title: Enceladus

text: "Voyager 2" passed closer to Enceladus (87,010 km) on August 26, 1981, allowing higher-resolution images to be obtained. These images showed a young surface. They also revealed a surface with different regions with vastly different surface ages, with a heavily cratered mid- to high-northern latitude region, and a lightly cratered region closer to the equator. This geologic diversity contrasts with the ancient, heavily cratered surface of Mimas, another moon of Saturn slightly smaller than Enceladus. The geologically youthful terrains came as a great surprise to the scientific community, because no theory was then able to predict that such a small (and cold, compared to Jupiter's highly active moon Io) celestial body could bear signs of such activity.


title: Enceladus

text: The answers to many remaining mysteries of Enceladus had to wait until the arrival of the "Cassini" spacecraft on July 1, 2004, when it entered orbit around Saturn. Given the results from the "Voyager 2" images, Enceladus was considered a priority target by the "Cassini" mission planners, and several targeted flybys within 1,500 km of the surface were planned as well as numerous, "non-targeted" opportunities within 100,000 km of Enceladus. The flybys have yielded significant information concerning Enceladus's surface, as well as the discovery of water vapor with traces of simple hydrocarbons venting from the geologically active south polar region. These discoveries prompted the adjustment of "Cassini's" flight plan to allow closer flybys of Enceladus, including an encounter in March 2008 that took it to within 48 km of the surface. "Cassini's" extended mission included seven close flybys of Enceladus between July 2008 and July 2010, including two passes at only 50 km in the later half of 2008. "Cassini" performed a flyby on October 28, 2015, passing as close as and through a plume. Confirmation of molecular hydrogen () would be an independent line of evidence that hydrothermal activity is taking place in the Enceladus seafloor, increasing its habitability.


title: Enceladus

text: "Cassini" has provided strong evidence that Enceladus has an ocean with an energy source, nutrients and organic molecules, making Enceladus one of the best places for the study of potentially habitable environments for extraterrestrial life. By contrast, the water thought to be on Jupiter's moon Europa is located under a much thicker layer of ice.


title: Enceladus

text: The discoveries "Cassini" made at Enceladus have prompted studies into follow-up mission concepts, including a probe flyby (Journey to Enceladus and Titan or JET) to analyze plume contents "in situ", a lander by the German Aerospace Center to study the habitability potential of its subsurface ocean (Enceladus Explorer), and two astrobiology-oriented mission concepts (the Enceladus Life Finder and Life Investigation For Enceladus (LIFE)).


title: Enceladus

text: The European Space Agency (ESA) was assessing concepts in 2008 to send a probe to Enceladus in a mission to be combined with studies of Titan: Titan Saturn System Mission (TSSM). TSSM was a joint NASA/ESA flagship-class proposal for exploration of Saturn's moons, with a focus on Enceladus, and it was competing against the Europa Jupiter System Mission (EJSM) proposal for funding. In February 2009, it was announced that NASA/ESA had given the EJSM mission priority ahead of TSSM, although "TSSM" will continue to be studied and evaluated.


title: Enceladus

text: In November 2017, Russian billionaire Yuri Milner expressed interest in funding a "low-cost, privately funded mission to Enceladus which can be launched relatively soon." In September 2018, NASA and the Breakthrough Initiatives, founded by Milner, signed a cooperation agreement for the mission's initial concept phase. The spacecraft would be low-cost, low mass, and would be launched at high speed on an affordable rocket. The spacecraft would be directed to perform a single flyby through Enceladus' plumes in order to sample and analyze its content for biosignatures. NASA provided scientific and technical expertise through various reviews, from March 2019 to December 2019.


title: Enceladus

text: In 2022, the Planetary Science Decadal Survey by the National Academy of Sciences recommended that NASA prioritize its newest probe concept, the Enceladus Orbilander, as a Flagship-class mission, alongside its newest concepts for a Mars sample-return mission and the Uranus Orbiter and Probe. The Enceladus Orbilander would be launched on a similarly affordable rocket, but would cost about $5 billion, and be designed to endure eighteen months in orbit inspecting Enceladus' plumes before landing and spending two Earth years conducting surface astrobiology research.


title: Ogrish.com

text: Ogrish.com was a shock site that presented uncensored news coverage and multimedia material based for the most part on war, accidents and executions.


title: Ogrish.com

text: Much of the material depicted was graphic, uncensored, gory videos and images. The content was depicted as a means to challenge the viewer, with its catch line being "can you handle life?", but later changed to "uncover reality" after the site received a major design overhaul with aims of becoming more open to the general public and become a respected "alternative news service".


title: Ogrish.com

text: From November 2006 to May 2021, Ogrish.com redirected to LiveLeak, which was registered in October 2006. LiveLeak featured mostly user submitted videos and allowed the embedding of media on other sites. LiveLeak became ItemFix in May 2021, which Ogrish.com now redirects to.


title: Ogrish.com

text: The site hosted many graphic videos of violent events, without the permission of the families of the people shown. This has led to heated arguments concerning the rights of the people pictured and the nature of the pictures and videos on the site. For example, in 2002, graphic pictures and videos of the jumpers of the September 11, 2001 attacks were displayed on the site. The site was targeted for hacking attacks from Koreans after Ogrish uploaded the execution video of Kim Sun-il during the summer of 2004.


title: Ogrish.com

text: In August 2005, German official internet watchdog group contacted the local branch of telecommunications company Level 3 about Ogrish, whose IP address was then blocked in Germany. Since several ISPs connect through the blocked Level 3 connection in Frankfurt, many other countries outside of Germany were also affected by this block, including the Netherlands, France, Poland, Italy and Switzerland. The Youth Protection group had found that the provider violated German legislation that requires websites to verify the age of its visitors before granting access to adult content.


title: Ogrish.com

text: In early 2006, Ogrish.com changed its design to a much faster-loading, cleaner layout. Its previous layout was very "dark" and graphic-intensive. On January 27, 2006 the "Flame/Lame/Hate" section was replaced with The Ogrish Zoo, a more politically correct version that forbade racial slurs. This change lasted barely a day, and after some consideration was finally replaced with "The Underground", a private and hidden member group accessible only at the request of an established member to an administrator. On April 21 Ogrish closed this section, finally making the transition from a "gore" website to an "uncensored news" website. In April 2006, Ogrish.com introduced a podcast service (DJed by Shawn Wasson) and added a new forum section called Underground Media—members have the choice to join this section to see more images and videos.


