title: Klemens von Metternich

text: In the early 1820s, Metternich had advised Francis that convening the Hungarian Diet would help get approval for financial reform. In fact, the Diet of 1825 to 1827 saw 300 sessions filled with criticism of how the Empire had eroded the historic rights of the Kingdom of Hungary's nobility. Metternich complained that it "interfered with [his] time, [his] customs and [his] daily life", as he was forced to travel to Pressburg (modern-day Bratislava) to perform ceremonial duties and to observe. He was alarmed by the growth of Hungarian national sentiment and wary of the growing influence of nationalist István Széchenyi, whom he had met twice in 1825. Back in Vienna, in mid-December, he heard of the death of Tsar Alexander with mixed feelings. He had known the Tsar well and was reminded of his own frailty, although the death potentially wiped the soured diplomatic slate clean. Moreover, he could claim credit for foreseeing the Decembrist liberal revolt the new Tsar Nicholas I had to crush. Now 53, Metternich chose to send Archduke Ferdinand to establish the first contact with Nicholas. Metternich was also friendly with the British envoy (the Duke of Wellington) and enlisted his help to charm Nicholas. Despite this, the first 18 months of Nicholas' reign did not go well for Metternich: firstly, the British were chosen over the Austrians to oversee Russian-Ottoman talks; and, as a result, Metternich could exercise no influence over the resulting Akkerman Convention. France too began to drift away from Metternich's non-interventionist position. In August 1826 Russian Foreign Minister Nesselrode rejected a proposal by Metternich to convene a congress to discuss the events that eventually led to the outbreak of civil war in Portugal. The Austrian Foreign Minister accepted this with "surprising resilience". On 29 March 1827 Metternich spoke and attended the funeral of Beethoven whom he may have met during the Congress of Vienna.


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: On 5 November 1827 Baroness Antoinette von Leykam, daughter of diplomat Christoph Ambros Baron von Leykam (1777–1830) and Donna Antonia (b.1783), became Metternich's second wife. She was only twenty, and their marriage, a small affair at Hetzendorf (a village just outside Vienna), drew considerable criticism considering their difference in status. She belonged to the lower nobility, but Antoinette's grace and charm soon won over Viennese society. The same day British, Russian and French forces destroyed the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Navarino. Metternich worried that further intervention would topple the Ottoman Empire, upsetting the balance so carefully created in 1815. To his relief, the new British Prime Minister Wellington and his cabinet were equally fearful of giving Russia the upper hand in the Balkans. After another round of his proposals for congresses was rejected, Metternich stood back from the Eastern Question, watching as the Treaty of Adrianople was signed in September 1829. Though he publicly criticised it for being too harsh on Turkey, privately he was satisfied with its leniency and promise of Greek autonomy, making it a buffer against Russian expansion rather than a Russian satellite state. Metternich's private life was filled with grief. In November 1828 his mother died, and in January 1829 Antoinette died, five days after giving birth to their son, Richard von Metternich. After fighting tuberculosis for many months, Metternich's son Viktor, then a junior diplomat, died on 30 November 1829. Consequently, he spent Christmas alone and depressed, worried by the draconian methods of some of his fellow conservatives and by the renewed march of liberalism.


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: In May Metternich took a much-needed holiday on his estate at Johannisberg. He returned to Vienna a month later, still worried by the "chaos in London and Paris" and his declining ability to prevent it. Hearing Nesselrode was due to take the waters at Karlsbad, he met him there in late July. He berated the quiet Nesselrode, but no offence was taken. The two arranged a second meeting in August. In the interim Metternich heard of France's July Revolution, which deeply shocked him and theoretically posed the need for a congress of the Quadruple Alliance. Instead, Metternich met with Nesselrode as planned and, while the Russian rejected his plan to restore the old Alliance, the pair agreed on the Chiffon of Karlsbad: that panic was needless unless the new government showed territorial ambitions in Europe. Although pleased by this, Metternich's mood was soured by news of unrest in Brussels (then part of the Netherlands), the resignation of Wellington in London, and calls for constitutionality in Germany. He wrote with sombre and "almost morbid relish" that it was the "beginning of the end" of Old Europe. Nonetheless, he was heartened by the fact that the July Revolution had made a Franco-Russian alliance impossible and that the Netherlands had called an old-style congress of the sort he enjoyed so much. The 1830 convocation of the Hungarian Diet was also more successful than past ones, crowning Archduke Ferdinand as King of Hungary with little dissent. Moreover, by November his betrothal to 25-year-old Countess Melanie Zichy-Ferraris, who came from a Magyar family the Metternichs had long known, was agreed upon. The announcement caused far less consternation in Vienna than Metternich's previous bride, and they were married on 30 January 1831.


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: In February 1831 rebels took the cities of Parma, Modena and Bologna and appealed to France for help. Their former masters appealed for help from Austria, but Metternich was anxious not to march Austrian troops into the Papal States without authorisation from the new Pope Gregory XVI. He occupied Parma and Modena, however, and eventually did cross into Papal territory. As a result, Italy was pacified by the end of March. He authorised troop withdrawal from the Papal States in July, but by January 1832 they were back to put down a second rebellion. By now Metternich was ageing noticeably: his hair was grey and his face drawn and sunken, although his wife still enjoyed his company. In February 1832 a daughter, also Melanie, was born; in 1833 a son, Klemens, though he died aged two months; in October 1834 a second son, Paul; and in 1837 his third with Melanie, Lothar. Politically, Metternich had a new adversary, Lord Palmerston, who had taken over at the British Foreign Office in 1830. By the end of 1832, they had clashed on virtually every issue. "In short," Metternich wrote, "Palmerston is wrong about everything". Mostly, Metternich was annoyed by his insistence that under the 1815 agreements Britain had the right to oppose Austria's tightening of university controls in Germany, as Metternich had done again in 1832. Metternich also worried that if future congresses were held in Britain, as Palmerston wanted, his own influence would be significantly reduced.


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: In 1831 Egypt invaded the Ottoman Empire. There were fears of the Empire's total collapse, by which Austria stood to gain little. Metternich therefore proposed multilateral support for the Ottomans and a Viennese Congress to sort out details, but the French were evasive and the British refused to support any congress held in Vienna. By the summer of 1833 Anglo-Austrian relations had hit a new low. With Russia Metternich was more confident of exerting influence. He was mistaken, however, and left to observe from afar Russian intervention in the region (culminating in the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi). He still arranged to meet with the King of Prussia at Teplitz and accompany Francis to meet Tsar Nicholas at Münchengrätz in September 1833. The former meeting went well: Metternich still felt able to dominate the Prussians, despite their rising economic prominence in Europe. The latter was more strained but, as Nicholas warmed, three Münchengrätz Agreements were reached that shaped a new conservative league to uphold the existing order in Turkey, Poland, and elsewhere. Metternich left happy; his sole disappointment was having to commit to being tougher on Polish nationalists. Almost immediately, he heard of the creation of the Quadruple Alliance of 1834 between Britain, France, Spain and Portugal. This alliance of liberals was such an affront to Austrian values that Palmerston wrote he "should like to see Metternich's face when he reads our treaty". It did indeed draw bitter condemnation, mostly because it provided the occasion for an outbreak of war. Metternich tried two tacks: to intrigue for the removal of the British Foreign Secretary and to attempt (vainly) to build up cross-power bloc agreements. Palmerston did indeed leave office in November, but only temporarily and not by any of Metternich's attempts. Large-scale war, however, had been avoided and the Quadruple Alliance was beginning to disintegrate.


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: On 2 March 1835 Emperor Francis died, succeeded by his epileptic son Ferdinand I. Despite the widespread opinion that Ferdinand was a "ghost of a monarch", Metternich valued legitimacy highly and worked to keep the government running. He soon accompanied Ferdinand on his first meeting with Tsar Nicholas and the King of Prussia, again at Teplitz. Ferdinand was overwhelmed, especially as the delegations paraded into Prague. Overall, however, it was an untroubled meeting. The next few years passed relatively peacefully for Metternich: diplomatic incident was limited to the occasional angry exchange with Palmerston and Metternich's failure to be a mediator between the British and Russians over their Black Sea dispute. He also put effort into bringing new technology like the railways into Austria. The most pressing issue was Hungary, where Metternich remained reluctant to support the centrist (but still nationalist) Széchenyi. His hesitancy is "a sad commentary on his declining powers of political presence". At court Metternich increasingly lost power to the rising star Franz Anton von Kolowrat-Liebsteinsky, particularly in his proposals to increase military budgets. After his failed attempt in 1836 to force constitutional reform (which would have afforded him greater influence)—largely thwarted by the more liberally minded Archduke John—Metternich was forced to share more power with Kolowrat and Archduke Ludwig as part of Austria's Secret State Conference. Decision making ground to a halt. Entertaining and maintaining his estates at Johannisberg, Königswart and Plasy (together with Mariánská Týnice) were consuming much of his resources at a time when he had four young children to support, causing him more stress.


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: Metternich had long predicted a new crisis in the East, and when the Second Turko-Egyptian War broke out in 1839 he was anxious to re-establish Austria's diplomatic credentials. He quickly gathered representatives in Vienna, whence on 27 July they issued a communiqué to Constantinople pledging support. However, Tsar Nicholas sent Metternich a message from St Petersburg challenging Vienna's claim to diplomatic centrality. Metternich worked so furiously that he fell ill, spending the next five weeks resting at Johannisberg. The Austrians lost the initiative, and Metternich had to accept that London would be the new centre of negotiations over the Eastern Question. Just three weeks after its creation, Metternich's European League of Great Powers (his diplomatic response to aggressive moves by French Prime Minister Adolphe Thiers) had become a mere curiosity. Little, too, was heard of his proposals to hold a congress in Germany. A separate attempt to strengthen the influence of ambassadors stationed in Vienna was also rejected. This set the tone for the rest of Metternich's chancellorship. His illness had, it seemed to others, broken his love of being in office. Over the next decade, his wife prepared quietly for his retirement or death in office. Metternich's work during the early 1840s was dominated again by Hungary and, more generally, questions of national identity within the diverse Austrian Empire. Here, Metternich "showed [moments of] acute perception". His Hungarian proposals came far too late, however, as Lajos Kossuth had already led the rise of strong Hungarian nationalism. Metternich's support for other nationalities was patchy since he only opposed those that threatened the unity of the Empire.


