title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: Mary Wilson was born March 6, 1944, to Sam, a butcher, and Johnnie Mae Wilson in Greenville, Mississippi. She was the eldest of three children including a brother, Roosevelt, and a sister, Cathy. The Wilsons moved to Chicago, part of the Great Migration in which her father joined many African Americans seeking work in the North, but at age three, Mary Wilson was taken in by her aunt Ivory "I.V." and uncle John L. Pippin in Detroit. Her parents eventually separated and Wilson's mother and siblings later joined them in Detroit, though by then Wilson had come to believe I.V. was her real mother. Wilson and her family had settled in the Brewster-Douglass Housing Projects, a housing project in Detroit where Wilson first met Florence Ballard. The duo became friends while singing in their school's talent show. In 1959, Ballard asked Wilson to audition for Milton Jenkins, who was forming a sister group to his male vocal trio, the Primes (two members of which were later in The Temptations). Wilson was soon accepted into the group known as The Primettes, with Diana Ross and Betty McGlown, who lived in the same housing project with Wilson and Ballard. In this period, Wilson also met Aretha, Erma and Carolyn Franklin, daughters of the pastor at her local Baptist church.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: In 1960, the Primettes signed a contract with Lu Pine Records, issuing two singles from which Wilson sang lead vocals on "Pretty Baby". Shortly after, McGlown left to get married and was replaced by Barbara Martin. During that year, they kept pursuing a Motown contract and agreed to do anything that was required, including adding handclaps and vocal backgrounds. By the end of the year, Berry Gordy agreed to have the group record songs in the studio. In January 1961, Gordy relented and agreed to sign the girls to his label on the condition they change their name. Motown lyricist Janie Bradford approached Ballard with a list of names to choose from before Ballard chose "Supremes". Eventually, Gordy agreed to sign them under that name on January 15, 1961.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: The group struggled in their early years in comparison to other Motown acts, garnering the nickname "no-hit Supremes" as a result. One track, "Buttered Popcorn", led by Ballard, was a regional hit, but still failed to chart. Before the release of their 1962 debut album, "Meet The Supremes", Martin had become pregnant and subsequently left the group, leaving the Supremes as a trio.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: In December 1963, the single "When the Lovelight Starts Shining Through His Eyes" peaked at number 23 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. Following the single's success, Gordy assigned Ross as the group's lead singer. In the spring of 1964, the Supremes released "Where Did Our Love Go", which became their first number-one hit on the "Billboard" Hot 100, paving the way for ten number-one hits recorded by Ross, Ballard, and Wilson between 1964 and 1967.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: By 1965, the group had become international stars, appearing regularly on television programs such as "Hullabaloo", "The Hollywood Palace", "The Dean Martin Show", and, most notably "The Ed Sullivan Show", on which they made 17 appearances. As early as 1966, Ballard's chronic alcoholism led to her missing press conferences and recording sessions. To serve as a stand-in for Ballard, Gordy selected Cindy Birdsong, a member of Patti LaBelle and the Blue Belles. In July 1967, following a contentious performance at the Flamingo, Ballard was removed from the Supremes and replaced with Birdsong. Simultaneously, Gordy renamed the group "Diana Ross & the Supremes", beginning with the single "Reflections".


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: The new lineup continued to record hit singles, although several stalled outside the top 20 chart range. Ross left the group in January 1970, and at her farewell performance Jean Terrell was introduced as the replacement for Ross. According to Wilson, Gordy told Wilson that he thought of having Syreeta Wright join the group in a last-minute change, after Terrell had already been introduced as lead singer, to which Wilson refused. From there, Gordy relinquished creative control of the group over to Wilson. With Terrell, the Supremes recorded seven top-40 hit singles in a three-year period, including "River Deep/Mountain High" (with the Four Tops), "Up the Ladder to the Roof", "Stoned Love", "Nathan Jones", and "Floy Joy". Unlike the latter years with Ross, the single "Automatically Sunshine" succeeded in reaching the top 20 charts, in which it had become the Supremes' final top 40 U.S. hit.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: In 1972, Cindy Birdsong left the group following marriage and pregnancy and was replaced by Lynda Lawrence. The group's popularity and place on record charts dropped significantly. For the first time in a decade, two singles in a row failed to break into the top 40, including the Stevie Wonder penned-and-produced "Bad Weather". Discouraged, Jean Terrell and Lynda Lawrence both departed in late 1973. Scherrie Payne was recruited from a group called The Glass House, and Cindy Birdsong returned. Beginning with this lineup change, Wilson began doing almost half of the group's lead vocal duties, as she was considered the group's main attraction and reason for continuing.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: In 1975, Wilson sang lead on the Top 10 disco hit "Early Morning Love". In 1976, the group scored its final hit single with "I'm Gonna Let My Heart Do the Walking", written and produced by Brian and Eddie Holland and included on the album "High Energy". Birdsong again departed, just before the album's release, and was replaced by the group's final official member, Susaye Greene, whose voice was dubbed over two songs. "High Energy" was well-received, but the follow-up album "Mary, Scherrie & Susaye", released in 1977, would be their last. During a meeting with Motown, Wilson's husband Pedro Ferrer had notified Motown that Wilson would leave the Supremes to embark on a solo career. On June 12, 1977, Wilson gave her farewell performance with the Supremes at London's Drury Lane Theatre. Meanwhile, Payne and Greene had planned to continue as the Supremes, but a replacement for Wilson proved to be unsuccessful, in which the Supremes officially disbanded.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: In July 1977, just one month following her farewell performance with the Supremes, Wilson began a touring "Supremes" show with two background singers as the "Mary Wilson of The Supremes" show. The show was the result of Motown's allowance of the group to go into hiatus despite the fact that there were still several uncancelled international tour dates to complete. Mary therefore hired former Supreme, Cindy Birdsong and Debbie Sharpe to complete a summer tour of South America to fulfill contracts so venues would not sue. The three-week tour began in Caracas, Venezuela, and was composed of mostly small clubs. Despite the company's displeasure and the fact that it owned the rights/distribution rights to the name "Supremes," Motown never cancelled the tour. Later that year, Wilson hired Karen Jackson and Kaaren Ragland to tour with as background singers. She and Cindy rehearsed them for a year end's tour of Europe, that was composed of dates at officers' clubs and swank discos.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: After an out-of-court settlement, Wilson signed with Motown for solo work, releasing a disco-heavy self-titled album in August 1979. A single from the album, "Red Hot", peaked at number 90 on the pop charts. Midway through production of a second solo album in 1980, Motown dropped her from their roster. Throughout the mid-1980s, Wilson focused on performances in musical theater productions, including "Beehive", "Dancing in the Streets", and "Supreme Soul".


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: Wilson found major success once more with her memoir: "" in 1986. The book remained on the national best-seller list for months and established a sales record for the genre. The book focused on the early career of the Supremes and its success during the 1960s. Four years later, in 1990, Wilson released her second memoir: "", also a best seller, which focused on the Supremes in the 1970s. In between this period, Wilson became a frequent guest on several television programs and talk shows and began regularly performing in Las Vegas casinos and resorts. Wilson then recorded a cover version of "Ooh Child" for the Motorcity label in 1990. A year later, she signed with CEO Records and released the album, "Walk the Line", in 1992. The label filed for bankruptcy the day after its national release. Wilson maintained that she was deceived about the financial status of the label. The available copies of the album quickly sold out, however, and Wilson continued her success as a concert performer.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: Earlier in 1974, Wilson had her contract with Motown re-negotiated to allow her 50% ownership of the name "Supremes". During the 1990s, Wilson filed suit against several former members of the Supremes, who had formed spin-off groups, for improper usage of the Supremes' name. In September 1997, the court sided with the defendant, claiming Motown Records owned the full rights to the group's name, and allowed for the spin-off groups to continue performing. Wilson then appealed the decision to the U.S. Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in San Francisco, which upheld the prior ruling. This prompted Wilson to take a high-profile role in lobbying for "Truth in Music" legislation, which prohibits usage of musical acts names, unless an original member of the group is in the act or the group is properly licensed by the last person to hold right of title to the name. Her efforts succeeded in more than 28 U.S. states. In 1995, Wilson released a song, ".U", for Contract Recording Company. A year later, Wilson released the song, "Turn Around" for Da Bridge Records.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: In late 1999, a proposal for a Supremes reunion tour was negotiated by Ross and TNA/SFX Productions (now Live Nation Entertainment). According to Wilson, Ross had contacted her that December, long after she had already heard of plans for a reunion tour. Wilson was initially offered $2 million, while Birdsong was reported to have been offered less than $1 million. Wilson disagreed, and a counteroffer of $3 million was made. By March 2000, with salary negotiations still underway, Wilson stated a deal had been accepted between her and Birdsong, but it was rejected by Ross. TNA/SFX then ceased negotiations with Wilson and Birdsong. Instead, the tour, Return to Love, went forward with former Supremes Scherrie Payne and Lynda Lawrence, beginning in Philadelphia on June 14. The opening concert had drawn 10,000 spectators and grossed over $629,000. By July 2000, the tour was reportedly performing below expectations, and was subsequently canceled after 13 concerts. Ross issued a statement that she was "severely disappointed" that SFX had decided to cancel the tour.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: That year, Wilson released an updated version of her autobiographies as a single combined book. That same year, an album, "I Am Changing", was released by Mary Wilson Enterprises, produced through her and her then-management, Duryea Entertainment.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: In 2001, Wilson starred in the national tour of "Leader of the Pack – The Ellie Greenwich Story". A year later, Wilson was appointed by Secretary of State Colin Powell as a "culture-connect ambassador" for the U.S. State Department, appearing at international events arranged by that agency. In 2006, a live concert DVD, "Live at the Sands", was released. Four years later, another DVD, "Mary Wilson: Live from San Francisco... Up Close", was released. During this period, Wilson became a musical activist, having been part of the Truth in Music Bill, a law proposed to stop impostor groups performing under the names of the 1950s and 1960s rock and roll groups, including Motown groups The Marvelettes and The Supremes. The law was passed in 27 states. Wilson also toured and lectured internationally, as well as across the United States, speaking to multiple groups worldwide. Her lecture series, "Dare to Dream", focuses on reaching goals and triumph over adversity. Wilson's charity work included Children Incorporated, the Susan G. Komen Race for the Cure, the American Cancer Society, St. Jude's Children's Research Hospital, the Easter Seals Foundation, UNICEF, The NAACP, the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, the All-Star Network, and Figure Skaters of Harlem, a youth organization devoted to helping children towards entering the Olympics. Most recently, Wilson became the Mine Action spokesperson for the Humpty Dumpty Institute.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: In April 2008, Wilson made a special appearance on "20/20" to participate in a social experiment involving pedestrians reacting to a young woman singing "Stop! In the Name of Love" with intentional amateurishness. Wilson approached the woman and gave her constructive criticism toward her style, in contrast to the pedestrians whose reactions were positive, yet dishonest. On March 5, 2009, she made a special appearance on "The Paul O'Grady Show", which ended in a special performance with her, O'Grady, and Graham Norton. Wilson created the "Mary Wilson/Supremes Gown Collection", and had the collection tour in an exhibition of the Supremes' stage wear. The collection has been on exhibit at the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio and on May 12, 2008, commenced its UK tour, starting at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. More than 50 sets of gowns are shown in rotation, starting with early formal wear from the early 1960s, and including famous gowns worn on television specials and nightclub appearances by the group in the 1960s and 1970s.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: Wilson released two singles on iTunes, "Life's Been Good To Me" and "Darling Mother (Johnnie Mae)", in 2011 and 2013, respectively. In 2015, Wilson released a new single, "Time To Move On", produced by Sweet Feet Music; the song reached the Top 20 on the "Billboard" Dance charts history, peaking at No. 17 as of December 26. At 36 years and seven weeks, Mary Wilson holds the record for the longest gap between hits in the "Billboard" Dance Club Songs chart as "Red Hot" debuted on October 6, 1979 and "Time To Move On" debuted on November 21, 2015.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: In 2016, an Indiegogo campaign was launched to help raise $35,000 to fund a gay-themed romantic comedy movie, "Please Don't Eat the Pansies". The cast includes actor/writer Ronnie Kerr, Andrew Lauer, singer/actor Tom Goss, and Wilson.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: On August 15, 2019, Wilson published her fourth book, "Supreme Glamour" with co-author Mark Bego, dedicated to the history of the Supremes and their fashion with a detailed section dedicated to the Supremes gowns in her collection. That same month, she was announced as one of the celebrities who would compete on season 28 of "Dancing with the Stars." Wilson and her professional partner Brandon Armstrong were the first couple to be eliminated from the competition on September 23, 2019.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: Mary Wilson's last single "Why Can't We All Get Along" was released posthumously on March 5, 2021. The song was featured on a 2021 reissue of Wilson's 1979 solo debut entitled, "Mary Wilson: Expanded Edition".


