title: Empire of Trebizond

text: Under the rule of Alexios III, Trebizond was considered an important trade center and was renowned for its great wealth and artistic accomplishment. It was at this point that their famous diplomatic strategy of marrying the princesses of the Grand Komnenos to neighboring Turkish dynasts began. However, Anthony Bryers has argued against thinking this empire was a wealthy polity, stating that while the income from taxes levied on this trade was "by Byzantine standards" substantial, as much as three quarters of the income of the Emperor came from land "either directly from the imperial estates or indirectly from taxes and tithes from other lands."


title: Empire of Trebizond

text: The last years of the fourteenth century were characterized by the increasing Turkish threat. This threat was not from the small Turkmen emirates that bordered Trebizond, but from the dynasty of the Osmanli, a new Turkish power emerging from western Anatolia that would soon consolidate the Ottoman Empire. Although their expansion was temporarily checked by Tamerlane at the Battle of Ankara in 1402, by the 1430s the Ottomans had recovered their fortunes, seizing large segments of Greece and finally capturing Constantinople itself on 29 May 1453. Manuel III (1390–1417), the second son and successor of Alexios III, had allied himself with Tamerlane, but the mighty conqueror soon left Anatolia, and the empire he had built crumbled with his death. Manuel's son Alexios IV (1417–1429) continued the tradition of political marriages by marrying two of his daughters to rulers of two neighboring Muslim empires: Jihan Shah, khan of the Kara Koyunlu, and Ali Beg, khan of the Ak Koyunlu. His eldest daughter Maria became the third wife of the Byzantine Emperor John VIII Palaiologos.


title: Empire of Trebizond

text: Alexios IV's eldest son, John IV (1429–1459), could not help but see that his Empire would soon share the fate of Constantinople. The Ottoman sultan Murad II first attempted to take the capital by the sea in 1442, but high surf made the landings difficult and the attempt was repulsed. While Murad's son and successor, Mehmed II, was away laying siege to Belgrade in 1456, the Ottoman governor of Amasya attacked Trebizond, and although defeated, he took many prisoners and extracted a heavy tribute. A Genoese document records the seizure of one of their ships at that port in 1437 by a military Galley on the orders of Emperor John IV.


title: Empire of Trebizond

text: John IV prepared for the eventual assault by forging alliances. He sent an envoy to the Council of Florence in 1439, the humanist George Amiroutzes, which resulted in the proclamation of the Union of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, but this proclamation brought little help. He gave his daughter Theodora (also known by the name of Despina Khatun) to the son of his brother-in-law, Uzun Hasan, khan of the Ak Koyunlu, in return for his promise to defend Trebizond. He also secured promises of help from the Turkish emirs of Sinope and Karamania, and from the king and princes of Georgia. Through Theodora and the daughter of Alexios IV of Trebizond (also named Theodora), the Safavid dynasty of Iran that succeeded the Ak Koyunlu, would be of direct partial Pontic Greek ethnicity from its very beginning, Ismail I being the grandson of Theodora.


title: Empire of Trebizond

text: After John's death in 1459, his brother David came to power. David intrigued with various European powers for help against the Ottomans, speaking of wild schemes that included the conquest of Jerusalem. Mehmed II eventually heard of these intrigues and was further provoked to action by David's demand that Mehmed remit the tribute imposed on his brother.


title: Empire of Trebizond

text: Mehmed's response came in the summer of 1461. He collected a sizable army at Bursa, and in a surprise move marched on Sinope, whose emir quickly surrendered. Then the sultan moved south across eastern Anatolia to neutralize Uzun Hasan. Having isolated Trebizond, Mehmed swept down upon it before the inhabitants knew he was coming, and placed it under siege. The city held out for a month before David surrendered on 15 August 1461. With the fall of Trebizond, the last independent remnant of the Byzantine Empire, as well as the Roman Empire from which the Byzantine Empire sprang, was the Empire of Trebizond's offshoot, the Principality of Theodoro. On December 30, 1475, it would also fall to Ottoman rule.


title: Empire of Trebizond

text: Christianity strongly influenced society in the Empire of Trebizond. According to the Acts of Vazelon, which were written by contemporary monks, most peasants in the Matzouka region of the Empire had first names relating to Christian religious figures. Last names often referred to Christian saints, trades, and place names.


title: Empire of Trebizond

text: In the relatively limited territory of the kingdom of the Grand Komnenoi (known as the “Empire of Trebizond”) there was enough room for three dioceses: Trebizond, which was the only diocese established far in the past, Cerasous and Rizaion in Lazika, both formed as upgraded bishoprics. All three dioceses survived the Ottoman conquest (1461) and generally operated until the 17th century, when the dioceses of Cerasous and Rizaion were abolished. The diocese of Rizaion and the bishopric of Of were abolished at the time due to the Islamisation of the Laz and of the region respectively. Possibly the diocese of Cerasous was deactivated for the same reasons.


title: Empire of Trebizond

text: The Empire of Trebizond acquired a reputation in Western Europe for being "enriched by the trade from Persia and the East that passed through its capital," according to Steven Runciman, "and by the silver-mines in the hills behind, and famed for the beauty of its princesses." Donald Nicol echoes Runciman's observations: "Most of the emperors were blessed with a progeny of marriageable daughters, and the beauty of the ladies of Trebizond was as legendary as the wealth of their dowries." Its wealth and exotic location endowed a lingering fame on the polity. Cervantes described the eponymous hero of his "Don Quixote" as "imagining himself for the valour of his arm already crowned at least Emperor of Trebizond." Rabelais had his character Picrochole, the ruler of Piedmont, declare: "I want also to be Emperor of Trebizond." Other allusions and works set in Trebizond continue into the 20th century.


title: Empire of Trebizond

text: In Italian, there exists the expression "to lose the Trebizond" ("perdere la Trebisonda") which means "to be bewildered". Trebizond was a port reachable by all the routes that crossed the Black Sea, and therefore a safe shelter in case of storms.


title: Jensen's inequality

text: In mathematics, Jensen's inequality, named after the Danish mathematician Johan Jensen, relates the value of a convex function of an integral to the integral of the convex function. It was proved by Jensen in 1906, building on an earlier proof of the same inequality for doubly-differentiable functions by Otto Hölder in 1889. Given its generality, the inequality appears in many forms depending on the context, some of which are presented below. In its simplest form the inequality states that the convex transformation of a mean is less than or equal to the mean applied after convex transformation; it is a simple corollary that the opposite is true of concave transformations.


title: Jensen's inequality

text: Jensen's inequality generalizes the statement that the secant line of a convex function lies "above" the graph of the function, which is Jensen's inequality for two points: the secant line consists of weighted means of the convex function (for "t" ∈ [0,1]),


title: Jensen's inequality

text: In the context of probability theory, it is generally stated in the following form: if "X" is a random variable and is a convex function, then


title: Jensen's inequality

text: The classical form of Jensen's inequality involves several numbers and weights. The inequality can be stated quite generally using either the language of measure theory or (equivalently) probability. In the probabilistic setting, the inequality can be further generalized to its "full strength".


title: Jensen's inequality

text: For a real convex function formula_6, numbers formula_7 in its domain, and positive weights formula_8, Jensen's inequality can be stated as:


title: Jensen's inequality

text: For instance, the function is "concave", so substituting formula_14 in the previous formula () establishes the (logarithm of the) familiar arithmetic-mean/geometric-mean inequality:


title: Jensen's inequality

text: A common application has as a function of another variable (or set of variables) , that is, formula_16. All of this carries directly over to the general continuous case: the weights are replaced by a non-negative integrable function , such as a probability distribution, and the summations are replaced by integrals.


title: Jensen's inequality

text: Let formula_17 be a probability space. Let formula_18 be a formula_19-measurable function and formula_20 be convex. Then:


title: Jensen's inequality

text: where formula_23, and formula_24 is a non-negative Lebesgue-integrable function. In this case, the Lebesgue measure of formula_25 need not be unity. However, by integration by substitution, the interval can be rescaled so that it has measure unity. Then Jensen's inequality can be applied to get


title: Jensen's inequality

text: The same result can be equivalently stated in a probability theory setting, by a simple change of notation. Let formula_27 be a probability space, "X" an integrable real-valued random variable and a convex function. Then:


title: Jensen's inequality

text: In this probability setting, the measure is intended as a probability formula_29, the integral with respect to as an expected value formula_30, and the function formula_31 as a random variable "X".


title: Jensen's inequality

text: Note that the equality holds if and only if is a linear function on some convex set formula_32 such that formula_33 (which follows by inspecting the measure-theoretical proof below).


title: Jensen's inequality

text: More generally, let "T" be a real topological vector space, and "X" a "T"-valued integrable random variable. In this general setting, "integrable" means that there exists an element formula_34 in "T", such that for any element "z" in the dual space of "T": formula_35, and formula_36. Then, for any measurable convex function and any sub-σ-algebra formula_37 of formula_38:


title: Jensen's inequality

text: Here formula_40 stands for the expectation conditioned to the σ-algebra formula_37. This general statement reduces to the previous ones when the topological vector space is the real axis, and formula_37 is the trivial -algebra (where is the empty set, and is the sample space).


title: Jensen's inequality

text: Let "X" be a one-dimensional random variable with mean formula_19 and variance formula_44. Let formula_45 be a twice differentiable function, and define the function


title: Jensen's inequality

text: In particular, when formula_45 is convex, then formula_49, and the standard form of Jensen's inequality immediately follows for the case where formula_45 is additionally assumed to be twice differentiable.


title: Jensen's inequality

text: Jensen's inequality can be proved in several ways, and three different proofs corresponding to the different statements above will be offered. Before embarking on these mathematical derivations, however, it is worth analyzing an intuitive graphical argument based on the probabilistic case where is a real number (see figure). Assuming a hypothetical distribution of values, one can immediately identify the position of formula_34 and its image formula_52 in the graph. Noticing that for convex mappings the corresponding distribution of values is increasingly "stretched out" for increasing values of , it is easy to see that the distribution of is broader in the interval corresponding to and narrower in for any ; in particular, this is also true for formula_53. Consequently, in this picture the expectation of will always shift upwards with respect to the position of formula_52. A similar reasoning holds if the distribution of covers a decreasing portion of the convex function, or both a decreasing and an increasing portion of it. This "proves" the inequality, i.e.