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: At the Conference of State Metternich lost his principal ally in 1840, which furthered the growing paralysis at the heart of Austrian government. Metternich now struggled to enforce even the level of censorship he desired. There were no major challenges to the regime from outside. Italy was quiet, and neither Metternich's attempt to lecture the new Prussian king Frederick William IV nor the boredom of the new British Queen Victoria at their first meeting posed immediate problems. Far more worrying was Tsar Nicholas, whose estimation of the Habsburg dynasty and Austria was low. After an impromptu tour of Italy in 1845, the Tsar unexpectedly stopped in Vienna. Already in a bad mood, he was an awkward guest, though in between criticisms of Austria he reassured Metternich that Russia was not about to invade the Ottoman Empire again. Two months later their countries were required to work together over the Galician slaughter and a declaration of independence from Kraków. Metternich authorised the occupation of the city and the use of troops to restore order in surrounding areas, intent on undoing the pseudo-independence that had been granted Kraków in 1815. After months of negotiations with Prussia and Russia, Austria annexed the city in November 1846. Metternich regarded it as a personal victory, but it was an act of dubious utility: not only were Polish dissidents now officially part of Austria, the Europe-wide Polish dissident movement was now worked actively against the "Metternich system" that had overridden the rights enshrined in 1815. Britain and France appeared similarly outraged, although calls for Metternich's resignation were ignored. For the next two years, Ferdinand could not abdicate in favour of his nephew without a regency; Metternich believed Austria would need him in the interim to hold the government together.


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: Though Metternich was tiring, memoranda kept pouring forth from his chancellery. Despite this, he did not foresee the building crisis. The new Pope Pius IX was gaining a reputation as a liberal nationalist, counterbalancing Metternich and Austria; at the same time, the Empire experienced unemployment and rising prices as a result of poor harvests. Metternich was bemused at the outcry from Italians, the Pope, and Palmerston when he ordered the occupation of Papal-controlled Ferrara in the summer of 1847. Despite securing French agreement for the first time in years from François Guizot over the Swiss Civil War, France and Austria were forced into backing breakaway cantons. The pair proposed a conference, but the government crushed the revolt. It was a major blow to Metternich's prestige, and his opponents in Vienna called it evidence of his incompetence. In January 1848 Metternich predicted trouble in Italy during the year ahead. He acted on this by dispatching an envoy, Karl Ludwig von Ficquelmont to Italy; by resurrecting his 1817 plans for an Italian chancellery; and by arranging various contingency plans with the French. In late February Austrian field marshal Joseph Radetsky placed Austrian Italy (Lombardy-Venetia) under martial law as disturbances spread. Despite this and hearing of renewed revolution in France, Metternich was cautious, still thinking domestic revolution unlikely. He was described by a Saxon diplomat as, in the words of biographer Musulin, "having shrunk to a shadow of his former self".


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: On 3 March Kossuth gave a fiery speech in the Hungarian Diet, calling for a constitution. It was not until 10 March that Metternich appeared concerned about events in Vienna, where there were now threats and counter-threats flying. Two petitions were organised, calling for greater freedom, transparency, and representation. Students were involved in several demonstrations, culminating on 13 March when they cheered the imperial family but voiced anger at Metternich. After a customary morning, Metternich was called to meet with Archduke Ludwig soon after midday. The Chancellor had troops sent into the streets while also announcing a prearranged and minimal concession. In the afternoon the crowd turned hostile, and a division of troops opened fire on it, killing five. The mob was now truly incited, as the liberals were joined by underprivileged Viennese set on wreaking havoc. The students offered to form a pro-government Academic Legion if their demands were met. Ludwig was eager to accept and told Metternich he must resign, to which he reluctantly agreed. After sleeping in the Chancellery he was advised to either take back his resignation or leave the city. After Ludwig sent him a message to the effect that the government could not guarantee his safety, Metternich left for the house of Count Taaffe and then, with aid from friends Charles von Hügel and Johann Rechberg, reached the family seat of Prince Liechtenstein forty miles away at Feldsberg. Metternich's daughter Leontine joined them on 21 March and suggested England as a haven; agreeing, Metternich, Melanie and 19-year-old Richard set out, leaving the younger children with Leontine. Metternich's resignation had been met with cheering in Vienna, and even the Viennese commoners welcomed the end of Metternich's era of social conservatism.


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: After an anxious journey of nine days during which they were honoured in some towns and refused entry to others, Metternich, his wife, and son Richard arrived in the Dutch city of Arnhem. They stayed until Metternich regained his strength, then reached Amsterdam and The Hague, where they waited to hear the results of a demonstration by English chartists, planned for 10 April. On 20 April they landed at Blackwall in London, where they stayed in the Brunswick Hotel in Hanover Square for a fortnight until they found a permanent residence. Metternich largely enjoyed his time in London: the Duke of Wellington, now nearly eighty, tried to keep him entertained, and there were also visits from Palmerston, Guizot (now also in exile) and Benjamin Disraeli, who enjoyed his political conversation. The sole disappointment was that Victoria herself did not acknowledge his presence in the capital. The trio leased a house, 44 Eaton Square, for four months. The younger children joined them in the summer. He followed events in Austria from afar, famously denying ever having erred; in fact, he declared the turmoil in Europe to be a vindication of his policies. In Vienna, a hostile post-censorship press continued to attack him; in particular, they accused him of embezzlement and accepting bribes, prompting an investigation. Metternich was eventually cleared of the more extreme charges, and searches for evidence of the lesser ones came up empty-handed. (In all likelihood Metternich's large expense claims were merely a product of the necessities of early 19th-century diplomacy.) Meanwhile, as he was denied his pension, Metternich was ironically reliant on loans.


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: In mid-September, the family moved to 42 Brunswick Terrace, Brighton, on the south coast of England where the tranquillity of life contrasted greatly with revolutionary Europe left behind. Parliamentary figures, particularly Disraeli, travelled down to visit them, as did Metternich's former friend Dorothea Lieven (Melanie led a reconciliation between the two). Expecting a visit from Metternich's daughter Leontine and her own daughter Pauline, the family moved to a suite of rooms at Richmond Palace on 23 April 1849. Visitors included Wellington, who still watched out for Metternich; Johann Strauss, the composer; and Dorothea de Dino, sister of Metternich's former lover Wilhemine of Sagan; and former lover Catherine Bagration. Metternich was showing his age, and his frequent fainting was cause for worry. The ex-Chancellor was also depressed by the lack of communication from the new Emperor Franz Joseph I and his government. Leontine wrote to Vienna trying to encourage this contact, and in August Metternich received a warm letter from Franz Joseph; sincere or not, it buoyed Metternich considerably. From mid-August Melanie began to push for a move to Brussels, a city cheaper to live in and closer to continental affairs. They arrived in October, staying overnight in the Hotel Bellevue. With revolution subsiding, Metternich was hopeful they would return to Vienna. Their stay in fact lasted over 18 months while Metternich waited for an opportunity to re-enter Austrian politics. It was a pleasant enough (and cheap) stay, first in the Boulevard de l'Observatoire and later in the Sablon area—filled with visits from politicians, writers, musicians and scientists. For Metternich, however, the tedium and homesickness only increased. In March 1851 Melanie induced him to write to the new political force in Vienna, Prince Schwarzenberg, to ask if he might return if he promised not to interfere in public affairs. In April he received an affirmative reply, authorised by Franz Joseph.


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: In May 1851 Metternich left for his Johannisberg estate, which he had last visited in 1845. That summer Metternich enjoyed the company of Prussian representative Otto von Bismarck. He also enjoyed a visit from Frederick William, though the King irritated Metternich by appearing to cultivate him as a tool against Schwarzenberg. In September Metternich returned to Vienna, entertained along the way by various German princes keen to entertain the focus of Prussian intrigue. Metternich was reinvigorated, dropped his nostalgia, and lived in the present for the first time in a decade. Franz Josef asked for his advice on numerous issues (though he was too headstrong to be much influenced by it), and both of the two emerging factions in Vienna courted Metternich; even Tsar Nicholas called on him during a state visit. Metternich was not keen on the new Foreign Minister, Karl Ferdinand von Buol, but thought him sufficiently incompetent that he would be impressionable. Metternich's advice was of varying quality; nonetheless, some of it was usefully insightful, even in modern issues. Now deaf, Metternich wrote endlessly, particularly for an appreciative Franz Josef. He wanted Austrian neutrality in the Crimean War, though Buol did not. In the meantime Metternich's health was slowly failing, and he was a more peripheral figure after the death of his wife Melanie in January 1854. In a brief resurgence of energy in early 1856, he busied himself in arrangements for a marriage between his son Richard and his granddaughter Pauline (Richard's step-sister's daughter) and undertook more travel. The King of the Belgians came to visit, as did Bismarck, and on 16 August 1857, he entertained the future Edward VII of the United Kingdom. Buol, however, was growing more resentful of Metternich's advice, particularly about Italy. In April 1859 Franz Josef came to ask him about what should be done in Italy. According to Pauline, Metternich begged him not to send an ultimatum to Italy, and Franz Josef explained that such an ultimatum had already been sent.


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: In this way, much to Metternich's disappointment and to Franz Josef's embarrassment, Austria began the Second Italian War of Independence against the combined forces of Piedmont-Sardinia and its ally France. Though Metternich was able to secure the replacement of Buol with his friend Rechberg, who had helped him so much in 1848, involvement in the war itself was now beyond his capacity. Even a special task given to him by Franz Josef in June 1859—to draw up secret papers addressing the event of Franz Josef's death—was now too taxing. Shortly afterwards Metternich died in Vienna on 11 June 1859, aged 86, and the last great figure of his generation. Almost everyone of note in Vienna came to pay tribute; in the foreign press, his death went virtually unnoticed.