title: Ogrish.com

text: The website's name derives from the archaic word "ogrish" according to the site's FAQ, "ogrish" or "ogreish", i.e. "like an ogre", as defined in older dictionaries in a figurative sense; that is being like a person who is felt to be particularly cruel, brutish or hideous.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: The Virgin of the Rocks (), sometimes the Madonna of the Rocks, is the name of two paintings by the Italian Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci, of the same subject, with a composition which is identical except for several significant details. The version generally considered the prime version, the earlier of the two, is unrestored and hangs in the Louvre in Paris. The other, which was restored between 2008 and 2010, hangs in the National Gallery, London. The works are often known as the Louvre "Virgin of the Rocks and London "Virgin of the Rocks respectively. The paintings are both nearly 2 metres (over 6 feet) high and are painted in oils. Both were originally painted on wooden panels, but the Louvre version has been transferred to canvas.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: Both paintings show the Mary and child Jesus with the infant John the Baptist and an angel Uriel, in a rocky setting which gives the paintings their usual name. The significant compositional differences are in the gaze and right hand of the angel. There are many minor ways in which the works differ, including the colours, the lighting, the flora, and the way in which sfumato has been used. Although the date of an associated commission is documented, the complete histories of the two paintings are unknown, leading to speculation about which of the two is earlier.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: Two further paintings are associated with the commission: side panels each containing an angel playing a musical instrument and completed by associates of Leonardo. These are both in the National Gallery, London.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: The "Virgin of the Rocks" in the Louvre is considered by most art historians to be the earlier of the two and dates from around 1483–1486. Most authorities agree that the work is entirely by Leonardo. It is about 8 cm (3 in) taller than the London version. The first certain record of this picture dates from 1625, when it was in the French royal collection. It is generally accepted that this painting was produced to fulfill a commission of 1483 in Milan. It is hypothesised that this painting was privately sold by Leonardo and that the London version was painted at a later date to fill the commission. There are a number of other theories to explain the existence of two paintings. This painting is regarded as a perfect example of Leonardo's "sfumato" technique.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: A very similar painting in the National Gallery, London, is also ascribed to Leonardo da Vinci, and ascribed a date before 1508. Originally thought to have been partially painted by Leonardo's assistants, a close inspection of the painting during the recent restoration between 2008 and 2010 has led the conservators from the National Gallery to conclude that the greater part of the work is by the hand of Leonardo, but debate continues. Parts of the painting, the flowers in particular, indicate the collaboration and have led to speculation that the work is entirely by other hands, possibly Leonardo's assistant Giovanni Ambrogio de Predis and perhaps Evangelista.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: It was painted for the chapel of the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception, in the church of San Francesco Maggiore in Milan. It was sold by the church, very likely in 1781, and certainly by 1785, when it was bought by Gavin Hamilton, who took it to England. After passing through various collections, it was bought by the National Gallery in 1880.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: Two paintings of angels playing musical instruments are believed to have been part of the composition that was set into the altarpiece. These two pictures, now in the National Gallery, London, are thought to have been completed between 1490 and 1495. One, an angel in red, is thought to be the work of Ambrogio de Predis while the angel in green is thought to be the work of a different assistant of Leonardo, perhaps Francesco Napoletano.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: The Chapel of the Immaculate Conception was founded prior to 1335 by Beatrice d'Este, wife of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan. The chapel was attached to the church of S. Francesco Grande, Milan.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: In 1479 the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception contracted Francesco Zavattari and Giorgio della Chiesa to decorate the vault of the chapel. In 1480 the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception contracted Giacomo del Maino to create a large wooden altarpiece with spaces for paintings and with carvings and decoration, to be placed above the altar of the chapel. Final payment was to be made on August 7, 1482.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: On April 25, 1483, Prior Bartolomeo Scorlione and the Confraternity contracted Leonardo da Vinci, and the brothers Ambrogio and Evangelista de Predis to provide the painted panels for the altarpiece. The contract was not explicit about what each artist was to do. Leonardo was referred to in the contract as "Master". Ambrogio de Predis was also a painter. It is presumed that Evangelista de Predis was a gilder and assisted in preparing the colours.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: The details of the painting, colouring and gilding are set out in the contract. The central panel was to be a painting showing the Virgin Mary and Christ child, with two prophets, probably David and Isaiah, surrounded by angels. Above them was to be a lunette containing a relief panel of God and the Virgin Mary, beneath which was a panel showing the crib. The relief figures were to be brightly painted and gilded. To either side of the central painting were to be painted panels showing four angelic musicians on one side and four singing angels on the other. A number of sculptured relief panels were to depict the life of the Virgin Mary. Details of the colours and the gilding of the major parts were specified in the contract.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: The due date of installation was December 8, 1483, the Feast Day of the Immaculate Conception, giving seven months for its completion.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: On May 1, 1483 there was an initial payment of 100 Lire. This was followed by payments of 40 Lire per month from July 1483 until February 1485 totalling 800 Lire. A final payment was to be negotiated upon completion and delivery of the work in December 1483.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: Between 1490 and 1495, Ambrogio and Leonardo wrote to the Confraternity stating that the centrepiece had cost the whole 800 Lire and they asked for a further 1,200 Lire, according to the contract. The Confraternity offered them only 100 Lire as a result of the petition. Leonardo and Ambrogio then requested Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan, to intervene on their behalf. It was suggested that the altarpiece should be assessed by experts and evaluated, for the final payment. The artists also suggested that if an agreement over price could not be met, then they should remove the artwork.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: In 1503 Ambrogio again appealed for payment, on his own behalf and that of the heirs of his now deceased brother, Evangelista. On March 9, 1503, Louis XII of France, who had invaded Lombardy in 1499, wrote to the commander of Milan requesting that he intervene on behalf of the artists. On June 23, 1503, the Confraternity set out a deed contesting de Predis' request for evaluation or return of the painting. On April 27, 1506, an evaluation was made. It was judged that the work was still incomplete. Leonardo was requested to finish it, but he was still absent from Milan.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: On August 18, 1508, the painting was delivered and put into place. On August 7, 1507, and October 23, 1508, Ambrogio received two payments totalling 200 Lire. The receipt of this payment is acknowledged in correspondence by Leonardo.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: In 1524 and 1576 "The Virgin of the Rocks" in the Chapel of the Immaculate Conception, presumably the London version, was invoked against the plague. In 1576, the altarpiece was removed from the chapel, which was demolished. In mid-1785, Gavin Hamilton, a Scottish painter and dealer, paid 1,582 Lire to purchase the "Virgin of the Rocks" from Alessandro, Count Cicogna, administrator of the religious body which succeeded the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception. Hamilton's heirs sold the painting to Lord Lansdowne, who had amassed considerable debts. After his death in 1805, his son John was forced to sell nearly all of his father's collections, and the painting was purchased by the 15th Earl of Suffolk. In 1880, the painting was sold by the 18th Earl of Suffolk to the National Gallery for 9,000 guineas. It was reported at that time to be in a poor state and was attributed by some critics to Leonardo and by others to Bernardino Luini.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: In June 2005, the painting was examined by infra-red reflectogram. This imaging revealed a draft of a different painting beneath the visible one. The draft portrays a woman, probably kneeling, with her right hand outstretched and her left on her heart. Some researchers believe that the artist's original intention was to paint an adoration of the infant Jesus. In 2021, Oxia Palus–an artificial intelligence company specialised in the reconstruction of lost artwork–used machine learning techniques to reconstruct this pentimento using the entire oeuvre of Leonardeschi paintings. Many other pentimenti are visible under x-ray or infra-red examination.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: In 2009/2010 the painting underwent cleaning and conservation work, returning to display in July 2010. The National Gallery, in a preliminary announcement of the results of the work, said that it revealed that the painting was largely, possibly entirely, by Leonardo, and unfinished in parts. The full publication of the findings was released later in 2010.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: In 1625 the "Virgin of the Rocks" now in the Louvre was seen at Fontainebleau by Cassiano dal Pozzo. In 1806, the French restorer Fr Hacquin transferred the Louvre "Virgin of the Rocks" from its panel onto canvas. For a brief time in 2011–12 it was hung with the London painting as part of an exhibition in the National Gallery on Leonardo's activity as painter to the court of Ludovico Sforza.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: The two panels from the completed altarpiece containing figures of angels playing musical instruments were acquired by the National Gallery, London in 1898.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: The subject of the two paintings is the adoration of the Christ child by the infant John the Baptist. This subject relates to a non-Biblical event which became part of the medieval tradition of the holy family’s journey into Egypt. The Gospel of Matthew relates that Joseph, the husband of Mary, was warned in a dream that King Herod would attempt to kill the child Jesus, and that he was to take the child and his mother and flee to safety. There are a series of non-Biblical narratives that relate to the journey to Egypt. One of these concerns Jesus’ cousin, John the Baptist, whose family, like that of Jesus, resided in the town of Bethlehem where the Massacre of the Innocents was to take place. According to legend, John was escorted to Egypt by the Archangel Uriel, and met the holy family on the road. The Louvre website refers to the angel in the painting as "Gabriel" (but the description of the painting in the Louvre still refers to Uriel). This accords with the Apocryphal gospel of John the Baptist, which describes his removal from Bethlehem as by Gabriel rather than Uriel and does not mention the meeting on the road to Egypt.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: The subject of the Virgin Mary with the Christ child being adored by John the Baptist was common in the art of Renaissance Florence. John the Baptist is the patron saint of Florence and has often been depicted in the art of that city. Those who painted and sculpted the subject of the Mary and child with St John include Fra Filippo Lippi, Raphael, and Michelangelo.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: In both paintings the scene is depicted taking place against a background of rock formations. While scenes of the Nativity were sometimes depicted as taking place in a cave, and Kenneth Clark points to the existence of an earlier rocky landscape in an adoration painted for the Medici family by Fra Filippo Lippi, the setting was unprecedented and gave to the paintings their usual name of the "Virgin of the Rocks".


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: The two paintings of the "Virgin of the Rocks" that now belong to the National Gallery, London, and that belonging to the Louvre Museum, Paris, are the same in subject matter and in overall composition, indicating that one is derivative of the other. The two paintings differ in compositional details, in colour, in lighting and in the handling of the paint.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: Both paintings show a grouping of four figures, the Virgin Mary, the Christ child, the infant John the Baptist and an angel arranged into a triangular composition within the painting and set against a background of rocks, and a distant landscape of mountains and water. In both paintings, Mary makes the apex of the pyramidal figure group, stretching one hand to include John and raising the other above the head of the Christ child in a blessing. John kneels, gazing towards the Christ child with his hands together in an attitude of prayer. The Christ child sits towards the front of the painting, supported by the angel, and raising his right hand in a sign of Benediction towards the kneeling John.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: Compositionally, all the figures are slightly larger in the London painting than in the Louvre painting. The main compositional difference between the two paintings is that while in the London painting the angel's right hand rests on his/her knee, in the Louvre painting the hand is raised, the index finger pointing at John. The eyes of the angel are turned down in a contemplative manner in the London painting, but in the Louvre picture are turned to gaze in the general direction of the viewer.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: In the London painting, all the forms are more defined, including the bodily forms of the clothed figures. The rocks are painted in meticulous detail, while the forms of the background in the painting in the Louvre are all more hazy. The contrast between light and shade on the figures and faces in the London painting are all much sharper. The faces and forms in the Louvre painting are more delicately painted and subtly blurred by "sfumato". The lighting in the Louvre painting is softer and appears warmer, but this may be the result of the tone of the varnish on the surface. In keeping with their conservative handling of Leonardo's works, the Louvre version has not undergone significant restoration or cleaning. The Louvre painting remains much as it was in 1939 when Kenneth Clark lamented that "We can form no real conception of the colour, the values, or the general tone of the original, buried as it is under layer upon layer of thick yellow varnish. In the darks some mixture of bitumen has made the surface cake and crack like mud, and there are innumerable patches of old repaint all over the picture. All this must be borne in mind before we say that at this date Leonardo was a dark painter and an uninteresting colourist."


