title: Austrian Football Bundesliga

text: The Austrian Bundesliga carries the obligation for a positive development of football as a sport at the élite level, as well as for the advancement of the next generation of players in co-operation with the teams at the junior levels of the sport. To accomplish this, the Bundesliga requires economic audits of the teams, the introduction of laws particular to professional football, TV marketing, centralised sponsorship and collective marketing for all teams.


title: Austrian Football Bundesliga

text: In the Bundesliga, twelve teams play a "double championship", with each team playing every other twice at home and twice away during a championship year, which is divided into an autumn and a spring season. The season typically lasts from July to June of the following year. At the end of the season, the team finishing in last place in the table is relegated to the Sky Go Erste Liga, the champion of which is promoted to the Bundesliga.


title: Austrian Football Bundesliga

text: The Bundesliga champion and the second placed team qualify for the UEFA Champions League, the Austrian Cup winner enters the playoff round of the UEFA Europa League while the team in 4th position, as well as the winner of the Europa Conference League play-offs enter the UEFA Europa Conference League. In the event that the Bundesliga champion is also the Austrian Cup winner, the third-placed team enters the UEFA Europa League.


title: Zaibatsu

text: The term "zaibatsu" was coined in 19th century Japan from the Sino-Japanese roots "zai" ('wealth', from Middle Chinese ) and ('clique', 'group', from Middle Chinese ). Although "zaibatsu" themselves existed from the 19th century, the term was not in common use until after World War I. By definition, the "zaibatsu" were large family-controlled vertical monopolies consisting of a holding company on top, with a wholly-owned banking subsidiary providing finance, and several industrial subsidiaries dominating specific sectors of a market, either solely, or through a number of subsidiary companies.


title: Zaibatsu

text: The "zaibatsu" were the heart of economic and industrial activity within the Empire of Japan, and held great influence over Japanese national and foreign policies. The "Rikken Seiyūkai" political party was regarded as an extension of the Mitsui group, which also had very strong connections with the Imperial Japanese Army. Likewise, the "Rikken Minseitō" was connected to the Mitsubishi group, as was the Imperial Japanese Navy.


title: Zaibatsu

text: The "zaibatsu" were viewed with suspicion by both the right and left of the political spectrum in the 1920s and 1930s. Although the world was in the throes of a worldwide economic depression, the "zaibatsu" were prospering through currency speculation, maintenance of low labour costs and military procurement. Matters came to a head in the League of Blood Incident of March 1932, with the assassination of the managing director of Mitsui, after which the "zaibatsu" attempted to improve their public image through increased charity work.


title: Zaibatsu

text: The "zaibatsu" were at the heart of economic and industrial activity within the Empire of Japan since Japanese industrialization accelerated during the Meiji era. They held great influence over Japanese national and foreign policies which only increased following the Japanese victory over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 and Japan's victories over Germany during World War I. During the inter-war period the "zaibatsu" aided Japanese militarism and benefited from the conquest of East Asia by receiving lucrative contracts.


title: Zaibatsu

text: When Japan emerged from the self-imposed, pre-Meiji era "sakoku" in 1867, Western countries already had very dominant and internationally significant companies. Standard Oil, Carnegie Steel Company, AT&T, General Electric, Western Union, Friedrich Krupp AG, Thyssen AG, Robert Bosch GmbH, Lloyd's of London, Reckitt and Sons, East India Company, and British Petroleum were very dominant and were the major players in international trade. The British Empire, under the leadership of the Baring family, the Rothschild family and the Guinness family, as well as Imperial Germany and other European countries were colonizing much of the undeveloped world, and Japanese companies realized that in order to remain sovereign, they needed to develop the same methodology and mindset of North American and European companies, and the "zaibatsu" emerged.


title: Zaibatsu

text: The of, in chronological order of founding, Sumitomo, Mitsui, Mitsubishi, and Yasuda were the most significant "zaibatsu" groups. Two of them, Sumitomo and Mitsui, had roots in the Edo period while Mitsubishi and Yasuda traced their origins to the Meiji Restoration. Throughout Meiji to Shōwa, the government employed their financial powers and expertise for various endeavors, including tax collection, military procurement and foreign trade.


title: Zaibatsu

text: Beyond the big four, consensus is lacking as to which companies can be called "zaibatsu", and which cannot. After the Russo-Japanese War, a number of so-called "second-tier" "zaibatsu" also emerged, mostly as the result of business conglomerations and the awarding of lucrative military contracts. Some more famous second-tier "zaibatsu" include the Ōkura, Furukawa, and Nakajima groups.


title: Zaibatsu

text: The early "zaibatsu" permitted some public shareholding of some subsidiary companies, but never of the top holding company or key subsidiaries.


title: Zaibatsu

text: The monopolistic business practices by the "zaibatsu" resulted in a closed circle of companies until Japanese industrial expansion on the Asian mainland (Manchukuo) began in the 1930s, which allowed for the rise of a number of new groups ("shinko zaibatsu"), including Nissan. These new "zaibatsu" differed from the traditional "zaibatsu" only in that they were not controlled by specific families, and not in terms of business practices.


title: Zaibatsu

text: The "zaibatsu" had been viewed with some ambivalence by the Japanese military, which nationalized a significant portion of their production capability during World War II. Remaining assets were also highly damaged by destruction during the war.


title: Zaibatsu

text: Under the Allied occupation after the surrender of Japan, a partially successful attempt was made to dissolve the "zaibatsu". Many of the economic advisors accompanying the SCAP administration had experience with the New Deal and were highly suspicious of monopolies and restrictive business practices, which they felt to be both inefficient, and to be a form of corporatocracy (and thus inherently anti-democratic).


title: Zaibatsu

text: During the occupation of Japan, sixteen "zaibatsu" were targeted for complete dissolution, and twenty-six more for reorganization after dissolution. Among the "zaibatsu" that were targeted for dissolution in 1947 were Asano, Furukawa, Nakajima, Nissan, Nomura, and Okura. In addition, Yasuda dissolved itself in 1946. The controlling families' assets were seized, holding companies eliminated, and interlocking directorships, essential to the old system of inter-company coordination, were outlawed. The Matsushita Electric Industrial Company (which later took the name Panasonic), while not a "zaibatsu", was originally also targeted for breakup, but was saved by a petition signed by 15,000 of its union workers and their families.


title: Zaibatsu

text: However, complete dissolution of the "zaibatsu" was never achieved, mostly because the U.S. government rescinded the orders in an effort to reindustrialize Japan as a bulwark against communism in Asia. "Zaibatsu" as a whole were widely considered to be beneficial to the Japanese economy and government, and the opinions of the Japanese public, of the "zaibatsu" workers and management, and of the entrenched bureaucracy regarding plans for "zaibatsu" dissolution ranged from unenthusiastic to disapproving. Additionally, the changing politics of the occupation during the reverse course served as a crippling, if not terminal, roadblock to "zaibatsu" elimination.


title: Zaibatsu

text: Today, the influence of the "zaibatsu" can still be seen in the form of financial groups, institutions, and larger companies whose origins reach back to the original "zaibatsu", often sharing the same original family names (for example, Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation). However, some argue that the "old mechanisms of financial and administrative control" that "zaibatsu" once enjoyed have been destroyed. Despite the absence of an actual sweeping change to the existence of large industrial conglomerates in Japan, the "zaibatsu's" previous vertically integrated chain of command, ending with a single family, has now widely been displaced by the horizontal relationships of association and coordination characteristic of . Keiretsu, meaning "series" or "subsidiary", could be interpreted as being suggestive of this difference.


title: Zaibatsu

text: The term "zaibatsu" has been used often in books, comics, games, and films, referring to large and usually sinister Japanese corporations, who are often involved in shady dealings or have connections to the yakuza. Examples include the Mishima Zaibatsu, which is prominently featured in the "Tekken" series, the "Zaibatsu" criminal group in "Grand Theft Auto 2", and various writings of pioneer cyberpunk author William Gibson. In other cases "zaibatsu" are used simply to provide the background for a character from an influential family, such as in the case of the F4 in "Boys Before Flowers" who are the sons and heirs of the four biggest corporations in Japan.


title: Vijayakanth

text: Narayanan Vijayaraj Alagarswami (born 25 August 1952), better known by his stage name Vijayakanth, is an Indian politician and former actor who has worked predominantly in Tamil cinema. He was the Leader of the Opposition in the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly from 2011 to 2016. Before entering politics Vijayakanth was a successful actor, producer and director. Vijayakanth is also the current DMDK chairman of Tamil Nadu legislative assembly. He is the founder and president, general secretary of the Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam (DMDK) Political party and served as a Member of Legislative Assembly twice representing the constituency of Virudhachalam and Rishivandiyam respectively.


title: Vijayakanth

text: Vijayakanth was born as Vijayaraj Alagarswami in Madurai on 25 August 1952. his parents are K. N. Alagarswami and Aandal Azhagarswami. He married Premalatha on 31 January 1990 and has two sons named Vijaya Prabhakaran and Shanmuga Pandian, an actor.


title: Vijayakanth

text: Vijayakanth is one of very few Tamil actors to have acted only in Tamil films throughout his career. His films have mostly been dubbed into Telugu and Hindi. Vijayakanth, had the title "Puratchi Kalaignar" (revolutionary artist) in the film industry. He is also known for portraying a patriotic, village do-gooder and dual role acting in his films. Many refused to play with him and great filmmakers did not show up to make films. He has acted in more than 20 films as a police officer. He is best known for low-budget films that showcased gravity-defying stunts in which he would single-handedly dispatch his enemies. Most of his films revolved around corruption, honesty and keeping up promises. He worked 3 shifts per day and that was his dedication towards his craft. Vijayakanth took delayed remunerations and sometimes didn't take them at all to benefit the struggling producers. More importantly, he didn't try to publicize these and had let the world see it for themselves and take inspiration. Upon entering the film industry to pursue an acting career, he changed to "Vijayakanth", dropping the "Raj" out of his name and suffixing it with "Kanth," by his first film M. A. Kaja's "Inikkum Ilamai" (1979). He then had success with "Sattam Oru Iruttarai" (1981), directed by S. A. Chandrasekhar; with whom he did movies mostly. In the 1980s and 1990s, he was an action icon with a consistent box-office appeal. He got the sobriquet "Captain" after the 100th film, "Captain Prabhakaran" (1991).


title: Vijayakanth

text: Vijayakanth was cast in "Inikkum Ilamai" (1979), his first film where he played an antagonist, which was directed by M. A. Kaja. His subsequent films "Agal Vilakku" (1979), "Neerottam" (1980) and "Saamanthippoo" (1980) were box-office flops. His film "Doorathu Idi Muzhakkam" (1980), was screened at the Indian Panorama of the International Film Festival of India. However the film that strongly launched him as a commercial hero was "Sattam Oru Iruttarai" (1981), directed by S. A. Chandrasekhar. It was remade in Hindi, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada languages. In his formative years, Vijayakanth acted in films carrying revolutionary and radical thoughts such as "Sivappu Malli" (1981) and "Jadhikkoru Needhi" (1981). In these films, he brilliantly portrayed the angry young revolutionist characters. He then played a villain role in "Om Shakti" (1982) but after which he has never portrayed antagonist characters in his career.