title: Jensen's inequality

text: with equality when is not strictly convex, e.g. when it is a straight line, or when follows a degenerate distribution (i.e. is a constant).


title: Jensen's inequality

text: The "finite form" of the Jensen's inequality can be proved by induction: by convexity hypotheses, the statement is true for "n" = 2. Suppose the statement is true for some "n", so


title: Jensen's inequality

text: One needs to prove it for . At least one of the is strictly smaller than formula_59, say ; therefore by convexity inequality:


title: Jensen's inequality

text: We deduce the equality is true for , by the principle of mathematical induction it follows that the result is also true for all integer greater than 2.


title: Jensen's inequality

text: In order to obtain the general inequality from this finite form, one needs to use a density argument. The finite form can be rewritten as:


title: Jensen's inequality

text: Since convex functions are continuous, and since convex combinations of Dirac deltas are weakly dense in the set of probability measures (as could be easily verified), the general statement is obtained simply by a limiting procedure.


title: Jensen's inequality

text: Let formula_66 be a real-valued formula_19-integrable function on a probability space formula_68, and let formula_6 be a convex function on the real numbers. Since formula_6 is convex, at each real number formula_71 we have a nonempty set of subderivatives, which may be thought of as lines touching the graph of formula_6 at formula_71, but which are at or below the graph of formula_6 at all points (support lines of the graph).


title: Jensen's inequality

text: because of the existence of subderivatives for convex functions, we may choose formula_76 and formula_77 such that


title: Jensen's inequality

text: for almost all formula_82. Since we have a probability measure, the integral is monotone with formula_83 so that


title: Jensen's inequality

text: Let "X" be an integrable random variable that takes values in a real topological vector space "T". Since formula_85 is convex, for any formula_86, the quantity


title: Jensen's inequality

text: is decreasing as approaches 0. In particular, the "subdifferential" of formula_6 evaluated at in the direction is well-defined by


title: Jensen's inequality

text: It is easily seen that the subdifferential is linear in (that is false and the assertion requires Hahn-Banach theorem to be proved) and, since the infimum taken in the right-hand side of the previous formula is smaller than the value of the same term for , one gets


title: Jensen's inequality

text: In particular, for an arbitrary sub--algebra formula_91 we can evaluate the last inequality when formula_92 to obtain


title: Jensen's inequality

text: Now, if we take the expectation conditioned to formula_91 on both sides of the previous expression, we get the result since:


title: Jensen's inequality

text: by the linearity of the subdifferential in the "y" variable, and the following well-known property of the conditional expectation:


title: Jensen's inequality

text: In particular, if some even moment "2n" of "X" is finite, "X" has a finite mean. An extension of this argument shows "X" has finite moments of every order formula_103 dividing "n".


title: Jensen's inequality

text: Let and take to be the counting measure on , then the general form reduces to a statement about sums:


title: Jensen's inequality

text: Jensen's inequality is of particular importance in statistical physics when the convex function is an exponential, giving:


title: Jensen's inequality

text: If is the true probability density for , and is another density, then applying Jensen's inequality for the random variable and the convex function gives


title: Jensen's inequality

text: It shows that the average message length is minimised when codes are assigned on the basis of the true probabilities "p" rather than any other distribution "q". The quantity that is non-negative is called the Kullback–Leibler divergence of "q" from "p".


title: Jensen's inequality

text: Since is a strictly convex function for , it follows that equality holds when equals almost everywhere.


title: Jensen's inequality

text: If "L" is a convex function and formula_37 a sub-sigma-algebra, then, from the conditional version of Jensen's inequality, we get


title: Jensen's inequality

text: So if δ("X") is some estimator of an unobserved parameter θ given a vector of observables "X"; and if "T"("X") is a sufficient statistic for θ; then an improved estimator, in the sense of having a smaller expected loss "L", can be obtained by calculating


title: Jensen's inequality

text: the expected value of δ with respect to θ, taken over all possible vectors of observations "X" compatible with the same value of "T"("X") as that observed. Further, because T is a sufficient statistics, formula_114 does not depend on θ, hence, becomes a statistics.


title: Jensen's inequality

text: A popular method of measuring the investment performance of an investment is the Internal Rate of Return (IRR) which is the rate by which a series of uncertain future cash flows are discounted using Present Value Theory to cause the sum of the future cash flows to equal the initial investment. While it is tempting to perform Monte Carlo simulation of the IRR, Jensen's Inequality introduces a bias due to fact that the IRR function is a curved function and the expectation operator is a linear function.


title: The Santa Clause

text: The Santa Clause is a 1994 American Christmas fantasy comedy film written by Leo Benvenuti and Steve Rudnick, and directed by John Pasquin. The first installment in "The Santa Clause" franchise, it stars Tim Allen as Scott Calvin, an ordinary man who accidentally causes Santa Claus (played by Tim Allen's actual stunt double, Steve Lucescu) to fall from his roof on Christmas Eve. When he and his young son, Charlie, finish St. Nick's trip and deliveries, they go to the North Pole where Scott learns that he must become the new Santa and convince those he loves that he is indeed Santa Claus.


title: The Santa Clause

text: The film was released on November 11, 1994, and grossed $190 million. It received positive reviews from critics and it has since become a Christmas-time staple among viewers. Its success led to two sequels, "The Santa Clause 2" (2002) and "" (2006), which were both financially successful despite the former's mixed and the latter's negative reception. The franchise continues with a follow-up series "The Santa Clauses", which premiered November 16, 2022 on Disney+.


title: The Santa Clause

text: Successful toy salesman Scott Calvin prepares to spend Christmas Eve with his son Charlie. Scott wants Charlie to maintain his belief in Santa Claus, despite not believing himself. Scott's former wife, Laura, and her psychiatrist husband Dr. Neal Miller, both stopped believing in Santa at a young age and feel that Charlie needs to do so as well (after an older kid made Charlie upset by saying Santa is not real).


title: The Santa Clause

text: On Christmas Eve Scott burns the turkey he was cooking, so he and Charlie go to Denny's for dinner. The two share an uneventful evening and go to sleep. They are awakened by a noise on the roof. Scott startles a man wearing a Santa suit standing on the roof, who slips and falls to the ground. The man's body vanishes, leaving behind a red suit and business card that states: "If something should happen to me, put on my suit. The reindeer will know what to do." Scott and Charlie find a sleigh and reindeer still on the roof. At Charlie's request, Scott dons the suit and spends the rest of the night delivering gifts before the reindeer take them to the North Pole. Bernard the head elf explains that, by putting on the suit, Scott is subject to a legal technicality known as "The Santa Clause", and has accepted all of Santa's duties and responsibilities. Bernard gives Scott eleven months to get his affairs in order before reporting back to the North Pole on Thanksgiving. Confused and overwhelmed, Scott changes into the pajamas provided to him and falls asleep.


title: The Santa Clause

text: Awakening in his own bed, Scott thinks it was all a dream (though he is confused that he is wearing the North Pole pajamas). Laura, Neal, and the school staff are concerned when Charlie proudly tells his school class that Scott is Santa. Not wanting to destroy Charlie's newfound enthusiasm, Scott asks him to keep their North Pole trip a secret. Over the course of the year, strange things begin to happen to Scott. His hair turns white and a beard constantly re-grows, even immediately after shaving. He develops an increased fondness for sweets, primarily milk and cookies. He gains an inordinate amount of weight seemingly overnight. During a meeting with his company, Scott becomes angry at a proposal to advertise a toy military tank by showing Santa riding it. He also begins to recount 'naughty' and 'nice' children by name when he sees them. After Laura and Neal witness children wanting to sit on Scott's lap at Charlie's soccer game, they assume Scott is deliberately misleading Charlie and decide to have a judge suspend Scott's visitation rights. At Thanksgiving, a desperate Scott goes to Laura and Neal's house to see to Charlie but Neal will not let him anywhere near Charlie. When Neal insists that Scott is not Santa, Charlie shows Scott a magical snow globe that Bernard had given him, finally convincing Scott that he really is Santa. When Laura and Neal allow Scott a minute to talk to Charlie alone, Bernard appears and transports him and Charlie to the North Pole. Thinking Scott has kidnapped Charlie, Laura and Neal call the police.


title: The Santa Clause

text: On Christmas Eve, Scott sets out to deliver gifts with Charlie in tow. Upon arriving at Laura and Neal's home, Scott is arrested inside the house while Charlie waits for him in the sleigh. The elves send a team to break him out of jail. Scott returns Charlie to his house and insists he spend Christmas Eve with Laura and Neal. His heartfelt speech to Charlie about the importance of everyone in the family convinces Laura and Neal that he is Santa. Laura burns the court papers suspending Scott's visitation rights, and tells Scott he can visit anytime. Bernard appears and tells Charlie that any time he shakes his magical snow globe his father will appear. Before leaving, Scott gives Laura and Neal the two Christmas presents that they never got as children, which had caused their disbelief in Santa.


title: The Santa Clause

text: Charlie summons Scott back with the snow globe and Laura agrees to let Charlie go with Scott in the sleigh to finish delivering the presents.


title: The Santa Clause

text: The script was written on spec by Steve Rudnick and Leo Benvenuti. In November 1992, it was announced Hollywood Pictures had acquired the script as a potential starring vehicle for Tim Allen.


title: The Santa Clause

text: The film was shot at Raleigh Studios in Hollywood, California, and on location in the Greater Toronto Area, with Oakville serving as the city of Lakeside, Illinois. The reindeer used in the film were all from the Toronto Zoo. The trains used in the North Pole scene and the start of the film were all made by LGB.


title: The Santa Clause

text: Bill Murray and Chevy Chase were offered the role of Scott Calvin, but both turned it down; Chase declined due to scheduling conflicts, and Murray did not want to do another holiday-themed movie after doing "Scrooged". Tom Selleck, Tom Hanks, and Mel Gibson were also considered for the role. Jeff Daniels, Stanley Tucci and Bradley Whitford were considered for the role of Neal Miller. Patricia Richardson, Patricia Clarkson, Patricia Heaton, and Kate Burton were considered for the role of Laura Miller.


