title: Postpartum depression

text: Conclusions have been made related to the idea of childbirth stressors and the contribution those can play in an increased risk of developing comorbid birth-related posttraumatic stress disorder and postpartum depression rather than only a postpartum depression diagnosis. Findings like the one mentioned above are crucial in accurate diagnosis to provide the mothers with the most appropriate and effective treatment options, and to advance the validity and reliability of preventative assessments and strategies. Other studies have been able to identify obstetric and perinatal risk factors associated specifically with birth-related posttraumatic stress disorder including educational level, gestational age at delivery, number of prenatal care visits, pregnancy intervals, mode of delivery, any complications with pregnancy, and labor duration. Based on current meta-analytic research, it has been concluded that the prevalence of postpartum posttraumatic stress disorder was 3.1% in community settings and 15.7% in at-risk populations; however, those findings do state various limitations, including underreporting biases, across the examined studies which lead many researchers to believe the prevalence may be higher.


title: Postpartum depression

text: As of right now, there are no widely recognized assessments that measure for postpartum posttraumatic stress disorder in clinical and medical settings. However, researchers and physicians will often use more reliable posttraumatic stress disorder questionnaires and assessments, which are unfortunately not always specific enough to the posttraumatic symptoms and experiences that are felt before, during, or after childbirth. One assessment for postpartum posttraumatic stress disorder, the City Birth Trauma Scale (CBTS), has been used in some research settings; however, it is not widely used in clinical and medical settings. The CBTS is a 29-item self-report questionnaire developed to measure birth-related posttraumatic stress disorder, according to the DSM-5 criteria of: symptoms of re-experiencing the event, avoidance, negative cognitions and mood, and hyperarousal, as well as the duration of one's symptoms and the amount of distress and impairment the symptoms have caused in the individual's life. The creators of the CTSB also added in two items from the DSM-IV that they felt were relevant to the population being assessed with this measure – that the mothers responded to the traumatic events during childbirth with intense fear, helplessness, or horror and that there were symptoms of emotional numbing. Although the emotional numbing component was excluded in the DSM-5 criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder, research has shown that when studying mothers who have been exposed to trauma, emotional numbing is more predictive of parenting stress than other posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Although this assessment shows strong reliability (Cronbach's alpha = 0.92), and participants from the pilot study found the measure to be easy to understand, this assessment is still not used in clinical or medical settings as often as it is used in research settings. The researchers that have utilized the CTSB have been able to identify various limitations with the pilot study, including the lack of diversity in the sample demographic characteristics (93% White postpartum women) as well as the self-report nature of the assessment which could lead to underreporting of symptoms. Another assessment that has also been used in research more often than in clinical or medical settings is the Perinatal Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Questionnaire (PPQ), which has since been modified into the Perinatal Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Questionnaire-II (PPQ-II), with the modified version being a 14-item scale which does not address all the necessary diagnostic criteria. Further research and development are needed to create a more accurate assessments and screening tools that can differentiate among posttraumatic stress disorders, postpartum/childbirth-related posttraumatic stress disorder, and postpartum depression so that the most adequate treatment interventions and options can be implemented as quickly as possible.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Screening for postpartum depression is critical as up to 50% of cases go undiagnosed in the US, emphasizing the significance of comprehensive screening measures. In the US, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists suggests healthcare providers consider depression screening for perinatal women. Additionally, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends pediatricians screen mothers for PPD at 1-month, 2-month and 4-month visits. However, many providers do not consistently provide screening and appropriate follow-up. For example, in Canada, Alberta is the only province with universal PPD screening. This screening is carried out by Public Health nurses with the baby's immunization schedule. In Sweden, Child Health Services offer a free program for new parents that includes screening mothers for PPD at 2 months postpartum. However, there are concerns about adherence to screening guidelines regarding maternal mental health.


title: Postpartum depression

text: The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, a standardized self-reported questionnaire, may be used to identify women who have postpartum depression. If the new mother scores 13 or more, she likely has PPD and further assessment should follow.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Healthcare providers may take a blood sample to test if another disorder is contributing to depression during the screening.


title: Postpartum depression

text: The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, is used within the first week of their newborn being admitted. If mothers receive a score less than 12 they are told to be reassessed because of the depression testing protocol. It is also advised that mother's in the NICU to get screened every four to six weeks as their infant remains in the neonatal intensive care unit. Mothers who score between twelve and nineteen on the EPDS are offered two types of support. The mothers are offered LV treatment provided by a nurse in the NICU and they can be referred to the mental health professional services. If a mother receives a three on item number ten of the EPDS they are immediately referred to the social work team as they may be suicidal.


title: Postpartum depression

text: It is critical to acknowledge the diversity of patient populations diagnosed with postpartum depression and how this may impact the reliability of the screening tools used. There are cultural differences in how patients express symptoms of postpartum depression; those in non-western countries exhibit more physical symptoms, whereas those in western countries have more feelings of sadness. Depending on one's cultural background, symptoms of postpartum depression may manifest differently, and non-Westerners being screened in Western countries may be misdiagnosed because their screening tools do not account for cultural diversity. Aside from culture, it is also important to consider one's social context, as women with low socioeconomic status may have additional stressors that affect their postpartum depression screening scores.


title: Postpartum depression

text: A 2013 Cochrane review found evidence that psychosocial or psychological intervention after childbirth helped reduce the risk of postnatal depression. These interventions included home visits, telephone-based peer support, and interpersonal psychotherapy. Support is an important aspect of prevention, as depressed mothers commonly state that their feelings of depression were brought on by "lack of support" and "feeling isolated."


title: Postpartum depression

text: Across different cultures, traditional rituals for postpartum care may be preventative for PPD, but are more effective when the support is welcomed by the mother.


title: Postpartum depression

text: In couples, emotional closeness and global support by the partner protect against both perinatal depression and anxiety. In 2014, Alasoom and Koura found that compared to 42.9 percent of women who did not get spousal support, only 14.7 percent of women who got spousal assistance had PPD. Further factors such as communication between the couple and relationship satisfaction have a protective effect against anxiety alone.


title: Postpartum depression

text: In those who are at risk counselling is recommended. In 2018, 24% of areas in the UK have no access to perinatal mental health specialist services.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Preventative treatment with antidepressants may be considered for those who have had PPD previously. However, as of 2017, the evidence supporting such use is weak.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Treatment for mild to moderate PPD includes psychological interventions or antidepressants. Women with moderate to severe PPD would likely experience a greater benefit with a combination of psychological and medical interventions. Light aerobic exercise has been found to be useful for mild and moderate cases.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Both individual social and psychological interventions appear equally effective in the treatment of PPD. Social interventions include individual counseling and peer support, while psychological interventions include cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and interpersonal therapy (IPT). Interpersonal therapy (IPT) has shown to be effective in focusing specifically on the mother and infant bond. Support groups and group therapy options focused on psychoeducation around postpartum depression have been shown to enhance the understanding of postpartum symptoms and often assist in finding further treatment options. Other forms of therapy, such as group therapy, home visits, counseling, and ensuring greater sleep for the mother may also have a benefit. While specialists trained in providing counseling interventions often serve this population in need, results from a recent systematic review and meta-analysis found that nonspecialist providers, including lay counselors, nurses, midwives, and teachers without formal training in counseling interventions, often provide effective services related to perinatal depression and anxiety.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy (iCBT) has shown promising results with lower negative parenting behavior scores and lower rates of anxiety, stress, and depression. iCBT may be beneficial for mothers who have limitations in accessing in person CBT. However, the long term benefits have not been determined.


title: Postpartum depression

text: A 2010 review found few studies of medications for treating PPD noting small sample sizes and generally weak evidence. Some evidence suggests that mothers with PPD will respond similarly to people with major depressive disorder. There is low-certainty evidence which suggests that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are effective treatment for PPD. The first-line anti-depressant medication of choice is sertraline, an SSRI, as very little of it passes into the breast milk and, as a result, to the child. However, a recent study has found that adding sertraline to psychotherapy does not appear to confer any additional benefit. Therefore, it is not completely clear which antidepressants, if any, are most effective for treatment of PPD, and for whom antidepressants would be a better option than non-pharmacotherapy.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Some studies show that hormone therapy may be effective in women with PPD, supported by the idea that the drop in estrogen and progesterone levels post-delivery contribute to depressive symptoms. However, there is some controversy with this form of treatment because estrogen should not be given to people who are at higher risk of blood clots, which include women up to 12 weeks after delivery. Additionally, none of the existing studies included women who were breastfeeding. However, there is some evidence that the use of estradiol patches might help with PPD symptoms.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Oxytocin has been shown to be an effective anxiolytic and in some cases antidepressant treatment in men and women. Exogenous oxytocin has only been explored as a PPD treatment with rodents, but results are encouraging for potential application in humans.


title: Postpartum depression

text: In 2019, the FDA approved brexanolone, a synthetic analog of the neurosteroid allopregnanolone, for use intravenously in postpartum depression. Allopregnanolone levels drop after giving birth, which may lead to women becoming depressed and anxious. Some trials have demonstrated an effect on PPD within 48 hours from the start of infusion. Other new allopregnanolone analogs under evaluation for use in the treatment of PPD include zuranolone and ganaxolone.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Brexanolone has risks that can occur during administration, including excessive sedation and sudden loss of consciousness, and therefore has been approved under the Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS) program. The mother is to enrolled prior to receiving the medication. It is only available to those at certified health care facilities with a health care provider who can continually monitor the patient. The infusion itself is a 60-hour, or 2.5 day, process. People's oxygen levels are to be monitored with a pulse oximeter. Side effects of the medication include dry mouth, sleepiness, somnolence, flushing and loss of consciousness. It is also important to monitor for early signs of suicidal thoughts or behaviors.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Caution should be exercised when administering antidepressant medications during breastfeeding. Most antidepressants are excreted in breast milk in low quantities which can have adverse effect on babies. Regarding allopregnanolone, very limited data did not indicate a risk for the infant.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) has shown efficacy in women with severe PPD that have either failed multiple trials of medication-based treatment or cannot tolerate the available antidepressants. Tentative evidence supports the use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS).