title: Vijayakanth

text: Slowly he started acting in commercial films on action, romance and sentiment themes and gradually rose to the top and with many super hits films like "Nooravathu Naal" (1984) and "Vaidhegi Kaathirunthaal" (1984). This year, he had 18 releases. He became the Tamil cinema actor to release the most films in a year in the lead role. He acted in "Annai Bhoomi 3D" (1985), the first 3D film made in the Tamil film industry where he acted alongside Radha Ravi and Kannada actor Tiger Prabhakar. He co-starred with Kannada superstar actor Vishnuvardhan in "Eetti" (1985). The romantic comedy film "Naane Raja Naane Mandhiri" (1985), in which he is a self-centered egoistic village Zamindar, who makes fun of people was a commercial success. He acted in "Amman Kovil Kizhakale" (1986), which earnt him a Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil. He also acted in "Manakanakku" (1986), the only film where Kamal Haasan and Vijayakanth worked together, followed by "Oomai Vizhigal" (1986) which became a cult classic. It portrayed him in an unusual role of an aged cop. He became an indisputable competitor of stalwarts Rajinikanth and Kamal Haasan. In 1987, he co-starred with Sivaji Ganesan in "Veerapandiyan", followed by successful movies as "Cooliekkaran", "Veeran Veluthambi", "Ninaive Oru Sangeetham", "Sattam Oru Vilayaattu" and "Uzhavan Magan". In 1988, he worked in films such as "Therkathi Kallan", "Nallavan" and "Poonthotta Kaavalkaaran". In "Senthoora Poove", Vijayakanth won a Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Actor. In 1989, he also starred in two other super hit films such as "Paattukku Oru Thalaivan" and "Ponmana Selvan". This followed the crime "Rajanadai" and the Hindu devotional film "Meenakshi Thiruvilayadal".


title: Vijayakanth

text: Throughout the 1990s, Vijayakanth excelled in versatile roles in a variety of films falling under various genres though he is more popular as an action hero including "Pulan Visaranai" and had R. Sarathkumar portraying the antagonist. Directed by R. K. Selvamani, this film was considered to be one of the best Tamil crime thrillers of its time. Vijayakanth starred superhit cop flick "Sathriyan", produced by Mani Ratnam, about an honest cop and a corrupt politician. After the success of "Pulan Visaranai", Rowther decided to start another project with Vijayakanth and director R. K. Selvamani, titled "Captain Prabhakaran" (1991). It was Vijayakanth's 100th film, after which he earned the sobriquet "Captain" ever since he portrayed an IFS officer. After M.G.R, Sivaji Ganesan and Jayalalithaa, he is the only actor to have tasted a silver jubilee hit in his 100th film. The film was a commercial success upon its release, followed by "Maanagara Kaaval" (1991) and "Moondrezhuthil En Moochirukkum" (1991). Vijayakanth worked in films such as "Chinna Gounder" (1992). This film was radically different from Vijayakanth's earlier portrayals, as he was donning the role of a soft-spoken village chieftain. This film was ranked third in Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Film, followed by "Bharathan" (1992), "Thai Mozhi" (1992) and "Kaviya Thalaivan" (1992). He has also appeared in various roles such as "Koyil Kaalai" (1993), "Ezhai Jaathi" (1993), "Sakkarai Devan" (1993), "Rajadurai" (1993) and "Enga Muthalali" (1993). He co-starred with the son of the director S. A. Chandrasekhar, Vijay in "Sendhoorapandi" (1993), where Vijayakanth plays the role of elder brother. Director SAC thought a film with Vijayakanth would give an impetus to Vijay's film career. Vijayakanth played an extended cameo role in this film for which he did not take any remuneration. He turned out to be a hit. In 1994, he appears in "Sethupathi IPS", "Honest Raj", "Pathavi Pramanam", "En Aasai Machan" and "Periya Marudhu". He then acted in "Karuppu Nila" (1995), "Thirumoorthy" (1995) and "Gandhi Pirantha Mann" (1995). For his performance in the action film "Thayagam" (1996), he won a Tamil Nadu State Film Award Special Prize. This was followed by "Tamizh Selvan" and "Alexander". In 1997, his film "Dharma Chakkaram" (1997), was directed by K. S. Ravikumar. He acted in his 125th film "Ulavuthurai" (1998), followed by "Dharma" (1998) and "Veeram Vilanja Mannu" (1998). His following films were "Kallazhagar" (1999), "Periyanna" (1999) where he played alongside Suriya. He also starred in R. B. Choudary's production, "Kannupada Poguthaiya" (1999) under the banner Super Good Films.


title: Vijayakanth

text: In 2000s, Vijayakanth continued his success streak with blockbusters films as "Vaanathai Pola" a rural family drama directed by Vikraman, which won two awards; a Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Film of the year and National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment. This was followed by "Vallarasu" and "Simmasanam". After this year, he again played in action films such as "Vaanchinathan" (2001) directed by Shaji Kailas and "Narasimha" (2001). Then came "Viswanathan Ramamoorthy" (2001), in which he made a cameo appearance and the village drama "Thavasi" (2001). All these films received mixed reviews from critics at the box office. In 2002, he acted in "Raajjiyam" followed by "Devan", co-starring with the actor and directed by Arun Pandian. In director AR Murugadoss's "Ramanaa", he underplayed as a realistic action hero and gave life to the role of an anti-corruption crusader. He won a Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Film of the year and became a commercially successful. In 2003, he had two releases, "Chokka Thangam", a family drama and "Thennavan", a political film. In 2004, he appeared in a comedy drama, "Engal Anna" which was a success, however "Gajendra" and "Neranja Manasu" received negative reviews. Later, he did a special appearance in Suriya's film "Maayavi" (2005) as himself. In 2006, he acted in three action films, "Sudesi", "Perarasu" and "Dharmapuri". The next year, he starred in "Sabari" (2007). His 150th film was "Arasangam" (2008), about a police officer who discovers and unravels the mystery behind a terrorist gang plotting to steal information about the growth of the Indian economy, set in Chennai then Toronto. He acted in the drama "Mariyadhai" (2009), in the second film with director Vikraman, after "Vaanathai Pola" followed by the action "Engal Aasan" (2009), where he co-starred with Vikranth, the cousin of actor Vijay. This year, Vijayakanth received a Filmfare Top 10 Legends of Tamil Cinema Award, over the course of his three-decade career as a screen star.


title: Vijayakanth

text: Vijayakanth acted and directed the film, "Virudhagiri" (2010), a remake of the French film "Taken". After taking a hiatus of five years without films, he made a cameo appearance with his son, the first film of actor Shanmuga Pandian in "Sagaptham" (2015). In November 2015, he came back to acting in a feature film - Arun Ponnambalam's "Thamizhan Endru Sol", alongside his son, Shanmuga Pandian, the second film with him. The film began production during November 2015, and had been temporarily suspended owing to the upcoming TN Assembly elections and the deteriorating health of Vijayakanth. He played 154 movies and is one of the most adored film personalities in the Tamil industry. Vijayakanth is listed by The Cinemaholic among the top 20 best Tamil actors of all time.


title: Vijayakanth

text: He founded Shri Andal Alagar College of Engineering in 2001. His wife is the chairperson of this college. On 1 October 2001, Vijayakanth declared that 1 October, which is actor Sivaji Ganesan's birthday, be observed as Actors' Day in Tamil Nadu. In 2001, he was the former president of South Indian Film Artistes' Association and under his presidency, the debts of the association were cleared by organising celebrity shows overseas. Vijayakanth has launched a 24-hour television channel called Captain TV on 14 April 2010. He later launched a 24-hour news channel called Captain News on 29 August 2012.