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: Another posthumous project, "Mary Wilson: Red Hot Eric Kupper Remix EP" was released September 3, 2021. The EP featured three new different dance versions of Wilson's 1979 single "Red Hot" produced by Kupper.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: On January 7, 2022, a posthumous compilation album entitled, "", was released physically and released digitally to streaming platforms March 4, 2022.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: Wilson married Dominican businessman Pedro Ferrer, whom she had chosen as The Supremes' manager, in Las Vegas, Nevada, on May 11, 1974. They had three children, Turkessa, Pedro Antonio Jr., and Rafael. Wilson and Ferrer divorced in 1981. She was also the adoptive mother of her cousin, Willie. In January 1994, Wilson and her 16-year-old son Rafael were involved in an accident on Interstate 15 between Los Angeles and Las Vegas when their Jeep Cherokee veered off the highway and overturned. Wilson sustained moderate injuries; Rafael's injuries were fatal. Wilson had 10 grandchildren and one great-granddaughter.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: On February 8, 2021, Wilson died in her sleep from hypertensive atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease at her home in Henderson, Nevada, a suburb of Las Vegas, at the age of 76. Two days before her death, she had announced on YouTube that she was planning to release new solo material with Universal Music Group, and hoped it would come out before March 6, her 77th birthday.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: Motown founder Berry Gordy said he was "extremely shocked and saddened" by the news of her death and said Wilson was "quite a star in her own right and over the years continued to work hard to boost the legacy of the Supremes." Diana Ross reflected on Wilson's death, posting on Twitter: "I am reminded that each day is a gift. I have so many wonderful memories of our time together. 'The Supremes' will live on in our hearts."


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: Wilson was interred next to her son Rafael on March 16, 2021, at Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: In 2001, Wilson earned a degree from New York University's School of Continuing and Professional Studies.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: In 2020, Wilson received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the National Newspaper Publishers Association. Wilson was also, along with The Supremes, inducted into National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame class of 2013. Wilson also served as the master of ceremonies for the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame from 2016 to 2019 and served as a board member.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: The character of Lorrell Robinson in both the play and film versions of "Dreamgirls" was inspired by Wilson.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: "" is a Broadway musical that launched on April 14, 2013. It is the story of Berry Gordy's creation of Motown Records. Wilson was portrayed by Ariana DeBose in 2013.


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: As a member of the Supremes, her songs "Stop! In the Name of Love" and "You Can't Hurry Love" are among the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. The Ross-Wilson-Ballard lineup was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988 (), received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1994, and entered into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 1998. Wilson was the only Supreme present for all three ceremonies. In 2004, "Rolling Stone" placed the group at number 96 on their list of the "100 Greatest Artists of All Time".


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: "Note: The seven of fourteen "Diana Ross & the Supremes" 1967–1970 singles Wilson appeared on are listed above. The seven singles she did not appear on are listed below:"


title: Mary Wilson (singer)

text: "Note: Wilson sang lead on several songs recorded by The Supremes during the group's career and shared lead on 12 songs. Wilson recorded lead vocals to "Send Him to Me" and "If You Let Me Baby" during the Right On sessions which remain unreleased until 2022. Some of Wilson's unreleased lead vocals appeared on several post '77 releases including; "Our Day Will Come" from There's a Place for Us, "Still Water (Love)" from , "Can We Love Again" from The '70s Anthology, "You’re What’s Missing In My Life" [Mary Wilson Lead Version] also "Mr. Boogie" and "Give Out, But Don’t Give Up" [Mary Wilson Lead Version] from . The recordings where she had lead vocals are listed below:"


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: Kelly Lynn Loeffler (, ; born November 27, 1970) is an American businesswoman and politician who served as a United States senator for Georgia from 2020 to 2021. Loeffler was chief executive officer (CEO) of Bakkt, a subsidiary of commodity and financial service provider Intercontinental Exchange, of which her husband, Jeffrey Sprecher, is CEO. She is a former co-owner of the Atlanta Dream of the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). Loeffler is a member of the Republican Party.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: Brian Kemp, the Republican governor of Georgia, appointed Loeffler to the U.S. Senate in December 2019 after Senator Johnny Isakson resigned for health reasons. Loeffler ran in the 2020 Georgia U.S. Senate special election, seeking to hold the Senate seat until January 3, 2023. She finished second in the November 3 election, advancing to a runoff with Democrat Raphael Warnock held on January 5, 2021. She lost the runoff election to Warnock. In the same election, her fellow Georgia senator, David Perdue, also lost. When Perdue's term ended on January 3, 2021, Loeffler ascended to be the senior senator from Georgia, a position she held for just under three weeks, until Warnock and Jon Ossoff were sworn in.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: Loeffler aligned with President Donald Trump, touting her "100 percent Trump voting record" during the campaign.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: After the November 2020 election, Loeffler and fellow Georgia senator David Perdue claimed without evidence that there had been unspecified failures in the election, and called for the resignation of Georgia Secretary of State Brad Raffensperger, who rejected the accusations. She later supported a lawsuit by Trump allies seeking to overturn the election results, and also announced her intention to object to the certification of the Electoral College results in Congress. After the attack on the U.S. Capitol on January 6, 2021, Loeffler announced that she would withdraw her objection to the certification of the electoral votes and later voted to certify.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: Loeffler was born in Bloomington, Illinois, to Don and Lynda (née Munsell) Loeffler, and raised on her family's corn and soybean farm in Stanford, Illinois. She has a brother, Brian. In 1988, she graduated from Olympia High School in Stanford, where she was in marching band, ran cross-country and track, and played varsity basketball.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: In 1992, Loeffler graduated with a Bachelor of Science in marketing from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign's Gies College of Business, where she was a member of the Alpha Gamma Delta sorority. After college, she worked for Toyota as a District Account Manager. In 1999, Loeffler graduated with a Master of Business Administration (MBA) in international finance and marketing from DePaul University's Kellstadt Graduate School of Business. She financed her graduate school tuition by mortgaging land inherited from her grandparents.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: After earning her MBA, Loeffler worked for Citibank, William Blair & Company, and the Crossroads Group. In 2002, she joined Intercontinental Exchange, a commodity and financial service provider, in investor relations. She married the firm's CEO, Jeffrey Sprecher, in 2004. Loeffler was eventually promoted to senior vice president of investor relations and corporate communications. In 2018, she became the chief executive officer (CEO) of Bakkt, a subsidiary of Intercontinental Exchange.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: In 2010, Loeffler bought a minority stake in the Atlanta Dream of the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). In 2011, she and Mary Brock bought the team from Kathy Betty. Loeffler took an active role in the team, arranging her travel schedule to attend all games and often meeting with head coach Michael Cooper during halftime to analyze the first half of the game. In February 2021, Loeffler sold her stake in the team.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: When Loeffler left Intercontinental Exchange to join the Senate, the company awarded her over $9 million of financial assets. A spokesperson for Loeffler said Loeffler "left millions in equity compensation behind" by joining the Senate.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: According to OpenSecrets, as of December 2019, Loeffler and her husband, Jeffrey Sprecher, had donated $3.2 million to political committees. Ninety-seven percent of these donations went to Republicans, and three percent to Democrats, including Hillary Clinton, Chris Dodd, Debbie Stabenow, and Georgia Congressman David Scott (GA–13), who received $10,200. Loeffler donated $750,000 to Restore Our Future, a super PAC supporting former Governor Mitt Romney's 2012 presidential campaign. The National Republican Senatorial Committee received $247,500 from Loeffler and Sprecher. In May 2020, Loeffler's husband gave $1 million to a Trump 2020 reelection super PAC, his largest federal political donation to date.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: Loeffler considered seeking the Republican nomination in the 2014 United States Senate election in Georgia but ultimately passed on the race because of Intercontinental Exchange's pending acquisition of the New York Stock Exchange.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: On August 28, 2019, sitting Georgia senator Johnny Isakson announced that he would resign at the end of the year, citing health reasons. On December 4, 2019, in accordance with Georgia law, Governor Kemp appointed Loeffler to fill Isakson's unexpired term until the next regularly scheduled statewide election in November 2020. Kemp traveled to Washington to explain why he wanted to appoint Loeffler instead of Trump's choice, Representative Doug Collins, who helped lead the House opposition to Trump's impeachment. The choice of Loeffler angered many Georgia conservatives who had supported Collins.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: On January 6, 2020, Loeffler was sworn into the Senate. She became the second female to represent Georgia in the U.S. Senate. The first was Rebecca Latimer Felton, also the first female U.S. Senator, who served a symbolic one-day term in 1922. The appointment was valid until the runoff election scheduled for January 5, because no candidate in the November 2020 election received a majority of the vote.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: Loeffler called herself the most conservative Republican in the Senate and allied herself with President Trump. During her tenure in the Senate, Loeffler sponsored 57 bills and cosponsored 210. She voted in line with President Trump's stated position 80% of the time.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: Loeffler supported Republican efforts to repeal the Affordable Care Act. Loeffler opposed abortion and supported anti-abortion legislation. The anti-abortion group Susan B. Anthony List initially opposed Loeffler's appointment, but endorsed her in the 2020 election. Loeffler donated portions of her Senate salary to anti-abortion pregnancy centers and an anti-LGBTQ adoption agency.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: On gun issues, Loeffler received "A" ratings from the National Rifle Association and Gun Owners of America. She cosponsored the Concealed Carry Reciprocity Act and opposed the assault weapons ban and red flag law proposals. Loeffler supported constructing a border wall along the Mexico–United States border, and the appointment of conservative judges to federal courts. In September 2020, she introduced legislation to the Senate floor that would bar transgender girls and women from participating in girls' and women's sports. The bill stated "sex shall be recognized based solely on a person's reproductive biology and genetics at birth".