title: Postpartum depression

text: As of 2013 it is unclear if acupuncture, massage, bright lights, or taking omega-3 fatty acids are useful.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Postpartum Support International is the most recognized international resource for those with PPD as well as healthcare providers. It brings together those experiencing PPD, volunteers, and professionals to share information, referrals, and support networks. Services offered by PSI include the website (with support, education, and local resource info), coordinators for support and local resources, online weekly video support groups in English and Spanish, free weekly phone conference with chats with experts, educational videos, closed Facebook groups for support, and professional training of healthcare workers.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Educational interventions can help women struggling with postpartum depression (PPD) to cultivate coping strategies and develop resiliency. The phenomenon of "scientific motherhood" represents the origin of women's education on perinatal care with publications like "Ms". circulating some of the first press articles on PPD that helped to normalize the symptoms that women experienced. Feminist writings on PPD from the early seventies shed light on the darker realities of motherhood and amplified the lived experiences of mothers with PPD.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Instructional videos have been popular among women who turn to the internet for PPD treatment, especially when the videos are interactive and get patients involved in their treatment plan. Since the early 2000s, video tutorials on PPD have been integrated into many web-based training programs for individuals with PPD and are often considered a type of evidence-based management strategy for individuals. This can take the form of objective-based learning, detailed exploration of case studies, resource guides for additional support and information, etc.


title: Postpartum depression

text: The National Child and Maternal Health Education Program functions as a larger education and outreach program supported by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) and the National Institute of Health. The NICHD has worked alongside organizations like the World Health Organization to conduct research on the psychosocial development of children with part of their efforts going towards the support of mothers' health and safety. Training and education services are offered through the NICHD to equip women and their health care providers with evidence-based knowledge on PPD.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Other initiatives include the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) whose disaster relief program provides medical assistance at both the national and local level. The disaster relief fund not only helps to raise awareness of the benefits of having healthcare professionals screen for PPD, but also helps childhood professionals (home visitors and early care providers) develop the skills to diagnose and prevent PPD. The Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health Consultation (IECMH) center is a related technical assistance program that utilizes evidence-based treatments services in order to address issues of PPD. The IECMH facilitates parenting and home visit programs, early care site interventions with parents and children and a variety of other consultation-based services. The IECMH's initiatives seek to educate home visitors on screening protocols for PPD as well as ways to refer depressed mothers to professional help.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Therapeutic methods of intervention can begin as early as a few days post-birth when most mothers are discharged from hospitals. Research surveys have revealed a paucity of professional, emotional support for women struggling in the weeks following delivery despite there being a heightened risk for PPD for new mothers during this transitional period.


title: Postpartum depression

text: A lack of social support has been identified as a barrier to seeking help for postpartum depression. Peer-support programs have been identified as an effective intervention for women experiencing symptoms of postpartum depression. In-person, online, and telephone support groups are available to both women and men throughout the United States. Peer-support models are appealing to many women because they are offered in a group and outside of the mental-health setting. The website Postpartum Progress provides a comprehensive list of support groups separated by state and includes the contact information for each group. The National Alliance on Mental Illness lists a virtual support group titled "The Shades of Blue project," which is available to all women via the submission of a name and email address. Additionally, NAMI recommends the website "National Association of Professional and Peer Lactation Supports of Color" for mothers in need of a lactation supporter. Lactation assistance is available either online or in-person, if there is support nearby.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Postpartum Progress is a blog focused on being a community of mothers talking openly about postpartum depression and other mental health conditions associated. Story-telling and online communities reduce the stigma around PPD and promote peer-based care. Postpartum Progress is specifically relevant to people of color and queer folks due to an emphasis on cultural competency.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Hotlines, chat lines, and telephone interviews offer immediate, emergency support for those experiencing PPD. Telephone-based peer support can be effective in the prevention and treatment of postpartum depression among women at high-risk. Established examples of telephone hotlines include: National Alliance on Mental Illness: 800-950-NAMI (6264), National Suicide Prevention Lifeline: 800-273-TALK (8255), Postpartum Support International: 800-944-4PPD (4773), and SAMHSA's National Hotline: 1-800-662-HELP (4357). Postpartum Health Alliance has an immediate, 24/7 support line in San Diego/San Diego Access and Crisis Line at (888) 724–7240, in which you can talk with mothers who have recovered from PPD and trained providers.


title: Postpartum depression

text: However, hotlines can lack cultural competency which is crucial in quality healthcare, specifically for people of color. Calling the police or 911, specifically for mental health crises, is dangerous for many people of color. Culturally and structurally competent emergency hotlines are a huge need in PPD care.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Women demonstrated an interest in self-care and well-being in an online PPD prevention program. Self-care activities, specifically music therapy, are accessible to most communities and valued among women as a way to connect with their children and manage symptoms of depression. Well-being activities associated with being outdoors, including walking and running, were noted amongst women as a way to help manage mood.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Those with PPD come across many help-seeking barriers, including lack of knowledge, stigma about symptoms, as well as health service barriers. There are also attitudinal barriers to seeking treatment, including stigma. Interpersonal relationships with friends and family, as well as institutional and financial obstacles serve as help-seeking barriers. The history of mistrust within the United States healthcare system or negative health experiences can influence one's willingness and adherence to seek postpartum depression treatment. Cultural responses must be adequate in PPD healthcare and resources. Representation and cultural competency are crucial in equitable healthcare for PPD. Different ethic groups may believe that healthcare providers will not respect their cultural values or religious practices, which influences their willingness to use mental health services or be prescribed antidepressant medications. Additionally, resources for PPD are limited and often don't incorporate what mothers would prefer. The use of technology can be a beneficial way to deliver mothers with resources because it is accessible and convenient.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Within the United States, the prevalence of postpartum depression was lower than the global approximation at 11.5% but varied between states from as low as 8% to as high as 20.1%. The highest prevalence in the US is found among women who are American Indian/Alaska Natives or Asian/Pacific Islanders, possess less than 12 years of education, are unmarried, smoke during pregnancy, experience over two stressful life events, or who's full term infant is low-birthweight or was admitted to a Newborn Intensive Care Unit. While US prevalence decreased from 2004 to 2012, it did not decrease among American Indian/Alaska Native women or those with full term, low-birthweight infants.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Even with the variety of studies, it is difficult to find the exact rate as approximately 60% of US women are not diagnosed and of those diagnosed approximately 50% are not treated for PPD. Cesarean section rates did not affect the rates of PPD. While there is discussion of postpartum depression in fathers, there is no formal diagnosis for postpartum depression in fathers.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Canada has one of the largest refugee resettlement in the world with an equal percentage of women to men. This means that Canada has a disproportionate percentage of women that develop post-partum depression since there is an increased risk among the refugee population. In a blind study, where women had to reach out and participate, around 27% of the sample population had symptoms consistent with post-partum depression without even knowing. Also found that on average 8.46 women had minor and major PPDS was found to be 8.46 and 8.69% respectively. The main factors that were found to contribute in this study were the stress during pregnancy, the availability of support after, and a prior diagnosis of depression were all found to be factors. Canada has the specific population demographics that also involve a large amount of immigrant and indigenous women which creates a specific cultural demographic localized to Canada. In this study researchers found that these two populations were at significantly higher risk compared to "Canadian born non-indigenous mothers". This study found that risk factors such as low education, low income cut off, taking antidepressants, and low social support are all factors that contribute to the higher percentage of these population in developing PPDS. Specifically, indigenous mothers had the most risk factors then immigrant mothers with non-indigenous Canadian women being closer to the overall population.


title: Postpartum depression

text: A main issue surrounding PPD is the lack of study and the lack of reported prevalence that is based on studies developed in Western economically developed countries. In countries such as Brazil, Guyana, Costa Rica, Italy, Chile, and South Africa there is actually a prevalence of report, around 60%. In an itemized research analysis put a mean prevalence at 10-15% percent but explicitly stated that cultural factors such as perception of mental health and stigma could possibly be preventing accurate reporting. The analysis for South America shows that PPD occurs at a high rate looking comparatively at Brazil (42%) Chile (4.6-48%) Guyana and Colombia (57%) and Venezuela (22%). In most of these countries PPD is not considered a serious condition for women and therefore there is an absence of support programs for prevention and treatment in health systems. Specifically, in Brazil PPD is identified through the family environment whereas in Chile PPD manifests itself through suicidal ideation and emotional instability. In both cases most women feel regret and refuse to take care of the child showing that this illness is serious for both the mother and child.


title: Postpartum depression

text: From a selected group of studies found from a literature search, researchers discovered many demographic factors of Asian populations that showed significant association with PPD. Some of these include age of mother at the time of childbirth as well as older age at marriage. Being a migrant and giving birth to a child overseas has also been identified as a risk factor for PPD. Specifically for Japanese women who were born and raised in Japan but who gave birth to their child in Hawaii, USA, about 50% of them experienced emotional dysfunction during their pregnancy. In fact, all women who gave birth for the first time who were included in the study experienced PPD. In immigrant Asian Indian women, the researchers found a minor depressive symptomatology rate of 28% and an additional major depressive symptomatology rate of 24% likely due to different health care attitudes in different cultures and distance form family leading to homesickness.


title: Postpartum depression

text: In the context of Asian countries, premarital pregnancy is an important risk factor for PPD. This is because it is considered highly unacceptable in most Asian culture as there is a highly conservative attitude toward sex among Asian people than people in the west. In addition, conflicts between mother and daughter-in-law are notoriously common in Asian societies as traditionally for them, marriage means the daughter-in-law joining and adjusting to the groom's family completely. These conflicts may be responsible for emergence of PPD. Regarding gender of the child, many studies have suggested dissatisfaction in infant's gender (birth of a baby girl) is a risk factor for PPD. This is because in some Asian cultures, married couples are expected by the family to have at least one son to maintain the continuity of the bloodline which might lead a woman to experience PPD if she cannot give birth to a baby boy.