title: Vijayakanth

text: The media has widely publicized an ongoing dispute between Vijayakanth and comedic actor Vadivelu, who was Vijayakanth's co-star in a number of notable films. On 21 September 2008, Vadivelu's residence, located in Saligramam in Chennai, was pelted with stones by a gang, leaving several windows and furniture damaged. Vadivelu reported that he suspected that it was Vijayakanth's men, because of a court case which he had filed against Vijayakanth for assault, for which the final court hearing was to take place the following day. Filing another case for attempted murder against Vijayakanth, Vadivelu mentioned his interest in competing against him in the next assembly elections and "teaching him a lesson." In response, Vijayakanth told a press meet on that Vadivelu's allegations are based on hearsay. During the legislative assembly elections in Tamil Nadu in 2011, Vadivelu vehemently campaigned for the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) and its alliance. During his public speeches, he predominantly condemned Vijayakanth, whose party, the Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam (DMDK), allied with the opposition party All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK). In a campaign speech in Tiruvarur, Vadivelu stated that "(his) only aim is to sweep out Vijayakanth's whole team and to campaign vigorously for DMK's victory". Vadivelu was criticized as being biased, only supporting a DMK-led victory for personal gains and not once mentioning the then-official opposition, the AIADMK, or its leader, J. Jayalalitha. In a turn of events, the election was eventually successful for the AIADMK alliance, while Vijayakanth was victorious by a significant margin in his own constituency. While speaking at an election campaign meeting in 2016, he criticized Rajinikanth, causing a considerable backlash from supporters of Rajinikanth. He has been criticized for making obscene gestures in public, often towards journalists.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: The Battle of Sekigahara (Shinjitai: ; Kyūjitai: , Hepburn romanization: "Sekigahara no Tatakai") was a decisive battle on October 21, 1600 (Keichō 5, 15th day of the 9th month) in what is now Gifu prefecture, Japan, at the end of the Sengoku period. This battle was fought by the forces of Tokugawa Ieyasu against a coalition of Toyotomi loyalist clans under Ishida Mitsunari, several of which defected before or during the battle, leading to a Tokugawa victory. The Battle of Sekigahara was the largest battle of Japanese feudal history and is often regarded as the most important. Toyotomi's defeat led to the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Tokugawa Ieyasu took three more years to consolidate his position of power over the Toyotomi clan and the various "daimyō", but the Battle of Sekigahara is widely considered to be the unofficial beginning of the Tokugawa shogunate, which ruled Japan for another two and a half centuries until 1868.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Toyotomi Hideyoshi was a prominent general under Oda Nobunaga. Nobunaga unified much of Japan under his rule after defeating the Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshiaki and ending the Ashikaga shogunate; however, he was betrayed by Akechi Mitsuhide and died at the Honnō-ji Incident of 1582. Hideyoshi quickly avenged his master and consolidated control over Japan afterward, with the aid of his brother Hidenaga. Hideyoshi had risen from humble roots—his father having been an "ashigaru" (foot soldier)—to become the ruler of Japan. To bolster his claim, Hideyoshi married noble women so that his heirs at least would descend from suitably distinguished families.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: The final years of Hideyoshi's reign were troubled. While rivals in the Hojo clan were defeated at the Siege of Odawara in 1590, failures in the invasions of Korea significantly weakened the Toyotomi clan's power and its support from bureaucrats who served in the government. Additionally, Hideyoshi ordered the execution of Toyotomi Hidetsugu and his entire family in 1595. Hidetsugu was his nephew and heir, as well as the regent at the time who had been expected to take up leadership after Hideyoshi. When Hideyoshi was on his deathbed in 1598, he set up a regency government, as his new heir, Toyotomi Hideyori, was only five years old. Hideyoshi's death created a power vacuum; there was no appointed shōgun over the armies. The respected regent Maeda Toshiie, a neutral party between the clashing factions, kept the peace for a time, but he too died in 1599.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Two main factions arose during the fading years of Hideyoshi's rule and the immediate aftermath of his death. Tokugawa Ieyasu was unrivaled in terms of seniority, rank, reputation and overall influence within the regency government, and had the allegiance of many of the lords of eastern Japan. Toyotomi clan loyalists and the lords of western Japan rallied behind Ishida Mitsunari. Tensions between them sometimes boiled into open hostilities, with relations eventually degenerating into the conflicts of 1600 that led to the Battle of Sekigahara.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Katō Kiyomasa and Fukushima Masanori were publicly critical of the bureaucrats, especially Mitsunari and Konishi Yukinaga. Tokugawa Ieyasu took advantage of this situation and recruited them, redirecting the animosity to weaken the Toyotomi clan. Rumours started to spread stating that Ieyasu, at that point the only surviving contemporary ally of Oda Nobunaga, would take over Hideyoshi's legacy just as Nobunaga's was taken. This was especially evident amongst the loyalist bureaucrats, who suspected Ieyasu of agitating unrest amongst Toyotomi's former vassals.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Later, a supposed conspiracy to assassinate Ieyasu surfaced, and many Toyotomi loyalists, including Maeda Toshiie's son, Toshinaga, were accused of taking part and forced to submit to Ieyasu's authority. Uesugi Kagekatsu, one of Hideyoshi's appointed regents, defied Ieyasu by building up his military. When Ieyasu officially condemned him and demanded that he come to Kyoto to explain himself, Kagekatsu's chief advisor, Naoe Kanetsugu, responded with a counter-condemnation that mocked Ieyasu's abuses and violations of Hideyoshi's rules; Ieyasu was infuriated.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Afterwards, Ieyasu summoned the help of various supporters and led them northward to attack the Uesugi clan. However, many of them were at that moment besieging Hasedō. Ishida Mitsunari, grasping the opportunity created by the chaos, rose up in response and created an alliance to challenge Ieyasu's supporters.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Ishida, in his home Sawayama Castle, met with Ōtani Yoshitsugu, Mashita Nagamori and Ankokuji Ekei. Here, they forged their alliance, and invited Mōri Terumoto to be its head. They formed what came to be referred to as the Western Army. Mōri seized Osaka Castle for their base of operations, since most of Tokugawa's forces had vacated the area to attack Uesugi.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Ishida wanted to reinforce Mōri at the impregnable Osaka Castle. This would let Ishida control the capital of Kyoto and challenge the Tokugawa. To this end, Ishida's forces headed for Gifu Castle in order to use it as a staging area to move on Kyoto, since it was controlled by his ally Oda Hidenobu.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Back in Edo, Tokugawa Ieyasu received news of the situation in the Kansai region and decided to deploy his forces. Ieyasu himself commanded 30,000 men and his subordinates led another 40,000 men. This made up the bulk of what would later be called the Eastern Army. He had some former Toyotomi "daimyō" engage with the Western Army, while he split his troops and marched west on the Tōkaidō towards Osaka.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Since the Tokugawa army departed from Edo, it could only take two roads, both of which converged on Gifu Castle. Ieyasu marched on Gifu while Ishida Mitsunari was delayed at Fushimi Castle. This fortress was a halfway point between Osaka and Kyoto and was controlled by the Tokugawa ally Torii Mototada. Ishida could not risk leaving a force that could attack his rear, so he marched on it. It took him ten days to capture Fushimi, and in that time Gifu Castle had fallen. This forced Ishida Mitsunari to retreat southward in the rain. The rain was relevant in that the bulk of both armies were equipped with matchlock rifles ("tanegashima"), which required dry gunpowder to fire. Ishida Mitsunari and his troops were stationed at Ōgaki Castle by mid-October, 1600. They were evaluating their situation when Tokugawa's army arrived two days later at Mino Akasaka, a few miles away from their location.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Initially, the Eastern Army had 75,000 men, while the Western Army numbered 120,000. Ieyasu had also brought a supply of arquebuses. Knowing that the Tokugawa forces were heading towards Osaka, Ishida decided to abandon his positions and marched to Sekigahara. Even though the Western army had tremendous tactical advantages, Ieyasu had already been in contact with many of the "daimyō" in the Western Army for months, promising them land and leniency after the battle should they switch sides.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Shima Sakon, one of Mitsunari's commanders, requested permission to attack the nearest Tokugawa troops. Later, Sakon clashed with Honda Tadakatsu at the Battle of Kuisegawa. As a result, the Eastern Army suffered significant losses from the battle and had to pull back from the Mino Akasaka territory to Sekigahara. Not wanting to lose the advantage, Mitsunari ordered his army to surround Ieyasu at Sekigahara. Ishida deployed his troops in a strong defensive position, flanked by two streams with high ground on the opposite banks. His right flank was reinforced by "daimyō" Kobayakawa Hideaki on Mount Matsuo.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: On October 20, 1600, Ieyasu learned that Ishida Mitsunari had deployed his troops at Sekigahara in a defensive position. They had been following the Western Army, and benefited from considerably better weather.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: At dawn on October 21, 1600, the Tokugawa advance guard stumbled into Ishida's army. Neither side saw each other because of the dense fog caused by the earlier rain. Both sides panicked and withdrew, but that resulted in both sides being aware of their adversary's presence.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Ishida held his current defensive position and Ieyasu deployed his forces in south from Ishida forces, he sent his allies' forces in a line to the front and held his own troops in reserve. Around 8:00 am, wind blew away the fog, and both sides noticed their respective adversary's positions. Last-minute orders were issued and the battle began.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: The battle started when Fukushima Masanori, the leader of the Tokugawa advance guard, charged north from the Eastern Army's left flank along the Fuji River against the Western Army's right centre under Ukita Hideie. The ground was still muddy from the previous day's rain, so the conflict there devolved into something more primal. Ieyasu then ordered attacks from his right and his centre against the Western Army's left in order to support Fukushima's attack.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: This left the Western Army's centre unscathed, so Ishida ordered this unit under the command of Shimazu Yoshihiro to reinforce his right flank. Shimazu refused as "daimyō" of the day only listened to respected commanders, which Ishida was not.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Fukushima's attack was slowly gaining ground, but this came at the cost of exposing their flank to attack from across the Fuji River by Ōtani Yoshitsugu, who took advantage of this opportunity. Just past Ōtani's forces were those of Kobayakawa Hideaki on Mount Matsuo.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Kobayakawa Hideaki was one of the "daimyō" who had been courted by Tokugawa. Even though he had agreed to defect to the Tokugawa side, in the actual battle he was hesitant and remained neutral. Some theories mention that as the battle grew more intense, Ieyasu finally ordered his arquebuses to fire at Kobayakawa's position on Mount Matsuo to force a choice. However the sheer distance between the Eastern Army positions and Kobayakawa's, way out of range of arquebuse and even too far for a shot to even be heard, make this very unlikely. Around noon, Kobayakawa eventually joined the battle as a member of the Eastern Army. His forces charged Ōtani's position. Ōtani's forces had dry gunpowder, so they opened fire on the turncoats, making the charge of 16,000 men mostly ineffective. However, Ōtani's troops were already engaging against forces under the command of Tōdō Takatora and Oda Yūraku when Kobayakawa charged. At this point, the buffer Ōtani established was outnumbered. Seeing this, Western Army daimyos Wakisaka Yasuharu, Ogawa Suketada, Akaza Naoyasu and Kutsuki Mototsuna switched sides, turning the tide of battle.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Heavily outnumbered, Ōtani had no choice but to retreat. This left the Western Army's right flank wide open, so Fukushima and Kobayakawa began to roll it up. Thus Ishida's right flank was destroyed and his centre was being pushed back, so he retreated.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Ishida's only remaining forces were on Mount Nangu. However, these forces were there for a reason. Kikkawa Hiroie was one of the commanders on the mountain. Kikkawa's troops formed the front lines of the Mōri army, which was commanded by his cousin Mōri Hidemoto. Earlier, when Hidemoto decided to attack the Tokugawa forces, Hiroie refused to comply, stating he was busy eating and asked to be left alone. This in turn prevented the Chōsokabe army, which deployed behind the Mōri clan, from attacking. When Ishida arrived, Kikkawa betrayed him as well. He kept the Mōri army at bay, and since Ishida had no more support, he was defeated.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: The Western Army disintegrated afterwards with the commanders scattering and fleeing. Some, like Ukita Hideie, managed to escape, at least initially. Many others did not. Shima Sakon was shot and fatally wounded by a round from an arquebus and Ōtani Yoshitsugu committed suicide. Ishida, Yukinaga and Ekei were some of those who were captured and a few, like Shimazu Yoshihiro, were able to return to their home provinces. Mōri Terumoto and his forces had remained entrenched at Osaka Castle rather than join the battle, and later quietly surrendered to Tokugawa. Ishida himself was later executed.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Both sides had forces that did not arrive at Sekigahara in time to participate due to other battles. Ieyasu's son Hidetada led another group through Nakasendō. However, Hidetada's forces were bogged down as he attempted to besiege Sanada Masayuki's Ueda Castle against his father's direct orders. Even though the Tokugawa forces numbered some 38,000, an overwhelming advantage over Sanada's mere 2,000, they were still unable to capture the famous strategist's well-defended position.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: At the same time, 15,000 Toyotomi troops were being held up by 500 troops under Hosokawa Yūsai at Tanabe Castle in present-day Maizuru, Kyoto Prefecture. Some among the 15,000 troops respected Hosokawa so much they intentionally slowed their pace. Due to these incidents, a large number of troops from both sides failed to show up in time for the battle. If either of these armies participated in the conflict, it could have ended quite differently.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Following the public executions of Ishida Mitsunari, Konishi Yukinaga and Ankokuji Ekei on November 6, the influence and reputation of the Toyotomi clan and its remaining loyalists drastically decreased. Tokugawa Ieyasu redistributed the lands and fiefs of the participants, generally rewarding those who assisted him and displacing, punishing, or exiling those who fought against him. In doing so, he gained control of many former Toyotomi territories.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: At the time, the battle was considered only an internal conflict between Toyotomi vassals. However, after Ieyasu was named "shōgun" in 1603 by Emperor Go-Yōzei, a position that had been left vacant since the fall of the Ashikaga shōgunate 27 years earlier, the battle was perceived as a more important event. In 1664, Hayashi Gahō, Tokugawa historian and rector of Yushima Seidō, summarised the consequences of the battle: "Evil-doers and bandits were vanquished and the entire realm submitted to Lord Ieyasu, praising the establishment of peace and extolling his martial virtue. That this glorious era that he founded may continue for ten thousands upon ten thousands of generations, coeval with heaven and earth."


