title: Jihadi John

text: Emwazi was given the nickname "John" by a group of his hostages. The hostages said that he guarded Western hostages while handling communications with their families, and was part of a terrorist cell they called 'The Beatles' because the cell members all had British accents. The nickname refers to John Lennon of the Beatles; the three other group members were each given the first name of one of the other Beatles.


title: Jihadi John

text: The nicknames "Jihadi John", "Jailer John" and "John the Beatle" were created by journalists. "Jihadi John" was used on 20 August 2014 in the conservative magazine "The Spectator" in a piece titled "Jihadi John – a very British export" by Douglas Murray, a frequent critic of Islam, and soon after joined by the BBC and other sources.


title: Jihadi John

text: In a video uploaded to YouTube on 19 August 2014, Foley read a prepared statement criticising the United States, the recent airstrikes in Iraq, and his brother who serves in the United States Air Force. Emwazi, wearing a mask, also read a prepared statement in which he criticised America and President Barack Obama and made demands to cease the 2014 American-led intervention in Iraq. The masked man then beheaded Foley off-camera, after which he threatened to behead Steven Sotloff if his demands were not met. The FBI and United States National Security Council confirmed that the video, which included footage of Foley's beheaded corpse, was genuine.


title: Jihadi John

text: On 2 September 2014, a video was released reportedly showing American journalist Steven Sotloff's beheading by Emwazi. The White House confirmed the video's authenticity.


title: Jihadi John

text: On 13 September 2014, a video, directed at British Prime Minister David Cameron, was released, showing British hostage aid worker David Haines being beheaded by Emwazi.


title: Jihadi John

text: On 3 October 2014, a video released by ISIS showed Emwazi beheading British aid worker Alan Henning. Henning, a taxi driver from Salford, Greater Manchester, had volunteered to deliver aid to Syria. He was kidnapped in Al-Dana, an area held by ISIS, on 27 December 2013.


title: Jihadi John

text: On 16 November 2014 a video was posted by ISIS of Emwazi standing over a severed head, which the White House confirmed was that of Peter Kassig. Kassig's actual beheading was not shown, and unlike earlier hostage beheading videos he did not make a statement. There has been speculation that, faced with the prospect of being beheaded, he may have resisted and been shot dead: a senior surgeon performed a detailed examination of the video and saw possible evidence of a gunshot wound.


title: Jihadi John

text: The video that ended with a shot of Kassig's severed head showed the beheadings of a number of Syrian soldiers in gruesome detail, by a group led by a masked Emwazi. It was said by the BBC that, unlike previous videos, this one shows the faces of many of the militants, indicates the location as being Dabiq in Aleppo Province, and that this video "revels in gore." Unlike previous videos that cut away without showing the killing, Emwazi is shown beheading a victim. Initially, the number killed was variously reported as at least 12, or 18. Subsequent analysis by the Terrorism Research & Analysis Consortium and UK-based counter-extremism think tank Quilliam concluded that 22 captive soldiers were executed.


title: Jihadi John

text: Haruna Yukawa, age 42, was captured sometime before August 2014. Kenji Goto, age 47, was captured sometime in October 2014 while trying to rescue Yukawa. In January 2015, a threat was issued that they would be killed unless the Japanese government paid a ransom of . Yukawa was beheaded on 24 January, and Goto on 31 January 2015.


title: Jihadi John

text: Officially the FBI and United States National Security Council confirmed that the James Foley video, which ended with footage of a beheaded corpse, was genuine. David Cameron and the British Foreign Office also confirmed the authenticity of the video showing the death of David Haines.


title: Jihadi John

text: The videos were produced and distributed by Al Hayat Media Center, a media outlet of ISIS that was under the authority of the ISIS's official propaganda arm, the Al-Itisam Establishment for Media Production, that targeted specifically Western and non-Arabic speaking audiences.


title: Jihadi John

text: An unnamed forensics expert commissioned by "The Times" to look at the James Foley video said, "I think it has been staged. My feeling is that the murder may have happened after the camera was stopped." "The Times" concluded that "No one is questioning that the photojournalist James Foley was beheaded, but camera trickery and slick post-production techniques appear to have been used." Two unnamed video specialists in the "International Business Times of Australia" claimed that portions of the video appeared to be staged and edited. James Alvarez, a British-American hostage negotiator, also claimed the James Foley video was "expertly staged", with the use of two separate cameras and a clip-on microphone attached to Foley's orange jumpsuit. Jeff Smith, associate director of the CU Denver National Center for Media Forensics in the US, said "What's most interesting is that the actual beheading that takes place in the videos, both of them are staged."


title: Jihadi John

text: British analyst Eliot Higgins (Brown Moses) published photographic and video forensic evidence suggesting that the James Foley video was taken at a spot in the hills south of the Syrian city of Raqqa.


title: Jihadi John

text: "Jihadi John" became the subject of a manhunt by the FBI, MI5, and Scotland Yard. In his videos, "Jihadi John" concealed his identity by covering himself from head to toe in black, except for tan desert boots, with a mask that left only his eyes visible. Despite this, several facts about "Jihadi John" could be ascertained from both videos. He spoke with an apparent London or southern England accent and appeared to have a skin tone consistent with North African or South Asian descent. In both videos, he was seen to sport a pistol in a leather shoulder holster under his left shoulder, typical of right-handed people, but his actions in the videos suggest he is left-handed.


