title: Fatwa

text: Several boycott fatwas were issued in modern times, such as the one issued by Iraqi ulema in 1933, calling on Muslims to boycott Zionist products. In 2004 Yusuf al-Qaradawi issued a fatwa calling for boycott of Israeli and American products, arguing that buying these goods would strengthen the "enemy" fighting against Muslims in the struggle over Palestine.


title: Fatwa

text: Some muftis in the modern era, like the mufti of the Lebanese republic in the mid-20th century and the Grand Mufti of the Sultanate of Oman, were important political leaders. In Iran, Ayatollah Khomeini used proclamations and fatwas to introduce and legitimize a number of institutions, including the Council of the Islamic Revolution and the Iranian Parliament.


title: Fatwa

text: Khomeini's most publicized fatwa was the proclamation condemning Salman Rushdie to death for his novel "The Satanic Verses". Khomeini himself did not call this proclamation a fatwa, and some scholars have argued that it did not qualify as one, since in Islamic legal theory only a court can decide whether an accused is guilty. However, after the proclamation was presented as a fatwa in Western press, this characterization was widely accepted by both its critics and its supporters, and the Rushdie Affair is credited with bringing the institution of fatwa to world attention. Together with later militant fatwas, it has contributed to the popular misconception of the fatwa as a religious death warrant.


title: Fatwa

text: Many militant and reform movements in modern times have disseminated fatwas issued by individuals who do not possess the qualifications traditionally required of a mufti. A famous example is the fatwa issued in 1998 by Osama bin Laden and four of his associates, proclaiming "jihad against Jews and Crusaders" and calling for killing of American civilians. In addition to denouncing its content, many Islamic jurists stressed that bin Laden was not qualified to either issue a fatwa or declare a jihad.


title: Fatwa

text: The Amman Message was a statement, signed in 2005 in Jordan by nearly 200 prominent Islamic jurists, which served as a "counter-fatwa" against a widespread use of "takfir" (excommunication) by jihadist groups to justify jihad against rulers of Muslim-majority countries. The Amman Message recognized eight legitimate schools of Islamic law and prohibited declarations of apostasy against them. The statement also asserted that fatwas can be issued only by properly trained muftis, thereby seeking to delegitimize fatwas issued by militants who lack the requisite qualifications.


title: Fatwa

text: Erroneous and sometimes bizarre fatwas issued by unqualified or eccentric individuals in recent times have sometimes given rise to complaints about a "chaos" in the modern practice of "ifta".


title: Fatwa

text: In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, attacks, a group of Middle Eastern Islamic scholars issued a fatwa permitting Muslims serving in the U.S. army to participate in military action against Muslim countries, in response to a query from a U.S. Army Muslim chaplain. This fatwa illustrated two increasingly widespread practices. First, it drew directly on the Quran and hadith without referencing the body of jurisprudence from any of the traditional schools of Islamic law. Secondly, questions from Western Muslims directed to muftis in Muslim-majority countries have become increasingly common, as about one-third of Muslims now live in Muslim-minority countries.


title: Fatwa

text: Institutions devoted specifically to issuing fatwas to Western Muslims have been established in the West, including the Fiqh Council of North America (FCNA, founded in 1986) and the European Council for Fatwa and Research (ECFR, founded in 1997). These organizations aim to provide fatwas that address the concerns of Muslim minorities, helping them to comply with sharia, while stressing compatibility of Islam with diverse modern contexts. The FCNA was founded with the goal of developing legal methodologies for adopting Islamic law to life in the West. The ECRF draws on all major schools of Sunni law as well as other traditional legal principles, such as concern for the public good, local custom, and the prevention of harm, to derive fatwas suitable for life in Europe. For example, a 2001 ECRF ruling allowed a woman who had converted to Islam to remain married without requiring her husband's conversion, based in part on the existence of European laws and customs under which women are guaranteed the freedom of religion. Rulings of this kind have been welcomed by some, but also criticized by others as being overly eclectic in legal methodology and having potential to negatively impact the interpretation of sharia in Muslim-majority countries.


title: Fatwa

text: The needs of Western Muslims have given rise to a new branch of Islamic jurisprudence which has been termed the jurisprudence of (Muslim) minorities ("fiqh al-aqallīyāt"). The term is believed to have been coined in a 1994 fatwa by Taha Jabir Alalwani, then the chairman of FCNA, which encouraged Muslim citizens to participate in American politics. This branch of jurisprudence has since been developed primarily, but not exclusively for Muslim minorities in the West.


title: Fatwa

text: Advances in communication technology and the rise of the internet have changed the reception and role of fatwas in modern society. In the pre-modern era, most fatwas issued in response to private queries were read only by the petitioner. Early in the 20th century, the reformist Islamic scholar Rashid Rida responded to thousands of queries from around the Muslim world on a variety of social and political topics in the regular "fatwa" section of his Cairo-based journal "Al-Manar". In the late 20th century, when the Grand Mufti of Egypt Sayyid Tantawy issued a fatwa allowing interest banking, the ruling was vigorously debated in the Egyptian press by both religious scholars and lay intellectuals.


title: Fatwa

text: In the internet age, a large number of websites has appeared offering fatwas to readers around the world. For example, IslamOnline publishes an archive of "live fatwa" sessions, whose number approached a thousand by 2007, along with biographies of the muftis. Together with satellite television programs, radio shows and fatwa hotlines offering call-in fatwas, these sites have contributed to the rise of new forms of contemporary "ifta". Unlike the concise or technical pre-modern fatwas, fatwas delivered through modern mass media often seek to be more expansive and accessible to the wide public.


title: Fatwa

text: Modern media have also facilitated cooperative forms to "ifta". Networks of muftis are commonly engaged by fatwa websites, so that queries are distributed among the muftis in the network, who still act as individual jurisconsults. In other cases, Islamic jurists of different nationalities, schools of law, and sometimes even denominations (Sunni and Shia), coordinate to issue a joint fatwa, which is expected to command greater authority with the public than individual fatwas. The collective fatwa (sometimes called "ijtihād jamāʿī", "collective legal interpretation") is a new historical development, and it is found in such settings as boards of Islamic financial institutions and international fatwa councils.


title: Fatwa

text: As the role of fatwas on strictly legal issues has declined in modern times, there has been a relative increase in the proportion of fatwas dealing with rituals and further expansion in purely religious areas like Quranic exegesis, creed, and Sufism. Modern fatwas also deal with a wide variety of other topics, including insurance, sex-change operations, moon exploration, beer drinking, abortion in the case of fatal foetal abnormalities, or males and females sharing workplaces. Public "fatwa wars" have reflected political controversies in the Muslim world, from anti-colonial struggles to the Gulf War of the 1990s, when muftis in some countries issued fatwas supporting collaboration with the US-led coalition, while muftis from other countries endorsed the Iraqi call for jihad against the US and its collaborators. In the private sphere, some muftis have begun to resemble social workers, giving advice on various personal issues encountered in everyday life.


title: Fatwa

text: The social profile of the fatwa petitioner has also undergone considerable changes. Owing to the rise of universal education, those who solicit fatwas have become increasingly educated, which has transformed the traditional mufti–mustafti relationship based on restricted literacy. The questioner is now also increasingly likely to be female, and in the modern world Muslim women tend to address muftis directly rather than conveying their query through a male relative as in the past. Since women now represent a significant proportion of students studying Islamic law and qualifying as muftiyas, their prominence in its interpretation is likely to rise. A fatwa hotline in the United Arab Emirates provides access to either male or female muftis, allowing women to request fatwas from female Islamic legal scholars.


title: Fatwa

text: The vast amount of fatwas produced in the modern world attests to the importance of Islamic authenticity to many Muslims. However, there is little research available to indicate to what extent Muslims acknowledge the authority of various fatwas and heed their rulings in real life. Rather than reflecting the actual conduct or opinions of Muslims, these fatwas may instead represent a collection of opinions on what Muslims "ought to think".


title: Gian-Carlo Coppola

text: Gian-Carlo Coppola (September 17, 1963 – May 26, 1986) was an American film producer and actor. He was the oldest child of set decorator/artist Eleanor Coppola (née Neil) and film director Francis Ford Coppola, and brother to screenwriter/producer Roman Coppola and director Sofia Coppola.


title: Gian-Carlo Coppola

text: Coppola was born in Los Angeles, California, the son of set decorator/artist Eleanor Coppola (née Neil) and film director Francis Ford Coppola. As the eldest Coppola sibling, he was the older brother to Roman and Sofia.


title: Gian-Carlo Coppola

text: Gian-Carlo was close friends with and was once dating Tracy Reiner, biological daughter of Penny Marshall and adoptive daughter of Rob Reiner.


title: Gian-Carlo Coppola

text: Gian-Carlo began his professional film-making career at the age of sixteen, working closely with his father. Like his brother and sister, Gian-Carlo—known to his family and friends as Gio—often featured in his father's movies as background characters ("The Godfather", "The Conversation", "Apocalypse Now Redux" and "Rumble Fish"), later acting as associate producer for "Rumble Fish" and "The Outsiders", and second unit director on "The Cotton Club."


title: Gian-Carlo Coppola

text: In "The Godfather", he appeared with his brother Roman as the two sons of Robert Duvall's Tom Hagen character, and they can be seen during the street fight and Vito Corleone's funeral right behind Duvall and Al Pacino.


title: Gian-Carlo Coppola

text: During the pre-production phase of "Gardens of Stone", Gian-Carlo was given the responsibility of filming the rehearsals and supervising the electronic cinema staff. There was also potential for Gian-Carlo to intern with director Steven Spielberg to work on the television series "Amazing Stories" before his passing. Director Penny Marshall had also hired him to work on the second unit for her feature film "Jumpin' Jack Flash."


title: Gian-Carlo Coppola

text: Coppola was killed in a speedboating incident on Memorial Day, 1986, aged 22, in Annapolis, Maryland. Griffin O'Neal, who was piloting the boat, had attempted to pass between two slow-moving boats, unaware that the boats were connected by a towline. While O'Neal barely had time to duck, Coppola was struck and killed. At the time of the incident, O'Neal was being directed by Francis Ford Coppola in "Gardens of Stone" and was subsequently replaced. O'Neal was later charged with manslaughter. He ultimately pleaded guilty to the lesser charge of "negligent operation of a boat", was fined $200 and sentenced to 18 months' probation in 1987. He eventually received an 18-day jail sentence for not performing 400 hours of community service as ordered.