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: While most clans were content with their new status, there were many clans, especially those on the Western side, who became bitter about their displacement or what they saw as a dishonorable defeat or punishment. Three clans in particular did not take the aftermath of Sekigahara lightly:


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: The descendants of these three clans would in two centuries collaborate to bring down the Tokugawa shogunate, leading to the Meiji Restoration.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Before the fateful confrontation in Sekigahara, Ishida Mitsunari claimed Osaka Castle and planned to take hostages from relatives loyal to Toyotomi. He hoped to use them to force his rival generals to join his cause. He sought to make noblewomen Hosokawa Gracia, Yamauchi Chiyo and Kushihashi Teru as political hostages, and other women were targets of Mitsunari's plan.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: When Mitsunari's soldiers threatened to take Hosokawa's home, Hosokawa Gracia was killed to protect her honor by a family soldier named Ogasawara Shōsai. He and the rest of the residents committed seppuku to avoid capture. As the last notable survivor of the Akechi clan, the clan responsible for the death of Oda Nobunaga, Gracia's death impacted both armies. The incident did much damage to Ishida's reputation, which greatly reduced his chances of recruiting more allies, some of whom were also secretly Christians.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: After Hideyoshi's death, Kodain-in (Hideyoshi's chief consort) left Osaka Castle and lived as a castellan in Kyoto. Hideyoshi's second wife, Yodo-dono, inherited the political power of both figures, as Hideyori was too young to lead the Toyotomi clan. Yodo-dono was present in the maintenance of the Western army, although she did not play a very notable role during the campaign. Subsequently, Ieyasu began to receive hostages, nobles who were involved with the Mitsunari army, such as Maeda Matsu, whose son, Maeda Toshimasa, was involved in the Western army, while her other son, Maeda Toshinaga, was an ally of the Eastern army. After Ieyasu defeated Mitsunari in Sekigahara, Kodain-in received several women from the Western army at her home.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Kuki Yoshitaka, one of Nobunaga and Hideyoshi's top generals, fought alongside the western forces, while his son Kuki Moritaka joined the eastern forces, under Tokugawa Ieyasu. Following Tokugawa's victory, his son successfully guaranteed Yoshitaka's safety from Ieyasu. In a turn of fate, Yoshitaka committed seppuku before the news from Moritaka reached him.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Legend has it that the "rōnin" Miyamoto Musashi was present at the battle among Ukita Hideie's army and escaped the defeat of Hideie's forces unharmed. Musashi would have been around 16 years of age at the time. There is no hard evidence to prove whether Musashi was present or not for the battle. According to one account, the "Musashi yuko gamei", "Musashi's achievements stood out from the crowd, and were known by the soldiers in all camps." Musashi is reticent on the matter, writing only that he had "participated in over six battles since my youth".


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: The cannons from the "Liefde", the trading ship that English sailor William Adams came to Japan on, were used by Tokugawa's forces at Sekigahara. It is unlikely Adams himself was at the battle, although some fictional accounts have entertained the possibility.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: The site of the battle was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 1931. The site encompasses the sites of the initial position of Tokugawa Ieyasu (徳川家康最初陣地), the final position of Tokugawa Ieyasu (徳川家康最後陣地), the position of Ishida Mitsunari (石田三成陣地), the Okayama beacon (岡山烽火場), the grave of Ōtani Yoshitsugu (大谷吉隆墓), the east "kubizuka" (東首塚), and the west "kubizuka" (西首塚)


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: The Battle of Sekigahara has been depicted in a number of works of literature. Ryōtarō Shiba wrote a three-volume historical novel called "Sekigahara" on it in the 1960s. James Clavell's 1975 novel, "Shōgun", includes a fictionalized version of both the political struggle and the battle. Tokyo Broadcasting System aired a television miniseries about the subject in January 1981, also entitled , loosely based on Shiba's novel series. It featured actors Hisaya Morishige, Gō Katō and Rentarō Mikuni.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: The battle did not get a full movie featuring it until 2017, with previous inclusions generally only including a brief snippet in passing, such as the beginning of the 1954 movie "Samurai I" or the 1991 film "Journey of Honor". This changed with the 2017 film "Sekigahara", which covers the rivalry between Ishida Mitsunari and Tokugawa Ieyasu before leading to the battle itself in the final third of the film. The film is somewhat notable in being a revisionist reassessment, showing Tokugawa more as an antagonist while Mitsunari is a man of honor and the main protagonist. The 2008 BBC docudrama television series "Heroes and Villains" includes an episode which depicts the battle. The anime "" depicts the different alliances and armies from a more fantastic (and less realistic) viewpoint, with a less bloody conclusion.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: The 2000 video game "Kessen" is set during the conflict between Tokugawa and Toyotomi clan, and features the Battle of Sekigahara. It also provides an alternate scenario in case the Western forces win the battle. GMT Games produced the 2011 block wargame "Sekigahara: Unification of Japan", which attempts to reflect the patchy loyalties of the armies involved by having randomized cards represent the loyalty of specific armies; players know which of their units are "reliable" but their opponents are not necessarily sure. The 2017 video game "Nioh" includes a mission related to the battle and features heavily fictionalized versions of the events leading up to it.


title: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Paul Davis used the following sources to compile the chapter "Sekigahara, 21 October 1600" in "100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present" "Sekigahara, 21 October 1600."


title: Synagogue

text: A synagogue, sometimes referred to as shul, and interchangeably used with the word temple, is a Jewish house of worship. Synagogues have a place for prayer (the main sanctuary and sometimes smaller chapels), where Jews attend religious Services or special ceremonies (including Weddings, Bar Mitzvahs or Bat Mitzvahs, Confirmations, choir performances, or even children's plays), have rooms for study, social hall(s), administrative and charitable offices, classrooms for religious school and Hebrew school, sometimes Jewish preschools, and often have many places to sit and congregate; display commemorative, historic, or modern artwork throughout; and sometimes have items of some Jewish historical significance or history about the Synagogue itself, on display.


title: Synagogue

text: Synagogues are consecrated spaces used for the purpose of Jewish prayer, study, assembly, and reading of the Torah (read in its entirety once a year in weekly Torah portions during religious Services). However, a Synagogue is not always necessary for Jewish worship, due to adaptations during times of Jewish persecution in countries and regions that banned Judaism, frequently destroying and/or reappropriating Synagogues into Churches or even government buildings. "Halakha" (Jewish "law," or Mitzvot, from the Mishnah -- the "Oral Torah") state that communal Jewish worship can be carried out wherever a "minyan" (a group of at least 10 Jewish adults) is assembled. Worship can also happen alone or with fewer than 10 people, but there are certain prayers that are considered by "halakha" as solely communal, and these can therefore be recited only by a "minyan", depending on sect of Judaism. In terms of its specific ritual and liturgical functions, the Synagogue does not replace the symbol of the long-destroyed Temple in Jerusalem (1st or 2nd Temple).


title: Synagogue

text: Israelis use the Hebrew term ' "house of assembly". Ultra-Orthodox Hasidic Jews have traditionally used the Western Yiddish (German-Yiddish) term ' (cognate with the German , 'school') in everyday speech. Sephardi Jews and Romaniote Jews generally use the term "kal" (from the Hebrew "ḳahal", meaning "community"). Spanish Jews call the synagogue an and Portuguese Jews call it a . Persian Jews and some Karaite Jews also use the term "kenesa", which is derived from Aramaic, and some Mizrahi Jews use "kenis" or "qnis". Most Reform and Conservative Jews use the word "temple" interchangeably with Synagogue. The Greek word "synagogue" is used in English to cover the preceding possibilities.


title: Synagogue

text: Although synagogues existed a long time before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, communal worship in the time while the Temple still stood focused mostly on "korbanot" brought by the "Kohanim" (Aaronic priesthood line of Rabbinical succession) in the Temple in Jerusalem. The all-day Yom Kippur service, was an event in which the congregation both observed the movements of the "kohen gadol" ("high priest") as he presided over the day's traditions and processions, and administered prayers for success.


title: Synagogue

text: According to Jewish tradition, the men of the Great Assembly (around 5th century BCE) formalized and standardized the language of the Jewish prayers. Prior to that people prayed as they saw fit, with each individual praying in his or her own way, and there were no standard prayers that were recited.


title: Synagogue

text: Johanan ben Zakai, one of the leaders at the end of the Second Temple period, promulgated the idea of creating individual houses of worship in whatever locale Jews found themselves. This contributed to the continuity of the Jewish people by maintaining a unique identity and a portable way of worship despite the destruction of the Temple, according to many historians.


title: Synagogue

text: Synagogues in the sense of purpose-built spaces for worship, or rooms originally constructed for some other purpose but reserved for formal, communal prayer, however, existed long before the destruction of the Second Temple. The earliest archaeological evidence for the existence of very early synagogues comes from Egypt, where stone synagogue dedication inscriptions dating from the 3rd century BCE prove that synagogues existed by that date. More than a dozen Jewish (and possibly Samaritan) Second Temple period synagogues have been identified by archaeologists in Israel, and in other countries belonging to the Hellenistic world.


title: Synagogue

text: Any Jew or group of Jews can build a synagogue. Synagogues have been constructed by ancient Jewish "kings" (the English word "king" has a different context lost in English translation; more appropriately translating to "leader"), by wealthy patrons, as part of a wide range of human institutions including secular educational institutions, governments, and hotels, by the entire Jewish community of living in a particular village or region, or by sub-groups of Jewish people arrayed according to occupation, ethnicity (i.e. the Sephardi, Yemeni, Polish or Persian Jews of a town), style of religious observance (i.e., Reform, Orthodox synagogue), or by the followers of a particular Rabbi (only in very small congregations or ultra-orthodox Hasidism).


title: Synagogue

text: It has been theorized that the synagogue became a place of worship in the region upon the destruction of the Second Temple during the First Jewish–Roman War; however, others speculate that there had been places of prayer, apart from the Temple, during the Hellenistic period. The popularization of prayer over sacrifice during the years prior to the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE had prepared the Jews for life in the diaspora, where prayer would serve as the focus of Jewish worship.


