title: Messiah in Judaism

text: Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson, the last Rebbe of Chabad-Lubavitch, declared often that the Messiah is very close, urging all to pray for the coming of the Messiah and to do everything possible to hasten the coming of the Messiah through increased acts of kindness. Starting in the late 1960s, the Rebbe called for his followers to become involved in outreach activities with the purpose of bringing about the Jewish Messianic Age, which led to controversy surrounding the messianic beliefs of Chabad. Some Chabad Hasidim, called "mashichists", "have not yet accepted the Rebbe's passing" and even after his death regard him as the (living) 'King Messiah' and 'Moses of the generation', awaiting his second coming.


title: Messiah in Judaism

text: The "Chabad-Messianic question", regarding a dead Messiah, got oppositional addresses from a halachic perspective by many prominent Orthodox authorities, including leaders from the Ashkenazi non-Hasidic Lithuanian ("Litvak") institutions, Ponevezh yeshiva in Bnei Brak, Israel, and got vehement opposition, notably that of the Yeshivas Chofetz Chaim (RSA) in New York and that of the Rabbinical Council of America.


title: Messiah in Judaism

text: Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism generally do not accept the idea that there will be a Messiah. Some believe that there may be some sort of Messianic Age (the World to Come) in the sense of a utopia, which all Jews are obligated to work towards (thus the tradition of "Tikkun olam"). In 1999, the Central Conference of American Rabbis, the official body of American Reform rabbis, authored "A Statement of Principles for Reform Judaism", meant to describe and define the spiritual state of modern Reform Judaism.


title: Messiah in Judaism

text: According to the Talmud, the Midrash, and the Zohar, the 'deadline' by which the Messiah must appear is 6000 years from creation (approximately the year 2240 in the Gregorian calendar, though calculations vary). Elaborating on this theme are numerous early and late Jewish scholars, including the Ramban, Isaac Abrabanel, Abraham Ibn Ezra, Rabbeinu Bachya, the Vilna Gaon, the Lubavitcher Rebbe, the Ramchal, Aryeh Kaplan, and Rebbetzin Esther Jungreis.


title: Cephalosporin

text: The cephalosporins (sg. ) are a class of β-lactam antibiotics originally derived from the fungus "Acremonium", which was previously known as "Cephalosporium".


title: Cephalosporin

text: Together with cephamycins, they constitute a subgroup of β-lactam antibiotics called cephems. Cephalosporins were discovered in 1945, and first sold in 1964.


title: Cephalosporin

text: The aerobic mold which yielded cephalosporin C was found in the sea near a sewage outfall in Su Siccu, by Cagliari harbour in Sardinia, by the Italian pharmacologist Giuseppe Brotzu in July 1945.


title: Cephalosporin

text: Cephalosporin contains a 6-membered dihydrothiazine ring. Substitutions at position 3 generally affect pharmacology; substitutions at position 7 affect antibacterial activity, but these cases are not always true.


title: Cephalosporin

text: Cephalosporins can be indicated for the prophylaxis and treatment of infections caused by bacteria susceptible to this particular form of antibiotic. First-generation cephalosporins are active predominantly against Gram-positive bacteria, such as "Staphylococcus" and "Streptococcus". They are therefore used mostly for skin and soft tissue infections and the prevention of hospital-acquired surgical infections. Successive generations of cephalosporins have increased activity against Gram-negative bacteria, albeit often with reduced activity against Gram-positive organisms.


title: Cephalosporin

text: The antibiotic may be used for patients who are allergic to penicillin due to the different β-lactam antibiotic structure. The drug is able to be excreted in the urine.


title: Cephalosporin

text: Common adverse drug reactions (ADRs) (≥ 1% of patients) associated with the cephalosporin therapy include: diarrhea, nausea, rash, electrolyte disturbances, and pain and inflammation at injection site. Infrequent ADRs (0.1–1% of patients) include vomiting, headache, dizziness, oral and vaginal candidiasis, pseudomembranous colitis, superinfection, eosinophilia, nephrotoxicity, neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, and fever.


title: Cephalosporin

text: The commonly quoted figure of 10% of patients with allergic hypersensitivity to penicillins and/or carbapenems also having cross-reactivity with cephalosporins originated from a 1975 study looking at the original cephalosporins, and subsequent "safety first" policy meant this was widely quoted and assumed to apply to all members of the group. Hence, it was commonly stated that they are contraindicated in patients with a history of severe, immediate allergic reactions (urticaria, anaphylaxis, interstitial nephritis, etc.) to penicillins, carbapenems, or cephalosporins. This, however, should be viewed in the light of recent epidemiological work suggesting, for many second-generation (or later) cephalosporins, the cross-reactivity rate with penicillin is much lower, having no significantly increased risk of reactivity over the first generation based on the studies examined. The British National Formulary previously issued blanket warnings of 10% cross-reactivity, but, since the September 2008 edition, suggests, in the absence of suitable alternatives, oral cefixime or cefuroxime and injectable cefotaxime, ceftazidime, and ceftriaxone can be used with caution, but the use of cefaclor, cefadrocil, cefalexin, and cefradine should be avoided.


title: Cephalosporin

text: Overall, the research shows that all beta lactams have the intrinsic hazard of very serious hazardous reactions in susceptible patients. Only the frequency of these reactions vary, based on the structure. Recent papers have shown that a major feature in determining frequency of immunological reactions is the similarity of the side chains (e.g., first generation cephalosporins are similar to penicillins), and this is the reason the β-lactams are associated with different frequencies of serious reactions (e.g., anaphylaxis).


title: Cephalosporin

text: Several cephalosporins are associated with hypoprothrombinemia and a disulfiram-like reaction with ethanol. These include latamoxef (moxalactam), cefmenoxime, cefoperazone, cefamandole, cefmetazole, and cefotetan. This is thought to be due to the N-methylthiotetrazole side-chain of these cephalosporins, which blocks the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase (likely causing hypothrombinemia) and aldehyde dehydrogenase (causing alcohol intolerance). Thus, consumption of alcohol after taking Cephalosporin orally or intravenously is contraindicated, and in severe cases can lead to death.


title: Cephalosporin

text: Cephalosporins are bactericidal and, like other β-lactam antibiotics, disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer forming the bacterial cell wall. The peptidoglycan layer is important for cell wall structural integrity. The final transpeptidation step in the synthesis of the peptidoglycan is facilitated by penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs). PBPs bind to the D-Ala-D-Ala at the end of muropeptides (peptidoglycan precursors) to crosslink the peptidoglycan. Beta-lactam antibiotics mimic the D-Ala-D-Ala site, thereby irreversibly inhibiting PBP crosslinking of peptidoglycan.


title: Cephalosporin

text: Resistance to cephalosporin antibiotics can involve either reduced affinity of existing PBP components or the acquisition of a supplementary β-lactam-insensitive PBP. Compared to other β-lactam antibiotics (such as penicillins), they are less susceptible to β-lactamases. Currently, some "Citrobacter freundii, Enterobacter cloacae", "Neisseria gonorrhoeae", and "Escherichia coli" strains are resistant to cephalosporins. Some "Morganella morganii", "Proteus vulgaris, Providencia rettgeri, Pseudomonas aeruginosa", "Serratia marcescens" and "Klebsiella pneumoniae" strains have also developed resistance to cephalosporins to varying degrees.


title: Cephalosporin

text: The cephalosporin nucleus can be modified to gain different properties. Cephalosporins are sometimes grouped into "generations" by their antimicrobial properties.


title: Cephalosporin

text: The first cephalosporins were designated first-generation cephalosporins, whereas, later, more extended-spectrum cephalosporins were classified as second-generation cephalosporins. Each newer generation has significantly greater Gram-negative antimicrobial properties than the preceding generation, in most cases with decreased activity against Gram-positive organisms. Fourth-generation cephalosporins, however, have true broad-spectrum activity.


title: Cephalosporin

text: The classification of cephalosporins into "generations" is commonly practised, although the exact categorization is often imprecise. For example, the fourth generation of cephalosporins is not recognized as such in Japan. In Japan, cefaclor is classed as a first-generation cephalosporin, though in the United States it is a second-generation one; and cefbuperazone, cefminox, and cefotetan are classed as second-generation cephalosporins.


title: Cephalosporin

text: Cefmetazole and cefoxitin are classed as third-generation cephems. Flomoxef and latamoxef are in a new class called oxacephems.


title: Cephalosporin

text: Fourth-generation cephalosporins as of March, 2007, were considered to be "a class of highly potent antibiotics that are among medicine's last defenses against several serious human infections" according to "The Washington Post".


title: Cephalosporin

text: Some state that cephalosporins can be divided into five or even six generations, although the usefulness of this organization system is of limited clinical relevance.


title: Cephalosporin

text: Most first-generation cephalosporins were originally spelled "ceph-" in English-speaking countries. This continues to be the preferred spelling in the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, while European countries (including the United Kingdom) have adopted the International Nonproprietary Names, which are always spelled "cef-". Newer first-generation cephalosporins and all cephalosporins of later generations are spelled "cef-", even in the United States.