title: Jihadi John

text: Other factors that could have led to his identification were his height, general physique, the pattern of veins on the back of his hands, his voice and clothes. A team of analysts might use the topography of the landscape in the video in an attempt to identify the location. On 24 August 2014, the British Ambassador to the United States, Sir Peter Westmacott, said that Britain was very close to identifying "Jihadi John" using sophisticated voice recognition technology, but when pressed, refused to disclose any other details.


title: Jihadi John

text: On 20 September 2014, the United States Senate approved a reward for information that led to the capture of anyone involved in the murders of James Foley, Steven Sotloff and David Cawthorne Haines. On 20 November, the bill, extending the potential scope of the reward program to any American kidnapped and murdered by a "foreign terrorist organization" and limiting the reward to a maximum of , was referred to the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs.


title: Jihadi John

text: On 14 September British Prime Minister David Cameron confirmed that the identity of "Jihadi John" was known but had yet to be revealed.


title: Jihadi John

text: On 25 September, FBI Director James Comey told reporters that they had identified the suspect, but did not give information regarding the man's identity or nationality. "I believe that we have identified him. I'm not going to tell you who I believe it is," Comey stated. Michael Ryan, an author and scholar from the Middle East Institute speculated, "maybe 98 percent or 95 percent sure is not sure enough to put a man's name out."


title: Jihadi John

text: In August 2014, "The Sunday Times" reported that Abdel-Majed Abdel Bary ("L Jinny"), 23, a hip-hop musician from West London, had "emerged as a key suspect" in the investigation. Other sources also stated that Abu Hussain Al-Britani, 20, a computer hacker from Birmingham, and Abu Abdullah al-Britani, in his 20s from Portsmouth, were suspects.


title: Jihadi John

text: On 26 February 2015, "The Washington Post" identified the perpetrator as Mohammed Emwazi, a British man then in his mid-20s who was born in Kuwait and grew up in west London. "The Washington Post" investigation was undertaken by Souad Mekhennet and Adam Goldman.


title: Jihadi John

text: Emwazi was born to Iraqi parents who moved to neighbouring Kuwait from Iraq. After the Kuwaiti government rejected their application for citizenship in 1994 they moved to Iraq and then on to Britain. According to his student card from the University of Westminster, Emwazi was born on 17 August 1988.


title: Jihadi John

text: The BBC stated that Emwazi is believed to be "an associate of a former UK control order suspect ... who travelled to Somalia in 2006 and is allegedly linked to a facilitation and funding network for Somali militant group al-Shabab." He reportedly prayed on occasion at a mosque in Greenwich. He graduated with a degree in Information Systems with Business Management from the University of Westminster in 2009. His final address in the UK before he went abroad was in the Queen's Park area of North West London.


title: Jihadi John

text: The "Post" reported interviews with Emwazi's friends indicating that Emwazi was radicalised after a planned safari to Tanzania following his graduation. According to the interviews, Emwazi and two friends, a German convert to Islam named Omar and another man, Abu Talib, never made the safari. Rather, upon landing in Dar es Salaam in May 2009, the three were detained, held overnight by police, and eventually deported. In May 2010, "The Independent" reported on the episode, identifying Emwazi as Muhammad ibn Muazzam. According to e-mails sent by Emwazi to Asim Qureshi, the research director of the human rights group Cage, and that were provided to the "Post", after leaving Tanzania, Emwazi flew to Amsterdam, where he claimed that an MI5 officer accused him of attempting to go to Somalia, where al-Shabab operates. Emwazi denied attempting to reach Somalia, but a former hostage told the "Post" that "Jihadi John was obsessed with Somalia" and forced captives to watch videos about al-Shabab. Tanzanian officials have denied that they detained and deported Emwazi at the request of MI5, saying instead that he had been refused entry for being drunk and abusive.


title: Jihadi John

text: Later, Emwazi and his friends were permitted to return to Britain, where Emwazi met with Qureshi in late 2009. The "Post" quoted Qureshi as saying that Emwazi was "incensed" at the way he had been treated. Emwazi moved to Kuwait shortly afterward, where (according to emails he wrote to Qureshi), he worked for a computer company. Emwazi returned to London twice, however, and, on the second visit, he made plans to wed a woman in Kuwait.


title: Jihadi John

text: In June 2010, Emwazi was detained by counter-terrorism officials in Britain, who searched and fingerprinted him, and blocked him from returning to Kuwait. In an email four months later to Qureshi, Emwazi expressed sympathy for Aafia Siddiqui, an al-Qaeda operative who had just been sentenced in US federal court for assault and attempted murder. Qureshi said he last heard from Emwazi when Emwazi sought advice from him in January 2012. Close friends of Emwazi interviewed by the "Post" said that he was "desperate to leave the country" and one friend stated that Emwazi unsuccessfully tried to travel to Saudi Arabia to teach English in 2012. Sometime after January 2012, Emwazi travelled to Syria, where he apparently contacted his family and at least one of his friends.


title: Jihadi John

text: In March 2015, the media reported that his mother had recognised Jihadi John's voice as her son's; meanwhile, his father denied that this had happened or that Emwazi was Jihadi John.