title: Gian-Carlo Coppola

text: At the time of Coppola's death, his fiancée Jacqui de la Fontaine was two months pregnant with their only daughter, Gian-Carla "Gia" Coppola (born on January 1, 1987). Gia is a writer-director, having made the 2013 film "Palo Alto".


title: Gian-Carlo Coppola

text: Francis Ford Coppola subsequently dedicated 1988's "" to his son. A scene in Francis Ford Coppola's 2011 film "Twixt" shows the death of a character as being similar to his son's death.


title: Gian-Carlo Coppola

text: At the Inglenook winery, owned by Eleanor and Francis in Napa, California, there is a 12-acre vineyard called the "Gio vineyard", named after Gian-Carlo by the workers, which was planted in 1988.


title: Gian-Carlo Coppola

text: Eleanor Coppola's touring art installation, "Circle of Memory", commemorates the life of Gian-Carlo and has been exhibited in San Diego, Oakland, Santa Fe, Montpellier, Salzburg, Stockholm, and Oslo.


title: Dido

text: Dido ( ; , ), also known as Elissa ( , ), was the legendary founder and first queen of the Phoenician city-state of Carthage (located in modern Tunisia), in 814 BC.


title: Dido

text: In most accounts, she was the queen of the Phoenician city-state of Tyre (today in Lebanon) who fled tyranny to found her own city in northwest Africa.


title: Dido

text: Known only through ancient Greek and Roman sources, all of which were written well after Carthage's founding, her historicity remains uncertain. The oldest references to Dido are attributed to Timaeus, who was active around 300 BC, or about five centuries after the date given for the foundation of Carthage.


title: Dido

text: Details about Dido's character, life, and role in the founding of Carthage are best known from the account given in Virgil's epic poem, the "Aeneid," written around 20 BC, which tells the legendary story of the Trojan hero Aeneas. Dido is described as a clever and enterprising woman who flees her ruthless and autocratic brother, Pygmalion, after discovering that he was responsible for her husband's death. Through her wisdom and leadership, the city of Carthage is founded and made prosperous.


title: Dido

text: Dido remains an enduring figure in Western culture and arts since the early Renaissance and into the 21st century.


title: Dido

text: In the early 20th century, she was also chosen as a national symbol in Tunisian nationalism, so that e.g. Tunisian women can be poetically referred to "Daughters of Dido"; Dido (Elissa) has also been represented on Tunisian currency in 2006.


title: Dido

text: Many names in the legend of Dido are of Punic origin, which suggests that the first Greek authors who mention this story have taken up Phoenician accounts. One suggestion is that "Dido" is an epithet from the same Semitic root as "David", which means "Beloved". Others state Didô means "the wanderer".


title: Dido

text: According to Marie-Pierre Noël, "Elishat/Elisha" is a name repeatedly attested on Punic votives. It is composed of the Punic reflex of *ʾil- "god", the remote Phoenician creator god El, also a name for God in Judaism, and "‐issa", which could be either "ʾiš" (𐤀𐤎) means "fire", or another word for "woman". Other works state it is the feminine form of El. In Greek it appears as "Theiossô", which translates Élissa: "el" becoming "theos".


title: Dido

text: The person of Dido can be traced to references by Roman historians to lost writings of Timaeus of Tauromenium in Sicily (c. 356–260 BC).


title: Dido

text: Ancient historians gave various dates, both for the foundation of Carthage and the foundation of Rome. Appian, in the beginning of his "Punic Wars", claims that Carthage was founded by a certain Zorus and Carchedon, but "Zorus" looks like an alternative transliteration of the city name "Tyre," while "Carchedon" is just the Greek form of "Carthage". Timaeus made Carchedon's wife Elissa the sister of King Pygmalion of Tyre. Archaeological evidence of settlement on the site of Carthage before the last quarter of the 8th century BC has yet to be found. Paucity of material for this period may be explained by rejection of the Greek Dark Age theory.


title: Dido

text: The only surviving full account before Virgil's treatment is that of Virgil's contemporary Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus in his "Philippic histories" as rendered in a digest or epitome made by Junianus Justinus in the 3rd century AD.


title: Dido

text: Justin quoting or paraphrasing Trogus states (18.4–6), a king of Tyre whom Justin does not name, made his very beautiful daughter Dido and son Pygmalion his joint heirs. But on his death the people took Pygmalion alone as their ruler though Pygmalion was yet still a boy. Dido married Acerbas her uncle who as priest of Heracles—that is, Melqart—was second in power to King Pygmalion. Acerbas (Sicharbas, Zacherbas) can be equated with the Zikarbaal king of Byblos mentioned in the Egyptian "Tale of Wenamon".


title: Dido

text: Rumor told that Acerbas had much wealth secretly buried and King Pygmalion had Acerbas murdered in hopes of gaining this wealth. Dido, desiring to escape Tyre, expressed a wish to move into Pygmalion's palace, but then ordered the attendants whom Pygmalion sent to aid in the move, to throw all Acerbas' bags of gold into the sea apparently as an offering to his spirit. In fact these bags contained only sand. Dido then persuaded the attendants to join her in flight to another land rather than face Pygmalion's anger when he discovered what had supposedly become of Acerbas' wealth. Some senators also joined her in her flight.


title: Dido

text: The party arrived at Cyprus where the priest of Jupiter joined the expedition. There the exiles also seized about eighty young women who were prostituting themselves on the shore in order to provide wives for the men in the party.


title: Dido

text: Eventually Dido and her followers arrived on the coast of North Africa where Dido asked the Berber king Iarbas for a small bit of land for a temporary refuge until she could continue her journeying, only as much land as could be encompassed by an oxhide. They agreed. Dido cut the oxhide into fine strips so that she had enough to encircle an entire nearby hill, which was therefore afterwards named "Byrsa" "hide". (This event is commemorated in modern mathematics: The "isoperimetric problem" of enclosing the maximum area within a fixed boundary is often called the "Dido Problem" in modern calculus of variations.) That would become their new home. Many of the local Berbers joined the settlement and both Berbers and envoys from the nearby Phoenician city of Utica urged the building of a city. In digging the foundations an ox's head was found, indicating a city that would be wealthy but subject to others. Accordingly, another area of the hill was dug instead where a horse's head was found, indicating that the city would be powerful in war.


title: Dido

text: But when the new city of Carthage had been established and become prosperous, Iarbas, a native king of the Maxitani or Mauritani (manuscripts differ), demanded Dido for his wife or he would make war on Carthage. Still, she preferred to stay faithful to her first husband and after creating a ceremonial funeral pyre and sacrificing many victims to his spirit in pretense that this was a final honoring of her first husband in preparation for marriage to Iarbas, Dido ascended the pyre, announced that she would go to her husband as they desired, and then slew herself with her sword. After this self-sacrifice Dido was deified and was worshipped as long as Carthage endured. In this account, the foundation of Carthage occurred 72 years before the foundation of Rome.


title: Dido

text: Servius in his commentary on Virgil's "Aeneid" gives "Sicharbas" as the name of Dido's husband in early tradition.


title: Dido

text: The oxhide story which explains the name of the hill is most likely of Greek origin since "Byrsa" means "oxhide" in Greek, not in Punic. The name of the hill in Punic was probably just a derivation from Semitic "brt" "fortified place". But that does not prevent other details in the story from being Carthaginian, albeit still not necessarily historical. Michael Grant in "Roman Myths" (1973) claims that "Dido-Elissa was originally a goddess", and that she was converted from a goddess into a mortal (if still legendary) queen sometime in the later fifth century BCE by a Greek writer.


title: Dido

text: Others conjecture that Dido was indeed historical, as described in the following accounts. It is unknown who first combined the story of Dido with the tradition that connected Aeneas either with Rome or with earlier settlements from which Rome traced its origin. A fragment of an epic poem by Gnaeus Naevius who died at Utica in 201 BC includes a passage which might or might not be part of a conversation between Aeneas and Dido. Servius in his commentary (4.682; 5.4) cites Varro (1st century BC ) for a version in which Dido's sister Anna killed herself for love of Aeneas.


title: Dido

text: Evidence for the historicity of Dido (which is a question independent of whether or not she ever met Aeneas) can be associated with evidence for the historicity of others in her family, such as her brother Pygmalion and their grandfather Balazeros. Both of these kings are mentioned, as well as Dido, in the list of Tyrian kings given in Menander of Ephesus's list of the kings of Tyre, as preserved in Josephus's "Against Apion", i.18. Josephus ends his quotation of Menander with the sentence "Now, in the seventh year of his [Pygmalion's] reign, his sister fled away from him and built the city of Carthage in Libya."


title: Dido

text: The Nora Stone, found on Sardinia, has been interpreted by Frank Moore Cross as naming Pygmalion as the king of the general who was using the stone to record his victory over the local populace. On paleographic grounds, the stone is dated to the 9th century BC. (Cross's translation, with a longer discussion of the Nora stone, is found in the Pygmalion article). If Cross's interpretation is correct, this presents inscriptional evidence substantiating the existence of a 9th-century-BC king of Tyre named (in Greek) Pygmalion.


title: Dido

text: Several scholars have identified Baa‘li-maanzer, the king of Tyre who gave tribute to Shalmaneser III in 841 BC, with "Ba‘al-'azor" (Phoenician form of the name) or "Baal-Eser/Balazeros" (Greek form of the name), Dido's grandfather. This lends credibility to the account in Josephus/Menander that names the kings of Tyre from Abibaal and Hiram I down to the time of Pygmalion and Dido.


title: Dido

text: Another possible reference to Balazeros is found in the "Aeneid". It was a common ancient practice of using the hypocoristicon or shortened form of the name that included only the divine element, so that the "Belus" that Virgil names as the father of Dido in the "Aeneid" may be a reference to her grandfather, Baal-Eser II/Balazeros. Classicist T. T. Duke suggests that instead it is a hypocoristicon of Mattan I, who was also known as (, 'Gift of the Lord').