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: Historians agree on Metternich's skill as a diplomat and his dedication to conservatism. According to Arthur May, he believed that:


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: the mass of Europeans yearned for security, quiet, and peace, and regarded liberal abstractions as repugnant or were utterly indifferent to them. The best of all patterns of government, he insisted, was autocratic absolutism, upheld by a loyal army, by a submissive, decently efficient bureaucracy and police machine, and by trustworthy churchmen.


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: Particularly during the remainder of the nineteenth century, Metternich was heavily criticised, decried as the man who prevented Austria and the rest of central Europe from "developing along normal liberal and constitutional lines". Had Metternich not stood in the way of "progress", Austria might have reformed, dealt better with its problems of nationality, and the First World War might never have happened. Instead, Metternich chose to fight an overwhelmingly fruitless war against the forces of liberalism and nationalism. Heavy censorship was just one of a range of repressive instruments of state available to him that also included a large spy network. Metternich opposed electoral reform, criticising Britain's 1832 Reform Bill. In short, he locked himself into an embittered battle against "the prevailing mood of his age".


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: On the other hand, Metternich's diplomacy and statesmanship became the focus of praise in the twentieth century from more favourably inclined historians, particularly biographer Heinrich von Srbik. For example, particularly after WWII, historians were more likely to defend Metternich's policies as reasonable attempts to achieve his goals, chiefly the balance of power in Europe. Sympathetic historians point out that Metternich correctly foresaw and worked to prevent Russian dominance in Europe, succeeding where his successors would fail 130 years later. As argued by Srbik, Metternich himself pursued legality, cooperation, and dialogue, and therefore helped ensure thirty years of peace, the "Age of Metternich". Authors like Peter Viereck and Ernst B. Haas also give Metternich credit for his more liberal ideals, even if they weighed relatively little in his overall policies.


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: Critical views presuppose Metternich had the ability to shape Europe favorably but chose not to. More modern critiques like that of A. J. P. Taylor have questioned how much influence Metternich actually wielded. Robin Okey, a critic of Metternich, noted that even in the realm of foreign affairs Metternich "had only his own persuasiveness to rely on", and this degraded over time. By this interpretation, his task was to create a "smokescreen" that hid Austria's true weakness. When it came to choosing a set of sound principles, wrote Taylor, "most men could do better while shaving." The result was that Metternich was no captivating diplomat: Taylor described him as "the most boring man in European history". Not only were his failures limited to foreign affairs, critics argue: at home he was equally powerless, failing to effect even his own proposals for administrative reform. In contrast, those who have attempted to rehabilitate Metternich describe him as "unquestionably [a] master of diplomacy", someone who perfected and indeed shaped the nature of diplomacy in his era. In a similar vein, Alan Sked argues that Metternich's "smokescreen" may well have served a purpose in furthering a relatively coherent set of principles.


title: Klemens von Metternich

text: In 1823, botanist J.C.Mikan published a genus of flowering plants from Brazil, belonging to the family Solanaceae as "Metternichia" in his honour.


title: Haptic technology

text: Haptic technology (also kinaesthetic communication or 3D touch) is technology that can create an experience of touch by applying forces, vibrations, or motions to the user. These technologies can be used to create virtual objects in a computer simulation, to control virtual objects, and to enhance remote control of machines and devices (telerobotics). Haptic devices may incorporate tactile sensors that measure forces exerted by the user on the interface. The word "haptic", from the ("haptikos"), means "tactile, pertaining to the sense of touch". Simple haptic devices are common in the form of game controllers, joysticks, and steering wheels.


title: Haptic technology

text: Haptic technology facilitates investigation of how the human sense of touch works by allowing the creation of controlled haptic virtual objects. Most researchers distinguish three sensory systems related to sense of touch in humans: cutaneous, kinaesthetic and haptic. All perceptions mediated by cutaneous and kinaesthetic sensibility are referred to as tactual perception. The sense of touch may be classified as passive and active, and the term "haptic" is often associated with active touch to communicate or recognize objects.


title: Haptic technology

text: One of the earliest applications of haptic technology was in large aircraft that use servomechanism systems to operate control surfaces. In lighter aircraft without servo systems, as the aircraft approached a stall, the aerodynamic buffeting (vibrations) was felt in the pilot's controls. This was a useful warning of a dangerous flight condition. Servo systems tend to be "one-way," meaning external forces applied aerodynamically to the control surfaces are not perceived at the controls, resulting in the lack of this important sensory cue. To address this, the missing normal forces are simulated with springs and weights. The angle of attack is measured, and as the critical stall point approaches a stick shaker is engaged which simulates the response of a simpler control system. Alternatively, the servo force may be measured and the signal directed to a servo system on the control, also known as "force feedback". Force feedback has been implemented experimentally in some excavators and is useful when excavating mixed material such as large rocks embedded in silt or clay. It allows the operator to "feel" and work around unseen obstacles.


title: Haptic technology

text: In the 1960s, Paul Bach-y-Rita developed a vision substitution system using a 20x20 array of metal rods that could be raised and lowered, producing tactile "dots" analogous to the pixels of a screen. People sitting in a chair equipped with this device could identify pictures from the pattern of dots poked into their backs.


title: Haptic technology

text: The first US patent for a tactile telephone was granted to Thomas D. Shannon in 1973. An early tactile man-machine communication system was constructed by A. Michael Noll at Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. in the early 1970s and a patent was issued for his invention in 1975.


title: Haptic technology

text: In 1994, the Aura Interactor vest was developed. The vest is a wearable force-feedback device that monitors an audio signal and uses electromagnetic actuator technology to convert bass sound waves into vibrations that can represent such actions as a punch or kick. The vest plugs into the audio output of a stereo, TV, or VCR and the audio signal is reproduced through a speaker embedded in the vest.


title: Haptic technology

text: In 1995, Thomas Massie developed the PHANToM (Personal HAptic iNTerface Mechanism) system. It used thimble-like receptacles at the end of computerized arms into which a person's fingers could be inserted, allowing them to "feel" an object on a computer screen.


title: Haptic technology

text: In 1995, Norwegian Geir Jensen described a wristwatch haptic device with a skin tap mechanism, termed Tap-in. The wristwatch would connect to a mobile phone via Bluetooth, and tapping-frequency patterns would enable the wearer to respond to callers with selected short messages.


title: Haptic technology

text: In 2015, the Apple Watch was launched. It uses skin tap sensing to deliver notifications and alerts from the mobile phone of the watch wearer.


title: Haptic technology

text: Human sensing of mechanical loading in the skin is managed by Mechanoreceptors. There are a number of types of mechanoreceptors but those present in the finger pad are typically placed into two categories. Fast acting (FA) and slow acting (SA). SA mechanoreceptors are sensitive to relatively large stresses and at low frequencies while FA mechanoreceptors are sensitive to smaller stresses at higher frequencies. The result of this is that generally SA sensors can detect textures with amplitudes greater than 200 micrometers and FA sensors can detect textures with amplitudes less than 200 micrometers down to about 1 micrometer, though some research suggests that FA can only detect textures smaller than the fingerprint wavelength. FA mechanoreceptors achieve this high resolution of sensing by sensing vibrations produced by friction and an interaction of the fingerprint texture moving over fine surface texture.


title: Haptic technology

text: Haptic feedback (often shortened to just haptics) is controlled vibrations at set frequencies and intervals to provide a sensation representative of an in game action, it can do 'bumps' and 'knocks' and 'tap' your hand or fingers and lots of other stuff as well as rumble.


title: Haptic technology

text: The majority of electronics offering haptic feedback use vibrations, and most use a type of eccentric rotating mass (ERM) actuator, consisting of an unbalanced weight attached to a motor shaft. As the shaft rotates, the spinning of this irregular mass causes the actuator and the attached device to shake. Piezoelectric actuators are also employed to produce vibrations, and offer even more precise motion than LRAs, with less noise and in a smaller platform, but require higher voltages than do ERMs and LRAs.


title: Haptic technology

text: Force feedback devices use motors to manipulate the movement of an item held by the user. A common use is in automobile driving video games and simulators, which turn the steering wheel to simulate forces experienced when cornering a real vehicle. Direct-drive wheels, introduced in 2013, are based on servomotors and are the most high-end, for strength and fidelity, type of force feedback racing wheels.


title: Haptic technology

text: In 2007, Novint released the Falcon, the first consumer 3D touch device with high resolution three-dimensional force feedback. This allowed the haptic simulation of objects, textures, recoil, momentum, and the physical presence of objects in games.


title: Haptic technology

text: Air vortex rings are donut-shaped air pockets made up of concentrated gusts of air. Focused air vortices can have the force to blow out a candle or disturb papers from a few yards away. Both Microsoft Research (AirWave) and Disney Research (AIREAL) have used air vortices to deliver non-contact haptic feedback.


title: Haptic technology

text: Focused ultrasound beams can be used to create a localized sense of pressure on a finger without touching any physical object. The focal point that creates the sensation of pressure is generated by individually controlling the phase and intensity of each transducer in an array of ultrasound transducers. These beams can also be used to deliver sensations of vibration, and to give users the ability to feel virtual 3D objects.


title: Haptic technology

text: Another form of tactile feed back results from active touch when a human scans (runs their finger over a surface) to gain information about a surfaces texture. A significant amount of information about a surfaces texture on the micro meter scale can be gathered through this action as vibrations resulting from friction and texture activate mechanoreceptors in the human skin. Towards this goal plates can be made to vibrate at an ultrasonic frequency which reduces the friction between the plate and skin.


title: Haptic technology

text: With the introduction of large touchscreen control panels in vehicle dashboards, haptic feedback technology is used to provide confirmation of touch commands without needing the driver to take their eyes off the road. Additional contact surfaces, for example the steering wheel or seat, can also provide haptic information to the driver, for example, a warning vibration pattern when close to other vehicles.


title: Haptic technology

text: Haptic technologies have been explored in virtual arts, such as sound synthesis or graphic design. That make some loose vision and animation. Haptic technology was used to enhance existing art pieces in the Tate Sensorium exhibit in 2015. In music creation, Swedish synthesizer manufacturer Teenage Engineering introduced a haptic subwoofer module for their OP-Z synthesizer allowing musicians to feel the bass frequencies directly on their instrument.