title: Jihadi John

text: United States President Barack Obama condemned the actions of "Jihadi John" and vowed punishment for all the militants responsible for the videotaped beheadings. US Secretary of State John Kerry also called "Jihadi John" a "coward behind a mask" and, echoing Obama, stated that all those responsible would be held accountable by the United States. British officials have also reiterated their commitment to capturing "Jihadi John". Admiral Alan West, a former UK Minister for Security and Counter-terrorism, said that he is a "dead man walking" who will be "hunted down" like Osama bin Laden. Prime Minister David Cameron also stated that he was absolutely certain that Jihadi John would "one way or another, face justice", and he also condemned the actions of "Jihadi John". UK Justice Secretary Chris Grayling, and Secretary General of Interpol Ronald Noble also stated that Jihadi John should be brought to justice.


title: Jihadi John

text: Reacting to the naming of Emwazi by the media, a spokesman for the family of Steven Sotloff told the BBC that they wanted to see him behind bars. Bethany Haines, daughter of David, said "It's a good step but I think all the families will feel closure and relief once there's a bullet between his eyes."


title: Jihadi John

text: Lord Carlile, a former independent reviewer of UK anti-terror laws, said, "Had control orders been in place, in my view there is a realistic prospect that Mohammed Emwazi, and at least two of his associates, would have been the subject of control orders with a compulsory relocation."


title: Jihadi John

text: In reaction to the revelation, Emwazi's father, Jassem, has said that he is ashamed of his son. Previously, when he learned from his son that he was going to Syria "for jihad", Jassem had told him that he hoped he would be killed. But the day after the naming he issued a statement denying that his son was Jihadi John. An unidentified cousin issued a statement which said, "We hate him. We hope he will be killed soon. This will be good news for our family."


title: Jihadi John

text: On 8 March 2015, according to "The Sunday Times", Emwazi apologised to his family for "problems and trouble the revelation of his identity has caused" them. The message was conveyed via an unspecified third party.


title: Jihadi John

text: On 12 November 2015, two United States drone aircraft along with a British drone conducted an airstrike in Raqqa that targeted Emwazi as he left a building and entered a vehicle. US officials stated he had been killed, and a senior US military official was quoted as saying, "we are 99% sure we got him." A US official called it a "flawless" and "clean hit" with no collateral damage and that Emwazi was "evaporated." On 14 December 2015, US President Barack Obama stated Emwazi had been "taken out".


title: Jihadi John

text: UK Prime Minister, David Cameron, stated the US and Britain had been working "hand in glove, round the clock" to track Emwazi's location, and that the drone strike was "an act of self-defence."


title: Jihadi John

text: On 19 January 2016, in the ISIL magazine "Dabiq", the group confirmed that Emwazi had been killed by a drone strike in Raqqa. The obituary showed him unmasked and referred to him as Abu Muharib al-Muhajir. Further photographs showing him unmasked in Syria were released on 26 January 2016.


title: Jihadi John

text: In July 2017, German-based journalist Souad Mekhennet published "I Was Told to Come Alone: My Journey Behind the Lines of Jihad", which details the hunt to identify and kill Jihadi John, in part through her own investigations. She was the lead reporter of a story, published in "The Washington Post", that first revealed his true identity.


title: Jihadi John

text: In September 2017, "The Telegraph" released old video footage showing Mohammed Emwazi and other notorious ISIL members relaxing unmasked and talking casually.


title: Lemon balm

text: Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) is a perennial herbaceous plant in the mint family and native to south-central Europe, the Mediterranean Basin, Iran, and Central Asia, but now naturalised elsewhere.


title: Lemon balm

text: It grows to a maximum height of . The leaves have a mild lemon scent. During summer, small white flowers full of nectar appear. It is not to be confused with bee balm (genus "Monarda"), although the white flowers attract bees, hence the genus "Melissa" (Greek for "honey bee").


title: Lemon balm

text: The leaves are used as an herb, in teas and also as a flavouring. The plant is used to attract bees for honey production. It is grown as an ornamental plant and for its oil (to use in perfumery). Lemon balm has been cultivated at least since the 16th century.


title: Lemon balm

text: Lemon balm ("Melissa officinalis") is a perennial herbaceous plant in the mint family Lamiaceae, and native to south-central Europe, the Mediterranean Basin, Iran, and Central Asia, but now naturalized in the Americas and elsewhere. The second name, "officinalis" (Latin, 'of the shop'), originates from the use of the herb by apothecaries, who sold herbal remedies directly to their customers.


title: Lemon balm

text: Lemon balm plants grow bushy and upright to a maximum height of . The heart-shaped leaves are long, and have a rough, veined surface. They are soft and hairy with scalloped edges, and have a mild lemon scent. During summer, small white or pale pink flowers appear. The plants live for ten years; the crop plant is replaced after five years to allow the ground to rejuvenate.


title: Lemon balm

text: The use of lemon balm can be dated to over 2000 years ago through the Greeks and the Romans. It is mentioned by the Greek polymath Theophrastus in his "Historia Plantarum", written in 300 BC, as "honey-leaf" (μελισσόφυλλον). Lemon balm was formally introduced into Europe in the 7th century, from which its use and domestication spread. Its use in the Middle Ages is noted by herbalists, writers, philosophers, and scientists.