title: Dido

text: Even more important than the inscriptional and literary references supporting the historicity of Pygmalion and Dido are chronological considerations that give something of a mathematical demonstration of the veracity of the major feature of the Pygmalion/Dido saga, namely the flight of Dido from Tyre in Pygmalion's seventh year, and her eventual founding of the city of Carthage. Classical authors give two dates for the founding of Carthage. The first is that of Pompeius Trogus, mentioned above, that says this took place 72 years before the foundation of Rome. At least as early as the 1st century BC, and then later, the date most commonly used by Roman writers for the founding of Rome was 753 BC. This would place Dido's flight in 753 + 72 = 825 BC. Another tradition, that of the Greek historian Timaeus (c. 345–260 BC), gives 814 BC for the founding of Carthage. Traditionally most modern scholars have preferred the 814 date. However, the publication of the Shalmaneser text mentioning tribute from Baal-Eser II of Tyre in 841 BC caused a re-examination of this question, since the best texts of Menander/Josephus only allow 22 years from the accession of Baal-Eser/Balazeros until the seventh year of Pygmalion, and measuring back from 814 BC would not allow any overlap of Balazeros with the 841 tribute to Shalmaneser. With the 825 date for the seventh year of Pygmalion, however, Balazeros's last year would coincide with 841 BC, the year of the tribute. Additional evidence in favor of the 825 date is found in the statement of Menander, repeated by Josephus as corroborated from Tyrian court records ("Against Apion" i.17,18), that Dido's flight (or the founding of Carthage) occurred 143 years and eight months after Hiram of Tyre sent assistance to Solomon for the building of the Temple. Using the 825 date, this Tyrian record would then date the start of Temple construction in 969 or 968 BC, in agreement with the statement in 1 Kings 6:1 that Temple construction began in Solomon's fourth regnal year. Solomon's fourth year can be calculated as starting in the fall of 968 BC when using the widely accepted date of 931/930 BC for the division of the kingdom after the death of Solomon. These chronological considerations therefore definitely favor the 825 date over the 814 date for Dido's departure from Tyre. More than that, the agreement of this date with the timing of the tribute to Shalmaneser and the year when construction of the First Temple began provide evidence for the essential historicity of at least the existence of Pygmalion and Dido as well as their rift in 825 BC that eventually led to the founding of Carthage.


title: Dido

text: According to J. M. Peñuela, the difference in the two dates for the foundation of Carthage has an explanation if we understand that Dido fled Tyre in 825 BC, but eleven years elapsed before she was given permission by the original inhabitants to build a city on the mainland, years marked by conflict in which the Tyrians first built a small city on an island in the harbor. Additional information about Dido's activities after leaving Tyre are found in the Pygmalion article, along with a summary of later scholars who have accepted Peñuela's thesis.


title: Dido

text: If chronological considerations thus help to establish the basic historicity of Dido, they also serve to refute the idea that she could have had any liaison with Aeneas. Aeneas fought in the Trojan War, which is conventionally dated anywhere from the 14th to the 12th centuries BC, far too early for Aeneas to have been alive in the time of Dido. Even with the date of 864 BC that historical revisionist David Rohl gives for the end of the Trojan War, Aeneas would have been about 77 years old when Dido fled Tyre in 825 BC and 88 when she began to build Carthage in 814 (following Peñuela's reconstruction), hardly consistent with the romantic intrigues between Dido and Aeneas imagined by Virgil in the "Aeneid".


title: Dido

text: Virgil's references in the "Aeneid" generally agree with what Justin's epitome of Trogus recorded. Virgil names Belus as Dido's father, this Belus sometimes being called Belus II by later commentators to distinguish him from Belus son of Poseidon and Libya in earlier Greek mythology. Classicist T. T. Duke suggests that this is a hypocoristicon of the historical father of Pygmalion and Dido, Mattan I, also known as (, 'Gift of the Lord').


title: Dido

text: Virgil (1.343f) adds that the marriage between Dido and Sychaeus, as Virgil calls Dido's husband, occurred while her father was still alive. Pygmalion slew Sychaeus secretly due to his wealth and Sychaeus appeared to Dido in a dream in which he told the truth about his death, urged her to flee the country, and revealed to her where his gold was buried. She left with those who hated or feared Pygmalion. None of these details contradicts Justin's epitome, but Virgil very much changes the import and many details of the story when he brings Aeneas and his followers to Carthage.


title: Dido

text: (1.657f) Dido and Aeneas fall in love by the management of Juno and Venus, acting in concert, though for different reasons. (4.198f) When the rumour of the love affair comes to King Iarbas the Gaetulian, "a son of Jupiter Ammon by a raped Garamantian nymph", Iarbas prays to his father, blaming Dido who has scorned marriage with him yet now takes Aeneas into the country as her lord. (4.222f) Jupiter dispatches Mercury to send Aeneas on his way and the pious Aeneas sadly obeys. Mercury tells Aeneas of all the promising Italian lands and orders Aeneas to get his fleet ready.


title: Dido

text: (4.450f) Dido can no longer bear to live. (4.474) She has her sister Anna build her a pyre under the pretence of burning all that reminded her of Aeneas, including weapons and clothes that Aeneas had left behind and (what she calls) their bridal bed (though, according to Aeneas, they were never officially married.) (4.584f) When Dido sees Aeneas' fleet leaving she curses him and his Trojans and proclaims endless hate between Carthage and the descendants of Troy, foreshadowing the Punic Wars. (4.642) Dido ascends the pyre, lies again on the couch which she had shared with Aeneas, and then falls on a sword that Aeneas had given her. (4.666) Those watching let out a cry; Anna rushes in and embraces her dying sister; Juno sends Iris from heaven to release Dido's spirit from her body. (5.1) From their ships, Aeneas and his crew see the glow of Dido's burning funeral pyre and can only guess what has happened. At least two scholars have argued that the inclusion of the pyre as part of Dido's suicide—otherwise unattested in epic and tragedy—alludes to the self-immolation that took the life of Carthage's last queen (or the wife of its general Hasdrubal the Boetharch) in 146 BC.


title: Dido

text: (6.450f) During his journey in the underworld Aeneas meets Dido and tries to excuse himself, but Dido does not deign to look at him. Instead she turns away from Aeneas to a grove where her former husband Sychaeus waits.


title: Dido

text: Virgil has included most of the motifs from the original: Iarbas who desires Dido against her will, a deceitful explanation for the building of the pyre, and Dido's final suicide. In both versions Dido is loyal to her original husband in the end. But whereas the earlier Elissa remained always loyal to her husband's memory, Virgil's Dido dies as a tortured and repentant woman who has fallen away from that loyalty.


title: Dido

text: Virgil consistently uses the form "Dido" as nominative, but derivates of "Elissa" for the oblique cases.


title: Dido

text: Letter 7 of Ovid's "Heroides" is a feigned letter from Dido to Aeneas written just before she ascends the pyre. The situation is as in Virgil's "Aeneid". In Ovid's "Fasti" (3.545f) Ovid introduced a kind of sequel involving Aeneas and Dido's sister Anna. See Anna Perenna.


title: Dido

text: The Barcids, the family to which Hannibal belonged, claimed descent from a younger brother of Dido according to Silius Italicus in his "Punica" (1.71–7).


title: Dido

text: The "Augustan History" ("Tyrrani Triginta" 27, 30) claims that Zenobia queen of Palmyra in the late third century was descended from Cleopatra, Dido and Semiramis.


title: Dido

text: In the "Divine Comedy," Dante puts the shade of Dido in the second circle of Hell, where she is condemned (on account of her consuming lust) to be blasted for eternity in a fierce whirlwind.


title: Dido

text: William Shakespeare refers to Dido twelve times in his plays: four times in "The Tempest", albeit all in one dialogue, twice in "Titus Andronicus", and also in "Henry VI Part 2", "Antony and Cleopatra", "Hamlet", "Romeo and Juliet, A Midsummer Night's Dream," and most famously in "The Merchant of Venice", in Lorenzo's and Jessica's mutual wooing:


title: Dido

text: The story of Dido and Aeneas remained popular throughout the post-Renaissance era and was the basis for many operas, with the libretto by Metastasio, "Didone abbandonata", proving especially popular with composers throughout the eighteenth century and beyond:


title: Dido

text: Also from the 17th century is a ballad inspired by the relationship between Dido and Aeneas. The ballad, often printed on a broadside, is called "The Wandering Prince of Troy", and it alters the end of the relationship between the two lovers, rethinking Dido's final sentiment for Aeneas and rewriting Aeneas's visit to the underworld as Dido's choice to haunt him.


title: Dido

text: In 1794 Germany, Charlotte von Stein wrote her own drama named "Dido", with an autobiographical element—as von Stein had been forsaken by her own lover, the famous Goethe, in a manner which she found reminiscent of Aeneas.


title: Dido

text: Will Adams' 2014 thriller "The City of the Lost" assumes that Dido fled only as far as Cyprus and founded a city on the site of modern Famagusta, that she died there and that Carthage was founded later, when Dido's followers fled further west after a vengeful expedition arrived from Tyre. In this interpretation, the two flights - from Tyre to Cyprus and from Cyprus to Carthage - were combined in later historical memory and all attributed to Dido. In Adams' account, the startling discovery of Dido's hideout and her well-preserved body happens accidentally during an attempted Coup D'etat by Turkish Army officers based in Cyprus.


title: Dido

text: In another modern interpretation, Dido appears in Sid Meier's strategy games "Civilization II" and "Civilization V", as the leader of the Carthaginian civilization, although she appears alongside Hannibal in the former. In Civilization V, she speaks Phoenician, with a modern Israeli accent. In 2019, Dido was made the leader of Phoenicia in "", with Tyre as its capital and Carthage as an available name for subsequent cities.


title: Dido

text: In honor of Dido, the asteroid 209 Dido, discovered in 1879, was named after her. Another dedication of Queen Dido is the Mount Dido in Antarctica.