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: In February 2020, Loeffler said that "Democrats have dangerously and intentionally misled the American people on #Coronavirus readiness". She went on to say that regarding COVID-19, "Americans are in good hands with" the Trump administration. In March 2020, Loeffler said that the U.S. was "in the best economic position" to handle COVID-19. She criticized Democrats, writing that they "continue to play politics with" COVID-19.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: In October 2020, shortly after Trump and First Lady Melania Trump were diagnosed with COVID-19 after attending events where they closely interacted with other individuals while maskless, Loeffler, who often appeared at rallies and gatherings without wearing a mask, blamed their contraction of the disease on the People's Republic of China, tweeting, "China gave this virus to our President @realDonaldTrump and First Lady @FLOTUS. WE MUST HOLD THEM ACCOUNTABLE."


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: During the 2021 United States Electoral College vote count in January 2021, Loeffler was slated to vote against the measure, but after the storming of the U.S. Capitol, which Loeffler witnessed, she changed her mind, saying, "The events that transpired have forced me to reconsider. I cannot now in good conscience object to the certification of the votes."


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: On March 19, 2020, the release of federal financial disclosure documents showed that Loeffler and her husband Jeffrey Sprecher, chairman and CEO of the Intercontinental Exchange (a corporation that owns the New York Stock Exchange), had sold stock in companies vulnerable to the COVID-19 pandemic with an aggregate value of several million dollars. They began selling stocks on January 24, the same day Loeffler attended a private briefing of the Committee on Health, Education, Labor & Pensions on the spread of the disease, before the public had been alerted to its severity. Loeffler denied any wrongdoing, saying the trades were made by a third-party advisor and that she learned about them only after they occurred. Between January 24 and February 14, the couple sold between $1.275 and $3.1 million worth of stock in 27 companies, while buying stocks worth between $450,000 and $1 million, including in Citrix, which develops remote collaboration software.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: The government watchdog group Common Cause filed complaints with the Justice Department, the Securities and Exchange Commission and the Senate Ethics Committee, alleging possible violations of the STOCK Act and insider trading laws in the matter of stock sales by Loeffler and three other senators, Richard Burr, Jim Inhofe, and Dianne Feinstein. Loeffler and Sprecher had sold at least $18.7 million in Intercontinental Exchange stock before the 2020 stock market crash. After being criticized for the trades, Loeffler and Sprecher sold their individual stocks in an effort "to move beyond the distraction" caused by trades they made before and during the market decline caused by the COVID-19 outbreak. On May 26, 2020, the U.S. Department of Justice announced that it had closed its inquiry into Loeffler. On June 16, 2020, the Senate Ethics Committee dismissed Common Cause's complaint, writing to Loeffler, "Based on all the information before it, the Committee did not find evidence that your actions violated federal law, Senate Rules or standards of conduct."


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: Loeffler ran to serve the remaining two years of the Senate term to which she had been appointed. She planned to spend $20 million of her own money on her campaign. Under Georgia's election law, all candidates for the seat (regardless of political party) compete in a nonpartisan blanket primary; in addition to Democratic candidates, Loeffler, backed by the National Republican Senatorial Committee, was challenged by fellow Republican Doug Collins, who represented Georgia's 9th congressional district.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: In July 2020, Loeffler, who co-owned the Atlanta Dream, wrote the WNBA a public letter objecting to players wearing shirts with "Black Lives Matter" and "Say Her Name" printed on them, and suggesting they wear American flags instead. She stated her opposition to the Black Lives Matter movement, saying it "advocates things like defunding and abolishing the police, abolishing our military, emptying our prisons, destroying the nuclear family" and "promotes violence and antisemitism". Her comments led some WNBA players to call for her removal from ownership. Loeffler later said that the movement was "based on Marxist principles" and threatens to "destroy" America. In August 2020, players from the Dream and several other teams wore "Vote Warnock" T-shirts in support of one of Loeffler's Democratic challengers in the special election.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: During her 2020 campaign, Loeffler said that she had never disagreed with Trump. When she was asked about the Donald Trump Access Hollywood tape, in which Trump discusses groping women, Loeffler replied that she was "not familiar with that". When she was separately asked about a recording of Trump telling Bob Woodward that he was intentionally downplaying COVID-19 in public, she responded that it was "fake news".


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: During the 2020 campaign, Loeffler touted that she had been endorsed by Marjorie Taylor Greene, a controversial Republican who won the election for Georgia's 14th congressional district. Greene had a history of promotion of the QAnon conspiracy theory and of commentary that has been considered racist. Asked whether she accepted Greene's endorsement given Greene's history of remarks, Loeffler said she knew nothing about QAnon and criticized the media for misrepresenting or faking events.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: As no candidate received over 50% of the vote in the election, Loeffler, who came in second, participated in a runoff election on January 5, 2021, against the primary's first-place finisher, Democratic candidate Raphael Warnock. The other senate race from the state between David Perdue and Jon Ossoff also went to a runoff. This meant if Democrats won both seats, which they ultimately did, they would take control of the senate in a 50–50 tie, because of the Vice President Kamala Harris having a tie breaking vote. After the November election, Loeffler and the other U.S. Senator from Georgia, David Perdue, claimed without evidence that there had been "failures" in the election, and called for the resignation of the Georgia Secretary of State Brad Raffensperger, a fellow Republican. Their rhetoric fed into falsehoods and conspiracy theories among segments of the right, including Trump, who lost the presidential election to Joe Biden. There was no evidence of wrongdoing in connection with the election. Raffensperger rejected the calls for his resignation. According to "Politico", Loeffler repeated Trump's baseless claims of fraud because she wanted the support of Trump and his core voters in the January runoff. In December 2020, Loeffler supported a lawsuit by Trump allies seeking to overturn the election results.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: On November 20, 2020, Loeffler spoke without a mask at a rally in Canton, Georgia, 46 days before the runoff. Later that day, she tested positive for COVID-19; the result of a subsequent test the following day was inconclusive. She had intermittently worn a mask while campaigning. Attendees at her rallies were mostly maskless. As a consequence of the initial positive test result, Loeffler canceled future appearances at rallies, entering quarantine for the recommended time period. On January 1, 2021, Loeffler absented herself from the successful override of Trump's veto of the defense spending bill.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: Throughout the campaign she sought to win the support of pro-Trump voters. She touted her endorsement from Trump; he held a rally in the state shortly before the election. At the rally, he asked his supporters to vote for Loeffler, also repeating debunked voter fraud allegations. Her campaign tried to paint her opponent Raphael Warnock as a socialist in a series of campaign ads, calling for people to vote for her to "hold the line" against what she called socialism. In a December 6, 2020, debate she repeatedly accused her opponent of being a "radical liberal" and refused to admit Joe Biden was the winner of the 2020 United States presidential election. With Democrats in the race calling for $2,000 COVID-19 stimulus payments if they won and Donald Trump backing the policy, she announced she would back the payments.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: The Associated Press called the race for Warnock in the early morning hours of January 6. His win was attributed to a large black voter turnout in the runoff. That same day, Loeffler planned to object to the certified election results, but after the storming of the United States Capitol, she withdrew her objection and accepted the results. The next day, Loeffler conceded to Warnock.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: Following the special election, Loeffler founded Greater Georgia, an organization that planned to register likely conservative voters in Georgia, expand conservative messaging infrastructure, and advocate for more restrictive voting laws. Loeffler personally invested at least $1 million in the organization.