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: Another difference is in the colouring of the robes, particularly those of the angel. The London painting contains no red, while in the Louvre painting, the angel is robed in bright red and green, with the robes arranged differently from those of the angel in London. The London version contains traditional attributes missing from the Louvre version, the haloes and John's traditional cruciform reed staff. Davies says it is "not certain" if these details which are painted in gold are contemporary with the painting or have been added by a later artist. The details of the flowers are also quite different in the two paintings, with those in the Louvre painting being botanically accurate, and those in the London painting being fanciful creations.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: The two paintings of angels that are associated with the "Virgin of the Rocks" and are in the National Gallery do not properly fulfil the original commission for two panels each showing four angels, singing on one side and playing musical instruments on the other. There are only two musicians, both turned the same direction and both playing musical instruments. One, in green, plays a vielle, and the other, in red, plays a lute. The positions of the feet and the drapery are similar, indicating that the same design has in part been utilised for both. The angel in red is thought to be the work of Ambrogio de Predis. The angel in green is the work of an unknown associate of Leonardo. The National Gallery suggests that it might be the work of Francesco Napoletano.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: In both cases the angel is standing in a grey painted niche. A reflectogram of the "Angel in green with a Vielle" revealed part of a painted landscape. The background of the "Angel in red with a Lute" could not be determined because the grey paint on that painting is thick and opaque. While it is commonly thought that the two angel panels were originally placed on either side of the central panel, an article published by the National Gallery suggests that they were placed higher up on the altarpiece.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: The relationship between the two paintings “remains much debated”. Matters of debate include the dates of the two paintings, their authorship and the nature of their symbolism. For a few months in 2011 and 2012 the two paintings were brought together, possibly for the first time, in the same room in an exhibition at the National Gallery.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: It is generally accepted by art historians that the Louvre version is the earlier work. Martin Davies, former director of the National Gallery, described the painting in the Louvre as being stylistically close to Leonardo's earlier works and the London painting more suggestive of his maturer style, and therefore that later of the two, and derivative of the Louvre painting. Most authors agree that the Louvre painting was the one that was painted to fulfil the commission of 1483.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: Some writers, including Martin Davies, feel that 1483 is too late a date for the Louvre version, and suggest that the painting had already been begun and perhaps completed in Florence before the commission. Wasserman, Ottino della Chiesa and others have pointed out that the measurements of both paintings are compatible with the altarpiece, and that it is an unlikely coincidence that Leonardo painted a picture that fitted the dimensions, at a time prior to the commission. Wasserman suggests that perhaps the Louvre painting was extended to fit the arched shape, and that the joint is no longer visible since the painting was transferred to canvas in the 19th century. Davies suggests that Leonardo painted the second version in the 1480s to fulfil the commission, and based it on the earlier work. Kenneth Clark agrees with this interpretation, placing the Louvre painting prior to 1481 and the London painting from 1483.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: The theory that is most commonly used to explain the existence of the two paintings is that Leonardo painted the Louvre "Virgin of the Rocks" to fulfil the commission, giving it a date of 1483, and that he then sold it to another client, and painted the London version as a replacement. In line with this theory, it is hypothesised that the Louvre painting was sold in the late 1480s, after some haggling over the final payment. The London painting was commenced in perhaps 1486 as a substitution for the "original" Louvre version, and was not ready for installation until 1508, after prolonged disagreement and negotiation. This explanation, which della Chiesa attributes to Venturi and Poggi, has gained wide acceptance, and is the version of events described on both the National Gallery and the Louvre websites. Martin Kemp dates the Louvre painting to 1483–1490 and the London painting to 1495–1508.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: Not all authors agree with either the dating or the theory that the Louvre painting was the earlier, was sold, and the London painting done as a substitute. Taylor asserts that the London painting is stylistically the earlier of the two, being more meticulous, in keeping with the product of Leonardo's Florentine training, while the Louvre painting has more in common with the "Last Supper" and the "Virgin and Child with St Anne", including the delicate use of "sfumato". Taylor argues that the London painting fulfils the requirements of the commission of 1483 in terms of iconography, and that the iconography of the Louvre painting indicates that it was painted for an entirely different clientele, and gives it a date in the 1490s.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: It has always been agreed that the Louvre "Virgin of the Rocks" is entirely by the hand of Leonardo da Vinci. The "Virgin of the Rocks" in London has generally been seen as having been designed by Leonardo and executed with the assistants. The Louvre website and various authors suggest that the entire painting is by Ambrogio de' Predis, painted under Leonardo's supervision between 1485 and 1508, or perhaps largely the work of de Predis, with minor intervention by Leonardo.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: Since the recent cleaning, National Gallery curator Luke Syson has stated that the quality which has been revealed indicates that the work is mostly from the hand of Leonardo, and that participation of members of Leonardo's workshop was almost certainly less than previously thought.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: Geologist Ann C. Pizzorusso argues that there are geological inaccuracies in the London version, unlike the Louvre version, which mean it is unlikely to have come from Leonardo's hand. Taylor disputes this, drawing attention to the fact that, at the time of writing, Pizzorusso had plainly not seen the glacial lakes to which she referred, and had mistaken clumps of moss for sandstone boulders.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: One of the earliest known direct copies of the Louvre version is actually an altar cloth called the Paliotto leonardesco (ca 1487-90) housed in the , and the other is a painting (ca 1494-8) located in the Cheramy Collection, believed by Carlo Pedretti to be created by Leonardo's own hand. In her 1967 book (published in English in 1985) Angela Ottino della Chiesa identifies four paintings derived to some degree from "The Virgin of the Rocks": the "Holy Family and St. John" by Bernardino Luini in the Museo del Prado in Madrid, the "Thuelin Madonna" by Marco d'Oggiono in the Thuelin collection in Paris and the "Holy Infants Embracing" by Joos van Cleve in the Capodimonte Museum in Naples. This image was much copied by Flemish artists including Joos van Cleve and Quentin Matsys – there is a small painting in Chatsworth by the latter. There is also a smaller copy of "The Virgin of the Rocks" (oil on wood) possibly by Joos van Cleve or his circle (private collection Berlin).


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: There is a 16th-century copy in the Royal Collection, given as a birthday present to Queen Victoria in 1847 by her husband Prince Albert.


title: Virgin of the Rocks

text: In popular culture, in 1968 the American TV series "It Takes Thief" based the episode "The Illegal Angel" around the theft of a fictional Leonardo painting titled "The Sorrowful Angel", which is actually a close-up of the angel's face on the right of "Virgin of the Rocks". The plot of the episode involves an art forger having to make a copy of "Sorrowful Angel" as part of a plan to trap a criminal by fooling him into thinking he has purchased a genuine Leonardo.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Benson Henderson (born November 16, 1983) is an American mixed martial artist who competes for Bellator MMA, currently competing in their Lightweight division. He is a former UFC Lightweight Champion and WEC Lightweight Champion. As of November 22, 2022, he is #3 in the Bellator Lightweight Rankings.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson was born in Colorado Springs, Colorado to a Korean mother and an African American father. Benson has an older brother, Julius, who was born in Korea. He was raised in Federal Way, Washington. When Henderson was approximately 9 years old, his mother, Song, insisted that he take Tae Kwon Do lessons with his brother. "She's Korean, I'm half-Korean, and it's the traditional Korean martial art, so she wanted us to do that to get a little bit of the culture and tradition," he says. Both Benson and his brother attained black belts in Tae Kwon Do.


title: Benson Henderson

text: He attended Decatur High School from 1998 to 2001. Benson became a part of the high school's wrestling team. After graduating from high school, he attended Dana College in Blair, Nebraska and graduated in 2006 with a double major in criminal justice and sociology. While attending Dana College, Henderson was on the wrestling team, and was twice named an NAIA All-American.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson turned professional in 2006, winning his first match against Dan Gregary. He lost his third fight to Rocky Johnson via technical submission. However, this defeat was a minor setback. He rebounded with four straight wins before facing his toughest fight yet, against a UFC veteran, Diego Saraiva. Henderson came prepared as he dominated Saraiva for three rounds, winning a unanimous decision and his 7th professional win.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Three months later, Henderson made his World Extreme Cagefighting debut on January 25, 2009, at WEC 38 against Anthony Njokuani. Henderson defeated Njokuani with a guillotine choke early in round two.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson faced Shane Roller on April 5, 2009, at WEC 40. Henderson won the bout via first-round TKO.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson was given an opportunity to fight for the Interim WEC Lightweight Championship against Donald Cerrone when lightweight champion Jamie Varner was unable to defend his title due to an injury. The fight took place on October 10, 2009, at WEC 43. Henderson won an exciting back-and-forth fight by unanimous decision. Both Henderson and Cerrone were awarded with an additional purse of $20,000 for "Fight of the Night". The bout was also awarded "2009 Fight of the Year" for all of MMA by "Sherdog.com"


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson faced Jamie Varner to unify the WEC Lightweight Championship at WEC 46 on January 10, 2010. After being outboxed and outwrestled in the first two rounds, Henderson came back and caught Varner in a standing guillotine choke ending the fight at 2:41 of the third round.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson had his first title defense in a rematch with Donald Cerrone on April 24, 2010, at WEC 48. defeating Cerrone via guillotine choke in the first round. The win earned him a "Submission of the Night" bonus award.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson faced Anthony Pettis on December 16, 2010, at WEC 53. Henderson lost his title by unanimous decision. The fight won "Fight of the Night" honors.


title: Benson Henderson

text: In October 2010, World Extreme Cagefighting merged with the Ultimate Fighting Championship. As part of the merger, all WEC fighters were transferred to the UFC.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson made his UFC debut at UFC 129 on April 30, 2011, where he faced Mark Bocek. Henderson won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson next faced Jim Miller on August 14, 2011, at UFC on Versus 5. Henderson dominated the streaking Miller throughout the fight, utilizing a stiff jab, great transitions, and vicious ground and pound throughout the match to snap Miller's 7 fight win streak, the third longest in the UFC at the time. Despite being threatened with multiple deep submission attempts, Henderson escaped each attempt and advanced position with increasingly brutal punches and elbows. He earned a unanimous decision (30-27, 29–28, 30–26).


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson faced Clay Guida on November 12, 2011, at UFC on Fox 1. He won the fight via unanimous decision after three rounds in an action packed war that earned both fighters "Fight of the Night" honors. With the win, he became the #1 contender for the UFC Lightweight title.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson faced Frankie Edgar on February 26, 2012, at UFC 144. Henderson defeated Edgar via unanimous decision to become the new UFC Lightweight Champion. Both participants earned "Fight of the Night" honors for their performance.


title: Benson Henderson

text: A rematch with Edgar took place on August 11, 2012, at UFC 150. In a bout that was very tightly contested, Henderson defeated Edgar again, this time via split decision.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson faced Nate Diaz on December 8, 2012, at UFC on Fox 5. Henderson punished Diaz with kicks, superior wrestling and ground and pound, Henderson knocked Diaz down twice with punches and was able to take his back on numerous occasions earning a unanimous decision victory.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson faced the final Strikeforce Lightweight Champion, and promotional newcomer Gilbert Melendez on April 20, 2013, at UFC on Fox 7. Henderson won the fight by a closely contested split decision. After 3 consecutive wins to retain the title, Henderson tied BJ Penn with the highest number of title defenses as a lightweight.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson was expected to face T. J. Grant on August 31, 2013, at UFC 164. However, Grant was forced out of the bout with an injury, setting up a rematch with Anthony Pettis who defeated Henderson last time they fought via unanimous decision at the final WEC event, WEC 53. Pettis defeated Henderson via submission (armbar) in the first round. This is the second time Henderson lost his championship belt and title to Pettis.