title: Dido

text: Remembrance of the story of the bull's hide and the foundation of Carthage is preserved in mathematics in connection with the Isoperimetric problem which is sometimes called Dido's Problem (and similarly the Isoperimetric theorem is sometimes called Dido's Theorem). It is sometimes stated in such discussion that Dido caused her thong to be placed as a half circle touching the sea coast at each end (which would add greatly to the area) but the sources mention the thong only and say nothing about the sea.


title: Dido

text: Carthage was the Roman Republic's greatest rival and enemy, and Virgil's Dido in part symbolises this. Even though no Rome existed in her day, Virgil's Dido curses the future progeny of the Trojans. In Italy during the Fascist administration of the 1920s to 1940s, she was regarded as a rival and sometimes negative figure, perhaps not only as a symbol of Rome's nemesis, but because she represented together at least three other unpleasant qualities: her reputation for promiscuity, her Semitic race, and for being a symbol of Rome's erstwhile rival Carthage. As an example, when the streets of new quarters in Rome were named after the characters of Virgil's "Aeneid", only the name "Dido" did not appear.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Nature versus nurture is a long-standing debate in biology and society about the balance between two competing factors which determine fate: genetics (nature) and environment (nurture). The alliterative expression "nature and nurture" in English has been in use since at least the Elizabethan period and goes back to medieval French.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: The complementary combination of the two concepts is an ancient concept (). Nature is what people think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors. Nurture is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception e.g. the product of exposure, experience and learning on an individual.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: The phrase in its modern sense was popularized by the Victorian polymath Francis Galton, the modern founder of eugenics and behavioral genetics when he was discussing the influence of heredity and environment on social advancement. Galton was influenced by "On the Origin of Species" written by his half-cousin, the evolutionary biologist Charles Darwin.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: The view that humans acquire all or almost all their behavioral traits from "nurture" was termed "tabula rasa" ('blank tablet, slate') by John Locke in 1690. A "blank slate view" (sometimes termed "blank-slatism") in human developmental psychology, which assumes that human behavioral traits develop almost exclusively from environmental influences, was widely held during much of the 20th century. The debate between "blank-slate" denial of the influence of heritability, and the view admitting both environmental and heritable traits, has often been cast in terms of nature "versus" nurture. These two conflicting approaches to human development were at the core of an ideological dispute over research agendas throughout the second half of the 20th century. As both "nature" and "nurture" factors were found to contribute substantially, often in an inextricable manner, such views were seen as naive or outdated by most scholars of human development by the 21st century.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: The strong dichotomy of nature "versus" nurture has thus been claimed to have limited relevance in some fields of research. Close feedback loops have been found in which nature and nurture influence one another constantly, as seen in self-domestication. In ecology and behavioral genetics, researchers think nurture has an essential influence on nature. Similarly in other fields, the dividing line between an inherited and an acquired trait becomes unclear, as in epigenetics or fetal development.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: According to "Records of the Grand Historian" (94 BC) by Sima Qian, during Chen Sheng Wu Guang uprising in 209 B.C., Chen Sheng asked the rhetorical question as a call to war: "Are kings, generals, and ministers merely born into their kind?" (). Though Chen was obviously negative to the question, the phrase has often been cited as an early quest to the nature versus nurture problem.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: John Locke's "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1690) is often cited as the foundational document of the "blank slate" view. In the "Essay", Locke specifically criticizes René Descartes's claim of an innate idea of God that is universal to humanity. Locke's view was harshly criticized in his own time. Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury, complained that by denying the possibility of any innate ideas, Locke "threw all order and virtue out of the world," leading to total moral relativism. By the 19th century, the predominant perspective was contrary to that of Locke's, tending to focus on "instinct." Leda Cosmides and John Tooby noted that William James (1842–1910) argued that humans have "more" instincts than animals, and that greater freedom of action is the result of having more psychological instincts, not fewer.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: The question of "innate ideas" or "instincts" were of some importance in the discussion of free will in moral philosophy. In 18th-century philosophy, this was cast in terms of "innate ideas" establishing the presence of a universal virtue, prerequisite for objective morals. In the 20th century, this argument was in a way inverted, since some philosophers (J. L. Mackie) now argued that the evolutionary origins of human behavioral traits forces us to concede that there is no foundation for ethics, while others (Thomas Nagel) treated ethics as a field of cognitively valid statements in complete isolation from evolutionary considerations.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: In the early 20th century, there was an increased interest in the role of the environment, as a reaction to the strong focus on pure heredity in the wake of the triumphal success of Darwin's theory of evolution. During this time, the social sciences developed as the project of studying the influence of culture in clean isolation from questions related to "biology. Franz Boas's "The Mind of Primitive Man" (1911) established a program that would dominate American anthropology for the next 15 years. In this study, he established that in any given population, biology, language, material, and symbolic culture, are autonomous; that each is an equally important dimension of human nature, but that none of these dimensions is reducible to another.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: John B. Watson in the 1920s and 1930s established the school of "purist behaviorism" that would become dominant over the following decades. Watson is often said to have been convinced of the complete dominance of cultural influence over anything that heredity might contribute. This is based on the following quote which is frequently repeated without context, as the last sentence is frequently omitted, leading to confusion about Watson's position:During the 1940s to 1960s, Ashley Montagu was a notable proponent of this purist form of behaviorism which allowed no contribution from heredity whatsoever: In 1951, Calvin Hall suggested that the dichotomy opposing nature to nurture is ultimately fruitless.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: In "African Genesis" (1961) and "The Territorial Imperative" (1966), Robert Ardrey argues for innate attributes of human nature, especially concerning territoriality. Desmond Morris in "The Naked Ape" (1967) expresses similar views. Organised opposition to Montagu's kind of purist "blank-slatism" began to pick up in the 1970s, notably led by E. O. Wilson ("On Human Nature", 1979).


title: Nature versus nurture

text: The tool of twin studies was developed as a research design intended to exclude all confounders based on inherited behavioral traits. Such studies are designed to decompose the variability of a given trait in a given population into a genetic and an environmental component. Twin studies established that there was, in many cases, a significant heritable component. These results did not, in any way, point to overwhelming contribution of heritable factors, with heritability typically ranging around 40% to 50%, so that the controversy may not be cast in terms of "purist behaviorism" vs. "purist nativism". Rather, it was "purist behaviorism" that was gradually replaced by the now-predominant view that both kinds of factors usually contribute to a given trait, anecdotally phrased by Donald Hebb as an answer to the question "which, nature or nurture, contributes more to personality?" by asking in response, "Which contributes more to the area of a rectangle, its length or its width?"


title: Nature versus nurture

text: In a comparable avenue of research, anthropologist Donald Brown in the 1980s surveyed hundreds of anthropological studies from around the world and collected a set of cultural universals. He identified approximately 150 such features, coming to the conclusion there is indeed a "universal human nature", and that these features point to what that universal human nature is.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: At the height of the controversy, during the 1970s to 1980s, the debate was highly ideologised. In "" (1984), Richard Lewontin, Steven Rose and Leon Kamin criticise "genetic determinism" from a Marxist framework, arguing that "Science is the ultimate legitimator of bourgeois ideology ... If biological determinism is a weapon in the struggle between classes, then the universities are weapons factories, and their teaching and research faculties are the engineers, designers, and production workers." The debate thus shifted away from whether heritable traits exist to whether it was politically or ethically permissible to admit their existence. The authors deny this, requesting that evolutionary inclinations be discarded in ethical and political discussions regardless of whether they exist or not.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Heritability studies became much easier to perform, and hence much more numerous, with the advances of genetic studies during the 1990s. By the late 1990s, an overwhelming amount of evidence had accumulated that amounts to a refutation of the extreme forms of "blank-slatism" advocated by Watson or Montagu.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: This revised state of affairs was summarized in books aimed at a popular audience from the late 1990s. In "" (1998), Judith Rich Harris was heralded by Steven Pinker as a book that "will come to be seen as a turning point in the history of psychology." However, Harris was criticized for exaggerating the point of "parental upbringing seems to matter less than previously thought" to the implication that "parents do not matter."


title: Nature versus nurture

text: The situation as it presented itself by the end of the 20th century was summarized in "" (2002) by Steven Pinker. The book became a best-seller, and was instrumental in bringing to the attention of a wider public the paradigm shift away from the behaviourist purism of the 1940s to 1970s that had taken place over the preceding decades.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Pinker portrays the adherence to pure "blank-slatism" as an ideological dogma linked to two other dogmas found in the dominant view of human nature in the 20th century:


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Pinker argues that all three dogmas were held onto for an extended period even in the face of evidence because they were seen as "desirable" in the sense that if any human trait is purely conditioned by culture, any undesired trait (such as crime or aggression) may be engineered away by purely cultural (political means). Pinker focuses on reasons he assumes were responsible for unduly repressing evidence to the contrary, notably the fear of (imagined or projected) political or ideological consequences.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: It is important to note that the term "heritability" refers only to the degree of genetic variation between people on a trait. It does not refer to the degree to which a trait of a particular individual is due to environmental or genetic factors. The traits of an individual are always a complex interweaving of both. For an individual, even strongly genetically influenced, or "obligate" traits, such as eye color, assume the inputs of a typical environment during ontogenetic development (e.g., certain ranges of temperatures, oxygen levels, etc.).


title: Nature versus nurture

text: In contrast, the "heritability index" statistically quantifies the extent to which variation "between individuals" on a trait is due to variation in the genes those individuals carry. In animals where breeding and environments can be controlled experimentally, heritability can be determined relatively easily. Such experiments would be unethical for human research. This problem can be overcome by finding existing populations of humans that reflect the experimental setting the researcher wishes to create.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: One way to determine the contribution of genes and environment to a trait is to study twins. In one kind of study, identical twins reared apart are compared to randomly selected pairs of people. The twins share identical genes, but different family environments. Twins reared apart are not assigned at random to foster or adoptive parents. In another kind of twin study, identical twins reared together (who share family environment and genes) are compared to fraternal twins reared together (who also share family environment but only share half their genes). Another condition that permits the disassociation of genes and environment is adoption. In one kind of adoption study, biological siblings reared together (who share the same family environment and half their genes) are compared to adoptive siblings (who share their family environment but none of their genes).


title: Nature versus nurture

text: In many cases, it has been found that genes make a substantial contribution, including psychological traits such as intelligence and personality. Yet heritability may differ in other circumstances, for instance environmental deprivation. Examples of low, medium, and high heritability traits include:


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Twin and adoption studies have their methodological limits. For example, both are limited to the range of environments and genes which they sample. Almost all of these studies are conducted in Western countries, and therefore cannot necessarily be extrapolated globally to include non-western populations. Additionally, both types of studies depend on particular assumptions, such as the equal environments assumption in the case of twin studies, and the lack of pre-adoptive effects in the case of adoption studies.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Since the definition of "nature" in this context is tied to "heritability", the definition of "nurture" has consequently become very wide, including any type of causality that is not heritable. The term has thus moved away from its original connotation of "cultural influences" to include all effects of the environment, including; indeed, a substantial source of environmental input to human nature may arise from stochastic variations in prenatal development and is thus in no sense of the term "cultural".


title: Nature versus nurture

text: The interactions of genes with environment, called "gene–environment interactions", are another component of the nature–nurture debate. A classic example of gene–environment interaction is the ability of a diet low in the amino acid phenylalanine to partially suppress the genetic disease phenylketonuria. Yet another complication to the nature–nurture debate is the existence of gene–environment correlations. These correlations indicate that individuals with certain genotypes are more likely to find themselves in certain environments. Thus, it appears that genes can shape (the selection or creation of) environments. Even using experiments like those described above, it can be very difficult to determine convincingly the relative contribution of genes and environment.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Heritability refers to the origins of differences between people. Individual development, even of highly heritable traits, such as eye color, depends on a range of environmental factors, from the other genes in the organism, to physical variables such as temperature, oxygen levels etc. during its development or ontogenesis.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: The variability of trait can be meaningfully spoken of as being due in certain proportions to genetic differences ("nature"), or environments ("nurture"). For highly penetrant Mendelian genetic disorders such as Huntington's disease virtually all the incidence of the disease is due to genetic differences. Huntington's animal models live much longer or shorter lives depending on how they are cared for.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: At the other extreme, traits such as native language are environmentally determined: linguists have found that any child (if capable of learning a language at all) can learn any human language with equal facility. With virtually all biological and psychological traits, however, genes and environment work in concert, communicating back and forth to create the individual.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: At a molecular level, genes interact with signals from other genes and from the environment. While there are many thousands of single-gene-locus traits, so-called complex traits are due to the additive effects of many (often hundreds) of small gene effects. A good example of this is height, where variance appears to be spread across many hundreds of loci.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Extreme genetic or environmental conditions can predominate in rare circumstances—if a child is born mute due to a genetic mutation, it will not learn to speak any language regardless of the environment; similarly, someone who is practically certain to eventually develop Huntington's disease according to their genotype may die in an unrelated accident (an environmental event) long before the disease will manifest itself.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Steven Pinker likewise described several examples:When traits are determined by a complex interaction of genotype and environment it is possible to measure the heritability of a trait within a population. However, many non-scientists who encounter a report of a trait having a certain percentage heritability imagine non-interactional, additive contributions of genes and environment to the trait. As an analogy, some laypeople may think of the degree of a trait being made up of two "buckets," genes and environment, each able to hold a certain capacity of the trait. But even for intermediate heritabilities, a trait is always shaped by both genetic dispositions and the environments in which people develop, merely with greater and lesser plasticities associated with these heritability measures.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Heritability measures always refer to the degree of "variation between individuals in a population". That is, as these statistics cannot be applied at the level of the individual, it would be incorrect to say that while the heritability index of personality is about 0.6, 60% of one's personality is obtained from one's parents and 40% from the environment. To help to understand this, imagine that all humans were genetic clones. The heritability index for all traits would be zero (all variability between clonal individuals must be due to environmental factors). And, contrary to erroneous interpretations of the heritability index, as societies become more egalitarian (everyone has more similar experiences) the heritability index goes up (as environments become more similar, variability between individuals is due more to genetic factors).


title: Nature versus nurture

text: One should also take into account the fact that the variables of heritability and environmentality are not precise and vary within a chosen population and across cultures. It would be more accurate to state that the degree of heritability and environmentality is measured in its reference to a particular phenotype in a chosen group of a population in a given period of time. The accuracy of the calculations is further hindered by the number of coefficients taken into consideration, age being one such variable. The display of the influence of heritability and environmentality differs drastically across age groups: the older the studied age is, the more noticeable the heritability factor becomes, the younger the test subjects are, the more likely it is to show signs of strong influence of the environmental factors.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: For example, one study found no statistically significant difference in self-reported wellbeing between middle-aged monozygotic twins separated at birth and those reared in the same household, suggesting that happiness in middle-aged adults is not based in environmental factors related to family rearing. The same result was also found among middle-aged dizygotic twins. Furthermore, there was significantly more variance in the dizygotic twins' self-reported wellbeing than there was in the monozygotic group. Genetic similarity has thus been estimated to account for around 50% of the variance in adult happiness at a given point in time, and as much as 80% of the variance in long-term happiness stability. Other studies have similarly found the heritability of happiness to be around 0.35–0.50.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Some have pointed out that environmental inputs affect the expression of genes. This is one explanation of how environment can influence the extent to which a genetic disposition will actually manifest.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Traits may be considered to be adaptations (such as the umbilical cord), byproducts of adaptations (the belly button) or due to random variation (convex or concave belly button shape).


title: Nature versus nurture

text: An alternative to contrasting nature and nurture focuses on "obligate vs. facultative" adaptations. Adaptations may be generally more obligate (robust in the face of typical environmental variation) or more facultative (sensitive to typical environmental variation). For example, the rewarding sweet taste of sugar and the pain of bodily injury are obligate psychological adaptations—typical environmental variability during development does not much affect their operation.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: On the other hand, facultative adaptations are somewhat like "if-then" statements. An example of a facultative psychological adaptation may be adult attachment style. The attachment style of adults, (for example, a "secure attachment style," the propensity to develop close, trusting bonds with others) is proposed to be conditional on whether an individual's early childhood caregivers could be trusted to provide reliable assistance and attention. An example of a facultative physiological adaptation is tanning of skin on exposure to sunlight (to prevent skin damage). Facultative social adaptation have also been proposed. For example, whether a society is warlike or peaceful has been proposed to be conditional on how much collective threat that society is experiencing.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Developmental genetic analysis examines the effects of genes over the course of a human lifespan. Early studies of intelligence, which mostly examined young children, found that heritability measured 40–50%. Subsequent developmental genetic analyses found that variance attributable to additive environmental effects is less apparent in older individuals, with estimated heritability of IQ increasing in adulthood.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Multivariate genetic analysis examines the genetic contribution to several traits that vary together. For example, multivariate genetic analysis has demonstrated that the genetic determinants of all specific cognitive abilities (e.g., memory, spatial reasoning, processing speed) overlap greatly, such that the genes associated with any specific cognitive ability will affect all others. Similarly, multivariate genetic analysis has found that genes that affect scholastic achievement completely overlap with the genes that affect cognitive ability.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Extremes analysis examines the link between normal and pathological traits. For example, it is hypothesized that a given behavioral disorder may represent an extreme of a continuous distribution of a normal behavior and hence an extreme of a continuous distribution of genetic and environmental variation. Depression, phobias, and reading disabilities have been examined in this context.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: For a few highly heritable traits, studies have identified loci associated with variance in that trait, for instance in some individuals with schizophrenia.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Cognitive functions have a significant genetic component. A 2015 meta-analysis of over 14 million twin pairs found that genetics explained 57% of the variability in cognitive functions. Evidence from behavioral genetic research suggests that family environmental factors may have an effect upon childhood IQ, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance. The American Psychological Association's report "" (1995) states that there is no doubt that normal child development requires a certain minimum level of responsible care. Here, environment is playing a role in what is believed to be fully genetic (intelligence) but it was found that severely deprived, neglectful, or abusive environments have highly negative effects on many aspects of children's intellect development. Beyond that minimum, however, the role of family experience is in serious dispute. On the other hand, by late adolescence this correlation disappears, such that adoptive siblings no longer have similar IQ scores.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Moreover, adoption studies indicate that, by adulthood, adoptive siblings are no more similar in IQ than strangers (IQ correlation near zero), while full siblings show an IQ correlation of 0.6. Twin studies reinforce this pattern: monozygotic (identical) twins raised separately are highly similar in IQ (0.74), more so than dizygotic (fraternal) twins raised together (0.6) and much more than adoptive siblings (~0.0). Recent adoption studies also found that supportive parents can have a positive effect on the development of their children.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Personality is a frequently cited example of a heritable trait that has been studied in twins and adoptees using behavioral genetic study designs. The most famous categorical organization of heritable personality traits were defined in the 1970s by two research teams led by Paul Costa & Robert R. McCrae and Warren Norman & Lewis Goldberg in which they had people rate their personalities on 1000+ dimensions they then narrowed these down into ""The Big Five"" factors of personality—openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. The close genetic relationship between positive personality traits and, for example, our happiness traits are the mirror images of comorbidity in psychopathology. These personality factors were consistent across cultures, and many studies have also tested the heritability of these traits.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Identical twins reared apart are far more similar in personality than randomly selected pairs of people. Likewise, identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins. Also, biological siblings are more similar in personality than adoptive siblings. Each observation suggests that personality is heritable to a certain extent. A supporting article had focused on the heritability of personality (which is estimated to be around 50% for subjective well-being) in which a study was conducted using a representative sample of 973 twin pairs to test the heritable differences in subjective well-being which were found to be fully accounted for by the genetic model of the Five-Factor Model's personality domains. However, these same study designs allow for the examination of environment as well as genes.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Adoption studies also directly measure the strength of shared family effects. Adopted siblings share only family environment. Most adoption studies indicate that by adulthood the personalities of adopted siblings are little or no more similar than random pairs of strangers. This would mean that shared family effects on personality are zero by adulthood.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: In the case of personality traits, non-shared environmental effects are often found to out-weigh shared environmental effects. That is, environmental effects that are typically thought to be life-shaping (such as family life) may have less of an impact than non-shared effects, which are harder to identify. One possible source of non-shared effects is the environment of pre-natal development. Random variations in the genetic program of development may be a substantial source of non-shared environment. These results suggest that "nurture" may not be the predominant factor in "environment". Environment and our situations, do in fact impact our lives, but not the way in which we would typically react to these environmental factors. We are preset with personality traits that are the basis for how we would react to situations. An example would be how extraverted prisoners become less happy than introverted prisoners and would react to their incarceration more negatively due to their preset extraverted personality. Behavioral genes are somewhat proven to exist when we take a look at fraternal twins. When fraternal twins are reared apart, they show the same similarities in behavior and response as if they have been reared together.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: The relationship between personality and people's own well-being is influenced and mediated by genes. There has been found to be a stable set point for happiness that is characteristic of the individual (largely determined by the individual's genes). Happiness fluctuates around that setpoint (again, genetically determined) based on whether good things or bad things are happening to us ("nurture"), but only fluctuates in small magnitude in a normal human. The midpoint of these fluctuations is determined by the "great genetic lottery" that people are born with, which leads them to conclude that how happy they may feel at the moment or over time is simply due to the luck of the draw, or gene. This fluctuation was also not due to educational attainment, which only accounted for less than 2% of the variance in well-being for women, and less than 1% of the variance for men.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: They consider that the individualities measured together with personality tests remain steady throughout an individual's lifespan. They further believe that human beings may refine their forms or personality but can never change them entirely. Darwin's Theory of Evolution steered naturalists such as George Williams and William Hamilton to the concept of personality evolution. They suggested that physical organs and also personality is a product of natural selection.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: With the advent of genomic sequencing, it has become possible to search for and identify specific gene polymorphisms that affect traits such as IQ and personality. These techniques work by tracking the association of differences in a trait of interest with differences in specific molecular markers or functional variants. An example of a visible human trait for which the precise genetic basis of differences are relatively well known is eye color.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: In contrast to views developed in 1960s that gender identity is primarily learned (which led to a protocol of surgical sex changes in male infants with injured or malformed genitals, such as David Reimer), genomics has provided solid evidence that both sex and gender identities are primarily influenced by genes:


title: Nature versus nurture

text: In their attempts to locate the genes responsible for configuring certain phenotypes, researches resort to two different techniques.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Linkage study facilitates the process of determining a specific location in which a gene of interest is located. This methodology is applied only among individuals that are related and does not serve to pinpoint specific genes. It does, however, narrow down the area of search, making it easier to locate one or several genes in the genome which constitute a specific trait.


title: Nature versus nurture

text: Association studies, on the other hand, are more hypothetic and seek to verify whether a particular genetic variable really influences the phenotype of interest. In association studies it is more common to use case-control approach, comparing the subject with relatively higher or lower hereditary determinants with the control subject.


title: Fred Dryer

text: John Frederick Dryer (born July 6, 1946) is an American actor, radio host, screenwriter and former professional football player.


title: Fred Dryer

text: for 13 years, participating in 176 games starting in 1969 until his retirement in 1981. He recorded 103 career sacks with the New York Giants and Los Angeles Rams. He is the only NFL player to score two safeties in one game.


title: Fred Dryer

text: Following his retirement from football, Dryer had a successful career as a film and television actor, notably starring in the series "Hunter", with his height of and physique proving useful for action roles.


title: Fred Dryer

text: Fred Dryer was born and raised in Southern California. His parents were Charles F. Dryer and Genevieve Nell (née Clark) Dryer. He played football at Lawndale High School in Lawndale in Los Angeles County, California.


title: Fred Dryer

text: Dryer was inducted to the El Camino Community College Athletic Hall of Fame in 1988 as a charter member and was the Athlete of the Year for his 1966 performance on the football field. Dryer was also a 1966 Junior College All-American.


title: Fred Dryer

text: During Dryer's junior and senior seasons at San Diego State, in which he lettered both seasons, the Aztecs had a combined record of 19–1–1. They were the College Division National Champions in both seasons. In 1967, the Aztecs topped both the Associated Press and United Press International polls as #1. In 1968 San Diego State was voted the champions by UPI and North Dakota State University topped the AP poll, and thus the two schools shared the College Division title.


title: Fred Dryer

text: Dryer was voted the outstanding defensive lineman on the team and as such was the recipient of the Byron H. Chase Memorial Trophy.


title: Fred Dryer

text: One of Dryer's teammates was Carl Weathers, who played Apollo Creed in the first four films of the "Rocky" series. In 1967, the Aztecs allowed 12.9 points a game on defense, which is still ninth in program history. In 1967 and 1968, the Aztec run defense allowed just 80.1 and 100.1 yards per game, still fourth and fifth, respectively in school history after over half a century.


title: Fred Dryer

text: Dryer was named to the Little All-America team in 1968 since at the time the school was 1-AA. Dryer played in the East-West Shrine Game in San Francisco, the Hula Bowl in Honolulu and the College All-Star Game in Chicago where the college stars played the world champion New York Jets.


title: Fred Dryer

text: In 1997, Dryer received college football's ultimate honor in being voted to the College Football Hall of Fame and is one of only three Aztecs in the collegiate Hall of Fame. When voted into the San Diego Sports Hall of Fame in 1998, he joined athletes such as Ted Williams, Dan Fouts, Dave Winfield, and Tony Gwynn in receiving the preeminent recognition for a San Diego athlete.


title: Fred Dryer

text: Dryer was drafted in the first round of the 1969 NFL Draft by the New York Giants and won a starting job as a rookie. He was the starting right defensive end from 1969 through 1971. Although the NFL did not officially recognize quarterback sack until 1982, teams did record their own sack data for the time. As such, he led the team in quarterback sacks each of those three seasons with 8½ in 1969, 12 in 1970 and 8½ in 1971. He was among the defensive leaders in other categories as well. In 1969, he tallied 58 tackles (39 solo), six passes deflected and forced two fumbles and recovered two.


title: Fred Dryer

text: The next season Dryer was an alternate to the Pro Bowl but could not play due to a bruised hip. He was Second-team All-NFC after recording 59 tackles (43 solo) four pass deflections, three forced fumbles, while recovering two to go along with his 12 sacks. In 1971, he again led the team with 8½ sacks, and totaled 52 tackles (33 solo). He deflected two passes, forced two more fumbles and recovered two for the third consecutive season.


title: Fred Dryer

text: After several run-ins with Giants management in 1971, Dryer was traded to the New England Patriots in February 1972 for three draft choices (a first and a sixth in 1972; a second in 1973). The Giants used the first round pick to select defensive back Eldridge Small. Because Dryer had not signed a contract for the 1971 season, he was eligible to become a free agent in May 1972. He refused to report to the Patriots unless they signed him to a long-term contract making him the highest paid defensive lineman in pro football. The Patriots refused to meet his demands and instead dealt him to the Los Angeles Rams for a 1973 first round draft pick (which they ultimately used to select fullback Sam Cunningham) and backup defensive end Rick Cash four days before he could become a free agent. This trade gave Dryer what he wanted all along—a move to a West Coast team—and he agreed to a multi-year contract with the Rams. In his first year with the Rams, he backed up left defensive end Jack Youngblood making only four starts but playing in every game despite a broken hand and broken nose. His primary role in 1972 was to come in on likely passing downs and rush the passer. He had 40 tackles (17 solo) and 4½ sacks.


title: Fred Dryer

text: In 1973, Dryer started all 14 games on the right side and became the only NFL player ever to have two safeties in the same game by tackling opposing passers in the end zone twice in the fourth quarter. He ended the season with ten sacks, three forced fumbles with three recovered fumbles (all three were second on the top-ranked Rams defense). After the season, he was a Second-team All-NFC pick by "Pro Football Weekly". He finished the season with 39 tackles (21 solo), three forced fumbles and three fumbles recovered.


title: Fred Dryer

text: In 1974, he had 15 sacks, which co-led (with Youngblood) the league, and he was also voted the Rams Outstanding Defensive Lineman. He was named NEA First-team and AP Second-team All-Pro and All-NFC. Statistically, he had another solid year versus the run, totaling 49 tackles (34 solo) and two forced fumbles.


title: Fred Dryer

text: Dryer scored his first NFL touchdown in 1975 on a 20-yard interception return against Philadelphia. After scoring his touchdown against the Eagles, Dryer promised that if he ever scored another, he would set his hair on fire in the end zone. Against the Eagles that day, he chose to celebrate by "rolling six", a touchdown celebration where the player scoring rolls the ball like an imaginary pair of dice with some of his teammates looking on. He ended 1975 with 12 sacks, behind only Jack Youngblood and was voted All-NFC. Additionally, Dryer played in the 1975 Pro Bowl. Statistically, Dryer was excellent against the run with 61 tackles (39 solo) and two passes deflection, two fumbles recovered to go along with the 20-yard TD interception.


title: Fred Dryer

text: Rule changes in NFL offensive line hindered Dryer, because of his small frame, after the 1975 season. He had a 55-tackle, five-sack season (33 solo) in 1976. He did deflect two passes and forced three fumbles to lead his team. In 1977, Dryer adopted a new diet and was winning praises from NFL sportswriters for the start he had. He recorded 35 tackles (28 solo) and six sacks. He also knocked down four passes, recovered three fumbles and caused one fumble. The next season, 1978 was much of the same. Dryer was the starting right defensive end on the NFL's #1 defense. Personally, he had 51 tackles (33 solo) and forced two fumbles, recovered three, blocked a kick and blocked one pass as the Rams went 12-4 and won their six straight division title.


title: Fred Dryer

text: In 1979, Dryer would be named an honorable mention All-NFC after recording 49 tackles (31 solo), ten sacks, and three forced fumbles (with one recovery). Against the New York Giants on October 28 of that year, Dryer recorded a career-high five sacks. At last, the Rams would finally break through and reach the Super Bowl. Dryer played in Super Bowl XIV when the Rams met the Pittsburgh Steelers on January 20, 1980. The Rams led 19–17 against the defending champions, but the Steelers scored fourteen unanswered points to win the game in the fourth quarter 31–17. The following season, Dryer split the time at his right defensive end position with third-year player Reggie Doss. They combined for 67 tackles (Dryer 31, 20 solo) and 12 sacks (Dryer 5½, Doss 6½).


