title: NMDA receptor

text: The NMDA receptor is a non-specific cation channel that can allow the passage of Ca and Na into the cell and K out of the cell. The excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) produced by activation of an NMDA receptor increases the concentration of Ca in the cell. The Ca can in turn function as a second messenger in various signaling pathways. However, the NMDA receptor cation channel is blocked by Mg at resting membrane potential. Magnesium unblock is not instantaneous, to unblock all available channels, the postsynaptic cell must be depolarized for a sufficiently long period of time (in the scale of milliseconds).


title: NMDA receptor

text: Therefore, the NMDA receptor functions as a "molecular coincidence detector". Its ion channel opens only when the following two conditions are met: glutamate is bound to the receptor, and the postsynaptic cell is depolarized (which removes the Mg blocking the channel). This property of the NMDA receptor explains many aspects of long-term potentiation (LTP) and synaptic plasticity.


title: NMDA receptor

text: In a resting-membrane potential, the NMDA receptor pore is opened allowing for an influx of external magnesium ions binding to prevent further ion permeation. External magnesium ions are in a millimolar range while intracellular magnesium ions are at a micromolar range to result in negative membrane potential. NMDA receptors are modulated by a number of endogenous and exogenous compounds and play a key role in a wide range of physiological (e.g., memory) and pathological processes (e.g., excitotoxicity). Magnesium works to potentiate NMDA-induced responses at positive membrane potentials while blocking the NMDA channel. The use of calcium, potassium, and sodium are used to modulate the activity of NMDARs passing through the NMDA membrane. Changes in H+ concentration can partially inhibit the activity of NMDA receptors in different physiological conditions.


title: NMDA receptor

text: NMDAR antagonists like ketamine, esketamine, tiletamine, phencyclidine, nitrous oxide, and xenon are used as general anesthetics. These and similar drugs like dextromethorphan and methoxetamine also produce dissociative, hallucinogenic, and euphoriant effects and are used as recreational drugs.


title: NMDA receptor

text: NMDAR-targeted compounds, including ketamine, esketamine (JNJ-54135419), rapastinel (GLYX-13), apimostinel (NRX-1074), zelquistinel (AGN-241751), 4-chlorokynurenine (AV-101), and rislenemdaz (CERC-301, MK-0657), are under development for the treatment of mood disorders, including major depressive disorder and treatment-resistant depression. In addition, ketamine is already employed for this purpose as an off-label therapy in some clinics.


title: NMDA receptor

text: Research suggests that tianeptine produces antidepressant effects through indirect alteration and inhibition of glutamate receptor activity and release of , in turn affecting neural plasticity. Tianeptine also acts on the NMDA and AMPA receptors. In animal models, tianeptine inhibits the pathological stress-induced changes in glutamatergic neurotransmission in the amygdala and hippocampus.


title: NMDA receptor

text: Memantine, a low-trapping NMDAR antagonist, is approved in the United States and Europe for the treatment of moderate-to-severe Alzheimer's disease, and has now received a limited recommendation by the UK's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence for patients who fail other treatment options.


title: NMDA receptor

text: Cochlear NMDARs are the target of intense research to find pharmacological solutions to treat tinnitus. NMDARs are associated with a rare autoimmune disease, anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis (also known as NMDAR encephalitis), that usually occurs due to cross-reactivity of antibodies produced by the immune system against ectopic brain tissues, such as those found in teratoma. These are known as anti-glutamate receptor antibodies.


title: NMDA receptor

text: Compared to dopaminergic stimulants like methamphetamine, the NMDAR antagonist phencyclidine can produce a wider range of symptoms that resemble schizophrenia in healthy volunteers, in what has led to the glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia. Experiments in which rodents are treated with NMDA receptor antagonist are today the most common model when it comes to testing of novel schizophrenia therapies or exploring the exact mechanism of drugs already approved for treatment of schizophrenia.


title: NMDA receptor

text: NMDAR antagonists, for instance eliprodil, gavestinel, licostinel, and selfotel have been extensively investigated for the treatment of excitotoxicity-mediated neurotoxicity in situations like ischemic stroke and traumatic brain injury, but were unsuccessful in clinical trials used in small doses to avoid sedation, but NMDAR antagonists can block Spreading Depolarizations in animals and in patients with brain injury. This use have not been tested in clinical trials yet.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: Upendra Rao (known mononymously as Upendra; born 18 September 1968) is an Indian actor, filmmaker, producer, screenwriter and politician who works primarily in Kannada cinema. Upendra has also worked in Telugu films .


title: Upendra (actor)

text: He started his film career as a writer and an assistant director with actor and film director Kashinath. His first directorial venture was "Tharle Nan Maga" (1992). In the mid-1990s, Upendra directed "Om", followed by "A", in which he debuted as an actor. His next film "Upendra" starred Raveena Tandon, a Bollywood actress. After a decade of acting in Kannada and several Telugu films, he returned to directing with Kannada film "Super", which was well-received critically and commercially.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: Upendra is known for his work in films such as "A" (1998), "Upendra" (1999), "Preethse" (2000), "Super Star" (2002), "Kutumba" (2002), "Gokarna" (2002), "Hollywood" (2002), "Raktha Kanneeru" (2003), "Gowramma" (2005), "Aishwarya" (2006), "Anatharu" (2007), "Budhivanta" (2008), "Super" (2010), "Kalpana" (2012), "Godfather" (2012), "S/O Satyamurthy" (2015), "Uppi 2" (2015), "I Love You" (2019).


title: Upendra (actor)

text: Upendra is known for his thematic representation of Indian politics and society in his films. In October 2017, He joined the political party Karnataka Pragnyavanta Janata Paksha, before quitting the party in March 2018 due to internal differences and formed another party named Uttama Prajakeeya Party (UPP), which is based on the principles of "Prajakiya" (citizen-centric administration).


title: Upendra (actor)

text: Upendra was born to Manjunath Rao and Anusuya in Bangalore. His father was from Thekkatte, Koteshwara, Kundapur Taluk, Udupi district in Karnataka (formerly Mysore State) Kannada family. He is the second son; his older brother is Sudheendra Rao. Rao's family was poor. As a baby, he had an eye problem, the result of which can be seen when he rolls his eyeballs in many film sequences. He obtained his Bachelor of Commerce degree from APS College of Commerce, Bangalore. During his time at the college, he participated in plays and often formed troupes with his friends. His association with actor and director Kashinath, a distant relative of his, began during his final year in college.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: He assisted director Kashinath in various departments apart from assisting in writing songs, dialogues, and screenplay for his movies. He co-directed a film with Kashinath. He started as a director with a typical Kashinath style comedy called "Tharle Nan Maga" in 1992. The film introduced famed comedian Jaggesh. The movie went on to be a success and has since achieved a cult following.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: Upendra directed a horror suspense thriller next called "Shhh!" in 1993. The film featured Kashinath and a young producer and actor named Kumar Govind. The film was a major box office success, and Upendra came out as an independent director.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: His next film was a gangster film called "Om," which was released in 1995. The film starred Shivrajkumar and cast real gangsters in its cast. "Om" became a blockbuster and went on to be one of the highest-grossing Kannada films of its time and made news at a national level. Upendra became an overnight star director. With "Om", Upendra again reunited actress Prema with Shivanna earlier they had acted in a film called Savyasachi. "Om" was also remade into several languages – the Hindi version was called Arjun Pandit and had Sunny Deol playing Shivrajkumar's role.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: Upendra turned towards a project to direct an extended version of the 1981 film "Antha" and called it "Operation Antha". The film had Ambareesh reprise his role from "Antha" as Kanwar Lal. The film was not very successful; it was also controversial for its taunts on some real-life political figures.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: In 1998, Upendra directed "A", through which he made a successful transition to acting. There were rumors that it was Upendra's own story, and the actress in the film portrayed his protege Prema. This added to the film's popularity and it broke many box office records upon release and went on to become one of the highest grossing Kannada films of its time. The film had a 175-day run in Karnataka was also dubbed to Telugu, and repeated its success in Andhra Pradesh too, where it had a 100-day run. The film won accolades from Bollywood personalities like Amitabh Bachchan and Anil Kapoor. Upendra was now a big name in Kannada cinema and was also popular in Andhra Pradesh.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: Upendra's next movie was "Swasthik" with lead Raghavendra Rajkumar, which was released in 1998. The film performed averagely at the box office but critically well received.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: In 1999, Upendra made a self-titled film, "Upendra". Upendra acted in this film as the unnamed protagonist (or antagonist) "Naanu" (I or Myself). The film starred three heroines: Damini, Prema, and Bollywood actress Raveena Tandon. "Naanu" was an arrogant character and was very demeaning towards women, bordering on misogyny; which led to a lot of criticism on the film. However, the film broke many box office records and went on to be a much bigger hit than "A" in both Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The film had a 200-day run in Karnataka, and its Telugu version had a 100-day run in Andhra Pradesh. Upendra was now not only a remarkably successful director, but also a big star with a large fan base in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Since then, Upendra gave up directing and concentrated more on his acting career.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: Upendra came back as a director after 10 years in 2010 with the movie "Super". The movie was released in a record number of theatres all over Karnataka, was dubbed in Telugu, and released in Andhra Pradesh. "Super" was a blockbuster, breaking many box office records upon release and had a 175-day theatrical run, becoming one of the highest-grossing and critically acclaimed Kannada films of 2010.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: In 2011, Tamil actor Rajinikanth attended a private screening of "Super" in Bangalore. Rajinikanth watched the film along with Upendra and a couple of friends. "Upendra is a great actor and director. There is hardly anyone in Indian Cinema, who would think like him. Only he can think like that. I like watching Upendra's films, and this was no exception. If I get an opportunity and an impressive script, I'd like to act in a Upendra film in the future," said Rajini.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: In 2015, Upendra directed and starred in a sequel to his 1999 film "Upendra", titled "Uppi 2". As it was a sequel to "Upendra" and his comeback as a director after 5 years, expectations and the resulting hype was high before it released. The film was simultaneously released in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and the US in over 600 theaters. Upon release, the film set records for the highest grossing opening day for a Kannada movie. Although the film got mixed responses because of its confusing storyline and screenplay, it was commercially successful and profitable with a 50-day theatrical run. It sold the second-highest number of tickets in online ticket sales on Bookmyshow among Kannada movies in 2015. It was also successful outside of India and became the second-highest-grossing Kannada film of all time in US.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: Upendra first appeared on screen making an appearance in Kashinath's 1989 comedy film, "Anantana Avantara". He appeared as Lord Kamadeva in the song "Come On Come On Kaamanna". In "Ajagajantara", also directed by Kashinath, he made a cameo appearance. In his directorial debut, "Shhh!" (1993), Upendra made another cameo appearance, like a mad man in the attire of a police officer barging into a film set. In his 1995 directorial "Operation Antha", he appears as a man urinating on a roadside wall and explains of India's ways to a complaining Mandakini (played by Sangeetha).