title: The Santa Clause

text: "The Santa Clause" grossed $145.3 million in the United States and Canada, and $45 million in other territories, for a worldwide, total of $190.3 million.


title: The Santa Clause

text: The film grossed $19.3 million in its opening weekend, finishing second at the US box office behind "Interview with the Vampire" which opened with $36 million. In its second weekend it grossed $17.1 million, finishing third. Over the three-day Thanksgiving frame it then made $20.4 million. In November 2020, with the COVID-19 pandemic limiting new releases, "The Santa Clause" was re-released into 1,581 theaters and grossed $711,000.


title: The Santa Clause

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 73% based on 59 reviews, with an average rating of 5.9/10. The website's critics consensus reads: ""The Santa Clause" is utterly undemanding, but it's firmly rooted in the sort of good old-fashioned holiday spirit missing from too many modern yuletide films."


title: The Santa Clause

text: On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 57 out of 100, based on reviews from 13 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade "A−" on scale of A+ to F.


title: The Santa Clause

text: Sandi Davis of "The Oklahoman" ended up placing the film sixth overall on her list of the best films of 1994.


title: The Santa Clause

text: At one point of the film, a brief exchange between Scott and Laura takes place in which Laura hands Scott a piece of paper with Neal's mother's phone number on it. Scott then says "1-800-SPANK-ME. I know that number." In the United States, the exchange was removed from all home media releases of the film (except for the VHS and LaserDisc releases) and most digital downloads starting with the 1999 DVD release after a 1996 incident in which a child from Steilacoom, Washington called the number (which turned out to be an actual, working sex line number) and incurred a phone bill of . The line is also removed from the Disney+ print. On television broadcasts, the number is changed to 1-800-POUND.


title: The Santa Clause

text: "The Santa Clause" was released on DVD on October 29, 2002, and was presented in THX certified widescreen and fullscreen versions.


title: Jonny Buckland

text: Jonathan Mark Buckland (born 11 September 1977) is an English-born Welsh musician and songwriter best known as the lead guitarist and co-founder of the rock band Coldplay. Raised in Pantymwyn, he began to play guitar from an early age, being influenced by acts such as The Stone Roses, My Bloody Valentine and U2. Noted for sparse and delicate arrangements, he uses the slide bar and delay pedal with a stylistic chiming and ringing timbre that led to comparisons with the Edge.


title: Jonny Buckland

text: Buckland has a degree in mathematics and astronomy at University College London, where he formed Coldplay with Chris Martin, Guy Berryman and Will Champion. The group signed with Parlophone in 1999, finding global fame through the release of "Parachutes" (2000) and subsequent records. He won seven Grammy Awards and nine Brit Awards as part of Coldplay. The band have sold over 100 million albums worldwide as of 2021, making them the most successful group of the 21st century.


title: Jonny Buckland

text: Jonathan Mark Buckland was born on 11 September 1977 in Islington, London, England, being the second child of high school teacher John Buckland and his wife Joy. The family moved to Pantymwyn, Flintshire, Wales when he was four years old. He attended Ysgol y Waun primary school, while secondary education was held at Alun School, learning guitar notes and chords in the former and taking A-level music lessons on the latter. His teacher, Margaret Parr, mentioned that Buckland was "always extremely interested" on the subject and had particular strength for composition. He listened to numerous Jimi Hendrix and Eric Clapton records owned by his parents during his childhood, being encouraged to attain further experience on the guitar by his brother Tim, who introduced him to My Bloody Valentine, Sonic Youth, The Stone Roses, George Harrison, U2 and other similar artists.


title: Jonny Buckland

text: Before that, when Buckland was seven years old, he had piano lessons but did not enjoy them. At 10 years old, he was part of a rap group and experimented with computer music using beats consisting of dog barks. He joined the Scouts when he was 11 years old and mentioned still liking the uniform in 2008. He then added that, one night when his friends were playing on a field, they had an encounter with an angry sheep which ran over and attacked him multiple times. The experience caused him to not wear wool or eat lamb since then. In October 2019, he remembered taking a holiday job at North Wales' "Daily Post" which consisted on placing photos of houses for sale in the pressings. His education was continued at University College London, where he attained a 2:1 degree in mathematics and astronomy and formed Coldplay with Chris Martin, Guy Berryman and Will Champion.


title: Jonny Buckland

text: Buckland was responsible for co-founding the band along with Martin, they met each other during their orientation week in 1996. Both resided at the university's Ramsay Hall, where Champion mentioned there were "a lot of musicians and a lot of show-offs", but "Jonny was not one of those show-offs", he further added that "the bloke who turned out to be the best guitarist out of all of us was the bloke who had his guitar hidden in his cupboard and who never got it out or was pushy about his guitaring". Martin said that meeting Buckland was "like falling in love". The pair spend the rest of the year planning a band, which led to the formation of Pectoralz. They began to write their first songs together in early 1997 and practised every night. Berryman and Champion joined them in the following months.


title: Jonny Buckland

text: The previous group name had already been dropped by 1998, with Starfish being chosen "in a panic" after Champion scheduled their live debut at The Laurel Tree only a few days after he became part of the band. In Coldplay, Buckland is frequently regarded as quiet, friendly, unassuming and "the wise owl" of the group. During an interview, Martin commented spending his "entire life trying to drag him out of the shadows, because I know that he is a guitar hero – to me anyway". The band used his bedroom for rehearsals in their early years, being near the neighbors who "were able to tolerate the noise". They stated in 2019 that Buckland is usually the first to either disapprove or give his input on Martin's initial song ideas, although he was responsible for starting tracks like "Adventure of a Lifetime" on his own, which was released as the lead single for their seventh album "A Head Full of Dreams" (2015). Despite not being the group's most prominent backing vocalist, he can be heard in many songs and provided lead vocals in "Don't Panic", the opening track of "Parachutes" (2000).


title: Jonny Buckland

text: Buckland guest starred on Ian McCulloch's solo album "Slideling" (2003) by playing in the tracks "Sliding" and "Arthur". He also made a cameo appearance along with Martin on the comedy horror film "Shaun of the Dead" (2004). Both of them were featured in "Slashed" (2010), a low budget independent horror film directed by Northern Irish rock band Ash. In October 2019, he assisted in Jodie Whittaker's "Yellow" cover recording for BBC's Children in Need album along with Champion.


title: Jonny Buckland

text: Buckland usually uses a Fender 72' Telecaster Thinline, which is known to have a fuller sound compared to the usual models. He is occasionally seen with Jazzmaster, Jaguar and Gibson ES-335 guitars as well, the latter was used while Coldplay recorded "A Rush of Blood to the Head" (2002). While he has two Fender Hot Rod DeVille amplifiers, there are conflicting reports on whether they are the 2x12 or 4x10 version. His pedals include Fulltone OCD, which is used for boost; the Electro-Harmonix Micro POG, Pro Co RAT (vintage model) and Ibanez TS9 Tube Screamer, which are combined for distortion; the BOSS RV-3 for reverb; and BOSS TR-2 for tremolo. He also makes extensive use of the Line 6 DL4 pedal, while a MXR Phase 90 can be heard at the ending riff of the song "Fix You". His favourite Coldplay guitar riff is "Hurts Like Heaven".


title: Jonny Buckland

text: Noted for sparse and delicate arrangements, Buckland have stated that "I've never gone in much for the solos. I was always more interested in atmospherics. Listening to bands like Mercury Rev, My Bloody Valentine, or even The Verve, the way those guitarists played. There's no Van Halen in me". His use of slide bar have a stylistic chiming and ringing timbre which led to comparisons with U2's the Edge, who commented during an interview at Glastonbury that "Jonny is an inspiration to guitar players everywhere, I am proud to know that I was one of his main influences. It makes me feel like a real rock star". In 2020, he shared on social media playlists with some of his favourite tracks and artists from each decade, including The Velvet Underground, Carole King, Joy Division, Talking Heads, Kate Bush, Donna Summer, Björk, Beastie Boys and many others.


title: Jonny Buckland

text: According to "The Times", Buckland has an estimated wealth of £113 million as of May 2022. He is a lifelong supporter of Tottenham Hotspur. After being vegetarian for a few years, he gave up while traveling to Japan, where he was not able to communicate his options to the waiters and was served beef, finding out "he really liked it". However, he still does Meat Free Mondays along with his bandmates. In 2007, his older brother Tim founded alternative rock group The Domino State, which supported Coldplay at the O2 Arena shows from Viva la Vida Tour. He married jewelry designer Chloe Lee-Evans in 2009; the couple have two children.


title: Jonny Buckland

text: The family currently resides in the Hampstead area of Camden, London, but they also own two apartments in Manhattan, New York. Buckland purchased the first of them for $3.4 million in 2008, while the second was bought for $4.5 million in 2016. He is godfather to Martin's daughter Apple along with English actor Simon Pegg. During an interview for BBC Radio 2, he mentioned that his favourite non-musical activity is reading books. His great grandfather formed a band named Big Buckland's Dance Orchestra between the late 1910s and early 1920s, a photograph of them was used as an inspiration for the album cover and vintage aesthetics of "Everyday Life" (2019).


title: Haddock

text: The haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) is a saltwater ray-finned fish from the family Gadidae, the true cods. It is the only species in the monotypic genus "Melanogrammus". It is found in the North Atlantic Ocean and associated seas where it is an important species for fisheries, especially in northern Europe where it is marketed fresh, frozen and smoked; smoked varieties include the Finnan haddie and the Arbroath smokie.


title: Haddock

text: The haddock has the elongated, tapering body shape typical of members of the cod family. It has a relatively small mouth which does not extend to below the eye; with the lower profile of the face being straight and the upper profile slightly rounded, this gives its snout a characteristic wedge-shaped profile. The upper jaw projects beyond the lower more so than in the Atlantic cod. There is a rather small barbel on the chin. There are three dorsal fins, the first being triangular in shape and these dorsal fins have 14 to 17 fin rays in the first, 20 to 24 in the second, and 19 to 22 in the third. There are also two anal fins and in these there are 21 to 25 fin rays in the first and 20 to 24 fin rays in the second. The anal and dorsal fins are all separated from each other. The pelvic fins are small with an elongated first fin ray.