title: Kelly Loeffler

text: In 2004, Loeffler married Jeffrey Sprecher, the founder and CEO of Intercontinental Exchange and Chairman of the New York Stock Exchange. They live in Tuxedo Park, Atlanta, in a $10.5 million, estate, bought in 2013 in what was then the most expensive residential real estate transaction ever recorded in Atlanta. They have four additional homes and a condo. In November 2020, "Newsweek" reported Loeffler's and Sprecher's combined net worth at 800 million, making her the wealthiest sitting U.S. Senator at the time.


title: James Keach

text: James Keach (born December 7, 1947) is an American actor and filmmaker. He is the younger brother of actor Stacy Keach Jr. and son of actor Stacy Keach Sr.


title: James Keach

text: Keach was born in Savannah, Georgia, the son of Mary Cain (), an actress, and Walter Stacy Keach Sr., a drama coach, actor, writer, and producer. His brother, Stacy Keach, is an actor and narrator. Keach received his undergraduate degree from Northwestern University, a M.F.A. from the Yale School of Drama, and is also a classically trained Shakespearean actor. He is a patron of Meningitis UK.


title: James Keach

text: Best known as a producer and director, Keach has also acted, most famously portraying Jesse James in the 1980 film "The Long Riders", a film which he co-wrote and produced. Johnny Cash was so taken by the film that he and June Carter became close friends with Keach and asked him to be involved in the development of "Walk the Line", which Keach produced. Keach also appeared in numerous supporting roles in films such as "National Lampoon's Vacation" with Chevy Chase, "The Razor's Edge" opposite Bill Murray, and "Wildcats" with Goldie Hawn. He also played a leading role in the 1985 comedy film "Moving Violations" as Deputy Hank Halik.


title: James Keach

text: He was the director of the 1993 TV series and 1999 film "Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman" which starred his wife, Jane Seymour, and other episodic television. Most recently he has directed and produced "Waiting for Forever" and "Blind Dating". He directed a documentary, "", about country music singer Glen Campbell and his battle with Alzheimer's disease, that was released in October 2014. He won a Grammy Award on March 14, 2021, as producer for the documentary Linda Ronstadt The Sound of My Voice.


title: James Keach

text: Keach was married to Holly Collins, sister of Judy Collins. Their marriage produced a son, Kalen Keach. Sometime after his marriage to Collins ended, he married Mimi Maynard. Their marriage lasted until 1993.


title: James Keach

text: In 1993, Keach married actress Jane Seymour. The couple had twin boys, born November 30, 1995, John Stacy and Kristopher Steven, who were named after family friends Johnny Cash and Christopher Reeve, and James's brother, actor Stacy Keach. On April 12, 2013, it was announced that the couple separated. The divorce was finalized in December 2015.


title: Residual-current device

text: A residual-current device (RCD), residual-current circuit breaker (RCCB) or ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) is an electrical safety device that quickly breaks an electrical circuit with leakage current to ground. It is to protect equipment and to reduce the risk of serious harm from an ongoing electric shock. Injury may still occur in some cases, for example if a human receives a brief shock before the electrical circuit is isolated, falls after receiving a shock, or if the person touches both conductors at the same time.


title: Residual-current device

text: If the RCD device has additional overcurrent protection integrated in the same device, it is referred to as RCBO. An earth leakage circuit breaker may be a RCD, although an older type of voltage-operated earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) also exists.


title: Residual-current device

text: These electrical wiring devices are designed to quickly and automatically isolate a circuit when it detects that the electric current is unbalanced between the supply and return conductors of a circuit. Any difference between the currents in these conductors indicates leakage current, which presents a shock hazard. Alternating 60 Hz current above 20 mA (0.020 amperes) through the human body is potentially sufficient to cause cardiac arrest or serious harm if it persists for more than a small fraction of a second. RCDs are designed to disconnect the conducting wires ("trip") quickly enough to potentially prevent serious injury to humans, and to prevent damage to electrical devices.


title: Residual-current device

text: RCDs are testable and resettable devices—a test button safely creates a small leakage condition, and another button resets the conductors after a fault condition has been cleared. Some RCDs disconnect both the energized and return conductors upon a fault (double pole), while a single pole RCD only disconnects the energized conductor. If the fault has left the return wire "floating" or not at its expected ground potential for any reason, then a single-pole RCD will leave this conductor still connected to the circuit when it detects the fault.


title: Residual-current device

text: RCDs are designed to disconnect the circuit if there is a leakage current. In their first implementation in the 1950s, power companies used them to prevent electricity theft where consumers grounded returning circuits rather than connecting them to neutral to inhibit electrical meters from registering their power consumption.


title: Residual-current device

text: The most common modern application is as a safety device to detect small leakage currents (typically 5–30mA) and disconnecting quickly enough (<30 milliseconds) to prevent device damage or electrocution. They are an essential part of the automatic disconnection of supply (ADS), i.e. to switch off when a fault develops, rather than rely on human intervention, one of the essential tenets of modern electrical practice.


title: Residual-current device

text: To reduce the risk of electrocution, RCDs should operate within 25–40 milliseconds with any leakage currents (through a person) of greater than 30mA, before electric shock can drive the heart into ventricular fibrillation, the most common cause of death through electric shock. By contrast, conventional circuit breakers or fuses only break the circuit when the total current is excessive (which may be thousands of times the leakage current an RCD responds to). A small leakage current, such as through a person, can be a very serious fault, but would probably not increase the total current enough for a fuse or overload circuit breaker to isolate the circuit, and not fast enough to save a life.


title: Residual-current device

text: RCDs operate by measuring the current balance between two conductors using a differential current transformer. This measures the difference between current flowing through the live conductor and that returning through the neutral conductor. If these do not sum to zero, there is a leakage of current to somewhere else (to earth/ground or to another circuit), and the device will open its contacts. Operation does not require a fault current to return through the earth wire in the installation; the trip will operate just as well if the return path is through plumbing, contact with the ground or any other current path. Automatic disconnection and a measure of shock protection is therefore still provided even if the earth wiring of the installation is damaged or incomplete.


title: Residual-current device

text: For an RCD used with three-phase power, all three live conductors and the neutral (if fitted) must pass through the current transformer.


title: Residual-current device

text: Electrical plugs with incorporated RCD are sometimes installed on appliances that might be considered to pose a particular safety hazard, for example long extension leads, which might be used outdoors, or garden equipment or hair dryers, which may be used near a bath or sink. Occasionally an in-line RCD may be used to serve a similar function to one in a plug. By putting the RCD in the extension lead, protection is provided at whatever outlet is used even if the building has old wiring, such as knob and tube, or wiring that does not contain a grounding conductor. The in-line RCD can also have a lower tripping threshold than the building to further improve safety for a specific electrical device.


title: Residual-current device

text: In North America, GFI receptacles can be used in cases where there is no grounding conductor, but they must be labeled as "no equipment ground". This is referenced in the National Electric Code section 406 (D) 2, however codes change and someone should always consult a licensed professional and their local building and safety departments. The code is An ungrounded GFI receptacle will trip using the built-in "test" button, but will not trip using a GFI test plug, because the plug tests by passing a small current from line to the non-existent ground. It is worth noting that despite this, only one GFCI receptacle at the beginning of each circuit is necessary to protect downstream receptacles. There does not appear to be a risk of using multiple GFI receptacles on the same circuit, though it is considered redundant.


title: Residual-current device

text: In Europe, RCDs can fit on the same DIN rail as the miniature circuit breakers; much like in miniature circuit breakers, the busbar arrangements in consumer units and distribution boards provides protection for anything downstream.


title: Residual-current device

text: A pure RCD will detect imbalance in the currents of the supply and return conductors of a circuit. But it cannot protect against overload or short circuit like a fuse or a miniature circuit breaker (MCB) does (except for the special case of a short circuit from live to ground, not live to neutral).


title: Residual-current device

text: However, a RCD and a MCB often come integrated in the same device, thus being able to detect both supply imbalance and overload current. Such a device is called


title: Residual-current device

text: The diagram depicts the internal mechanism of a residual-current device (RCD). The device is designed to be wired in-line in an appliance power cord. It is rated to carry a maximal current of 13A and is designed to trip on a leakage current of 30mA. This is an active RCD; that is, it latches electrically and therefore trips on power failure, a useful feature for equipment that could be dangerous on unexpected re-energisation. Some early RCDs were entirely electromechanical and relied on finely balanced sprung over-centre mechanisms driven directly from the current transformer. As these are hard to manufacture to the required accuracy and prone to drift in sensitivity both from pivot wear and lubricant dry-out, the electronically-amplified type with a more robust solenoid part as illustrated are now dominant.


title: Residual-current device

text: In the internal mechanism of an RCD, the incoming supply and the neutral conductors are connected to the terminals at (1), and the outgoing load conductors are connected to the terminals at (2). The earth conductor (not shown) is connected through from supply to load uninterrupted.


title: Residual-current device

text: When the reset button (3) is pressed, the contacts ((4) and another, hidden behind (5)) close, allowing current to pass. The solenoid (5) keeps the contacts closed when the reset button is released.


title: Residual-current device

text: The sense coil (6) is a differential current transformer which surrounds (but is not electrically connected to) the live and neutral conductors. In normal operation, all the current down the live conductor returns up the neutral conductor. The currents in the two conductors are therefore equal and opposite and cancel each other out.