title: Benson Henderson

text: In his first post-title loss fight, Henderson faced Josh Thomson on January 25, 2014, in the main event at UFC on Fox 10. Henderson defeated Thomson via split decision. He nearly became the first man to submit Thomson when he caught Thomson in a standing arm-triangle choke. Many media outlets and observers were split on who they thought should have been declared the winner. Thomson had one more takedown (5 to 4) and was able to secure Henderson's back on multiple occasions, while Henderson was able to significantly outstrike Thomson (114 to 33) over the duration of the bout and was credited with the bout's only submission attempt.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson faced Rustam Khabilov on June 7, 2014, in the main event at . He won the fight via rear-naked choke submission in the fourth round. The win also earned Henderson his first "Performance of the Night" bonus award.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson headlined UFC Fight Night 49 against Rafael dos Anjos on August 23, 2014. He lost the fight via knockout in the first round.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson was scheduled to fight Eddie Alvarez on January 18, 2015, at UFC Fight Night 59. However, Alvarez pulled out of the fight in early January due to illness, and was replaced by Donald Cerrone in a rematch. Henderson lost the fight via a controversial unanimous decision. 12 of 14 media outlets scored the bout in favor of Henderson.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson decided to make the move up to welterweight after a spot became available at UFC Fight Night 60 with Brandon Thatch on February 14, 2015, in the event headliner at UFC Fight Night 60, where he replaced an injured Stephen Thompson. Henderson won the back and forth fight via submission in the fourth round. Their performance earned both participants "Fight of the Night" honors. Henderson was expected to face Bobby Green in his second Welterweight bout, but Bobby Green pulled out due to injury, so Henderson faced Jorge Masvidal on April 4, 2015, at UFC Fight Night 63.


title: Benson Henderson

text: A bout with Michael Johnson was initially linked as the event headliner for on July 12, 2015. Although never officially announced by the UFC, the bout between Henderson and Johnson will not take place at this event. Subsequently, Henderson revealed his intentions to return, at least temporarily, to the welterweight division and targeted a return date of November 2015 and a possible appearance on the UFC's inaugural event in Seoul.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson was expected to face Thiago Alves on November 28, 2015, at UFC Fight Night 79. However, on November 14, 2015, Alves pulled out the bout citing injury and was replaced by Jorge Masvidal. Henderson won the back-and-forth fight via split decision.


title: Benson Henderson

text: On February 1, 2016, Henderson announced that he had signed with Bellator MMA. In his debut, he faced Andrey Koreshkov on April 22, 2016, at Bellator 153 for the Bellator Welterweight Championship. Henderson lost the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Benson Henderson

text: For his second fight with the promotion, Henderson made his return to the lightweight division to fight Patrício Pitbull in the main event at Bellator 160 on August 26, 2016. The bout ended in anticlimactic fashion as Pitbull stopped himself early in round two to declare he had sustained a leg injury. As a result, Henderson was awarded a TKO victory due to injury and earned a title shot against Michael Chandler. It was revealed post-fight that Freire had broken his shin in the first round after Henderson checked a low kick with his knee.


title: Benson Henderson

text: On August 31, 2016, it was announced that Henderson would challenge Michael Chandler for the Bellator Lightweight Championship on November 19, 2016, at Bellator 165. Henderson lost the back-and-forth bout via split decision.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson faced Patricky Pitbull at Bellator 183 on September 23, 2017. He lost the fight via split decision.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson faced returning Bellator veteran Roger Huerta in the main event at Bellator 196 on April 6, 2018. He won the fight via submission in the second round.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson faced Saad Awad at Bellator 208 on October 13, 2018. He won the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Benson Henderson

text: In November 2018, Bellator officials revealed that Henderson had signed a new exclusive, long-term contract with Bellator.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson next faced Adam Piccolotti at Bellator 220 on April 27, 2019. He won the fight via split decision. 8 out of 9 media scores gave it to Piccolotti.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson faced Bellator newcomer Myles Jury in the headliner of Bellator 227 on September 27, 2019. He won the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Benson Henderson

text: On October 25, 2019, it was announced that Henderson would next rematch Michael Chandler at on December 29, 2019. However, Henderson was forced to withdraw from the bout citing an injury and was replaced by Sidney Outlaw. The rematch was rescheduled to take place at Bellator 244 on June 6, 2020. However, the event was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The rematch eventually took place on August 7, 2020, at Bellator 243. Henderson lost the fight via knockout in the first round.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson then moved up to Welterweight to face Jason Jackson on November 28, 2020 at Bellator 253. Jackson controlled a majority of the fight, winning via unanimous decision in an upset victory.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson faced Brent Primus on October 16, 2021, at Bellator 268. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson faced Islam Mamedov on January 29, 2022, at Bellator 273. He won the back-and-forth fight via split decision, ending a three-fight losing streak in what was his last fight on his prevailing contract.


title: Benson Henderson

text: On March 23, 2022, it was announced that Henderson had signed a new multi-fight contract with Bellator.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson faced Peter Queally on September 23, 2022 at Bellator 285. He won the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Benson Henderson

text: Henderson is a Christian and often refers to his faith in post-fight interviews. He has three sons and a daughter – Kyong, Kub and Koah – with his wife, Maria. Henderson proposed to his fiancée in the Octagon after his win over Gilbert Melendez at UFC on Fox 7.


title: Suhasini Maniratnam

text: Suhasini Maniratnam (born 15 August 1961) known mononymously as Suhasini, is an Indian actress, director, producer and writer in the Tamil film industry. She has worked as an actress in Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada films. She made her cinematic debut with the 1980, Tamil film. "Nenjathai Killathe". Suhasini then won National Film Award for Best Actress for her performance in "Sindhu Bhairavi" (1985). Suhasini has won 4 Filmfare Awards, 2 Kerala State Awards, 2 Tamilnadu State Awards and 2 Nandi Awards.


title: Suhasini Maniratnam

text: Suhasini attended the Municipal Elementary School in Paramakudi, before moving to Madras aged 12 to live with her grandmother and uncle Kamal Haasan.


title: Suhasini Maniratnam

text: She made her film debut in 1980 with the Tamil movie "Nenjathai Killathe". In her first movie itself, she won the Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Actress. She was introduced to Malayalam cinema through Padmarajan's "Koodevide" (1983), which also featured Mammootty. She appeared in the AFI Fest nominated feature film "Vanaprastham" (1999), which starred Mohanlal.


title: Suhasini Maniratnam

text: She has acted with Vishnuvardhan in "Bandhana" (1984), "Suprabhatha" (1988), "Muthina Haara" (1990), "Himapatha" (1995), "Hendithghelthini" (1998), "Maathaad Maathaadu Mallige" (2007) and "School Master" (2010).


title: Suhasini Maniratnam

text: She won the National Film Award for Best Actress for her role in the 1985 Tamil film "Sindhu Bhairavi", directed by K. Balachander.


title: Suhasini Maniratnam

text: She has worked in "Swathi" (1984), Manivathoorile Aayiram Sivarathrikal "Ezhuthapurangal" (1987), "Amrutha Varshini" (1997), "Nuvvu Naaku Nachav" (2001), "Theerthadanam" (2001) and "Gabbar Singh" (2012) among others.


title: Suhasini Maniratnam

text: In 1991, Suhasini directed the anthology mini-series "Penn" (1991) shown on Madras Doordarshan. The series featured eight standalone episodes examining the lives of South Indian women, and starred several of her contemporaries such as Shobana, Revathi, Raadhika and Amala as protagonists.


title: Suhasini Maniratnam

text: Her film "Indira" was shown in film festivals globally in countries including Belarus and Japan. In November 1997, Suhasini directed a short television film titled "Swayamvaram" featuring Suchitra Krishnamoorthi and Rajiv Menon . The script had been written by Sujatha and commissioned by Revathi and Suresh Menon.


title: Suhasini Maniratnam

text: Suhasini directed a segment titled "Coffee, Anyone?" in Amazon Prime's "Putham Pudhu Kaalai" (2020). Shot during the COVID-19 pandemic, the segment was set against the backdrop of the 21-day COVID-19 lockdown in March 2020 in India, and featured Suhasini in the leading role alongside her cousins Shruti Haasan and Anu Hasan, and her mother Komalam.


title: Suhasini Maniratnam

text: Suhasini and her husband Mani Ratnam have been involved in the running of their production company Madras Talkies since 1997.


title: Suhasini Maniratnam

text: Suhasini was appointed the Honorary Consul Of the Grand Duchy Of Luxembourg in 2015. She held the post until 2020.


title: Suhasini Maniratnam

text: Suhasini married film director Mani Ratnam on 26 August 1988 and the couple has a son, Nandan, born in 1992.


title: Vicuña

text: The vicuña (Lama vicugna) or vicuna (both , very rarely spelled "vicugna", its former genus name) is one of the two wild South American camelids, which live in the high alpine areas of the Andes, the other being the guanaco, which lives at lower elevations. Vicuñas are relatives of the llama, and are now believed to be the wild ancestor of domesticated alpacas, which are raised for their coats. Vicuñas produce small amounts of extremely fine wool, which is very expensive because the animal can only be shorn every three years and has to be caught from the wild. When knitted together, the product of the vicuña's wool is very soft and warm. The Inca valued vicuñas highly for their wool, and it was against the law for anyone but royalty to wear vicuña garments; today, the vicuña is the national animal of Peru and appears on the Peruvian coat of arms.


title: Vicuña

text: Both under the rule of the Inca and today, vicuñas have been protected by law, but they were heavily hunted in the intervening period. At the time they were declared endangered in 1974, only about 6,000 animals were left. Today, the vicuña population has recovered to about 350,000, and although conservation organizations have reduced its level of threat classification, they still call for active conservation programs to protect populations from poaching, habitat loss, and other threats.


title: Vicuña

text: Previously the vicuña was thought not to have been domesticated, and the llama and the alpaca were both regarded as descendants of the closely related guanaco. But DNA research published in 2001 has shown the alpaca may well have vicuña parentage. Today, the vicuña is mainly wild, but the local people still perform special rituals with these creatures, including a fertility rite.


title: Vicuña

text: The vicuña is considered more delicate and gracile than the guanaco, and smaller. A key distinguishing element of morphology is the better-developed incisor roots for the guanaco. The vicuña's long, woolly coat is tawny brown on the back, whereas the hair on the throat and chest is white and quite long. The head is slightly shorter than the guanaco's and the ears are slightly longer. The length of head and body ranges from 1.45 to 1.60 m (about 5 ft); shoulder height is from 75 to 85 cm (around 3 ft); its weight is from 35 to 65 kg (under 150 lb). It falls prey to the puma and culpeo.


title: Vicuña

text: While vicuñas are restricted to the more extreme elevations of the Andes in modern times, they may have also been present in the lowland regions of Patagonia as much as 3500 km south of their current range during the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene. Fossils of these lowland camelids have been assigned to a species known as "Lama gracilis", but genetic and morphological analysis between them and modern vicuña indicate the two may be the same.