title: Haptic technology

text: Force-feedback can be used to increase adherence to a safe flight envelope and thus reduce the risk of pilots entering dangerous states of flights outside the operational borders while maintaining the pilots' final authority and increasing their situation awareness.


title: Haptic technology

text: Haptic interfaces for medical simulation are being developed for training in minimally invasive procedures such as laparoscopy and interventional radiology, and for training dental students. A Virtual Haptic Back (VHB) was successfully integrated in the curriculum at the Ohio University College of Osteopathic Medicine. Haptic technology has enabled the development of telepresence surgery, allowing expert surgeons to operate on patients from a distance. As the surgeon makes an incision, they feel tactile and resistance feedback as if working directly on the patient.


title: Haptic technology

text: Haptic technology can also provide sensory feedback to ameliorate age-related impairments in balance control and prevent falls in the elderly and balance-impaired. Haptic Cow and Horse are used in veterinary training.


title: Haptic technology

text: Tactile haptic feedback is common in cellular devices. In most cases, this takes the form of vibration response to touch. Alpine Electronics uses a haptic feedback technology named "PulseTouch" on many of their touch-screen car navigation and stereo units. The Nexus One features haptic feedback, according to their specifications. Samsung first launched a phone with haptics in 2007.


title: Haptic technology

text: Surface haptics refers to the production of variable forces on a user's finger as it interacts with a surface such as a touchscreen.


title: Haptic technology

text: For individuals with upper limb motor dysfunction, robotic devices utilizing haptic feedback could be used for neurorehabilitation. Robotic devices, such as end-effectors, and both grounded and ungrounded exoskeletons have been designed to assist in restoring control over several muscle groups. Haptic feedback applied by these robotic devices helps in the recovery of sensory function due to its more immersive nature.


title: Haptic technology

text: Haptic puzzles have been devised in order to investigate goal-oriented haptic exploration, search, learning and memory in complex 3D environments. The goal is to both enable multi-fingered robots with a sense of touch, and gain more insights into human meta-learning.


title: Haptic technology

text: In 2008, Apple Inc.'s MacBook and MacBook Pro started incorporating a "Tactile Touchpad" design with button functionality and haptic feedback incorporated into the tracking surface. Products such as the Synaptics ClickPad followed.


title: Haptic technology

text: In 2015, Apple introduced "Force Touch" trackpads onto the 2015 MacBook Pro which simulates clicks with a "Taptic Engine".


title: Haptic technology

text: Haptic feedback is essential to perform complex tasks via telepresence. The Shadow Hand, an advanced robotic hand, has a total of 129 touch sensors embedded in every joint and finger pad that relay information to the operator. This allows tasks such as typing to be performed from a distance. An early prototype can be seen in NASA's collection of humanoid robots, or robonauts.


title: Haptic technology

text: In December 2015 David Eagleman demonstrated a wearable vest that "translates" speech and other audio signals into series of vibrations, this allowed hear-impaired people to "feel" sounds on their body, it has since been made commercially as a wristband.


title: Haptic technology

text: The use of haptic technologies may be useful in space exploration, including visits to the planet Mars, according to news reports.


title: Haptic technology

text: A tactile electronic display is a display device that delivers text and graphical information using the sense of touch. Devices of this kind have been developed to assist blind or deaf users by providing an alternative to visual or auditory sensation.


title: Haptic technology

text: Teleoperators are remote controlled robotic tools. When the operator is given feedback on the forces involved, this is called "haptic teleoperation". The first electrically actuated teleoperators were built in the 1950s at the Argonne National Laboratory by Raymond Goertz to remotely handle radioactive substances. Since then, the use of force feedback has become more widespread in other kinds of teleoperators, such as remote-controlled underwater exploration devices.


title: Haptic technology

text: Devices such as medical simulators and flight simulators ideally provide the force feedback that would be felt in real life. Simulated forces are generated using haptic operator controls, allowing data representing touch sensations to be saved or played back.


title: Haptic technology

text: Haptic feedback is used within teledildonics, or "sex-technology," in order to remotely connect sex toys and allow users to engage in virtual sex or allow a remote server to control their sex toy. The term was first coined by Ted Nelson in 1975, when discussing the future of love, intimacy and technology. In recent years, teledildonics and sex-technology have expanded to include toys with a two-way connection that allow virtual sex through the communication of vibrations, pressures and sensations. Many "smart" vibrators allow for a one-way connection either between the user, or a remote partner, to allow control of the toy.


title: Haptic technology

text: Haptic feedback is commonly used in arcade games, especially racing video games. Tatsumi's "TX-1" introduced force feedback to car driving games in 1997. The game "Earthshaker!" added haptic feedback to a pinball machine in 1999.


title: Haptic technology

text: Simple haptic devices are common in the form of game controllers, joysticks, and steering wheels. Early implementations were provided through optional components, such as the Nintendo 64 controller's "Rumble Pak" in 1997. In the same year, the Microsoft SideWinder Force Feedback Pro with built-in feedback was released by Immersion Corporation. Many console controllers and joysticks feature built-in feedback devices, which are motors with unbalanced weights that spin, causing it to vibrate, including Sony's DualShock technology and Microsoft's Impulse Trigger technology. Some automobile steering wheel controllers, for example, are programmed to provide a "feel" of the road. As the user makes a turn or accelerates, the steering wheel responds by resisting turns or slipping out of control.


title: Haptic technology

text: Haptics are gaining widespread acceptance as a key part of virtual reality systems, adding the sense of touch to previously visual-only interfaces. Systems are being developed to use haptic interfaces for 3D modeling and design, including systems that allow holograms to be both seen and felt. Several companies are making full-body or torso haptic vests or haptic suits for use in immersive virtual reality to allow users to feel explosions and bullet impacts.


title: Zina

text: Zināʾ () or zinā ( or ) is an Islamic legal term referring to unlawful sexual intercourse. According to traditional jurisprudence, "zina" can include adultery, fornication, prostitution, rape, sodomy, incest, and bestiality. "Zina" must be proved by testimony of four Muslim eyewitnesses to the actual act of penetration, or a confession repeated four times and not retracted later. The offenders must have acted of their own free will. Rapists could be prosecuted under different legal categories which used normal evidentiary rules. Making an accusation of "zina" without presenting the required eyewitnesses is called "qadhf" (), which is itself a "hudud" offense.


title: Zina

text: There are very few recorded examples of the stoning penalty for "zinā" being implemented legally. Prior to legal reforms introduced in several countries during the 20th century, the procedural requirements for proving the offense of "zinā" to the standard necessary to impose the stoning penalty were effectively impossible to meet.


title: Zina

text: "Zina" became a more pressing issue in modern times, as Islamist movements and governments employed polemics against public immorality. In recent decades several countries passed legal reforms that incorporated elements of hudud laws into their legal codes, and many modern Islamists have also disregarded the condition of strict evidence requirements. In Nigeria, local courts have passed several stoning sentences, all of which were overturned on appeal or left unenforced. In Pakistan, the Hudood Ordinances of 1979 subsumed prosecution of rape under the category of "zina", making rape extremely difficult to prove and exposing the victims to jail sentences for admitting illicit intercourse forced upon them, although these laws were amended in 2006, and again in 2016. According to human rights organizations, stoning for "zina" has also been carried out in Saudi Arabia.


title: Zina

text: Muslim scholars have historically considered "zinā" a "hudud" sin, or crime against God. It is mentioned in both Quran and in the Hadiths.


title: Zina

text: The Quran deals with "zina"ʾ in several places. First is the Qur'anic general rule that commands Muslims not to commit "zina":


title: Zina

text: In the Hadiths, the definitions of "zina" have been described as all the forms of sexual intercourse, penetrative or non-penetrative, outside the institution marriage or the institution of slavery.


title: Zina

text: Most of the rules related to fornication, adultery and false accusations from a husband to his wife or from members of the community to chaste women, can be found in Surat an-Nur (the Light). The sura starts by giving very specific rules about punishment for "zina":


title: Zina

text: The public lashing punishment for fornication and adultery are also prescribed in Hadiths, the books most trusted in Islam after Quran, particularly in "Kitab Al-Hudud".


title: Zina

text: Hadith Sahih al Bukhari, another authentic source of sunnah, has several entries which refer to death by stoning. For example,


title: Zina

text: Rape has been defined as "zina al-jabr" (forceful illicit sex) in the traditional Islamic texts. Few hadiths have been found regarding rape in the time of Muhammad. The most popular transmitted hadith given below indicates the ordinance of stoning for the rapist but no punishment and no requirement of four eyewitnesses for the rape victim.


title: Zina

text: If a confession or the four witnesses required to prove a "hadd" crime are not available, but rape can be proved by other means, the rapist is sentenced under the "ta'zir" system of judicial discretion. According to the eleventh-century Maliki jurist Ibn 'Abd al-Barr:


title: Zina

text: Islamic teachings (in the "hadith" tradition) presume same-sex attraction, extol abstention and (in the Qur'an) condemn consummation. The Quran forbids homosexual relationships, in Al-Nisa, Al-Araf (verses 7:80–84, 11:69–83, 29:28–35 of the Quran using the story of Lot's people), and other surahs. For example,


title: Zina

text: However, there are different interpretations of the last verse where who the Quran refers to as "two among you". Pakistani scholar Javed Ahmed Ghamidi sees it as a reference to premarital sexual relationships between men and women. In his opinion, the preceding Ayat of Sura Nisa deals with prostitutes of the time. He believes these rulings were temporary and were abrogated later when a functioning state was established and society was ready for permanent rulings, which came in Sura Nur, Ayat 2 and 3, prescribing flogging as a punishment for adultery. He does not see stoning as a prescribed punishment, even for married men, and considers the Hadiths quoted supporting that view to be dealing with either rape or prostitution, where the strictest punishment under Islam for spreading "fasad fil ardh", meaning corruption in the land, referring to egregious acts of defiance to the rule of law was carried out.