title: Lemon balm

text: Lemon balm was a favourite plant of the Tudors, who scattered the leaves across their floors. It was in the herbal garden of the English botanist John Gerard in the 1590s, who considered it especially good for feeding and attracting honeybees. Especially cultivated for honey production, according to the authors Janet Dampney and Elizabeth Pomeroy, "bees were thought never to leave a garden in which it was grown". It was introduced to North America by the first colonists from Europe; it was cultivated in the Gardens of Monticello, designed by the American statesman Thomas Jefferson.


title: Lemon balm

text: The English botanist Nicholas Culpeper considered lemon balm to be ruled by the planet Jupiter in Cancer, and suggested it to be used for "weak stomachs", to cause the heart to become "merry", to help digestion, to open "obstructions of the brain", and to expel "melancholy vapors" from the heart and arteries.


title: Lemon balm

text: In traditional Austrian medicine, "M. officinalis" leaves have been prescribed as a herbal tea, or as an external application in the form of an essential oil.


title: Lemon balm

text: The plant is grown and sold as an ornamental plant, and for attracting bees. The essential oil is used as a perfume ingredient. It is used in toothpastes.


title: Lemon balm

text: Lemon balm is used as a flavouring in ice cream and herbal teas, often in combination with other herbs such as spearmint. The leaves are not dried when used for tea. It is a common addition to peppermint tea, mostly because of its complementing flavor. Lemon balm is also used with fruit dishes or candies. It can be used in fish dishes and is the main ingredient in lemon balm pesto. Its flavour comes from geraniol (3–40%), neral (3–35%), geranial (4–85%) (both isomers of citral), (E)-caryophyllene (0–14%), and citronellal (1–44%). It is also one of the ingredients in Spreewald gherkins.


title: Lemon balm

text: "Melissa officinalis" is native to Europe, central Asia and Iran, but is now naturalized around the world. It grows easily from seed, preferring rich, moist soil.


title: Lemon balm

text: Lemon balm seeds require light and a minimum temperature of to germinate. The plant grows in clumps and spreads vegetatively (a new plant can grow from a fragment of the parent plant), as well as by seed. In mild temperate zones, the plant stems die off at the start of the winter, but shoot up again in spring. Lemon balm grows vigorously.


title: Lemon balm

text: , Hungary, Egypt, and Italy are the major producing countries of lemon balm. The leaves are harvested by hand in June and August in the northern hemisphere, on a day when the weather is dry, to prevent the crop from turning black if damp.


title: Lemon balm

text: Ireland is a major producer of lemon balm essential oil, which has a pale yellow colour and a lemon scent. The essential oil is commonly co-distilled with lemon oil, citronella oil or other essential oils. Yields are low; 0.014% for fresh leaves and 0.112% for dried leaves.


title: Elton John singles discography

text: The singles discography of English musician and singer-songwriter Elton John consists of 140 official singles as main artist, 22 as a featured artist, as well as 56 other non-single guest appearances, 2 charity singles, and 3 other charted songs.


title: Elton John singles discography

text: In 1970, a year after starting his solo career, John released his first hit single, "Your Song", which became his first top ten in both the UK and the US. His critical success was at its peak in the 1970s, when he released a streak of chart-topping singles in the US and UK, including "Tiny Dancer" (1972), "Rocket Man" (1972), "Honky Cat" (1972), "Crocodile Rock" (1972), "Daniel' (1973), "Saturday Night's Alright for Fighting" (1973), "Goodbye Yellow Brick Road" (1973), "Step into Christmas" (1973), "Bennie and the Jets" (1974), "The Bitch Is Back" (1974), "Philadelphia Freedom" (1975), "Someone Saved My Life Tonight" (1975), and "Don't Go Breaking My Heart" (1976).


title: Elton John singles discography

text: John continued his success in the 1980s and 1990s, having several hit singles including "I Guess That's Why They Call It the Blues" (1983), "I'm Still Standing" (1983), "Sad Songs (Say So Much)" (1984), "Nikita" (1985), "Sacrifice" (1989), "The One" (1992), and "Believe" (1995). In 1997, John released the double A-side single "Something About the Way You Look Tonight"/"Candle in the Wind 1997" in dedication to the memory of Diana, Princess of Wales. The single subsequently hit number one in every country that it charted in and became the biggest-selling single of all time since the UK and US charts began in the 1950s, with worldwide sales of 33 million. John has continued to record new music since then, including the singles "I Want Love" (2001), "Electricity" (2005), "Looking Up" (2015), "(I'm Gonna) Love Me Again" (2019), "Cold Heart" (2021), and "Hold Me Closer" (2022).