title: Cephalosporin

text: Cephalosporin compounds were first isolated from cultures of "Acremonium strictum" from a sewer in Sardinia in 1948 by Italian scientist Giuseppe Brotzu. He noticed these cultures produced substances that were effective against "Salmonella typhi", the cause of typhoid fever, which had β-lactamase. Guy Newton and Edward Abraham at the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at the University of Oxford isolated cephalosporin C. The cephalosporin nucleus, 7-aminocephalosporanic acid (7-ACA), was derived from cephalosporin C and proved to be analogous to the penicillin nucleus 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA), but it was not sufficiently potent for clinical use. Modification of the 7-ACA side chains resulted in the development of useful antibiotic agents, and the first agent, cefalotin (cephalothin), was launched by Eli Lilly and Company in 1964.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: A mace is a blunt weapon, a type of club or virge that uses a heavy head on the end of a handle to deliver powerful strikes. A mace typically consists of a strong, heavy, wooden or metal shaft, often reinforced with metal, featuring a head made of stone, bone, copper, bronze, iron, or steel.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: The head of a military mace can be shaped with flanges or knobs to allow greater penetration of plate armour. The length of maces can vary considerably. The maces of foot soldiers were usually quite short (two or three feet, or sixty to ninety centimetres). The maces of cavalrymen were longer and thus better suited for blows delivered from horseback. Two-handed maces could be even larger.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: Maces are rarely used today for actual combat, but many government bodies (for instance, the British House of Commons and the U.S. Congress), universities and other institutions have ceremonial maces and continue to display them as symbols of authority. They are often paraded in academic, parliamentary or civic rituals and processions.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: The Middle English word "mace" comes from the French "masse" (short for "Masse d'armes") meaning ‘large hammer’, a hammer with a heavy mass at the end.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: The mace was developed during the Upper Paleolithic from the simple club, by adding sharp spikes of flint or obsidian.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: In Europe, an elaborately carved ceremonial flint mace head was one of the artifacts discovered in excavations of the Neolithic mound of Knowth in Ireland, and Bronze Age archaeology cites numerous finds of perforated mace heads.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: In ancient Ukraine, stone mace heads were first used nearly eight millennia ago. The others known were disc maces with oddly formed stones mounted perpendicularly to their handle. The Narmer Palette shows a king swinging a mace. See the articles on the Narmer Macehead and the Scorpion Macehead for examples of decorated maces inscribed with the names of kings.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: The problem with early maces was that their stone heads shattered easily and it was difficult to fix the head to the wooden handle reliably. The Egyptians attempted to give them a disk shape in the predynastic period (about 3850–3650 BC) in order to increase their impact and even provide some cutting capabilities, but this seems to have been a short-lived improvement.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: A rounded pear form of mace head known as a "piriform" replaced the disc mace in the Naqada II period of pre-dynastic Upper Egypt (3600–3250 BC) and was used throughout the Naqada III period (3250–3100 BC). Similar mace heads were also used in Mesopotamia around 2450–1900 BC. On a Sumerian Clay tablet written by the scribe Gar.Ama, the title Lord of the Mace is listed in the year 3100 BC. The Assyrians used maces probably about nineteenth century BC and in their campaigns; the maces were usually made of stone or marble and furnished with gold or other metals, but were rarely used in battle unless fighting heavily armoured infantry.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: An important, later development in mace heads was the use of metal for their composition. With the advent of copper mace heads, they no longer shattered and a better fit could be made to the wooden club by giving the eye of the mace head the shape of a cone and using a tapered handle.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: The Shardanas or warriors from Sardinia who fought for Ramses II against the Hittites were armed with maces consisting of wooden sticks with bronze heads. Many bronze statuettes of the times show Sardinian warriors carrying swords, bows and original maces.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: Persians used a variety of maces and fielded large numbers of heavily armoured and armed cavalry (see Cataphract). For a heavily armed Persian knight, a mace was as effective as a sword or battle axe. In fact, Shahnameh has many references to heavily armoured knights facing each other using maces, axes, and swords. The enchanted talking mace Sharur made its first appearance in Sumerian/Akkadian mythology during the epic of Ninurta.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: The Indian epics "Ramayana" and "Mahabharata" describe the extensive use of the "gada" in ancient Indian warfare as gada-yuddha or 'mace combat'.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: The ancient Romans did not make wide use of maces, probably because of the influence of armour, and due to the nature of the Roman infantry's fighting style which involved the "Pilum" (spear) and the "Gladius" (short sword used in a stabbing fashion), though auxiliaries from Syria Palestina were armed with clubs and maces at the battles of Immae and Emesa in 272 AD. They proved highly effective against the heavily armoured horsemen of Palmyra.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: During the Middle Ages metal armour such as mail protected against the blows of edged weapons. Solid metal maces and war hammers proved able to inflict damage on well armoured knights, as the force of a blow from a mace is great enough to cause damage without penetrating the armour. Though iron became increasingly common, copper and bronze were also used, especially in iron-deficient areas.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: One example of a mace capable of penetrating armour is the flanged mace. The flanges allow it to dent or penetrate thick armour. Flange maces did not become popular until after knobbed maces. Although there are some references to flanged maces ("bardoukion") as early as the Byzantine Empire c. 900 it is commonly accepted that the flanged mace did not become popular in Europe until the 12th century, when it was concurrently developed in Russia and Mid-west Asia.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: It is popularly believed that maces were employed by the clergy in warfare to avoid shedding blood ("sine effusione sanguinis"). The evidence for this is sparse and appears to derive almost entirely from the depiction of Bishop Odo of Bayeux wielding a club-like mace at the Battle of Hastings in the Bayeux Tapestry, the idea being that he did so to avoid either shedding blood or bearing the arms of war.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: In the 1893 work "Arms and Armour in Antiquity and the Middle Ages", Paul Lacombe and Charles Boutell state that the mace was chiefly used for blows struck upon the head of an enemy.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: Maces were very common in eastern Europe, especially medieval Poland, Ukraine, and Russia. Eastern European maces often had pear shaped heads. These maces were also used by the Moldavian ruler Stephen the Great in some of his wars (see Bulawa).


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: The pernach was a type of flanged mace developed since the 12th century in the region of Kievan Rus', and later widely used throughout the whole of Europe. The name comes from the Slavic word "pero" ("перо") meaning feather, reflecting the form of pernach that resembled a fletched arrow. Pernachs were the first form of the flanged mace to enjoy a wide usage. It was well suited to penetrate plate armour and chain mail. In the later times it was often used as a symbol of power by the military leaders in Eastern Europe.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: The cultures of pre-Columbian America used clubs and maces extensively. The warriors of the Moche state and the Inca Empire used maces with bone, stone or copper heads and wooden shafts.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: Maces in Asia were most often steel clubs with a spherical head. In Persia, the "Gorz" (spherical-head mace) served as a primary combat arm across many eras, most often being used by heavy infantry or Cataphracts. In India a form of these clubs was used by wrestlers to exercise the arms and shoulders. They have been known as gada since ancient times.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: During the Mughal era, the flanged mace of Persia was introduced to South Asia. The term "shishpar" is a Persian phrase which literally translates to "six-wings", to refer to the (often) six flanges on the mace. The shishpar mace was introduced by the Delhi Sultanate and continued to be utilized until the 18th century.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: Trench raiding clubs used during World War I were modern variations on the medieval mace. They were homemade mêlée weapons used by both the Allies and the Central Powers. Clubs were used during night time trench raiding expeditions as a quiet and effective way of killing or wounding enemy soldiers.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: In 2020 China–India skirmishes personnel of People's Liberation Army Ground Force were seen using makeshift maces (batons wrapped in barbed wire and clubs embedded with nails).


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: The ceremonial mace is a short, richly ornamented staff often made of silver, the upper part of which is furnished with a knob or other head-piece and decorated with a coat of arms. The ceremonial mace was commonly borne before eminent ecclesiastical corporations, magistrates, and academic bodies as a mark and symbol of jurisdiction.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: Ceremonial maces are important in many parliaments following the Westminster system. They are carried in by the sergeant-at-arms or some other mace-bearers and displayed on the clerks' table while parliament is in session to show that a parliament is fully constituted. They are removed when the session ends. The mace is also removed from the table when a new speaker is being elected to show that parliament is not ready to conduct business.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: Maces may also be carried before clergy members in church processions, although in the case of the Roman Catholic pope and cardinals, they have largely been replaced with processional crosses.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: Maces are also used as a parade item, rather than a tool of war, notably in military bands. Specific movements of the mace from the drum major will signal specific orders to the band they lead. The mace can signal anything from a step-off to a halt, from the commencement of playing to the cut off.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: University maces are employed in a manner similar to Parliamentary maces. They symbolize the authority and independence of a chartered university and the authority vested in the provost. They are typically carried in at the beginning of a convocation ceremony and are often less than half a meter high.


title: Mace (bludgeon)