title: Zina

text: The Hadiths consider homosexuality as "zina", and male homosexuality to be punished with death. For example, Abu Dawud states,


title: Zina

text: The discourse on homosexuality in Islam is primarily concerned with activities between men. There are, however, a few hadith mentioning homosexual behavior in women; The jurists are agreed that "there is no hadd punishment for lesbianism, because it is not zina. Rather a ta’zeer punishment must be imposed, because it is a sin..'". Although punishment for lesbianism is rarely mentioned in the histories, al-Tabari records an example of the casual execution of a pair of lesbian slavegirls in the harem of al-Hadi, in a collection of highly critical anecdotes pertaining to that Caliph's actions as ruler. Some jurists viewed sexual intercourse as possible only for an individual who possesses a phallus; hence those definitions of sexual intercourse that rely on the entry of as little as the corona of the phallus into a partner's orifice. Since women do not possess a phallus and cannot have intercourse with one another, they are, in this interpretation, physically incapable of committing "zina".


title: Zina

text: All Sunni Muslim jurists agree that anal sex is haram (prohibited), based on the hadith of Muhammad. In contrast, according to Twelver Shia Muslim jurists, anal sex is considered makruh (strongly disliked) but is permissible with the consent of the wife.


title: Zina

text: Many scholars point to the story of Lot in the Quran as an example of sodomy being an egregious sin. However multiple others hold the view that the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah was not specifically due to the sodomy practiced in those towns, but as a combination of multiple transgressions. The death by stoning for people of Sodom and Gomorrah is similar to the stoning punishment stipulated for illegal heterosexual sex. There is no punishment for a man who sodomizes a woman because it is not tied to procreation. However, other jurists insist that any act of lust in which the result is the injecting of semen into another person constitutes sexual intercourse.


title: Zina

text: Sodomy often falls under that same category as sex between and unmarried man and women engaging in sexual acts. Male-male intercourse is referred to as "liwat" while female-female intercourse is referred to as "sihaq". Both are considered reprehensible acts but there is no consensus on punishment for either. Some jurists define "zināʾ" exclusively as the act of unlawful vaginal penetration, hence categorizing and punishing anal penetration in different ways. Other jurists included both vaginal and anal penetration within the definition of "zināʾ" and hence extended the punishment of the one to the other.


title: Zina

text: Religious discourse has mostly focused on such sexual acts, which are unambiguously condemned. The Quran refers explicitly to male-male sexual relations only in the context of the story of Lot, but labels the Sodomites's actions (universally understood in the later tradition as anal intercourse) an "abomination" (female-female relations are not addressed). Reported pronouncements by Muhammad ("hadith") reinforce the interdiction on male-male sodomy, although there are no reports of his ever adjudicating an actual case of such an offence; he is also quoted as condemning cross-gender behaviour for both sexes and banishing them from local places, but it is unclear to what extent this is to be understood as involving sexual relations. Several early caliphs, confronted with cases of sodomy between males, are said to have had both partners executed, by a variety of means. While taking such precedents into account, medieval jurists were unable to achieve a consensus on this issue; some legal schools prescribed capital punishment for sodomy, but others opted only for a relatively mild discretionary punishment. There was general agreement, however, that other homosexual acts (including any between females) were lesser offences, subject only to discretionary punishment.


title: Zina

text: Hadith forbids incestuous relationship ("zinā bi'l-mahārim"), sexual intercourse between someone who is mahram and prescribes execution as punishment.


title: Zina

text: Islamic scripture does not specifically mention masturbation. There are a few "hadiths" mentioning it, but these are classified as unreliable.


title: Zina

text: According to hadith, bestiality is defined under "zina" and its punishment is execution of the accused man or woman along with the animal.


title: Zina

text: "Zina" encompasses any sexual intercourse except that between husband and wife. It includes both extramarital sex and premarital sex, and is often translated as "fornication" in English.


title: Zina

text: Technically, "zina" only refers to the act of penetration, while non-penetrative sex acts outside of marriage were censured by the Prophet as that which can lead to "zina".


title: Zina

text: According to Sharia, the punishment for "zina" varies according to whether the offender is "muhsan" (adult, free, Muslim and married at least once) or not "muhsan" (i.e. a minor, a slave, a non-Muslim or never married). A person only qualifies as "muhsan" if he or she meets all of the criteria. The punishment for an offender who is "muhsan" is stoning. ("rajm"); the punishment for an offender who is not "muhsan" is 100 lashes.


title: Zina

text: If a pregnant woman confesses that her baby was born from an illegal relationship then she will be subject to conviction in the Islamic courts. In cases where there are no witnesses and no confession then the woman will not receive punishment just because of pregnancy. Women can fall pregnant without committing illegal sexual intercourse. A woman could be raped or coerced. In this case, she is a victim and not the perpetrator of a crime. Therefore, she cannot be punished or even accused of misconduct merely on the strength of her falling pregnant.


title: Zina

text: The four witnesses requirement for "zina" is revealed by Quranic verses 24:11 through 24:13 and various hadiths. The testimony of women and non-Muslims is not admitted in cases of "zina" or in other "hadd" crimes.


title: Zina

text: Any witness to or victim of non-consensual sexual intercourse, who accuses a Muslim of "zina", but fails to produce four adult, pious male eyewitnesses before a sharia court, commits the crime of false accusation ("Qadhf", القذف), punishable with eighty lashes in public.


title: Zina

text: These requirements made "zina" virtually impossible to prove in practice. Hence, there are very few recorded examples of stoning for "zina" being legally carried out. In the 623-year history of the Ottoman Empire, the best-documented and most well-known pre-modern Islamic legal system, there is only one recorded example of the stoning punishment being applied for "zina", when a Muslim woman and her Jewish lover were convicted of "zina" in 1680 and sentenced to death, the woman by stoning and the man by beheading. This was a miscarriage of justice according to the standards of Islamic law: adequate evidence was not produced, and the correct penalty for non-Muslims was 100 lashes rather than death.


title: Zina

text: Some schools of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) created the principle of "shubha" (doubt). According to this principle, if there is room for doubt in the perpetrator's mind about whether the sexual act was illegal, he or she should not receive the hadd penalty, but could receive a less severe punishment at the discretion of the judge. Jurists had varying opinions on what counted as legitimate "doubt" for this purposes. A typical example is a man who has sex with his wife's or his son's slave. This is "zina" - a man can lawfully have sex only with his own slave. But a man might plausibly believe that he had ownership rights over his wife's or his son's property, and so think that having sex with their slaves was legal. The Ḥanafī jurists of the Ottoman Empire applied the concept of doubt to exempt prostitution from the hadd penalty. Their rationale was that since legal sex is legitimized, in part, by payment (the dower paid by the husband to the wife upon marriage, or the purchase price of a slave), a man might plausibly believe that prostitution, which also involves a payment in return for sexual access, was legal. It is important to note that this principle did not mean that such acts were treated as legal: they remained offenses, and could be punished, but they were not liable for the hadd penalty of 100 lashes or stoning.


title: Zina

text: Persons who are not "muhsan" (i.e. a slave, a minor, never married) are punished for "zina" with one hundred lashes in public.


title: Zina

text: Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence considers pregnancy as sufficient and automatic evidence, unless there is evidence of rape. Other Sunni schools of jurisprudence rely on early Islamic scholars that state that a fetus can "sleep and stop developing for 5 years in a womb", and thus a woman who was previously married but now divorced may not have committed "zina" even if she delivers a baby years after her divorce. They also argue that the woman may have been forced or coerced (see section above, 'Accusation process and punishment'). The position of modern Islamic scholars varies from country to country. For example, in Malaysia which officially follows the Shafi'i fiqh, Section 23(2) through 23(4) of the Syariah (Sharia) Criminal Offences (Federal Territories) Act 1997 state,


title: Zina

text: Minimal proof for "zina" is still the testimony of four male eyewitnesses, even in the case of homosexual intercourse.


title: Zina

text: Prosecution of extramarital pregnancy as "zina", as well as prosecution of rape victims for the crime of "zina", have been the source of worldwide controversy in recent years.


title: Zina

text: Again, minimal proof for "zina" is the testimony of four male eyewitnesses. The Shi'is, however, also allow the testimony of women, if there is "at least one male witness", testifying together with "six women". All witnesses must have seen the act in its most intimate details, i.e. the penetration (like "a stick disappearing in a kohl container," as the fiqh books specify). If their testimonies do not satisfy the requirements, they can be sentenced to eighty lashes for unfounded accusation of fornication (). If the accused freely admits the offense, the confession must be repeated "four" times, just as in Sunni practice. Pregnancy of a single woman is also sufficient evidence of her having committed "zina".


title: Zina

text: The "zina" and rape laws of countries under Sharia law are the subjects of a global human rights debate.


title: Zina

text: Hundreds of women in Afghan jails are victims of rape or domestic violence. This has been criticized as leading to "hundreds of incidents where a woman subjected to rape, or gang rape, was eventually accused of zināʾ" and incarcerated.


title: Zina

text: In Pakistan, over 200,000 "zina" cases against women, under its Hudood laws, were under process at various levels in Pakistan's legal system in 2005. In addition to thousands of women in prison awaiting trial for "zina"-related charges, there has been a severe reluctance to even report rape because the victim fears of being charged with "zina", because of the un-Islamic nature of Pakistani laws regarding sexual intercourse. Under Islamic laws, rape is not considered to be zina and no punishment falls on the victim. But rape falls under zina in Pakistani law introduced in the 1980s and sometimes becomes punishable.


title: Zina

text: Iran has prosecuted many cases of "zina", and enforced public stoning to death of those accused between 2001 and 2010.


title: Zina

text: "Zina" laws are one of many items of reform and secularization debate with respect to Islam. In the early 20th century, under the influence of the colonial era, many penal laws and criminal justice systems were reformed away from Sharia in Muslim-majority parts of the world. By contrast, in the second half of the 20th century, after respective independence, a number of governments including Pakistan, Morocco, Malaysia and Iran have reverted to Sharia with traditional interpretations of Islam's sacred texts. "Zina" and hudud laws have been re-enacted and enforced.


title: Zina

text: Contemporary human right activists refer this as a new phase in the politics of gender in Islam, the battle between forces of traditionalism and modernism in the Muslim world, and the use of religious texts of Islam through state laws to sanction and practice gender-based violence.


