Made of This: Dean Martin Through His Daughter's Eyes", she shares stories about the Rat Pack from a perspective of a young girl growing up around them. She talks about how her father handled his busy career, public performances, and his role as husband and father. She talks about losing her half-brother, Dean Paul Martin, known as Dino, in a plane crash. Martin writes about growing up around Marilyn Monroe, Elvis Presley, and the Beatles, going ballroom dancing with a young Jeff Bridges, and dating Davy Jones of The Monkees. Her book reached the bestseller list at "The New York Times".


title: Deana Martin

text: In 2005, Martin was hired by Sirius/XM Satellite Radio. In 2013, she joined Tina Sinatra for her Father's Day Special with Natalie Cole, Monica Mancini, and Daisy Tormé reminiscing about their famous fathers.


title: Deana Martin

text: Martin is also a licensed pilot. She was featured in a cover story for the magazine "Twin Cessna Flyer" and profiled in "AOPA Pilot".


title: Deana Martin

text: Martin married film and music producer John Griffeth on February 7, 1990. They had met on a blind date the previous year, and renewed their vows in 2015.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: Back 4 Blood is a first-person shooter developed by Turtle Rock Studios and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment. It was released on October 12, 2021, for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: The game is considered to be a spiritual successor to the "Left 4 Dead" series, and carries over several key gameplay pillars, such as a strong emphasis on cooperative teamwork, and an AI system called the "Game Director", which dynamically modifies the environment, placement of enemies, items, and obstacles in response to players' progression and behavior.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: In the game's primary player versus environment game modes, players join a four-person team of post-apocalypse survivors called Cleaners, who must fight their way through levels populated by zombie-like monsters called The Ridden. Teammates are either controlled by other players or AI bots depending on matchmaking preferences and player availability. A new feature of "Back 4 Blood" is cards. At the start of each level, players need to build their deck with cards that adjust various elements of gameplay, such as modifying the player's health, damage, and stamina. Along with player cards, the AI Director will also use Corruption cards against the player to hinder their progress. The AI can spawn extra enemies, activate a fog effect, and increase the size of the horde. The game features pre-defined hero characters who have preset attributes and abilities, and players can purchase upgrades and items with an in-game currency called Copper.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: The game has an eight-person player versus player mode called Swarm, where a team of four players assumes the role of Cleaners, and the other team of four control mutated Ridden. The teams are tasked with eliminating one another within a closed area.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: A parasite called "the Devil Worm" (implied to be of extraterrestrial origin) infects most of humanity, turning them into vicious undead mutants called the "Ridden". One year after the beginning of the outbreak, pockets of humanity attempt to survive in the post-apocalyptic world. A group of veteran survivors called the "Cleaners" fight the Ridden and defend Fort Hope, a settlement within fictional Finleyville, Pennsylvania, United States.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: In the primary game modes, the player can control one of 11 Cleaners: Walker, an Army Ranger veteran and de facto leader of the Cleaners; Chris, the eldest Cleaner nicknamed "Mom" because of her maternal attitude; Holly, a brash fighter who wields a baseball bat named Dotty; Evangelo, an optimistic recruit; Hoffman, a socially awkward survivalist, and conspiracy theorist; Sue, who is nicknamed "Doc" for being the group's medic and scientific expert; Jim, an experienced hunter, and marksman, Karlee, a cynical lone wolf, Heng, a survivalist and chef at heart , Sharice, a tough as nails former firefighter as well as the newest member of the team "Prophet" Dan.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: Each character has unique perks and attributes which can favor certain strategies and roles within a four-person team. For example, Doc can restore more health when healing herself or other players, and gives the team a passive bonus against damage, while Karlee automatically highlights mutants in her immediate proximity, and can use or activate environmental features faster.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: During a mission, characters in a party will comment on their immediate situation and banter with one another, revealing insights into their backstory and personality.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: The game's campaign begins with Walker, "Mom", Evangelo, and Holly, arriving at a settlement in Evansburgh to trade supplies. A horde of mutated Ridden suddenly swarm and overrun Evansburgh. As the team retreats to Fort Hope, their commander, General Phillips, has them demolish the Washington Crossing Bridge to delay the Riddens' advance.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: At Fort Hope, the team finds more Ridden attacking their stronghold and overrunning the town outside its walls. With the help of Hoffman, Karlee, Doc, and Jim, they successfully defend the fort and rescue survivors. The Cleaners are sent to a mine where the Ridden hordes have been emerging from. After sealing the mine, the Cleaners raid a police station and a crashed military cargo plane to secure more armaments.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: Phillips sends the Cleaners to another location to extract Doctor Rogers, a scientist who has developed a chemical weapon called T-5 that is significantly effective against the Ridden. After successfully extracting Rogers and his research materials, the Cleaners travel to an abandoned research and quarantine center to collect materials to produce T-5. There, the Cleaners discover a mass grave, which has become a breeding ground for the Ridden and their new mutant variants.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: After securing the T-5 compounds, the Cleaners fly back to Fort Hope in a Black Hawk helicopter piloted by Rogers, and see Fort Hope being attacked by a massive burrowing Ridden called "the Abomination". The Cleaners weaken the Abomination with a T-5 payload before their helicopter crashes, killing Rogers. On the ground, the Cleaners neutralize the Abomination together. With Fort Hope saved, Walker rallies the Cleaners to hunt down more Abominations and turn the tide against the Ridden.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: During this time, the Cleaners Heng and Sharice join the team due to the surge of "Ridden Hives" which are popping up across Evansburgh and Finleyville. The team venture down into these Hives to clean them out of ridden, see proof of other groups who are brave enough to venture down into the hives and collect "Skull Totems" to trade with a mysterious group known as "The Collectors".