text: Like many weapons from feudal times, maces have been used in heraldic blazons as either a charge on a shield or other item, or as external ornamentation.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Robert's Rules of Order, often simply referred to as Robert's Rules, is a manual of parliamentary procedure by U.S. Army officer Henry Martyn Robert.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: "The object of Rules of Order is to assist an assembly to accomplish the work for which it was designed ... Where there is no law ... there is the least of real liberty." The term "Robert's Rules of Order" is also used more generically to refer to any of the more recent editions, by various editors and authors, based on any of Robert's original editions, and the term is used more generically in the United States to refer to parliamentary procedure.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Robert's manual was first published in 1876 as an adaptation of the rules and practice of the United States Congress to the needs of non-legislative societies. "Robert's Rules" is the most widely used manual of parliamentary procedure in the United States. It governs the meetings of a diverse range of organizations—including church groups, county commissions, homeowners associations, nonprofit associations, professional societies, school boards, and trade unions—that have adopted it as their parliamentary authority. Robert published four editions of the manual before his death in 1923, the last being the thoroughly revised and expanded Fourth Edition published as Robert's Rules of Order Revised in May 1915.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: A U.S. Army officer, Henry Martyn Robert (1837–1923), saw a need for a standard of parliamentary procedure while living in San Francisco. He found San Francisco in the mid-to-late 19th century to be a chaotic place where meetings of any kind tended to be tumultuous, with little consistency of procedure and with people of many nationalities and traditions thrown together.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The first edition of the book, whose full title was "Pocket Manual of Rules of Order for Deliberative Assemblies", was published in February 1876 by the then-Major Robert, with the short title "Robert's Rules of Order" placed on its cover.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The procedures prescribed by the book were loosely modeled after those used in the United States House of Representatives, with such adaptations as Robert saw fit for use in ordinary societies. Although he was in the military, the rules in his book were not based on military rules. The author's interest in parliamentary procedure began in 1863 when he was chosen to preside over a church meeting and, although he accepted the task, he felt that he did not have the necessary knowledge of proper procedure.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: In his later work as an active member of several organizations, Robert discovered that members from different areas of the country had very different views regarding what the proper parliamentary rules were, and these conflicting views hampered the organizations in their work. He eventually became convinced of the need for a new manual on the subject, one which would enable many organizations to adopt the same set of rules.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Henry M. Robert himself published four editions of the manual before his death in 1923, the last being the thoroughly revised and expanded Fourth Edition published as "Robert's Rules of Order Revised" in May 1915. By this time Robert had long been retired from the Army with the rank of brigadier general. The revisions were based on the feedback from hundreds of letters that Robert had received through the years. In addition, to explain the rules in "Robert's Rules of Order Revised" (abbreviated ROR), Robert published an introductory book for beginners titled "Parliamentary Practice: An Introduction to Parliamentary Law" in 1921 and a full book of explanations titled "Parliamentary Law" in 1923.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: In those cases in which the bylaws or other governing documents of an organization refer to "Robert's Rules of Order," certain rules in the book may be subordinate to other specified rules, including any conflicting provisions in applicable law, the corporate charter, the constitution or bylaws, and special rules of order.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Even if an organization has adopted "Robert's Rules of Order", it can still adopt its own rules which supersede any rules in this book. The only limitations might come from the rules in a parent organization or from national, state, or local law. An example of a rule that organizations sometimes adopt is one that allows the use of proxy voting. Such a rule is not allowed unless the organization specifically provides for it in its bylaws.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Since the copyrights for several of the original editions (1915 or earlier) have expired, numerous other books and manuals have been published incorporating "Robert's Rules of Order" as part of their titles, with some of them based on those earlier editions (see List of books with Robert's Rules in the title). Some examples are


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Henry M. Robert III, grandson of the original author and Trustee for the Robert's Rules Association, had acknowledged that "there has been controversy among parliamentarians concerning the length of "Robert's Rules" in its various editions and the complexity of the rules it describes." As a result, a supplemental book was developed.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: In 2005, a shorter reference guide, "Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised In Brief" (abbreviated RONRIB), was published by the same authorship team and publisher as the Tenth Edition of "Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised" (RONR) and was made to be in accord with that edition of RONR. A third edition of this shorter guide was published in 2020 to conform with the current Twelfth Edition of "Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised".


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The "In Brief" book is the only concise guide for "Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised" authorized by the Roberts Rules Association, and is intended as an introductory book for those unfamiliar with parliamentary procedure. The authors say, "In only thirty minutes, the average reader can learn the bare essentials, and with about ninety minutes' reading can cover all the basics." It is meant to be an introductory supplement to the current edition of "Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised" and is not suitable for adoption as a parliamentary authority in itself.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Through a family trust, and later through the Robert's Rules Association (which is made up of descendants of Henry M. Robert), several subsequent editions of "Robert's Rules of Order" have been published, including another major revision of the work. The Seventh Edition, published in February 1970 on the 94th anniversary of the publication of the First Edition, was the first under the title "Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised" (RONR). The subsequent editions were based on additional feedback from users, including feedback received by electronic means in recent years. These later editions included material from Robert's "Parliamentary Practice" and "Parliamentary Law".


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The current edition of the series became effective on September 1, 2020, under the title "Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised", Twelfth Edition. This edition states that it:


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The authorship team of the current Twelfth Edition consists of a grandson of General Robert, an attorney, a lobbyist and legislative analyst, a mathematics professor, and a copy editor, all of them being experienced parliamentarians.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The following table lists the official versions of the body of work known as "Robert's Rules of Order" developed by Henry M. Robert and maintained by his successors.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Generally, "Robert's Rules of Order" is a guide for conducting meetings and making decisions as a group. The purpose of the book is "to enable assemblies of any size, with due regard for every member's opinion, to arrive at the general will on the maximum number of questions of varying complexity in a minimum amount of time and under all kinds of internal climate ranging from total harmony to hardened or impassioned division of opinion."


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The book is designed for use in ordinary societies rather than legislative assemblies, and it is the most commonly adopted parliamentary authority among societies in the United States. It is also recognized as "the most widely used reference for meeting procedure and business rules in the English-speaking world."


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The book states that it is "a codification of the present-day general parliamentary law". "General parliamentary law" refers to the common rules and customs for conducting business in organizations and assemblies. It does not refer to statutory legal requirements nor to common-law precedent derived from court judgments. In other words, the book is about procedures for meetings and not about what is "legal" (i.e. it is not a law book).


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: As a reference, it is designed to answer, as nearly as possible, any question of parliamentary procedure that may arise. The Twelfth Edition contains 633 pages of text, and all of its original content was included because it "has at some time come up as a question of procedure somewhere". The completeness of the book was made so that organizations would not have to write extensive rules for themselves. In addition, members of different organizations could refer to the same book of rules.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The contents of the current (12th) edition of "Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised" (RONR), published in 2020, include details on the types of groups that use the book, the ways that decisions could be made, and the various situations in which decisions are made.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The Introduction in the book provides a history of parliamentary procedure and includes the background and history of Robert's Rules of Order. Rules in the book are based on the rights of the majority, of the minority (especially a strong minority that is greater than one third), of individual members, of absentees, and of all these together. Some fundamental principles upon which the book is based include: one question at a time; one person, one vote; and a vote being limited to members present.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: A group that uses the book is called a deliberative assembly. The types of deliberative assemblies are a mass meeting, a local assembly of an organized society (local club or local branch), a convention, a legislative body, and a board. An organization may have rules which could include a corporate charter, a constitution or bylaws, rules of order (special rules of order and parliamentary authority), standing rules, and customs. To conduct business, groups have meetings or sessions that may be separated by more than or be within a quarterly time interval. The types of meetings are a regular meeting, a special meeting, an adjourned meeting, an annual meeting, an executive session, a public session, and electronic meetings.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: A member of a deliberative assembly has the right to attend meetings, make motions, speak in debate, and vote. The process of making a decision is done through a motion, which is a proposal to do something. The formal steps in handling a motion are the making of a motion, having a second, stating the motion, having debate on the motion, putting the motion to a vote, and announcing the results of the vote. Action could be taken informally without going through these steps by using unanimous consent. When making a choice, the basic principle of decision is majority vote. In situations when more than majority vote is required, the requirement could include a two-thirds vote, previous notice, or a vote of a majority of the entire membership.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The book provides details about main motions including the motion to ratify. In addition, the book lists other motions and provides details (including explanations, forms, and examples) on these motions which include:


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Details for each motion include its purpose, when it could be made, if it is debatable, if it is amendable, the vote required for adoption, and if it could be reconsidered. The "order of precedence", or rank, of the motions is also described in detail.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The second half of the book covers various topics in detail. Brief summaries of these topics are as follows:


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Depending on the situation, motions could be renewed, or made again. On the other hand, members should not use legitimate motions for dilatory and improper purposes to waste time.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: A quorum, or minimum number of members, is required to be present at a meeting in order to validly conduct business. The business that is to come up in a meeting could be listed in an order of business or an agenda.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Each member could get a chance to speak through assignment of the floor and debate. Debate may be limited in the number of speeches and time and should be respectful to others at all times. Voting takes place to decide the course of action and it could be done in a multitude of ways, such as voice vote, standing vote, and ballot vote.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Officers in an organization could be elected through the process of nominations and elections. Each organization decides for itself which officers to have, but the minimum officers in a deliberative assembly are a presiding officer (usually "president" or "chairman") and a secretary. The secretary keeps the minutes, or the official records of the proceedings, for each meeting. As part of their duties, the officers may have reports to give, such as a financial report given by the treasurer. In addition, an organization may have a board to handle business on behalf of the organization. Officers and boards only have such authority and powers that are given to them in the governing documents of the organization. There may also be committees that are formed to assist the organization. The boards and committees may have reports to give as well.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: People may gather in mass meetings for a specific purpose or cause. One such purpose of the mass meetings could be for the intent of organizing a permanent society.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Each organization has its basic rules contained in its bylaws. The bylaws could describe the name of the organization and its purpose, the requirements to be a member or an officer, how meetings are scheduled, if there are boards or committees (or both), its parliamentary authority, and how to amend the bylaws.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Representatives from constituent groups may gather as delegates in conventions to conduct business on behalf of the organization. Conventions may consist of several meetings and may last for several days or more on an annual basis or other such infrequent interval.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: If members do not act according to the organization's rules, they could be subject to disciplinary procedures. Such action could range from censure to the extreme of expulsion from the organization. Officers could be disciplined by removal from office.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The tinted pages (pages marked by a gray band along the outer edge) in the rear of the book contain the following charts, tables, and lists: (1) Chart for Determining When Each Subsidiary or Privileged Motion Is In Order, (2) Table of Rules Relating to Motions, (3) Sample Forms Used in Making Motions, (4) and (5) Motions and Parliamentary Steps, (6) Motions Which Require a Two-Thirds Vote, (7) Motions Whose Reconsideration Is Prohibited Or Limited, and (8) Table of Rules for Counting Election Ballots.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: In addition to containing a summary of basic points from the current (12th) edition of "Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised" (RONR), the following contents are unique to the current (3rd) edition of "Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised In Brief" (RONRIB)":" an example of an agenda, additional sample dialogues, frequently asked questions, an example of a call of a meeting, an example of a memorandum listing the order of business, and the following tables: (A) Handling Motions as chair, (B) When Chair Stands and Sits, (C) Conducting a Meeting as chair, (D) Table of Rules Relating to Motions, and (E) Words to Use as a Member.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The Robert's Rules Association has also made the Eleventh Edition available in CD-ROM format (designed for installation on Windows PCs) through American Legal Publishing. The CD contains the current editions of "Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised" and "Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised In Brief" as well as a Timekeeper's Guide, Teller’s Report, Sample Rules for Electronic Meetings, various Forms, and resources for Ballot Voting and Understanding Secondary Amendments.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: For the first time, an e-book version of the current Twelfth Edition was released by the Robert's Rules Association. Any copy of Robert's Rules of Order that is downloaded online is likely an older edition (1915 or earlier) that is available in the public domain.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Translations of any edition of Robert's Rules of Order into other languages have not been published by the Robert's Rules Association. Any translated copy of Robert's Rules of Order done by a third party may not accurately reflect the correct meaning in the target language.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The following table lists some of the changes that were made between the editions of Robert's Rules of Order. The numbered pages may not correspond to the total number of pages in the edition due to additional material in the preface, introduction, and other miscellaneous pages that were not included in the numbering system.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Generally, a fuller list and more details of the changes are found in the preface of each edition. A detailed list of changes for the current (12th) edition is provided on the website maintained by the Robert's Rules Association. All the changes were a result of questions and comments received from users.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Starting in the period between the Tenth Edition and the Eleventh Edition, the authors released official interpretations of rules in the book onto the website maintained by the Robert's Rules Association. The interpretations from that period were later incorporated into the Eleventh Edition.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: In addition, the authors addressed common misunderstandings of the rules coming from frequently asked questions. Some of the misunderstandings involve: when the president can vote, if ex-officio members can vote, the definition of majority, how abstentions affect the vote, a "friendly amendment", "calling the question", "tabling" a motion, getting items on the agenda, and the contents of minutes. While these misunderstandings are of the rules in the current edition of "Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised", the organization may be governed by other rules which supersede these "default" rules.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The official interpretations and addressed common misunderstandings were a result of questions posted in the Question & Answer Forum at The Robert’s Rules Association. This forum is actively moderated by members of the authorship team.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: In the Question & Answer Forum on the website maintained by the Robert's Rules Association, members of the following types of organizations have posted questions regarding how the rules in the book apply to their specific organization:


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Generally, "Robert's Rules of Order" is designed for ordinary societies. However, law-making bodies at the local level (such as a city council or a county commission) function similarly to boards of societies. The book has found application to such bodies. Such bodies are also subject to open meeting laws (Sunshine laws) and other applicable laws, all of which supersede any conflicting provisions in the book.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: On the other hand, legislative bodies at the state or national level have their own well-defined set of rules (such as "Mason's Manual of Legislative Procedure"). However, a survey found that four state legislative chambers in the United States still use "Robert's Rules of Order".


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: "Robert's Rules of Order" is based on each member of a group having equal weight as expressed by vote. This book has found application in the corporate world, such as in shareholder meetings and in board of director meetings. However, the rules have to be modified to account for when some individuals within the group have more power than others.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: A parliamentarian is an expert on parliamentary procedure. To be effective consultants for the organizations they work for, parliamentarians are expected to be knowledgeable on "Robert's Rules of Order".


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The National Association of Parliamentarians (NAP) is the largest non-profit association of parliamentarians in the world. This organization bases its opinions and instruction upon "Robert’s Rules of Order Newly Revised" (12th ed.). Membership in this organization requires passing an exam which is based on the first half of the concise guide, "Robert’s Rules of Order Newly Revised In Brief" (3rd ed.).


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The American Institute of Parliamentarians is another non-profit association of parliamentarians. This organization stresses proficiency and familiarity with a variety of parliamentary authorities, although it states on its website that ""Robert's Rules of Order" is the most frequently used parliamentary authority". The website also states that it "is the premier manual on parliamentary authority" and "a 'must-have' text for every parliamentarian".


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Youth organizations, such as Business Professionals of America (BPA), Family, Career and Community Leaders of America (FCCLA), Future Business Leaders of America-Phi Beta Lambda (FBLA-PBL), HOSA-Future Health Professionals, the National FFA Organization, SkillsUSA, and the Technology Student Association (TSA), sponsor parliamentary procedure competitions (such as Parli Pro) as part of their programs for their student members. These competitions are based on "Robert’s Rules of Order Newly Revised". The National Association of Parliamentarians have partnered with some of these organizations.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: "Robert's Rules of Order" are used in Congressional Debate (also referred to as Student Congress), an event put on by the National Speech and Debate Association (NSDA).


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: "Robert's Rules of Order" is also used during American Legion and American Legion Auxiliary Boys/Girls State programs and in Model United Nations conferences. While the chair of each committee in an MUN conference may sometimes deviate from the written rules for educational purposes, the format of the rules in the specific committees is mostly based on "Robert's Rules of Order". Another program in which "Robert's Rules of Order" may be used is Model Congress, although the rules in these programs may more closely resemble those in the legislative assemblies that the programs simulate.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: Parliamentarians have estimated that about 85 to 95 percent of organizations in the United States use "Robert's Rules of Order". The remaining percentage of organizations use other books on meeting procedures. Notable examples of such books on parliamentary authority include "Demeter's Manual of Parliamentary Law and Procedure", and "Riddick's Rules of Procedure". These books along with "Robert's Rules of Order" share the general idea of rule of the majority with respect for the minority. A difference may be a "simplification" of the rules.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: In modern parliamentary procedure, the usual practice is having a proposal first, then discussion on this proposal with any modifications to it, and finally a vote on it, with majority vote deciding the issue if there are any disagreements. An alternative to this process is consensus decision-making. In this alternative, discussion of potential proposals is held first, followed by the framing of a proposal, and then modifying it until the group reaches a consensus, when there is no longer any disagreement.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: As a response to this alternative, the authors of "Robert's Rules of Order" stated their belief in using debate and majority vote as part of the process in making decisions for the group.


title: Robert's Rules of Order

text: The following sites are not maintained by the Robert's Rules Association and have no relation to The Robert’s Rules Association:


title: Little Nicky

text: Little Nicky is a 2000 American fantasy comedy film directed by Steven Brill, written by Brill, Adam Sandler, and Tim Herlihy, and starring Sandler in the title role, Patricia Arquette, Harvey Keitel, Rhys Ifans, Tommy "Tiny" Lister Jr., and Rodney Dangerfield. The film depicts the son of Satan and an angel who is tasked with returning his two brothers to Hell and preventing them from destroying the boundary between good and evil on Earth.


title: Little Nicky

text: The film received negative reviews from critics and was a box office bomb, grossing $58.3 million against an $80–85 million budget.


title: Little Nicky

text: With his 10,000 year reign coming to an end and after torturing Adolf Hitler by shoving a pineapple up his rump, Satan must decide which of his three sons will succeed him as ruler of Hell. Adrian is the most devious, Cassius is the cruelest, and Nicky is the kindest. Adrian and Cassius claim that Nicky's mother is a goat and torment him by controlling his body with their minds. Nicky has had a speech impediment and a disfigured jaw since Cassius hit him in the face with a shovel. Satan assembles his sons to tell them that they are not yet ready to succeed him as he will continue ruling Hell.


title: Little Nicky

text: Angered by this decision, Adrian and Cassius travel to Earth to create a new Hell by possessing religious and political leaders in New York City. As they leave, they freeze the entrance to Hell, preventing more evil souls from entering and causing Satan to begin to disintegrate. Stanley the Gatekeeper informs Satan of this and Satan punishes him by growing breasts on his head and giving him to his father Lucifer. To stop Adrian and Cassius, he sends Nicky to Earth with a silver flask that traps whoever drinks from it inside.


title: Little Nicky

text: Nicky has difficulty surviving on Earth and he is killed several times, landing in Hell and returning to New York each time. While learning how to eat and sleep, he meets a possessed, talking bulldog named Mr. Beefy, rents an apartment with an actor named Todd, and falls in love with a design student named Valerie Veran. Nicky encounters Adrian, but fails to capture him and scares Valerie away. Nicky then observes Cassius on television possessing the referee of a Harlem Globetrotters game. Nicky arrives at the game and successfully tricks Cassius into the flask. Satanist metalheads John and Peter swear loyalty to Nicky. That evening, Nicky apologizes to Valerie and they reconcile.


title: Little Nicky

text: The following day, Adrian possesses the Chief of the NYPD and accuses Nicky of mass murder. Nicky has Todd kill him so he can go back to Hell and ask his father for advice, but Satan has trouble hearing because his ears have fallen off, and his assistants are panicking because the deadline to capture Adrian and Cassius is approaching. Back on Earth, Nicky and his friends devise a plan to capture Adrian in a subway station, but Adrian discovers their trick and, in the ensuing fight, grabs Valerie and dives onto the track as a train approaches, but Nicky throws her aside, leaving himself and Adrian to be killed by the train.


title: Little Nicky

text: Arriving in Hell just minutes before midnight, Adrian begins taking over Hell by pushing what remains of his father aside and sitting on the throne, rising to Central Park, and starting a riotous party. Meanwhile, Nicky wakes up in Heaven as a reward for sacrificing himself and meets his mother Holly, an angel who tells him that he can defeat Adrian with the "inner light" that he inherited from her. After she gives him a mysterious orb, he confronts Adrian in Central Park where he covers Henry Winkler in bees. Adrian appears to win the battle by transforming into a bat and locking Nicky in the flask. However, Nicky escapes from the flask and shatters the orb, causing Ozzy Osbourne to appear, bite Adrian's head off, and spit it into the flask.


title: Little Nicky

text: With his brothers captured, Nicky prepares to save his father. After he re-covers Winkler in bees to make sure he goes to Hell, he and Valerie express their love for each other and she kills him. In Hell, Satan regains his body and suggests Nicky stay with Valerie to maintain things in the middle while stating to Holly that he still loves her. In the presence of Nicky and Lucifer, Satan then shoves the flask containing Adrian and Cassius up Hitler's rump.


title: Little Nicky

text: One year later, Nicky and Valerie live in New York with their infant son named Zachariah who has demonic powers.