title: Zina

text: In contrast to human rights activists, Islamic scholars and Islamist political parties consider 'universal human rights' arguments as impositions of a non-Muslim culture on Muslim people, a disrespect of customary cultural practices and sexual codes that are central to Islam. "Zina" laws come under hudud seen as a crime against Allah; the Islamists refer to this pressure and proposals to reform "zina" and other laws as contrary to Islam. Attempts by international human rights to reform religious laws and codes of Islam has become the Islamist rallying platforms during political campaigns.


title: Who's Next

text: Who's Next is the fifth studio album by English rock band the Who. It developed from the aborted "Lifehouse" project, a multi-media rock opera conceived by the group's guitarist Pete Townshend as a follow-up to the band's 1969 album "Tommy". The project was cancelled owing to its complexity and to conflicts with Kit Lambert, the band's manager, but the group salvaged some of the songs, without the connecting story elements, to release as their next album. Eight of the nine songs on "Who's Next" were from "Lifehouse", the lone exception being the John Entwistle-penned "My Wife". Ultimately, the remaining "Lifehouse" tracks would all be released on other albums throughout the next decade.


title: Who's Next

text: The Who recorded "Who's Next" with assistance from recording engineer Glyn Johns. After producing the song "Won't Get Fooled Again" in the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio, they relocated to Olympic Studios to record and mix most of the album's remaining songs. They made prominent use of synthesizer on the album, particularly on "Won't Get Fooled Again" and "Baba O'Riley", which were both released as singles. The cover photo was shot by Ethan Russell; it made reference to the monolith in the 1968 film "", as it featured group members standing by a concrete piling protruding from a slag heap in Easington Colliery, County Durham, apparently having urinated against it.


title: Who's Next

text: The album was an immediate success when it was released on 14 August 1971. It has since been viewed by many critics as the Who's best album and one of the greatest albums of all time. It has been reissued on CD several times, often with additional songs originally intended for "Lifehouse" included as bonus tracks.


title: Who's Next

text: By 1970, the Who had obtained significant critical and commercial success, but they had started to become detached from their original audience. The mod movement had vanished, and the original followers from Shepherd's Bush had grown up and acquired jobs and families. The group had started to drift apart from manager Kit Lambert, owing to his preoccupation with his label, Track Records. They had been touring since the release of "Tommy" the previous May, with a set that contained most of that album, but realized that millions had now seen their live performances, and Pete Townshend in particular recognized that they needed to do something new. A single, "The Seeker", and a live album, "Live at Leeds", were released in 1970, and an EP of new material ("Water", "Naked Eye", "I Don't Even Know Myself", "Postcard", and "Now I'm a Farmer") was recorded, but not released, as the band felt it would not be a satisfactory follow-up to "Tommy".


title: Who's Next

text: Instead, the group tackled a project called "Lifehouse". This evolved from a series of columns Townshend wrote for "Melody Maker" in August 1970, in which he discussed the importance of rock music, and in particular what the audience could do. Of all the group, he was the most keen to use music as a communication device, and wanted to branch out into other media, including film, to get away from the traditional album/tour cycle. Townshend has variously described "Lifehouse" as a futuristic rock opera, a live-recorded concept album and as the music for a scripted film project. The basic plot was outlined in an interview Townshend gave to "Disc and Music Echo" on 24 October 1970. "Lifehouse" is set in the near future in a society in which music is banned and most of the population live indoors in government-controlled "experience suits". A rebel, Bobby, broadcasts rock music into the suits, allowing people to remove them and become more enlightened. Some elements accurately describe future technology; for example, The Grid resembles the internet and "grid sleep" resembles virtual reality.


title: Who's Next

text: The group held a press conference on 13 January 1971, explaining that they would be giving a series of concerts at the Young Vic theatre, where they would develop the fictional elements of the proposed film along with the audience. After Keith Moon had completed his work on the film "200 Motels", the group performed their first Young Vic concert on 15 February. The show included a new quadrophonic public address system which cost £30,000; the audience was mainly invited from various organisations, such as youth clubs, with only a few tickets on sale to the general public.


title: Who's Next

text: After the initial concerts, at Lambert's suggestion the group flew to New York to make studio recordings at Record Plant Studios. They were joined by guests Al Kooper on Hammond organ, Ken Ascher on piano, and Leslie West on guitar. Townshend used a 1957 Gretsch guitar, given to him by Joe Walsh, during the session; it went on to become his main guitar for studio recording. Lambert's participation in the recording was minimal, and he proved to be unable to mix the final recordings. He had started taking hard drugs, while Townshend was drinking brandy regularly. After returning to Britain, engineer Glyn Johns made safety copies of the Record Plant material, but decided it would be better to re-record the album from scratch at Olympic Sound Studios in Barnes.


title: Who's Next

text: The group gave two more concerts at the Young Vic on 25 and 26 April, which were recorded on the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio by Andy Johns, but Townshend grew disillusioned with "Lifehouse" and further shows were cancelled. Audiences at the Young Vic gigs were not interested in interacting with the group to create new material, but simply wanted the Who to play "My Generation" and smash a guitar. The project proved to be intractable on several levels, and caused stress within the band, as well as a major falling-out between Townshend and Lambert. Years later, in the liner notes to the remastered CD, Townshend wrote that the failure of the project led him to the verge of a nervous breakdown. At the time, Roger Daltrey said the Who "were never nearer to breaking up".


title: Who's Next

text: Although the "Lifehouse" concept was abandoned, scraps of the project remained in the final album, including the use of synthesizers and computers. An early concept for "Lifehouse" featured the feeding of personal data from audience members into the controller of an early analogue synthesizer to create a "universal chord" that would have ended the proposed film. Abandoning "Lifehouse" gave the group extra freedom, owing to the absence of an overriding musical theme or storyline (which had been present in "Tommy"). This allowed the band to concentrate on maximising the impact of individual tracks and providing a unifying sound for them.


title: Who's Next

text: Townshend continued to develop the concepts of the "Lifehouse" project, revisiting them in later albums, including a 6-CD set, "The Lifehouse Chronicles", in 1999. In 2007, he launched a (now defunct) website called The Lifehouse Method to accept personal input from applicants that would be turned into musical portraits.


title: Who's Next

text: The first session for what became "Who's Next" was at Mick Jagger's house, Stargroves, at the start of April 1971, using the Rolling Stones Mobile. The backing track of "Won't Get Fooled Again" was recorded there before the band decided to relocate recording to Olympic at Johns' suggestion; the first session there was on 9 April, attempting a basic take of "Bargain". The bulk of the sessions occurred during May, when the group recorded "Time is Passing", "Pure and Easy", "Love Ain't for Keeping" (which had been reworked from a rock track into an acoustic arrangement), "Behind Blue Eyes", "The Song Is Over", "Let's See Action" and "Baba O'Riley". Nicky Hopkins guested on piano, while Dave Arbus was invited by Moon to play violin on "Baba O'Riley". John Entwistle's "My Wife" was added to the album very late in the sessions, having been originally intended for a solo album.


title: Who's Next

text: In contrast to the Record Plant and Young Vic sessions, recording with Johns went well, as he was primarily concerned with creating a good sound, whereas Lambert had always been more preoccupied with the group's image; Townshend recalled: "we were just getting astounded at the sounds Glyn was producing". Townshend used early synthesizers and modified keyboard sounds in several modes, including as a drone effect on several songs, notably "Baba O'Riley" and "Won't Get Fooled Again", but also "Bargain", "Going Mobile", and "The Song Is Over". The synthesizer was used as an integral part of the sound, as opposed to providing gloss, as was the case on other artists' albums up to that point. Moon's drumming has a distinctly different style from earlier albums, being more formal and less reliant on long drum fills—partly owing to the synthesizer backing, but also due to the no-nonsense production techniques of Johns, who insisted on a good recording performance that used flamboyance only when truly necessary. Johns was instrumental in convincing the Who that they should simply put a single-disc studio album out, believing the songs to be excellent. The group gave him free rein to assemble an album of whatever songs he wanted, in any order. Despite Johns' key contributions, he only received an "associate producer" credit on the finished album, though he maintained he acted mainly in an engineering capacity and based most of the arrangements on Townshend's original demos.


title: Who's Next

text: The album opened with "Baba O'Riley", featuring piano and synthesizer-processed Lowrey organ by Townshend. The song's title pays homage to Townshend's guru, Meher Baba, and minimalist composer Terry Riley, and it is informally known as "Teenage Wasteland", in reference to a line in the lyrics. The organ track came from a longer demo by Townshend, portions of which were later included on a Baba tribute album "I Am", that was edited down for the final recording. Townshend later said this part had "two or three thousand edits to it". The opening lyrics to the next track, "Bargain" ("I'd gladly lose me to find you") came from a phrase used by Baba. Entwistle wrote "My Wife" after having an argument with his wife, exaggerating the conflict in the lyrics. The track features several overdubbed brass instruments recorded in a single half-hour session. "Pure and Easy", a key track from "Lifehouse", did not make the final track selection, but the opening line was included as a coda to "The Song is Over".


title: Who's Next

text: "Behind Blue Eyes" featured three-part harmony by Daltrey, Townshend, and Entwistle and was written for the main antagonist in "Lifehouse", Jumbo. Moon, uncharacteristically, did not appear on the first half of the track, which was later described by Who biographer Dave Marsh as "the longest time Keith Moon was still in his entire life." The closing track, "Won't Get Fooled Again", was critical of revolutions. Townshend explained: "a revolution is only a revolution in the long run and a lot of people are going to get hurt". The song features the Lowrey organ fed through an ARP synthesizer, which came from Townshend's original demo and was re-used for the finished track.


title: Who's Next

text: The front cover of the album is a photograph, taken at Easington Colliery, of the band apparently having just urinated on a large concrete piling protruding from a slag heap. The decision to shoot the picture came from Entwistle and Moon discussing Stanley Kubrick and the film "". According to photographer Ethan Russell, only Townshend actually urinated against the piling, so rainwater was tipped from an empty film canister to achieve the desired effect. The sky in the background was added later to give the image what Russell called "this other worldly quality." The rear cover shows the band backstage at De Montfort Hall, Leicester, amid a cluttered mess of furniture. In 2003, the television channel VH1 named the cover of "Who's Next" one of the greatest album covers of all time.