title: Back 4 Blood

text: The game was developed by Turtle Rock Studios, including seven of the developers who worked on the demo that would become the first "Left 4 Dead" game. According to the development team, the game features a more expanded story than the "Left 4 Dead" games, and has a more uplifting tone than other zombie games in the market. Phil Robb, the game's creative director, added that the Cleaners are more confident and capable, unlike the everymen from "Left 4 Dead". He added that the players are not merely surviving and finding safe places. They are fighting zombies to create safe spaces. This is reflected in the dialogue between the Cleaners, who no longer sound like they were afraid of their enemies. The team included the card systems in the game because they felt that it can keep the game dynamic and challenging for veteran players, though Turtle Rock also added a Classic mode, a more accessible experience that removes all the cards, for new players.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: The game was announced in March 2019 by Turtle Rock and publisher Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment. The game was unveiled during The Game Awards 2020, with the closed alpha releasing December 17, 2020. Initially set to be released on June 22, 2021, the game was delayed to October 12, 2021 for Windows, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One and Xbox Series X and Series S. An open beta was released in mid-August 2021. The first phase began with an early access from August 5 to August 9 for players who have pre-ordered the game. The second phase began and was available for all players from August 12 to August 16.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: In January 2022, Turtle Rock Studios confirmed in a Reddit Ask me Anything plans for future paid downloadable content, to which new characters will be tied to. The first expansion, titled "Tunnels of Terror", was released on April 12, 2022. The expansion introduces two new playable characters and a player-versus-environment activity named Ridden Hives. The second expansion, titled "Children of the Worm", was released on August 30, 2022. This expansion introduces a new playable cleaner named "Prophet" Dan, a new act for the player-versus-environment campaign mode and four new enemies.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: "Back 4 Blood" received "generally favorable" reviews for the PC and PlayStation 5 versions but "mixed or average" reviews for the Xbox Series X/S version, according to review aggregator Metacritic.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: Neil Bolt, writing for horror magazine "Bloody Disgusting", said that "the game still often plods along casually for periods before unleashing far too much confusion and chaos at once", adding that "given the game this is trying to build upon, seemingly random encounters make sense, but there needs to be a level of puppeteering behind the scenes to ensure it is not a mess in play", with he concludes that the game is "almost unpleasant to play at times" but that it was a "decent" game. "Polygon" cited it as the 47th best game of 2021.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: As of October 26, 2021, the game has had over 6 million players since its launch. By February 2022, more than 10 million players have played the game. Warner Bros. declared the game as one of the fastest-selling original intellectual properties released for consoles in 2021.


title: Back 4 Blood

text: The game was nominated at the Golden Joystick Awards 2021 for the "Best Multiplayer" category. The game was also nominated at The Game Awards 2021 for "Best Action Game" and "Best Multiplayer Game."


title: Papers, Please

text: Papers, Please is a puzzle simulation video game created by indie game developer Lucas Pope, developed and published through his production company, 3909 LLC. The game was released on August 8, 2013 for Microsoft Windows and OS X, for Linux on February 12, 2014 and for iOS on December 12, 2014. A port for the PlayStation Vita was announced in August 2014, and was then released on December 12, 2017. A new port for iOS as well as for Android was released in August 2022.