title: Residual-current device

text: Any fault to earth (for example caused by a person touching a live component in the attached appliance) causes some of the current to take a different return path, which means that there is an imbalance (difference) in the current in the two conductors (single-phase case), or, more generally, a nonzero sum of currents from among various conductors (for example, three phase conductors and one neutral conductor).


title: Residual-current device

text: This difference causes a current in the sense coil (6), which is picked up by the sense circuitry (7). The sense circuitry then removes power from the solenoid (5), and the contacts (4) are forced apart by a spring, cutting off the electricity supply to the appliance. A power failure will also remove power from the solenoid and cause the contacts to open, causing the safe trip-on-power-failure behaviour mentioned above.


title: Residual-current device

text: The test button (8) allows the correct operation of the device to be verified by passing a small current through the orange test wire (9). This simulates a fault by creating an imbalance in the sense coil. If the RCD does not trip when this button is pressed, then the device must be replaced.


title: Residual-current device

text: Residual-current and over-current protection may be combined in one device for installation into the service panel; this device is known as a GFCI (Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupter) breaker in the US and Canada, and as a RCBO (residual-current circuit breaker with over-current protection) in Europe and Australia. They are effectively a combination of a RCD and a MCB. In the US, GFCI breakers are more expensive than GFCI outlets.


title: Residual-current device

text: As well as requiring both live and neutral inputs and outputs (or, full three-phase), many GFCI/RCBO devices require a functional earth (FE) connection. This serves to provide both EMC immunity and to reliably operate the device if the input-side neutral connection is lost but live and earth remain.


title: Residual-current device

text: For reasons of space, many devices, especially in DIN rail format, use flying leads rather than screw terminals, especially for the neutral input and FE connections. Additionally, because of the small form factor, the output cables of some models (Eaton/MEM) are used to form the primary winding of the RCD part, and the outgoing circuit cables must be led through a specially dimensioned terminal tunnel with the current transformer part around it. This can lead to incorrect failed trip results when testing with meter probes from the screw heads of the terminals, rather than from the final circuit wiring.


title: Residual-current device

text: Having one RCD feeding another is generally unnecessary, provided they have been wired properly. One exception is the case of a TT earthing system, where the earth loop impedance may be high, meaning that a ground fault might not cause sufficient current to trip an ordinary circuit breaker or fuse. In this case a special 100mA (or greater) trip current time-delayed RCD is installed, covering the whole installation, and then more sensitive RCDs should be installed downstream of it for sockets and other circuits that are considered high-risk.


title: Residual-current device

text: In addition to ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs), arc-fault circuit interrupters (AFCI) are equally important as they offer added protection from potentially hazardous arc-faults resulting from damage in branch circuit wiring as well as extensions to branches such as appliances and cord sets. By detecting hazardous arc-faults and responding by interrupting power, AFCIs helps reduce the likelihood of the home's electrical system being an ignition source of a fire. Dual function AFCI/GFCI devices offer both electrical fire prevention and shock prevention in one device making them a solution for many rooms in the home, especially when replacing an existing standard receptacle or existing ungrounded receptacle.


title: Residual-current device

text: Major differences exist regarding the manner in which an RCD-unit will act to disconnect the power to a circuit or appliance.


title: Residual-current device

text: The first three of those situations, relate largely to usage as part of a power-distribution system and are almost always of the 'passive' or 'latched' variety, whereas the fourth relates solely to specific appliances and are always of the 'active' or 'non-latching' variety. 'Active' means prevention of any 're-activation' of the power supply after any inadvertent form of power outage, as soon as the mains supply becomes re-established; 'latch' relates to a 'switch' inside the unit housing the RCD that remains as set following any form of power outage, but has to be reset manually after the detection of an error-condition.


title: Residual-current device

text: In the fourth situation, it would be deemed to be highly undesirable, and probably very unsafe, for a connected appliance to automatically resume operation after a power disconnection, without having the operator in attendance – as such manual reactivation of the RCD is necessary.


title: Residual-current device

text: The difference between the modes of operation of the essentially two different types of RCD functionality is that the operation for power distribution purposes requires the internal latch to remain set within the RCD after any form of power disconnection caused by either the user turning the power off, or after any power outage; such arrangements are particularly applicable for connections to refrigerators and freezers.


title: Residual-current device

text: Situation two is mostly installed just as described above, but some wall socket RCDs are available to fit the fourth situation, often by operating a switch on the fascia panel.


title: Residual-current device

text: RCDs for the first and third situation are most commonly rated at 30mA and 40ms. For the fourth situation, there is generally a greater choice of ratings available – generally all lower than the other forms, but lower values often result in more nuisance tripping. Sometimes users apply protection in addition to one of the other forms, when they wish to override those with a lower rating. It may be wise to have a selection of type 4 RCDs available, because connections made under damp conditions or using lengthy power cables are more prone to trip-out when any of the lower ratings of RCD are used; ratings as low as 10mA are available.


title: Residual-current device

text: The number of poles represents the number of conductors that are interrupted when a fault condition occurs. RCDs used on single-phase AC supplies (two current paths), such as domestic power, are usually one- or two-pole designs, also known as single- and double-pole. A single-pole RCD interrupts only the energized conductor, while a double-pole RCD interrupts both the energized and return conductors. (In a single-pole RCD, the return conductor is usually anticipated to be at ground potential at all times and therefore safe on its own).


title: Residual-current device

text: RCDs with three or more poles can be used on three-phase AC supplies (three current paths) or to disconnect an earth conductor as well, with four-pole RCDs used to interrupt three-phase and neutral supplies. Specially designed RCDs can also be used with both AC and DC power distribution systems.


title: Residual-current device

text: The following terms are sometimes used to describe the manner in which conductors are connected and disconnected by an RCD:


title: Residual-current device

text: RCD sensitivity is expressed as the rated residual operating current, noted "I". Preferred values have been defined by the IEC, thus making it possible to divide RCDs into three groups according to their "I" value:


title: Residual-current device

text: There are two groups of devices. "G" (general use) "instantaneous" RCDs have no intentional time delay. They must never trip at one-half of the nominal current rating, but must trip within 200 milliseconds for rated current, and within 40 milliseconds at five times rated current. "S" (selective) or "T" (time-delayed) RCDs have a short time delay. They are typically used at the origin of an installation for fire protection to discriminate with "G" devices at the loads, and in circuits containing surge suppressors. They must not trip at one-half of rated current. They provide at least 130 milliseconds delay of tripping at rated current, 60 milliseconds at twice rated, and 50 milliseconds at five times rated. The maximum break time is 500ms at rated current, 200ms at twice rated, and 150ms at five times rated.


title: Residual-current device

text: Programmable earth fault relays are available to allow co-ordinated installations to minimise outage. For example, a power distribution system might have a 300mA, 300ms device at the service entry of a building, feeding several 100mA "S" type at each sub-board, and 30mA "G" type for each final circuit. In this way, a failure of a device to detect the fault will eventually be cleared by a higher-level device, at the cost of interrupting more circuits.


title: Residual-current device

text: IEC Standard 60755 ("General requirements for residual current operated protective devices") defines three types of RCD depending on the waveforms and frequency of the fault current.


title: Residual-current device

text: and notes that these designations have been introduced because some designs of type A and AC RCD can be disabled if a DC current is present that saturates the core of the detector.


title: Residual-current device

text: The surge current refers to the peak current an RCD is designed to withstand using a test impulse of specified characteristics. The IEC 61008 and IEC 61009 standards require that RCDs withstand a 200A "ring wave" impulse. The standards also require RCDs classified as "selective" to withstand a 3000A impulse surge current of specified waveform.


title: Residual-current device

text: RCDs can be tested with a built-in test button to confirm functionality on a regular basis. RCDs may not operate correctly if wired improperly, so they are generally tested by the installer. By introducing a controlled fault current from live to earth, the operating time and wiring can be tested. Such a test may be performed on installation of the device and at any "downstream" outlet. (Upstream outlets are "not" protected.) To avoid needless tripping, only one RCD should be installed on any single circuit (excluding corded RCDs, such as bathroom small appliances).


title: Residual-current device

text: A residual-current circuit breaker cannot remove all risk of electric shock or fire. In particular, an RCD alone will not detect overload conditions, phase-to-neutral short circuits or phase-to-phase short circuits (see three-phase electric power). Over-current protection (fuses or circuit breakers) must be provided. Circuit breakers that combine the functions of an RCD with overcurrent protection respond to both types of fault. These are known as RCBOs and are available in 2-, 3- and 4-pole configurations. RCBOs will typically have separate circuits for detecting current imbalance and for overload current but use a common interrupting mechanism.


title: Residual-current device

text: An RCD helps to protect against electric shock when current flows through a person from a phase (live / line / hot) to earth. It cannot protect against electric shock when current flows through a person from phase to neutral or from phase to phase, for example where a finger touches both live and neutral contacts in a light fitting; a device cannot differentiate between current flow through an intended load from flow through a person, though the RCD may still trip if the person is in contact with the ground (earth), as some current may still pass through the persons finger and body to earth.


title: Residual-current device

text: Whole installations on a single RCD, common in older installations in the UK, are prone to "nuisance" trips that can cause secondary safety problems with loss of lighting and defrosting of food. Frequently the trips are caused by deteriorating insulation on heater elements, such as water heaters and cooker elements or rings. Although regarded as a nuisance, the fault is with the deteriorated element and not the RCD: replacement of the offending element will resolve the problem, but replacing the RCD will not.


title: Residual-current device

text: In the case of RCDs that need a power supply, a dangerous condition can arise if the neutral wire is broken or switched off on the supply side of the RCD, while the corresponding live wire remains uninterrupted. The tripping circuit needs power to work and does not trip when the power supply fails. Connected equipment will not work without a neutral, but the RCD cannot protect people from contact with the energized wire. For this reason circuit breakers must be installed in a way that ensures that the neutral wire cannot be switched off unless the live wire is also switched off at the same time. Where there is a requirement for switching off the neutral wire, two-pole breakers (or four-pole for 3-phase) must be used. To provide some protection with an interrupted neutral, some RCDs and RCBOs are equipped with an auxiliary connection wire that must be connected to the earth busbar of the distribution board. This either enables the device to detect the missing neutral of the supply, causing the device to trip, or provides an alternative supply path for the tripping circuitry, enabling it to continue to function normally in the absence of the supply neutral.