title: Postpartum depression

text: There is a general assumption that Western cultures are homogenous and that there are no significant differences in psychiatric disorders across Europe and the USA. However, in reality factors associated with maternal depression, including work and environmental demands, access to universal maternity leave, health care, and financial security, are regulated and influenced by local policies that differ across countries. For example, European social policies differ from country-to-country contrary to the US, all countries provide some form of paid universal maternity leave and free health care. Studies also found differences in symptomatic manifestations of PPD between European and American women. Women from Europe reported higher scores of anhedonia, self-blaming, and anxiety, while women from the USA disclosed more severe insomnia, depressive feelings, and thoughts of self-harming. Additionally, there are differences in prescribing patterns and attitudes towards certain medications between the US and Europe which are indicative of how different countries approach treatment, and their different stigmas.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Africa, like all other parts of the world struggles with a burden of postpartum depression. Current studies estimate the prevalence to be 15-25% but this is likely higher due to a lack of data and recorded cases. The magnitude of postpartum depression in South Africa is between 31.7% and 39.6%, in Morocco between 6.9% and 14%, in Nigeria between 10.7% and 22.9%, in Uganda 43%, in Tanzania 12%, in Zimbabwe 33%, in Sudan 9.2%, in Kenya between 13% and 18.7% and, 19.9% for participants in Ethiopia according to studies carried out in these countries among postpartum mothers between the ages of 17–49. This demonstrates the gravity of this problem in Africa, and the need for postpartum depression to be taken seriously as a public health concern in the continent. Additionally, each of these studies were conducted using Western developed assessment tools. Cultural factors can affect diagnosis and can be a barrier to assessing the burden of disease. Some recommendations to combat postpartum depression in Africa include considering postpartum depression as a public health problem that is neglected among postpartum mothers. Investing in research to assess the actual prevalence of postpartum depression, and encourage early screening, diagnosis and treatment of postpartum depression as an essential aspect of maternal care throughout Africa.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Most studies regarding PPD are done using self-report screenings which are less reliable than clinical interviews. This use of self-report may have results that underreport symptoms and thus postpartum depression rates.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Western medical science's understanding and construction of postpartum depression has evolved over the centuries. Ideas surrounding women's moods and states have been around for a long time, typically recorded by men. In 460 B.C., Hippocrates wrote about puerperal fever, agitation, delirium, and mania experienced by women after child birth. Hippocrates' ideas still linger in how postpartum depression is seen today.


title: Postpartum depression

text: A woman who lived in the 14th century, Margery Kempe, was a Christian mystic. She was a pilgrim known as "Madwoman" after having a tough labor and delivery. There was a long physical recovery period during which she started descending into "madness" and became suicidal. Based on her descriptions of visions of demons and conversations she wrote about that she had with religious figures like God and the Virgin Mary, historians have identified what Margery Kempe was experiencing as "postnatal psychosis" and not postpartum depression. This distinction became important to emphasize the difference between postpartum depression and postpartum psychosis. A 16th century physician, Castello Branco, documented a case of postpartum depression without the formal title as a relatively healthy woman with melancholy after childbirth, remained insane for a month, and recovered with treatment. Although this treatment was not described, experimental treatments began to be implemented for postpartum depression for the centuries that followed. Connections between female reproductive function and mental illness would continue to center around reproductive organs from this time all the way through to modern age, with a slowly evolving discussion around "female madness".


title: Postpartum depression

text: With the 19th century came a new attitude about the relationship between female mental illness and pregnancy, childbirth, or menstruation. The famous short story, "The Yellow Wallpaper", was published by Charlotte Perkins Gilman in this period. In the story, an unnamed woman journals her life when she is treated by her physician husband, John, for hysterical and depressive tendencies after the birth of their baby. Gilman wrote the story to protest societal oppression of women as the result of her own experience as a patient.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Also during the 19th century, gynecologists embraced the idea that female reproductive organs, and the natural processes they were involved in, were at fault for "female insanity." Approximately 10% of asylum admissions during this time period are connected to "puerperal insanity," the named intersection between pregnancy or childbirth and female mental illness. It wasn't until the onset of the twentieth century that the attitude of the scientific community shifted once again: the consensus amongst gynecologists and other medical experts was to turn away from the idea of diseased reproductive organs and instead towards more "scientific theories" that encompassed a broadening medical perspective on mental illness.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Recently, postpartum depression has become more widely recognized in society. In the US, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act included a section focusing on research into postpartum conditions including postpartum depression. Some argue that more resources in the form of policies, programs, and health objectives need to be directed to the care of those with PPD.


title: Postpartum depression

text: When stigma occurs, a person is labelled by their illness and viewed as part of a stereotyped group. There are three main elements of stigmas, 1) problems of knowledge (ignorance or misinformation), 2) problems of attitudes (prejudice), 3) problems of behavior (discrimination). Specifically regarding PPD, it is often left untreated as women frequently report feeling ashamed about seeking help and are concerned about being labeled as a "bad mother" if they acknowledge that they are experiencing depression. Although there has been previous research interest in depression-related stigma, few studies have addressed PPD stigma. One study studied PPD stigma through examining how an education intervention would impact it. They hypothesized that an education intervention would significantly influence PPD stigma scores. Although they found some consistencies with previous mental health stigma studies, for example, that males had higher levels of personal PPD stigma than females, most of the PPD results were inconsistent with other mental health studies. For example, they hypothesized that education intervention would lower PPD stigma scores, but in reality there was no significant impact and also familiarity with PPD was not associated with one's stigma towards people with PPD. This study was a strong starting point for further PPD research, but clearly indicates more needs to be done in order to learn what the most effective anti-stigma strategies are specifically for PPD.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Postpartum depression is still linked to significant stigma. This can also be difficult when trying to determine the true prevalence of postpartum depression. Participants in studies about PPD carry their beliefs, perceptions, cultural context and stigma of mental health in their cultures with them which can affect data. The stigma of mental health - with or without support from family members and health professionals - often deters women from seeking help for their PPD. When medical help is achieved, some women find the diagnosis helpful and encourage a higher profile for PPD amongst the health professional community.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Postpartum depression can be influenced by sociocultural factors. There are many examples of particular cultures and societies that hold specific beliefs about PPD. Malay culture holds a belief in Hantu Meroyan; a spirit that resides in the placenta and amniotic fluid.


title: Postpartum depression

text: When this spirit is unsatisfied and venting resentment, it causes the mother to experience frequent crying, loss of appetite, and trouble sleeping, known collectively as "sakit meroyan". The mother can be cured with the help of a shaman, who performs a séance to force the spirits to leave.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Some cultures believe that the symptoms of postpartum depression or similar illnesses can be avoided through protective rituals in the period after birth. These may include offering structures of organized support, hygiene care, diet, rest, infant care, and breastfeeding instruction. The rituals appear to be most effective when the support is welcomed by the mother.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Some Chinese women participate in a ritual that is known as "doing the month" (confinement) in which they spend the first 30 days after giving birth resting in bed, while the mother or mother-in-law takes care of domestic duties and childcare. In addition, the new mother is not allowed to bathe or shower, wash her hair, clean her teeth, leave the house, or be blown by the wind.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Certain cases of postpartum mental health concerns received attention in the media and brought about dialogue on ways to address and understand more on postpartum mental health. Andrea Yates, a former nurse, became pregnant for the first time in 1993. After giving birth to five children in the coming years, she had severe depression and had many depressive episodes. This led to her believing that her children needed to be saved, and that by killing them, she could rescue their eternal souls. She drowned her children one by one over the course of an hour, by holding their heads under water in their family bathtub. When called into trial, she felt that she had saved her children rather than harming them and that this action would contribute to defeating Satan.


title: Postpartum depression

text: This was one of the first public and notable cases of postpartum psychosis, which helped create dialogue on women's mental health after childbirth. The court found that Yates was experiencing mental illness concerns, and the trial started the conversation of mental illness in cases of murder and whether or not it would lessen the sentence or not. It also started a dialogue on women going against "maternal instinct" after childbirth and what maternal instinct was truly defined by.


title: Postpartum depression

text: Yates' case brought wide media attention to the problem of filicide, or the murder of children by their parents. Throughout history, both men and women have perpetrated this act, but study of maternal filicide is more extensive.


title: Postpartum depression

text: 193. “Maternal Depression and Child Development.” Paediatrics & Child Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Oct. 2004


title: Meteora (album)

text: Meteora is the second studio album by American rock band Linkin Park. It was released on March 25, 2003, through Warner Bros. Records, following "Reanimation", a collaboration album which featured remixes of songs included on their 2000 debut studio album "Hybrid Theory". The album was produced by the band alongside Don Gilmore. The title "Meteora" is taken from the Greek Orthodox monasteries originally bearing the name. "Meteora" has a similar sound to "Hybrid Theory", as described by critics, and the album took almost a year to be recorded. It is the first Linkin Park studio album to feature bassist Dave Farrell after he rejoined the band in 2000 following his temporary touring with other bands.


title: Meteora (album)

text: "Meteora" debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200, selling over 810,000 copies in its first week. Linkin Park released singles from "Meteora" for over a year, including "Somewhere I Belong", "Faint", "Numb", "From the Inside", and "Breaking the Habit". “Lying from You” was released in March 2004 as a promotional single. "Meteora" received generally positive reviews, although some critics felt the album's style was too similar to its predecessor, "Hybrid Theory."