title: Little Nicky

text: A postscript states that Valerie struck Nicky with a shovel which fixed his jaw disfigurement. Satan and Holly continue their long distance relationship where Holly's fitness instructor is mentioned to be Chris Farley. Zachariah was suspended from the nursery after turning another kid's bottle of milk into moose urine. Todd started his one man show in which only a demon from Hell attended. Mr. Beefy reunited with his rat girlfriend and they had kids. Stanley the Gatekeeper and Gary the Monster also had kids of their own. John and Peter die in a plane crash and end up happily in Hell as honored residents who have been given Nicky's old bedroom to party in.


title: Little Nicky

text: It opened at #2 at the North American box office making $16 million USD in its opening weekend, behind "Charlie's Angels", which was on its second consecutive week at the top spot. The film went on to earn $39.5 million domestically and another $18.8 million worldwide, bringing the total to $58.3 million.


title: Little Nicky

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 21% based on reviews from 114 critics, with an average rating of 3.9/10. The site's consensus reads: "Despite the presence of a large, talented cast, the jokes in "Little Nicky" are dumb, tasteless, and not that funny, and Adam Sandler's character is grating to watch." On Metacritic it has a score of 38% based on reviews from 29 critics. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "B" on scale of A to F.


title: Little Nicky

text: Comedian and former "Mystery Science Theater 3000" host Michael J. Nelson named the film the worst comedy ever made. Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film a score of two-and-a-half stars out of four, describing "Little Nicky" as "the best Sandler movie to date" and the Nicky character as "intriguing", while at the same time lamenting Sandler's lack of finesse and vocal quirks.


title: Little Nicky

text: In 2020, Evan Saathoff of "/Film" argued against the characterization of "Little Nicky" as being "a blight on [Sandler's] filmography", writing that Sandler "certainly never got "this" wild again, not in one of his own films at least."


title: Little Nicky

text: The film was nominated for five awards at the 21st Golden Raspberry Awards, including Worst Picture, Worst Actor (Adam Sandler), Worst Supporting Actress (Patricia Arquette), Worst Director and Worst Screenplay. It lost in all categories to "Battlefield Earth" starring John Travolta. At the 2000 Stinkers Bad Movie Awards, the film received seven total nominations: Worst Picture (lost to "Battlefield Earth"), Worst Actor for Sandler (lost to John Travolta), Worst On-Screen Couple for Sandler and that unfunny bulldog(lost to John Travolta and everyone in the galaxy for "Battlefield Earth"), Most Annoying Fake Accent for Sandler, Worst On-Screen Hairstyle for Sandler (lost to both Travolta and Forest Whitaker for "Battlefield Earth"), Most Annoying Product Placement for Popeye's Chicken (lost to FedEx and Wilson in "Cast Away"), and Most Unfunny Comic Relief for the painfully unfunny talking bulldog (lost to Tom Green for "Road Trip" and "Charlie's Angels"). As noted, its only win was for Most Annoying Fake Accent.


title: Little Nicky

text: "Little Nicky" was released on DVD and VHS on April 24, 2001. The DVD includes two audio commentaries, a special feature dedicated to rock/metal music, the music video "School of Hard Knocks" by P.O.D., and deleted scenes.


title: Little Nicky

text: The soundtrack album, "Little Nicky (Music from the Motion Picture)", was released October 31, 2000, through Maverick Records and featured a lineup that leaned heavily toward Maverick recording artists that included Deftones, Insolence, Muse and Ünloco.


title: Little Nicky

text: Some songs featured in the film, but excluded from the soundtrack, were "Ladies' Night" by Kool & the Gang; "Runnin' with the Devil" by Van Halen; "Flying High Again", "Mama, I'm Coming Home", and "No More Tears" by Ozzy Osbourne; "Does Anybody Really Know What Time It Is?" by Chicago; "Now or Never" by Zebrahead; Everlong" by Foo Fighters; "Two of Hearts" by Stacey Q; "Southtown" and "Rock the Party (Off the Hook)" by P.O.D.; "Rock You Like a Hurricane" by Scorpions; and "Highway to Hell" by AC/DC.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: Frankenweenie is a 2012 American 3D stop-motion animated science-fiction comedy-horror film directed by Tim Burton (who also produced the film for Walt Disney Pictures), written by John August, and starring Catherine O'Hara, Martin Short, Martin Landau, Charlie Tahan, Atticus Shaffer, and Winona Ryder. It is a feature-length remake of Burton's 1984 short film of the same name, and is also both a parody of and homage to the 1931 film "Frankenstein", based on Mary Shelley's 1818 book "Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus". In the film, a boy named Victor Frankenstein uses the power of electricity to resurrect his dead Bull Terrier, Sparky, but his peers discover what he has done and reanimate their own deceased pets and other creatures, resulting in mayhem.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: "Frankenweenie" came development in December 2007, when Burton was asked to direct two 3D films for Disney, including a live-action adaptation of "Alice in Wonderland". However, the development of a full-length stop motion dates as far back as November 2005, when scripts had been written by Josann McGibbon and Sara Parriott. The tongue-in-cheek film contains numerous references to and parodies of elements of "Frankenstein" and past film versions of it, other literary classics, various horror and science-fiction films, and other films which Burton has directed or produced.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: "Frankenweenie", which was both the first black-and-white feature-length film and the first stop-motion film to be released in IMAX 3D, premiered at Fantastic Fest on September 20, 2012 and was released in the United States on October 5, to generally positive reviews for its visuals and story and moderate box office returns. Grossing $81.5 million worldwide against a $39 million budget, it won the Saturn Award for Best Animated Film, and was nominated for an Academy Award, a Golden Globe, a BAFTA, and an Annie Award for Best Animated Film, losing the first three to "Brave", and the last one to "Wreck-It Ralph".


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: Victor Frankenstein, a young scientist and amateur filmmaker, lives with his parents and his beloved bull terrier dog, Sparky, in the quiet town of New Holland. His intelligence is recognized by his classmates at school, who include his somber next-door neighbor Elsa Van Helsing who is the niece of Mayor Burgermeister, the mischievous Edgar "E" Gore, the obese and gullible Bob, the overconfident Toshiaki, the creepy Nassor, and an eccentric girl nicknamed "Weird Girl", but he does not interact much with them due to his relationship with his dog. Concerned with his son's isolation, Victor's father encourages the boy to take up baseball. When Victor hits a home run at his first game, Sparky chases the ball and is struck and killed by a car, leaving Victor despondent.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: Inspired by his new science teacher Mr. Rzykruski's demonstration of the effect of electricity on dead frogs, Victor digs up Sparky, brings the dog to a makeshift laboratory in his attic, and successfully reanimates his old friend with a bolt of lightning. While Victor is at school the next day, Sparky escapes from the attic to chase Weird Girl's cat, Mr. Whiskers, and subsequently explores the neighborhood. He is recognized by Edgar, who blackmails Victor into teaching him how to raise the dead. Together, the two resurrect a dead goldfish, which turns invisible due to an error with the experiment. Edgar brags about the fish to his classmates, but when he tries to show it to a skeptical Nassor, it is gone, leading him to speculate that the revived creatures only last for a short time.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: Fearful of losing the upcoming science fair, Toshiaki and Bob make a rocket out of soda bottles, and Bob breaks his arm when they test it. Mr. Rzykruski is blamed for the accident and fired by Mayor Burgermeister and the adults, who are confused by and jealous of his intelligence. The gym teacher replaces him. Before Mr. Rzykruski leaves the school, he is able to talk with Victor and advise the boy to use science wisely. Edgar accidentally reveals to Toshiaki, Nassor, and Bob that he and Victor had brought the invisible fish back from the dead, and that Victor had done the same with Sparky, which inspires them to try reanimation themselves.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: Victor's parents discover Sparky in the attic and are frightened, causing the dog to flee. His father starts to talk to him about the seriousness of what he has done, but Victor tearfully tells them that he just wanted his dog back, so his parents decide to help him find Sparky and continue the conversation later.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: When the family leaves, Victor's classmates invade the lab and discover the reanimation instructions. They perform their experiments separately, but each of their dead animals is turned into a monster: Mr. Whiskers holds a dead bat while he is electrocuted, resulting in both animals being fused into a grotesque vampiric feline; the dead rat Edgar found in the garbage turns into a wererat; Nassor's mummified hamster Colossus comes back to life; Toshiaki's turtle Shelley is covered in Miracle Gro and becomes a huge Gamera-like monster; and Bob's Sea-Monkeys grow into Gremlin-like amphibious humanoids. The monsters converge on the town fair, where they wreak havoc.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: After Victor finds Sparky at the town's pet cemetery, Bob and Toshiaki find him and ask for his help dealing with the monsters. They go to the fair, where the Sea-Monkeys explode after eating salted popcorn, Colossus is stepped on by Shelley, and the wererat and Shelley both return to their original, deceased forms after getting electrocuted. During the chaos, Persephone, Elsa's pet poodle, is grabbed by Mr. Whiskers and carried to the town windmill, with Elsa and Victor giving pursuit. The townsfolk blame Sparky for Elsa's disappearance and chase him to the windmill, which Elsa's uncle accidentally ignites with his torch. Victor and Sparky enter the burning windmill and rescue Elsa and Persephone, but Victor is trapped inside. Sparky rescues Victor, only to be dragged back inside by Mr. Whiskers, who is fatally impaled by a flaming piece of wood just before the windmill collapses, killing Sparky again.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: To reward him for his bravery, the townsfolk gather and revive Sparky with their car batteries. Persephone runs to Sparky and they touch noses, producing a spark.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: Actor Christopher Lee, who had worked with Tim Burton on five earlier films, makes an appearance via the inclusion of a live-action clip from his 1958 film "Dracula".