title: Vicuña

text: Vicuñas are native to the central Andes in South America. They are found in Peru, northwestern Argentina, Bolivia, and northern Chile. A smaller, introduced population lives in central Ecuador.


title: Vicuña

text: Vicuñas live at altitudes of . They feed in daytime on the grassy plains of the Andes Mountains, but spend the nights on the slopes. In these areas, only nutrient-poor, tough, bunch grasses and "Festuca" grow. The sun's rays are able to penetrate the thin atmosphere, producing relatively warm temperatures during the day; however, the temperatures drop to freezing at night. The vicuña's thick but soft coat is a special adaptation which traps layers of warm air close to its body, so it can tolerate freezing temperatures.


title: Vicuña

text: The behavior of vicuñas is similar to that of the guanacos. They are very shy animals, and are easily aroused by intruders, due, among other things, to their extraordinary hearing. Like the guanacos, they frequently lick calcareous stones and rocks, which are rich in salt, and also drink salt water. Their diets consist mainly of low grasses which grow in clumps on the ground.


title: Vicuña

text: Vicuñas live in family-based groups made up of a male, five to 15 females, and their young. Each group has its own territory of about 18 km, which can fluctuate depending on the availability of food.


title: Vicuña

text: Mating usually occurs in March–April, and after a gestation period of about 11 months, the female gives birth to a single fawn, which is nursed for about 10 months. The fawn becomes independent at about 12 to 18 months old. Young males form bachelor groups and the young females search for a sorority to join. This deters intraspecific competition and inbreeding.


title: Vicuña

text: From the period of Spanish conquest to 1964, hunting of the vicuña was unrestricted, which reduced its numbers to only 6,000 in the 1960s. As a result, the species was declared endangered in 1974, and its status prohibited the trade of vicuña wool. In Peru, during 1964–1966, the Servicio Forestal y de Caza in cooperation with the US Peace Corps, Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund, and the National Agrarian University of La Molina established a nature conservatory for the vicuña called the Pampa Galeras – Barbara D'Achille in Lucanas Province, Ayacucho. During that time, a game warden academy was held in Nazca, where eight men from Peru and six from Bolivia were trained to protect the vicuña from poaching.


title: Vicuña

text: To cooperate on the conservation of the vicuña, the governments of Bolivia and Peru signed the Convention for the Conservation of the Vicuña on 16 August 1969 in La Paz, explicitly leaving the treaty open to accession by Argentina and Chile. Ecuador acceded on 11 February 1976. The Convention prohibited international trade in the vicuña, domestic exploitation of the vicuña, and ordered the parties to create reserves and breeding centres. A follow-up treaty, the Convention for the Conservation and Management of the Vicuña, was signed between Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru on 20 December 1979 in Lima. It explicitly allowed only Argentina to sign it if it also signed the 1969 La Paz Convention (Article 12; Argentina joined in 1981), and did not allow other countries to accede to the convention 'due to its specific character' (Article 13). The 1979 Convention did allow the use of the vicuña under strict circumstances if the animal population had recovered sufficiently. In combination with CITES (effective in 1975), as well as USA and EU trade legislation, the Conventions were extremely successful, as the vicuña population substantially grew as a result.


title: Vicuña

text: The estimated population in Peru increased from 6,000 to 75,000 with protection by game wardens. Currently, the community of Lucanas conducts a "chaccu" (herding, capturing, and shearing) on the reserve each year to harvest the wool, organized by the National Council for South American Camelids (CONACS).


title: Vicuña

text: In Bolivia, the Ulla Ulla National Reserve was founded in 1977 partly as a sanctuary for the species. Their numbers grew to 125,000 in Peru, Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia. Since this was a ready "cash crop" for community members, the countries relaxed regulations on vicuña wool in 1993, enabling its trade once again. The wool is sold on the world market for over $300 per kg, to help support the community. In 2002, the US Fish and Wildlife Service reclassified most populations as threatened, but still lists Ecuador's population as endangered. While the population levels have recovered to a healthy level, poaching remains a constant threat, as do habitat loss and other threats. Consequently, the IUCN still supports active conservation programs to protect vicuñas, though they lowered their status to least concern in 2018.


title: Vicuña

text: The wool is popular due to its warmth, and is used for apparel such as socks, sweaters, accessories, shawls, coats, and suits, and home furnishings such as blankets and throws. Its properties come from the tiny scales on the hollow, air-filled fibres. It causes them to interlock and trap insulating air. Vicuñas have some of the finest fibers in the world, at a diameter of 12 μm. The fiber of cashmere goats is 14 to 19 μm, while angora rabbit is 8 to 12 μm and that of shahtoosh from the Tibetan antelope, or chiru, is from 9 to 12 μm.


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: Lola Van Wagenen (born December 12, 1938) is an American historian and activist. In 1970, she co-founded Consumer Action Now (CAN), a non-profit educational organization, and in 1995 co-founded Clio Visualizing History, Inc. to promote history education. (In 2003, Clio changed its corporate structure becoming a not-for-profit organization providing educational films and online history exhibits and resources.)


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: Van Wagenen was born in Provo, Utah, in December 1938. She was raised in a Mormon family, but as an adult has explored other sources of religious and philosophical thought.


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: She met her first husband, actor Robert Redford, in Los Angeles in 1957. They were married on September 12, 1958, in Provo, Utah, following a secret wedding a few months earlier in Las Vegas, Nevada. They divorced in 1985. The couple had four children.


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: Van Wagenen received her bachelor's degree at Vermont College in 1982 and her master's degree in Public History at New York University (NYU) in 1984. Ten years later she completed her Ph.D. in American History at NYU. Her doctoral dissertation was published as a book, "Sister-Wives and Suffragists: Polygamy and the Politics of Woman Suffrage 1870–1896", in 2003. In October 2012 she received the Distinguished Alumni/Alumnae Achievement Award from the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences at NYU.


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: She married George Burrill, Ph.D., the founder of the international development firm ARD, on July 17, 2002, in Shelburne, Vermont. Burrill is the Honorary Consul from New Zealand to Vermont. He was a US delegate to the United States New Zealand Partnership Forum in 2011, held in Christchurch, New Zealand, when a devastating earthquake struck the city. After his return to Vermont, the couple organized a successful fundraiser that netted over $70,000 for earthquake recovery programs. Van Wagenen serves on the Robertson Scholars selection committee, which grants scholarships to international students at Duke University and University of North Carolina. The couple established the New American Scholarship Fund at Champlain College in 2012.


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: Since the 1970s, Van Wagenen has served on the Board of Directors or in other capacities with various charitable organizations, including Shelburne Farms, the Vermont Historical Society and the New York Women’s Foundation. She served on the Task Force on Appropriate Technology with the U.S. Office of Technology Assessment in 1977. In 1979 she was a member of the National Commission on the International Year of the Child.


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: Van Wagenen first received public attention as the wife of actor Robert Redford. In her own right, she was an executive producer of several films, including "Miss America: A Documentary Film", broadcast on the PBS series American Experience in January 2002, and "The State of Marriage", released in 2015.


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: Her publications include the book "Sister-Wives and Suffragists: Polygamy and the Politics of Woman Suffrage 1870- 1896" and the article "In Their Own Behalf: The Politicization of Mormon Women and the 1870 Franchise".


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: In 1970, as Lola Redford, she co-founded Consumer Action Now (CAN), a not-for-profit educational organization in New York City, and served as co-chair for 10 years. The group included Ilene (Jones) Goldman (then-wife of screenwriter William Goldman), author Linda Stewart (who acted as editor and a major writer of the CAN monthly newsletter), Cynthia (Burke) Stein, author Irmgard Hunt, and a dozen other women. CAN established a variety of consumer-oriented and environmental education programs aimed at showing consumers how their buying habits affected the environment.


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: For more than a decade, she promoted CAN’s goals through a series of public speaking engagements, including local and national television shows. In 1972, she organized the Environmental Action Forum, a gathering for consumer and environmental activists; the event was hosted by Betty Furness and featured speakers from a variety of environmental and civic organizations. Van Wagenen organized CAN’s political action council, which lobbied for passage of the Toxic Substances Control Act and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (both passed in 1976).


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: The CAN Newsletter was published monthly from 1970 to 1973, covering different consumer education subjects in each issue. Van Wagenen wrote articles or conducted research for each issue and worked to expand the circulation, which reached readers nationwide.


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: From 1975 to 1977, Van Wagenen developed The Sun Fund as a tool for raising awareness of energy conservation and alternative energy sources. The project included the Solar Energy Slide Show, which was the basis for "The Solar Film", a 1980 Academy Award Nominee for Best Live Action Short Film.


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: In 1978, she organized SunDay in New York, a three-day nationally televised educational and environmental celebration that began with a sunrise ceremony at the United Nations and included events sponsored by New York Institute of Technology and the U.S. Small Business Administration. Speakers at various SunDay events included Margaret Mead, Dr. Barry Commoner, Pete Seeger and Amory Lovins.


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: In 1979 and 1980, Van Wagenen organized the Women’s Energy Education Project, coordinating with the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and the U.S. Department of Energy to publish "Women Tapping a New Resource for Energy", "Women’s Energy Handbook", and "Women’s Energy Toolkit".


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: In 1979, she received an Honorary Doctorate in Science from the Pratt Institute for promoting energy conservation and increased use of renewable energy resources.


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: After completing her Ph.D. in American history in 1995, Van Wagenen and historian Jeanne Houck cofounded Clio Visualizing History, Inc., intending to bring American history to a broad public audience. As executive producer for the documentary film "Miss America: A Documentary Film", for PBS American Experience, Van Wagenen obtained funding for the project from The National Endowment for the Humanities. However, her subsequent film projects received only partial funding or none; a film proposal called "Catching the Shadow: America’s First Women Photographers" received a scripting grant from the NEH, but other proposals, such as "The Battle of the Sexes: Billie Jean King and Bobby Riggs", were eventually shelved.


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: Smaller educational projects were more successful, as Clio provided research and production services for clients such as McGraw-Hill, The Asia Society and City Lore. Productions included CD-ROMs to accompany textbooks, web-based interactive materials, and an interactive kiosk.