title: Meteora (album)

text: "Meteora" has sold around 16 million copies worldwide, making it the 8th best-selling album of the 21st century. It is certified 7× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It was ranked number 36 on the "Billboard" Top 200 Albums of the 2000s. Some songs from the album were remixed with some of Jay-Z's songs for the EP "Collision Course" (2004). "Session" was nominated for Best Rock Instrumental Performance at the 46th Grammy Awards.


title: Meteora (album)

text: In 2000, Linkin Park worked with music producer Don Gilmore to record and release their debut album, "Hybrid Theory". Initial writing for a second album dated back to early 2001, while still touring in support of "Hybrid Theory". The band had written around eighty different demos during their Hybrid Theory World Tour and LP Underground Tour, within the span of just eight months. Rough song ideas written then would find its way to the final album; notably


title: Meteora (album)

text: the intro for "Somewhere I Belong". Bennington recorded guitar notes for it, but found it too folk rock sounding. However, Shinoda and Joe Hahn reworked it, adding effects to it, and then played it backwards, molding it into something the band was happy with. As explained by Shinoda: "Since I reversed it, it was playing 4-3-2-1. The chord progression was reversed. Then I cut it into four pieces, and I played it 1-2-3-4. And that's why it has that sweeping sound."


title: Meteora (album)

text: Prior to releasing a second album, the band instead chose to release a remix album, "Reanimation", in 2002, produced by band member Mike Shinoda. The experience lead the band to want to co-produce their second album, while still working with Gilmore, hoping to expand on the sound of "Hybrid Theory" with more experimental ideas. In early 2002, after the touring, the writing continued in Mike's home studio, pre-production of the album began there. The band worked in pairs during the writing process, whereas Shinoda was always involved in all the songs. The recording of the songs mainly used Pro Tools, whereas the band used the traditional method of writing, in main studio. In June, pre-production terminated and the band headed for main production. The band finalized Don Gilmore as their producer. When "Reanimation" was released, the band had started to write the main content. Rob Bourdon spent eight hours a day in the studio for the recording of the album. By August, the band entered NRG Studios as Bennington also began writing songs with the band.


title: Meteora (album)

text: Linkin Park had finished versions of many songs before the actual recording process had begun, but they majorly wrote the finalized songs included in the track list in the studio. By October the drums were finalized and guitar parts were introduced by Brad in the control room of the studio. By the end of October, the bass parts were introduced. Don Gilmore himself being a bass player helped Farrell in his recording. The sampling part by Hahn was introduced just a month before the deadline, thereby Mike finished the recording of "Breaking the Habit" with strings arrangement by David Campbell; the song had been worked on by Shinoda for five or six years. The vocal production started in November. The mixing process as well as the album itself was finished in New York City.


title: Meteora (album)

text: Lyrically, the album contains elements including depressing emotions, anger, and recovery. Explaining to MTV, Bennington said: "We don't talk about situations, we talk about the emotions behind the situations. Mike and I are two different people, so we can't sing about the same things, but we both know about frustration and anger and loneliness and love and happiness, and we can relate on that level." In the same interview, Shinoda explained it as: "What we really wanted to do was just push ourselves and push each other to really find new ways to be creative." He continued: "We wanted each sample that was in each song to be something that might perk your ear – something that you might not have ever heard before."


title: Meteora (album)

text: In a promotional interview, Rob Bourdon stated: "We wanted a group of songs that would sit well together because we wanted to make a record that you could pop into your CD player and, from beginning to end, there would never be a spot where you start daydreaming."


title: Meteora (album)

text: In titling the album, Mike said that "Meteora was a word that caught my attention because it sounded huge." Dave, Joe, and Chester elaborated that just like how Meteora, the rock formations in Greece, is very epic, dramatic, and has great energy, the band wanted the album to have that same feeling.


title: Meteora (album)

text: Genre-wise, the album is categorized as nu metal rap metal, rap rock, alternative rock and alternative metal, with elements of pop, electronica and hip-hop.


title: Meteora (album)

text: The promotion for the album began well ahead before its release, as pictures of the band recording were distributed to the media. To support the album, there were many photo shoots of the band on October 29 at the Ambassador Hotel, where the band took a break from recording the album for two days, for designing the cover art of the album. "The Flem" and "Delta" helped the band for the art works, for the album as well as for the singles spawned by it. A TV commercial for the album was premiered on January 1, 2003.


title: Meteora (album)

text: "Somewhere I Belong" was released as the first single, premiering on US radio on February 24, 2003. Being released a month before the album release, it influenced the album sales performance worldwide. The second single off the album was "Faint", released before the band started its world tour. The third single "Numb" was released when Linkin Park performed it live in Madrid. "From the Inside" was released as the fourth single off the album before the North American leg of the world tour. "Breaking the Habit" was released while the band was in Indonesia. The album was released with various limited edition content for promotional purposes.


title: Meteora (album)

text: There is a special edition of "Meteora", which includes the "Making of "Meteora"" DVD documentary. The special-edition package was packaged in a blue tinted case with the blue "Meteora" cover that can be found in some parts of Asia, United States, and more commonly in India. An alternate Indian version contains an alternate DVD and alternative cover that is packaged in a slimline case with the disc in original packaging. The "Tour Edition" of "Meteora" is packaged in a two disc set. The second disc, which is a Video CD, has the music videos for "Somewhere I Belong", "Faint", "Numb", and "Breaking the Habit". The tour edition is packaged in a standard Compact Disc case, rather than their trademark digipak case. The album was also released on a very limited quantity of vinyl records (spread across two LPs) under Warner Brothers. These are coveted by collectors and fetch high prices at auction. In 2014, Linkin Park released a demo version of Shinoda singing the song, on their 14th annual fan club CD, LPU XIV.


title: Meteora (album)

text: The band promoted the album with their Meteora World Tour and various other supporting tours. The world tour was supported by Hoobastank, P.O.D. and Story of the Year. The band played shows at "Pellissier Building and Wiltern Theatre" on the day before the album release and on the release date. The shows were called "'Meteora' Release Show". The European leg was cancelled because Chester was having severe back and abdominal pains. As a result, half of the music video of "Numb" was shot in Los Angeles and the Czech Republic. The album was also promoted by the Projekt Revolution festival. A live album was released in support of the album titled "Live in Texas". Linkin Park played various special shows worldwide, including "Reading Ireland", as well as performing during the Kerrang! Awards, "Livid", "X-103's Not So Silent Night", "The End's Deck The Hall Ball" and "KROQ Almost Acoustic X-Mas", in promotion of the album.


title: Meteora (album)

text: "Meteora" received generally positive reviews, although critics noted that the album's musical style was similar to its predecessor, "Hybrid Theory" (2000). The overall Metacritic score is 62.


title: Meteora (album)

text: "E! Online" rated it A, and expected it to "shoot straight for the stars". "Entertainment Weekly" described it as "radio-friendly perfection"."Dot Music" described it as a "guaranteed source of ubiquitous radio hits". "Rolling Stone" said the band "squeezed the last remaining life out of this nearly extinct formula". "Billboard Magazine" described "Meteora" as "a ready-made crowdpleaser". The "New Musical Express" said it had "massive commercial appeal" but left the reviewer "underwhelmed".


title: Meteora (album)

text: Writing for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine described the album as "nothing more and nothing less than a "Hybrid Theory" part 2.", but added that the band "has discipline and editing skills, keeping this record at a tight 36 minutes and 41 seconds, a move that makes it considerably more listenable than its peers... since they know where to focus their energy, something that many nu-metal bands simply do not." "Sputnikmusic" writer Damrod criticized the album as being too similar to "Hybrid Theory", but praised the album's production quality and catchiness, stating "the songs just invade your brain".


title: Meteora (album)

text: "Blender" described it as "harder, denser, uglier", while "Q" described it as "less an artistic endeavor than an exercise in target marketing." "Entertainment Weekly" gave the album a B+, calling it a "thunderously hooky album that seamlessly blends the group's disparate sonic elements into radio-friendly perfection"


title: Meteora (album)

text: The song "Session" was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance in 2004. Single from the album "Somewhere I Belong" won Best Rock Video at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards. At the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards, "Breaking the Habit" was nominated for Best Rock Video but won MTV Viewer's Choice.


title: Meteora (album)

text: In its first week, "Meteora" debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200. The album sold 810,400 copies in the US and 36,700 in Canada its first week of release. In its second week, it sold an additional 265,000 copies in the US and stayed at the top for another week. As of June 2014, the album has sold 6.2 million copies in the US, and around 16 million copies worldwide. The album was ranked number 36 on "Billboard"'s "Hot 200 Albums of the Decade".


title: Meteora (album)

text: Meteora – Live Around the World is a live album which features live versions of seven songs from the second studio album, "Meteora", similar to their prior live release, "Hybrid Theory – Live Around the World". They were recorded in various cities around the world from 2007 to 2011. The album was released exclusively on iTunes.


title: IKon

text: iKon (), stylized as iKON, is a South Korean boy band formed in 2015 by YG Entertainment, consisting of six members: Jay, Song, Bobby, DK, Ju-ne and Chan. Originally a seven-piece band, leader B.I departed from the group in June 2019.


title: IKon

text: Initially introduced in the reality survival show "WIN: Who is Next" as "Team B", the group went on to appear in the 2014 reality survival show "Mix & Match", which determined the final member lineup of iKon. Their debut studio album "Welcome Back" (2015) debuted atop the South Korean Gaon Album Chart and featured the number-one singles "My Type", "Apology" and "Dumb & Dumber", as well as the top-ten singles "Rhythm Ta", "Airplane" and "Anthem". The album was a commercial success, selling over 260,000 copies in Asia and its individual songs selling over 4.8 million copies, leading the group to receive numerous accolades from major Asian music award shows.


title: IKon

text: From 2016 to 2017, the group released the singles "#WYD" and "", and embarked on their first and several Japanese tours. In 2018, their second studio album "Return" spawned the hit single "Love Scenario", which topped the Gaon Digital Chart for a record-breaking six weeks. Their third EP, "I Decide" was released on February 6, 2020. Their fourth EP, "Flashback", was released on May 3, 2022 which holds a record of their highest 1 day and 1 week sales.