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: Although Tim Burton signed with Walt Disney Pictures to direct two films in Disney Digital 3-D ("Alice in Wonderland" and this film), development of a full-length stop motion "Frankenweenie" dates as far back as November 2005, when scripts had been written by Josann McGibbon and Sara Parriott. John August was approached to do a rewrite in 2006, but was not hired until January 2009.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: Like the original short film, this feature version was shot in black and white. Many of the animation artists and crew from "Corpse Bride" were involved in the production of the film. Burton borrowed heavily from his design for the titular character of "Family Dog" for Sparky.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: Filming began at 3 Mills Studios in July 2010. The crew created three giant sound stages, including Victor's cluttered family attic, a cemetery exterior, and a school interior. The sound stages were then divided into 30 separate areas to deal with the handcrafted, frame-by-frame style of filmmaking. Compared to other stop-motion animation sets, "Frankenweenie"s set was much larger.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: As IGN noted, the main character Sparky had to be "'dog-size' compared to the other human characters, but also large enough to house all the elements of the mechanical skeleton secreted within his various foam and silicon-based incarnation". The mechanics were small and delicate, and in some instances the filmmakers had to have Swiss watchmakers create the tiny nuts and bolts. Around 200 separate puppets were used in the film, with roughly 18 different versions of Victor. The puppets had human hair, with 40–45 joints for the human characters and about 300 parts for Sparky.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: In early 2011, it was announced that Danny Elfman would score "Frankenweenie", with work already started on pre-production music.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: Prior to the film's release, both an "inspired by" soundtrack album, "Frankenweenie: Unleashed!", and Elfman's "Frankenweenie: The Original Motion Picture Soundtrack" were released by Walt Disney Records on September 25, 2012. The download of "Frankenweenie: Unleashed!" contained bonus content, including a custom icon and an app that loaded a menu to view more bonus content, provide input, or buy more music from Disney Music Group.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: In the lead up to the film's release in October 2012, there was a traveling art exhibition detailing the work that went into creating the film. During the exhibition, it was possible to see sets and characters that were used for this stop motion feature film.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: From September 14 to November 5, 2012, Disney California Adventure offered exclusive scenes from the film during nighttime operating hours of Muppet*Vision 3D.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: At Disneyland, Sparky's tombstone was added to the pet cemetery outside of Haunted Mansion Holiday, a seasonal attraction that features characters from Burton's "The Nightmare Before Christmas".


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: The film premiered on September 20, 2012, on the opening night of Fantastic Fest, an annual film festival in Austin, Texas. It also opened the London Film Festival, on October 10, 2012.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: Initially set for theatrical release in November 2011, Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures moved the film twice, first to March 9, 2012, and then, in January 2011, to October 5, 2012, with "John Carter" taking the March 9 release date.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: "Frankenweenie" grossed $35,291,068 in North America and $46,200,000 in other countries for a worldwide total of $81,491,068. In North America, it earned $11,412,213 its opening weekend, finishing fifth at the box office (behind "Taken 2", "Hotel Transylvania", "Pitch Perfect", and "Looper"). Its second weekend, the film dropped to seventh place, grossing an additional $7,054,334. Its third weekend, it dropped to ninth place, grossing $4,329,358, and its fourth weekend, it dropped to twelfth place, grossing $2,456,350.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: The film was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on DVD, Blu-ray, and Blu-ray 3D on January 15, 2013. The Blu-ray releases included the original live-action "Frankenweenie" short and a new two-minute animated short, titled "Captain Sparky vs the Flying Saucers", as bonus features.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: The film received generally positive reviews from critics. Based on reviews, it holds an approval rating of on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of ; the website's critical consensus reads: ""Frankenweenie" is an energetic stop-motion horror movie spoof with lovingly crafted visuals and a heartfelt, oddball story." On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, it has a score of 74, based on 38 reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: Justin Chang of "Variety" reacted positively to the film, saying that it "evinces a level of discipline and artistic coherence missing from the director's recent live-action efforts". Todd McCarthy of "The Hollywood Reporter" gave it a mediocre review, explaining that, while the various creative elements "pay homage to a beloved old filmmaking style", the film mostly feels "like second-generation photocopies of things Burton has done before". Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars, writing that it is "not one of Burton's best, but it has zealous energy" and "the charm of a boy and his dog retains its appeal". Chris Packham of "The Village Voice" gave the film a positive review, saying: ""Frankenweenie", scripted by John August, and based on a screenplay by Lenny Ripps from Burton's original story, is tight and brief, hitting all the marks you'd expect from an animated kid's film, and enlivened by Burton's visual style. The man should make more small movies like this one." Christy Lemire of the Associated Press gave the film three out of four stars, saying: "Revisiting the past - his own, and that of the masters who came before him - seems to have brought this filmmaker's boyish enthusiasm back to life, as well." Kerry Lengel of "The Arizona Republic" gave the film three out of five stars, saying: "It's all perfectly entertaining, but never really reaches the heights of hilarity, perhaps because everything about the plot is underdeveloped." Lisa Schwarzbaum of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the film an A−, saying: "The resulting homage to "Frankenstein" in particular and horror movies in general is exquisite, macabre mayhem and a kind of reanimation all its own."


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: Michael Phillips of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying: "The monster-movie component of "Frankenweenie" stomps all over the appeal of the original 30-minute version." Linda Barnard of the "Toronto Star" gave the film three out of four stars, saying: "High-concept and stylish, "Frankenweenie" is a playlist of films and characters from Burton's movie-loving childhood." James Berardinelli of "ReelViews" gave the film three out of four stars, saying: "Even as the narrative becomes progressively more ghoulish and a Godzilla wannabe shows up, "Frankenweenie" never loses its heart." Joe Williams of the "St. Louis Post-Dispatch" gave the film three out of four stars, saying: "Some audiences might feel that "Frankenweenie" is creaky, but those on the same wavelength as Burton will gratefully declare it's alive." Alonso Duralde of "The Wrap" gave the film a positive review, saying: "Fans of Tim Burton 1.0, rejoice: "Frankenweenie" hearkens back to the director's salad days and, in turn, to the old-school horror classics that inspired him in the first place." Claudia Puig of "USA Today" gave the film three and a half stars out of five, saying: ""Frankenweenie" is enlivened with beguiling visuals and captivating action sequences. The science is murky at best, but the underlying themes are profound, and the story is equal parts funny and poignant. It's Burton's most moving film." Rafer Guzmán of "Newsday" gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying: "It's a quintessential Burton film, but also more Disney than a lot of Disney films." Amy Biancolli of the "San Francisco Chronicle" gave the film four out of four stars, saying: "The overall effect is great cinema, good fun, a visual feast for pie-eyed Burton fans - and a terrifically warped reminder of just how freaky a PG film can be."


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: Elizabeth Weitzman of the "New York Daily News" gave the film four out of five stars, saying: "Burton's extraordinary powers of imagination are in dazzling bloom, from the gorgeous stop-motion animation to the goofy, homemade horror movies the children direct." Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" gave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying: "Only Tim Burton could envision this Frankenstein-inspired tale, and it's a honey, a dark and dazzling spellbinder that scares up laughs and surprising emotion." Colin Covert of the "Star Tribune" gave the film four out of four stars, saying: "The story brims with self-parody, social satire, horror, nostalgia, wit and emotional insight, with Burton keeping all the plates spinning." David Hiltbrand of "The Philadelphia Inquirer" gave the film two out of four stars, saying: ""Frankenweenie" is the apotheosis of goth director Tim Burton's oeuvre: artistic yet sterile, incredibly meticulous and totally misbegotten." Stephanie Zacharek of NPR gave the film a negative review, saying: "Burton half succeeds in making this revamped "Frankenweenie" its own distinctive creature, pieced together from the essential bits of the 29-minute original. But he just doesn't know when to stop, and his overgrown creation gets the better of him." Betsy Sharkey of the "Los Angeles Times" gave the film three out of five stars, saying: "There are so many horror auteurs Burton wants to thank that the film is absolutely bursting at the seams with knowing nods." A. O. Scott of "The New York Times" gave the film three out of five stars, saying: "While "Frankenweenie" is fun, it is not nearly strange or original enough to join the undead, monstrous ranks of the classics it adores."


title: Frankenweenie (2012 film)

text: Ty Burr of "The Boston Globe" gave the film four out of four stars, saying: ""Frankenweenie" is a mere 87 minutes long, which turns out to be just the right length; there's not enough time for Burton to go off the rails as he does in so many of his films." Tom Long of "The Detroit News" gave the film a B+, saying: ""Frankenweenie" may just be a wacky horror cartoon, but it's an awfully good wacky horror cartoon. Frighteningly good, you might say." Lou Lumenick of the "New York Post" gave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying: ""Frankenweenie" is still the most Tim Burton-y of the director's films, and not just because it contains a vast catalog of references to his own movies - everything from "Edward Scissorhands" to the underrated 1989 "Batman"." Richard Corliss of "Time" gave the film a positive review, saying: "This 3-D, black-and-white 'family' comedy is the year's most inventive, endearing animated feature." Stephen Whitty of the "Newark Star-Ledger" gave the film four out of four stars, saying: "The stop-motion animation - a favorite tool of Burton's - is given loving attention, and the character design is full of terrific touches, such as the hulking flat-topped schoolmate who looks a bit like a certain man-made monster." Michael O'Sullivan of "The Washington Post" gave the film three out of four stars, saying: "Designed to appeal to both discriminating adults and older kids, the gorgeous, black-and-white stop-motion film is a fresh, clever and affectionate love letter to classic horror movies." Moira Macdonald of "The Seattle Times" gave the film three out of four stars, saying: "Older kids, horror-movie buffs and Burton fans will likely enjoy this oddly gentle tale of a boy and his dog."


title: Barramundi

text: The barramundi (Lates calcarifer) or Asian sea bass, is a species of catadromous fish in the family Latidae of the order Perciformes. The species is widely distributed in the Indo-West Pacific, spanning the waters of the Middle East, South Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Oceania.