title: Who's Next

text: Other suggestions for the cover included the group urinating against a Marshall Stack and an overweight nude woman with the Who's faces in place of her genitalia. An alternative cover featuring Moon dressed in black lingerie and a brown wig and holding a whip was later used as part of the inside art of the 1995 and 2003 CD releases of the album. Some of the photographs taken during these sessions were also used as part of Decca's United States promotion of the album.


title: Who's Next

text: The lead single from the album, "Won't Get Fooled Again" (edited down to three and a half minutes), was released ahead of the album on 25 June 1971 in the UK and in July in the US; it reached #9 and #15 in the charts of the respective countries. The album was released on 14 August in the US and on 27 August in the UK. It became the only album by the Who to top the UK charts.


title: Who's Next

text: The Who started touring the US just before the album was released. They used the "Lifehouse" PA, though soundman Bob Pridden found the technical requirements of the equipment to be over-complicated. The set list was revamped, and, while it included a smaller selection of numbers from "Tommy", several songs from the new album, such as "My Wife", "Baba O'Riley", and "Won't Get Fooled Again", became live favourites. The latter two songs involved the band playing to a backing track containing the synthesizer parts. The tour moved to the UK in September, including a show at The Oval in Kennington in front of 35,000 fans and the opening gig at the Rainbow Theatre in Finsbury Park, before going back to the US, ending in Seattle on 15 December. The group then took eight months off touring, the longest break of their career at that point.


title: Who's Next

text: Several songs recorded at the "Who's Next" sessions, but not included on the album, were later released as singles or on compilations. "Let's See Action" was released as a single in 1971, while "Pure and Easy" and "Too Much of Anything" were released on "Odds & Sods", and "Time is Passing" was added to the 1998 CD version of that album. The longest version of the cover "Baby Don't You Do It" from the sessions that is currently available is on the 2003 deluxe edition of "Who's Next".


title: Who's Next

text: The album has been re-issued and remastered several times using tapes from different sessions. The master tapes for the Olympic sessions are believed to be lost, as Virgin Records threw out a substantial number of old recordings when they purchased the studio in the 1980s. Video game publisher Harmonix wanted to release "Who's Next" as downloadable, playable content for the music video game series "Rock Band", but were unable to do so due to their inability to find the original multitrack recordings. Instead, a compilation of Who songs dubbed "The Best of The Who", which includes three of the album's songs ("Behind Blue Eyes", "Baba O'Riley", and "Going Mobile") was released as downloadable content. The 16-track tapes for "Won't Get Fooled Again" and the 8-track tapes for the other material, except for "Bargain" and "Getting in Tune", have since been discovered.


title: Who's Next

text: Reviewing for "The Village Voice" in 1971, music critic Robert Christgau called "Who's Next" "the best hard rock album in years" and said that, while their previous recordings were marred by a thin sound, the group now "achieves the same resonant immediacy in the studio that it does live". Billy Walker from "Sounds" highlighted the songs "Baba O'Riley", "My Wife", and "The Song Is Over", and wrote: "After the unique brilliance of "Tommy" something special had to be thought out and the fact that they settled for a straight-forward album rather than an extension of their rock opera, says much for their courage and inventiveness." "Rolling Stone" magazine's John Mendelsohn felt that, despite some amount of seriousness and artificiality, the album's brand of rock and roll is "intelligently-conceived, superbly-performed, brilliantly-produced, and sometimes even exciting". At the end of 1971, the record was voted the best album of the year in the Pazz & Jop, an annual poll of American critics published by "The Village Voice".


title: Who's Next

text: Retrospectively, "Who's Next" has often been viewed as the Who's best album. In a review for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine said its music was more genuine than "Tommy" or the aborted "Lifehouse" project because "those were art – ["Who's Next"], even with its pretensions, is rock & roll." BBC Music's Chris Roberts cited it as the band's best record and "one of those carved-in-stone landmarks that the rock canon doesn't allow you to bad-mouth." "Mojo" claimed its sophisticated music and hook-laden songs featured innovative use of rock synthesizers that did not weaken the Who's characteristic "power-quartet attack". In "The Encyclopedia of Popular Music" (1998), Colin Larkin said the album raised the standards for both hard rock and the Who, whose "sense of dynamics" was highlighted by the contrast between their powerful playing and a counterpoint produced at times by acoustic guitars and synthesizer obbligatos. Christgau, on the other hand, was less enthusiastic about the record during the 1980s, when the Who became what he felt was "the worst kind of art-rock band", writing that "Who's Next" revealed itself to be less tasteful in retrospect because of Daltrey's histrionic singing and "all that synth noodling".


title: Who's Next

text: According to Acclaimed Music, "Who's Next" is the 38th most celebrated album in popular music history. In 2003, "Rolling Stone" ranked it 28th on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time; it maintained this rank on the 2012 edition of the list, and was ranked 77th on the 2020 edition. It appeared at number 15 on Pitchfork Media's 2004 list of the 100 best records from the 1970s, and was included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die" (2005). The "Classic Albums" BBC documentary series aired an episode on "Who's Next", initially on radio in 1989, and then on television in 1998, which was released in 2006 on DVD as "Classic Albums: The Who – Who's Next". That year, it was chosen by "Time" as one of the 100 best albums of all time. In 2007, the album was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame for "lasting qualitative or historical significance". It was voted number 48 in the 3rd Edition of Colin Larkin's "All Time Top 1000 Albums".


title: Who's Next

text: The first disc of the two-disc deluxe edition contains the original mixes of the nine tracks comprising the original album, followed by six outtakes, of which "Getting in Tune" and "Won't Get Fooled Again" were previously unreleased. Each of the six outtakes was recorded during the Record Plant sessions in March 1971, before work on the album restarted in the UK.


title: Who's Next

text: The tracks on the second disc were recorded live at the Young Vic Theatre, London on 26 April 1971. All of these tracks were previously unreleased except, for "Water" and "Naked Eye".


title: North Korea national football team

text: The North Korea national football team (Munhwaŏ , recognized as Korea DPR by FIFA) represents North Korea in men's international football and it is controlled by the DPR Korea Football Association, the governing body for Football in North Korea. The team represents both FIFA and Asian Football Confederation (AFC).


title: North Korea national football team

text: In their 1966 World Cup debut, North Korea reached the quarter-finals and beat Italy in the group stage becoming the first men's Asian team in history to make it past the group stage. During the 2006 World Cup Qualifiers, controversy arose when the team's supporters rioted, interfering with the opponents' safe egress from the stadium, because of North Korea's failure to qualify. In 2009, the team qualified for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the second World Cup appearance in their history. North Korea has qualified for the AFC Asian Cup five times; in 1980, when they finished fourth, in 1992, 2011, in 2015, and in 2019. The current team is composed of both native North Koreans and Japanese-born Chongryon-affiliated Koreans.


title: North Korea national football team

text: The North Korea Football Association was founded in 1945. It became a member of the AFC during the confederation's first year of existence in 1954, and has been affiliated with FIFA since 1958. The first official match of the North Korean national football team was played on 22 March 1964 in Rangoon, against Burma, as part of the 1964 Olympic qualifiers. This first match in the history of the North Korean selection ended in a goalless draw. Thanks to their victory over the Burmese in the second leg, the "Chollimas" reached the next round against Thailand, a two-legged affair also hosted in Rangoon. They won easily (7–0 over the two matches), but were forced to forfeit the final phase of the tournament because the IOC decided to ban any athlete who participated in the GANEFO—which several footballers from the national team did.


title: North Korea national football team

text: In 1965, the national team took part again in GANEFO, and in 1966 World Cup qualification for the first time. That year, FIFA decided to place all the selections entered from Africa, Asia and Oceania in a single qualifying group, with the aim of offering only one place. All registered African countries protested by withdrawing from the competition, leaving only North Korea and Australia. The Australians started as favourites, but the North Koreans, showing coordination and great discipline, won both matches (6–1 and 3–1) and qualified for the final phase. The qualification of North Korea posed a diplomatic problem for the organizing country, the United Kingdom; since the Korean War, they had not recognized the legitimacy of the Pyongyang government and would not fly its flag or play its national anthem. The problem was only partly solved before the start of the competition in July 1966; the North Korean flag was flown alongside those of the other participants, but the national anthem was not played before the matches of the "Chollimas".


title: North Korea national football team

text: In the 1966 FIFA World Cup, they were drawn into group 4, along with the USSR, Italy and Chile, the first time North Korea would face teams from another continent. The "Chollimas" lost their first game against the Soviets, then managed a 1–1 draw against Chile (Pak Seung-zin scoring North Korea's first goal at a World Cup). The last match, against the Italian double world champions, was crucial, as the winner would obtain their ticket to the quarter-finals. The quasi-military discipline of Myung Rye-hyun's men manages to secure them a 1–0 win with a goal from Pak Doo-ik, against the Italians (who received tomatoes on their return to the country). This success allowed an Asian team to qualify for the quarter-finals of a World Cup for the first time. At the same time, the public began to take an interest in these disciplined players from a closed country. They were cheered on by locals in the town of Middlesbrough, where they were housed, including the team's star players, Pak Seung-zin and Pak Doo-ik. In the quarter-finals, North Korea faced Portugal. After 25 minutes of play, the Koreans led 3–0 (goals from Pak Seung-zin, Yang Seung-kook and Li Dong-woon) but began to lose their discipline. Eusébio went on to score four goals with another goal scored by José Augusto. North Korea lost the match 5–3. When the North Korean players returned home, the crowd cheered them on as heroes. Pak Seung-zin is North Korea's top scorer in the FIFA World Cup with two goals in four games.


title: North Korea national football team

text: Thirty-five years later, British director Dan Gordon, made a film called "The Game of Their Lives" after finding the seven surviving players of the 1966 side, who had become favourites with the British public and were celebrated as heroes on their return to their country. The film screened in North Korea and South Korea and received the award for Best Sports Documentary from the Royal Television Society.