title: Residual-current device

text: Related to this, a single-pole RCD/RCBO interrupts the energized conductor only, while a double-pole device interrupts both the energized and return conductors. Usually this is a standard and safe practice, since the return conductor is held at ground potential anyway. However, because of its design, a single-pole RCD will not isolate or disconnect all relevant wires in certain uncommon situations, for example where the return conductor is not being held, as expected, at ground potential, or where current leakage occurs between the return and earth conductors. In these cases, a double-pole RCD will offer protection, since the return conductor would also be disconnected.


title: Residual-current device

text: The world's first high-sensitivity earth leakage protection system (i.e. a system capable of protecting people from the hazards of direct contact between a live conductor and earth), was a second-harmonic magnetic amplifier core-balance system, known as the magamp, developed in South Africa by Henri Rubin. Electrical hazards were of great concern in South African gold mines, and Rubin, an engineer at the company C.J. Fuchs Electrical Industries of Alberton Johannesburg, initially developed a cold-cathode system in 1955 which operated at 525V and had a tripping sensitivity of 250mA. Prior to this, core balance earth leakage protection systems operated at sensitivities of about 10A.


title: Residual-current device

text: The cold cathode system was installed in a number of gold mines and worked reliably. However, Rubin began working on a completely novel system with greatly improved sensitivity, and by early 1956, he had produced a prototype second-harmonic magnetic amplifier-type core balance system (South African Patent No. 2268/56 and Australian Patent No. 218360). The prototype magamp was rated at 220V, 60A and had an internally adjustable tripping sensitivity of 12.5–17.5mA. Very rapid tripping times were achieved through a novel design, and this combined with the high sensitivity was well within the safe current-time envelope for ventricular fibrillation determined by Charles Dalziel of the University of California, Berkeley, USA, who had estimated electrical shock hazards in humans. This system, with its associated circuit breaker, included overcurrent and short-circuit protection. In addition, the original prototype was able to trip at a lower sensitivity in the presence of an interrupted neutral, thus protecting against an important cause of electrical fire.


title: Residual-current device

text: Following the accidental electrocution of a woman in a domestic accident at the Stilfontein gold mining village near Johannesburg, a few hundred F.W.J. 20mA magamp earth leakage protection units were installed in the homes of the mining village during 1957 and 1958. F.W.J. Electrical Industries, which later changed its name to FW Electrical Industries, continued to manufacture 20mA single phase and three phase magamp units.


title: Residual-current device

text: At the time that he worked on the magamp, Rubin also considered using transistors in this application, but concluded that the early transistors then available were too unreliable. However, with the advent of improved transistors, the company that he worked for and other companies later produced transistorized versions of earth leakage protection.


title: Residual-current device

text: In 1961, Dalziel, working with Rucker Manufacturing Co., developed a transistorized device for earth leakage protection which became known as a Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI), sometimes colloquially shortened to Ground Fault Interrupter (GFI). This name for high-sensitivity earth leakage protection is still in common use in the U.S.A.


title: Residual-current device

text: In the early 1970s most North American GFCI devices were of the circuit breaker type. GFCIs built into the outlet receptacle became commonplace beginning in the 1980s. The circuit breaker type, installed into a distribution panel, suffered from accidental trips mainly caused by poor or inconsistent insulation on the wiring. False trips were frequent when insulation problems were compounded by long circuit lengths. So much current leaked along the length of the conductors' insulation that the breaker might trip with the slightest increase of current imbalance. The migration to outlet receptacle based protection in North American installations reduced the accidental trips and provided obvious verification that wet areas were under electrical code-required protection. European installations continue to use primarily RCDs installed at the distribution board, which provides protection in case of damage to fixed wiring; In Europe socket-based RCDs are primarily used for retrofitting.


title: Residual-current device

text: Regulations differ widely from country to country. A single RCD installed for an entire electrical installation provides protection against shock hazards to all circuits, however, any fault may cut all power to the premises. A solution is to create groups of circuits each with a RCD, or to use RCBO for each individual circuit.


title: Residual-current device

text: In Australia, residual current devices have been mandatory on power circuits since 1991 and on light circuits since 2000.


title: Residual-current device

text: A minimum of two RCDs is required per domestic installation. All socket outlets and lighting circuits are to be distributed over circuit RCDs. A maximum of three subcircuits only, may be connected to a single RCD.


title: Residual-current device

text: Austria regulated residual current devices in the ÖVE E8001-1/A1:2013-11-01 norm (most recent revision). It has been required in private housing since 1980. The maximum activation time must not exceed 0.4 seconds. It needs to be installed on all circuits with power plugs with a maximum leakage current of 30mA and a maximum rated current of 16A.


title: Residual-current device

text: Additional requirements are placed on circuits in wet areas, construction sites and commercial buildings.


title: Residual-current device

text: Belgian domestic installations are required to be equipped with a 300mA residual current device that protects all circuits. Furthermore, at least one 30mA residual current device is required that protects all circuits in "wet rooms" (e.g. bathroom, kitchen) as well as circuits that power certain "wet" appliances (washing machine, tumble dryer, dishwasher). Electrical underfloor heating is required to be protected by a 100mA RCD. These RCDs must be of type A.


title: Residual-current device

text: Since NBR 5410 (1997) residual current devices and grounding are required for new construction or repair in wet areas, outdoor areas, interior outlets used for external appliances, or in areas where water is more probable like bathrooms and kitchens.


title: Residual-current device

text: Denmark requires 30mA RCDs on all circuits that are rated for less than 20 A (circuits at greater rating are mostly used for distribution). RCDs became mandatory in 1975 for new buildings, and then for all buildings in 2008.


title: Residual-current device

text: According to the NF C15-100 regulation (1911 -> 2002), a general RCD not exceeding 100 to 300mA at the origin of the installation is mandatory. Moreover, in rooms where there is water, high power or sensitive equipment (bathrooms, kitchens, IT...), each socket outlet must be protected by an RCD not exceeding 30mA. The type of RCD required (A, AC, F) depends upon the type of the equipment that will be connected and the maximum power of the socket outlet. Minimal distances between electrical devices and water or the floor are described and mandatory.


title: Residual-current device

text: Since 1 May 1984, RCDs are mandatory for all rooms with a bath tub or a shower. Since June 2007 Germany requires the use of RCDs with a trip current of no more than 30mA on sockets rated up to 32A which are for general use. (DIN VDE 0100-410 Nr. 411.3.3).


title: Residual-current device

text: It isn't allowed to use type "AC" RCDs since 1987, to be used to protect humans against electrical shocks.


title: Residual-current device

text: a) For a place of public entertainment, protection against earth leakage current must be provided by a residual current device of sensitivity not exceeding 10mA.


title: Residual-current device

text: b) For a place where the floor is likely to be wet or where the wall or enclosure is of low electrical resistance, protection against earth leakage current must be provided by a residual current device of sensitivity not exceeding 10mA.


title: Residual-current device

text: c) For an installation where hand-held equipment, apparatus or appliance is likely to be used, protection against earth leakage current must be provided by a residual current device of sensitivity not exceeding 30mA.


title: Residual-current device

text: d) For an installation other than the installation in (a), (b) and (c), protection against earth leakage current must be provided by a residual current device of sensitivity not exceeding 100mA.


title: Residual-current device

text: The Italian law (n. 46 March 1990) prescribes RCDs with no more than 30mA residual current (informally called "salvavita"—life saver, after early BTicino models, or differential circuit breaker for the mode of operation) for all domestic installations to protect all the lines. The law was recently updated to mandate at least two separate RCDs for separate domestic circuits. Short-circuit and overload protection has been compulsory since 1968.


title: Residual-current device

text: In the latest guidelines for electrical wiring in residential buildings (2008) handbook, the overall residential wiring need to be protected by a residual current device of sensitivity not exceeding 100mA. Additionally, all power sockets need to be protected by a residual current device of sensitivity not exceeding 30mA and all equipment in wet places (water heater, water pump) need to be protected by a residual current device of sensitivity not exceeding 10mA.


title: Residual-current device

text: From January 2003, all new circuits originating at the switchboard supplying lighting or socket outlets (power points) in domestic buildings must have RCD protection. Residential facilities (such as boarding houses, hospitals, hotels and motels) will also require RCD protection for all new circuits originating at the switchboard supplying socket outlets. These RCDs will normally be located at the switchboard. They will provide protection for all electrical wiring and appliances plugged into the new circuits.


title: Residual-current device

text: In North America socket-outlets located in places where an easy path to ground exists—such as wet areas and rooms with uncovered concrete floors—must be protected by a GFCI. The US "National Electrical Code" has required devices in certain locations to be protected by GFCIs since the 1960s. Beginning with underwater swimming pool lights (1968) successive editions of the code have expanded the areas where GFCIs are required to include: construction sites (1974), bathrooms and outdoor areas (1975), garages (1978), areas near hot tubs or spas (1981), hotel bathrooms (1984), kitchen counter sockets (1987), crawl spaces and unfinished basements (1990), near wet bar sinks (1993), near laundry sinks (2005) and in laundry rooms (2014).


title: Residual-current device

text: GFCIs are commonly available as an integral part of a socket or a circuit breaker installed in the distribution panelboard. GFCI sockets invariably have rectangular faces and accept so-called Decora face plates, and can be mixed with regular outlets or switches in a multi-gang box with standard cover plates. In both Canada and the US older two-wire, ungrounded NEMA 1 sockets may be replaced with NEMA 5 sockets protected by a GFCI (integral with the socket or with the corresponding circuit breaker) in lieu of rewiring the entire circuit with a grounding conductor. In such cases the sockets must be labeled "no equipment ground" and "GFCI protected"; GFCI manufacturers typically provide tags for the appropriate installation description.