title: Haddock

text: The upper side of the haddock's body varies in colour from dark grey brown to nearly black while the lower part of the body is dull silvery white. It has a distinctive black lateral line contrasting with the whitish background colour and which curves slightly over the pectoral fins. It also has a distinctive oval black blotch or ‘thumbprint’, sometimes called the "Devil's thumbprint", which sits between the lateral line and the pectoral fin, a feature which leads to the name of the genus "Melanogrammus" which derives from Greek ""melanos"" meaning "black" and ""gramma"" meaning letter or signal. The dorsal, pectoral, and caudal fins are dark grey in colour while the anal fins are pale matching the colour of the silvery sides, with black speckles at their bases. The pelvic fins are white with a variable amount of black spots. Occasionally there are differently coloured variants recorded which may be barred, golden on the back or lack the dark shoulder blotch.


title: Haddock

text: The longest haddock recorded was in length and weighed . However, haddock are rarely over in length and the vast majority of haddocks caught in the United Kingdom measure between . In eastern Canada waters, haddock range in size from in length and in weight.


title: Haddock

text: The haddock has populations on either side of the north Atlantic but it is more abundant in the eastern Atlantic than it is on the North American side. In the north-east Atlantic it occurs from the Bay of Biscay north to Spitzbergen; however, it is most abundant north of the English Channel. It also occurs around Novaya Zemlya and the Barents Sea in the Arctic. The largest stocks are in the North Sea, off the Faroe Islands, off Iceland and the coast of Norway but these are discrete populations with little interchange between them. Off North America, the haddock is found from western Greenland south to Cape Hatteras, but the main commercially fished stock occurs from Cape Cod and the Grand Banks.


title: Haddock

text: The haddock is a demersal species which occurs at depths from , although it is most frequently recorded at . It is found over substrates made up of rock, sand, gravel or shells and it prefers temperatures of between . Off Iceland and in the Barents Sea, haddock undergo extensive migrations, but in the north western Atlantic its movements are more restricted, consisting of movements to and from their spawning areas. They reach sexual maturity at 4 years old in males and 5 years old in females, except for the population in the North Sea which matures at ages of 2 years in males and 3 years in females. The overall sex ratio is roughly 1:1, but in shallower areas, females predominate, while the males show a preference for waters further offshore.


title: Haddock

text: The fecundity of the females varies with size: a fish of length bears 55,000 eggs while a fish at has 1,841,000 eggs. Spawning takes place from depths of around . In the northwestern Atlantic spawning lasts from January to July, although it does not occur simultaneously in all areas, and in the northeastern Atlantic the spawning season runs from February to June, peaking in March and April. The eggs are pelagic with a diameter of , and they take one to three weeks to hatch. Following metamorphosis, the past larval fish remain pelagic until they attain a length of around , when they settle to a demersal habit. Their growth rate shows considerable regional variation and fish at one year old can measure , at 2 years old , up to at 13 years old. Their lifespan is around 14 years. The most important spawning grounds are in the waters off the central coast of Norway, off the southwest of Iceland, and over the Georges Bank. The fish which spawn in inshore waters are normally smaller and younger fish than those which occur in offshore areas. The younger fish have a spawning season which is less than half of that of the larger and older stock offshore. Once hatched the larvae do not appear to travel far from their spawning grounds, however some larvae spawning off the west coast of Scotland are transported into the North Sea through the Fair Isle-Shetland Gap or to the northeast of Shetland.


title: Haddock

text: In their larval stages, haddock mainly feed on the immature stages of copepods and the pelagic post-larvae up to in length prey on krill, Larvaceans, decapod larvae, copepods and on small fish. Once they have reached the settled, demersal, post-larval stage, benthic invertebrates become increasingly important although they still feed on pelagic organisms such as krill, however the benthic invertebrates form an increasing part of their diet as they grow. Adults prey on fish such as sand eels, "Trisopterus esmarkii", American plaice, gobies, European sprat, and Atlantic herring, as well as capelin, silver hake, American eels and argentines. When a number of fish taken at the same time have their stomach contents sampled, the majority of stomachs contain similar prey, this suggests that haddocks feed in shoals. Shellfish, sea urchins, brittlestars and worms are also important prey, especially in the winter. Juvenile haddock are an important prey for larger demersal fish, including other gadoids, while seals prey on the larger fish.


title: Haddock

text: The recorded growth rates of haddock underwent significant change over the 30 to 40 years up to 2011. Growth has been more rapid in recent years, with haddock attaining adult size much earlier than was noted 30–40 years ago. However, the degree to which these larger, younger fish contribute to reproductive success of the population is unknown. The growth rates of haddock, however, have slowed in recent years. There is some evidence which indicates that these slower growth rates may be the result of an exceptionally large year class in 2003. The haddock stock periodically has higher than normal productivity; for example in 1962 and 1967, and to a lesser extent, 1974 and 1999. These result in a more southerly distribution of the fish and have a strong effect on the biomass of the spawning stock, but because of high fishing mortality, these revivals do not have any lasting effect on the population. In general, there was above average recruitment from the 1960s up to the early 1980s, similar to recruitment for Atlantic cod and whiting, this has been called the "gadoid outburst". There was strong recruitment in 1999 but since then, the recruitment rate has been very low.


title: Haddock

text: Cod and related species are plagued by parasites. For example, the cod worm, "Lernaeocera branchialis", starts life as a copepod, a small, free-swimming crustacean larva. The first host used by cod worm is a flatfish or lumpsucker, which they capture with grasping hooks at the front of their bodies. They penetrate the lumpsucker with a thin filament which they use to suck its blood. The nourished cod worms then mate on the lumpsucker.


title: Haddock

text: The female worm, with her now fertilized eggs, then finds a cod, or a cod-like fish such as a haddock or whiting. There, the worm clings to the gills while it metamorphoses into a plump, sinusoidal, wormlike body, with a coiled mass of egg strings at the rear. The front part of the worm's body penetrates the body of the cod until it enters the rear bulb of the host's heart. There, firmly rooted in the cod's circulatory system, the front part of the parasite develops like the branches of a tree, reaching into the main artery. In this way, the worm extracts nutrients from the cod's blood, remaining safely tucked beneath the cod's gill cover until it releases a new generation of offspring into the water.


title: Haddock

text: The haddock was first formally described as "Gadus aeglefinus" in 1758 by Carolus Linnaeus in the 10th edition of volume one of his "Systema naturae" with a type locality given as "European seas". In 1862 Theodore Nicholas Gill created the genus "Melanogrammus" with "M. aeglefinus" as its only species. The generic name "Melanogrammus" means "black line", a reference to the black lateral line of this species. The specific name is a latinisation of the vernacular names “Egrefin” and “Eglefin”, used in France and England.


title: Haddock

text: Haddock is fished year-round using gear such as Danish seine nets, trawlers, long lines and gill nets and is often caught in mixed species fishery with other groundfish species such as cod and whiting. The main fishing grounds in the eastern Atlantic are in the Barents Sea, around Iceland, around the Faeroe Islands, in the North Sea, Celtic Sea, and in the English Channel. Landings in the eastern Atlantic have fluctuated around 200–350 thousand tonnes in the period 1980–2017. During the 1980s, the largest portion of the catch was taken at Rockall but from about 2000, the majority of the catch is caught in the Barents Sea. All the stocks in eastern Atlantic are assessed by ICES which publish a recommendations on an annual basis for Total Allowable Catch.


title: Haddock

text: In the western Atlantic the eastern Georges Bank haddock stock is jointly assessed on an annual basis by Canada and the United States and the stock is collaboratively managed through the Canada-United States Transboundary Management Guidance Committee, this committee was established in 2000. The commercial catch of haddock in North America was approximately 40–60 thousand tonnes per year between 1920 and 1960, this declined sharply in the late 1960s to between 5 and 30 thousand tonnes per year. Despite a few good year classes post 1970, landings have not returned to historical levels.


title: Haddock

text: Haddock currently resides on the Greenpeace seafood red due to concerns regarding the impact of bottom trawls on the marine environment. In contrast, Monterey Bay Aquarium considers haddock a "good alternative". Many haddock fisheries have been certified as sustainable by the Marine Stewardship Council. All seven stocks assessed in the eastern Atlantic are currently considered by ICES to be harvested sustainably. The haddock populations in the western Atlantic (offshore grounds of Georges Bank off New England and Nova Scotia) are also considered to be harvested sustainably.


title: Haddock

text: Haddock is very popular as a food fish. It is sold fresh or preserved by smoking, freezing, drying, or to a small extent canning. Haddock, along with Atlantic cod and plaice, is one of the most popular fish used in British fish and chips. When fresh, the flesh of haddock is clean and white and its cooking is often similar to that of cod. A fresh haddock fillet will be firm and translucent and hold together well but less fresh fillets will become nearly opaque. Young, fresh haddock and cod fillets are often sold as scrod in Boston, Massachusetts; this refers to the size of the fish which have a variety of sizes, i.e., scrod, markets, and cows. Haddock is the predominant fish of choice in Scotland in a fish supper. It is also the main ingredient of Norwegian fishballs ("fiskeboller"). Unlike cod, haddock is not an appropriate fish for salting and preservation is more commonly effected by drying and smoking.


title: Haddock

text: The smoking of haddock was highly refined in Grimsby. Traditional Grimsby smoked fish (mainly haddock, but sometimes cod) is produced in the traditional smokehouses in Grimsby, which are mostly family-run businesses that have developed their skills over many generations. Grimsby fish market sources its haddock from the North East Atlantic, principally Iceland, Norway and the Faroe Islands. These fishing grounds are sustainably managed and have not seen the large scale depreciation in fish stocks seen in EU waters.


title: Haddock

text: One popular form of haddock is Finnan haddie which is named after the fishing village of Finnan or Findon in Scotland, where the fish was originally cold-smoked over smouldering peat. Finnan haddie is often poached in milk and served for breakfast.


title: Haddock

text: The town of Arbroath on the east coast of Scotland produces the Arbroath smokie. This is a hot-smoked haddock which requires no further cooking before eating.