title: Upendra (actor)

text: From 1998 to 2005, Upendra starred in eight 100 days hits in eight years, such as "A", "Upendra", "Preethse", "Kutumba", "Raktha Kanneeru", "Gokarna", "Gowramma" and "Auto Shankar".


title: Upendra (actor)

text: In 1998, Upendra directed and starred in "A", which was his fifth film as a director but his first lead role as a hero. The film had a 175-day run and became a trend-setting blockbuster in Karnataka, with its Telugu dubbed version running for 100 days in Andhra Pradesh. Around this time, he received an offer from Amitabh Bachchan Corporation to make a film for them, which did not materialize. Due to Upendra's newly found popularity in Telugu, Telugu director E. V. V. Satyanarayana cast him in the 1998 Telugu film "Kanyadanam" alongside Srikanth and Rachana, which also became a commercial success. In 1999 Upendra again directed and starred in his self-titled film "Upendra" which starred Bollywood actress Raveena Tandon. The film went on to become a bigger hit than "A", both in Karnataka as well as in Andhra Pradesh. The film had a 200 days run in Karnataka and 100 days run in Andhra Pradesh. In 2000, Upendra starred opposite Bollywood actress Sonali Bendre in the psychological thriller "Preethse" which was a remake of Bollywood film "Darr". "Preethse" became Upendra's third consecutive blockbuster that ran for 175 days. With three back-to-back highly received films, Upendra became well known in the Kannada and Telugu film industries. In 2001 Upendra wrote and starred in a Telugu film titled "Raa," which became a box office hit in Andhra Pradesh. "Raa" was a typical Upendra style film in which he plays a womanizing playboy. Upendra starred opposite his future wife Priyanka Trivedi for the first time in this film.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: In 2002, Upendra acted in less-received films such as "H2O", "Super Star", "Hollywood", "Nagarahavu" and "Naanu Naane" for not meeting expectations and having average run at the box office.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: From 2003 to 2005 he starred in 5 back-to-back films that each ran for 100 days such as "Kutumba", "Raktha Kanneeru", "Gokarna", "Gowramma", and "Auto Shankar"; all of which were well received at the box office. Only two films of Upendra in this time were received poorly: "Omkara" and "News".


title: Upendra (actor)

text: Upendra had a less successful phase from 2006 to 2009, as most of his films during this period went unnoticed at the box office such as "Uppi Dada M.B.B.S.", "Tandege Takka Maga", "Parodi", "Masti", "Toss" (Telugu), "Lava Kusha", "Sathyam" (Tamil), "Dubai Babu" and "Rajini".


title: Upendra (actor)

text: The only commercial well-received films he acted in during this period were the candy floss romantic comedy "Aishwarya", which ran for 75 days, and the moderately successful "Anatharu" which ran for 70 days. Upendra received praise and critical acclaim for his performance in "Anatharu".


title: Upendra (actor)

text: "Budhivanta," which was Upendra's only release in 2008, was considered as his big comeback. The film was declared a blockbuster and ran for 100 days; it became the top box office grosser of the year. "Budhivanta"s Telugu dub was also well-received and ran for 50 days in Andhra Pradesh.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: 2010 marked Upendra's comeback to directing after 10 years. After several ups and downs in his acting career, Upendra came back to direct and act in the 2010 film "Super" in which he starred alongside Tamil actress Nayantara and Tulip Joshi. The movie was released in a record number of theatres all over Karnataka and was also dubbed into Telugu and released in Andhra Pradesh. "Super" broke many box office records upon release and completing 175 days of the run, becoming one of the highest-grossing critically acclaimed Kannada films of 2010.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: Upendra then starred in films like "Shrimathi" (2011) opposite his wife Priyanka Trivedi and Bollywood actress Celina Jaitly, and "Aarakshaka" (2012). In 2012, Upendra starred in several commercially successful films such as 3D fantasy film "Katari Veera Surasundarangi" which was well-received and became the second-highest-grossing film of the year, followed by "Godfather" which performed above average, and the horror-comedy film "Kalpana" which performed average at the box office.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: Upendra's films from 2013 to 2015 such as "Topiwala" (2013), "Brahma" (2014), "Super Ranga" (2014) and "Shivam" (2015) performed poorly in theatres.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: In 2015, Upendra starred alongside Allu Arjun in the Telugu film "S/O Satyamurthy" that was directed by Trivikram Srinivas. The film was declared a hit, grossing 92 crores and netting over 60 crores at the global box office, becoming the seventh-highest-grossing Telugu film of all time worldwide.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: In 2016, Upendra starred in a sequel to his earlier hit horror film "Kalpana" titled as "Kalpana 2" which became an average grosser at the box office. He also starred along with Sudeep in the remake of Bollywood film "OMG" titled as "Mukunda Murari," which became a box office success and had a 50-day run.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: Upendra's upcoming films include a "Soggade Chinni Nayana" remake titled "Upendra Matte Baa, Inti Ninna Prema", "Kanneshwara", "Uppi Rupee", his 50th film directed by "Masterpiece" director Manju Mandavya, a film directed and produced by Shashank, and "Dr. Modi" directed by Uday Prakash. In May 2019 he finished principal photography for "Buddhivantha-2".


title: Upendra (actor)

text: Upendra's upcoming movie 'Ghani', directed by Kiran Korrapati. The movie also stars Varun Tej, Saiee Manjrekar, Suniel Shetty, Jagapathi Babu and Naveen Chandra.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: He started the political party Uttama Prajakeeya Party in 2018, under the concept of "Prajakeeya"which represents the workers. Although he has strictly kept himself away from contesting in any elections, UPP had candidates across all the constituencies in Karnataka in the 2019 Lok Sabha Elections.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: Upendra's films have been praised and criticized for their unusual plotlines and screenplay. During a radio interview, Upendra expressed his disappointment at being labeled as a "different director" and explained that most of his directorial ventures deal with the things that he had undergone in his real life. He said, in regards to his non-linear narrative, that "when one wants to capture the upheavals in one's mind, it becomes a jumble. Our mind is like that, always confused."


title: Upendra (actor)

text: The subject of the films coupled with Uppi's novel approach made headlines for mixed reasons. Upendra added that in his self-titled film he explored human nature which "ended with “Aham Brahmaasmi", where I wanted to say rise above I."


title: Upendra (actor)

text: On 14 December 2003, Upendra married actress and former Miss Kolkata Priyanka Trivedi, who first starred opposite him in the Telugu movie "Raa" and then in "H2O". Upendra and his family now resides in Bangalore.


title: Upendra (actor)