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: In 2003 Jeanne Houck departed and Van Wagenen reorganized Clio’s corporate structure, changing it to a not-for-profit educational organization. Research materials gathered for the film proposal "Catching the Shadow: America’s First Women Photographers" were adapted for use in online exhibits about Frances Benjamin Johnston and Mary and Frances Allen. Clio developed an interactive online version of Gregory Pfizer’s book "Picturing the Past: Illustrated Histories and the American Imagination, 1840-1900", and produced “Quilts as Visual History,” researched by Jennifer Reeder, then at George Mason University.


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: Clio’s recent projects offer more videos and interactive elements. “Lowell Thomas and Lawrence of Arabia: Making a Legend, Creating History,” was a collaboration between Van Wagenen and filmmaker Rick Moulton. The exhibit features archival photos, audio clips, and a short film, presenting a variety of viewpoints on journalist Lowell Thomas and military officer T.E. Lawrence. Van Wagenen’s newest project for Clio’s website is titled “Click! The Ongoing Feminist Revolution,” a collaboration with Susan Ware, Melanie Gustafson and Marilyn Blackwell. This exhibit highlights the collective action and individual achievements of women from the 1940s to the present, and features 46 film clips (taken from 27 documentary films), extensive interactive timelines, essays and photos.


title: Lola Van Wagenen

text: While directing her online projects, Van Wagenen also served as executive producer on two films: "Lowell Thomas: The American Storyteller" by Rick Moulton (in production), and "The State of Marriage" by Jeff Kaufman (released in 2015).


title: Djent

text: Djent () is a subgenre of progressive metal characterised by its use of off-beat and complex rhythm patterns. Its distinctive sound is that of high-gain, distorted, palm-muted, down-tuned strings. The name "djent" is an onomatopoeia of this sound.


title: Djent

text: Fredrik Thordendal, lead guitarist of Swedish band Meshuggah, is considered the originator of the djent technique. However, the band did not coin the term itself; In a 2018 interview by Rauta, Meshuggah guitarist Mårten Hagström apologised for the band's role in creating the "djent" genre.


title: Djent

text: Other bands important in the development of the style are Animals as Leaders, Periphery, Tesseract, and Textures.


title: Djent

text: The scene has grown rapidly, and members of the original online community, including the bands Chimp Spanner, Sithu Aye, and Monuments, have gone on to tour and release albums commercially. Other bands that often use djent include A Life Once Lost, Veil of Maya, Vildhjarta, and Xerath. Born of Osiris have also been described as being inspired by the djent movement. Furthermore, Hacktivist and DVSR are djent bands that use rapping as primary vocal style.


title: Djent

text: Djent as a genre is characterised by progressive, rhythmic, and technical complexity accompanied by a use of polymetric groove. An example is the song "Cafo" by Animals as Leaders. It typically features heavily distorted, palm-muted guitar chords, syncopated riffs, and poly-meters alongside virtuosic soloing. Another common feature is the use of extended range guitars that are seven-string, eight-string, and nine-string, or even more strings.


title: Djent

text: Some members of the metal community have criticised the term "djent", either treating it as a short-lived fad, openly condemning it, or questioning its validity as a genre. However, bands such as Tesseract and Animals as Leaders have gained positive reviews, receiving awards and releasing highly-acclaimed albums. Post-metal band Rosetta is noted as saying, "Maybe we should start calling doom metal 'DUNNN'". In response to a question about "djent", Lamb of God vocalist Randy Blythe stated in 2011, "There is no such thing as 'djent'; it's not a genre." Deftones guitarist Stephen Carpenter similarly opined in 2016 that "I thoroughly can get djent, I even have great appreciation for the bands, and I mean Meshuggah is one of my favorite bands. But it's just not a genre. It's just metal." In an interview with Guitar Messenger, Periphery guitarist Misha Mansoor said:


title: Djent

text: In a later interview with Freethinkers Blog, Misha Mansoor stated that he felt djent had become "this big umbrella term for any sort of progressive band, and also any band that will [use] off-time chugs [...] You also get bands like Scale the Summit [who are referred to as] a djent band [when] 80% of their stuff sounds like clean channel, and it's all beautiful and pretty, you know [...] In that way, I think it's cool because it groups really cool bands together [...] We are surrounded by a lot of bands that I respect, but at the same time, I don't think people know what djent is either [...] It's very unclear." Later in the interview, he stated, "If you call us djent, that's fine. I mean, I would never self-apply the term, but at the same time, it's just so vague that I don't know what to make of it."


title: Djent

text: Tosin Abasi of Animals as Leaders takes a more lenient view of the term, stating that there are specific characteristics that are common to djent bands, and as a result the term can be legitimately used as a genre. While stating that he personally strives not to subscribe exclusively to any one genre, he makes the point that a genre is defined by the ability to associate common features between different artists. He says that in this way, it is possible to view djent as a genre describing a particular niche of modern progressive metal.


title: Avneet Kaur

text: Avneet Kaur (born 13 October 2001) is an Indian actress, dancer and model. She is known for portraying Charumati in "Chandra Nandini" and Princess Yasmine in "Aladdin – Naam Toh Suna Hoga."


title: Avneet Kaur

text: Kaur was born into a Sikh family to Sonia Nandra and Amandeep Singh Nandra on 13 October 2001 in Jalandhar, Punjab and later moved to Mumbai. She began her performing career in 2010 at the age of 8. As of 2021, Kaur is pursuing a degree in commerce from a private college in Kandivali, Mumbai.


title: Avneet Kaur

text: Kaur began her career in 2010 with Zee TV's dance show "Dance India Dance Li'l Masters." She was eliminated before the semi-finals. She then participated in "Dance Ke Superstars", where she joined the team of "Dance Challengers".


title: Avneet Kaur

text: Kaur made her acting debut in 2012 with Life OK's "Meri Maa" where she played Jhilmil. Then, she acted in SAB TV's "Tedhe Hain Par Tere Mere Hain". In 2012, Kaur participated in Colors TV's celebrity dance reality show "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa", where she was a contestant with Darsheel Safary. She was the youngest contestant to appear on this show.


title: Avneet Kaur

text: Later, Kaur was featured in Life OK's "Savitri", where she played Rajkumari Damyanti. In August 2013, Kaur played Pakhi in Zee TV's "Ek Mutthi Aasmaan". She also appeared in ZeeQ's news bulletin titled "The Weekly Rap".


title: Avneet Kaur

text: In September 2014, she played Khushi in Sony Pal's "Hamari Sister Didi". In 2016, she starred in short film titled "Dost - Safi Mother - Daughter" released on YouTube under the banner of Jigsaw Pictures. In 2017, Kaur played Queen Charumati in "Chandra Nandini". From 2018 to 2020, she starred as Princess Yasmine in SAB TV's "Aladdin – Naam Toh Suna Hoga", and then left the show in mid-2020 due to health issues.


title: Avneet Kaur

text: As of 2022, Kaur is set to make her Bollywood lead debut in Kangana Ranaut's "Tiku Weds Sheru", opposite Nawazuddin Siddiqui.


title: Chicago-style pizza

text: Chicago-style pizza is pizza prepared according to several different styles developed in Chicago, widely referred to simply as deep dish pizza due to its cooking style. The pan in which it is baked gives the pizza its characteristically high edge which provides ample space for large amounts of cheese and a chunky tomato sauce. Chicago-style pizza may be prepared in deep-dish style and as a stuffed pizza.


title: Chicago-style pizza

text: According to Tim Samuelson, Chicago's official cultural historian, there is not enough documentation to determine with certainty who invented Chicago-style deep-dish pizza. It is often reported that Chicago-style deep-dish pizza was invented at Pizzeria Uno in Chicago, in 1943, by Uno's founder Ike Sewell. However, a 1956 article from the "Chicago Daily News" asserts that Uno's original pizza chef Rudy Malnati developed the recipe, and Michele Mohr from the "Chicago Tribune" reports that the menu at Rosati's Authentic Chicago Pizza has included deep-dish since it opened in 1926, according to the descendants of Saverio Rosati.


title: Chicago-style pizza

text: By the mid-1970s, two Chicago chains, Nancy's Pizza, founded by Rocco Palese, and Giordano's Pizzeria, operated by brothers Efren and Joseph Boglio, began experimenting with deep-dish pizza and created the stuffed pizza. Palese based his creation on his mother's recipe for "scarcedda", an Italian Easter pie from his hometown of Potenza, more commonly known in Italy as pizza rustica Lucana.


title: Chicago-style pizza

text: There is also a style of thin-crust pizza found in Chicago and throughout the rest of the Midwest. The crust is thin and firm enough to have a noticeable crunch, unlike a New York-style pizza. While in New York bakers who had immigrated from Italy made pizzas using the traditional method of tossing the dough by hand, the tavern owners who first developed Chicago's thin-crust pizza instead rolled their dough or used mechanical sheeters. This led to thinner crusts than those present in hand-tossed pizzas.


title: Chicago-style pizza

text: This pizza is cut into squares, also known as "tavern-style" or "party cut", as opposed to wedges. The name "tavern-style" comes from the pizzas originally being served in taverns, often as an enticement to drink alcohol. This origin in taverns is also linked to the pizza's shape, as the square shape of the slices made it possible for taverns that did not have plates to instead set them on napkins.


title: Chicago-style pizza

text: According to GrubHub data and Chicago Pizza Tours, thin-crust outsells the more widely known deep-dish style among locals. Technomics food industry researcher Darren Tristano has questioned GrubHub's conclusion on the basis of the delivery service's user demographics, and NPR noted that the data would not include information on several deep-dish chains that are not on GrubHub.


title: Chicago-style pizza

text: The typical toppings commonly found on pizzas in most of North America (i.e. sausage, pepperoni, onions, mushrooms, etc) are also standards in Chicago area pizzerias; however, a survey in 2013 indicated that while the most popular pizza topping in the rest of most of the United States, is pepperoni, in Chicago, the most popular topping is Italian sausage.