title: Haddock

text: Smoked haddock is naturally an off-white colour and it is frequently dyed yellow, as are other smoked fish. Smoked haddock is the essential ingredient in the Anglo-Indian dish kedgeree, and also in the Scottish dish Cullen skink, a chowder-like soup.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: Rory Elizabeth Katherine Kennedy (born December 12, 1968) is an American documentary filmmaker who is the eleventh and youngest child of U.S. Senator Robert F. Kennedy and Ethel Skakel. Kennedy has made documentary films that center on social issues such as addiction, nuclear radiation, the treatment of prisoners-of-war, and the politics of the Mexican border fence. Her films have been featured on many television networks.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: Rory Kennedy was born on December 12, 1968 in Georgetown University Hospital in Washington, D.C. to parents Robert F. Kennedy, a former United States Attorney General, U.S. Senator, and 1968 U.S. presidential candidate, and his wife Ethel Kennedy. She was born six months after her father was assassinated. Her mother chose her name "Rory" after the last high king of Ireland, Rory O'Connor, who ruled in the 12th century.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: On December 19, 1968, a week after Rory was born, her mother took her to her father's grave at Arlington National Cemetery. Kennedy's older brother Michael LeMoyne Kennedy was assigned as her godparent by their mother. In December 1997, she tried to resuscitate her brother Michael after a skiing accident in Aspen, Colorado, which was fatal. Friends of the Kennedy family said Rory and Michael spoke almost every day of their lives.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: When Rory was a teenager, she was arrested during a protest outside the South African Embassy. When she was 15, her 28-year-old brother David died from a drug overdose. Rory graduated from Madeira School in McLean, Virginia and then Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island. During her sophomore year at Brown, Rory organized a rally in front of a Providence supermarket. In solidarity with migrant farm workers, she urged shoppers to boycott grapes.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: In the 1990s, Rory and fellow Brown classmate Vanessa Vadim (daughter of Roger Vadim and Jane Fonda) formed May Day Media, a non-profit organization based in Washington, D.C., that specializes in the production and distribution of films with a social conscience. "Women of Substance" was Kennedy's first documentary. The film was released in 1994, and the idea came out of a paper about female addicts that she wrote while a student at Brown. In 1998, Kennedy and another fellow Brown graduate Liz Garbus founded Moxie Firecracker Films, which specializes in documentaries that highlight pressing social issues. The television networks that have shown its films include: A&E, the UK's Channel 4, Court TV, Discovery Channel, HBO, Lifetime, MTV, Oxygen, PBS, Sundance Channel, and TLC.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: She directed and co-produced "American Hollow" (1999), a film about a struggling Appalachian family that received critical acclaim and many awards. HBO broadcast the film and publisher Little, Brown and Company simultaneously released Kennedy's companion book. Kennedy presented the documentary at Wittenberg University on September 13, 2001. After the film's presentation, she answered questions.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: In October 2001, Kennedy traveled to Cleveland, Ohio, to address the opening meeting of the National Council of Jewish Women. At the meeting, she spoke about her documentary film-production company "Change the World Through Film".


title: Rory Kennedy

text: Kennedy directed and co-produced the Emmy Award-nominated series "Pandemic: Facing AIDS" (2003), which premiered at the International AIDS Conference in Barcelona, Spain, on July 8, 2002. It was funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, and it tells the real stories of AIDS patients outside the Western world. It was broadcast in America as a five-part series on HBO in June 2003.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: Kennedy directed and co-produced "A Boy's Life" (2004), the story of a young boy and his family in rural Mississippi. The movie premiered to rave reviews at the 2003 Tribeca Film Festival and was awarded the Best Documentary prize at the Woodstock Film Festival; it was later broadcast on HBO.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: When Kennedy was asked in a March 24, 2004, interview with "Salon" about her interest in the American South, she cited her father's experiences in the region as an inspiration and starting point. In the same article, she goes on to mention that showing class differences in American culture also motivates her.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: She directed and co-produced "Indian Point: Imagining the Unimaginable" (2004) for HBO, which was broadcast on September 9, 2004. The film takes a "what if" look at the catastrophic consequences of a radioactive release at the Indian Point Energy Center, a three-unit nuclear-power plant station, located north of midtown Manhattan, New York City, New York.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: Rory directed and co-produced "Homestead Strike" (2006) as part of The History Channel's series, "10 Days that Unexpectedly Changed America" (April 2006).


title: Rory Kennedy

text: She was a co-executive producer for "Street Fight" (2005), which chronicles the 2002 Newark, New Jersey, unsuccessful mayoral campaign of Democratic Cory Booker — then a Newark Municipal Councilman — against Democratic eighteen-year incumbent Mayor Sharpe James. The film earned an Academy Award nomination for Best Documentary (Feature). (Booker later won the mayoral election on May 9, 2006, against Democratic Ronald Rice; James did not seek re-election for another four-year term in 2006.)


title: Rory Kennedy

text: Kennedy directed and co-produced "Ghosts of Abu Ghraib" (2007), which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and won the 2007 Primetime Emmy Award for Best Documentary. Kennedy first learned of the Abu Ghraib prison practices when images came out in the media, which were accompanied by a "New Yorker" article by Seymour Hersh. According to Kennedy, she was "horrified and shocked and disgusted" by the images of the naked prisoners and laughing American soldiers. She conducted interviews with people who were present at the prison along with those directly involved in the abuse. Kennedy's opinion of the participants changed after she interviewed them, when she began feeling they "were very humane and very much like me" and discovered they "were not monsters."


title: Rory Kennedy

text: She directed "Thank You, Mr. President: Helen Thomas at the White House" for HBO Documentary Films, which premiered on HBO on August 18, 2008. According to reviews, the 40-minute-long documentary provided an interesting, though brief, glimpse into the iconic journalist.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: Kennedy directed "The Fence (La Barda)", which premiered at the opening night of The Sundance Film Festival 2010. The film made its debut on HBO on September 16, 2010. Favorably received, it details the woeful inadequacies of the border fence between the United States and Mexico, which has increased migrants' deaths, but does not deter illegal immigration.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: In 2011, she produced and directed "Ethel", which was a documentary about her mother. The movie premiered at the 2012 Sundance Film Festival and aired on HBO on October 18, 2012. Reviews portrayed the documentary as a moving tribute, but criticized its lack of depth. Kennedy conducted interviews with her siblings over five days at the Kennedy family compound in Hyannis Port. For the finished film, she went through "some 100 hours" of archive footage, photos and home videos.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: "Last Days in Vietnam" was directed by Kennedy and co-produced with Keven McAlester; the documentary film debuted at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2014. During production of the film, she spoke with U.S. military and Vietnam nationals now in the U.S. and said the most exciting part of the film to her was "telling the untold stories about Americans and Vietnamese who were on the ground, who went against U.S. policy and risked their lives to save Vietnamese". Kennedy was reported to have signed with production company Nonfiction Unlimited in May 2014. In September 2014, "Last Days in Vietnam" opened at the Nuart Theater in Los Angeles. Kennedy had difficulty getting some of the people featured in her film to get involved. Out of them, she believed Henry Kissinger had the most reluctance to the project. On their reluctance, Kennedy stated: "I think a lot of those folks suffered post-traumatic stress from that moment. When I asked them to relive it, it really took a toll. Many of the people told me it took them a week to recover from the interviews. I've gotten tons of emails from people in Vietnam who can't see the film because it's too traumatic for them." "Last Days in Vietnam" was nominated as Best Documentary Feature for the 87th Academy Awards.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: Kennedy advocates for several social activism organizations and sits on the board of numerous non-profit organizations. In March 2010, Kennedy gave a presentation at The Ritz-Carlton, where she spoke on the effects of alcohol and drug abuse and concluded that addiction and domestic violence "are intricately connected." She also voiced her support of treatment options, calling them "more important than the criminal justice approach". Executive director and CEO of Comprehensive Alcoholism Rehabilitation Programs Robert Bozzone agreed with her opinion and added, "If you listen to Rory, treatment is more effective than incarceration." Referring to the shooting of Michael Brown, Kennedy believed the reason it garnered national media attention "is that it's a touch point that indicates a larger social challenge that we all need to mull over and try to grapple with in a thoughtful and considerate way, and I think it has to do both with race and class."


title: Rory Kennedy

text: On January 11, 2019, Kennedy co-authored a Rolling Stone opinion piece with Red Hot Chili Peppers singer Anthony Kiedis and the Malibu Foundation's Trevor Neilson on the current climate crisis.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: Kennedy announced her support of Barack Obama as the Democratic Party's nominee in the 2008 U.S. presidential election in an op-ed essay, "Two fine choices, one clear decision - Obama", in the "San Francisco Chronicle" stating:


title: Rory Kennedy

text: Kennedy's brother Michael LeMoyne Kennedy died in December 1997 as a result of a skiing accident. She was with him at the time of the accident and tried to save his life by giving him mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Despite her efforts, he had been fatally injured and his blood stained her mouth. Kennedy attended his funeral in January 1998.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: On August 2, 1999, Kennedy married Mark Bailey in Greece at the mansion of shipping tycoon Vardis Vardinoyiannis. Kennedy met Bailey in Washington through mutual friends after graduating from Brown University. The wedding was originally scheduled for July 17 in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, but was postponed after the plane piloted by her cousin John F. Kennedy, Jr. and passengers Carolyn Bessette-Kennedy (his wife) and her sister, Lauren Bessette crashed en route to the event. The tent erected for the wedding instead became a site for family prayers during the search for her cousin.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: In October 1999, Kennedy and her husband moved with their dog Clementine to a new home in a West Village neighborhood they reportedly "loved."


title: Rory Kennedy

text: Rory and Mark have two daughters, Georgia Elizabeth Kennedy-Bailey (b. 2002) and Bridget Katherine Kennedy-Bailey (b. 2004), and one son, Zachary Corkland Kennedy-Bailey (b. 2007).


title: Rory Kennedy

text: Around the time of the birth of her second daughter in 2004, Kennedy and her husband purchased a home. Kennedy went on maternity leave from her filmmaking career for the birth of her son in 2007. She sold her Shelter Island home in December 2009.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: Rory's nephew Conor dated Taylor Swift in 2012. According to Ethel Kennedy, Swift began associating with the family after Rory attended a concert with Georgia and Bridget Kennedy. Rory said she loved the singer and her music.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: In July 2012, Kennedy's sister Kerry swerved her Lexus SUV into a tractor-trailer on Interstate 684. During the trial in February 2014, Kennedy defended her sister by insisting that she had "reputation for sobriety and general healthy living".