title: Elton John singles discography

text: Throughout his career, John has sold 100 million singles worldwide, making him one of the biggest selling music artists of all time. He has had 57 top 40 hits in the United States, second only to Elvis Presley in total, with 27 of these hitting the top ten and nine reaching number one. In his native United Kingdom, John has accumulated 70 top 40 singles, including 35 top tens and 10 number ones, making him joint ninth on the list of artists with most number-one singles on the UK Singles Chart (with Calvin Harris and Eminem). In 2021, John became the first solo artist with UK Top 10 singles across six decades.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The Embraer ERJ family (for Embraer Regional Jet, model names EMB-135, EMB-140 and EMB-145) are regional jets designed and produced by the Brazilian aerospace company Embraer. The family includes the ERJ135 (37 passengers), ERJ140 (44 passengers), and ERJ145 (50 passengers), as well as the Legacy 600 business jet and the R-99 family of military aircraft.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: Development of the EMB145 was launched during 1989, its early design took the form of a turbofan-powered stretch of the existing turboprop-powered EMB 120 Brasilia feederliner. After the project was temporarily suspended in 1990, work on a revised configuration was undertaken during the early 1990s. While retaining the three-abreast seating of the Brasilia, the twinjet has a new swept wing and is powered by two rear-fuselage-mounted AE3007 turbofans for a range up to . By the time of its maiden flight on 11 August 1995, Embraer had garnered 18 firm orders, 16 options and 127 letters of intent for the type. On 10 December 1996, the ERJ145 received its type certificate; it entered revenue service with ExpressJet Airlines on 6 April 1997.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: Embraer prioritised the rapid expansion of the family, leading to the introduction of the shortened ERJ135 and ERJ140 in 1999. The ERJ series' primary competition came from the similarly sized Bombardier CRJ100/200 regional jets. During December 2002, Embraer entered a partnership with the Chinese aerospace manufacturer Harbin Aircraft Industry Group to jointly produce the ERJ145 in Harbin, China; this production line was shuttered in 2016 after producing 41 aircraft. Overall production of the type was terminated in 2020, by which point 1,231 aircraft were built. By this point, the ERJ family had been eclipsed by the newer and more advanced E-Jet family.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The ERJ145 was designed for a perceived new market for regional jet aircraft, where the increased speed, comfort and passenger appeal would outweigh the inherent fuel economy of the turboprop aircraft which were in service and in development.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The 45–48 seat EMB145 was launched at the Paris Air Show in 1989 as an stretch of the EMB 120 Brasilia developed for $150M plus $50M for training and marketing, one third the cost of the cancelled Short Brothers FJX project. Its $11M unit cost would have been $3M less than the Canadair CRJ. The jet would be powered by GE/Garrett CFE738s, Lycoming ALF 502s or Rolls-Royce plc/Allison Engine AB580s turbofans, to be selected in the summer of 1989. It was targeted for a late 1992 introduction with six produced then ramping to 60 per year in 1995. It aimed for half of a market for 1000 with break-even after twelve years with 400 sold.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: Keeping 75% of the Brasilia parts and systems, the EMB145 Amazon aimed for a 1991 first flight. The stretch resulted from two plugs of the diameter fuselage in the front and behind the redesigned wing. Its supercritical airfoil with a 14% root thickness had its chord extended at the leading edge with a slight sweepback, increased aspect ratio and winglets. The overwing podded engines generated of thrust. Designed for stages, up to with a reduced payload, it had a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) and a operating empty weight.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: In early 1990, no engine supplier willing to share the risk of the $250 million development was yet selected. The Allison GMA3007 was selected in March 1990, with a maximum 40 kN (7,100 lbf) take-off thrust and growth capability to , first flight was then due in September 1991. Rolls-Royce could participate in the fan and low-pressure turbine, its original responsibility on the RB.580 joint development. By May, it had 296 commitments from 19 operators, and was seeking external finance. In June, maiden flight was expected by the end of 1990 before mid-1993 deliveries for $11.5 million each, cabin pressurisation was increased to from the Brasilia .


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: Following the engine selection, design was revised: length decreased from , span increased from , aspect ratio to 9.3 from 9.2.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: MTOW rose from , basic operating weight from , maximum fuel from and payload from ; wing loading increased from , time-to-climb to FL400 gained 5 min to 30 min and maximum cruise rose from 405 kn (750 km/h) to 428 kn (787 km/h) at FL360. The first delivery in 1993 was slated to Comair, which ordered 60.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: In November 1990, a major reduction in Brazilian government spending, which held 61% of its voting share, resulted in Embraer laying off 32% of its 12,800 employees and suspending development of the EMB-145 for six months.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: In March 1991, a revised configuration started wind tunnel testing: the quarter chord wing sweep increased to 22.3° with underslung engines for lower aerodynamic drag. This reduced the span by almost , reducing its aspect ratio from 9.3 to 8.4 and wing area from . The semi-monocoque wing has two main and one auxiliary spar and holds 4,500 kg (9,900 lb) of fuel, it has double-slotted fowler flaps and spoilers. To accommodate the underwing engines, the landing gear is longer, allowing using jetways, and the fuselage was lengthened from .