title: IKon

text: Prior to the group's formation, group leader B.I featured on MC Mong's 2009 song "Indian Boy". He performed with MC Mong at the 2009 SBS Dream Concert, as well as on "You Hee-yeol's Sketchbook". Group vocalist Ju-ne, under his initial stage name "Junhoe", also made a pre-debut appearance aged thirteen on the SBS variety show "Star King". He also competed on SBS's "K-pop Star" in 2011. On January 3, 2011, B.I and Jay (under his real name, Jinhwan) joined YG Entertainment as trainees, as did Bobby a week later. The three trained together for a year and formed the basis of what was to become "Team B". On April 18, 2012, Junhoe and Song (under his real name, Yunhyeong) joined Team B, followed by DK (under his real name, Donghyuk) as the sixth and final member on November 5, 2012.


title: IKon

text: In 2013, B.I, Bobby, Jinhwan, Junhoe, Donghyuk and Yunhyeong competed as Team B on the Mnet reality survival show "WIN: Who Is Next", competing against other trainees in "Team A" for the chance to debut as a group. The program involved three rounds of performances and public voting, with Team B eventually losing to Team A, who went on to debut as Winner. During the program, Team B released two singles: "Just Another Boy" and "Climax". The members of Team B subsequently appeared as backup dancers in Taeyang's music video for "Ringa Linga".


title: IKon

text: In June 2014, Team B appeared in the reality survival program "Mix & Match", a follow-up to "WIN: Who Is Next". The aim of the show was to determine the final lineup of iKon; according to YG Entertainment CEO Yang Hyun-suk, the group's name was derived from the goal to become an 'icon for Korea', hence the 'K'. While Bobby, B.I, and Jinhwan were pre-confirmed members, the remaining members of Team B competed against three new trainees; Jung Jin-hyeong, Yang Hong-seok, and Jung Chan-woo, who had previously appeared on Korean television as a child actor. It was reported that 150,000 fans applied to attend the final performance of the show, and before the announcement of iKon's official lineup, YG Entertainment's blog server crashed. Ultimately, Junhoe, Donghyuk and Yunhyeong successfully retained their places in the line-up, with Chan-woo added as the group’s final member.


title: IKon

text: Following the program’s success, the iKon members held fan meetings in Korea, Japan, and China. In September, approximately 40,000 Japanese fans applied for 2,000 tickets at a fan meeting at Osaka Tojima River Forum, while more than 50,000 Chinese fans applied for their fan meeting in Beijing. The program was aired on December 29, 2014 on the CS channel in Japan. On December 15, 2014, iKon performed as the opening act at Bigbang's "Japan Dome Tour 2014-2015 X". On January 28, 2015, Billboard listed the group as one of the "Top 5 K-Pop Artists to Watch in 2015"; they were the only group on the list that had yet to debut.


title: IKon

text: Following several postponements, iKon's official debut was announced on YG Entertainment's website for September 15, 2015. It was revealed that the group would be releasing their debut album "Welcome Back" in two parts, with 6 of the 12 tracks being title tracks. The first half of the album, "Debut Half Album", was set to be released on October 1, followed by the "Debut Full Album" on November 2. The track listing for the first half-album was released on September 24. Group leader B.I was credited as the producer and co-composer for all of the album's tracks, with B.I and Bobby contributing to lyrics for all tracks and vocalist Ju-ne participating in the composition of title track "Rhythm Ta".


title: IKon

text: iKon debuted with the 'pre-single' "My Type" was released with a music video on September 15, 2015. Within 24 hours of its release, the music video for "My Type" surpassed 1.7 million views on YouTube. The group took their first music show win with the single on September 26, 2015 on MBC's "Music Core", even though they had yet to make their first official live appearance. On September 24, "My Type" achieved a 'triple crown' on the Gaon chart, having taken the number one spot on the digital, download, and streaming charts simultaneously for the 39th week of 2015. On September 18, the single became number one on the music video chart of Chinese music streaming sites QQ Music and Youku. iKon also trended on Weibo, where they were reportedly searched 1.3 billion times.


title: IKon

text: iKon's "Debut Half Album" was released digitally on October 1. The group held their first concert, Showtime, on October 3 at the Seoul Olympic Gymnastics Arena. The show sold out 13,000 tickets. The concert's taking place at the largest concert hall in Korea was unprecedented for a new K-pop group. "SHOWTIME" was broadcast live through Naver's V App and streamed by over 500,000 viewers.


title: IKon

text: On October 4, a day after their debut concert, the group made their music show debut on SBS's Inkigayo with "Rhythm Ta" and "Airplane", receiving their third music show win for "My Type" in person. On October 8, they won on Mnet's M!Countdown with "Rhythm Ta". According to the Gaon Music Charts, iKon topped the weekly album sales charts with the first half of "Welcome Back" for October 4–10.


title: IKon

text: During October, iKon embarked on a series of Japanese fan meetings titled "iKontact" in Tokyo, Aichi, Fukuoka and Osaka, attended by 26,600 fans. At the end of that month, iKon received a MelOn All-Kill Popularity award and had sold 82,208 copies of "Debut Half" "Album - Welcome Back". On October 28, it was announced that the full album's release would be delayed to December 14, with two additional digital singles released on November 16.


title: IKon

text: Two digital singles, "Apology" and "Anthem", were released on November 16. "Apology" took the number one spot on Gaon's digital chart for the 48th week of 2015. On December 24, three new singles, "Dumb & Dumber", "What's Wrong?" and "I Miss You So Bad" were released.


title: IKon

text: On January 13, 2016, the group made their Japanese debut with Japanese version of their album "Welcome Back", the album sold 61,508 copies in its first week of release, and charted third on the Oricon Weekly chart, earning them New Artist Award and Best New Artist Award in 58th Japan Record Award. With the Korean edition the album sold over 100,000 copies in Japan in the end of 2016.


title: IKon

text: On March 17, 2016, YG Entertainment announced that iKon would be holding their first Asia Tour "" with dates in Taiwan, China, Hong Kong, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia. On July 1, their agency announced the band's second Japanese arena tour entitled "iKon Japan Tour 2016." The tour was set to visit five cities for a total of 14 concerts with an attendance of 150,000 fans. Later, the company announced the addition of two shows to be held in Tokyo due to more demands in tickets thus, raising the attendance to 176,000 people from six cities. The completion of the second tour pegs the band's total concert attendance during its debut year at 322,000. In November 14, YGEX announced a second leg of iKon Japan Tour in 2017 due to the success of the arena tour, and to visit Yokohama Arena for the first time. The second leg gathered 120,000 fans from three cities, to rise the attendance of the tour to 296,000 from 25 shows.


title: IKon

text: On May 30, the group released the digital single "#WYD" (short for "What You Doing"). The song debuted at number three on the "Gaon Digital Chart". On August 10, the release of iKon's first original Japanese single "Dumb & Dumber" was announced. The single was released on September 28 with a CD+DVD version and a CD version. It debuted at number one on both the Oricon Daily Single Album Chart and the Oricon Weekly Single Album Chart.


title: IKon

text: The group participated on Chinese dance survival program "Heroes of Remix" in mid 2016, alongside Psy as their mentor. They were the most winning artist in the show, winning three weeks, and gaining a good reviews for their performances. But due to the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) issue, the group was entirely edited out from the last episodes of the show. Their activities in the show and touring in China lead them to win Asian Most Popular Korean Group in "China Music Awards", Best Group in "Netease Attitude Awards", and Best New Force Group and Album of the Year in "QQ Music Awards".


title: IKon

text: On February 11, 2017, it was announced that iKon would start their first dome tour, with two shows set to take place in Kyocera Dome and Seibu Prince Dome, with 90,000 fans expected to come. This made them the fastest group to hold a concert in a Japan dome since debut. On June 18, an additional 22 concerts in eight Japanese cities were announced by YGEX, with 233,000 fans expected to attend, making it the longest and the largest arena tour held by the band in Japan.


title: IKon

text: On March 2, 2017, YG Entertainment confirmed that iKon had begun shooting two music videos for their new album, that was set to be released in April. during the shooting of the music video, Chanwoo injured his ankle, and consequently the music video shoot was delayed. It was confirmed that they would release a new album series under the name "New Kids", which would be released continuously throughout 2017. The series started on May 22, with the single album titled "".


title: IKon

text: iKon released their second studio album and the second of the group's four-part album series, titled "Return" on January 25, 2018. The lead single, "Love Scenario", is described as a mellow, yet relatively upbeat reaction to breaking up, with a circuitous melody that guides the rhythmic dance track. Their second studio album features 12 tracks that were all co-written or feature lyrics by members B.I and Bobby. Other artists including Psy, Big Bang's Taeyang, and Epik High's Tablo also had a role in songwriting tracks alongside YG Entertainment producers, including Choice37 and Teddy Park. "Love Scenario" topped the Gaon Weekly chart for six weeks, making iKon the first artist to achieve this milestone. It also topped the Gaon digital chart for the year of 2018. The group was named the top artist of the first half of 2018 by Genie Music, as they topped the daily music chart for 35 days.


title: IKon

text: iKon will hold an Asia tour and will visit eight cities. It marks the group second Asia tour after their 2016 "", during the time they did two years intensive touring mostly in Japan as they gathered around 800,000 fans. The tour will visit Australia for the first time, with two shows in Sydney and Melbourne. iKon completed their four-part "New Kids" album series with the release of their first and second extended play, "" and "" in August and October 2018, respectively.


title: IKon

text: On June 12, 2019, B.I announced his departure from the group on his personal Instagram account after news agency Dispatch unearthed KakaoTalk messages from three years prior, outlining his attempt to purchase marijuana and LSD from an undisclosed female dealer. He was also accused of evading police charges. As a result, his contract with YG Entertainment was terminated.