title: Barramundi

text: Barramundi is a loanword from an Australian Aboriginal language of the Rockhampton area in Queensland meaning "large-scaled river fish". Originally, the name barramundi referred to "Scleropages leichardti" and "Scleropages jardinii".


title: Barramundi

text: However, the name was appropriated for marketing reasons during the 1980s, a decision that has aided in raising the profile of this fish significantly. "L. calcarifer" is broadly referred to as Asian seabass by the international scientific community, but is also known as Australian seabass.


title: Barramundi

text: This species has an elongated body form with a large, slightly oblique mouth and an upper jaw extending behind the eye. The lower edge of the preoperculum is serrated with a strong spine at its angle; the operculum has a small spine and a serrated flap above the origin of the lateral line. Its scales are ctenoid.


title: Barramundi

text: In cross section, the fish is compressed and the dorsal head profile clearly concave. The single dorsal and ventral fins have spines and soft rays; the paired pectoral and pelvic fins have soft rays only; and the caudal fin has soft rays and is truncated and rounded.


title: Barramundi

text: Barramundi are salt and freshwater sportfish, targeted by many. They have large, silver scales, which may become darker or lighter, depending on their environments. Their bodies can reach up to long, though evidence of them being caught at this size is scarce. The maximum weight is about . The average length is about . Its genome size is about 700 Mb, which was sequenced and published in Animal Genetics (2015, in press) by James Cook University.


title: Barramundi

text: Barramundi are demersal, inhabiting coastal waters, estuaries, lagoons, and rivers; they are found in clear to turbid water, usually within a temperature range of 26−30 °C. This species does not undertake extensive migrations within or between river systems, which has presumably influenced establishment of genetically distinct stocks in Northern Australia.


title: Barramundi

text: The barramundi feeds on crustaceans, molluscs, and smaller fish (including its own species); juveniles feed on zooplankton.


title: Barramundi

text: The barramundi is euryhaline, but stenothermal. It inhabits rivers and descends to estuaries and tidal flats to spawn. In areas remote from fresh water, purely marine populations may become established.


title: Barramundi

text: At the start of the monsoon, males migrate downriver to meet females, which lay very large numbers of eggs (several millions each). The adults do not guard the eggs or the fry, which require brackish water to develop.


title: Barramundi

text: The species is sequentially hermaphroditic, with most individuals maturing as males and becoming female after at least one spawning season; most of the larger specimens are therefore female. Fish held in captivity sometimes demonstrate features atypical of fish in the wild; they change sex at a smaller size, exhibit a higher proportion of protogyny and some males do not undergo sexual inversion.


title: Barramundi

text: Prized by anglers and sport-fishing enthusiasts for their good fighting ability, barramundi are reputed to be good at avoiding fixed nets and are best caught on lines and with fishing lures. In Australia, the barramundi is used to stock freshwater reservoirs for recreational fishing.


title: Barramundi

text: These "impoundment barramundi", as they are known by anglers, have grown in popularity as a "catch and release" fish. Popular stocked barramundi impoundments include Lake Tinaroo near Cairns in the Atherton Tablelands, Lake Proserpine west of Proserpine, Queensland, Teemburra Dam near Mackay, Lake Moondarra near Mount Isa, Lake Awoonga near Gladstone, and Lake Monduran south of Lake Awoonga.


title: Barramundi

text: The fish is of commercial importance; it is fished internationally and raised in aquaculture in Australia, Singapore, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Israel, Thailand, the United States, Poland, and the United Kingdom. A Singapore investment firm has invested in an upcoming barramundi fish farm in Brunei.


title: Barramundi

text: The Australian barramundi industry is relatively established, with an annual production of more than 4000 tons. In the broader Southeast Asian region, production is estimated to exceed 30,000 tons. By contrast, the US industry produces about 800 tons a year from a single facility, Australis Aquaculture, LLC. In 2011, VeroBlue Farms in Iowa started and aims to produce 500 tons annually.


title: Barramundi

text: Barramundi under culture commonly grow from a hatchery juvenile, between 50 and 100 mm in length, to a table size of 400-600 g within 12 months and to 3.0 kg within 18–24 months.


title: Barramundi

text: Though Asian sea bass are known to be hardy fish, they are also vulnerable to bacterial infections like photobacteriosis.


title: Barramundi

text: Juveniles are a popular aquarium fish, and can be very entertaining, especially at feeding time. However, they grow quickly, so they are recommended to be kept in setups of 500 L or larger.


title: Barramundi

text: In aquaria, they become quite tame and can be hand-fed; they are not aggressive, but their feeding reflex is violent and sudden, so they cannot be kept with any tank mates small enough to be swallowed.


title: Barramundi

text: Barramundi are a favorite food of the region's apex predator, saltwater crocodiles, which have been known to take them from unwary fishermen.


title: Barramundi

text: Nile perch—a similar fish found in the Afrotropical realm, or sub-Saharan Africa—is often mislabeled as barramundi.


title: Barramundi

text: In Australia, such is the demand for the fish that a substantial amount of barramundi consumed there is actually imported. This has placed economic pressure on Australian producers, both fishers and farmers, whose costs are greater due to remoteness of many of the farming and fishing sites, as well as stringent environmental and food safety standards placed on them by government. While country-of-origin labelling has given consumers greater certainty over the origins of their barramundi at the retail level, no requirement exists for the food service and restaurant trades to label the origins of their barramundi.


title: Barramundi

text: Locally caught "bhetki" (barramundi) is a popular fish among Bengali people, mainly served in festivities such as marriages and other important social events. It is cooked as" bhetki machher paturi", "bhetki machher kalia", or coated in "suji" (semolina) and pan fried.


title: Barramundi

text: It is very popular among people who are usually skeptical about eating fish with a lot of bones. "Bhetki" fillets have no bones in them. In Bengali cuisine, therefore, fried" bhetki" fillets are popular and considered to be of good quality. The dish is commonly called "fish fry".


title: Barramundi

text: Locally caught "chonak" (barramundi) is a favourite food, prepared with either "recheado" (a Goan red masala) or coated with "rava" ("sooji", semolina) and pan fried. The fish is generally filleted on the diagonal. It is eaten as a snack or as an accompaniment to drinks or the main course. It is one of the more expensive fish available.


title: Barramundi

text: Barramundi from local fish farms are known as "pla kapong" () in Thailand. Since its introduction, it has become one of the most popular fish in Thai cuisine. It is often eaten steamed with lime and garlic, as well as deep-fried or stir-fried with lemongrass, among a variety of many other ways. "Pla kapong" can be seen in aquaria in many restaurants in Thailand, where sometimes this fish is wrongly labeled as "snapper" or "sea bass" on menus. Traditionally, Lutjanidae snappers were known as "pla kapong" before the introduction of barramundi in Thai aquaculture, but presently, snapper is rarely served in restaurants in the main cities and in interior Thailand.


title: Barramundi

text: In the US, barramundi is growing in popularity. Monterey Bay Aquarium has deemed US and Vietnam-raised barramundi as "Best Choice" under the Seafood Watch sustainability program.


title: Gabriel Aubry

text: He has modeled for Tommy Hilfiger, Gianni Versace, Calvin Klein, DKNY, Valentino, Trussardi, Nautica, Exte, Joop, Massimo Dutti and Next. He is signed to Wilhelmina Models in New York City, and to Beatrice Models in Milan, Italy.


title: Gabriel Aubry

text: He appeared in a Macy's commercial in early 2008 as part of an exclusivity deal with Calvin Klein alongside Mariah Carey, Martha Stewart, Donald Trump and Carlos Santana. He was the only male model to ever appear on the cover of "L'Uomo Vogue" while appearing in four different designers' campaigns at the same time, in the same magazine. He has been listed on "People Magazine"s "Most Beautiful People List". In 2012, he was one of the top-earning male models in the modeling industry.


title: Gabriel Aubry

text: Aubry began dating American actress Halle Berry in November 2005. The couple met at a Versace photoshoot. Berry gave birth to the couple's daughter in March 2008. On April 30, 2010, Aubry and Berry announced their relationship had ended some months earlier.


title: Gabriel Aubry

text: After their separation, Aubry and Berry became involved in a highly publicized custody battle, centered primarily on Berry's desire to move with their daughter from Los Angeles to France, the native country of Berry's then-fiancé, actor Olivier Martinez. Aubry objected to the move on the grounds that it would interfere with Aubry and Berry's joint custody arrangement.


title: Gabriel Aubry

text: In November 2012, a judge denied Berry's request to move her daughter to France in light of Aubry's objections—despite the custody evaluator's opinion, which favored Berry. Martinez performed a citizen's arrest on Aubry, and was granted an emergency protective order preventing Aubry from coming within 100 yards of Berry and their daughter, and Martinez, until November 26, 2012. In turn, Aubry obtained a restraining order against Martinez on November 26, 2012, asserting that the fight began when Martinez threatened to kill Aubry if he did not allow the couple to move to France.


title: Gabriel Aubry

text: On November 29, 2012, Berry's lawyer announced that Berry and Aubry had reached an amicable custody agreement in court.


title: Gabriel Aubry

text: In June 2014, a Superior Court ruling called for Berry to pay Aubry $16,000 a month in child support as well as a retroactive payment of $115,000 and a sum of $300,000 for Aubry's attorney fees.


title: Gabriel Aubry

text: Aubry owned a restaurant called Cafe Fuego, located in the East Village of Manhattan. In 2008, he released an album "Cafe Fuego Vol. 1", which he produced. He plays guitar on some of the tracks. The album was created to reflect the ambiance of the restaurant and has been described as "a delicate fusion of soulful sounds, highlighted with a world music flair, bossa-nova grooves and inspired by Latin and Cuban roots."


title: Gabriel Aubry

text: Aubry is an avid golfer and takes part in various celebrity tournaments from time to time. He is a single-handicap golfer. He also is a lacrosse player and sponsors the annual Can Do Tournament in Venice Beach, California.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Michelle Malkin (; Maglalang; born October 20, 1970) is an American conservative political commentator. She was a Fox News contributor and in May 2020 joined Newsmax TV. Malkin has written seven books and founded the conservative websites Twitchy and "Hot Air".