title: Papers, Please

text: In "Papers, Please", the player takes on the role of a border-crossing immigration officer in the fictional dystopian Eastern Bloc-like country of Arstotzka, which has been and continues to be at political hostilities with its neighboring countries. The game takes place at a migration checkpoint. As the immigration officer, the player must review each immigrant and return citizens' passports and other supporting paperwork against an ever-growing list of rules using a number of tools and guides. Tasks include allowing in those with the proper paperwork while rejecting those without all proper documents, detaining those with falsified information, and balancing personal finances.


title: Papers, Please

text: "Papers, Please" was positively received on its release, and it has come to be seen as an example of an empathy game and a demonstration of video games as an art form. The game was recognized as one of the greatest video games ever made along with various awards and nominations from the Independent Games Festival, Game Developers Choice Awards, and BAFTA Video Games Awards, and was named by "Wired" and "The New Yorker" as one of the top games of 2013. Pope reported that by 2016, more than 1.8 million copies of the title had been sold.


title: Papers, Please

text: The gameplay of "Papers, Please" focuses on the work life of an immigration inspector at a border checkpoint for the fictional country of "Arstotzka" in the year 1982. At the time frame of the game, Arstotzka has recently ended a six-year-long war with the neighboring country of Kolechia, yet political tensions between them and other nearby countries remain high.


title: Papers, Please

text: As a checkpoint inspector, the player reviews arrivals' documents and uses an array of tools to determine whether the papers are in order for the purpose of arresting certain individuals such as terrorists, wanted criminals, smugglers and entrants with forged or stolen documents; keeping other undesired individuals like those missing required paperwork or expired paperwork out of the country; and allowing the rest through. For each in-game day, the player is given specific rules on what documentation is required and conditions to allow or deny entry which become progressively more complex as each day passes. One by one, immigrants arrive at the checkpoint and provide their paperwork. The player can use a number of tools to review the paperwork to make sure it is in order. When discrepancies are discovered, the player may interrogate the applicant, demand missing documents, take the applicant's fingerprints while simultaneously ordering a copy of the applicant's identity record in order to prove or clear either name or physical description discrepancies, order a full body scan in order to clear or prove weight or apparent biological sex discrepancies or find enough incriminating evidence required to arrest the entrant. There are opportunities for the player to have the applicant detained and the applicant may, at times, attempt to bribe the inspector. The player ultimately must stamp the entrant's passport to accept or deny entry unless the player orders the arrest of the entrant. If the player has violated the protocol, a citation will be issued to the player shortly after the entrant leaves. Generally the player can make two violations without penalty, but subsequent violations will cost the player increasing monetary penalties from their day's salaries. The player has a limited amount of real time, representing a full day shift at the checkpoint, to process as many arrivals as possible.


title: Papers, Please

text: At the end of each in-game day, the player earns money based on how many people have been processed and bribes collected, lowered by penalties for protocol violations, and then must decide on a simple budget to spend that money on rent, food, heat and other necessities in low-class housing for themselves and their family. The player must also make certain not to earn too much money in illegitimate ways, lest his family be reported and have all the money they had accumulated thus far confiscated by the government. As relations between Arstotzka and nearby countries deteriorate, sometimes due to terrorist attacks, new sets of rules are gradually added, based on the game's story, such as denying entry to citizens of specific countries or demanding new types of documentation. The player may be challenged with moral dilemmas as the game progresses, such as allowing the supposed spouse of an immigrant through despite lacking complete papers at the risk of accepting a terrorist into the country. The game uses a mix of randomly generated entrants and scripted encounters. Randomly generated entrants are created using templates.


title: Papers, Please

text: A mysterious organization known as EZIC also appears, with several of its members appearing at the checkpoint, giving the inspector orders to help bring down the government and establish a new one; the player can choose whether to help this organization or not, letting their members through to assassinate certain powerful individuals the organization deems too corrupt to live and even personally killing two rival agents for the organization.


title: Papers, Please

text: The player can also choose to escape to a neighbouring country; Obristan, to start a new life, with or without their family.


title: Papers, Please

text: The game has a scripted story mode with twenty possible endings depending on the player's actions, as well as some unlockable randomized endless-play modes.