title: IKon

text: iKon released their third EP, "I Decide", on February 6, 2020 with the title track "Dive", and debuted at number 3 on the Gaon Album Chart. It is the first release of the band since the departure of B.I in 2019.


title: IKon

text: On March 3, 2021, iKon returned with the new digital single "Why Why Why". Beginning in April 2021, iKon participated in "", a competition show alongside five other K-pop boy groups. In the show's final, the group performed "At Ease" (열중쉬어), composed by Ikon's member Bobby and Winner's member Mino. The song, along with other participants' songs for the final, were included in the special EP "Kingdom <Finale: Who Is the King?>."


title: IKon

text: iKon returned with their fourth EP, "Flashback", on May 3, 2022 with the title track "But You". In July, the group held the iKon Japan Tour 2022 in Kobe and Tokyo. Almost all the shows were completely sold out.


title: Leh

text: Leh () () is the joint capital and largest city of Ladakh, a union territory of India. Leh, located in the Leh district, was also the historical capital of the Kingdom of Ladakh, the seat of which was in the Leh Palace, the former residence of the royal family of Ladakh, built in the same style and about the same time as the Potala Palace in Tibet. Leh is at an altitude of , and is connected via National Highway 1 to Srinagar in the southwest and to Manali in the south via the Leh-Manali Highway (part of National Highway 3 connect leh).


title: Leh

text: Leh was an important stopover on trade routes along the Indus Valley between Tibet to the east, Kashmir to the west and also between India and China for centuries. The main goods carried were salt, grain, "pashm" or cashmere wool, "charas" or cannabis resin from the Tarim Basin, indigo, silk yarn and Banaras brocade.


title: Leh

text: Although there are a few indications that the Chinese knew of a trade route through Ladakh to India as early as the Kushan period (1st to 3rd centuries CE), and certainly by Tang dynasty, little is actually known of the history of the region before the formation of the kingdom towards the end of the 10th century by the Tibetan prince, "Skyid lde nyima gon" (or "Nyima gon"), a grandson of the anti-Buddhist Tibetan king, Langdarma (r. c. 838 to 841). He conquered Western Tibet although his army originally numbered only 300 men. Several towns and castles are said to have been founded by Nyima gon and he apparently ordered the construction of the main sculptures at Shey. "In an inscription, he says he had them made for the religious benefit of the "Tsanpo" (the dynastical name of his father and ancestors), and of all the people of "Ngaris" (Western Tibet). This shows that already in this generation Langdarma's opposition to Buddhism had disappeared." Shey, just 15 km east of modern Leh, was the ancient seat of the Ladakhi kings.


title: Leh

text: During the reign of Delegs Namgyal (1660–1685), the Nawab of Kashmir, which was then a province in the Mughal Empire, arranged for the Mongol army to temporarily leave Ladakh, though it returned later. As payment for assisting Delegs Namgyal in the Tibet-Ladakh-Mughal war of 1679–1684, the Nawab made a number of onerous demands. One of the least was to build a large Sunni Muslim mosque in Leh at the upper end of the bazaar in Leh, below the Leh Palace. The mosque reflects a mixture of Islamic and Tibetan architecture and can accommodate more than 500 people. This was apparently not the first mosque in Leh; there are two smaller ones which are said to be older.


title: Leh

text: Several trade routes have traditionally converged on Leh, from all four directions. The most direct route was the one the modern highway follows from the Punjab via Mandi, the Kulu valley, over the Rohtang Pass, through Lahaul and on to the Indus Valley, and then downriver to Leh. The route from Srinagar was roughly the same as the road that today crosses the "Zoji La" (pass) to Kargil, and then up the Indus Valley to Leh. From Baltistan there were two difficult routes: the main on ran up the Shyok Valley from the Indus, over a pass and then down the Hanu River to the Indus again below Khalsi (Khalatse). The other ran from Skardu straight up the Indus to Kargil and on to Leh. Then, there were both the summer and winter routes from Leh to Yarkand via the Karakoram Pass and Xaidulla. Finally, there were a couple of possible routes from Leh to Lhasa.


title: Leh

text: The first recorded royal residence in Ladakh, built at the top of the high Namgyal ('Victory') Peak overlooking the present palace and town, is the now-ruined fort and the "gon-khang" (Temple of the Guardian Divinities) built by King Tashi Namgyal. Tashi Namgyal is known to have ruled during the final quarter of the 16th century CE. The Namgyal (also called "Tsemo Gompa"='Red Gompa', or "dGon-pa-so-ma"='New Monastery'), a temple, is the main Buddhist centre in Leh. There are some older walls of fortifications behind it which Francke reported used to be known as the "Dard Castle." If it was indeed built by Dards, it must pre-date the establishment of Tibetan rulers in Ladakh over a thousand years ago.


title: Leh

text: The Sankar Labrang (Bsam dkar bla brang) is a small, two-storeyed building owned by Sankar monastery. Sankar monastery is the seat of Bakula Rinpoche, immediately to the northwest of Leh. The monastery's Labrang building is located in the old town of Leh, in the Manikhang neighbourhood. Manikhang is the area between the main bazaar of Leh and the historic Stalam path that leads up to the royal palace. Four huge "stūpas" standing at this point mark the beginning of historic Leh. In recent memory, the Sankar Labrang had a metalsmith's workshop downstairs, while upstairs lived the monk caretaker of the White Maitreya Temple (Byams khang dkar po), also known locally as "Street Maitreya". The White Maitreya Temple dates back to the reign of King Drakpa Bumd´e (Grags pa 'bum lde, r. ca 1410–1435), following the arrival of a mission sent to Ladakh by the Tibetan lama Tsongkhapa.


title: Leh

text: Below this are the Chamba (Byams-pa, "i.e.", Maitreya) and Chenresi (sPyan-ras-gzigs, i.e. Avalokiteshvara) monasteries which are of uncertain date.


title: Leh

text: The royal palace, known as Leh Palace, was built by King Sengge Namgyal (1612–1642), presumably between the period when the Portuguese Jesuit priest, Francisco de Azevedo, visited Leh in 1631, and made no mention of it, and Sengge Namgyal's death in 1642.


title: Leh

text: The Leh Palace is nine storeys high; the upper floors accommodated the royal family, and the stables and storerooms are located on the lower floors. The palace was abandoned when Kashmiri forces besieged it in the mid-19th century. The royal family moved their premises south to their current home in Stok Palace on the southern bank of the Indus River.


title: Leh

text: Unlike other districts in India, the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council (LAHDC) is in charge of governance in Leh.


title: Leh

text: It has 30 councillors, 4 nominated and 26 elected. The Chief Executive Councillor heads and chairs this council. The Deputy Commissioner of Leh also holds the power of Chief Executive Officer of the LAHDC. The current Deputy Commissioner of Leh district is Sachin Kumar Vaishya.


title: Leh

text: The old town of Leh was added to the World Monuments Fund's list of 100 most endangered sites due to increased rainfall from climate change and other reasons. Neglect and changing settlement patterns within the old town have threatened the long-term preservation of this unique site.


title: Leh

text: The rapid and poorly planned urbanisation of Leh has increased the risk of flash floods in some areas, while other areas, according to research by the Climate and Development Knowledge Network, suffer from the less dramatic, gradual effects of 'invisible disasters', which often go unreported.


title: Leh

text: The city is located on the bank of the Indus. The mountains dominate the landscape around the Leh as it is at an altitude of 3,500m. Peaks, such as Nanga Sago, can reach well above 5,500m. The principal access roads include the 434 km Srinagar-Leh highway which connects Leh with Srinagar and the 428 km Leh-Manali Highway which connects Manali with Leh. Both roads are open only on a seasonal basis. Although the access roads from Srinagar and Manali are often blocked by snow in winter, the local roads in the Indus Valley usually remain open due to the low level of precipitation and snowfall.


title: Leh

text: Leh has a cold desert climate (Köppen climate classification "BWk") with long, cold winters from late November to early March, with minimum temperatures well below freezing for most of the winter. The city gets occasional snowfall during winter, which is very cold by Indian standards, mainly due to its high elevation. The weather in the remaining months is generally fine and warm during the day. Average annual rainfall is only 102mm (4.02 inches). In 2010, the city experienced flash floods that killed more than 100 people.


title: Leh

text: Leh is located at an average elevation of about 3500 metres, which means that only one crop a year can be grown there, while two can be grown at Khalatse. By the time crops are being sown at Leh in late May, they are already half-grown at Khalatse. The main crop is "grim" (naked barley – "Hordeum vulgare" L. var. "nudum" Hook. f., which is an ancient form of domesticated barley with an easier to remove hull) – from which tsampa, the staple food in Ladakh, is made. The water for agriculture of Ladakh comes from the Indus, which runs low in March and April when barley-fields have the greatest need for irrigation.


title: Leh

text: As of 2011 India census, Leh town had a population of 30,870. Males constitute 70% of the population and females 30%, due to a large presence of non-local labourers, traders and government employees. Child sex ratio is 987. Leh has an average literacy rate of 90%, more than the national average of 74.04%: male literacy is 94.89%, and female literacy is 78.85%. In Leh, 5.5% of the population is under 6 years of age. The people of Leh are ethnic Tibetan, speaking Ladakhi, a Tibetic language.


title: Leh

text: The Muslim presence dates back to the annexation of Ladakh by Kashmir, after the Fifth Dalai Lama came to Ladakh from Tibet. Since then, there has been further migration from the Kashmir Valley due firstly to trade and latterly with the transfer of tourism from the Kashmir Valley to Ladakh.


title: Leh

text: Ladakh receives very large numbers of tourists for its size. In 2010, 77,800 tourists arrived in Leh. Numbers of visitors have swelled rapidly in recent years, increasing 77% in the 5 years to 2010. This growth is largely accounted for by larger numbers of trips by domestic Indian travellers.