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: During June 1991, the Brazilian Government loaned $600 million to Embraer and in July the programme was re-evaluated while tooling was 80% complete. By November 1991, Embraer was still looking for partners to share the risk of the $350 million project, hoping to obtain Government approval by the end of the year. Sold at $12 million with an all-digital cockpit and engines, it had letters of intent for 337 units. The scheduled date for the first flight slipped to 1992 and certification for late 1993.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: After re-evaluation late in 1991, the layout was again revised with two rear-fuselage-mounted engines, and a Mach 0.8 cruise speed would be tested in the wind tunnel. Seat pitch is . A further stretch to 50–55 passengers is limited by a 12° rotation angle. Embraer continued to look for partners to share the $350 million development as first flight was expected for late 1994. In December 1994, Embraer was privatised for 80% to Brazilian and US investors while 20% was kept by the Brazilian Government.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The definitive ERJ145 first flew on August 11, 1995, with 18 firm orders, 16 options and 127 letters of intent. A 1,300h flight-test programme for the prototype and three pre-series aircraft (excluding two ground-test airframes) was planned within 13 months for certification in the third quarter of 1996, before deliveries in the fourth quarter of 1996 to launch customer Flight West. The $14.5 million aircraft is developed with risk-sharing partners including Spain's Gamesa producing the wing; Chile's Enaer for the tail; and the USA's C&D Interiors equipping the cabin. The standard maximum ramp weight is for the extended-range, it is fitted with Honeywell Primus 1000 integrated avionics.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The estimated $300 million development cost is divided between Embraer for 34%, risksharing partners for 33% (including Belgium's SONACA supplying centre and rear fuselage sections, doors, engine pylons and wing leading-edges), long-term loans from Brazilian development-funding institutions for 23% and participating suppliers for 10%.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: On both 370 km (200 nm) hubfeeder and 1,100 km hub-bypass sectors, the EMB145 was expected to offer lower operating costs than the similarly priced Saab 2000 high-speed turboprop and the CRJ. Its $15 million price was $4 million lower than the CRJ.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The Flight Test campaign took four aircraft: S/N 801, PT-ZJA, S/N 001, PT-ZJB, S/N 002, PT-ZJC and S/N 003, PT-ZJD. Only S/N 003 was fitted with passenger seats and had no FTI (flight test instrumentation) and was used for functional and reliability tests.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: In July 1996, its certification was targeted for October, and the unit cost was then forecast to be US$15 million. The first delivery was planned for late November, while 29 aircraft were to be produced in 1997, 38 in 1998 and at least 48 per year thereafter. Its MTOW could be raised from the standard for an Enhanced Range version. Flight tests allowed to increase its cruise speed to Mach 0.78 from 0.74, and showed fuel economy was 7% better than predicted. Before the Summer 1996 Farnborough Airshow, Embraer held 62 firm orders and 218 options. Continental Express then purchased 25 EMB145s and took 175 options. More than 50 seats would need a wider fuselage for four-abreast seating, an enlarged wing and a more powerful turbofan.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: On 10 December 1996, type certification was issued by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), clearing the type for operational use in North America.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: Embraer delivered 892 units of all variants through 2006, and predicted that another 102 units would be delivered in the 2007–2016 time period.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: During December 2002, Embraer entered a partnership with the Chinese aerospace manufacturer Harbin Aircraft Industry Group, resulting in the creation of "Harbin Embraer Aircraft Industry", a joint venture company, to locally produce the ERJ145 in Harbin for the Chinese market. The assembly line was sized to produce a maximum of 24 aircraft per year, assembling complete knock down kits prepared by Embraer at its facilities overseas. During February 2004, the first delivery of a Chinese-assembled ERJ145 took place; two months later, China Southern took delivery for two of the locally-built ERJ145s.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: In April 2009, it was announced that Hainan Airlines had halved its original order for 50 ERJ145s from the joint venture. By April 2011, 41 aircraft had reportedly been produced in China, considerably less than the line's capacity. By this time, the company was undertaking changes to facilitate the local production of the similar Embraer Legacy 650 business jet as well. In March 2016, the final delivery of aircraft produced by the joint venture took place. Two months later, the discontinuation of the local assembly initiative was announced; it was reported that in excess of 40 ERJ145 and five Legacy 650s has been completed by this point.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: Embraer has introduced two shortened versions of the ERJ145. All three aircraft share the same crew type rating, allowing pilots to fly any of the three aircraft without the need for further training.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The ERJ140 is shorter, seating 44 passengers, and has 96% parts commonality with the ERJ145. The only significant changes are a shorter fuselage, a slightly derated engine and an increased range. The ERJ140 was designed with fewer seats in order to meet the needs of some major United States airlines, which have an agreement with the pilots' union to limit the number of 50-seat aircraft that can be flown by their affiliates. At launch, Embraer estimated the cost of an ERJ140 to be approximately US $15.2 million. The estimated cost of development of the ERJ140 was US $45 million.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The ERJ135 is shorter, seating 37 passengers, and has 95% parts commonality with the ERJ145. The first ERJ135 entered service in 1999.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The Embraer ERJ family is a series of twin-engine jet-powered regional jets. The ERJ family retains a relatively high level of commonality with the Embraer Legacy 600 business jet; the principal difference being the addition of winglets and additional fuel tanks as standard on the latter. The airframe is composed of stretched, machined and chemically milled aluminium, with CFRP for moving parts, GFRP for fairings and sidewalls, kevlar for leading edges and Nomex honeycomb-CFRP/GFRP sandwiches for floors.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The EMB145 family is generally powered by a pair of Rolls-Royce AE 3007 series turbofan engines. Each engine has a bypass ratio of 5:1 and can generate up to 8,917 lbf of thrust. The engines are controlled by a dual Full Authority Digital Engine Controls (FADEC) arrangement, which is capable of controlling virtually all aspects of the engine and sending engine data to be displayed on the engine-indicating and crew-alerting system (EICAS) for the flight crew.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The ERJ145 family initially shared its cockpit layout with that of the aborted CBA123. It is equipped with the Honeywell Primus 1000 avionics suite. This provides an electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) that comprises five monitors; from left to right, these consists of a Primary Flight Display (PFD), Multi-Function Display (MFD), Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System (EICAS), Multi-Function Display (MFD) (Co-pilot) and Primary Flight Display (PFD) (Co-pilot). While these are CRT displays as standard, they can be upgraded to LCD counterparts, which are lighter and have additional functionality.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: In a typical commuter/airliner configuration, the ERJ 145 can accommodate up to 60 seats, although many operators would have less seats than this on their selected configuration. Embraer has offered a premium cabin configuration, which seats between 16 and 28 passengers in a more comfortable and spacious arrangement. The cabin can accommodate various interiors, these being customisable to fulfil each customer's own requirements. The fittings can be suited to various market sectors, from the relatively modest commuter to the more luxury-inclined VIP traveller. It is typical, but not compulsory, for ERJ 135/145 airliners to be configured with an offset aisle. Dependent on an individual aircraft's role, overhead bins may be installed; their exclusion gives more headroom but reduces the available storage space for carry-on luggage.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: Embraer has stated that every ERJ 145 is capable of being converted into a semi-private aircraft configuration, and that the conversion process can be performed at Embraer-owned service centers. Numerous aftermarket companies have also offered their own conversions of ERJ family aircraft, often involving various levels of interior refurbishment, such as the installation of an expanded galley, redesigned lavatories, seat track relocation, at-seat power provision, Wi-Fi, alternative ceilings, LED lighting upgrades, and various storage options.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: In December 1996, the first delivery of the ERJ145 was made to ExpressJet Airlines (then the regional division of Continental Airlines flying as Continental Express). As a newly-established company, ExpressJet chose the ERJ145 with which to launch its operations; this was achieved in April 1997, the same month that Embraer completed deliveries to the operator. Particular value was attached the American market as there was a near-insatiable hunger for regional aircraft at this time, and thus a substantial amount of potential sales to capitalise upon.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The ERJ145 quickly entered service with various other operators throughout the Americas, being particularly popular on high-demand regional routes. However, the type proved to be less successful in the European market allegedly on account of logistical difficulties. Nonetheless, several European operators did emerge; LOT Polish Airlines operated as many as 14 ERJ145s, while British Regional Airlines also flew the type on behalf of the national flag carrier British Airways.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: During the early 2000s, various governments opted to procure the ERJ145 as dedicated transports for high-ranking officials, amongst some other purposes. One such country was Belgium, who operated a pair of ERJ145s for VIP transport, regularly carrying the Belgian prime minister, cabinet members, members of the royal family, or military officials, between 2001 and 2020.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: By the 2020s, various operators had elected to retire their ERJ145 fleets in favour of newer airliners; they have often been replaced by members of Embraer's E-Jet family. Aircraft formerly used as regional airliners have often been sold on to charter operators. To capitalise on the growing sector of corporate/private travellers, some customers have elected to acquire secondhand ERJ145s from regional operators and refurbishing them with new interiors with more luxurious fittings to suit their new role. As of August 2021, the largest operator of the ERJ145 is CommutAir, which serves as "United Express" under United Airlines, possessing a fleet of 165 aircraft.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: During September 1999, the slightly smaller ERJ140 was introduced; it performing its first flight on 27 June 2000, and entering commercial service in July 2001. Envoy Air, the regional jet subsidiary of American Airlines flying as American Eagle, operated the majority of the ERJ140s built, including the first to be delivered ("N800AE") However, Envoy Air opted to withdraw all of their ERJ140 fleet in mid-2020. By early 2005, 74 ERJ140s had been delivered; while this model has been marketed as "ERJ140", its designation on the company's internal documents and on FAA certification is "EMB 135KL". In March 2007, ExpressJet entered into a short-term agreement to operate some regional routes for JetBlue Airways using its ERJ145 aircraft.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: In May 2017, the ERJ135 was leased $33,000 to $43,000 per month ($396,000 to $516,000 per year) and the ERJ145 $38,000 to $55,000 per month ($456,000 to $660,000 per year).