title: Residual-current device

text: GFCIs approved for protection against electric shock trip at 5mA within 25ms. A GFCI device which protects equipment (not people) is allowed to trip as high as 30mA of current; this is known as an Equipment Protective Device (EPD). RCDs with trip currents as high as 500mA are sometimes deployed in environments (such as computing centers) where a lower threshold would carry an unacceptable risk of accidental trips. These high-current RCDs serve for equipment and fire protection instead of protection against the risks of electrical shocks.


title: Residual-current device

text: In the United States the American Boat and Yacht Council requires both GFCIs for outlets and Equipment Leakage Circuit Interrupters (ELCI) for the entire boat. The difference is GFCIs trip on 5mA of current whereas ELCIs trip on 30mA after up to 100ms. The greater values are intended to provide protection while minimizing nuisance trips.


title: Residual-current device

text: In Norway, it has been required in all new homes since 2002, and on all new sockets since 2006. This applies to 32A sockets and below. The RCD must trigger after a maximum 0.4 seconds for 230V circuits, or 0.2 seconds for 400V circuits.


title: Residual-current device

text: South Africa mandated the use of Earth Leakage Protection devices in residential environments (e.g. houses, flats, hotels, etc.) from October 1974, with regulations being refined in 1975 and 1976.


title: Residual-current device

text: Devices need to be installed in new premises and when repairs are carried out. Protection is required for power outlets and lighting, with the exception of emergency lighting that should not be interrupted. The standard device used in South Africa is indeed a hybrid of ELPD and RCCB.


title: Residual-current device

text: Taiwan requires circuits of receptacles in washrooms, balconies, and receptacles in kitchen no more than 1.8 metres from the sink the use of earth leakage circuit breakers. This requirement also apply to circuit of water heater in washrooms and circuits that involves devices in water, lights on metal frames, public drinking fountains and so on. In principle, ELCBs should be installed on branch circuits, with trip current no more than 30mA within 0.1 second according to Taiwanese law.


title: Residual-current device

text: Turkey requires the use of RCDs with no more than 30mA and 300mA in all new homes since 2004. This rule was introduced in RG-16/06/2004-25494.


title: Residual-current device

text: The current (18th) edition of the IEE Electrical Wiring Regulations requires that all socket outlets in most installations have RCD protection, though there are exemptions. Non armoured cables buried in walls must also be RCD protected (again with some specific exemptions). Provision of RCD protection for circuits present in bathrooms and shower rooms reduces the requirement for supplementary bonding in those locations. Two RCDs may be used to cover the installation, with upstairs and downstairs lighting and power circuits spread across both RCDs. When one RCD trips, power is maintained to at least one lighting and power circuit. Other arrangements, such as the use of RCBOs, may be employed to meet the regulations. The new requirements for RCDs do not affect most existing installations unless they are rewired, the distribution board is changed, a new circuit is installed, or alterations are made such as additional socket outlets or new cables buried in walls.


title: Residual-current device

text: RCDs used for shock protection must be of the 'immediate' operation type (not time-delayed) and must have a residual current sensitivity of no greater than 30mA.


title: Residual-current device

text: If spurious tripping would cause a greater problem than the risk of the electrical accident the RCD is supposed to prevent (examples might be a supply to a critical factory process, or to life support equipment), RCDs may be omitted, providing affected circuits are clearly labelled and the balance of risks considered; this may include the provision of alternative safety measures.


title: Residual-current device

text: The previous edition of the regulations required use of RCDs for socket outlets that were liable to be used by outdoor appliances. Normal practice in domestic installations was to use a single RCD to cover all the circuits requiring RCD protection (typically sockets and showers) but to have some circuits (typically lighting) not RCD protected. This was to avoid a potentially dangerous loss of lighting should the RCD trip. Protection arrangements for other circuits varied. To implement this arrangement it was common to install a consumer unit incorporating an RCD in what is known as a split load configuration, where one group of circuit breakers is supplied direct from the main switch (or time delay RCD in the case of a TT earth) and a second group of circuits is supplied via the RCD. This arrangement had the recognised problems that cumulative earth leakage currents from the normal operation of many items of equipment could cause spurious tripping of the RCD, and that tripping of the RCD would disconnect power from all the protected circuits.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: The Commitments is a 1991 musical comedy-drama film based on the 1987 novel of the same name by Roddy Doyle. It was directed by Alan Parker from a screenplay written by Doyle, Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais. Set in the Northside of Dublin, the film tells the story of Jimmy Rabbitte (Robert Arkins), a young music fanatic who assembles a group of working-class youths to form a soul band named "The Commitments". The film is the first in a series known as "The Barrytown Trilogy", followed by "The Snapper" (1993) and "The Van" (1996).


title: The Commitments (film)

text: Producers Lynda Myles and Roger Randall-Cutler acquired the film rights to the novel in 1988, and commissioned Doyle, a first-time screenwriter, to write an adaptation. Doyle spent one year working on the script before Myles brought in veteran screenwriters Clement and La Frenais to help complete it. Upon reading the novel, Parker signed on as the film's director in 1989. An international co-production between Ireland, the United States and the United Kingdom, "The Commitments" was the first film produced by Beacon Pictures, which provided an estimated budget of $12–15 million. The film's young lead actors were mostly inexperienced, and were cast because of their musical backgrounds and resemblance to the characters in the novel. Principal photography took place in Dublin, from late August to October, 1990.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: "The Commitments" underperformed at the North American box office, grossing $14.9 million during its theatrical run. Reviewers praised the music, performances and humour, while criticism was occasionally aimed at the pacing and Parker's direction. The film resulted in two soundtrack albums released by MCA Records; the first reached #8 on the "Billboard" 200 album chart and achieved triple-platinum status, while the second album achieved gold sales status. At the 1992 British Academy Film Awards, the film won four of six BAFTA Awards for Best Film, Best Direction, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Editing. It also received an Academy Award nomination for Best Film Editing. The film has since gained cult status.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: In the Northside of Dublin, Ireland, Jimmy Rabbitte is a young music fanatic who aspires to manage an Irish soul band in the tradition of 1960s African-American recording artists. He places an advert in the local newspaper and holds auditions in his parents' home. After being deluged by several unsuitable performers, Jimmy decides to put together a band consisting of friends and people he encounters—lead singer Deco Cuffe, guitarist Outspan Foster, keyboardist Steven Clifford, alto saxophonist Dean Fay, bassist Derek Scully, drummer Billy Mooney, and female backup singers Bernie McGloughlin, Natalie Murphy and Imelda Quirke. Jimmy then meets trumpeter Joey "The Lips" Fagan, a veteran musician who offers his services, and has unlikely stories about meeting and working with famous musicians. Joey names the band "The Commitments".


title: The Commitments (film)

text: After purchasing a drum set and acquiring a piano from Steven's Grandmother, Jimmy secures the remainder of the band's musical equipment from Duffy, a black market dealer. The band rehearses on the second floor above a snooker hall, and after much practice, they convince a local church community centre to give them a gig, under the pretence of it being an anti-heroin campaign. Jimmy then hires Mickah Wallace, a hot-tempered bouncer, to act as the band's security. The band draws a good crowd, but after Deco inadvertently hits Derek with his microphone stand, the amplifiers explode, resulting in a power outage.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: Tensions run high among the band members, as Joey seduces Natalie, then Bernie, then Imelda, all while Deco grows increasingly obnoxious and unruly. The band performs at another venue where, at the end of one song, Billy accidentally knocks over his hi-hat cymbals, leading to a heated argument between him and Deco. Billy leaves the band in fear of going to jail if he beats up Decomuch to Jimmy's frustrationand Mickah replaces him as the band's drummer. During the band's next performance at a roller disco, Jimmy is confronted by Duffy, who demands payment for the equipment he provided the band. Mickah intervenes and violently attacks Duffy, who is escorted out. Jimmy then goes on stage and introduces the band, which elicits boisterous cheers from the audience.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: After the band secures another gig, Joey promises Jimmy that he can get his friend, Wilson Pickett, to sing alongside them. On this promise, Jimmy convinces several journalists to attend the band's next performance. At the venue, the band draws a large crowd, but its members begin arguing with each other offstage, and become doubtful when it appears that Pickett will not show. They go back on stage, where Deco denounces Jimmy for misleading the audience about Pickett's appearance; the band's performance of one of Pickett's songs, "In the Midnight Hour", silences the crowd's protests. After the performance, the fighting continues; during a heated argument, Mickah beats up Deco outside the club, and Jimmy storms off in frustration, claiming that the band is finished. Joey follows Jimmy, who berates him for misleading the band about Pickett. Just as Joey leaves, Pickett's limousine pulls up next to Jimmy, and his driver asks for directions to the club. In a closing monologue, Jimmy explains that the band's members have since gone their separate ways, with many of them continuing to pursue musical careers, and implies that he and Natalie are in a relationship.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: In addition, comedian Sean Hughes played Dave from Eejit Records while Maura O'Malley played Joey's mother. Besides Andrea, the other three members of The Corrs appear in the film, with Jim Corr in a credited role and Sharon and Caroline Corr in brief background roles. The film's director, Alan Parker, plays an unnamed producer at Eejit Records at the end of the film. While the Jimmy character regularly voices both sides of his imaginary interview on the Terry Wogan show, Wogan does not appear.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: Following the 1988 publication of Roddy Doyle's novel "The Commitments" (1987) in the United Kingdom, producers Lynda Myles and Roger Randall-Cutler acquired the film rights, and asked Doyle to write an adaptation. Doyle, an inexperienced screenwriter, spent one year drafting the script, accompanied by Myles and Randall-Cutler. Although a script was completed, Myles felt it needed improvement, and passed the book on to Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais, hoping that they would suggest a more experienced writer. Upon reading the novel, Clement and La Frenais agreed to help write the script themselves.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: In 1989, Myles took the project to Beacon Pictures, an independent film company established that year by Armyan Bernstein, a former television journalist turned screenwriter and producer. Clement and La Frenais traveled to Los Angeles to discuss the project with Alan Parker, and gave him a copy of the novel. Upon reading the novel, Parker was intrigued by its dialogue and humor, stating, "The book was all dialogue with very little description, but by the use of this wonderful language, and almost nothing but language, in a few lines [Doyle] was able to make his characters as vivid and strong as a dozen pages of purple Joycian prose." He signed on to direct the project after concluding work on his previous film "Come See the Paradise" (1990). After Beacon agreed to finance the film, 20th Century Fox acquired the North American distribution rights, and Parker was given creative control. The film was an international co-production between companies in the United Kingdom and the United States. Randall-Cutler's The First Film Company and Parker's Dirty Hands Productions, both based in England, were enlisted as production companies. Parker and the producers later attended the 1990 Cannes Film Festival to secure worldwide pre-sales.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: Casting directors John and Ros Hubbard travelled to Dublin, Ireland in April 1990 and spent two months visiting local clubs in their search for musicians to appear in the film. In June of that year, Parker travelled to Dublin and placed an advertisement in the magazine "Hot Press", requesting young artists to audition for roles in the film. Parker wanted actors who could play a musical instrument and resembled the characters from the novel. He said, "I would stop kids busking (performing for change) on the streets and call them in to audition ... we had to choose kids who were quite talented, because they had to play musicians who were awful at first, but gradually improved."