title: Leh

text: Buddhism is the largest religion in Leh, followed by over 43.8% of people. Hinduism is the second-largest religion with 35.4% adherents. Islam and Sikhism form 15.14% and 2.7% of the population respectively.


title: Leh

text: Buddhism is the predominant religion in the valley practiced among Ladakhi people and several Tibetic people. Hinduism has the second largest number of followers after Buddhism. However, as much as 95% of them are male, mostly migrant workers.


title: Leh

text: Since the 8th century, people belonging to different religions, particularly Buddhism and Islam, have been living in Leh. They co-inhabited the region from the time of early period of Namgyal dynasty and there are no records of any conflict between them. Meer Izzut-oollah wrote in the early 19th century:


title: Leh

text: This mosque was built by Ibraheem Khan (in the mid 17th century), who was a man of noble family in the service of the descendants of Timoor. In his time the Kalimaks (Calmuck Tartars), having invaded and obtained possession of the greater portion of Thibet [Ladakh], the Raja of that country claimed protection from the Emperor of Hindoostan. Ibraheem Khan was accordingly deputed by that monarch to his assistance, and in a short time succeeded in expelling the invaders and placing the Raja once more on his throne. The Raja embraced the Mahomedan faith, and formally acknowledged himself as a feudatory of the Emperor, who honored him with the title of Raja Akibut Muhmood Khan, which title to the present day is borne by the Ruler of Cashmere.


title: Leh

text: In recent times, Muslim migration to Leh from neighbouring Kargil and Kashmir has increased due to better opportunities, and relations between the Buddhist and Muslim communities have soured due to socio-political conflicts.


title: Leh

text: Besides these two communities there are people living in the region who belong to other religions such as Christianity, Hinduism and Sikhism. The small Christian community in Leh are descendants of converts from Tibetan Buddhism by German Moravian missionaries who established a church at Keylong in Lahaul in the 1860s, and were allowed to open another mission in Leh in 1885 and had a sub-branch in Khalatse. They stayed open until Indian Independence in 1947. In spite of their successful medical and educational activities, they made only a few converts.


title: Leh

text: Every year Sindhu Darshan Festival is held at Shey, 15 km away from town to promote religious harmony and glory of Indus ("Sindhu") river. At this time, many tourists visit Leh.


title: Leh

text: For information related to visit Leh & Ladakh and explore with Desire Travelling you may prefer the link.


title: Leh

text: Leh is connected to the rest of India by two high-altitude roads both of which are subject to landslides and neither of which are passable in winter when covered by deep snows. The National Highway 1 from Srinagar via Kargil is generally open longer. The Leh-Manali Highway can be troublesome due to very high passes and plateaus. The third road axis is under construction.


title: Leh

text: The overland approach to Ladakh from the Kashmir valley via the 434-km. National Highway 1 typically remains open for traffic from April/May to October/November. The most dramatic part of this road journey is the ascent up the 3,505 m (11,500 ft.) high Zoji-la, a tortuous pass in the Great Himalayan Wall. The Jammu and Kashmir State Road Transport Corporation (JKSRTC) operates regular Deluxe and Ordinary bus services between Srinagar and Leh on this route with an overnight halt at Kargil. Taxis (cars and jeeps) are also available at Srinagar for the journey.


title: Leh

text: Since 1989, the 473-km Leh-Manali Highway has been serving as the second land approach to Ladakh. Open for traffic from June to late October, this high road traverses the upland desert plateaux of Rupsho whose altitude ranges from 3,660 m to 4,570 m. There are a number of high passes en route among which the highest one, known as Tanglang La, is sometimes (but incorrectly) claimed to be the world's second-highest motorable pass at an altitude of 5,325 m. (17,469 feet). See the article on Khardung La for a discussion of the world's highest motorable passes.


title: Leh

text: Leh Kushok Bakula Rimpochee Airport has flights to and fro Delhi, Jammu, Srinagar & Chandigarh. Air India, Go First, IndiGo & Vistara operates Delhi to Leh daily with multiple flights during peak time. Passengers connect in Delhi for other destinations.


title: Leh

text: There is no railway service currently in Ladakh, however 2 railway routes are proposed- the Bilaspur–Leh line and Srinagar–Kargil–Leh line.


title: Leh

text: State-owned All India Radio Leh has a local station in Leh, which transmits various programs of mass interest. Leh head post office owned by India Post also serves as a major means of communications. On 14 December 2021, the first FM radio station in Ladakh was established in Leh.


title: Gothic language

text: Gothic is an extinct East Germanic language that was spoken by the Goths. It is known primarily from the "Codex Argenteus", a 6th-century copy of a 4th-century Bible translation, and is the only East Germanic language with a sizeable text corpus. All others, including Burgundian and Vandalic, are known, if at all, only from proper names that survived in historical accounts, and from loanwords in other languages such as Portuguese, Spanish, and French.


title: Gothic language

text: As a Germanic language, Gothic is a part of the Indo-European language family. It is the earliest Germanic language that is attested in any sizable texts, but it lacks any modern descendants. The oldest documents in Gothic date back to the fourth century. The language was in decline by the mid-sixth century, partly because of the military defeat of the Goths at the hands of the Franks, the elimination of the Goths in Italy, and geographic isolation (in Spain, the Gothic language lost its last and probably already declining function as a church language when the Visigoths converted from Arianism to Nicene Christianity in 589).


title: Gothic language

text: The language survived as a domestic language in the Iberian peninsula (modern-day Spain and Portugal) as late as the eighth century. Gothic-seeming terms are found in manuscripts subsequent to this date, but these may or may not belong to the same language. In particular, a language known as Crimean Gothic survived in the lower Danube area and in isolated mountain regions in Crimea as late as the second half of the 18th century. Lacking certain sound changes characteristic of Gothic, however, Crimean Gothic cannot be a lineal descendant of Bible Gothic.


title: Gothic language

text: The existence of such early attested texts makes it a language of considerable interest in comparative linguistics.


title: Gothic language

text: Only a few documents in Gothic have survived - not enough for a complete reconstruction of the language. Most Gothic-language sources are translations or glosses of other languages (namely, Greek), so foreign linguistic elements most certainly influenced the texts. These are the primary sources:


title: Gothic language

text: Reports of the discovery of other parts of Ulfilas' Bible have not been substantiated. Heinrich May in 1968 claimed to have found in England twelve leaves of a palimpsest containing parts of the Gospel of Matthew.


title: Gothic language

text: Only fragments of the Gothic translation of the Bible have been preserved. The translation was apparently done in the Balkans region by people in close contact with Greek Christian culture. The Gothic Bible apparently was used by the Visigoths in southern France until the loss of Visigothic France at the start of the 6th century, in Visigothic Iberia until about 700, and perhaps for a time in Italy, the Balkans, and Ukraine. In the latter country at Mangup, ninth-century inscriptions have been found of a prayer in the Gothic alphabet using biblical Gothic orthography. During the extermination of Arianism, Trinitarian Christians probably overwrote many texts in Gothic as palimpsests, or alternatively collected and burned Gothic documents. Apart from biblical texts, the only substantial Gothic document that still exists - and the only lengthy text known to have been composed originally in the Gothic language - is the "Skeireins", a few pages of commentary on the Gospel of John.


title: Gothic language

text: Very few medieval secondary sources make reference to the Gothic language after about 800. In "De incrementis ecclesiae Christianae" (840–842), Walafrid Strabo, a Frankish monk who lived in Swabia, writes of a group of monks who reported that even then certain peoples in Scythia (Dobruja), especially around Tomis, spoke a "sermo Theotiscus" ('Germanic language'), the language of the Gothic translation of the Bible, and that they used such a liturgy.


title: Gothic language

text: Many writers of the medieval texts that mention the Goths used the word "Goths" to mean any Germanic people in eastern Europe (such as the Varangians), many of whom certainly did not use the Gothic language as known from the Gothic Bible. Some writers even referred to Slavic-speaking people as "Goths". However, it is clear from Ulfilas' translation that - despite some puzzles - the Gothic language belongs with the Germanic language-group, not with Slavic.


title: Gothic language

text: The relationship between the language of the Crimean Goths and Ulfilas' Gothic is less clear. The few fragments of Crimean Gothic from the 16th century show significant differences from the language of the Gothic Bible, although some of the glosses, such as "ada" for "egg", could indicate a common heritage, and Gothic "mēna" ("moon"), compared to Crimean Gothic "mine", suggests an East Germanic connection.


title: Gothic language

text: Generally, the term "Gothic language" refers to the language of Ulfilas, but the attestations themselves date largely from the 6th century, long after Ulfilas had died.


title: Gothic language

text: A few Gothic runic inscriptions were found across Europe, but due to early Christianization of the Goths, the Runic writing was quickly replaced by the newly invented Gothic alphabet.


title: Gothic language

text: Ulfilas's Gothic, as well as that of the "Skeireins" and various other manuscripts, was written using an alphabet that was most likely invented by Ulfilas himself for his translation. Some scholars (such as Braune) claim that it was derived from the Greek alphabet only while others maintain that there are some Gothic letters of Runic or Latin origin.


title: Gothic language

text: A standardized system is used for transliterating Gothic words into the Latin script. The system mirrors the conventions of the native alphabet, such as writing long as "ei". The Goths used their equivalents of "e" and "o" alone only for long higher vowels, using the digraphs "ai" and "au" (much as in French) for the corresponding short or lower vowels. There are two variant spelling systems: a "raw" one that directly transliterates the original Gothic script and a "normalized" one that adds diacritics (macrons and acute accents) to certain vowels to clarify the pronunciation or, in certain cases, to indicate the Proto-Germanic origin of the vowel in question. The latter system is usually used in the academic literature.