title: Fred Dryer

text: Dryer ended his career with 104 career sacks, although as mentioned the statistic was not recognized until after he retired. Dryer played on a tough Los Angeles Ram defense that allowed fewer points, fewer total yards, fewer rushing yards, and sacked more quarterbacks than any other defense during the 1970s.


title: Fred Dryer

text: In January 1981, Dryer made the cover of "Interview" magazine, published by Andy Warhol from the late 1960s through the early 1990s and was considered the very essence of "magazine chic". In 2003 the NFL Alumni presented Dryer with its Career Achievement Award which is presented to former NFL players "For Getting to the Top of His Field".


title: Fred Dryer

text: Dryer's record-setting game on October 21, 1973, at Los Angeles was a 24–7 win over Green Bay. Down 20–7 in the fourth quarter, the Packers found themselves deep in their own territory when Dryer came storming in from the right side of the defense and chased down Green Bay quarterback Scott Hunter, dropping him in the end zone for a safety.


title: Fred Dryer

text: On the Packers' following possession near their own goal line, Dryer attacked again. He looped through the middle of the Packers' offensive line and dragged backup quarterback Jim Del Gaizo down for his second safety of the game, setting an NFL record. For his efforts, Dryer was named the Associated Press NFL Defensive Player of the Week.


title: Fred Dryer

text: Prior to the start of his show business career, Dryer flexed his acting muscles when he helped cover Super Bowl IX for "SPORT" magazine. Fed up with the grandiose and self-important nature of the NFL's championship match, then-editor Dick Schaap hired Dryer and Rams teammate Lance Rentzel for this journalistic assignment. Donning costumes inspired by "The Front Page", "Scoops Brannigan" (Dryer) and "Cubby O'Switzer" (Rentzel) peppered players and coaches from both the Pittsburgh Steelers and Minnesota Vikings with questions that ranged from clichéd to downright absurd. This became the inspiration for the eccentricities that surround Media Day at the Super Bowl. He briefly served as a color analyst on CBS's NFL coverage in 1981 and 1982.


title: Fred Dryer

text: In the early 1980s when producers/creators Glen and Les Charles, and James Burrows were developing the soon-to-be hit sitcom, "Cheers", Dryer, along with two other actors, was considered for the role of lead character, Sam Malone. Ted Danson ultimately won the role, but Dryer later appeared as sportscaster (and former Red Sox teammate of Sam's) Dave Richards in the episodes "Sam at Eleven", "Old Flames", "Love Thy Neighbor", and "'I' On Sports". He appeared on "CHiPs" as Lt. John LeGarre in the Season 5 episode "Force Seven", a secret LAPD unit implemented for special situations.


title: Fred Dryer

text: Dryer's best-known acting role came in the 1980s television crime drama "Hunter", in which he co-starred with Stepfanie Kramer, followed by Darlanne Fluegel, then Lauren Lane. Dryer also starred in the action-thriller movie "Death Before Dishonor" as well as Mike Land in the TV series "Land's End" (21 episodes, 1995–1996).


title: Fred Dryer

text: In January 2009, Dryer was seen in a cable TV commercial for SMS research company, which obliquely makes reference to his NFL record of two safeties in a game from 1973. Dryer is also now a spokesman for the law service Injury Solutions.


title: Fred Dryer

text: He starred in the drag racing film "Snake and Mongoose", which depicts the rivalry between drivers Don "The Snake" Prudhomme and Tom "The Mongoose" McEwen and their groundbreaking accomplishments in the world of drag racing. Dryer played "Ed Donovan", McEwen's engine builder, who coined the nickname "Mongoose".


title: Fred Dryer

text: Dryer appeared in the NBC series "Crisis" in 2014. In 2015, Dryer joined the ranks of the Marvel Cinematic Universe when he played the evil HYDRA leader, Octavian Bloom, in an episode of "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." On October 23, 2018, he played a Vietnam veteran on the CBS show "NCIS".


title: Fred Dryer

text: Dryer was repeatedly referenced in the second season of the animated “Adult Swim” show “Frisky Dingo”. During an ill-advised presidential campaign, series protagonist Xander Crews seeks out Fred Dryer as a potential running mate for the Vice President. The series shows an animated version of a real Dryer trading card during his years playing for the Rams and repeatedly references his titular role in the series Hunter.


title: Fred Dryer

text: Dryer has had a long interest in nutrition. In the late 1970s Dryer was consuming 70 raw egg yolks a week. He has since excluded red meat from his diet and eats chicken and vegetables.


title: Fred Dryer

text: He married actress and "Playboy" centerfold Tracy Vaccaro in May 1983; the couple divorced in 1988. Together, they have at least one daughter. Dryer still resides in Los Angeles and has his own production company (Fred Dryer Productions).


title: CatDog

text: CatDog is an American animated television series created by Peter Hannan for Nickelodeon. The series follows the life of yellow conjoined brothers of different species, with one half of the resultant animal being a cat and the other a dog. Nickelodeon produced the series from Burbank, California. The first episode aired on April 4, 1998, following the "1998 Kids' Choice Awards", before the show officially premiered in October of that year. Similarly, the Season 2 episode "Fetch" was shown in theaters in 1998 before airing on television.


title: CatDog

text: The series ended on May 7, 2005 after a total of four seasons and 66 aired episodes over seven years, plus two produced episodes never aired. It was produced by Nickelodeon Animation Studio and Peter Hannan Productions, and was released on DVD in Region 1 by Shout! Factory.


title: CatDog

text: Two animation studios, Saerom Animation and Rough Draft Studios through Rough Draft Korea, worked on the animation for the show.


title: CatDog

text: The series revolves around Cat and Dog, a conjoined twin of a cat and a dog, who share the same body with no tail or hind legs. Although they are best friends and brothers, they have very different personalities, similar to "The Odd Couple" and the original "Looney Tunes" shorts, mixed with elements of Laurel and Hardy, Abbott and Costello, and fellow Nicktoon Ren and Stimpy. Cat is very cultured, while Dog is very fun-loving. Dog enjoys chasing garbage trucks, cars, and exploring – many things that Cat does not want to be involved with. Dog enjoys eating at fast-food restaurants (such as Taco Depot), whereas Cat does not. The series takes place in Nearburg, a town dominated by anthropomorphic animals and the occasional humanoid.


title: CatDog

text: The series, created by Peter Hannan, was developed as the next Nicktoons production and produced from Nickelodeon Animation Studio in Burbank, California. Hannan served as executive producer. This was part of Nickelodeon's $350 million investment in original animation over the next five years after the series' inception.


title: CatDog

text: Albie Hecht, Nickelodeon's senior vice president of worldwide productions, said that the creators planned for the series to "really play off of kids' sympathies" by portraying the characters as experiencing "the worst of both worlds". Hannan said CatDog was inspired by watching neighborhood cats and dogs occasionally fight each other, and thought that it would be great to make conjoined twins Cat and Dog to see how both of the animals would fare against other things. The idea of them being conjoined twins came from Hannan watching several news stories on TV about conjoined twins living a normal life conjoined together. Both aspects he claimed, initially developed the idea of CatDog.


title: CatDog

text: The series originally aired on Nickelodeon in the US from 1998 to 2004, and aired reruns from 2004 to 2013. It was subsequently aired on Nicktoons (2002–2011) and NickSplat (2013-2018) and streams on Paramount+ (2020-present). In the UK and Ireland, the series was broadcast on Nickelodeon (1998–2005), Channel 4 (1999-2007) and Nicktoons (2002–13). In Canada, the series was broadcast on Nickelodeon (2009–2019) and on YTV (1998–2006). In Australia and New Zealand, the series was broadcast on Nickelodeon (1998–2015). In Japan, the series was broadcast on Nickelodeon (1999–2009) and on TV Asahi (1999–2006). In Middle East, the series was broadcast on Nickelodeon (2010–2011) and on MBC 3 (2014–2015) and on Spacetoon English (2005–2011). In March 2021, the series was added along with other various Nicktoons and Nickelodeon shows onto Paramount+.


title: CatDog

text: Two VHS tapes of the series were released by Paramount Home Video on March 30, 1999. "Together Forever" contains the episodes "Dog Gone", "Flea or Die", "Diamond Fever", "CatDog's End" and "Work Force" with a bonus short "Cat-Diggety Dog" and "CatDog vs. The Greasers" contains the episodes "Siege on Fort CatDog", "Squirrel Dog", "Full Moon Fever", "Shriek Loves Dog" and "All You Need is Lube".


title: CatDog

text: In 2010, Nickelodeon contracted Amazon.com's CreateSpace service arm to produce DVD sets of "CatDog" and other Nickelodeon shows exclusively for sale on Amazon. The DVDs were "manufactured-on-demand" DVD-Rs to match orders. The series is also available for download on Amazon's InstantVideo service. From 2011 to 2013, Shout! Factory released the series on DVD via several season sets, and a proper complete series set was released on December 9, 2014.


title: CatDog

text: In 1998, the series was nominated for an Annie Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement for Writing in an Animated Television Production, for "Dog Gone". The recipients would have been Derek Drymon, Robert Porter and Peter Hannan.


title: CatDog

text: At the 1999 Kids' Choice Awards, the show was nominated for Favorite Cartoon. However, it lost to "Rugrats". It did so again in the 2000 Kids' Choice Awards.


title: SK Group

text: SK Group (Korean: SK그룹, 에스케이그룹) is the second largest South Korean chaebol behind Samsung Group. SK Group is composed of 186 subsidiaries and affiliates that share the SK brand name and the group's management culture, named SKMS (SK Management System). It changed its name from Sunkyong Group (Korean: 선경그룹, Hanja : 鮮京그룹) to SK Group in 1998. The group is controlled by estate of Chey Tae-won through a holding company SK Inc. The cornerstone of SK Group is its energy and chemicals division.


title: SK Group

text: While its largest businesses are primarily involved in the energy, petroleum, and chemical industries, the group also owns the nation's largest wireless mobile phone service provider SK Telecom, and provides services in construction, marketing, local telephone, high-speed Internet, and wireless broadband (WiBro), and also the owner of SK Hynix, the world's fourth largest chipmaker.