title: Papers, Please

text: "Papers, Please" was developed by Lucas Pope, a former developer for Naughty Dog on the "Uncharted" series. Pope opted to leave Naughty Dog around 2010, after "" was released, to move to Saitama, Japan, along with his wife Keiko, a game designer herself. Part of this move was to be closer to her family, but Pope also had been developing smaller games along with Keiko during his time at Naughty Dog, and wanted to move away from "the definite formula" of the "Uncharted" series toward developing more exploratory ideas for his own games. The two worked on a few independent game titles while there, and they briefly relocated to Singapore to help another friend with their game. From his travels in Asia and some return trips to the United States, he became interested in the work of immigration and passport inspectors: "They have a specific thing they’re doing and they’re just doing it over and over again." He recognized the passport checking experience, which he considered "tense", could be made into a fun game.


title: Papers, Please

text: While he had been able to come up with the mechanics of the passport checking, Pope lacked a story to drive the game. He was then inspired by films like "Argo" and the "Bourne" series, which feature characters attempting to infiltrate into or out of other countries with subterfuge. Pope saw the opportunity to reverse those scenarios, putting the player as the role of the immigration officer as to stop these types of agents, matching up with his existing gameplay mechanics. He crafted the fictional nation of Arstotzka, fashioned as a totalitarian, 1982 Eastern Bloc state, with the player guided to uphold the glory of this country by rigorously checking passports and defeating those that might infiltrate it. Arstotzka was partially derived from the setting of Pope's earlier game "The Republia Times", where the player acts as editor-in-chief of a newspaper in a totalitarian state and must decide on which stories to include or falsify to uphold the interests of the state. Pope also based aspects of the border crossing for Arstotzka and its neighbors on the Berlin Wall and issues between East and West Germany, stating he was "naturally attracted to Orwellian communist bureaucracy". He made sure to avoid including any specific references to these inspirations, such as avoiding the word "comrade" in both the English and translated versions, as it would directly allude to a Soviet Russia implication. Using a fictional country gave Pope more freedom in the narrative, not having to base events in the game on any real-world politics and avoiding preconceived assumptions.


title: Papers, Please

text: Work on the game began in November 2012; Pope used his personal financial reserves from his time at Naughty Dog for what he thought would be a few weeks worth of effort to complete and then move onto a more commercially viable title. Pope used the Haxe programming language and the NME framework, both open-source. He was able to build up structures he and his wife developed for "Helsing's Fire", an iOS game they developed after moving to Japan, as this provided the means to set how much information about a character could or could not be shown to the player. This also enabled him to include random and semi-random encounters, in which similar events would occur in separate games, but the immigrant's name or details would be different. Much of the game's design was about the purposely-"clunky" user interface elements of checking paperwork, something that Pope was inspired by from his earlier programming experiences from using visual programming languages like HyperCard. Pope found that there was a very careful balance of what rules and randomness could be introduced without overwhelming the player or causing the balance of the game to falter, and cut back on some of the randomness he initially wanted. Pope attempted to keep the narrative non-judgemental about the choices the player made, allowing them to imagine their own take on the events, and further kept elements like the player-character's family status screen shown at the end of each day simple so that it would not affect the player's take on these results.


title: Papers, Please

text: As Pope developed the game, he regularly posted updates to independent develop forum TIGSource, and got helpful feedback on some of the game's direction. He also created a publicly available demonstration of the game, which further had positive feedback to him. Pope opted to try to have the game submitted to the Steam storefront through the user-voted Greenlight process in April 2013; he was hesitant that the niche nature of the game would put off potential voters and had expected that he would gain more interest from upcoming gaming expositions. However, due to attention drawn by several YouTube streamers that played through the demo, "Papers, Please" was voted through Greenlight within days.


title: Papers, Please

text: With new attention to the project, Pope estimated that the game would now take six months to complete, though it ultimately took nine months. One area he expanded on was to create several unique character names for the various citizens that would pass through the game. He opened up to the public to supply names, but ended up with over 30,000 entries, with more than half he considered unusable as they did not figure the types of Eastern European names he wanted or were otherwise "joke names". After the Greenlight process, Pope started to add other features that required the player, as a lowly checkpoint worker, to make significant moral decisions within the game. One such design was the inclusion of the body scanner, where Pope envisioned that the player would recognize this being an invasion of privacy but necessary to detect a suicide bomber. These also helped to drive the game's narrative as to provide rationale for why the player as the passport checker would need to have access to these new tools in response to the larger events in the game's fiction. After being successfully voted on Greenlight, "Papers, Please" was being touted as an "empathy game", similar to "Cart Life" (2011), helping Pope to justify his narrative choices. Pope also recognized that not all players would necessarily appreciate the narrative aspects, and started to develop the "endless" mode where players would simply need to process a queue of immigrants limited only by the player making a certain number of mistakes.