title: Synagogue

text: Despite the possibility of synagogue-like spaces prior to the First Jewish–Roman War, the synagogue emerged as a stronghold for Jewish worship upon the destruction of the Temple. For Jews living in the wake of the Revolt, the synagogue functioned as a "portable system of worship". Within the synagogue, Jews worshiped by way of prayer rather than sacrifices, which had previously served as the main form of worship within the Second Temple.


title: Synagogue

text: In 1995, Howard Clark Kee argued that synagogues were not a developed feature of Jewish life prior to the First Jewish-Roman War (66-73 CE). Kee interpreted his findings as evidence that the mentions of synagogues in the New Testament, including Jesus's visitations of synagogues in various Jewish settlements in Israel, were anachronistic. However, by 2018, Mordechai Aviam reported that there were now at least nine synagogues excavated known to pre-date the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70 CE, including in Magdala, Gamla, Masada, Herodium, Modi‘in (Kh. Umm el-‘Umdan), Qiryat Sepher (Kh. Bad ‘Issa), and Kh. Diab. Aviam concluded that he thought almost every Jewish settlement at the time, whether it was a polis or a village, had a synagogue.


title: Synagogue

text: Rabbi and philosopher, Maimonides (1138–1204), described the various customs in his day with respect to local synagogues:


title: Synagogue

text: Synagogues and houses of study must be treated with respect. They are swept and sprinkled [with water] to lay the dust. In Spain and the Maghreb, in Babylonia and in the Holy Land, it is customary to kindle lamps in the synagogues and to spread mats on the floor upon which the worshippers sit. In the lands of Edom (Christendom), they sit in synagogues upon chairs [or benches].


title: Synagogue

text: The Samaritan house of worship is also called a synagogue. During the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, during the Hellenistic period, the Greek word used in the Diaspora by Samaritans and Jews was the same: "proseucheμ" (literally, a place of prayer); a later, 3rd or 4th century CE inscription, uses a similar Greek term: "eukteμrion" (prayer house). The oldest Samaritan synagogue discovered so far is from Delos in the Aegean Islands, with an inscription dated between 250 and 175 BCE, while most Samaritan synagogues excavated in the wider Land of Israel and ancient Samaria in particular, were built during the 4th-7th centuries, at the very end of the Roman and throughout the Byzantine period.


title: Synagogue

text: Ancient Samaritan synagogues are mentioned by literary sources or have been found by archaeologists in the Diaspora, in the wider Holy Land, and specifically in Samaria.


title: Synagogue

text: In the New Testament, the word appears 56 times, mostly in the Synoptic Gospels, but also in the Gospel of John () and the Book of Revelation (). It is used in the sense of 'assembly' in the Epistle of James (). Alternatively, the epistle of James (in Greek, clearly Ἰάκωβος or יעקב, anglicized to Jacob) refers to a place of assembly that was indeed Jewish, with Jacob ben Joseph perhaps an elder there. The specific word in James (Jacob) 2:2 could easily be rendered "synagogue," from the Greek συναγωγὴν.


title: Synagogue

text: During the first Christian centuries, Jewish Christian are hypothesized to have used houses of worship known in academic literature as synagogue-churches. Scholars have claimed to have identified such houses of worship of the Jews who had accepted Jesus as the Messiah in Jerusalem and Nazareth.


title: Synagogue

text: There is no set blueprint for synagogues and the architectural shapes and interior designs of synagogues vary greatly. In fact, the influence from other local religious buildings can often be seen in synagogue arches, domes and towers.


title: Synagogue

text: Historically, synagogues were built in the prevailing architectural style of their time and place. Thus, the synagogue in Kaifeng, China looked very like Chinese temples of that region and era, with its outer wall and open garden in which several buildings were arranged. The styles of the earliest synagogues resembled the temples of other cults of the Eastern Roman Empire. The surviving synagogues of medieval Spain are embellished with mudéjar plasterwork. The surviving medieval synagogues in Budapest and Prague are typical Gothic structures.


title: Synagogue

text: With the emancipation of Jews in Western European countries, which not only enabled Jews to enter fields of enterprise from which they were formerly barred, but gave them the right to build synagogues without needing special permissions, synagogue architecture blossomed. Large Jewish communities wished to show not only their wealth but also their newly acquired status as citizens by constructing magnificent synagogues. These were built across Western Europe and in the United States in all of the historicist or revival styles then in fashion. Thus there were Neoclassical, Neo-Byzantine, Romanesque Revival, Moorish Revival, Gothic Revival, and Greek Revival. There are Egyptian Revival synagogues and even one Mayan Revival synagogue. In the 19th century and early 20th century heyday of historicist architecture, however, most historicist synagogues, even the most magnificent ones, did not attempt a pure style, or even any particular style, and are best described as eclectic.


title: Synagogue

text: All synagogues contain a "Bimah", a large, raised, reader's platform (called (reading dais) by Sephardim), where the Torah scroll is placed to be read. In Sephardi synagogues it is also used as the prayer leader's reading desk. This is also so in the Ashkenazi United Synagogue in England, UK, who adopted some of the Sephardi customs.


title: Synagogue

text: In Ashkenazi synagogues, the Torah was read on a reader's table located in the center of the room, while the leader of the prayer service, the hazzan, stood at his own lectern or table, facing the Ark. In Sephardic synagogues, the table for reading the Torah (reading dais) was commonly placed at the opposite side of the room from the Torah Ark, leaving the center of the floor empty for the use of a ceremonial procession carrying the Torah between the Ark and the reading table. Most contemporary synagogues feature a lectern for the rabbi.


title: Synagogue

text: The Torah Ark, called in Hebrew "Aron Kodesh" or 'holy chest', and alternatively called the "heikhal"— or 'temple' by Sephardic Jews, is a cabinet in which the Torah scrolls are kept.


title: Synagogue

text: The ark in a synagogue is almost always positioned in such a way such that those who face it are facing towards Jerusalem. Thus, sanctuary seating plans in the Western world generally face east, while those east of Israel face west. Sanctuaries in Israel face towards Jerusalem. Occasionally synagogues face other directions for structural reasons; in such cases, some individuals might turn to face Jerusalem when standing for prayers, but the congregation as a whole does not.


title: Synagogue

text: The Ark is reminiscent of the Ark of the Covenant, which held the tablets inscribed with the Ten Commandments. This is the holiest spot in a synagogue, equivalent to the Holy of Holies. The Ark is often closed with an ornate curtain, the , which hangs outside or inside the ark doors.


title: Synagogue

text: Other traditional features include a continually lit lamp or lantern, usually electric in contemporary synagogues, called the (), the "Eternal Light", used as a way to honor the Divine Presence.


title: Synagogue

text: A synagogue may be decorated with artwork, but in the Rabbinic and Orthodox tradition, three-dimensional sculptures and depictions of the human body are not allowed as these are considered akin to idolatry.


title: Synagogue

text: Originally, synagogues were made devoid of much furniture, the Jewish congregants in Spain, the Maghreb (North Africa), Babylonia, the Land of Israel and Yemen having a custom to sit upon the floor, which had been strewn with mats and cushions, rather than upon chairs or benches. In other European towns and cities, however, Jewish congregants would sit upon chairs and benches. Today, the custom has spread in all places to sit upon chairs and benches.


title: Synagogue

text: Until the 19th century, in an Ashkenazi synagogue, all seats most often faced the Torah Ark. In a Sephardic synagogue, seats were usually arranged around the perimeter of the sanctuary, but when the worshipers stood up to pray, everyone faced the Ark.


title: Synagogue

text: Many current synagogues have an elaborate chair named for the prophet Elijah, which is only sat upon during the ceremony of Brit milah.


title: Synagogue

text: In ancient synagogues, a special chair placed on the wall facing Jerusalem and next to the Torah Shrine was reserved for the prominent members of the congregation and for important guests. Such a stone-carved and inscribed seat was discovered at archaeological excavations in the synagogue at Chorazin in Galilee and dates from the 4th–6th century; another one was discovered at the Delos Synagogue, complete with a footstool.


title: Synagogue

text: In Yemen, the Jewish custom was to remove one's shoes immediately prior to entering the synagogue, a custom that had been observed by Jews in other places in earlier times. The same practice of removing one's shoes before entering the synagogue was also largely observed among Jews in Morocco in the early 20th-century. On the island of Djerba in Tunisia, Jews still remove their shoes when entering a synagogue. The custom of removing one's shoes is no longer practiced in Israel, the United Kingdom, or the United States. However, in Karaite Judaism, the custom of removing one's shoes prior to entering a synagogue is still observed worldwide.


title: Synagogue

text: In Orthodox synagogues, men and women do not sit together. The synagogue features a partition () dividing the men's and women's seating areas, or a separate women's section located on a balcony.


title: Synagogue

text: The German–Jewish Reform movement, which arose in the early 19th century, made many changes to the traditional look of the synagogue, keeping with its desire to simultaneously stay Jewish yet be accepted by the surrounding culture.


title: Synagogue

text: The first Reform synagogue, which opened in Hamburg in 1811, introduced changes that made the synagogue look more like a church. These included: the installation of an organ to accompany the prayers (even on Shabbat, when musical instruments are proscribed by halakha), a choir to accompany the hazzan, and vestments for the synagogue rabbi to wear.


title: Synagogue

text: In following decades, the central reader's table, the Bimah, was moved to the front of the Reform sanctuary—previously unheard-of in Orthodox synagogues.


title: Synagogue

text: Synagogues often take on a broader role in modern Jewish communities and may include additional facilities such as a catering hall, kosher kitchen, religious school, library, day care center and a smaller chapel for daily services.


title: Synagogue

text: Since many Orthodox and some non-Orthodox Jews prefer to collect a minyan (a quorum of ten) rather than pray alone, they commonly assemble at pre-arranged times in offices, living rooms, or other spaces when these are more convenient than formal synagogue buildings. A room or building that is used this way can become a dedicated small synagogue or prayer room. Among Ashkenazi Jews they are traditionally called (, pl. or , Yiddish for "little house"), and are found in Orthodox communities worldwide.


title: Synagogue

text: Another type of communal prayer group, favored by some contemporary Jews, is the "chavurah" (, pl. "chavurot", ), or prayer fellowship. These groups meet at a regular place and time, either in a private home or in a synagogue or other institutional space. In antiquity, the Pharisees lived near each other in "chavurot" and dined together to ensure that none of the food was unfit for consumption.


title: Mars rover

text: A Mars rover is a motor vehicle designed to travel on the surface of Mars. Rovers have several advantages over stationary landers: they examine more territory, they can be directed to interesting features, they can place themselves in sunny positions to weather winter months, and they can advance the knowledge of how to perform very remote robotic vehicle control. They serve a different purpose than orbital spacecraft like "Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter". A more recent development is the Mars helicopter.