text: Upendra has endorsed a number of brands. Upendra has been the brand ambassador of the United Breweries, Lunars Footwear, SK Super TMT, Royal Challengers Bangalore (replaced by Puneeth Rajkumar in IPL 3), Mavalli Tiffin Room (MTR), Bangalore Electricity Supply Company, Emani Navaratna Brand, Karnataka Milk Federation (Nandini), Udayavani News Daily.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: The Satsuma Rebellion, also known as the was a revolt of disaffected samurai against the new imperial government, nine years into the Meiji Era. Its name comes from the Satsuma Domain, which had been influential in the Restoration and became home to unemployed samurai after military reforms rendered their status obsolete. The rebellion lasted from January 29, 1877, until September of that year, when it was decisively crushed, and its leader, Saigō Takamori, was shot and mortally wounded.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: Saigō's rebellion was the last and most serious of a series of armed uprisings against the new government of the Empire of Japan, the predecessor state to modern Japan. The rebellion was very expensive for the government, which forced it to make numerous monetary reforms including leaving the gold standard. The conflict effectively ended the samurai class and ushered in modern warfare fought by conscript soldiers instead of military nobles.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: Although Satsuma had been one of the key players in the Meiji Restoration and the Boshin War, and although many men from Satsuma had risen to influential positions in the new Meiji government, there was growing dissatisfaction with the direction the country was taking. The modernization of the country meant the abolition of the privileged social status of the samurai class, and had undermined their financial position. The very rapid and massive changes to Japanese culture, language, dress and society appeared to many samurai to be a betrayal of the "jōi" ("expel the barbarian") portion of the "sonnō jōi" justification used to overthrow the former Tokugawa shogunate.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: Saigō Takamori, one of the senior Satsuma leaders in the Meiji government who had initially supported the reforms, was especially concerned about growing political corruption - popular prints depicted the rebel army with banners bearing the words . Saigō was a strong proponent of war with Korea in the "Seikanron" debate of 1873. At one point, he offered to visit Korea in person and to provoke a "casus belli" by behaving in such an insulting manner that the Koreans would be forced to kill him. Saigō expected both that a war would ultimately be successful for Japan and also that the initial stages of it would offer a means by which the samurai whose cause he championed could find meaningful and beneficial death. When the plan was rejected, Saigō resigned from all of his government positions in protest and returned to his hometown of Kagoshima, as did many other Satsuma ex-samurai in the military and police forces.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: To help support and employ these men, in 1874 Saigō established a private academy known as the Shi-gakkō in Kagoshima. Soon 132 branches were established all over the prefecture. The “training” provided was not purely academic: although the Chinese classics were taught, all students were required to take part in weapons training and instruction in tactics. Saigō also started an artillery school. The schools resembled paramilitary political organizations more than anything else, and they enjoyed the support of the governor of Satsuma, who appointed disaffected samurai to political offices, where they came to dominate the Kagoshima government. Support for Saigō was so strong that Satsuma had effectively seceded from the central government by the end of 1876.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: Word of Saigō's academies was greeted with considerable concern in Tokyo. The government had just dealt with several small but violent samurai revolts in Kyūshū, and they found the prospect of rebellion by the numerous and fierce Satsuma samurai, led by the famous and popular Saigō, an alarming one. In December 1876, the Meiji government sent a police officer named Nakahara Hisao and 57 other men to investigate reports of subversive activities and unrest. The men were captured, and under torture, confessed that they were spies who had been sent to assassinate Saigō. Although Nakahara later repudiated the confession, it was widely believed in Satsuma and was used as justification by the disaffected samurai that a rebellion was necessary in order to "protect Saigō". Fearing a rebellion, the Meiji government sent a warship to Kagoshima to remove the weapons stockpiled at the Kagoshima arsenal on January 30, 1877. This provoked open conflict, although with the elimination of samurai rice stipends in 1877, tensions were already extremely high. Outraged by the government's tactics, 50 students from Saigō's academy attacked the Somuta Arsenal and carried off weapons. Over the next three days, more than 1000 students staged raids on the naval yards and other arsenals.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: Presented with this sudden success, the greatly dismayed Saigō was reluctantly persuaded to come out of his semi-retirement to lead the rebellion against the central government.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: In February 1877, the Meiji government dispatched Hayashi Tomoyuki, an official with the Home Ministry with Admiral Kawamura Sumiyoshi in the warship "Takao" to ascertain the situation. Satsuma's governor, Oyama Tsunayoshi, explained that the uprising was in response to the government's assassination attempt on Saigō, and asked that Admiral Kawamura (Saigō's cousin) come ashore to help calm the situation. After Oyama departed, a flotilla of small ships filled with armed men attempted to board "Takao" by force, but were repelled. The following day, Hayashi declared to Oyama that he could not permit Kawamura to go ashore when the situation was so unsettled, and that the attack on "Takao" constituted an act of lèse-majesté.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: On his return to Kobe on February 12, Hayashi met with General Yamagata Aritomo and Itō Hirobumi, and it was decided that the Imperial Japanese Army would need to be sent to Kagoshima to prevent the revolt from spreading to other areas of the country sympathetic to Saigō. On the same day, Saigō met with his lieutenants Kirino Toshiaki and and announced his intention of marching to Tokyo to ask questions of the government. Rejecting large numbers of volunteers, he made no attempt to contact any of the other domains for support, and no troops were left at Kagoshima to secure his base against an attack. To aid in the air of legality, Saigō wore his army uniform. Marching north, his army was hampered by the deepest snowfall Satsuma had seen in more than 50 years, which, because of the similarity to the weather that had greeted those setting out to enact the Meiji Restoration nine years earlier, was interpreted by some as a sign of divine support.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: The Satsuma vanguard crossed into Kumamoto Prefecture on February 14. The Commandant of Kumamoto Castle Major General Tani Tateki had 3,800 soldiers and 600 policemen at his disposal. However, most of the garrison was from Kyūshū, while a significant number of officers were natives of Kagoshima; their loyalties were open to question. Rather than risk desertions or defections, Tani decided to stand on the defensive. On February 19, the first shots of the war were fired as the defenders of Kumamoto castle opened fire on Satsuma units attempting to force their way into the castle. Kumamoto castle, built in 1598, was among the strongest in Japan, but Saigō was confident that his forces would be more than a match for Tani's peasant conscripts, who were still demoralized by the recent Shinpūren rebellion.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: On February 22, the main Satsuma army arrived and attacked Kumamoto castle in a pincer movement. Fighting continued into the night. Imperial forces fell back, and Acting Major Nogi Maresuke of the Kokura Fourteenth Regiment lost the regimental colors in fierce fighting. However, despite their successes, the Satsuma army failed to take the castle, and began to realize that the conscript army was not as ineffective as first assumed. After two days of fruitless attack, the Satsuma forces dug into the rock-hard icy ground around the castle and tried to starve the garrison out in a siege. The situation was especially desperate for the defenders as their stores of food and ammunition had been depleted by a warehouse fire shortly before the rebellion began. During the siege, many Kumamoto ex-samurai flocked to Saigō's banner, swelling his forces to around 20,000 men. In the meantime, on March 9 Saigō, Kirino, and Shinohara were stripped of their court ranks and titles.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: On the night of April 8, a force from Kumamoto castle made a sortie, forcing open a gap in the Satsuma lines and enabling desperately needed supplies to reach the garrison. The main Imperial Army, under General Kuroda Kiyotaka with the assistance of General Yamakawa Hiroshi arrived in Kumamoto on April 12, putting the now heavily outnumbered Satsuma forces to flight.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: On March 4, Imperial Army General Yamagata ordered a frontal assault against Tabaruzaka, guarding the approaches to Kumamoto, which developed into an eight-day-long battle. Tabaruzaka was held by some 15,000 samurai from Satsuma, Kumamoto and Hitoyoshi against the Imperial Army's 9th Infantry Brigade (some 9,000 men).


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: At the height of the battle, Saigō wrote a private letter to Prince Arisugawa, restating his reasons for going to Tokyo. His letter indicated that he was not committed to rebellion and sought a peaceful settlement. The government, however, refused to negotiate.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: In order to cut Saigō off from his base, an imperial force with three warships, 500 policemen, and several companies of infantry landed in Kagoshima on March 8, seized arsenals, and took Satsuma's governor into custody.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: Yamagata also landed a detachment with two infantry brigades and 1,200 policemen behind the rebel lines, so as to fall on them from the rear from Yatsushiro Bay. Imperial forces landed with few losses, then pushed north seizing the city of Miyanohara on March 19. After receiving reinforcements, the imperial force, now totaling 4,000 men, attacked the rear elements of the Satsuma army and drove them back.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: Tabaruzaka was one of the most intense campaigns of the war. Imperial forces emerged victorious, but with heavy casualties on both sides. Each side had suffered more than 4,000 killed or wounded.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: After his failure to take Kumamoto, Saigō led his followers on a seven-day march to Hitoyoshi. Morale was extremely low, and lacking any strategy, the Satsuma forces dug in to wait for the next Imperial Army offensive. However, the Imperial Army was likewise depleted, and fighting was suspended for several weeks to permit reinforcement. When the offensive was resumed, Saigo retreated to Miyazaki, leaving behind numerous pockets of samurai in the hills to conduct guerilla attacks.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: On July 24, the Imperial Army forced Saigō out of Miyakonojō, followed by Nobeoka. Troops were landed at Ōita and Saiki north of Saigō's army, and Saigō was caught in a pincer attack. However, the Satsuma army was able to cut its way free from encirclement. By August 17, the Satsuma army had been reduced to 3000 combatants, and had lost most of its modern firearms and all of its artillery.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: The surviving rebels made a stand on the slopes of Mount Enodake, and were soon surrounded. Determined not to let the rebels escape again, Yamagata sent in a large force which outnumbered the Satsuma army 7:1. Most of Saigō's remaining forces either surrendered or committed "seppuku". However, Saigō burned his private papers and army uniform on August 19, and slipped away towards Kagoshima with his remaining able-bodied men. Despite Yamagata's efforts over the next several days, Saigō and his remaining 500 men reached Kagoshima on September 1 and seized Shiroyama, overlooking the city.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: Saigō and his remaining samurai were pushed back to Kagoshima where, in a final battle, the Battle of Shiroyama, Imperial Army troops under the command of General Yamagata Aritomo and marines under the command of Admiral Kawamura Sumiyoshi outnumbered Saigō 60-to-1. However, Yamagata was determined to leave nothing to chance. The imperial troops spent several days constructing an elaborate system of ditches, walls and obstacles to prevent another breakout. The five government warships in Kagoshima harbor added their firepower to Yamagata's artillery, and began to systematically reduce the rebel positions.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: After Saigō rejected a letter dated September 1 from Yamagata drafted by a young Suematsu Kenchō asking him to surrender, Yamagata ordered a full frontal assault on September 24, 1877. By 6 a.m., only 40 rebels were still alive. Saigō was severely wounded. Legend says that one of his followers, Beppu Shinsuke, acted as "kaishakunin" and aided Saigō in committing "seppuku" before he could be captured. However, other evidence contradicts this, stating that Saigō in fact died of the bullet wound and then had his head removed by Beppu in order to preserve his dignity.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: After Saigo's death, Beppu and the last of the "ex-samurai" drew their swords and plunged downhill toward the Imperial positions and to their deaths. With these deaths, the Satsuma rebellion came to an end.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: Financially, crushing the Satsuma Rebellion cost the government a total of (£8,400,000), forcing Japan off the gold standard and causing the government to print paper currency. Economic effects of the Satsuma Rebellion resulted in the passing of the Act of February 4, 1877, which reduced the land tax from 3% to 2.5%. The Rebellion reduced Japan's yearly expenditure from £13,700,000 to £10,250,000, and it raised Japan's national debt from £28,000,000 to £70,000,000. The costs of pacifying the former samurai led to the Meiji government becoming virtually bankrupt; the government was forced to sell off state-owned enterprises such as factories and mines to politically-connected merchants and former officials at low prices, leading to the instant formation of large industrial firms or zaibatsu. Meanwhile, the remnants of the militaristic faction that supported Saigo's invasion proposal evolved into Japanese right-wing groups such as the genyosha and kokuryūkai. These state-owned industries had been operating at a loss, and Finance Minister Matsukata Masayoshi decided to sell all of these to politically connected capitalists at a loss, except the railroad, telegraph and military industries. He also cancelled scholarships for Japanese students abroad and fired foreign experts.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: The rebellion also effectively ended the samurai class, as the new Imperial Japanese Army built on heimin conscripts had proven itself in battle. More critically, the defeat of the samurai displayed the power of modern artillery and rifles, against which a banzai charge had no appreciable effect. On 22 February 1889, Emperor Meiji pardoned Saigō posthumously. Statues in Ueno Park, Tokyo and near the ruins of Kagoshima Castle stand in his memory. Saigō Takamori was labelled as a tragic hero by the people, and his actions were considered an honorable example of bushido and Yamato-damashii.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: At the start of the Satsuma Rebellion, the Imperial Japanese Army (including the Imperial Guard) numbered approximately 34,000 men. The line infantry was divided into 14 regiments of three battalions each. Each battalion consisted of four companies. In peacetime, each company had approximately 160 privates and 32 officers and non-commissioned officers. During war a company's strength was to be increased to 240 privates. A battalion had 640 men in peacetime and theoretically 960 men in wartime. They were armed with breech-loading Snider rifles and could fire approximately six rounds per minute.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: There were two "regiments" of line cavalry and one "regiment" of imperial guard cavalry. Contemporary illustrations show the cavalry armed with lances.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: The Imperial Artillery consisted of 18 batteries divided into 9 battalions, with 120 men per battery during peacetime. During war, the mountain artillery had a nominal strength of 160 men per battery and field artillery had 130 men per battery. Artillery consisted of over 100 pieces, including 5.28 pound mountain guns, Krupp field guns of various calibers, and mortars.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: The Imperial Guard (mostly ex-samurai) was always maintained at wartime strength. The Guard infantry was divided into 2 regiments of 2 battalions each. A battalion was 672 men strong and was organized as per the line battalions. The cavalry regiment consisted of 150 men. The artillery battalion was divided into 2 batteries with 130 men per battery.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: Japan was divided into six military districts: Tokyo, Sendai, Nagoya, Osaka, Hiroshima and Kumamoto, with two or three regiments of infantry, plus artillery and other auxiliary troops, assigned to each district.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: In addition to the army, the central government also used marines and Tokyo policemen in its struggle against Satsuma. The police, in units ranging from 300 to 600 men, were mostly ex-samurai (ironically, many of whom were from Satsuma) and were armed only with wooden batons and swords (Japanese police did not carry firearms until the rice riots of 1918).