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: As of 18 March 2018, the Embraer ERJ family was involved in 24 incidents, incurring a total of eight hull losses without any fatalities.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The physical engines are the same (Rolls-Royce AE 3007), however, the FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine/Electronic Control) logic is what differs between the various models in regards to total thrust capability.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The extended range version, the ERJ 145ER, has Rolls Royce AE 3007A engines rated at 31.3 kN(7,036 lb) thrust, with the option of more powerful AE 3007A1 engines. A, A1, A1P models are mechanically identical but differ in thrust due to variations in FADEC software. The A1E engine, however, has not only new software, but significantly upgraded mechanical components.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The long-range ERJ 145LR aircraft is equipped with Rolls Royce AE 3007A1 engines which provide 15% more power. The engines are flat rated at 33.1 kN (7,440 lb) thrust to provide improved climb characteristics and improved cruise performance in high ambient temperatures.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The extra-long-range ERJ 145XR aircraft is equipped with Rolls-Royce AE 3007A1E engines. The high performance engines provide lower specific fuel consumption (SFC) and improved performance in hot and high conditions. The engines also yield a higher altitude for one-engine-inoperable conditions." CommutAir is the only operator of the ERJ 145XR. February 2011 Embraer presented its new EMB-145 AEW&C for India.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: Despite the multiple variants, pilots need only one type rating to fly any variant of the ERJ aircraft. Companies like American Eagle utilizes this benefit with its mixed fleet of ERJ135ER/LR and ERJ145EP/LR/XR. Shared type-ratings allow operators to utilize a single pilot pool for any ERJ aircraft.