title: The Commitments (film)

text: Auditions were first held at The Waterfront, a nightclub located near the River Liffey. Jim Corr and his sisters Andrea Corr, Sharon Corr and Caroline Corr were among those who auditioned. Andrea was cast in the non-musical role of Sharon Rabbitte, Jimmy's younger sister, while Sharon and Caroline were cast as members of an Irish band known as "Country & Western"; Jim appears in a brief role as a member of the band "Avant-Garde-A-Clue". Parker then held a casting call at the Mansion House on Dawson Street, Dublin, where 1,500 people auditioned for various roles. During the auditions, Parker met Andrew Strong, son of the film's vocal coach Rob Strong, who performed "Mustang Sally". After meeting with Parker to discuss the project, Strong secured the role of Deco Cuffe, the lead singer of The Commitments. Robert Arkins was initially considered for the role of Deco before he was ultimately cast as Jimmy Rabbitte. Although his character does not have a singing part in the film, Arkins performs the song "Treat Her Right" during the opening credits.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: For the role of Joey "the Lips" Fagan, the eldest member of the band, Parker and La Frenais wanted veteran musician Van Morrison. Although his meeting with Parker did not go well, Morrison offered his songs for use in the film. Rory Gallagher was also considered before veteran film and stage actor Johnny Murphy secured the role. Although Murphy could not play an instrument, Parker felt that he best captured the essence of both the character and the film. Murphy was the only cast member who did not do his own playing in the film. Bronagh Gallagher, another established actor, was cast as Bernie McGloughlin, one of the band's three backup singers known as "The Commitmentettes". The actress, born in Derry, Northern Ireland, had to learn a Dublin accent for the role. Angeline Ball secured the role of Imelda Quirke after a private audition with the Hubbards.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: Maria Doyle Kennedy was a member of the Irish quartet band The Black Velvet Band before she was cast as Commitmentette singer Natalie Murphy. Michael Aherne, who plays The Commitments' pianist Steven Clifford, was an employee for the Dublin Corporation and took a three-month leave of absence to make the film. Glen Hansard, the lead singer of The Frames, was cast as Outspan Foster, the band's guitarist.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: Dave Finnegan was cast as Mickah Wallace, a belligerent and hot-tempered bouncer who becomes a drummer for the band. Parker's first meeting with Finnegan began civilly before their exchanges grew more and more heated. They soon became verbally abusive, threatening each other with disturbing acts of violence. Parker cast Finnegan immediately, explaining that he simply wanted to test the limits of Finnegan's aggression, as he wanted the truculence of the character to be convincing. Colm Meaney first learned of the film adaptation while working with Parker on "Come See the Paradise". After Parker held auditions for the younger cast members, Meaney secured the role of Jimmy's father Jimmy Rabbitte, Sr. The audition scene in the film, in which various musicians audition at Jimmy Rabbitte's home, required more than 100 band members. Peter Rowen, brother of Irish artist Guggi, appears as a young skateboarding boy who asks to audition for the band. At the time of the film's production, Rowen had appeared on the cover art of U2's albums "Boy" (1980) and "War" (1983), and was a national skating champion.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: Parker spent five weeks rehearsing with the cast members before principal photography commenced on 27 August 1990, with an estimated budget of $12–15 million. While Doyle's novel is set in the fictional Barrytown (based on Kilbarrack, where Doyle was a schoolteacher), Parker suggested that the film take place in Dublin. A total of 44 locations in the city were used for filming. Cinematographer Gale Tattersall sought to create "a gritty, ugly look" that would become more composed and polished as the band became more successful. He felt that this visual style would support the film's story arc.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: The film's opening scene, depicting Jimmy Rabbitte (Arkins) trying to offload cassettes and shirts in a street market, was filmed on Sheriff Street, in front of the St. Lawrence O'Toole Catholic Church. A house located on Darndale in the Northside of Dublin was used to depict the Rabbitte family home. The home where Joey "the Lips" Fagan (Murphy) resides with his mother was a house located on 118 Pembroke Road in Ballsbridge. The production also filmed scenes at Ricardo's Pool Hall, a dilapidated building located on 84–87 Lower Camden Street. The second floor of the pool hall was used to depict the band's rehearsals. The Archbishop Byrne Hall (also known as St. Kevin's Hall), located in the Portobello district of Dublin, was used to depict a local church community center, where The Commitments first perform on stage. The Saint Francis Xavier Church, Dublin, located on Upper Gardiner Street, was used to film a scene in which Jimmy finds Commitments pianist Steven Clifford playing "A Whiter Shade of Pale" on an organ. The production team also filmed a scene at a Phibsborough bus depot; the location was used to depict Jimmy convincing Deco (Strong) to become a part of the band. A walkway, where Jimmy discusses his plan to form a band to Outspan and Derek was filmed at the Kilbarrack D.A.R.T. Station. Principal photography concluded in mid-October 1990 after 53 days of filming.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: "The Commitments" does not have an original film score, but features existing music tracks. Music supervisor G. Marq Roswell spent several months during the film's pre-production listening to and categorizing hundreds of R&B songs before travelling to Dublin, Ireland to help Parker finalize songs that would be used in the film. Parker and Roswell had created a "short list" of 1,000 possible song choices. From May to June 1990, Parker had listened to more than 300 songs from the 1960s before narrowing his choices down to 75 songs. The finished film features 68 different musical cues and 52 songs. 24 songs were chosen by the director to be performed by the cast. Roswell also organized and oversaw the recording sessions. The songs were recorded live on set, as Parker wanted to capture the reality of the band's rehearsals and performances. The filmmakers used out-of-phase speakers, which enabled them to play pre-recorded tracks at maximum volume, creating a live performance atmosphere. Each song was then recorded onto a 24-track recorder.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: A motion picture soundtrack album with music produced by Kevin Killen and Paul Bushnell was released on 13 August 1991, by MCA Records. The soundtrack features fourteen songs, most of which appeared in various scenes in the film. Niamh Kavanagh performed as both a lead and backing vocalist in songs such as "Destination Anywhere" and "Do Right Woman, Do Right Man". The soundtrack album was a commercial success, reaching the number one position of the New Zealand Albums Chart. It also reached number one on the Australian Album Chart, and was certified 5× platinum. "The Commitments" was present for a total of 76 weeks on the "Billboard 200", and peaked at number 8 . AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine called the album "a bit generic", while Robert Christgau called it "a cross between "The Big Chill" and "The Blues Brothers"" with performers who "sacrifice idiosyncrasy for competence".


title: The Commitments (film)

text: After the commercial success of the first soundtrack album, a follow-up entitled "The Commitments, Vol. 2: Music From The Original Motion Picture Soundtrack" was released on 17 March 1992. The album included four more songs from the film, as well as seven additional songs performed by the cast. The soundtrack proved less successful than the previous release, peaking at number 118 on the "Billboard 200" chart. The second volume also reached number six on the Australian Album Chart, and was certified gold.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: Billy Altman, writing for "Entertainment Weekly" awarded the album a "B", praising the performers for "sounding more mature and together on their seven newly recorded cover versions here than on four left over from the film". Erlewine, in his review for AllMusic awarded the album three stars out of five and described it as being "plain and forgettable". According to "The Daily Telegraph", the soundtrack has sold 12 million copies worldwide.


title: The Commitments (film)

text: 20th Century Fox felt that "The Commitments" would attract young adult audiences, but test screenings indicated that the film would appeal more to older viewers, due to its musical content. Parker, a former advertising executive, collaborated with the studio on the film's marketing, running an extensive campaign to attract the intended target audience. Theatrical posters for the film were distributed to exhibitors in February 1991. Beginning in April 1991, Fox arranged several screenings in Toronto, New York City, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Chicago, with audience members being music industry executives, journalists, disc jockeys and club owners. In August 1991, the studio hosted a press junket in Dublin, Ireland for several media outlets. "The Commitments" premiered at the Pacific Design Center in West Hollywood, California on 6 August 1991, the Cinerama Dome Theatre in Hollywood on 7 August 1991, the Cineplex Odeon Century Plaza Cinemas in Century City, Los Angeles on 13 August 1991, and the Savoy Cinema in Dublin, Ireland on 19 September 1991.