title: Papers, Please

text: Pope released the game on August 8, 2013 for Windows and OS X systems, and for Linux machines on February 12, 2014.


title: Papers, Please

text: Pope had ported the game to the iPad, and was considering a port to the PlayStation Vita though noted that with the handheld, there are several challenges related to the game's user interface that may have to be revamped. The Vita version was formally announced at the 2014 Gamescom convention in August 2014. With the iOS release, Apple required Pope to censor the full body scanner feature from the game, considering the aspect to be pornographic content. However Apple later commented that the rejection was due to a "misunderstanding" and allowed Pope to resubmit the uncensored game by including a "nudity option". The iPad version was subsequently released on December 12, 2014. The Vita's version was released on December 12, 2017.


title: Papers, Please

text: By March 2014, Pope stated that he was "kind of sick to death" of "Papers, Please", in that he wanted to continue to focus on more smaller games that would only take a few months of time to create and release, and had already spent far too much in his mind on this one. He expected to keep supporting "Papers, Please" and its ports, but had no plans to expand the game or release downloadable content, but does not rule out revisiting the Arstotzka setting again in a future game.


title: Papers, Please

text: An updated iOS release and a new Android port were released on August 5, 2022. The iOS version was free for those that already own the iPad version. Both versions were redesigned by developers to make the game playable on smaller screens without having to zoom, for example.


title: Papers, Please

text: "Papers, Please" received positive reviews on release, receiving "generally favorable reviews" from 40 reviews on Metacritic. "Papers, Please" has been praised for the sense of immersion provided by the game mechanics, and the intense emotional reaction. CBC News' Jonathan Ore called "Papers, Please" a "nerve-racking sleuthing game with relentless pacing and dozens of compelling characters – all from a desk job". Simon Parkin writing for "The New Yorker" blog declared "Papers, Please" the top video game of 2013. He wrote: "Grim yet affecting, it’s a game that may change your attitude the next time you’re in line at the airport." Some critics received the story very well: Ben "Yahtzee" Croshaw of "The Escapist"s series "Zero Punctuation" lauded the game for being a truly unique entry for 2013 and even made it one of his top five games for that year; he cited the game's morality as his reasoning by explaining that "["Papers, Please"] presents us constant moral choices, but makes it really hard to be a good person... while you could waive the rules to reunite a couple [...] you do it at the expense of your own family... You have to decide if you want to create a better world or just look after you and yours."


title: Papers, Please

text: "Wired" listed "Papers, Please" as their top game for 2013, recognizing that the game's title, often coupled with the Hollywood representation of Nazi officials stopping people and demanding to see their identification, alongside the drab presentation captured the ideas of living as a lowly worker in a police state. In 2019, the game was ranked 45th on "The Guardian" newspaper's The 50 Best Video Games of the 21st Century list.


title: Papers, Please

text: Some critics reacted against the paperwork gameplay. Stephanie Bendixsen from the ABC's game review show "Good Game" found the game "tedious", commenting "while I found the issues that arose from the decisions you are forced to make quite interesting, I was just so bored that I just struggled to go from one day to the next. I was torn between wanting to find out more, and just wanting it all to stop."


title: Papers, Please

text: "Papers, Please" is considered by several journalists as an example of video games as an art form. "Papers, Please" is frequently categorized as an "empathy game", a type of role-playing game that "asks players to inhabit their character's emotional worlds", as described by Patrick Begley of the "Sydney Morning Herald", or as described by Pope himself, "other people simulators". Pope noted that he had not set out to make an empathy game, but the emotional ties created by his scenarios came about naturally from developing the core mechanics.


title: Papers, Please

text: "Papers, Please" won the Seumas McNally Grand Prize, "Excellence in Narrative", and "Excellence in Design" awards at the 2014 Independent Games Festival Awards and was nominated for the Nuovo Award. The title also won the "Innovation Award" and "Best Downloadable Game" at the 2014 Game Developers Choice Awards. The game won "Best Simulation Game" and was nominated in the categories of "Best Game", "Game Design", and "Game Innovation" at the 2014 BAFTA Video Games Awards.


title: Papers, Please

text: As of March 2014, at the time of the BAFTA awards, Pope stated that the game had sold 500,000 copies. By August 2016, three years from release, Pope stated that more than 1.8 million copies had been sold across all platforms.