title: Park Sung-hoon (singer)

text: Park Sung-hoon (; born December 8, 2002), known mononymously as Sunghoon, is a South Korean singer, former presenter and former figure skater. He competed as a figure skater from 2010 to early 2020; while simultaneously being a Bighit Music trainee since 2018, later transferring to Belift Lab. He retired from the sport and debuted as a member of the South Korean boy band Enhypen in November 2020. Sunghoon is the 2016, 2017 junior silver medalist and the 2015 novice gold medalist of Asian Figure Skating Trophy, and the 2015 novice gold medalist of Lombardia Trophy. He also won silver medals at the 2013 novice competition and the 2014 junior competition of South Korean Figure Skating Championships.


title: Park Sung-hoon (singer)

text: Sunghoon won two international advanced novice competitions, Asian Figure Skating Trophy and Lombardia Trophy, during the 2015-16 figure skating season.


title: Park Sung-hoon (singer)

text: Sunghoon made his international junior debut during the 2016-17 figure skating season when he became age-eligible. He earned a silver medal at Asian Figure Skating Trophy, and participated in ISU Junior Grand Prix in Estonia as a representative of South Korea. The next year, he won another silver medal at Asian Figure Skating Trophy, and participated in ISU Junior Grand Prix in Poland.


title: Park Sung-hoon (singer)

text: During the 2018-19 figure skating season, Sunghoon became age-eligible for senior competitions. He participated in two ISU Challenger Series events, Asian Figure Skating Trophy and Alpen Trophy.


title: Park Sung-hoon (singer)

text: In 2018, Sunghoon became a trainee at Big Hit Music after being scouted while figure skating. On June 1, 2020, he was announced as a participant in the survival show "I-Land", a competition survival show produced by Mnet and Belift Lab, a joint venture between CJ E&M and Hybe Corporation. As one of seven successful finalists, he placed sixth and was selected to join the newly formed South Korean idol group Enhypen. Sunghoon made his official debut with the group on November 30, 2020, with the album .


title: Park Sung-hoon (singer)

text: In September 2021, Sunghoon was announced as the new host for Korean television program Music Bank with Wonyoung of IVE. The pair, dubbed as "장꾸" (Jangkku), first appeared on air together on October 8, 2021.


title: Park Sung-hoon (singer)

text: On September 2, 2021, Belift revealed through Weverse that Sunghoon, along with fellow members Heeseung, Jay, Jake, and Jungwon tested positive for COVID-19. Sunghoon began showing symptoms on August 30. On September 12, 2021, Sunghoon announced through Weverse that he had been discharged from the treatment facility after being healed.


title: Park Sung-hoon (singer)

text: On February 2, 2022, Belift revealed through Weverse that Sunghoon underwent surgery on January 29 to alleviate his symptoms of rhinitis, which included discomfort while singing and in his daily life.


title: Reds (film)

text: Reds is a 1981 American epic historical drama film, co-written, produced, and directed by Warren Beatty, about the life and career of John Reed, the journalist and writer who chronicled the October Revolution in Russia in his 1919 book "Ten Days That Shook the World". Beatty stars in the lead role alongside Diane Keaton as Louise Bryant and Jack Nicholson as Eugene O'Neill.


title: Reds (film)

text: The supporting cast includes Edward Herrmann, Jerzy Kosiński, Paul Sorvino, Maureen Stapleton, Gene Hackman, Ramon Bieri, Nicolas Coster, and M. Emmet Walsh. The film also features, as "witnesses", interviews with the 98-year-old radical educator and peace activist Scott Nearing, author Dorothy Frooks, reporter and author George Seldes, civil liberties advocate Roger Baldwin, and the American writer Henry Miller, among others.


title: Reds (film)

text: Beatty was awarded the Academy Award for Best Director and the film was nominated for Best Picture, but lost to "Chariots of Fire". Beatty, Keaton, Nicholson, and Stapleton were nominated for Best Actor, Best Actress, Best Supporting Actor and Best Supporting Actress, respectively. Stapleton was the only one of the four to win. Beatty became the third person to be nominated for Academy Awards in the categories Best Actor, Director, and, with co-writer Trevor Griffiths, Original Screenplay—losing again to "Chariots of Fire"—for a film nominated for Best Picture.


title: Reds (film)

text: In June 2008, the American Film Institute revealed "AFI's 10 Top 10"—the best ten films in ten "classic" American film genres—after polling over 1,500 people from the film community. "Reds" came in ninth in the epic genre.


title: Reds (film)

text: In 1915, married journalist and suffragist Louise Bryant encounters the radical journalist John Reed for the first time at a lecture in Portland, Oregon, and is intrigued with his idealism. After meeting him for an interview on international politics that lasts an entire night, she realizes that writing has been her only escape from her frustrated existence. Inspired to leave her husband, Bryant joins Reed in Greenwich Village, New York City, and becomes acquainted with the local community of activists and artists, including anarchist and author Emma Goldman and the playwright Eugene O'Neill.


title: Reds (film)

text: Later, they move to Provincetown, Massachusetts, to concentrate on their writing, becoming involved in the local theater scene. Through her writing, Bryant becomes a feminist and radical in her own right. Reed becomes involved in labor strikes with the "Reds" of the Industrial Workers of the World. Obsessed with changing the world, he grows restless and heads for St. Louis to cover the 1916 Democratic National Convention.


title: Reds (film)

text: During Reed's absence, Bryant falls into a complicated affair with O'Neill. Upon his return, Reed discovers the affair and realizes he still loves Bryant. The two marry secretly and make a home together in Croton-on-Hudson, New York, but still have conflicting desires. When Reed admits his own infidelities, Bryant takes a ship to Europe to work as a war correspondent. After a flare-up of a kidney disorder results in him having one of them removed, Reed is warned to avoid excessive travel or stress, but he decides to take the same path as Louise and goes to Europe. Reunited as professionals, the two find their passion rekindled as they travel to Russia and are swept up in the fall of the Czarist regime and the events of the 1917 Revolution.


title: Reds (film)

text: After returning to the United States, Reed writes "Ten Days that Shook the World", while Louise is called to testify in front of the Overman Committee. In order to implement the Communist ideals he saw in Russia, Reed becomes active in the Socialist Party of America's new Left Wing Section. The Socialist Party soon undergoes a major political shift, with Reed and the Left Wing elected to 12 of its National Executive Committee's 15 seats, but the sitting members of the Committee prevent a takeover of the party by invalidating the election and expelling the entire Left Wing. Differing ideology among the expelled members causes them to splinter into two rival organizations, with Reed forming the Communist Labor Party of America. Anxious to establish his group as the United States' true Communist Party, Reed plans to return to Russia to secure official recognition from the Soviet Comintern. Having grown tired of the political infighting, Bryant threatens to end their relationship if he goes, but he does so anyway, promising to be home by Christmas.


title: Reds (film)

text: As it was now illegal to travel to Russia, Reed enters the country by traveling to Finland and sneaking across the border. Once there, though, he grows disillusioned with the authoritarian policies the Bolsheviks have imposed upon Communist Russia. Reed attempts to leave and return to Bryant, but is imprisoned in Finland after being caught trying to cross the border. After learning of his arrest, Louise seeks the U.S. government's help in securing his release, but it refuses, as in his absence he has been indicted on charges of sedition. With no other recourse, Louise illegally travels to Finland herself, but by the time she arrives Reed has been returned to Russia as part of a prisoner exchange between the two countries.


title: Reds (film)

text: Now living in Petrograd, Reed is employed as a propagandist with the Comintern, and shares an apartment with Emma Goldman, who had been deported from the U.S. Unaware that Louise has traveled to Finland, he repeatedly tries to make contact with her by sending telegrams to New York and becomes increasingly frustrated by the lack of response. Louise makes her way to Petrograd, where she is found by Emma, who tells her Reed was sent to deliver a speech in Baku. On his return to Petrograd, the Czarist White Army attacks Reed's train. Reed manages to survive the attack and is reunited with Louise at the train station. Soon thereafter, he is admitted to the hospital, where he dies of typhus, with Louise at his side.


title: Reds (film)

text: Beatty came across the story of John Reed in the mid-1960s. Executive producer and film editor Dede Allen remembers Beatty's mentioning making a film about Reed's life as early as 1966. Originally titled "Comrades", the first script was written by Beatty in 1969, but the process stalled. In 1973, Beatty was offered the role of Reed in Sergei Bondarchuk's Soviet film production "Red Bells", but declined, and felt further driven to make his own biopic about Reed to compete with the Soviet version.


title: Reds (film)

text: In 1976, Beatty found a suitable collaborator in Trevor Griffiths, who began work but was delayed by his wife's death in a plane crash. The preliminary draft of the script was finished in 1978. Beatty still had problems with it and he and Griffiths spent four and a half months fixing it. Beatty also collaborated with his friends Robert Towne, Peter Feibleman and Elaine May to continue polishing the script after shooting had begun.


title: Reds (film)

text: Beatty achieved tremendous success with 1978's "Heaven Can Wait", which he produced, starred in, co-wrote and co-directed for Paramount Pictures. The success gave Beatty the clout to seek funding for his long nurtured "Reds" project, which was difficult to secure because of the controversial Communist subject matter and high price tag. Beatty succeeded in interesting both Warner Bros. and Paramount, before the head of Gulf+Western (Paramount's parent company), Charles Bluhdorn, agreed to finance the project. Bluhdorn soon had second thoughts, and attempted to dissuade Beatty with the promise of underwriting a $25 million alternative to "Reds" of Beatty's choice, but Beatty remained committed.


title: Reds (film)

text: Beatty originally had no intention of acting in the film or even directing it because he had learned on projects such as "Bonnie and Clyde" and "Heaven Can Wait" that producing a film alone is a difficult task. He briefly considered John Lithgow for the part of John Reed because the two were similar in appearance, but eventually Beatty decided to act in the film and direct it himself. Nicholson was cast as Eugene O'Neill over James Taylor and Sam Shepard. Nicholson was older than the young O'Neill he was playing, and having just completed work on Kubrick's "The Shining", was in a "most shambolic" and "grotesque" physical state, according to producer Simon Relph. But Nicholson was committed to the role and appeared at the start of filming four months later having lost the weight he had gained and looking much younger.


title: Reds (film)

text: Beatty also chose to cast non-actors in supporting roles, including George Plimpton, the editor of "The Paris Review", who played the character of Horace Whigham. Jerzy Kosiński, a Polish-American novelist, was asked to play the role of Grigory Zinoviev, but he initially refused because he was a fierce anti-Communist and feared that he might be abducted by the KGB if he went to Finland to film.