title: North Korea national football team

text: Following the World Cup, the selection of North Korea only rarely took part in the qualifying campaigns for the various continental and world tournaments. The "Chollimas" forfeited the 1968 Olympic qualifiers, and failed to enter the 1968 AFC Asian Cup qualification and 1970 World Cup qualifiers when they refused to face the Israeli selection in the second round of the playoffs. Between their World Cup quarter-final and 1971, they played only one friendly against Algeria, losing 3–1 in Algiers. This meeting is also the first in the history of the team against an African team.


title: North Korea national football team

text: The North Koreans played their first official game since 1966 in 1972, as part 1972 Olympic qualifiers. They faced Syria, whom they eliminated, before disposing of Iraq, but ended up losing against Iran (2–0) in a play-off match, following two 0–0 draws in the first two legs. They decided again not to register for the 1972 AFC Asian Cup qualifiers. In May 1973, Pak Seung-zin's men were in Tehran to play the first phase of the 1974 World Cup qualifiers. They were in Group 2, along with host nation Iran, Syria and Kuwait. The results are disappointing with a third place in the group, behind the Iranians, qualified for the rest of the competition, and Syria.


title: North Korea national football team

text: North Korea took part in 1976 AFC Asian Cup qualification for the first time. Placed in group 4-B, with Japan and Singapore, the "Chollimas" finished first then beat Hong Kong in the semi-finals, ensuring their participation in the tournament at the same time, then beating China in the final match. But, like Saudi Arabia and Thailand, the North Koreans withdrew and missed the opportunity to take part in the continental tournament for the first time.


title: North Korea national football team

text: The following year, under the direction of its former striker Pak Doo-ik, the team qualified for the second time in its history for the Olympic football tournament. They finished first during qualification and advanced following a penalty shootout against the Indonesia. In Montreal, they were placed in Group 3 with the host country and the USSR. The North Koreans beat Canada 3–1, then lost to the Soviets 0–3, but still qualified for the quarter-finals in second. They failed again at this stage of the competition, falling heavily against future silver medalist team Poland 5–0. They play the last half hour with ten men against the Polish selection led by Grzegorz Lato and Andrzej Szarmach, who each scored twice.


title: North Korea national football team

text: The following two qualifying campaigns, for the 1978 World Cup and for the 1980 Olympics, were failures. The former was cut short with a withdrawal for diplomatic reasons, the North Koreans finding themselves in the same qualifying group as their southern neighbors, and in 1980, the "Chollimas" finished in 4th place in Group 3 of the pre-tournament, overtaken by Iran, Singapore and China.


title: North Korea national football team

text: In 1980, this time with Yang Seung-kook on the bench, the North Koreans took part in 1980 AFC Asian Cup qualification which saw successes against Thailand and Malaysia. They finished in second place in Group 1 of the 1980 AFC Asian Cup, behind Iran, the defending champions. In the semi-finals, it is an event that is of both sporting and political significance since it is against South Korea. After opening the scoring very early, North Korea conceded two goals by Chung Hae-won in the last ten minutes and saw their journey come to an end in the semi-final, their best performance in the Asian Cup of Nations. The game for third place was a disaster, with a 3–0 defeat against Iran.


title: North Korea national football team

text: In 1980, with former international Han Bong-zin on the bench, the North Koreans moved on to 1982 World Cup qualification. After finishing top of their group (ahead of Hong Kong and Singapore), they eliminated Japan in the semi-finals but lost to China in the group final, ending any hopes of qualification. The following year, the selection participated in the 1982 Asian Games. North Korean progressed through the first round (drawing against Syria and Saudi Arabia and victory against Thailand), then beat Japan in the quarter-finals. They lost in extra time in the semi-finals, against Kuwait. The end of the match was extremely turbulent as the North Korean players attacked Thai referee Vijit Getkaew. The penalties from the AFC are heavy with a two-year suspension, which began as soon as the match ended, therefore they did not even play the match for the bronze medal, which automatically went to the Saudis, other unfortunate semi-finalists. The immediate consequence of this decision by the AFC is the disqualification of North Korea from the 1984 AFC Asian Cup qualifiers and from the 1984 Olympic qualifiers which are anyway boycotted by the North Korea.


title: North Korea national football team

text: The selection therefore spent almost four years without playing official matches. For the 1986 World Cup qualifiers, they entered Group 4 alongside Japan and Singapore, two nations they had beaten four years previously. This time, it was the Japanese, led by Hiromi Hara who finished top of the group and continued their qualifying campaign.


title: North Korea national football team

text: In 1988, the "Chollimas" did not participate in the 1988 Olympic tournament. Pyongyang had initially asked to be involved in the Games, a request refused by the International Olympic Committee, resulting in their boycott of the Games. As for the 1988 AFC Asian Cup qualification, North Korea only placed third in their qualifying group, behind Syria and Iran, both of which qualified for the Qatari tournament.


title: North Korea national football team

text: In 1990, North Korea took part in the inaugural 1990 Dynasty Cup. The North Koreans finished in 3rd place. The following year, in the 1990 World Cup qualifiers, the North Koreans finished top of their first-round pool, winning all three of their home matches. In the final round, the "Chollimas" finished last, winning only one game, against Qatar.


title: North Korea national football team

text: Two years later, in 1991, the federation took a historic decision as it hired a foreign manager for the first time, Hungarian Pál Csernai, the former coach of Bayern Munich. North Korea finished the 1992 AFC Asian Cup qualification in first, ahead of Macao, Hong Kong and Taiwan. It thus qualified for the second time in its history for the Asian Cup, twelve years after its successful debut in Kuwait. Csernai's men were drawn into Group 1, along with hosts Japan, Iran and the United Arab Emirates. This time, their tournament ended in the first round, finishing without a win and with only two goals scored (both by Kim Kwang-min).


title: North Korea national football team

text: North Korea entered 1992 Olympic qualifiers, after two consecutive withdrawals. Placed in Group E, Pyongyang is chosen, along with Beijing, to host the qualifying matches. Once again, the final tournament escaped them, finishing in second place, behind China and ahead of Singapore, the Maldives and Nepal. Right after the Games, the selection takes part in the 1992 Dynasty Cup. Like two years before, the men of Csernai finished on the third step of the podium, behind Japan and South Korea, who faced each other in the final.


title: North Korea national football team

text: Invigorated by their participation in the final phase of the 1992 Asian Cup, Csernai's men attack the qualification for the 1994 FIFA World Cup full of hope. Placed into Group C, North Korea finished undefeated, ahead of Qatar, Singapore, Indonesia and Vietnam. The next round took the form of a single pool bringing together the six winners of the first round and the matches are once again held in Doha. Unfortunately for the North Koreans, after an inaugural victory against Iraq (3–2), they suffered four defeats in a row. The disappointment is immense, both for the Hungarian coach, who leaves his post after the last meeting and returns to Europe without returning to Pyongyang, and for the federation which puts the national team on hold for more than four years. During this period when the selection will tumble in the ranking established by FIFA, North Korea will thus choose not to register for any competition. This period of withdrawal coincides with the North Korean famine (1994–1998), causing hundreds of thousands of deaths. It also coincides with the official three-year mourning following the death of President Kim Il-sung in 1994, and the accession to power of his son Kim Jong Il.


title: North Korea national football team

text: North Korea made their return to an official game in 2000 AFC Asian Cup qualification. Placed into Group 8 along with Thailand, Malaysia and Taiwan, Myong Dong-chan's men are only beaten by the Thais, and booked their ticket for the final tournament. They continue with the 2000 Olympic qualification but they finished second in their group, failing to advance. Following this, the federation again decided to sideline the team, withdrawing it from the qualifiers for the 2002 World Cup and for the 2003 EAFC.


title: North Korea national football team

text: In 2003, it was with Yun Jong-su on the bench that the North Koreans started the 2004 AFC Asian Cup qualification. After a preliminary round where they dismissed the Indian team (2–0 and 1–1), the "Chollimas" can not do better than a last place the second round. These playoffs are marked by two incidents: first, during the game against Iran, where the North Koreans left the field as a result of smoke bombs which have landed on the field, the second as North Korea refused to issue the Jordanian players visas, leading to the AFC granting Jordan a 3–0 victory and suspending North Korea from all competition in Asia for a year including the 2007 AFC Asian Cup.


title: North Korea national football team

text: In 2005, the North Koreans returned to the 2006 World Cup qualifiers, twelve years after their last campaign. Dropped into Group 5 in the second round, they finished top. In the next round, they saw their journey come to an end finishing last behind Japan, Iran (both qualified for the final phase) and Bahrain (which had to play in the play-off). A few months later, North Korea return to the 2005 East Asian Football Championship, thirteen years after their last participation. In the qualifying round, the North Koreans broke their record for biggest victory with a 21–0 victory against Guam. As in the 1990 and 1992 editions, the "Chollimas" finished on the podium, in third place, behind China and Japan, whom they beat 1–0 in the first match of the final round.


title: North Korea national football team

text: The sanction imposed by the AFC on North Korea deprived it of participation in the qualifications for the 2007 AFC Asian Cup. With coach Kim Jong-hun at its head, the selection entered the 2008 AFC Challenge Cup, a competition reserved for so-called developing nations by the AFC and whose winner obtained direct qualification for the 2011 AFC Asian Cup. The North Korean selection had a good run which ended on the third step of the podium, after a defeat in the semi-finals against Tajikistan then a big success (4–0) in the third-placed match against Myanmar.


title: North Korea national football team

text: In the 2010 World Cup qualifiers, the "Chollimas" easily dismissed Mongolia (4-1 and 5-1) then advanced in second place behind the South Korea, without any defeats or even conceding a goal. North Korea again finished second, again behind South Korea and obtained their qualification for the final phase of the World Cup, forty-four years after 1966. During these qualifiers there were diplomatic incidents with South Korea after Kim Jong-Il refused to have the South Korean national anthem played, or even to fly the flag in the country, the two meetings against the "Taeguk Warriors" had to be relocated to China. At the end of the year, the North Koreans managed to qualify for the 2008 East Asian Football Championship, after beating Hong Kong. During this four-man final phase played in Chongqing, China, they finished last, with two draws (against Japan and South Korea, who won the tournament, and a defeat against China).