title: Rory Kennedy

text: According to Trulia.com, Kennedy purchased a home in Malibu, California, in January 2013 and currently resides there.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: Prior to the 1990s, Kennedy was said to have been known solely for being the child who was born after the assassination of her father, Robert F. Kennedy. Following the plane crash of her cousin John F. Kennedy, Jr., she established notability for being the cousin whose wedding he planned to attend. Anita Gates of "The New York Times" wrote that Kennedy would understandably want to be known as "the one who became a filmmaker."


title: Rory Kennedy

text: She has elicited sympathy in some corners. Edward Klein wrote in his book "The Kennedy Curse: Why Tragedy Has Haunted America's First Family for 150 Years" that Rory Kennedy "had suffered more from the Kennedy Curse than any other member of the family." Klein then listed the deaths of her father and brother David, as well as her role in unsuccessfully attempting to save the life of her brother Michael Kennedy.


title: Rory Kennedy

text: Kennedy has spoken of her work and its relation to that of her father. "I don't think of it as a continuation of his work, but I certainly think I was influenced by the person that he was and have made a range of choices because of what he contributed to the world. I have enormous respect for all that he accomplished in his short life and how much he was able to move people and touch people. I've certainly been inspired by that." On January 14, 2010, Full Frame announced Kennedy and Liz Garbus would be the recipients of that year's Career Award. In the press release, Full Frame called the duo's work "unique".


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: Bendy and the Ink Machine is an episodic first-person survival horror video game developed and published by Kindly Beast under the name of the game's in-universe animation studio Joey Drew Studios Inc. It was initially released to Game Jolt on February 10, 2017, as the first of five chapters, with a full worldwide release on October 27, 2018. The game was also released for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch on November 20, 2018, being published by Rooster Teeth Games, and for IOS and Android on December 21, 2018.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: Inspired by the "BioShock" game series, the game is set in the fictional Joey Drew Studios. The player controls Henry Stein, a retired animator who receives a letter inviting him


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: back to his old workplace. Stein discovers a series of strange paranormal activities caused by the titular Ink Machine. In the game, players navigate through a first person perspective and need to complete certain tasks to proceed, such as combat, collecting objects or solving puzzles. Players can also find audio logs recorded by the studio's employees in order to understand the game's history.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: "Bendy and the Ink Machine" was well-received upon its initial release. Praise centered on its vintage aesthetic and story, although its puzzles and combat mechanics were less popular. In the months following its release, the game quickly gained a large following from exposure on platforms like YouTube and Twitch, and eventually was approved through Steam Greenlight in mid-2017. Merchandise, as well as a mobile spin-off, was later introduced to further promote the game. Mike Mood, the game's programmer and co-creator, described the game as an "accidental success". "Bendy and the Dark Revival", the next game in the series, was released on November 15, 2022.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: "Bendy and the Ink Machine" is a first person survival that resembles several cartoons in the late 1930s to 1940s. The player plays as Henry Stein, a retired animator who returns to his old workplace, Joey Drew Studios, and discovers that a machine has destroyed the entire studio and brought certain cartoon characters to life. The game mixes combat with puzzle mechanics. Players explore through a first-person view and have limited physical actions such as running and jumping. Different items can be collected, some of which are required to perform various tasks before proceeding. Cans of bacon soup can also be collected for achievements and to restore Henry's health if he is injured.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: Combat is primarily focused around a variety of different melee-based weapons, such as an axe, pipe, plunger, wrench, or scythe. Additionally there are long-range weapons such as a tommy gun or bacon soup cans. In-game enemies have different strength levels and resilience to damage, forcing players to be tactical about keeping out of reach and striking when necessary. Failure to do so will result in a death. Henry can retreat inside Little Miracle Stations whenever enemies are nearby in order to recover or remain out of sight. If he takes too much damage, he can escape from the ink that consumes him and respawn at one of the numerous statues of Bendy that act as checkpoints. The player can save their progress by interacting with time card stations.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: In addition, players can find numerous audio logs throughout the studio that give more details about the game's story, particularly concerning the fate of the studio and its employees, similar to the systems used in games such as "BioShock". Some of these logs can be missed and require further exploration to uncover the secret areas they often reside In. At the final chapter, players unlock the Seeing Tool, which is a device used to view secret hidden messages that would be invisible without it. After completing it, players can also use it in the previous four chapters.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: In the year 1963, Henry Stein, co-founder and former animator at Joey Drew Studios, is invited back to the studio by his former friend and business partner, Joey Drew. Henry enters the studio and finds it abandoned and dirtied up with ink splotches everywhere, as well as a mutilated, anthropomorphic figure in the form of Boris the Wolf, one of the studio's characters. Henry discovers that the messy ink was caused by the Ink Machine, a device Joey created after Henry had left which Joey intended to use to create real-life versions of the studio's cartoon characters. Henry fixes and turns on the machine by collecting various objects in a ritualistic fashion: a Bendy doll, a wrench, a record, a book, an ink jar, and a gear. After doing so, Henry goes back to the machine, but is attacked by a demon taking an ink-based form of the studio's mascot, Bendy the Dancing Demon. Henry tries to escape, but when he reaches the door, the floor under him gives way and he falls into the studio's lower levels. Walking on to find an exit, Henry drains out the ink to move forward and finds a room with coffins and a pentagram on the floor, the latter of which he steps on, causing him to hallucinate before passing out.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: Henry wakes up and searches for a way out. He eventually comes to the music department and discovers an exit at the bottom of some stairs, but the stairs are flooded and blocking the door. After battling ink creatures known as Searchers, Henry finds music director Sammy Lawrence's office and finds a pump switch inside that could drain the ink at the stairs, but his office is blocked by a massive ink leak. Henry finds two valves that lower the ink pressure, one of which is held by a Searcher with a hat that he must defeat. At one point, he must learn to play Sammy's favorite song to open a door to reach the second valve. After stopping the leak, Henry drains the ink at the stairs. While approaching the stairs, however, he is knocked out by Sammy, who has turned into an ink humanoid with a Bendy mask. After Henry wakes up, Sammy reveals he intends to sacrifice Henry to Bendy, whom he worships as a deity, so that he can be free of the ink. As Sammy begins the ritual, though, he is attacked by Bendy and presumably killed. Henry breaks free and flees from Bendy into a storage room, locking the door behind him. Venturing into the room, he finds a fully intact Boris the Wolf.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: Henry befriends Boris, and after Henry makes him 3 cans of soup, he gives Henry a lever needed to open the exit. The two leave Boris' safehouse to find another way out of the studio. After using a flashlight to make their way through a dark area, they come across the toy department and find a back room full of merchandise for Alice Angel, the studio's lead female. After Boris is briefly separated from Henry, he gives him a Gent pipe to use as a weapon. Henry is then confronted by an ink version of Alice Angel, who briefly knocks him out before summoning him to her lair. Before entering, Henry must choose whether to take the Demon path or the Angel path; the other path will close once Henry makes his choice. Inside, Henry and Boris discover multiple mutilated clones of Boris and other ink monsters collectively called the Butcher Gang, which Alice has been harvesting to improve her appearance. Meeting Alice, who is torturing one of the monsters, Henry is instructed to complete missions from her in exchange for being allowed to escape the studio. Doing so, he recovers things such as gears, power cells, hearts, and globs of ink from Swollen Searchers as well as being instructed to destroy Bendy cutouts and protect Alice's lair from enemies, all the while being hunted by Bendy, Searchers, the Butcher Gang, and the Projectionist, a projector-headed ink corrupted version of Norman Polk, the studio's projectionist. Alice also provides Henry with tools to help him: a wrench, a syringe, an axe, a plunger, and a tommy gun (which can only be obtained if certain actions are taken). Over the course of this, it becomes apparent that Alice is actually Susie Campbell, the original voice actress for the cartoon Alice who became obsessed with Alice to the point of believing she was her character, and grew vindictive after she was replaced by another actress, Allison Pendle; she has since taken Alice's form after being corrupted by the ink. After fulfilling her needs, she sends him to the elevator where he can leave, but forces the elevator to fall after discovering Boris, whom she wants to harvest as he is the most perfect Boris. The elevator crashes, knocking Henry out; as Boris tries to wake Henry up, Alice kidnaps Boris and takes him away.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: Waking back up from passing out and Boris’ abduction, Henry leaves the broken lift and explores the cavernous archives of the studio to find and rescue Boris. After Alice taunts Henry over loudspeakers about Boris' capture, Henry comes across a lounge filled with Lost Ones, people infected by the ink who show no hostility. After fleeing through the vents, Henry discovers that Joey planned to open a Bendy-themed amusement park called Bendy Land, with the help of famed amusement park designer Bertrum Piedmont. Henry deduces that the haunted house attraction is the way to go and traverses the storage area to find the switches to power the ride up. He activates the four power switches, while in the process sneaking past the Butcher Gang by throwing empty cans, defeating an ink corrupted Bertrum, who has merged himself with an octopus ride, and escaping from the Projectionist, who is decapitated by Bendy and takes his body away. Once on the haunted house ride, Henry is shocked to discover that Alice has transformed Boris into a brute monster. Unable to turn him back to normal, Henry is forced to kill Boris, who fades away. An enraged Alice tries to attack and kill Henry herself, but is killed from behind by another version of Alice Angel and a robot-handed clone of Boris.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: The new Alice and Boris, dubbed Allison Angel (Allison Pendle) and Tom (Thomas Conner, the lead engineer of the Ink Machine), lock Henry in a makeshift prison, as they aren't sure if they can trust him. Henry manages to gain Allison's trust, and she gives Henry a Seeing Tool, which is used to see hidden messages; Henry sees a message that says Allison will leave Henry for dead (which is later proven true).