title: Reds (film)

text: To gain perspective on the lives of Reed and Bryant, Beatty filmed interviews with a group of men and women, referred to only as "The Witnesses", as early as 1971. "American Film" identified the witnesses in its March 1982 issue.


title: Reds (film)

text: In a capsule review for "The New York Times", film critic Vincent Canby refers to them as "more than two dozen very, very old people, billed only as The Witnesses, whom Mr. Beatty interviewed about the Reeds and their long-gone times." He went on to say, "More than anything else in "Reds," these interviews give the film its poignant point of view and separate it from all other romantic adventure films ever made." "The most evocative aspect of the presentation is a documentary enhancement – interviews with a number of venerable 'witnesses,' whose recollections of the period help to set the scene, bridge transitions and preserve a touching human perspective", wrote Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post".


title: Reds (film)

text: When principal photography began in August 1979 the original intention was for a 15- to 16-week shoot, but it ultimately took one year. Filming took place in five different countries and at various points the crew had to wait for snow to fall in Helsinki (and other parts of Finland), which stood in for the Soviet Union, and for rain to stop in Spain. Beatty asked the Soviet government for a permit to film in Moscow but was denied. A cottage in Kent was used to depict exteriors of the Reeds' home in Croton-on-Hudson, which in reality was a small early American saltbox house. The interior sets built at Twickenham Studios and EMI-Elstree Studios were also enlarged to evoke the "flavor" of the real home without reproducing it exactly.


title: Reds (film)

text: Other English locations included Frensham Ponds in Surrey, which stood in for Provincetown, the Smeaton Room of the Institution of Civil Engineers at One Great George Street for the Liberal Club meeting room in Portland, and the interior of Lancaster House for that of the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg. Another round of filming began in 1980 in New York City, Washington D.C., and Los Angeles, including Paramount Studios.


title: Reds (film)

text: The Italian cinematographer Vittorio Storaro was banned from shooting the scenes shot in the U.S. after he was unable to gain an H-1B visa and because local trade unions blocked him from doing work on the film. The film encountered similar problems with trade unions in the United Kingdom, and had to hire a separate British crew and pay British actors enrolled in Equity at Screen Actors Guild-rate salaries in order to allow American actors to film scenes in the U.K. These trade disputes caused the film to run heavily over budget, but the studio ultimately recouped its costs after financing the film with a low-interest loan from Barclays Bank as part of a tax-shelter plan.


title: Reds (film)

text: Actress Maureen Stapleton was due to begin shooting her scenes in London in November 1979, but she refused to take a plane because of a fear of flying. Because it was the wrong season for ocean liner travel, the production had to arrange for Stapleton to travel on a tramp steamer, which broke down in the North Atlantic and had to be towed to Amsterdam. This caused another unwelcome delay. Beatty would also not stop the camera between takes, letting it roll continuously, and insisted on a large number of takes. Paul Sorvino said he did as many as 70 takes for one scene; Stapleton had to do 80 takes of one scene, which caused her to say to Beatty, "Are you out of your fucking mind?"


title: Reds (film)

text: Beatty and Keaton's romantic relationship also began to deteriorate during filming. Peter Biskind wrote about the making of "Reds", "Beatty's relationship with Keaton barely survived the shoot. It is always a dicey proposition when an actress works with a star or director—both, in this case—with whom she has an offscreen relationship. Keaton appeared in more scenes than any other actor save Beatty, and many of them were difficult ones, where she had to assay a wide range of feelings, from romantic passion to anger, and deliver several lengthy, complex, emotional speeches." George Plimpton once observed, "Diane almost got broken. I thought [Beatty] was trying to break her into what Louise Bryant had been like with John Reed." Executive producer Simon Relph adds, "It must have been a strain on their relationship because he was completely obsessive, relentless."


title: Reds (film)

text: The editing process began in early 1980, with as many as 65 people working on editing down and going over approximately 2.5 million feet of film. Post-production ended in November 1981, more than two years after the start of filming. Paramount stated that the final cost of the film was $32 million, which would be the rough equivalent of around $80 million in 2007.


title: Reds (film)

text: The film introduced the song "Goodbye for Now", written by Stephen Sondheim, recorded by Jean-Pierre Rampal and Claude Bolling. The song was later recorded by Barbra Streisand for "The Movie Album" (2003).


title: Reds (film)

text: Released on December 4, 1981, "Reds" opened to critical acclaim. Despite its political subject matter and limited promotion by Beatty, the film became the 13th-highest-grossing picture of 1981, grossing $40 million in U.S. box office revenues, a figure that does not include the film's foreign box office revenues or its substantial subsequent earnings in home video, worldwide broadcast and cable television, and subscription television and streaming services. Beatty later remarked that the film "made a little money" in box office returns. During the film's second and third weekends, there were concerns that it would become a massive flop like "Heaven's Gate", but it performed more strongly over the next month. The film was screened at the White House for President Ronald Reagan.


title: Reds (film)

text: John Simon of the "National Review" wrote, "Never exactly boring, sometimes entertaining, "Reds" is frequently irritating and finally disappointing". "Commentary" published a largely negative review by Richard Grenier, who, among other things, saw the film as deliberately obscuring the protagonists' Communist politics and as exaggerating Bryant's talent and accomplishments. Conversely, in a retrospective article for "Jacobin", Jim Poe called "Reds" "one of the greatest and most faithful depictions of revolutionary politics", praising its "light touch and brisk storytelling" for an epic, as well as its cinematography, shifts in mood and performances, in particular those of Keaton and Beatty.


title: Reds (film)

text: "Reds" holds an 89% "Fresh" rating on the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes based on 47 reviews, with an average rating of 7.90/10. The site's consensus reads, "Brawny in both intellect and scope, "Reds" is an intimate epic that captures the tumult of revolutionary change and the passion of those navigating through it." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 76 out of 100 based on 15 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: ZX Spectrum

text: The ZX Spectrum () is an 8-bit home computer that was developed by Sinclair Research. It was released in the United Kingdom on 23 April 1982, and became Britain's best-selling microcomputer.


title: ZX Spectrum

text: Referred to during development as the "ZX81 Colour" and "ZX82", it was launched as the "ZX Spectrum" to highlight the machine's colour display, which differed from the black and white display of its predecessor, the ZX81. The Spectrum was released as six different models, ranging from the entry level with 16 KB RAM released in 1982 to the ZX Spectrum +3 with 128 KB RAM and built in floppy disk drive in 1987; altogether they sold over 5 million units worldwide (not counting unofficial clones).


title: ZX Spectrum

text: The Spectrum was among the first home computers in the United Kingdom aimed at a mainstream audience, and it thus had similar significance to the Commodore 64 in the US and the Thomson MO5 in France. The introduction of the ZX Spectrum led to a boom in companies producing software and hardware for the machine, the effects of which are still seen. Some credit it as the machine which launched the British information technology industry. Licensing deals and clones followed, earning Clive Sinclair a knighthood for services to British industry.


title: ZX Spectrum

text: The Commodore 64, Dragon 32, Oric-1, Oric Atmos, BBC Micro and later the Amstrad CPC range were rivals to the Spectrum in the UK market during the early 1980s. The machine was officially discontinued in 1992.


title: ZX Spectrum

text: The Spectrum is based on a Zilog Z80, a CPU running at 3.5 MHz (or NEC D780C-1 clone). The original model has 16 KB (16×1024 bytes) of ROM and either 16 KB or 48 KB of RAM. Hardware design was by Richard Altwasser of Sinclair Research, and the outward appearance was designed by Sinclair's industrial designer Rick Dickinson.


title: ZX Spectrum

text: Video output is through an RF modulator and was designed for use with contemporary television sets, for a simple colour graphic display. Text can be displayed using 32 columns × 24 rows of characters from the ZX Spectrum character set or from a set provided within an application, from a palette of 15 shades: seven colours at two levels of brightness each, plus black. The image resolution is 256×192 with the same colour limitations. To conserve memory, colour is stored separate from the pixel bitmap in a low resolution, 32×24 grid overlay, corresponding to the character cells. In practice, this means that all pixels of an 8x8 character block share one foreground colour and one background colour. Altwasser received a patent for this design.


title: ZX Spectrum

text: An "attribute" consists of a foreground and a background colour, a brightness level (normal or bright) and a flashing "flag" which, when set, causes the two colours to swap at regular intervals. This scheme leads to what was dubbed "colour clash" or "attribute clash", where a desired colour of a specific pixel could not necessarily be selected. This became a distinctive feature of the Spectrum, meaning programs, particularly games, had to be designed around this limitation. Other machines available around the same time, for example the Amstrad CPC or the Commodore 64, did not suffer from this limitation. The Commodore 64 used colour attributes in a similar way, but a special multicolour mode and hardware sprites were used to avoid attribute clash.


title: ZX Spectrum

text: Sound output is through a beeper on the machine itself, capable of producing one channel with 10 octaves. Software was later available that could play two channel sound. The machine includes an expansion bus edge connector and 3.5 mm audio in/out ports for the connection of a cassette recorder for loading and saving programs and data. The "ear" port has a higher output than the "mic" and is recommended for headphones, with "mic" for attaching to other audio devices as line in.


title: ZX Spectrum

text: The machine's Sinclair BASIC interpreter is stored in ROM (along with fundamental system-routines) and was written by Steve Vickers on contract from Nine Tiles Ltd. The Spectrum's chiclet keyboard (on top of a membrane, similar to calculator keys) is marked with BASIC keywords. For example, pressing "G" when in programming mode would insert the BASIC command codice_1.


title: ZX Spectrum

text: The BASIC interpreter was developed from that used on the ZX81 and a ZX81 BASIC program can be typed into a Spectrum largely unmodified, but Spectrum BASIC included many extra features making it easier to use. The ZX Spectrum character set was expanded from that of the ZX81, which did not feature lower-case letters. Spectrum BASIC included extra keywords for the more advanced display and sound, and supported multi-statement lines. The cassette interface was much more advanced, saving and loading around five times faster than the ZX81 (1500 bits per second compared to 307), and unlike the ZX81, the Spectrum could maintain the TV display during tape storage and retrieval operations. As well as being able to save programs, the Spectrum could save the contents of arrays, the contents of the screen memory, and the contents of any defined range of memory addresses.