title: Mars rover

text: , there have been six successful robotically operated Mars rovers; the first five, managed by the American NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, were (by date of Mars landing): "Sojourner" (1997), "Spirit" (2004–2010), "Opportunity" (2004–2018), "Curiosity" (2012–), and "Perseverance" (2021–). The sixth, managed by the China National Space Administration, is "Zhurong" (2021–).


title: Mars rover

text: On January 24, 2016, NASA reported that then current studies on Mars by "Opportunity" and "Curiosity" would be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on Mars is now a primary NASA objective.


title: Mars rover

text: The Soviet probes, Mars 2 and Mars 3, were physically tethered probes; "Sojourner" was dependent on the Mars Pathfinder base station for communication with Earth; "Opportunity", "Spirit" and "Curiosity" were on their own. As of 2022, "Curiosity" is still active, while "Spirit", "Opportunity", and "Sojourner" completed their missions before losing contact. On February 18, 2021, "Perseverance", the newest American Mars rover, successfully landed. On May 14, 2021, China's "Zhurong" became the first non-American rover to successfully operate on Mars.


title: Mars rover

text: NASA distinguishes between "mission" objectives and "science" objectives. Mission objectives are related to progress in space technology and development processes. Science objectives are met by the instruments during their mission in space.


title: Mars rover

text: The science instruments are chosen and designed based on the science objectives and goals. The primary goal of the "Spirit" and "Opportunity" rovers was to investigate "the history of water on Mars".


title: Rie Takahashi

text: Takahashi was born in Saitama Prefecture. She watched "Ojamajo Doremi", "Higurashi When They Cry" and "Soul Eater" while in high school. She noticed that many male characters were voiced by female voice actors; as this fact interested her, she decided to pursue a career in voice acting. She joined her school's broadcasting club during her third year of high school, and she also won a special citation for voice acting at the 4th High School Animation Fair. During her third year of high school, Takahashi participated in an audition sponsored by the voice acting agency 81 Produce. After graduating from high school, she attended 81 Produce's training school, 81 Actor's Studio. While continuing with her lessons, she became part of the voice actor unit Anisoni∀, alongside Reina Ueda, Chiyeri Hayashida and Kayoto Tsumita. After graduating from the 81 Actor's Studio in 2013, she formally joined 81 Produce. She worked many part time jobs such as at supermarkets and a bra factory.


title: Rie Takahashi

text: In 2013, she played background or supporting roles in each series, such as "Stella Women’s Academy, High School Division Class C³", "Driland" and "Aikatsu". She also played the role of a student in a voiced comic stream of the online manga "Pokémon Card Game XY: Yarouze!". In 2015, she played her first lead role as Futaba Ichinose in the anime television series "Seiyu's Life!". Takahashi, together with "Seiyu's Life!" co-stars Marika Kouno and Yuki Nagaku, formed the musical unit Earphones. That same year, she was cast as the characters Miki Naoki in "School-Live!" and Kaon Lanchester in "Comet Lucifer". She and fellow "School-Live!" co-stars Inori Minase, Ari Ozawa, and Mao Ichimichi, performed the series' opening theme . In March 2016, Takahashi received the Best Newcomer Award at the 10th Seiyu Awards. She was then cast as the character Megumin in the anime series "KonoSuba"; she and co-stars Sora Amamiya and Ai Kayano performed the series' closing theme . She also voiced the roles of Noct Leaflet in "Undefeated Bahamut Chronicle", OL in "", Mirai Asahina in "Maho Girls PreCure!", and Code Omega 00 Yufilia in "Ange Vierge". She played Emilia in the anime series ""; Takahashi performed the series' second closing theme "Stay Alive". Later that year, she was cast as the character Mash Kyrielight in the mobile phone game "Fate/Grand Order", replacing Risa Taneda who had gone on hiatus earlier that year. In 2017, Takahashi reprised the role of Megumin in the second season of "KonoSuba", where she, Amamiya and Kayano performed the series' closing theme . She played Aqua Aino in "Love Tyrant", and Ernesti Echevarria in "Knight's & Magic". In 2018, she played Takagi in the anime series "Teasing Master Takagi-san", where she performed the series' ending themes. She also played the roles of Tsubasa Katsuki in "Comic Girls" and Sagiri Ameno in "Yuuna and the Haunted Hot Springs". In 2019, she played Nozomi Makino in "Magical Girl Spec-Ops Asuka". and reprised her role as Takagi-san in "Teasing Master Takagi-san", where she performed the series' closing themes.


title: Rie Takahashi

text: In February 2021, Takahashi announced her debut as a solo singer under A-Sketch/Astro Voice on April, along with the launch of her official fanclub, . Her debut album was released on June 23, 2021. In March 2022, Takahashi received the Best Supporting Actress Award at the 16th Seiyu Awards.


title: Tanishk Bagchi

text: Tanishk Bagchi (born 23 November 1980) is an Indian music producer, composer, singer and lyricist in Hindi films. He is known for tracks like "Bolna", "Ve Maahi", "Aankh Maarey"(recreated), "Dilbar" (recreated) and "Lut Gaye"(recreated).


title: Tanishk Bagchi

text: Tanishk Bagchi was born to musicians Nandakumar Bagchi and Sharmistha Dash and hails from Kolkata, West Bengal. He attended the Frank Anthony Public School and the Scottish Church College.


title: Tanishk Bagchi

text: Bagchi released the Bengali-language album "City Life" in 2007. Bagchi later worked as a music producer alongside Aditya Dev in the song "Meherbani", composed and written by Arko Pravo Mukherjee for the film 2014 film "The Shaukeens". Bagchi collaborated with lyricist Vayu Srivastava for a single "Oopar Oopar Renn De". Anurag Kashyap liked it and led the duo to a person named Ravi Adhikari, a close relative to the director of the 2015 film "Tanu Weds Manu Returns", Aanand L. Rai. The duo then made their debut in Bollywood with the song "Banno". Before composing for films, he produced and arranged music for TV shows like "Thapki...Pyar Ki" etc. Bagchi debuted as a solo composer in the song "Samandar" in Kis Kisko Pyaar Karoon.


title: Tanishk Bagchi

text: In 2017, Bagchi's first single outing for Machine arrived. The album had Dr. Zeus as a guest composer of a dance number. Though the film was a flop in the box office, the songs like "Cheez Badi" crossed million views on YouTube. In the same year, he, along with Vayu, composed the soundtrack album of the film Shubh Mangal Saavdhan.


title: Tanishk Bagchi

text: Bagchi's first remake song "Humma Humma", from the 2017 film "Ok Jaanu". was initially disliked, but later went on to receive over 200 million views on YouTube. That same year, he recreated more classic songs like "Tamma Tamma", "Mere Rashke Qamar", "Cheez Badi", etc. He then won the Zee Cine Award for Song of the Year for his song Baarish from "Half Girlfriend" and the 2018 IIFA Award for Best Music Director for the film "Badrinath Ki Dulhania". Tanishk-Vayu's song "Kanha" got many nominations and the singer Shashaa Tirupati also won one of them.


title: Tanishk Bagchi

text: In 2018,Bagchi composed the soundtrack album of the film Loveyatri, with DJ Chetas-Lijo George and JAM8. Bagchi made his Telugu debut in the song "Adbhutam" from the film "Lover". He, along with Vayu, composed the new "Red FM" Jingle, which includes the voice of Rajnigandha Shekhawat and the lyrics were written by Vayu. He also recreated two songs that year - Dilbar in the film "Satyamev Jayate" which received 20 million views in its first 24 hours of release on YouTube, and Aankh Maarey for "Simmba" which became the party anthem of 2018-19 New Year's parties. "Aankh Maarey" crossed 1 billion views in 2021. The others include "Sanu Ek Pal Chain", "Gali Gali", "Naam Hai Mera", etc. He also collaborated with Himesh Reshammiya in the recreation of Reshammiya's hit track Aashiq Banaya Apne in Hate Story 4 with additional vocals of Neha Kakkar. He also composed the soundtrack album of Simmba along with one of its two themes. The other theme was composed by S. Thaman and one song in the album, "Mera Wala Dance" was composed by DJ Chetas-Lijo George.


title: Tanishk Bagchi

text: In 2019, Bagchi was nominated as the best lyricist for his song "Ve Maahi" from the 2019 film Kesari at the 65th Filmfare Awards. He later released his single "Khud Se Zyada" with the independent record label VYRL originals as a singer-songwriter. His single "Vaaste", sung by Dhvani Bhanushali and Nikhil D'Souza became the most viewed Hindi track on YouTube in 2019. The song crossed 1 billion views in 2020. He also composed "Makhna" song for the Netflix drama Drive. In the same year, he made his debut in Tamil through his song "Kadhal Psycho" in Saaho (Tamil). The song was composed by him in Telugu, Malayalam, and Hindi as well. He collaborated with Kshmr for the theme song of Good Newwz. In the same album, he composed 4 out of the 7 other songs.


title: Tanishk Bagchi

text: In 2020, Tanishk-Vayu created the Pepsi anthem "Swag Se Solo" and Holi song "Mere Angne Mein". The duo also composed the soundtrack album of the film Shubh Mangal Zyada Saavdhan. Vayu was nominated as the best lyricist for "Mere Liye Tum Kaafi Ho" a song from that film at the 66th Filmfare Awards. Bagchi recreated 3 songs in Street Dancer 3D. He composed 3 out of 6 songs in the album of Coolie No. 1.


title: Tanishk Bagchi

text: He has also recreated "Tip Tip Barsa Pani" for Sooryavanshi, which was postponed indefinitely due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Tanishk Bagchi

text: In 2021, he composed and produced the official anthem for Fearless And United- Guards, a game developed by nCore games. The anthem was released by actor-producer Akshay Kumar on 3 January 2021.


title: Tanishk Bagchi

text: Bagchi also composed a song "Lut Gaye" in the voice of Jubin Nautiyal, the video of which starred Bollywood actor Emraan Hashmi. The song turned out to be a chartbuster. It become the song to have fastest 100 million+ streams across all streaming platforms, first Indian song to have both 1 Million+ as well as 2 Million+ reel videos on Instagram, entered the Billboard Global Excl. U.S. charts, acquired the 1st position on Ormax Heartbeats Top 5 and the audio trended on all short video platforms. As of 6 April 2021, it has more than 380 million views and more than 5 million likes on YouTube. It became the song to be fastest in garnering 500 million views on MX Takatak, a short video platform.


title: Tanishk Bagchi

text: Bagchi composed the song "Har Funn Maula" for the film "Koi Jaane Na". The song featured actors Aamir Khan and Elli AvrRam. The song marked the first collaboration between Bagchi and singer Vishal Dadlani, who had earlier criticized the former for remaking the song "O Saki Saki", which was originally created by Vishal–Shekhar. Bagchi's second music video "Patli Kamariya" had him as the composer and lyricist. He sang the song along with Sukh-E and Parampara Thakur Tandon.