title: SK Group

text: As with many other chaebols, SK Group's chairmanship was 'inherited' from father to son: from its founder the late Chey Jong-hyon to its present chairman Chey Tae-won (eldest son). Chey Tae-won is married to the daughter of the former South Korean President Roh Tae-woo.


title: SK Group

text: SK Group began when the current founders acquired Sunkyong Textiles (founded during the Japanese rule as a joint venture between two Japanese companies, Senman Chutan and Kyoto-based Kyoto Orimono Company) from South Korean government as abandoned property of Japan in 1953. In 1958, the company manufactured Korea's first polyester fiber on company grounds. It established Sunkyong Fibers Ltd. in July 1969, and started to produce original yarn. In 1973, SK then established Sunkyong Oil, beginning a vertical integration strategy to manage production, "From Petroleum to Fibers". That same year, the company acquired the Walkerhill Hotel.


title: SK Group

text: In 1976, Sunkyong Corporation received an international trading company license from the Indian government. In December 1980 SK purchased privately run Korea National Oil, making it Korea's fifth largest conglomerate.


title: SK Group

text: In June 1994, SK entered Korea's telecommunications business by becoming Korea Mobile Telecommunication Service's largest shareholder. In January 1996, SK Telecom launched Korea's first commercial CDMA cellular phone service in Incheon and Bucheon.


title: SK Group

text: In 1998, Management re-branded Sunkyong to SK. In 1999, SK Chemicals developed third-generation (non cross resistant) platinum-complex anti-cancer agent. Also, by focusing its research and development efforts on life sciences, SK Corporation developed YKP1358, a new drug candidate for schizophrenia, in 2003.


title: SK Group

text: In 2002, SK Telecom successfully launched the world's first commercial CDMA 1X EV-DO technology, allowing it to offer 3G telecommunications service. In 2004, SK Telecom enabled satellite DMB service by deploying the world's first DMB satellite. Moreover, in 2006, SK began revitalizing the 3.5-generation mobile phone market and in the following year, completed the construction of the national HSDPA network. In May 2006, SK Telecom started the world's first commercial 3.5-generation HSDPA service, featuring high-quality video telephony and data transmission, and global roaming access.


title: SK Group

text: In 2005, SK Networks opened China's first two wholly foreign-owned, gas stations in Shenyang. Then, after exploring Brazilian mining area BM-C-8, SK Corporation developed an oil field where it confirmed the existence of more than 50 million barrels of oil deposits.


title: SK Group

text: SK Gas began developing resources overseas when it participated in two mining areas to the west of Russia's Kamchatka peninsula in March 2006. In early 2006, SK Networks also developed Ecol-Green, a biodegradable plastic material. Incheon Oil officially started operations using the SK name in March 2006. SK Energy is currently engaged in 27 oil fields in 15 countries worldwide


title: SK Group

text: SKC imported propylene oxide (PO, a chemical used in manufacturing polyurethane) production technology from Germany in May 2006. It is scheduled to produce 100,000 tons of PO from 2008.


title: SK Group

text: At the end of 2005, SK Corp. developed a lithium ion battery separator (LiBS) for the first time in Korea, and started selling the product in 2006. In July 2007, SK Group adopted a holding company structure.


title: SK Group

text: Under the re-organization, SK's main entity, SK Corporation, was split into an investment company, now SK Inc. and an operating company, now SK Energy. The subsidiary companies that now operate under the central SK Inc. umbrella include: SK Energy, SK Telecom, SK Networks, SKC, SK E&S, SK Shipping and K Power.


title: SK Group

text: In February 2017, SK acquired the polyethylene acrylic acid business of Dow Chemical Company for $370 million, and planned to increase battery production capacity from 1.9 to 3.9 GWh per year at the end of 2018, supplying Kia and Mercedes.


title: SK Group

text: On March 31, 2017, SK Innovation said that the electric vehicle battery plant it had in China had been closed since January of that year, after "Chinese joint venture partners halted production for no obvious reason."


title: SK Group

text: On March 21, 2018, SK Innovation announced the acquisition of U.S. shale oil and gas company Longfellow Nemaha.


title: SK Group

text: In February 2021, the U.S. International Trade Commission (ITC) banned some SK lithium-ion batteries from being imported into USA, while allowing some components for US assembly to be delivered to Ford and Volkswagen.


title: SK Group

text: In September 2021, Ford and SK Innovation announced a joint venture to manufacture batteries in the Kentucky/Tennessee region for Ford motor vehicles.


title: SK Group

text: In July 2022, SK Group announced a $22 billion investment in the United States semiconductor, green energy bioscience and other technology industries. In total, SK Group will invest over $30 billion in the United States by 2025.


title: SK Group

text: SK's subsidiary companies all operate under the SK Management System (SKMS) which was developed, articulated and enhanced by SK's Chairman, Chey Tae-won.


title: SK Group

text: On April 7, 2008, SK Group launched a marketing and management company named "SK Marketing & Company" to pursue Chairman Chey's vision.


title: Ian Alexander (actor)

text: Ian Alexander (born April 20, 2001) is an American actor, known for their roles as Buck Vu on "The OA", as Lev in "The Last of Us Part II", and as Gray Tal on "".


title: Ian Alexander (actor)

text: Alexander was born in Salt Lake City, Utah, to an American father and a Vietnamese mother. Due to their father's work with the Department of Defense, their family often moved and has lived in places such as Hawaii, Japan and Washington, DC. During elementary school, they participated in community theater and chorus. They received viral attention online through their photo response to a transphobic incident perpetrated by four UCLA college students.


title: Ian Alexander (actor)

text: Though they were raised in a Mormon family, they are not a participating member, and "consider [themself] to be agnostic". They came out as transgender in 2014; their pronouns are preferably "they"/"them" while accepting the alternative "he"/"him", and they are non-binary and pansexual.


title: Ian Alexander (actor)

text: Alexander's debut acting role was on Netflix's "The OA", where they played Buck Vu. Buck, like Alexander, is also a Vietnamese-American transgender youth and was partially based on Alexander's real experiences. They were cast from an open casting call online that spread through Tumblr. Later they were cast in the 2018 feature film "Every Day", based on the book by David Levithan, playing Vic, a trans teen whom the spirit "A" inhabits for a day. In October 2017, Naughty Dog announced Alexander had joined the cast for "The Last of Us Part II", the sequel to their popular video game. They played Lev, a transgender character in the game.


title: Ian Alexander (actor)

text: In June 2019, to mark the 50th anniversary of the Stonewall Riots, sparking the start of the modern LGBTQ rights movement, "Queerty" named them one of their Pride50: "trailblazing individuals who actively ensure society remains moving towards equality, acceptance and dignity for all queer people". Similarly, Alexander was one of the cover stars for the 2019 Pride issue of "them.", "spotlighting three rising queer artists whose work and lives are breaking new ground for LGBTQ+ visibility". In March 2020, it was announced Alexander will star in the independent film "Daughter".


title: Ian Alexander (actor)

text: In September 2020, it was announced Alexander had joined the cast of ""; they play the first transgender character played by a transgender actor in the Star Trek canon.


title: D.Gray-man

text: D.Gray-man is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Katsura Hoshino. Set in an alternate 19th century, it tells the story of a young Allen Walker, who joins an organization of exorcists named the Black Order. They use an ancient substance, Innocence, to combat a man known as the Millennium Earl and his demonic army of Akuma who intend to destroy humanity. Many characters are adapted from Hoshino's previous works and drafts, such as "Zone". The series is noted for its dark narrative; Hoshino once rewrote a scene she thought too violent for her young readers.


title: D.Gray-man

text: The manga began serialization in 2004 in the "Weekly Shōnen Jump" magazine, published by Shueisha. Production of the series was suspended several times because of Hoshino's health problems. "D.Gray-man" made the transition from a weekly to a monthly series in November 2009, when it began serialization in "Jump Square". In January 2013, the series went on indefinite hiatus. It resumed serialization in July 2015 after the release of "Jump SQ.Crown", a spin-off from the magazine "Jump SQ". After "Jump SQ.Crown" ceased its publication, the series was switched to "Jump SQ.Rise", starting in April 2018. The manga's chapters have been collected in 28 "tankōbon" volumes as of October 2022. By July 2021, Viz Media had released 27 volumes in North America.


title: D.Gray-man

text: A spin-off novel series, "D.Gray-man: Reverse" by Kaya Kizaki, explores the history of a number of characters. The manga has been adapted into a 103-episode anime series by TMS Entertainment which aired from October 2006 to September 2008 in Japan and is licensed by Funimation in North America. A 13-episode sequel anime series, "D.Gray-Man Hallow", also produced by TMS Entertainment. It aired in Japan from July to September 2016 as a sequel to the first "D.Gray-man" anime series. Several items of merchandise have been produced, including two video games about the series.


title: D.Gray-man

text: The manga has become one of Shueisha's bestsellers, with over 25 million copies sold. In Japan and North America, several individual volumes have appeared in weekly top-ten lists of bestselling manga. Although most reviewers found it similar to other "shōnen" manga, they compared its moments of originality and well-developed characters favorably to other series of the same demographic. Hoshino's artwork has received mostly positive reviews; most critics have commented that her characters are visually appealing and that the Gothic elements in her art are pleasant to look at. However, one critic of her artwork has said that Hoshino's fight sequences can be difficult to follow.


title: D.Gray-man

text: Set in an alternate 19th century, the story focuses on an organization of exorcists, named the Black Order, as they defend humanity against the Noah Family, reincarnations of Noah and his twelve apostles whom bear hatred towards humanity and God led by a man known as the Millennium Earl. The exorcists' main weapon against the Noah Family are sentient holy artifacts called Innocence. Innocence comes in a variety of forms, varying from everyday objects such as boots to grandfather clocks, to weapons such as swords and guns; regardless of their form, each Innocence possesses unique offensive and supportive abilities and will only work for the wielder of their choosing. Out of the 109 Innocence hidden and scattered throughout the world, one of them is the master Innocence; whichever side obtains this Innocence first will win the war. In contrast to the Innocence, the Noah Family's weapons are derived from a power source known as Dark Matter. Dark Matter grants the Noah superpowers, along with the ability to create and control demons.