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: During the conflict, the government side expended on average 322,000 rounds of ammunition and 1,000 artillery shells per day.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: Modern weapons that were used by the Imperial Army include the Smith and Wesson Model 3, Colt 1851 Navy Revolver, Winchester Model 1873, Enfield Pattern 1853, Mauser Model 1871, as well as the Gatling and Armstrong guns.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: The Satsuma samurai were initially organized into six battalions of 2,000 men each. Each battalion was divided into ten companies of 200 men. On its march to Kumamoto castle, the army was divided into three divisions; a vanguard of 4,000 men, the main division of 4,000 men, and a rearguard of 2,000 men. In addition, there were 200 artillerymen and 1,200 laborers. In April 1877, Saigō reorganized the army into nine infantry units of 350 to 800 men each.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: The samurai were armed with traditional weapons including katanas, naginata and yari polearms, yumi bows, and Sengoku era gunpowder weapons such as tanegashima, bajō-zutsu, and wooden cannons.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: Modern weapons were also used such as the Smith & Wesson Model No. 2 Army, Colt M1861 Navy, and the Russian Model 1857 Six Line muzzleloading rifles that could fire approximately one round per minute. Their artillery consisted of 28 5-pounders, two 16-pounders, and 30 mortars.


title: Satsuma Rebellion

text: In English, the most common name for the war is the "Satsuma Rebellion". Mark Ravina, the author of "The Last Samurai: The Life and Battles of Saigo Takamori", argued that "Satsuma Rebellion" is not the best name for the war because the English name does not well represent the war and its Japanese name. Ravina said that the war's scope was much farther than Satsuma, and he characterizes the event as being closer to a civil war than a rebellion. Ravina prefers the English name "War of the Southwest."


title: Jacobean era

text: The Jacobean era was the period in English and Scottish history that coincides with the reign of James VI of Scotland who also inherited the crown of England in 1603 as James I. The Jacobean era succeeds the Elizabethan era and precedes the Caroline era. The term "Jacobean" is often used for the distinctive styles of Jacobean architecture, visual arts, decorative arts, and literature which characterized that period.


title: Jacobean era

text: The practical if not formal unification of England and Scotland under one ruler was an important shift of order for both nations, and would shape their existence to the present day. Another development of crucial significance was the foundation of the first British colonies on the North American continent, at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, in Newfoundland in 1610, and at Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts in 1620, which laid the foundation for future British settlement and the eventual formation of both Canada and the United States of America. In 1609 the Parliament of Scotland began the Plantation of Ulster.


title: Jacobean era

text: A notable event of James' reign occurred on 5 November 1605. On that date, a group of English Catholics (including Guy Fawkes) attempted to assassinate the King and destroy Parliament in the Palace of Westminster. However, the Gunpowder Plot was exposed and prevented, and the convicted plotters were hanged, drawn, and quartered.


title: Jacobean era

text: Political events and developments of the Jacobean era cannot be understood separately from the economic and financial situation. James was deeply in debt in Scotland, and after 1603 he inherited an English debt of £350,000 from Elizabeth. By 1608 the English debt had risen to £1,400,000 and was increasing by £140,000 annually. Through a crash program of selling off Royal demesnes, Lord Treasurer Robert Cecil reduced the debt to £300,000 and the annual deficit to £46,000 by 1610—but could not follow the same method of relief much farther. The result was a series of tense and often failed negotiations with Parliament for financial supports, a situation that deteriorated over the reigns of James and his son and heir Charles I until the crisis of the English Civil War.


title: Jacobean era

text: The Jacobean era ended with a severe economic depression in 1620–1626, complicated by a serious outbreak of bubonic plague in London in 1625.


title: Jacobean era

text: King James I was sincerely devoted to peace, not just for his three kingdoms but for Europe as a whole. He called himself "Rex Pacificus" ("King of Peace.") Europe was deeply polarized, and on the verge of the massive Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), with the smaller established Protestant states facing the aggression of the larger Catholic empires. In 1604, James made peace with Catholic Spain, and made it his policy to marry his daughter to the Spanish prince. The marriage of James' daughter Princess Elizabeth to Frederick V, Elector Palatine at Whitehall 14 February 1613 was more than the social event of the era; the couple's union had important political and military implications. Across Europe, the German princes were banding together in the Union of German Protestant Princes, headquartered in Heidelberg, the capital of the Palatine. King James calculated that his daughter's marriage would give him diplomatic leverage among the Protestants. He thus would have a foot in both camps and be able to broker peaceful settlements. In his naïveté, he did not realize that both sides were playing him as a tool for their own goal of achieving destruction of the other side. The Catholics in Spain, as well as the Emperor Ferdinand II, the Vienna-based leader of the Habsburgs who controlled the Holy Roman Empire, were both heavily influenced by the Catholic Counter-Reformation. They had the goal of expelling Protestantism from their domains.


title: Jacobean era

text: Lord Buckingham, who wielded increasing influence at court, wanted an alliance with Spain. Buckingham took Charles with him to Spain to woo the princess, the Infanta Maria Anna. However, Spain's terms were that James must drop Britain's anti-Catholic intolerance. Buckingham and Charles were humiliated. Buckingham subsequently became the leader of the widespread British demand for a war against Spain. Meanwhile, the Protestant princes looked to Britain, since it was the strongest of all the Protestant countries, to give military support for their cause. His son-in-law and daughter became king and queen of Bohemia, which outraged Vienna. The Thirty Years' War began as the Habsburg Emperor ousted the new king and queen of Bohemia and massacred their followers. Catholic Bavaria then invaded the Palatine, and James's son-in-law begged for James's military intervention. James finally realized his policies had backfired and refused these pleas. He successfully kept Britain out of the Europe-wide war that proved so devastating for three decades. James's backup plan was to marry his son Charles to a French Catholic princess, who would bring a handsome dowry. Parliament and the British people were strongly opposed to any Catholic marriage, were demanding immediate war with Spain, and strongly favored with the Protestant cause in Europe. James had alienated both elite and popular opinion in Britain, and Parliament was cutting its financing. Historians credit James for pulling back from a major war at the last minute, and keeping Britain in peace.


title: Jacobean era

text: Frederick and Elizabeth's election as King and Queen of Bohemia in 1619, and the conflict that resulted, marked the beginning of the disastrous Thirty Years' War. King James' determination to avoid involvement in the continental conflict, even during the "war fever" of 1623, appears in retrospect as one of the most significant, and most positive, aspects of his reign.


title: Jacobean era

text: In literature, some of Shakespeare's most prominent plays, including "King Lear" (1605), "Macbeth" (1606), and "The Tempest" (1610), were written during the reign of James I. Patronage came not just from James, but from James' wife Anne of Denmark. Also during this period were powerful works by John Webster, Thomas Middleton, John Ford and Ben Jonson. Ben Jonson also contributed to some of the era's best poetry, together with the Cavalier poets and John Donne. In prose, the most representative works are found in those of Francis Bacon and the King James Bible.


title: Jacobean era

text: In 1617 George Chapman completed his monumental translation of Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey" into English verse, which were the first ever complete translations of either poem, both central to the Western Canon, into the English language. The wildly popular tale of the Trojan War had until then been available to readers of English only in medieval epic retellings such as Caxton's "Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye".


title: Jacobean era

text: Jonson was also an important innovator in the specialised literary subgenre of the masque, which went through an intense development in the Jacobean era. His name is linked with that of Inigo Jones as co-developers of the literary and visual/technical aspects of this hybrid art. (For Jonson's masques, see: "The Masque of Blackness", "The Masque of Queens", etc.) The high costs of these spectacles, however, positioned the Stuarts far from the relative frugality of Elizabeth's reign, and alienated the middle classes and the Puritans with a prospect of waste and self-indulgent excess.