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: Later, Bendy discovers Allison and Tom's location, and Tom (still distrusting Henry) convinces Allison to leave Henry behind so they can escape, knowing that they can't get him out before Bendy arrives. Henry manages to escape the prison on his own after discovering a secret room with a weapon behind the wall, thanks to the hidden messages. Once he escapes, Henry sees Allison and Tom escaping on a barge through a river of ink. He follows them on a second barge, with a massive Bendy hand chasing behind him. Henry arrives in a shanty town built by the Searchers and the Lost Ones. There, he is confronted by an injured Sammy, who deliriously believes Henry is Bendy and tries to take revenge for almost killing him. Sammy overpowers Henry and tries to kill him, but is killed by Tom, who finally trusts Henry and equips him with an axe. With Sammy out of the way, the Searchers and Lost Ones he was keeping at bay become violent and start attacking. Henry, Allison, and Tom work together and defeat the wave of monsters. Henry leads the way onward, but falls into the administration offices on a lower level. Henry tries to escape through the film vault, but the entrance is flooded. He works to reconnect the pipe system to drain the ink, all while hiding from the Butcher Gang.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: Once in the film vault, a message reveals that a film reel has been stolen by Bendy. Allison and Tom arrive and join Henry on his quest to find Bendy. They discover that Bendy's lair is a massive version of the Ink Machine. Henry is forced to go in alone, as the entrance is surrounded by ink, which could reabsorb and kill Allison and Tom. Inside, Henry finds a message from Joey, who talks about his downfall and how Henry can fix the darkness by showing Bendy the stolen reel, titled "The End". It's revealed that the Ink Machine was used in a combination of occult magic and technological alchemy to create real-life mascots for Bendy Land, but Bendy was abandoned in the depths of the studio, as unlike the other creations, which are made from the souls of the staff, he was made from scratch and soulless as a result, locked away in a prison-like throne room filled with cartoons in a vain attempt to imprint the desired traits onto him. Bendy arrives and transforms into a massive monster, known as Beast Bendy, knocking Henry into another room and giving chase. Henry escapes Bendy and returns to his throne to play "The End" reel, which broadcasts the words "The End" on several screens, causing Bendy to dissolve as his story comes to a close.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: Afterwards, Henry is transported to Joey's house, who talks about how the two went on different paths, and how Joey's path burned because of his ambition. He summons Henry to the studio and the events of the beginning of the game play again, revealing that Henry is caught in a time loop called the Cycle.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: In a post-credits scene, the camera zooms in on a signed picture from Henry of Bendy, Boris and Alice Angel. Offscreen, a young girl (implied to be Joey's niece) asks her "Uncle Joey" to tell her another story.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: The idea for "Bendy and the Ink Machine" came from theMeatly pondering the idea of a world that resembled a cartoon sketch. As he started developing the idea, he realized that it felt "creepy" and needed a monster that inhabited it. Bendy was created to be that monster, but did not have a name. When the character finally received a 3D model, the name was chosen from a typo while saving it in a 3D modeling program, Blender. theMeatly was not a programmer and thus Mike Mood joined the production as he saw potential in the game. "Bendy and the Ink Machine" was inspired by the "BioShock" series.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: The first chapter, "Moving Pictures", took five days to be finished. The game was then released for free on Game Jolt on February 10, 2017, being one of the first games that were released on the platform. Originally, the project was "for fun", according to Mood, but it later became viral and incentivated then to develop a second chapter, "The Old Song", which was officially announced in March 2017 and took six weeks to be finished. It was released on April 18, 2017, and also added a remastered version of the previous chapter, an updated menu, subtitles, achievements, etc. The game was approved by Steam Greenlight on February 28, 2017, and was then released on Steam on April 27, 2017. "Chapter 1" was made available for free, while "Chapter 2" was released as a DLC for $6 dollars.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: The third chapter, "Rise and Fall", was announced on production in May 2017. It was developed by six people in at least four months, and the reason for its long development, according to Mike Mood, was because he needed to create a framework "to make the process smoother". Its trailer was released in August 2017, which showed an animated short intitled "Tombstone Picnic" and showed Henry running from Ink Bendy in a room. However, Mike Mood stated it was used only for the trailer's chase sequence and for test purposes. It was released on September 28, 2017, while the previous two chapters also received remastered versions.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: The fourth chapter, "Colossal Wonders", was firstly confirmed in production on November 17, 2017. It also included remastered versions of the first three chapters, which included enhanced soundtracks and textures. It was released on April 30, 2018. Originally scheduled for April 28, 2018, it was delayed due to technical problems on Steam that disallows to make releases during weekends. The fifth and final chapter, "The Last Reel", was firstly confirmed in production on June 4, 2018. Later, they confirmed that it would be released in October. The emprise also confirmed that the chapter would be received for free for only players who have bought the previous chapters. A special edition titled "Bendy and the Ink Machine: Jacksepticeye Edition", was given to YouTuber Jacksepticeye before the fifth chapter released to the public, which included all five chapters. It was released on October 26, 2018. The game received a final bundle on the next day, intitled "Bendy and the Ink Machine: Complete Edition". Chapters 2-4, which were previously available as downloadable content, became free, while the game became paid.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: On January 29, 2018, theMeatly officially announced that "Bendy and the Ink Machine" would be released to consoles. The PlayStation 4 and Xbox One ports were developed and published by Rooster Teeth Games, originally intended to be released on October 26, 2018, while the Nintendo Switch port was scheduled to release on November 20, 2018, but both PlayStation 4 and Xbox One's release dates were pushed to the same date for Nintendo Switch's release. On December 15, 2018, a mobile port was announced by theMeatly and Joey Drew Studios Inc., and it was released on December 21, 2018.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: According to the aggregating review website Metacritic, "Bendy and the Ink Machine" received "mixed or average reviews" on its console ports. The website "Rock, Paper, Shotgun" considered the first chapter one of the best free games from the week.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: The game's storyline and setting were mostly praised. Most reviewers noted that the game's art style resembles the "Steamboat Willie" era of Disney's cartoons, with "PlayStation LifeStyle" considering Bendy as an "obvious parallel" between other cartoon characters such as Mickey Mouse or Betty Boop. Liam Martin of "Express" considered that the game's theme to be that "classic cartoons are more sinister than we remember". Sean Warhurst of "ImpulseGamer" also considered the game's visuals as the game's "biggest strength" and that its graphics engine "complements the artistic direction". This was also considered by Barry Stevens of Entertainment Focus, considering that "the game has a really unique art style and really pulls off the old animation studio feel with everything being drawn in a 30s style".


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: Most websites considered the game's gameplay mechanics repetitive. "TheXboxHub" considered the game's combat mechanics "frustrating", as most of its enemies die in only one hit. "VGCultureHQ" considered that if would have some range weapons in the second chapter, such as a gun or a slingshot, "would help make lengthy combat sequences feel more fair and less of a risk". However, it also stated that the boss battles in the game feel "intense". The puzzles, according to "The Digital Fix", were considered repetitive, saying that "It's something we've done a million times before".


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: "VGCultureHQ" considered the game's chapter lengths "too short" and without a "fair balance", considering that it could be completed in four hours, considering that the first and final chapters could be "finished in just under a half-hour", while the other three chapters "may take longer". According to "Hely on Horror", the first chapter serves as a "tutorial", as guides the player to "interact with the environment and solve simple puzzles", the second chapter is where combat is introduced, but it considered that the third chapter is where players are thrown into the action. Steven Asarch of "Player.One" considered the third chapter's task list as a "lazy attempt for developers to pad the game without adding any additional content", and that if future chapters could focus more on the characters development, "they could've truly be masterpieces".


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: The game has been frequently compared with "BioShock", due to, according to "PlayStation LifeStyle", the game having an "antique style". "Nintendo Life" also considered the motives of having a "BioShock" vibe in the game due to "the revelations that are made of Henry's past to the retro aesthetic that clings to every corner of the game's dilapidated setting". However, it also compared it to "Resident Evil", and "Outlast", considering it a "fusion". The game was also compared with "Cuphead" and "Epic Mickey", for their homages to "rubber hose" animation and the style of 20th-century cartoons.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: The game has received the "Best Horror Game" award by IGN and is listed as #1 in "18 Best Horror Games of 2017". The mobile port received the "Game of the Day" award on February 23, 2019. T"ouchArcade" nominated the mobile port as the "Game of the Week" on December 21, 2018.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: YouTube was a big contributor for the popularity of "Bendy and the Ink Machine". Many gamers such as Markiplier and Jacksepticeye were seen making "Let's Play" videos of "Bendy and the Ink Machine", which reached millions of views. Many YouTube musicians also made fan songs for "Bendy and the Ink Machine," the most popular being DAGames' ""Build Our Machine"", which has been viewed more than 100 million times. Some of the most popular fanmade songs were later included in an album entitled ""Bendy's Inky Megamix"", which was made to help raise donations for United Ways COVID-19 relief charity at Tiltify. Some of these fan-made songs were included in the game, including DAGames' ""Build Our Machine"," Kyle Allen's ""Bendy and the Ink Machine Song"," Random Encounters' ""Bendy and the Ink Musical"", and JT Music's ""Can't Be Erased"."