title: Gothic language

text: It is possible to determine more or less exactly how the Gothic of Ulfilas was pronounced, primarily through comparative phonetic reconstruction. Furthermore, because Ulfilas tried to follow the original Greek text as much as possible in his translation, it is known that he used the same writing conventions as those of contemporary Greek. Since the Greek of that period is well documented, it is possible to reconstruct much of Gothic pronunciation from translated texts. In addition, the way in which non-Greek names are transcribed in the Greek Bible and in Ulfilas's Bible is very informative.


title: Gothic language

text: In general, Gothic consonants are devoiced at the ends of words. Gothic is rich in fricative consonants (although many of them may have been approximants; it is hard to separate the two) derived by the processes described in Grimm's law and Verner's law and characteristic of Germanic languages. Gothic is unusual among Germanic languages in having a phoneme, which has not become through rhotacization. Furthermore, the doubling of written consonants between vowels suggests that Gothic made distinctions between long and short, or geminated consonants: "atta" "dad", "kunnan" "to know" (Dutch "kennen", German "kennen" "to know", Icelandic "kunna").


title: Gothic language

text: Gothic has three nasal consonants, one of which is an allophone of the others, all found only in complementary distribution with them. Nasals in Gothic, like most other languages, are pronounced at the same point of articulation as the consonant that follows them (assimilation). Therefore, clusters like and are not possible.


title: Gothic language

text: Accentuation in Gothic can be reconstructed through phonetic comparison, Grimm's law, and Verner's law. Gothic used a stress accent rather than the pitch accent of Proto-Indo-European. This is indicated by the shortening of long vowels and and the loss of short vowels and in unstressed final syllables.


title: Gothic language

text: Just as in other Germanic languages, the free moving Proto-Indo-European accent was replaced with one fixed on the first syllable of simple words. Accents do not shift when words are inflected. In most compound words, the location of the stress depends on the type of compound:


title: Gothic language

text: Gothic preserves many archaic Indo-European features that are not always present in modern Germanic languages, in particular the rich Indo-European declension system. Gothic had nominative, accusative, genitive and dative cases, as well as vestiges of a vocative case that was sometimes identical to the nominative and sometimes to the accusative. The three genders of Indo-European were all present. Nouns and adjectives were inflected according to one of two grammatical numbers: the singular and the plural.


title: Gothic language

text: Nouns can be divided into numerous declensions according to the form of the stem: "a", "ō", "i", "u", "an", "ōn", "ein", "r", etc. Adjectives have two variants, "indefinite" and "definite" (sometimes "indeterminate" and "determinate"), with definite adjectives normally used in combination with the definite determiners (such as the definite article "sa"/"þata"/"sō") while indefinite adjectives are used in other circumstances., Indefinite adjectives generally use a combination of "a"-stem and "ō"-stem endings, and definite adjectives use a combination of "an"-stem and "ōn"-stem endings. The concept of "strong" and "weak" declensions that is prevalent in the grammar of many other Germanic languages is less significant in Gothic because of its conservative nature: the so-called "weak" declensions (those ending in "n") are, in fact, no weaker in Gothic (in terms of having fewer endings) than the "strong" declensions (those ending in a vowel), and the "strong" declensions do not form a coherent class that can be clearly distinguished from the "weak" declensions.


title: Gothic language

text: Although descriptive adjectives in Gothic (as well as superlatives ending in "-ist" and "-ost") and the past participle may take both definite and indefinite forms, some adjectival words are restricted to one variant. Some pronouns take only definite forms: for example, "sama" (English "same"), adjectives like "unƕeila" ("constantly", from the root "ƕeila", "time"; compare to the English "while"), comparative adjective and present participles. Others, such as "áins" ("some"), take only the indefinite forms.


title: Gothic language

text: The table below displays the declension of the Gothic adjective "blind" (English: "blind"), compared with the "an"-stem noun "guma" "man, human" and the "a"-stem noun "dags" "day":


title: Gothic language

text: This table is, of course, not exhaustive. (There are secondary inflexions of various sorts not described here.) An exhaustive table of only the "types" of endings that Gothic took is presented below.


title: Gothic language

text: Gothic inherited the full set of Indo-European pronouns: personal pronouns (including reflexive pronouns for each of the three grammatical persons), possessive pronouns, both simple and compound demonstratives, relative pronouns, interrogatives and indefinite pronouns. Each follows a particular pattern of inflection (partially mirroring the noun declension), much like other Indo-European languages. One particularly noteworthy characteristic is the preservation of the dual number, referring to two people or things; the plural was used only for quantities greater than two. Thus, "the two of us" and "we" for numbers greater than two were expressed as "wit" and "weis" respectively. While proto-Indo-European used the dual for all grammatical categories that took a number (as did Classical Greek and Sanskrit), most Old Germanic languages are unusual in that they preserved it only for pronouns. Gothic preserves an older system with dual marking on both pronouns and verbs (but not nouns or adjectives).


title: Gothic language

text: The simple demonstrative pronoun "sa" (neuter: "þata", feminine: "so", from the Indo-European root "*so", "*seh", "*tod"; cognate to the Greek article ὁ, ἡ, τό and the Latin "istud") can be used as an article, allowing constructions of the type "definite article + weak adjective + noun".


title: Gothic language

text: The interrogative pronouns begin with "ƕ-", which derives from the proto-Indo-European consonant "*kʷ" that was present at the beginning of all interrogatives in proto-Indo-European, cognate with the "wh-" at the beginning of many English interrogative, which, as in Gothic, are pronounced with in some dialects. The same etymology is present in the interrogatives of many other Indo-European languages: "w-" in German, "hv-" in Danish, the Latin "qu-" (which persists in modern Romance languages), the Greek τ- or π-, the Slavic and Indic "k-" as well as many others.


title: Gothic language

text: The bulk of Gothic verbs follow the type of Indo-European conjugation called 'thematic' because they insert a vowel derived from the reconstructed proto-Indo-European phonemes "*e" or "*o" between roots and inflexional suffixes. The pattern is also present in Greek and Latin:


title: Gothic language

text: The other conjugation, called 'athematic', in which suffixes are added directly to roots, exists only in unproductive vestigial forms in Gothic, just like in Greek and Latin. The most important such instance is the verb "to be", which is athematic in Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, and many other Indo-European languages.


title: Gothic language

text: Gothic verbs are, like nouns and adjectives, divided into strong verbs and weak verbs. Weak verbs are characterised by preterites formed by appending the suffixes "-da" or "-ta", parallel to past participles formed with "-þ" / "-t". Strong verbs form preterites by ablaut (the alternating of vowels in their root forms) or by reduplication (prefixing the root with the first consonant in the root plus "aí") but without adding a suffix in either case. This parallels the Greek and Sanskrit perfects. The dichotomy is still present in modern Germanic languages:


title: Gothic language

text: Verbal conjugation in Gothic have two grammatical voices: the active and the medial; three numbers: singular, dual (except in the third person) and plural; two tenses: present and preterite (derived from a former perfect); three grammatical moods: indicative, subjunctive (from an old optative form) and imperative as well as three kinds of nominal forms: a present infinitive, a present participle, and a past passive. Not all tenses and persons are represented in all moods and voices, as some conjugations use auxiliary forms.


title: Gothic language

text: Finally, there are forms called 'preterite-present': the old Indo-European perfect was reinterpreted as present tense. The Gothic word "wáit", from the proto-Indo-European "*woid-he" ("to see" in the perfect), corresponds exactly to its Sanskrit cognate "véda" and in Greek to ϝοἶδα. Both etymologically should mean "I have seen" (in the perfect sense) but mean "I know" (in the preterite-present meaning). Latin follows the same rule with "nōuī" ("I have learned" and "I know"). The preterite-present verbs include "áigan" ("to possess") and "kunnan" ("to know") among others.


title: Gothic language

text: The word order of Gothic is fairly free as is typical of other inflected languages. The natural word order of Gothic is assumed to have been like that of the other old Germanic languages; however, nearly all extant Gothic texts are translations of Greek originals and have been heavily influenced by Greek syntax.


title: Gothic language

text: Sometimes what can be expressed in one word in the original Greek will require a verb and a complement in the Gothic translation; for example, διωχθήσονται ("diōchthēsontai", "they will be persecuted") is rendered:


title: Gothic language

text: Likewise Gothic translations of Greek noun phrases may feature a verb and a complement. In both cases, the verb follows the complement, giving weight to the theory that basic word order in Gothic is object–verb. This aligns with what is known of other early Germanic languages.


title: Gothic language

text: Gothic has two clitic particles placed in the second position in a sentence, in accordance with Wackernagel's Law.


title: Gothic language

text: One such clitic particle is -"u", indicating a yes–no question or an indirect question, like Latin -"ne":


title: Gothic language

text: The prepositional phrase without the clitic -"u" appears as "af þus silbin": the clitic causes the reversion of originally voiced fricatives, unvoiced at the end of a word, to their voiced form; another such example is "wileid-u" "do you () want" from "wileiþ" "you () want". If the first word has a preverb attached, the clitic actually splits the preverb from the verb: "ga-u-láubjats" "do you both believe...?" from "galáubjats" "you both believe".


title: Gothic language

text: Another such clitic is "-uh" "and", appearing as "-h" after a vowel: "ga-h-mēlida" "and he wrote" from "gamēlida" "he wrote", "urreis nim-uh" "arise and take!" from the imperative form "nim" "take". After "iþ" or any indefinite besides "sums" "some" and "anþar" "another", -"uh" cannot be placed; in the latter category, this is only because indefinite determiner phrases cannot move to the front of a clause. Unlike, for example, Latin -"que", -"uh" can only join two or more main clauses. In all other cases, the word "jah" "and" is used, which can also join main clauses.


title: Gothic language

text: More than one such clitics can occur in one word: "diz-uh-þan-sat ijōs" "and then he seized them ()" from "dissat" "he seized" (notice again the voicing of "diz-"), "ga-u-ƕa-sēƕi" "whether he saw anything" from "gasēƕi" "he saw".