title: Jacobean era

text: Francis Bacon had a strong influence in the evolution of modern science, which was entering a key phase in this era, as the work of Johannes Kepler in Germany and Galileo Galilei in Italy brought the Copernican revolution to a new level of development. Bacon laid a foundation, and was a powerful and persuasive advocate for modern objective inquiry, predicated upon empiricism as a lens to study the natural world. This school of thought was in stark contrast to the dominating scientific philosophy of the time: Medieval scholastic authoritarianism. On practical rather than general levels, much work was being done in the areas of navigation, cartography, and surveying—John Widdowes' "A Description of the World" (1621) being one significant volume in this area—as well as in continuing William Gilbert's work on magnetism from the previous reign. Scholarship and the sciences, or "natural philosophy", had important royal patrons in this era—not so much in the King but in his son, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, and even his wife, Anne of Denmark (the Danish Court, from which she derived, had a strong patronage tradition in intellectual matters).


title: Jacobean era

text: The fine arts were dominated by foreign talent in the Jacobean era, as was true of the Tudor and Stuart periods in general. Paul van Somer and Daniel Mytens were the most prominent portrait painters during the reign of James, as Anthony van Dyck would be under the coming reign of his son. Yet the slow development of a native school of painting, which had made progress in the previous reign, continued under James, producing figures like Robert Peake the Elder (died 1619), William Larkin (fl. 1609–19), and Sir Nathaniel Bacon (1585–1627). Some would also claim, as part of this trend, Cornelius Johnson, or Cornelis Janssens van Ceulen (1593–1661), born and trained in London and active through the first two Stuart reigns.


title: Jacobean era

text: The decorative arts – furniture, for example – became increasingly rich in color, detail, and design. Materials from other parts of the world, like mother-of-pearl, were now available by worldwide trade and were used as decoration. Even familiar materials, such as wood and silver, were worked more deeply in intricate and intensely three-dimensional designs. The goldsmith George Heriot made jewellery for Anne of Denmark.


title: Jacobean era

text: Architecture in the Jacobean era was a continuation of the Elizabethan style with increasing emphasis on classical elements like columns and obelisks. Architectural detail and decorative strapwork patterns derived from continental engravings, especially the prints of Hans Vredeman de Vries, were employed on buildings and furniture. European influences include France, Flanders, and Italy. Inigo Jones may be the most famous English architect of this period, with lasting contributions to classical public building style; his works include the Banqueting House in the Palace of Whitehall and the portico of Old St Paul's Cathedral (destroyed in the Great Fire of London). Significant Jacobean buildings include Hatfield House, Bolsover Castle, Aston Hall, and Charlton House. Many churches contain fine monuments in Jacobean style, with characteristic motifs including strapwork, and polychromy. The mason and sculptor Nicholas Stone produced many effigies for tombs as well as architectural stonework.


title: Jacobean era

text: In the domain of customs, manners, and everyday life, the Jacobean era saw a distinctly religious tone. Virginia tobacco became popular. James I published his "A Counterblaste to Tobacco" in 1604, but the book had no discernible effect; by 1612, London had 7,000 tobacconists and smoking houses. The Virginia colony survived because the English acquired the nicotine habit.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: The Australian telephone numbering plan describes the allocation of phone numbers in Australia. It has changed many times, the most recent major reorganisation by the Australian Communications & Media Authority taking place between 1994 and 1998.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: For landline telephony, Australia is now geographically divided into four large areas, three of which cover more than one state and/or territory. All local telephone numbers within these four areas are of eight digits, consisting (mainly) of a four digit exchange code plus a four digit number. The national significant number consists of a single digit area code followed by the local eight digit number – a total of nine digits. Within Australia, to access the number of a landline telephone in an area other than that in which the caller is located (including callers using mobile phones), it is first necessary to dial the Australian trunk code of 0 plus the area code, followed by the local number. Thus, the full national number (FNN) has ten digits: 0x xxxx xxxx.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: The current numbering plan would appear to be sufficient to cope with potential increase in demand for services for quite some time to come. The 06 and 09 area codes are completely unused. In addition, each current area code has large number ranges unallocated.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: When dialling from outside Australia, after dialling the appropriate International Access Code it is necessary to dial the Country Code for Australia (61) followed by the nine digit national significant number. (The + symbol is used to represent the International Access Code, e.g. +61 3 xxxx xxxx for a number in Victoria/Tasmania or +61 4xx xxx xxx for a mobile number). Some numbers beginning with a 1 may be dialled without any replacement, after dialling the required international access code and the country code for Australia (+61). (see below)


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Australian local area numbers are eight digits in length, conventionally written in the form xxxx xxxx. Mobile numbers are written in the form of ten digits in length, when dialed within Australia, the 0 must be included, plus 4, which indicates the service required is a mobile number. Mobile numbers are conventionally written 04xx xxx xxx. If a landline or mobile number is written where it may be viewed by an international audience (e.g. in an email signature or on a website) then the number is often written as +61 x xxxx xxxx or +61 4xx xxx xxx respectively.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: (Within Australia, to access a number in another area it is first necessary to dial the trunk code of 0, followed by the area code and then the specific local number).


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: In major centres, the first four digits specify the CCA (Call Collection Area, also known as an exchange), and the remaining digits specify a number at that exchange, up to 10,000 of which may be connected. Smaller exchanges in more remote areas may mean that no more than 100 numbers could be connected to such exchanges.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: To access numbers in the same area, it is necessary only to dial the eight digits concerned. To access a number in another area it is first necessary to dial the trunk code of 0, followed by the area code (2, 3, 7 or 8) and then the specific local number.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: The area codes do not exactly match state/territory boundaries. Notable are the part of New South Wales around Broken Hill (a large part of the state's area but less than 1% of its population), which uses (08) 80xx numbers, and Wodonga, which is in Victoria but is within the New South Wales (02) area code. Similarly New South Wales border towns including Deniliquin and Buronga are within the South East (Victorian) (03) area code. Physical exchanges can be allocated one or more prefixes and modern technology allows sub-sets of these number ranges to be allocated to switching entities physically located at a distance from the exchange in which their controlling terminal is located. (Thus, the concept of what a "telephone exchange" is can become somewhat blurred.)


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Landlines use an open dialling plan: if the caller's phone shares the same area code as the called phone, the area code "may" be omitted. For example, a call from the number (02) 5551 5678, to the number (02) 7010 1111, will be connected if the caller dials only 7010 1111. Similarly, a person who dials 7010 5678 on a land-line or mobile phone in Melbourne (i.e., within the 03 area) will be connected to 03 7010 5678. For this reason, landline numbers are often specified without the area code. If a person's number and the destination number share the same area code, then the area code is not required, even if it is not a local (untimed) call.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: However, the full international number must always be dialled, since the Australian telephone network has the capability to recognise when the destination required is either international, in a different national area or within the local area and to switch and charge the call accordingly. Thus, it is strongly recommended that telephone numbers should be stored in mobile phones in the form of the full international number, should the owner of the phone be likely to use the phone concerned in an area away from home, either within Australia or internationally.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Within Australia, mobile phone numbers begin with 04 or 05 – the Australian national trunk code" 0, plus the mobile indicator 4 or 5 – followed by eight digits. This is generally written as 04XX XXX XXX within Australia, or as +61 4XX XXX XXX for an international audience. Whilst this format may be viewed as incorrect, it is the result of mobile carriers advertising numbers in such a way so as to clearly identify the owning telco prior to mobile number portability, introduced on 25 September 2001. Prior to MNP, mobile operators generally reserved number ranges in blocks of 04 xy z.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: The xy-digit codes (sometimes xy z) are allocated per network, although with the introduction of number portability, there is no longer a fixed relationship between the mobile phone number and the network it uses.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: In 2015 the 05 prefix (other than 0550) was also reserved for digital mobile phones as a part of the Telecommunications Numbering Plan 2015. However, as of 2019 no numbers have been allocated with this prefix.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Within Australia, mobile numbers must always be dialed with all 10 digits, regardless of the caller's location.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Each mobile phone company is allocated numbers in blocks, which are listed below. However mobile number portability means an individual number might have been "ported". There are also many MVNOs which use numbers from their wholesaler or might have their own ranges.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: ACMA planned to introduce the "05" range for mobile numbers in 2017, when the "04" range was expected to be exhausted. So far, no such numbers have been introduced.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: The numbers 0491 570 156, 0491 570 157, 0491 570 158, 0491 570 159 and 0491 570 110 are reserved for fictitious use.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Numbers beginning with 014 are predominantly used for satellite services. Parts of the 014 prefix had previously been used as a 9 digit, AMPS mobile phone access code.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: The 01471 prefix is the ten-digit replacement for the previous, nine-digit ITERRA satellite phone code 0071 xxxxx. Prior to its use for ITERRA (and other satellite services). These numbers were allocated in March 1999.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: 0145xxxxxx numbers are used for services utilised on the Optus network in Australia. This is predominantly used for MobileSat and Thuraya mobile satellite services. These numbers were allocated in December 1992: 222,000 with the rest "spare".