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Around 2019, Malkin began to publicly support members of the extreme right, including Nick Fuentes. Malkin has faced criticism from journalists and activist organizations for her association with white nationalists, neo-Nazis, and Groypers, including Fuentes and Identity Evropa leader Patrick Casey. In November 2019, she was dropped by conservative organization Young America's Foundation (YAF), citing her support for individuals associated with antisemitism and white nationalism.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Michelle Malkin was born October 20, 1970, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to Philippine citizens Rafaela (née Perez), a teacher, and Apolo DeCastro Maglalang, who was then a physician-in-training. Several months prior to Malkin's birth, her parents immigrated to the United States on an employer-sponsored visa. After her father finished his medical training, the family moved to Absecon, New Jersey. She has described her parents as Ronald Reagan Republicans who were "not incredibly politically active".


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Malkin, a Roman Catholic, attended Holy Spirit High School, where she edited the school newspaper and aspired to become a concert pianist. Following her graduation in 1988, she enrolled at Oberlin College. Malkin had planned to pursue a bachelor's degree in music, but changed her major to English. During her college years, she worked as a press inserter, tax preparation aide, and network news librarian. At Oberlin, she wrote for a conservative student newspaper started by Jesse Malkin, who later became her husband. Her first article for the paper heavily criticized Oberlin's affirmative action program, and she said it received a "huge[ly] negative response" from other students on campus. She graduated in 1992 and later described her alma mater as "radically left-wing".


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Malkin began her journalism career at the "Los Angeles Daily News", working as a columnist from 1992 to 1994. In 1995, she worked in Washington, D.C. as a journalism fellow at the libertarian think tank Competitive Enterprise Institute. In 1996, she moved to Seattle, Washington, where she became a columnist for "The Seattle Times". According to "Goldsea", by the end of the year "Malkin was unleashing the no-holds-barred style of political spitballing that would ultimately make her a poster girl for the radical right".


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Since 1999, Malkin has written a syndicated column for Creators Syndicate. Her column is published by outlets including "Townhall". Some publications which previously carried her column, such as "The Daily Wire" and "National Review", stopped doing so around 2019 when she began to espouse more extreme views. The white supremacist publication "American Renaissance" began publishing her column in 2020.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: On April 24, 2006, Malkin launched the conservative blog "Hot Air", where she remained CEO until she sold the website in 2010. The site's staff at launch included Allahpundit and Bryan Preston; Preston was later replaced by Ed Morrissey on February 25, 2008. In February 2010, Salem Communications bought "Hot Air" from Malkin. In March 2012, Malkin founded the website Twitchy, a Twitter content curation site. She sold Twitchy, also to Salem Communications, the following year.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: For years, Malkin was a frequent commentator for Fox News and a regular guest host of "The O'Reilly Factor". In 2007, she announced that she would not return to "The O'Reilly Factor", alleging that Fox News had mishandled a dispute over derogatory statements made about her by Geraldo Rivera in a "Boston Globe" interview. Malkin joined "Conservative Review's" online television network, CRTV, when it launched in 2016, to host the documentary-style show "Michelle Malkin Investigates." Malkin left CRTV under unclear circumstances when it merged with TheBlaze in December 2018. Malkin later joined competitor Newsmax TV in May 2020, where she began to host the show "Sovereign Nation".


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Malkin published her first book, "", in 2002. It reached #14 on the "New York Times" bestseller list.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: In 2004, she published "In Defense of Internment: The Case for 'Racial Profiling' in World War II and the War on Terror", defending the U.S. government's internment of 112,000 Japanese Americans in prison camps during World War II, and arguing that racial profiling is acceptable in times of war. The book drew harsh criticism from mainstream scholars, organizations, and individuals including the Japanese American Citizens League and Fred Korematsu. The Historians' Committee for Fairness, an organization of scholars and professional researchers, published an open letter condemning the book for not having undergone peer review and arguing that its central thesis is false. Some conservative scholars spoke out in support of the book, including Thomas Sowell and Daniel Pipes. "The Virginian-Pilot" called her "an Asian Ann Coulter" and dropped her column in November 2004.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Malkin's third book, "Unhinged: Exposing Liberals Gone Wild", was released in October 2005. Malkin released her fourth book, "", in July 2009. It remained on "The New York Times" Non-Fiction, Hardcover Best Seller list for six weeks. Her fifth book, "Who Built That: Awe-Inspiring Stories of American Tinkerpreneurs", was released in May 2015 and was a response to the "you didn't build that" statement made by President Barack Obama three years earlier, on July 13, 2012. Malkin published "Sold Out: How High-Tech Billionaires & Bipartisan Beltway Crapweasels Are Screwing America's Best & Brightest Workers" in 2015 along with John Miano. She published "Open Borders Inc.: Who's Funding America's Destruction?" in 2019.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: In June 2004, Malkin launched a political blog, MichelleMalkin.com. A 2007 memo from the National Republican Senatorial Committee described Malkin as one of the five "best-read national conservative bloggers". In December 2008, Malkin's blog was the largest conservative blog, and in 2011, the people search company PeekYou reported that Malkin had the largest digital footprint of any political blogger. In April 2020, Malkin moved her blog and its archives to "The Unz Review", a far-right website run by former publisher of "The American Conservative", Ron Unz. According to the Anti-Defamation League, "The Unz Review" is "a site that features numerous white supremacists and antisemites and is run by Ron Unz, who has written a number of antisemitic tracts."


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Malkin has also been a contributor to the far-right anti-immigration website VDARE, writing a weekly column since 2002.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: In late 2006 and early 2007, Malkin was a leading voice among several right-wing bloggers who questioned both the credibility and the existence of Iraqi police captain Jamil Hussein, who had been used as a source by the Associated Press in over 60 stories about the Iraq war. The controversy began in November 2006 when the AP reported that six Iraqis had been burned alive as they left a mosque and that four mosques had been destroyed, citing Hussein as one of its sources. The Iraqi Ministry of the Interior and the United States military initially denied Hussein existed, leading Malkin and others to dispute the AP's reporting.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: In January 2007 the AP reported that the Ministry had acknowledged Hussein's existence, and that authorities were seeking his arrest for having spoken to the press. Malkin reported the Iraqi government's confirmation. According to "The Washington Post", Malkin also "expressed regret", though media scholar Arthur S. Hayes wrote in his 2008 book "Press Critics are the Fifth Estate" that her post "contains no apology or words of regret from her".


title: Michelle Malkin

text: On January 21, Malkin published an op-ed in the "New York Post", in which she wrote that she and Eason Jordan had traveled to Iraq the previous week and found that the mosques that Hussein had described as "destroyed", "torched", and "burned and [blown] up" were "still standing". She wrote that this brought into question the credibility of all AP stories citing Hussein. "HuffPost" wrote that "the photographic and other evidence marshalled by Malkin certainly gives credence to the claims that the mosques were at least 'torched' and 'burned'".


title: Michelle Malkin

text: For 17 years, Malkin was a featured speaker for Young America's Foundation (YAF). On November 14, 2019, during a YAF-sponsored speech at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Malkin praised white nationalist political commentator Nick Fuentes. In the same speech, she spoke supportively of the Proud Boys, Laura Loomer, and former Iowa Republican Representative Steve King. YAF cut ties with Malkin on November 18, saying, "there is no room in mainstream conservatism or at YAF for holocaust deniers, white nationalists, street brawlers, or racists". Organizers at Bentley University also canceled a scheduled book promotion event after the incident.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Malkin has spoken at the Conservative Political Action Conference (CPAC). She was a featured speaker in 2019, and her anti-immigration speech, in which she condemned the "ghost" of John McCain, drew controversy. In 2020, Malkin spoke at the America First Political Action Conference (AFPAC), an event organized by Nick Fuentes that was described by "Rolling Stone" as the "right-wing extremist answer to CPAC". She also received press credentials to attend CPAC 2020, but did not speak at the conference. She spoke again at AFPAC 2021.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Until 2019, Malkin was generally described as a conservative. Beginning in 2019, some publications began to describe her as right-wing, while some continue to describe her as conservative. She has been described as far-right by "HuffPost" in 2019, and "Business Insider, Vanity Fair", and the "Washingtonian" in 2020. She has been described as alt-right by "The Bulwark" and "The Independent" in 2020.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Malkin has written about Daniel Holtzclaw, a former Oklahoma City Police Department patrol officer who was convicted in December 2015 of multiple counts of rape, sexual battery, forcible oral sodomy, and other sexual charges. She has repeatedly argued that she believes Holtzclaw is innocent, saying that the forensic evidence backs his version of events, not the accusers' versions, and also that the investigators chose not to perform several tests she characterized as routine. Malkin debuted her first and second episodes of CRTV.com's "Daniel in the Den" on December 12, 2016, in Enid. Malkin released her film about the case, entitled "Railroaded: Surviving Wrongful Convictions" in 2017.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Malkin supports stricter immigration laws in the United States. She was a featured speaker at the Conservative Political Action Conference (CPAC) in 2019, where she said levels of immigration into the United States amount to an "invasion" and "endanger our general welfare and the blessings of liberty". She also condemned politicians, including the "ghost" of recently deceased Senator John McCain, for failing to enact stricter immigration regulation.


title: Michelle Malkin

text: Since 2002, Malkin wrote a weekly column for VDARE, a far-right anti-immigration website. In a 2002 appearance on "Hannity & Colmes", Malkin called for militarization of the Canadian border, comparing Canada to conflict zones where United States troops were deployed and saying, "Canada bears a lot of responsibility for making us as vulnerable as we are to terrorism".