title: Tanishk Bagchi

text: In May 2021, Tanishk Bagchi released his second single outing through the album of the Netflix film Sardar Ka Grandson. He also made his playback debut through the song "Dil Nahi Todna" from the same, written by himself.


title: Tanishk Bagchi

text: In 2019, his remake version of the song "O Saki Saki" achieved a lot of views but was criticised by the original music director, Vishal Dadlani. In 2020, his remake version of the "Delhi-6" song "Masakali", titled "Masakali 2.0", which was initially supposed to be released as part of the soundtrack of "Marjaavaan", was severely criticised by the makers of the original, including composer A. R. Rahman, lyricist Prasoon Joshi and singer Mohit Chauhan. He was also trolled on entertainment websites and social media platforms.


title: Tanishk Bagchi

text: After the controversy "Masakali 2.0" Tanishk Bagchi also received criticism through memes that spread on twitter. It also refers to the artist Neha Kakkar, where all the memes are mostly aimed at the two for often making remake songs together. Bagchi had earlier said that he didn't want to make remakes in the beginning, but got an opportunity to make the music for "The Humma Song" for "Ok Jaanu". Bagchi also received harsh criticism because of the song Zaalima Coca Cola which was sung by Shreya Ghoshal and starred Nora Fatehi. The song was originally released for the action film, . The song was criticized by Pakistani netizens because the film is considered anti-Pakistan, while the original version of this song is a song from Pakistan sung by Noor Jehan. The song also drew criticism for the lyrics used, but others praised the performance of Ghoshal and Fatehi for this song.


title: Supermodel

text: A supermodel, also spelled super-model or super model, is a highly paid fashion model who usually has a worldwide reputation and often a background in "haute couture" and commercial modeling. The term "supermodel" became prominent in the popular culture of the 1990s.


title: Supermodel

text: Supermodels usually work for prominent fashion designers and clothing brands. They may have multimillion-dollar contracts, endorsements, and campaigns. Supermodels have branded themselves as household names and worldwide recognition is associated with their modeling careers. They have been on the covers of leading fashion magazines. Claudia Schiffer stated in 2007 that, "In order to become a supermodel one must be on all the covers all over the world at the same time so that people can recognise the girls."


title: Supermodel

text: An early use of the term "supermodel" appeared in 1891, in an interview with artist Henry Stacy Marks for "The Strand Magazine", in which Marks told journalist Harry How, "A good many models are addicted to drink, and, after sitting a while, will suddenly go to sleep. Then I have had what I call the 'super' model. You know the sort of man; he goes in for theatrical effect ..." On 6 October 1942, a writer named Judith Cass had used the term "super model" for her article in the "Chicago Tribune", which headlined "Super Models Are Signed for Fashion Show". Later in 1943, an agent named Clyde Matthew Dessner used the term in a "how-to" book about modeling, entitled "So You Want to Be a Model!", in which Dessner wrote, "She will be a super-model, but the girl in her will be like the girl in you—quite ordinary, but ambitious and eager for personal development." According to "Model: The Ugly Business of Beautiful Women" by Michael Gross, the term "supermodel" was first used by Dessner in the 1940s. In 1947, anthropologist Harold Sterling Gladwin wrote "supermodel" in his book "Men Out of Asia". In 1949, "Cosmopolitan" magazine referred to Anita Colby, the highest paid model at the time, as a "super model": "She's been super model, super movie saleswoman, and top brass at Selznick and Paramount." On 18 October 1959, Vancouver's "Chinatown News" described Susan Chew as a "super model".


title: Supermodel

text: The term "supermodel" had also been used several times in the media in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1965, the encyclopedic guide "American Jurisprudence Trials" used the term "super model" ("...at issue was patient's belief that her husband was having an affair with a super model"). On 21 March 1967, "The New York Times" referred to Twiggy as a supermodel; the February 1968 article of "Glamour" listed all 19 "supermodels"; "The Chicago Daily Defender" wrote "New York Designer Turns Super Model" in January 1970; "The Washington Post" and the "Mansfield News Journal" used the term in 1971; and in 1974, both the "Chicago Tribune" and "The Advocate" used the term "supermodel" in their articles. American "Vogue" used the term "super-model" to describe Jean Shrimpton in the 15 October 1965 edition, and "supermodel" on the cover page to describe Margaux Hemingway in the 1 September 1975 edition. Hemingway was again described as a "supermodel" in the 25 July 1977 edition of "Time". "Jet" also described Beverly Johnson as a "supermodel" in the 22 December 1977 edition.


title: Supermodel

text: Model Janice Dickinson has incorrectly stated that she coined the term "supermodel" in 1979, as a compound of Superman and model. During an interview with "Entertainment Tonight", Dickinson stated that her agent, Monique Pilar of Elite Model Management, asked her, "Janice, who do you think you are, Superman?" She replied, "No ... I'm a supermodel, honey, and you will refer to me as a supermodel and you will start a supermodel division." Dickinson also claims to have been the first supermodel.


title: Supermodel

text: Lisa Fonssagrives is widely considered to have been the world's first supermodel, with a career that began in the 1930s. She was in most of the major fashion magazines and general interest magazines from the 1930s to the 1950s, including "Town & Country", "Life", "Vogue", the original "Vanity Fair", "Harper's Bazaar", and "Time". Evelyn Nesbit (with a career launched around 1900) and Dorian Leigh (her career launched in 1944) have also been called the world's first supermodel, as well as Jean Shrimpton (early 1960s), and Gia Carangi (late 1970s).


title: Supermodel

text: Dutch-born model, Wilhelmina Cooper, holds the record for most covers on American "Vogue", appearing 27 or 28 times throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Cooper would go on to found Wilhelmina Models modeling and talent agency in 1967.


title: Supermodel

text: In February 1968, an article in "Glamour" described 19 models as "supermodels": Cheryl Tiegs, Veruschka, Lisa Palmer, Peggy Moffitt, Sue Murray, Twiggy, Sunny Harnett, Marisa Berenson, Gretchen Harris, Heide Wiedeck, Irish Bianchi, Hiroko Matsumoto, Anne de Zogheb, Kathy Carpenter, Jean Shrimpton, Jean Patchett, Benedetta Barzini, Claudia Duxbury and Agneta Frieberg.


title: Supermodel

text: In the 1970s, some models became more prominent as their names became more recognizable to the general public. "Sports Illustrated" editor Jule Campbell abandoned then-current modeling trends for its fledgling "Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue" by photographing "bigger and healthier" California models, and captioning the photographs with their names, turning many of them into household names and establishing the swimsuit issue as a cornerstone of supermodel status.


title: Supermodel

text: In 1973, Lauren Hutton became the first model to receive a huge contract from a cosmetics company, when Revlon hired her to sell their Ultima line. She has also appeared on the cover of "Vogue" 26 times. Iman is considered to have been the first supermodel of color in North America.


title: Supermodel

text: In 1975, Margaux Hemingway landed a then-unprecedented million-dollar contract as the face of Fabergé's Babe perfume and the same year, appeared on the cover of "Time" magazine, labelled as one of the "New Beauties", giving further name recognition to fashion models.


title: Supermodel

text: Donyale Luna was the first black model to appear in British "Vogue", in March 1966. Naomi Sims, who is sometimes regarded as the first black supermodel, became the first African American to feature on the cover of "Ladies' Home Journal", in 1968. The first African American model to be on the cover of American "Vogue" was Beverly Johnson in 1974. Pat Cleveland, another prominent African-American model, has also been described as one of the first black supermodels, in particular by former editor-at-large for American "Vogue" André Leon Talley, in an article for the June 1980 issue of "Ebony" magazine, and again in his 2003 memoir.


title: Supermodel

text: In October 1981, "Life" cited Shelley Hack, Lauren Hutton, and Iman for Revlon, Margaux Hemingway for Fabergé, Karen Graham for Estee Lauder, Cristina Ferrare for Max Factor, and Cheryl Tiegs for CoverGirl by proclaiming them the "million dollar faces" of the beauty industry. These models, who negotiated previously unheard of lucrative and exclusive deals with the giant cosmetics companies, were instantly recognizable, and their names became well known to the general public.


title: Supermodel

text: In the early 1980s, Inès de La Fressange was the first model to sign an exclusive modeling contract with an haute couture fashion house, Chanel. During the early 1980s, fashion designers began advertising on television and billboards. Catwalk regulars like Gia Carangi, Tiegs, Christie Brinkley, Kim Alexis, Paulina Porizkova, Yasmin Le Bon, Kathy Ireland, Brooke Shields, Carol Alt, and Elle Macpherson began to endorse products with their names, as well as their faces, through the marketing of brands, such as Diet Pepsi and Ford trucks. In 1980, 14-year-old Shields was the youngest fashion model ever to appear on the cover of "Vogue". Later that same year, Shields appeared in controversial print and TV ads for Calvin Klein jeans. The TV ad included her saying the famous tagline, "You want to know what comes between me and my Calvins? Nothing." Brooke Shields' ads would help catapult Klein's career to super-designer status.


title: Supermodel

text: As the models began to embrace old-style glamour, they were starting to replace film stars as symbols of luxury and wealth. In this regard, supermodels were viewed not so much as individuals but as images.


title: Supermodel

text: By the 1990s, the supermodel became increasingly prominent in the media. The title became tantamount to superstar, to signify a supermodel's fame having risen simply from "personality". Supermodels did talk shows, were cited in gossip columns, partied at the trendiest nightspots, landed movie roles, inspired franchises, dated or married film stars, and earned themselves millions. Fame empowered them to take charge of their careers, to market themselves, and to command higher fees.


title: Supermodel

text: The new era began in 1990, with the era-defining British "Vogue" cover of Cindy Crawford, Christy Turlington, Linda Evangelista, Naomi Campbell, and Tatjana Patitz, photographed by Peter Lindbergh, which created such an impression on the fashion world that they came to embody the term "supermodel". Each model had gradually attained fame since the mid-1980s and was now among the industry's top stars. Selected by Lindbergh for the January cover of "Vogue", the cover inspired singer George Michael to cast the same five models in the music video for his song, "Freedom! '90", directed by David Fincher. The other photograph that captured this new generation of fashion models is the black and white nude of Crawford, Patitz, Campbell and Stephanie Seymour taken by Herb Ritts that originally ran in the May 1989 issue of "Rolling Stone", until a variation of this image which included Turlington was released in the 1990s, only after a contract exclusively binding her to Calvin Klein expired - thereby publicly revealing the now iconic image "Stephanie, Cindy, Christy, Tatjana, Naomi, Hollywood 1989." Lindbergh's and Ritts' group images helped each model attain worldwide fame by sharing covers of all the international editions of "Vogue", walking the catwalks for the world's top designers, and becoming known by their first names alone.


title: Supermodel

text: Today, Campbell, Crawford, Evangelista, Patitz and Turlington are regarded as the "Original Supermodels".