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: The prefixes 0141, 0142, 0143, 0145 and 0147 are set aside for satellite systems; the rest of the 014 prefix range is currently not allocated to any other service type. There is not a lot of demand for these services, and many satellite phones now have normal mobile phone numbers (prefix 04), so it is not likely for the entire 014 range to be allocated to satellite services.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: These numbers are designed for VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) systems, where they work like a fixed number but not allocated on a geographical level. It is possible that LICS numbers will be absorbed into mobile numbers in the future, as they provide similar features. Indeed, the July 2012 variation of the numbering plan allocated the rest of the 05 range to digital mobile numbering.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: All calls to 0198 numbers are a "local call" cost like 13 and 1300 numbers but are used for Internet service provider access numbers. They are used both with dial-up modems and ISDN.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Most numbers that are no longer used have been removed from the Telecommunications Numbering Plan 2015, whether in previous variations or in this complete replacement. (See below)


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: However, the 0163 prefix is still allocated for use with pagers. This was reduced from 016 in a variation to the previous numbering plan. As of March 2011 only 1000 numbers were allocated, and by the end of 2012 there were none allocated.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: The following codes are not generally dialable from international points, but used in domestic dialling:


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: 000 is the primary emergency telephone number in Australia. Secondary emergency numbers are 106 (for use by the hearing impaired with a TTY terminal) and the international GSM mobile emergency telephone number 112.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Increased awareness of the 112 emergency number in Australia has led to the potential for confusion over which number to call in an emergency. As a secondary emergency number, 112 is not guaranteed to work from all technologies; most notably, it does not work from landlines. In order to encourage use of 000, mobile telephones imported commercially into Australia are required to be programmed to treat 000 in the same fashion as 112 (i.e. dialling with key lock enabled, use of any carrier, preferential routing, etc.). On older or privately imported (e.g. roaming from another country) telephones, 000 may not receive such preferential treatment.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Australia uses the free call prefix 1800 for 10 digit freecall numbers. This is similar to the North American or NANPA prefix 1–800, but while in North America, the 1 is the long-distance or toll prefix and 800 is the area code; 1800 in Australia is itself a "virtual area code" (prior to the introduction of 8-digit numbers, the free call code was 008). There are also seven digit freecall numbers beginning with 180 – the only numbers currently allocated begin with 1802.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: The 13 and 1300 numbers are known as Local Rate Numbers or SmartNumbers. They are also known as priority 13, and priority 1300 numbers. These work across large areas (potentially the whole of Australia) and charge the caller only a low cost, routing the call to the appropriate place in a given area. For example, a company could have the number 139999 and have the telephone company set it up so that calls made in Melbourne would route to their Melbourne number, calls made in Brisbane to their Brisbane number, and calls made anywhere else in Australia route to their Sydney number, all at a local charge cost to the caller. 13 numbers were not available before the introduction of the current 8-digit local numbering plan. Businesses looking for local callers tend to connect to a "1300" number. Note that these numbers are called "Local Rate" and not "Local" numbers, so do not necessarily cost the same as a local call: Indeed, many (landline and mobile) phone plans do not even include them in the "included" credit and/or charge them at a higher rate than "normal" numbers.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Though promoted as "local call rate" calls, calls to 13 and 1300 numbers cost more than a local call fee for those people using VoIP and having all local and national calls free.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: 1800, 1300 and 13 numbers are reverse charge networks. Other than the length of the number, the differences between a 13 number and a 1300 number is that the shorter number has a higher fee for the owner of the number: there should be no difference in cost to the caller. A call to an 1800 is free when dialled from a landline, and mobile phones since 2014. It depends on the individual mobile plan as how 13 and 1300 numbers are charged: all plans no longer charge for 1800 but 13 and 1300 may still be charged at a high rate, or outside included calls.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: These numbers "forward" to a geographic or mobile number. The recipient is usually charged at a set rate per second for each call, depending on plan and destination.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: 190x (not to be confused with 0198) is the prefix for premium rate services (e.g. recorded information, competition lines, psychics, phone sex, etc.). (Prior to the introduction of 8-digit local numbers, the prefix was 0055.) 190 numbers incur a rate as charged by the provider – either at a per-minute rate (limited at $5.50 per minute) or a fixed rate (up to $38.50 per call). The latter method is most often used for fax-back services, where a timed charge is not appropriate. Costs of 190 calls for competitions involving chance are also often limited by state legislation to $0.55 per call. (In the previous numbering plan, 0055 numbers were limited to three bands: Premium Rate, Value Rate and Budget Rate, with per minute rates of $0.75, $0.60 and $0.40 respectively.)


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Other numbers beginning with 19 are used for premium-rate SMS services. These were originally trialled using the 188 prefix. These can range from a standard SMS cost (usually 25c), up to 55c for competition use, to several dollars for other uses, such as unique bid auctions.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: The main international prefix is 0011. (E.164 international format is supported from phones with the ability to dial the '+' symbol.)


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Formerly, 0015 would route through Telstra on a special mode for international faxing. Telstra has retired this code.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: These four-digit numbers are dialled before the destination number to complete and bill a call by a carrier other than the subscriber's service provider. For example, to use AAPT to call a number in Tokyo, Japan, subscribers would dial 1414 0011 81 3 xxxx xxxx, or to use Optus to call a number in Perth they would dial 1456 08 xxxx xxxx. It is not clear if all these prefixes will actually work. Not all carriers have interconnect agreements with each other


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Many old numbers were officially removed from the Telecommunications Numbering Plan in the 2015 version, whether in the replacement version or a previous variation.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Directory assistance used various numbers: 013 for local calls, 0175 for other national calls, and 0103 for international. The two domestic numbers have been replaced with 1223, while 0103 was replaced with 1225. Other numbers for directory assistance, often with a call connection option, exist depending on the carrier.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: 0176 was originally the code for the operator when calling from a Public Telephone. It became the code for the reverse-charge call operator, which was moved to 12550. Alternatively 3rd-party companies exist. See Collect call#Australia


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Until the early 1960s, the first one or two digits of telephone numbers in metropolitan areas were alphabetic, with each letter representing a distinct number on the telephone dial. Each one-letter or two-letter code signified an exchange within an urban area. Rural and regional areas typically relied on manual exchanges, or only one automatic exchange for the whole town, so rural and regional numbers did not feature these letter prefixes. The use of a letter-number combination also served as a memory aid as it was easier to remember than a string of digits in the days when such things were not as common.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Unlike the three (or fewer) letters associated with each of the numbers on the dials of telephones of the UK Director telephone system, which was used in London and other large British cities, Australia used a system of letters associated with the ten digits available on a telephone dial, where each of these letters were chosen because their "name" (when pronounced, in English) could not be confused with any of the other nine letters of the English/Latin alphabet which were also used.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Since the initial digits of 1 and 0 (ten) were not used, this gave the telephone company concerned up to 8 regions with main exchanges and up to ten sub-exchanges in each metropolitan area – a total of up to 80 individual exchanges of 10,000 numbers in each with up to only 800,000 individual "numbers" in any metropolitan area concerned. This limited capacity led to the need for a seven- or eight-digit numbering system, to allow for more "numbers" within a given area.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: Because of the growth of the telephone network, Australia now has eight-digit telephone numbers within four areas.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: This former alphanumeric scheme was significantly different from the current system used for SMS messages.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: The letters did not relate to any exchange name. For example, the exchange prefix for Essendon was FU (which translated to 37 and later became the 37x [then 937x] exchange used by the whole City of Essendon [which became the City of Moonee Valley in late 1994]). Although Melbourne city numbers began with 6, it was only rarely, and probably by accident, that any other exchanges had matching letters. Numbers using the old alphanumeric scheme were written as ab.xxxx, for example FU 1234 (the actual train of digits sent to the phone was "371234") or MW 5550 ("685550"). Seven-digit numbers started appearing as early as 1960, and were all numerical from the start. There were still some six-digit numbers and at least one five-digit number in Melbourne as late as 1989, but by the 1990s, they all had been converted to seven-digit numbers. Footscray used six-digit numbers in exchange code 68 until 1987, when they were changed to 687 or 689.


title: Telephone numbers in Australia

text: The old call back number was 199, and could be used on public payphones, and private numbers too. This was moved to a new number 12722199.


title: Alimony

text: Alimony, also called aliment (Scotland), maintenance (England, Ireland, Northern Ireland, Wales, Canada, New Zealand), spousal support (U.S., Canada) and spouse maintenance (Australia), is a legal obligation on a person to provide financial support to their spouse before or after marital separation or divorce. The obligation arises from the divorce law or family law of each country. In most jurisdictions, it is distinct from child support, where, after divorce, one parent is required to contribute to the support of their children by paying money to the child's other parent or guardian.


title: Alimony

text: The term alimony comes from the Latin word "alimōnia" ("nourishment, sustenance", from "alere," "to nourish"), from which the terms alimentary (of, or relating to food, nutrition, or digestion), and aliment (a Scots Law rule regarding sustenance to assure the wife's lodging, food, clothing, and other necessities after divorce) are also derived.


title: Alimony

text: The Code of Hammurabi (1754 BC) declares that a man must provide sustenance to a woman who has borne him children so that she can raise them:


title: Alimony

text: The above law only applies to women who had children with her husband. This fits more closely with the definition of child support in some jurisdictions.


title: Alimony

text: The modern concept of alimony is derived from English ecclesiastical courts that awarded alimony in cases of separation and divorce. "Alimony pendente lite" was given until the divorce decree, based on the husband's duty to support the wife during a marriage that still continued. "Post-divorce" or "permanent alimony" was also based on the notion that the marriage continued, as ecclesiastical courts could only award a "divorce a mensa et thoro", similar to a legal separation today. As divorce did not end the marriage, the husband's duty to support his wife remained intact.


title: Alimony

text: Liberalization of divorce laws occurred in the 19th century, but divorce was only possible in cases of marital misconduct. As a result, the requirement to pay alimony became linked to the concept of fault in the divorce. Alimony to wives was paid because it was assumed that the marriage, and the wife's right to support, would have continued but for the misbehavior of the husband. Ending alimony on divorce would have permitted a guilty husband to profit from his own misconduct. In contrast, if the wife committed the misconduct, she was considered to have forfeited any claim to ongoing support. However, during the period, parties could rarely afford alimony, and so it was rarely awarded by courts. As husbands' incomes increased, and with it the possibility of paying alimony, the awarding of alimony increased, generally because a wife could show a need for ongoing financial support, and the husband had the ability to pay. No-fault divorce led to changes in alimony. Whereas spousal support was considered a right under the fault-based system, it became conditional under the no-fault approach. According to the American Bar Association, marital fault is a "factor" in awarding alimony in 25 states and the District of Columbia. Permanent alimony began to fall out of favor, as it prevented former spouses from beginning new lives, though in some states (e.g., Massachusetts, Mississippi, and Tennessee), permanent alimony awards continued, but with some limitations. Alimony moved beyond support to permitting the more dependent spouse to become financially independent or to have the same standard of living as during the marriage or common law marriage, though this was not possible in most cases.