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: This caused the game to have a giant fanbase, which Mood described as different from the most fanbases, calling other games' fanbases sometimes "toxic." The game also attracted an audience of children, whose attention was mostly given to the character Bendy, although the game is T-rated. According to Mike Mood, what the made the game so popular was because of its characters.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: It also surged merchandise from the game, such as toys, shirts, etc., which can be bought on the game's official store. Books and comic books were also released.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: A mobile spin-off called "Bendy in Nightmare Run" was announced on January 26, 2018. It was released on the App Store on August 15, 2018 and on the Google Play Store on September 27, 2018. The game is an endless runner style game involving the player characters of either Bendy, Boris, or Alice collecting Bacon Soup while running away from large bosses chasing the player character.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: A spin-off called "Boris and the Dark Survival" was released on February 10, 2020, on "Bendy and the Ink Machine"s 3-year anniversary. The game is a prequel, taking place before the first chapter of the original game. It revolves around Boris the Wolf searching through the different levels of Joey Drew Studios looking for supplies for his safehouse while escaping Ink Bendy, Twisted Alice, the Projectionist, the Butcher Gang, or Borkis, a yellow-eyed version of Boris. The game also received several updates after its release. The latest one, "Symphony of Shadows", was released on June 30, 2020.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: On October 23, 2018, Joey Drew Studios posted on Twitter an image announcing a joke game, entitled "Black Ink Possession", parodying "Red Dead Redemption 2". During April Fools in 2020, the emprise poster a trailer of another joke game, "Bendy Royale". It parodies "Fortnite: Battle Royale", where it was meant to be a battle royale with Bendy and the Ink Machine characters being playable.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: A Halloween crossover mod, "Hello Bendy", was released for the game on October 27, 2017, for a limited time, featuring the "Hello Neighbor" antagonist, who takes the role as Bendy in all previous three chapters and Sammy Lawrence for "Chapter 2". The mod's menu features the advertisement of pre-ordering the game "Hello Neighbor". The mod expired by the end of October that year.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: Co-creator Mike Mood has talked about wanting to do a crossover with "Cuphead", which also was popular at around the same time and also uses rubber hose animation.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: Another game, "Bendy and the Dark Revival", was announced on April 14, 2019. However, Mike Mood stated on February 13, 2019 that it would not serve as "Bendy and the Ink Machine 2". A gameplay trailer was released on June 24, 2019, announcing the game's release for Fall 2019. However, in December 2019, a new trailer was released to say that the game was being delayed and will release sometime in 2020. Another trailer was released on June 1, 2020, revealing that the game would be released in its entirety with all five chapters included, unlike the first game which was released episodically. The trailer also suggested the game would come out in the latter half of 2020. However, on November 30, 2020, the developers announced that the game would be releasing in 2021, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The developers also cited that the game will be ten times bigger than the original game and that they didn't want to rush the game. The game was, however, delayed once again to 2022 without being announced. On October 31, 2022, the official Bendy social media accounts announced that a trailer for Bendy and the Dark Revival would be uploaded the following day. The game was officially released on November 15, 2022.


title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: In 2020, Derek Kolstad, creator of the "John Wick" franchise, stated that he has interest in making a television adaptation based on the game.


title: Hundred Days Offensive

text: The Hundred Days Offensive (8 August to 11 November 1918) was a series of massive Allied offensives which ended the First World War. Beginning with the Battle of Amiens (8–12 August) on the Western Front, the Allies pushed the Central Powers back, undoing their gains from the German spring offensive. The Germans retreated to the Hindenburg Line, but the Allies broke through the line with a series of victories, starting with the Battle of St Quentin Canal on 29 September. The offensive, together with a revolution breaking out in Germany, led to the Armistice of 11 November 1918 which ended the war with an Allied victory. The term "Hundred Days Offensive" does not refer to a battle or strategy, but rather the rapid series of Allied victories against which the German Army had no reply.


title: Hundred Days Offensive

text: The German spring offensive of the German Army on the Western Front had begun on 21 March 1918 with Operation Michael and had petered out by July. The Germans had advanced to the River Marne, but failed to achieve their aim of a victory that would decide the war. When the German Operation Marne-Rheims ended in July, the Allied supreme commander, Ferdinand Foch, ordered a counter-offensive, which became known as the Second Battle of the Marne. The Germans, recognizing their untenable position, withdrew from the Marne to the north. For this victory, Foch was granted the title Marshal of France.


title: Hundred Days Offensive

text: After the Germans had lost their forward momentum, Foch considered the time had arrived for the Allies to return to the offensive. The American Expeditionary Force (AEF) under United States General John J. Pershing had arrived in France in large numbers and had invigorated the Allied armies with its extensive resources. Pershing was keen to use his army as an independent force. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) had been reinforced by large numbers of troops returned from the Sinai and Palestine campaign and from the Italian front, and by replacements previously held back in Britain by Prime Minister David Lloyd George.


title: Hundred Days Offensive

text: The military planners considered a number of proposals. Foch agreed to a proposal by Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig, commander-in-chief of the BEF, to strike on the River Somme, east of Amiens and south-west of the site of the 1916 Battle of the Somme, to force the Germans away from the vital Amiens–Paris railway. The Somme was chosen because it remained the boundary between the BEF and the French armies, along the Amiens–Roye road, allowing the two armies to cooperate. The Picardy terrain provided a good surface for tanks, unlike in Flanders, and the defences of the German 2nd Army under General Georg von der Marwitz were relatively weak, having been subjected to continual raiding by the Australians in a process termed peaceful penetration.


title: Hundred Days Offensive

text: The Battle of Amiens (with the French attack on the southern flank called the Battle of Montdidier) opened on 8 August, with an attack by more than 10 Allied divisions—Australian, Canadian, British and French forces—with more than 500 tanks. Through careful preparation, the Allies achieved surprise. The attack, led by the British Fourth Army, broke through the German lines, and tanks attacked German rear positions, sowing panic and confusion. By the end of the day, a gap wide had been created in the German line south of the Somme. The Allies had taken 17,000 prisoners and 339 guns. Total German losses were estimated to be 30,000 men, while the Allies had suffered about 6,500 killed, wounded and missing. The collapse in German morale led Erich Ludendorff to dub it "the Black Day of the German Army".


title: Hundred Days Offensive

text: The advance continued for three more days but without the spectacular results of 8 August, since the rapid advance outran the supporting artillery and ran short of supplies. During those three days, the Allies had managed to gain . Most of this was taken on the first day as the arrival of German reinforcements after this slowed the Allied advance. On 10 August, the Germans began to pull out of the salient that they had managed to occupy during Operation Michael in March, back towards the Hindenburg Line.


title: Hundred Days Offensive

text: On 15 August, Foch demanded that Haig continue the Amiens offensive, even though the attack was faltering as the troops outran their supplies and artillery and German reserves were being moved to the sector. Haig refused and prepared to launch a fresh offensive by the Third Army at Albert (the Battle of Albert), which opened on 21 August. The offensive was a success, pushing the German 2nd Army back over a front. Albert was captured on 22 August. The attack was widened on the south, by the French Tenth Army starting the Second Battle of Noyon on 17 August, capturing the town of Noyon on 29 August. On 26 August, to the north of the initial attack, the First Army widened the attack by another with the Second Battle of Arras of 1918. Bapaume fell on 29 August (during the Second Battle of Bapaume).


title: Hundred Days Offensive

text: With the front line broken, a number of battles took place as the Allies forced the Germans back to the Hindenburg Line. East of Amiens (after the Battle of Amiens), with artillery brought forward and munitions replenished, the Fourth Army also resumed its advance, with the Australian Corps crossing the Somme River on the night of 31 August, breaking the German lines during the Battle of Mont Saint-Quentin. On 26 August, to the north of the Somme, the First Army widened the attack by another with the Second Battle of Arras of 1918, which includes the Battle of the Scarpe (1918) (26 August) and the Battle of Drocourt-Queant Line (2 September).


title: Hundred Days Offensive

text: South of the BEF, the French First Army approached the Hindenburg Line on the outskirts of St. Quentin during the Battle of Savy-Dallon (10 September), and the French Tenth Army approached the Hindenburg Line near Laon during the Battle of Vauxaillon (14 September). The British Fourth Army approached the Hindenburg Line along the St Quentin Canal, during the Battle of Épehy (18 September). By 2 September, the Germans had been forced back close to the Hindenburg Line from which they had launched their offensive in the spring.


title: Hundred Days Offensive

text: Foch planned a series of concentric attacks on the German lines in France (sometimes referred to as the Grand Offensive), with the various axes of advance designed to cut German lateral communications, intending that the success of an attack would enable the entire front line to be advanced. The main German defences were anchored on the Hindenburg Line, a series of defensive fortifications stretching from Cerny on the Aisne river to Arras. Before Foch's main offensive was launched, the remaining German salients west and east of the line were crushed at Havrincourt and St Mihiel on 12 September and at the Battle of Épehy and the Battle of the Canal du Nord on 27 September.


title: Hundred Days Offensive

text: The first attack of the Grand Offensive was launched on 26 September by the French and the AEF in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive (this offensive includes the battles of Somme-Py, Saint-Thierry, Montfaucon, and Chesne of 1 November). On 28 September, the Army Group under Albert I of Belgium (the Belgian Army, the British Second Army and the French Sixth Army), attacked near Ypres in Flanders (the Fifth Battle of Ypres). Both attacks made good progress initially but were then slowed by supply difficulties. The Grand Offensive involved attacking over difficult terrain, resulting in the Hindenburg Line not being broken until 17 October.


title: Hundred Days Offensive

text: On 29 September, the central attack on the Hindenburg Line commenced, with the British Fourth Army (with British, Australian and American forces) attacking in the Battle of St Quentin Canal and the French First Army attacking fortifications outside St Quentin. By 5 October, the Allies had broken through the entire depth of the Hindenburg defences over a front. General Rawlinson wrote, "Had the Boche [Germans] not shown marked signs of deterioration during the past month, I should never have contemplated attacking the Hindenburg line. Had it been defended by the Germans of two years ago, it would certainly have been impregnable…."


title: Hundred Days Offensive

text: On 8 October, the First and Third British Armies broke through the Hindenburg Line at the Second Battle of Cambrai. This collapse forced the German High Command to accept that the war had to be ended. The evidence of failing German morale also convinced many Allied commanders and political leaders that the war could be ended in 1918; previously, all efforts had been concentrated on building up forces to mount a decisive attack in 1919.


title: Hundred Days Offensive

text: Through October, the German armies retreated through the territory gained in 1914. The Allies pressed the Germans back toward the lateral railway line from Metz to Bruges, which had supplied the front in northern France and Belgium for much of the war. As the Allied armies reached this line, the Germans were forced to abandon increasingly large amounts of heavy equipment and supplies, further reducing their morale and capacity to resist.


title: Hundred Days Offensive

text: The Allied and German armies suffered many casualties. Rearguard actions were fought during the Pursuit to the Selle (9 October), battles of Courtrai (14 October), Mont-d'Origny (15 October), the Selle (17 October), Lys and Escaut (20 October) (including the subsidiary battles of the Lys and of the Escaut), the Serre (20 October), Valenciennes (1 November), the Sambre (including the Second Battle of Guise) (4 November), and Thiérache (4 November), and the Passage of the Grande Honnelle (5 November), with fighting continuing until the Armistice took effect at 11:00 on 11 November 1918. The last soldier to die was Henry Gunther, one minute before the armistice came into effect.