title: Supermodel

text: In 1991, Turlington signed a contract with Maybelline that paid her $800,000 for twelve days' work each year. Four years later, Claudia Schiffer reportedly earned $12 million for her various modeling assignments. Authorities, ranging from Karl Lagerfeld to "Time", had declared the supermodels more glamorous than movie stars.


title: Supermodel

text: Campbell, Evangelista and Turlington became known as "The Trinity", a term first used by photographer Steven Meisel and noted by journalist Michael Gross. Evangelista was known as the "Chameleon", for her ability to transform her look and reinvent herself. Turlington was known as the "insurance model", saying "clients know that if they hire me, nothing will go wrong". Campbell was the first black model to appear on the front covers of "Time", French "Vogue", British "Vogue", and the September issue of American "Vogue", traditionally the biggest and most important issue of the year.


title: Supermodel

text: Campbell, Crawford, Evangelista, Patitz and Turlington were the original group to be regarded as "The Big Five" supermodels of the 1990s. The term "The Big Five" was later used to describe Campbell, Crawford, Evangelista, Turlington and Claudia Schiffer, and with the addition of Kate Moss, they became known as "the Big Six". It was Linda Evangelista, Tatjana Patitz, Naomi Campbell, Christy Turlington, and Kate Moss who appeared together in the highest budgeted advertising campaign of all time, starring the original supermodels ($4.5 million USD in 1992, adjusted for inflation in 2021, $8.5 million USD)) and resulted in a now iconic television commercial for the Vauxhall Corsa automobile.


title: Supermodel

text: In the 2006 book "In Vogue: The Illustrated History of the World's Most Famous Fashion Magazine" (Rizzoli), the editors cite the "original supermodels" and Schiffer when quoting "Vogue" Magazine Editor-In-Chief, Anna Wintour, who said, "Those girls were so fabulous for fashion and totally reflected that time ... [They] were like movie stars." The editors name famous models from previous decades, but explain that, "None of them attained the fame and worldwide renown bestowed on Linda Evangelista, Christy Turlington, Cindy Crawford, Naomi Campbell, Tatjana Patitz, Stephanie Seymour, Claudia Schiffer, Yasmeen Ghauri, and Karen Mulder, in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These models burst out beyond the pages of the magazines. Many became the faces of cosmetics brands and perfumes, had their own television programs and physical-fitness videos, and their own lines of lingerie ... Their lives, activities, influences, and images were the subjects of all types of sociological and historical analysis." Tyra Banks had begun her career as a model, booking a record-breaking 25 shows in 1991, during her breakout year. She achieved Supermodel status, and rivaled Naomi Campbell as the top Black model in the world.


title: Supermodel

text: In the mid-1990s, the initial era of the supermodel ended and a new era for the supermodel began driven by heroin chic. By the late 1990s, actresses, pop singers, and other entertainment celebrities began gradually replacing models on fashion magazine covers and ad campaigns. The pendulum of limelight left many models in anonymity. A popular "conspiracy theory" explaining the supermodel's disappearance is that designers and fashion editors grew weary of the "I won't get out of bed for less than $10,000 a day" attitude and made sure no small group of models would ever again have the power of the Big Six.


title: Supermodel

text: Charles Gandee, associate editor at "Vogue", has said that high prices and poor attitudes contributed less to the decline of the supermodel. As clothes became less flashy, designers turned to models who were less glamorous, so they wouldn't overpower the clothing. Whereas many supermodels of the previous era were American-born, their accents making for an easier transition to stardom, the majority of models began coming from non-English speaking countries and cultures, making the crossover to mainstream spokesperson and cover star difficult. However, the term continued to be applied to notable models such as Kristen McMenamy, Laetitia Casta, Eva Herzigová, Carla Bruni, Tatiana Sorokko, Yasmin Le Bon, Amber Valletta, Shalom Harlow, Nadja Auermann, Helena Christensen, Patricia Velásquez, Adriana Karembeu, Valeria Mazza and later, Milla Jovovich.


title: Supermodel

text: Emerging in the late 1990s, Gisele Bündchen became the first in a wave of Brazilian models to gain popularity in the industry and with the public. With numerous covers of "Vogue" under her belt, including an issue that dubbed her the "Return of the "Sexy" Model", Bündchen was credited with ending the "heroin chic" era of models. Following in her footsteps by signing contracts with Victoria's Secret, fellow Brazilians Adriana Lima and Alessandra Ambrosio rose to prominence; however, they were unable to cross over into the world of TV, movies and talk shows as easily as their predecessors, due to their foreign accents. Not to mention other big stars of 00s era such as Carmen Kass, Karolina Kurkova, Hana Soukupova, Isabeli Fontana and Natasha Poly, which also dominated the runways and ad campaigns along with Bündchen et al.


title: Supermodel

text: Several seasons later, they were followed by Eastern Europeans, barely into their teens, pale, and "bordering on anorexic. They were too young to become movie stars or date celebrities; too skeletal to bag Victoria's Secret contracts; and a lack of English didn't bode well for a broad media career". The opportunities for superstardom were waning in the modeling world, and models like Heidi Klum and Tyra Banks took to television with reality shows like "Project Runway" and "Germany's Next Topmodel", and "America's Next Top Model", respectively, to not only remain relevant but establish themselves as media moguls.


title: Supermodel

text: Contrary to the fashion industry's celebrity trend of the previous decade, lingerie retailer Victoria's Secret continues to groom and launch young talents into supermodel status, awarding their high-profile "Angels" multi-year, multimillion-dollar contracts.


title: Supermodel

text: American "Vogue" dubbed ten models (Doutzen Kroes, Agyness Deyn, Hilary Rhoda, Raquel Zimmermann, Coco Rocha, Lily Donaldson, Chanel Iman, Sasha Pivovarova, Caroline Trentini and Jessica Stam) as the new crop of supermodels in their May 2007 cover story, while the likes of Christie Brinkley, Christy Turlington, and Linda Evangelista returned to reclaim prominent contracts from celebrities and younger models.


title: Supermodel

text: The rise of social media and so-called "nepotism babies" has seen a shift in the world of modelling from the late 2010s onwards. This means that many of today's 'supermodels' arguably took a rise to fame and were given the opportunities as they have due to their rich and famous families. Examples of these models are Kendall Jenner, Cara Delevigne, Bella Hadid, Gigi Hadid and Kaia Gerber. Despite the controversy surrounding these models and arguments that they only got their fame due to their families, they have proven to be some of the most successful models of today. In 2021, Kendall Jenner was named as the highest-paid supermodel, earning $40 million. The Hadid sisters weren't far behind, with Bella and Gigi earning $19 million and $20 million respectively.


title: Supermodel

text: In addition to the models stated previously, a top-grossing part of the industry that tends to be overlooked is the male side of modeling. Even though women are predominantly known in the modeling industry, men also appear in advertisements for clothing, cologne, sports wear and other such accessories.


title: Supermodel

text: Usually, the mass majority (not all) of agencies that sign on fashion/runway male models favor a height range consisting of 5’10”-6’2″. The more strict agencies set a minimum height of 5’11”.


title: Supermodel

text: In 1993, Italian model Fabio Lanzoni, was the highest paid male model worldwide, getting paid several million dollars a year, doing advertisements for high-end brands like Versace.


title: Supermodel

text: Milind Soman quickly became a supermodel in India and was one of the most popular supermodels of the world in the 90s, successfully transitioning to films and television later in life.


title: Supermodel

text: In 2000s, Bruno Santos, a Brazilian model, became notorious for being the only male model selected to carry out two campaigns simultaneously for two competing fashion houses: Versace and Giorgio Armani. This earned him the nickname "Gisele Bündchen in pants".


title: Supermodel

text: Tyson Beckford is known for posing in a number of ads for Ralph Lauren's Polo sport cologne line. Since 1990, he has been the face of Gucci and Tommy Hilfiger, won Model of the year on VH1 Fashion award, and he has also appeared in Calvin Klein's campaign.


title: Supermodel

text: Tim Boyce was the first openly gay high fashion male supermodel of the 1990s and is credited for increasing the profile of gay celebrities, appearing on the cover of "Out" magazine as well as campaigns for Giorgio Armani and Gianfranco Ferre.


title: Supermodel

text: Former professional football player David Beckham is noted as the Underwear Model of the Century. He has modeled for worldwide ads for H&M, Adidas, Calvin Klein, Burger King, Sainsbury's, and Breitling. British model David Gandy was described as achieving "icon status" by ABC News when they featured him on "Nightline", stating, "As the face of Dolce & Gabbana and Lucky Jeans, Gandy is arguably one of the most successful male models ever, but he's a bit modest about that "supermodel" title."


title: Supermodel

text: Vogue.com ranked the "Top 10 Male Models of All Time" in September 2014; the list included Tyson Beckford, David Gandy, Brad Kroenig, Sean O'Pry, Jon Kortajarena, Marcus Schenkenberg, Mathias Lauridsen, Mark Vanderloo, Noah Mills, and Evandro Soldati. In 2013, "Forbes" named O'Pry the highest-paid male model.


title: Supermodel

text: In an index for model updates and rankings American website models.com have described what they call the next generation of supermodels. Their list has included Cara Delevingne, Kate Upton, Karlie Kloss, Kendall Jenner, Gigi Hadid, Natalia Vodianova, Doutzen Kroes, Joan Smalls, Fei Fei Sun, Adriana Lima, Bella Hadid, Lara Stone, Miranda Kerr, Liu Wen, Jourdan Dunn, Liya Kebede, Anja Rubik, Laetitia Casta, Natasha Poly, and Ashley Graham.


title: Supermodel

text: Since 2000, there has been an emergence of models known as "plus-size" top models, including Robyn Lawley, Crystal Renn, Ashley Graham, Candice Huffine, Tara Lynn, Whitney Thompson, Katya Zharkova, Denise Bidot, Sophie Dahl, Jennie Runk and Natalie Laughlin. These models have been in Catwalks, magazines, and Billboards for brands known worldwide like "Vogue", "Glamour", Levi's, Forever 21, Cover Girl cosmetics, Saks Fifth Avenue, GQ Magazine, and Chanel. Graham had widespread amount of news coverage worldwide after "Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue" had her as one of the three covers of the 2016 edition.


title: Supermodel

text: Camille Kostek, an "in-between size" or "middle model", landed a solo cover of the "Sports Illustrated" Swimsuit Issue in 2019 despite not being on the extreme end of the spectrum as runway size (0–2) or plus-size (10 up). Recalling her difficulty breaking out she has stated, "I was told that it was too bad that I wasn't a size 10. That plus-size is a big market right now and it's too bad I wasn't measuring bigger. My size (4/6) is considered an "in-between size," meaning I'm not a straight model nor plus model, I'm right in the middle. Regardless, she has walked the runways of New York Fashion Week and Miami Beach Swim Week.