title: Alimony

text: In the 1970s, the United States Supreme Court ruled against gender bias in alimony awards and, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, the percentage of alimony recipients who are male rose from 2.4% in 2001 to 3.6% in 2006. In states like Massachusetts and Louisiana, the salaries of new spouses may be used in determining the alimony paid to the previous partners. Most recently, in several high-profile divorces, women such as Britney Spears, Victoria Principal, and Jessica Simpson have paid multimillion-dollar settlements in lieu of alimony to ex-husbands. According to divorce lawyers, aggressive pursuit of spousal support by men is becoming more common, as the stigma associated with asking for alimony fades.


title: Alimony

text: Once dissolution proceedings commence, either party may seek interim or pendente lite support during the course of the litigation.


title: Alimony

text: Where a divorce or dissolution of marriage (civil union) is granted, either party may ask for post-marital alimony. It is not an absolute right, but may be granted, the amount and terms varying with the circumstances. If one party is already receiving support at the time of the divorce, the previous order is not automatically continued (although this can be requested), as the arguments for support during and after the marriage can be different.


title: Alimony

text: Unless the parties agree on the terms of their divorce in a binding written instrument, the court will make a determination based on the legal argument and the testimony submitted by both parties. This can be modified at any future date based on a change of circumstances by either party on proper notice to the other party and application to the court. The courts are generally reluctant to modify an existing agreement unless the reasons are compelling. In some jurisdictions the court always has jurisdiction to grant maintenance should one of the former spouses become a public charge.


title: Alimony

text: In Canada, spousal support may be awarded upon divorce, under the federal "Divorce Act", or upon separation without divorce under provincial statutes. There are generally three different forms of spousal support awarded:


title: Alimony

text: Both married spouses and common-law spouses may be entitled to spousal support. An important distinction between the two is that common-law spouses must start an action claiming spousal support within one year of the breakdown of the relationship. A second important distinction is that only married couples may divorce under the federal "Divorce Act", common-law spouses may only separate under provincial legislation, such as Ontario's "Family Law Act" or British Columbia's "Family Relation's Act". No such limitation arises for married individuals.


title: Alimony

text: In addition to being in a marriage or common-law relationship, courts will look at the conditions, means, needs and other circumstances of each spouse. This includes:


title: Alimony

text: This is by no means an exhaustive list of factors which the court will consider when determining entitlement. Each case is determined on its own unique set of circumstances.


title: Alimony

text: The federal "Divorce Act" at s.15.2 (6) states that there are four objectives of spousal support orders:


title: Alimony

text: The longer the length of cohabitation and the greater the disparity between each party’s incomes, the larger an award of spousal support will be and the longer the duration will be. Although there is no set formula to determine the exact amount and duration of spousal support, there are guidelines, referred to as the "Spousal Support Advisory Guidelines", which provides ranges for both. the Spousal Support Advisory Guidelines calculate ranges for support after taking into account the relevant factors. Although the courts are not required to abide by the "Spousal Support Advisory Guidelines", they are required to take them into account when deciding on the issue of spousal support. The length of the relationship will be taken into account when determining how long spousal support should be paid for. Awards for spousal support can be for a limited term or indefinite.


title: Alimony

text: While declaring bankruptcy does not absolve Canadians of obligations to pay alimony or child support, a 2011 ruling by the Supreme Court of Canada established that under current laws "equalization payments agreed to as part of a divorce are considered debts, and are wiped off a person's balance sheet when they declare bankruptcy."


title: Alimony

text: Laws of the Czech Republic provide for spousal maintenance both during marriage and after divorce. As main principle, both spouses have the right for generally equal standard of living during the marriage.


title: Alimony

text: The same "generally equal standard of living" applies also to post-divorce period in special cases, when the payee wasn't mostly responsible for the failure of marriage or did not agree with the divorce and the payee suffered serious harm due to the divorce and hadn't committed an act of domestic violence against the payer. In such case the payee may request alimony in amount providing "generally equal standard of living" for a period adequate to circumstances, but no longer than three years.


title: Alimony

text: If those special conditions are not met, both of the divorced have mutual spousal maintenance obligation in case that one of them is not able to provide for themselves due to circumstances originating in marriage, if payment of alimony is reasonable under general circumstances that each of the divorced found themselves in.


title: Alimony

text: English courts award spousal maintenance, either in a lump sum or in installments, when one party cannot support themselves without payments from the other party.


title: Alimony

text: Under traditional English common law, a female gave up her personal property rights on marriage (see Coverture). Upon separation from marriage, the husband retained the right to the wife's property, but, in exchange, had an ongoing responsibility to support the wife after dissolution of the marriage. English law was amended by legislation including the Married Women's Property Act 1870 and Married Women's Property Act 1882 which reformed females' property rights relating to marriage, by, for example, permitting divorced females to regain the property they owned before marriage.


title: Alimony

text: The duty of mutual assistance of the spouses turns into an obligation of maintenance following the personal separation. The spouse who is not responsible for the separation has, in fact, the right to receive from the other "what is necessary for its maintenance" (Article 156 of the Italian Civil Code).


title: Alimony

text: In case of dissolution of the marriage, art. 5, paragraph 6, of Law 898/1970 provides for the obligation for a spouse to periodically provide the other with a check "when the latter does not have adequate means or in any case cannot obtain them for objective reasons", the determination of which it is entrusted to certain specific parameters (conditions of the spouses, reasons for the decision, personal and economic contribution given by each to the family management and to the formation of the patrimony of each or the common one, income of both, duration of marriage).


title: Alimony

text: Under the Japanese Civil Code, spousal support is available while the parties are married, but terminates upon divorce. Japanese courts typically award a one-time payment of "isha-ryo", or consolation money, to the "wronged" spouse in the divorce, a type of compensation which does not exist in some other jurisdictions such as most U.S. states.


title: Alimony

text: In the U.S. state law establishes requirements regarding alimony (and child support) payments, recovery and penalties. A spouse trying to recover back alimony sometimes may use only the collection procedures that are available to all other creditors, such as reporting the amount due to a collection agency. One who allows his or her alimony obligations to go into arrears, where there is an ability to pay, may be found in contempt of court and be sent to jail. Alimony obligations are not discharged as a result of the obligee's filing bankruptcy. Ex-spouses who allow child-support obligations to go into arrears may have certain licenses seized, be found in contempt of court, and/or be sent to jail. Like alimony, child-support obligations are not discharged as a result of the obligee's filing bankruptcy.


title: Alimony

text: The determination of alimony varies greatly from state to state within the U.S. Some state statutes, including those of Texas, Montana, Kansas, Utah, Kentucky and Maine, give explicit guidelines to judges on the amount and/or duration of alimony. In Texas, Mississippi and Tennessee, for example, alimony is awarded only in cases of marriage or civil union of ten years or longer and the payments are limited to three years unless there are special, extenuating circumstances. Also, in case of Texas, there is a presumption from the legal point of view while dealing with a spousal maintenance case, that the alimony isn't appropriate. Once the requesting spouse can reasonably demonstrate that he/she has given the best effort in good faith to secure an independent income but failed, only then the case is taken into consideration. Furthermore, the amount of spousal support is limited to the lesser of $2,500 per month or 40% of the payee's gross income. In Delaware, spousal support is usually not awarded in marriages of less than 10 years. In Kansas, alimony awards cannot exceed 121 months. In Utah, the duration of alimony cannot exceed the length of the marriage. In Maine, Mississippi, and Tennessee alimony is awarded in marriages or civil union of 10 to 20 years and the duration is half the length of the marriage barring extenuating circumstances. Other states, including California, Nevada and New York, have relatively vague statutes which simply list the "factors" a judge should consider when determining alimony (see list of factors below). In these states, the determination of duration and amount of alimony is left to the discretion of the family court judges who must consider case law in each state. In Mississippi, Texas and Tennessee, for example, there are 135 Appellate Cases in addition to 47 sections of State Statute that shape divorce law. As a result of these Appellate Cases, for example, Mississippi judges cannot order an end date to any alimony award. In 2012, Massachusetts signed into law comprehensive alimony reform. This law sets limits on alimony and eliminates lifetime alimony. Similarly, in 2013, Colorado signed into law alimony (Spousal Maintenance) reform, creating a standardized non-presumptive guideline upon which courts can rely.


title: Alimony

text: Prenuptial agreements are recognized in all fifty states and the District of Columbia, and every jurisdiction allows parties to agree to spousal support and alimony terms in a premarital or postnuptial agreement, if their marital agreement is prepared in accordance with state and federal law requirements.  Divorce courts retain the discretion to refuse to enforce prenuptial agreement terms restricting a party’s right to seek alimony if that party would have to seek public assistance as a result of the alimony waiver, or if the restriction on the right to seek alimony is unconscionable or unfair when the divorce occurs. Lack of financial disclosure prior to signing a prenuptial agreement or a post-nuptial agreement by the party against whom alimony is sought may also cause a court to invalidate a waiver of alimony provision.  Prenuptial Agreements with valid alimony waivers or restrictions entered into in one state should be fully enforceable by the courts of another state in the event of a divorce, unless the terms of the prenuptial agreement are in material violation of the foreign jurisdiction's laws.


title: Alimony

text: California is the only state with a law that requires that the parties be represented by counsel if spousal support (alimony) is limited by the agreement.


title: Alimony

text: Instead of a complete waiver of the right to seek alimony, prenuptial agreements and post-nuptial agreements can also contain terms where the parties agree to a set amount of guaranteed alimony for the lower wage earner at the time of divorce, or a cap/limit on the amount of alimony either party can seek in the event of a divorce.


title: Alimony

text: In the United States, family laws and precedents as they relate to divorce, community property and alimony vary based on state law. Also, with new family models, "working couples", "working wives", "stay-at-home dads", etc., there are situations where some parties to a divorce question whether traditional economic allocations made in a divorce are fair and equitable to the facts of their individual case. Some groups have proposed various forms of legislation to reform alimony parameters (i.e. amounts and term). Alimony terms are among the most frequent issues causing litigation in family law cases. Eighty percent of divorce cases involve a request for modification of alimony.


title: Alimony

text: Some states (e.g. Florida, Texas, Maine) are moving away from permanent alimony awards that are intended to maintain a spouse's standard of living enjoyed during the marriage and are moving towards durational or rehabilitative alimony. In other states, like Mississippi and Tennessee, alimony is usually awarded for life.


title: Alimony

text: In 2012, bills were introduced in the New Jersey Assembly and Senate. The Assembly passed a bill calling for a Blue Ribbon Commission to address Alimony Reform. The Senate has a similar bill pending that has not yet been posted in the Judiciary Committee. The NJ Matrimonial Bar Association has been vehemently fighting against Alimony Reform, led by Patrick Judge Jr. chairman of the Family Law section of the New Jersey State Bar Association. Attorney Judge stated that the New Jersey State Bar Association ("NJSBA") objected to the inclusion of individuals with a vested interest in reforming alimony on the Blue Ribbon Commission and that the NJSBA supported the "establishment of a commission [to study alimony reform] but only as long as the commission is constituted so that a fair and unbiased review of the current alimony laws takes place…[and] should not be predisposed to an outcome…."


title: Alimony

text: A comprehensive Alimony Reform bill passed the Florida House in 2012 but died in the Senate. In 2013, both the Florida House and Senate passed a comprehensive alimony bill sponsored by Sen. Kelli Stargel, which was vetoed by Governor Scott at the end of the legislative session. As in New Jersey, the Florida Matrimonial Bar, led by Carin Porras, Chair, Family Law Section of The Florida Bar strongly opposes reform.


title: Alimony

text: California, Connecticut, Georgia, Illinois, Oklahoma, New York, South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, and West Virginia have all passed laws that allow for the modification or termination of alimony upon demonstration that the recipient is cohabitating with another person. In April 2009, the Governor of New Jersey, Jon Corzine, signed into law changes in the alimony statutes for his state which would bar alimony payments to parents who kill, abuse, or abandon their children.


title: Alimony

text: In divorces and separation agreements signed on December 31, 2018 and earlier, alimony is tax-deductible for the payer, and treated as taxable income for the recipient. The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 cancelled this tax treatment for divorces signed January 1, 2019 and after. Under the TCJA, spousal support is treated as not-taxable and non-deductible for either party.


title: Krack (film)

text: Krack is a 2021 Indian Telugu-language action thriller film directed by Gopichand Malineni, who wrote the script with the dialogues by Sai Madhav Burra. It stars Ravi Teja, Shruti Haasan, Samuthirakani, and Varalaxmi Sarathkumar. Produced by B. Madhu under Saraswathi Films Division banner and based on multiple true incidents that took place in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, the film depicts the conflict between a circle inspector and a gangster. The film's narrative style is inspired from 2018 Kannada film "Tagaru".


title: Krack (film)

text: After the launch at a formal ceremony on "14 November 2019" at Hyderabad, principal photography commenced on 21 November 2019, and ended on 7 December 2020, with production delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The film features music scored by Thaman S, with cinematography by G. K. Vishnu, and editing by Naveen Nooli.


title: Krack (film)

text: "Krack" was released theatrically on 9 January 2021, and opened to highly positive reviews from critics who appreciated the performances and writing. The film was commercially successful, grossing 6070 crore at the box office.


title: Krack (film)

text: Venkatesh narrates that a note, a green mango, and a nail resemble the fate of three persons who come across a cop. A BBC journalist arrives at a jail in Delhi to interview Saleem Batkal, a convict responsible for Mumbai blasts, but Saleem demands money from the interviewer, which to their astonishment is just .


title: Krack (film)

text: Upon taking it, he tells that he rented a house that is cheaper than the previous one due to a scuffle between the owner and broker. The house Saleem rents at Kurnool for passport verification with fake details falls under the jurisdiction of Shankar's police station, where Saleem's men have no influence. After a dramatic turn of events, he is caught by Shankar, who notices the details Salim gave are fake. When Saleem tries to warn about his background, Shankar beats him up and arrests him.


title: Krack (film)

text: In Kadapa, Konda Reddy, a highly sadistic goon, occupies the land of a doctor. When Konda Reddy is in a meeting, a girl tries to pluck from a mango tree in his yard, for which he angrily unleashes his dogs upon her. The girl is injured, and her mother files suit on him. The SP calls Konda Reddy, telling that this case might put Konda Reddy in trouble because it will be dealt with by CI Shankar. Konda takes him lightly, but the SP insists him to meet Katari Krishna, who is in the central jail of Rajahmundry.


title: Krack (film)

text: Katari appears as a regular prisoner, but Konda Reddy is intrigued when he learns about Katari's criminal record. Upon asking, Katari narrates his story that he rose to power by creating a bloodshed in Ongole, and is jailed later because of a nail. Shankar is appointed as CI of Ongole, and meets constable Kiran, the son of a constable who used to work with Shankar. Jayamma, a close aide of Katari's, has a habit of going to the cinema on Fridays.


title: Krack (film)

text: Jayamma sees Katari's daughter with Kiran, and gets him grotesquely murdered by appointing men from Vetapalem. Shankar investigates about the murder, while relishing his memories with Kiran. He finds out that Katari was accused for a similar kind of murder a few years ago. At a village fair, Shankar goes to bring Katari to the police station for enquiry, Katari warns Shankar of his background, which irritates Shankar and gets him arrested.


title: Krack (film)

text: Katari is released when Jayamma gets him a bail, but they are stunned to know that his daughter married another police constable. That night at the cinema hall, her boyfriend's leg is accidentally pierced by a nail, due to which Kiran drops her at the house. Unaware of this, Jayamma misinterprets Kiran to be her boyfriend. During their wedding reception, Katari's wife requests the couple to leave the town to be safe. She, however, conspires to kill her daughter's husband.


title: Krack (film)

text: Katari's men attack them at the bus station, but Shankar saves them. A man caught there named Jayamma was the perpetrator. Knowing this, Katari asks his men to kill Jayamma, so that his name does not come out. Jayamma is killed by the time Shankar arrives to arrest her. While chasing the killers, he shoots one of them, but accidentally kills an innocent bystander. Shankar is suspended, but during his private investigation, he learns that his associate Tilak had killed that innocent, as he was on Katari's payroll.


title: Krack (film)

text: Shankar gets hold of all the evidence against Katari that Tilak has. Katari tries to warn Shankar by attacking his family, but his wife Kalyani, a former police officer, is able to defend them. Shankar rejoins his job and fights with Vetapalem gang members, and kills all of them at the beach. And Shankar tracks down Katari to arrest him. Katari tries to escape by boarding a lorry, but its tyre gets punctured by a nail, and he is caught.


title: Krack (film)

text: After learning this, Konda Reddy makes sure that he does not use the word "background" in front of Shankar, and treats him with respect, but his assistant hurriedly comes and utters the word. Shankar thrashes him and puts him in the same jail where Katari is kept. Saleem, now transferred to that jail, tells them he is trying to seek revenge on Shankar. They both laugh it off.


title: Krack (film)

text: On 26 October 2019, Ravi Teja announced his 66th film as an actor with the tentative title "RT 66", which would be directed by Gopichand Malineni, marking the third collaboration between Teja and Malineni after their previous films "Don Seenu" (2010) and "Balupu" (2013). Prior to commencement of the shoot, Gopichand Malieni claimed the film was neither inspired by nor a remake of any film. He described it as "an original story based on several true incidents happened in the Telugu states." On 14 November 2019, the makers announced the title of the film as "Krack".


title: Krack (film)

text: Shruti Haasan was chosen as the lead actress alongside Ravi Teja, making it their second collaboration after "Balupu". Originally, she took a break from acting in Telugu films, after Pawan Kalyan's "Katamarayudu" (2017), made her comeback in the Telugu film industry with this film. Tamil film actress Varalaxmi Sarathkumar was chosen to play a key role, making it her second Telugu film after "Tenali Ramakrishna BA. BL" (2019). Samuthirakani similarly joined the cast, collaborating with Ravi Teja after "Shambo Shiva Shambo" (2010). Thaman S was roped in to compose the music for the film, while cinematographer G. K. Vishnu, editor Naveen Nooli and action choreographer duo Ram-Lakshman, were also a part of the technical crew.


title: Krack (film)

text: The film was launched on 14 November 2019 at the Film Nagar Temple. Producer Allu Aravind attended as the chief guest and did the honours. The principal photography commenced on 21 November 2019 in Ramoji Film City. Around late November, the makers filmed a "Jatara" episode featuring Ravi Teja and hundreds of supporting actors. During the shoot in early January 2020, director A. R. Murugadoss visited the film's sets in Hyderabad. The film's shoot was further interrupted due to the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown in India.


title: Krack (film)

text: On 7 October 2020, Ravi Teja announced that he had resumed the shooting of the film at Ramoji Film City in Hyderabad, after lockdown, adhering to the safety guidelines imposed by the government in order to curb the coronavirus pandemic. On 15 October, the makers filmed a song shoot, featuring Anketa Maharana and Teja and the song being choreographed by Jani Master. Varalakshmi Sarathkumar, completed her portions in late October. On 2 December, Ravi Teja tweeted about the final schedule of the film held in Goa, which features a song shoot choreographed by Raju Sundaram. Filming wrapped up on 5 December 2020.


title: Krack (film)

text: The film's music is composed by Thaman S, and lyrics for the songs were written by Ramajogayya Sastry and Kasarla Shyam. The film marks the second collaboration of Ravi Teja, Thaman and Gopichand Malineni after "Balupu" (2013). In May 2020, a fake Twitter handle of the film's director, announced an update about the first single, whereas the composer refuted such claims and asked the fans to wait for the official announcement.