title: Embraer ERJ family

text: The ERJ-135/140/145 has been involved in 26 aviation accidents and incidents, including 8 hull losses, which resulted in zero fatalities.


title: Topological sorting

text: In computer science, a topological sort or topological ordering of a directed graph is a linear ordering of its vertices such that for every directed edge "uv" from vertex "u" to vertex "v", "u" comes before "v" in the ordering. For instance, the vertices of the graph may represent tasks to be performed, and the edges may represent constraints that one task must be performed before another; in this application, a topological ordering is just a valid sequence for the tasks. Precisely, a topological sort is a graph traversal in which each node "v" is visited only after all its dependencies are visited"." A topological ordering is possible if and only if the graph has no directed cycles, that is, if it is a directed acyclic graph (DAG). Any DAG has at least one topological ordering, and algorithms are known for constructing a topological ordering of any DAG in linear time. Topological sorting has many applications especially in ranking problems such as feedback arc set. Topological sorting is possible even when the DAG has disconnected components.


title: Topological sorting

text: The canonical application of topological sorting is in scheduling a sequence of jobs or tasks based on their dependencies. The jobs are represented by vertices, and there is an edge from "x" to "y" if job "x" must be completed before job "y" can be started (for example, when washing clothes, the washing machine must finish before we put the clothes in the dryer). Then, a topological sort gives an order in which to perform the jobs. A closely related application of topological sorting algorithms was first studied in the early 1960s in the context of the PERT technique for scheduling in project management. In this application, the vertices of a graph represent the milestones of a project, and the edges represent tasks that must be performed between one milestone and another. Topological sorting forms the basis of linear-time algorithms for finding the critical path of the project, a sequence of milestones and tasks that controls the length of the overall project schedule.


title: Topological sorting

text: In computer science, applications of this type arise in instruction scheduling, ordering of formula cell evaluation when recomputing formula values in spreadsheets, logic synthesis, determining the order of compilation tasks to perform in makefiles, data serialization, and resolving symbol dependencies in linkers. It is also used to decide in which order to load tables with foreign keys in databases.


title: Topological sorting

text: The usual algorithms for topological sorting have running time linear in the number of nodes plus the number of edges, asymptotically, formula_1


title: Topological sorting

text: One of these algorithms, first described by , works by choosing vertices in the same order as the eventual topological sort. First, find a list of "start nodes" which have no incoming edges and insert them into a set S; at least one such node must exist in a non-empty acyclic graph. Then:


title: Topological sorting

text: If the graph is a DAG, a solution will be contained in the list L (the solution is not necessarily unique). Otherwise, the graph must have at least one cycle and therefore a topological sort is impossible.


title: Topological sorting

text: Reflecting the non-uniqueness of the resulting sort, the structure S can be simply a set or a queue or a stack. Depending on the order that nodes n are removed from set S, a different solution is created. A variation of Kahn's algorithm that breaks ties lexicographically forms a key component of the Coffman–Graham algorithm for parallel scheduling and layered graph drawing.


title: Topological sorting

text: An alternative algorithm for topological sorting is based on depth-first search. The algorithm loops through each node of the graph, in an arbitrary order, initiating a depth-first search that terminates when it hits any node that has already been visited since the beginning of the topological sort or the node has no outgoing edges (i.e. a leaf node):


title: Topological sorting

text: Each node "n" gets "prepended" to the output list L only after considering all other nodes which depend on "n" (all descendants of "n" in the graph). Specifically, when the algorithm adds node "n", we are guaranteed that all nodes which depend on "n" are already in the output list L: they were added to L either by the recursive call to visit() which ended before the call to visit "n", or by a call to visit() which started even before the call to visit "n". Since each edge and node is visited once, the algorithm runs in linear time. This depth-first-search-based algorithm is the one described by ; it seems to have been first described in print by Tarjan in 1976.


title: Topological sorting

text: On a parallel random-access machine, a topological ordering can be constructed in "O"(log "n") time using a polynomial number of processors, putting the problem into the complexity class NC.


title: Topological sorting

text: One method for doing this is to repeatedly square the adjacency matrix of the given graph, logarithmically many times, using min-plus matrix multiplication with maximization in place of minimization. The resulting matrix describes the longest path distances in the graph. Sorting the vertices by the lengths of their longest incoming paths produces a topological ordering.


title: Topological sorting

text: An algorithm for parallel topological sorting on distributed memory machines parallelizes the algorithm of Kahn for a DAG formula_2. On a high level, the algorithm of Kahn repeatedly removes the vertices of indegree 0 and adds them to the topological sorting in the order in which they were removed. Since the outgoing edges of the removed vertices are also removed, there will be a new set of vertices of indegree 0, where the procedure is repeated until no vertices are left. This algorithm performs formula_3 iterations, where is the longest path in . Each iteration can be parallelized, which is the idea of the following algorithm.


title: Topological sorting

text: In the following it is assumed that the graph partition is stored on processing elements (PE) which are labeled formula_4. Each PE initializes a set of local vertices formula_5 with indegree 0, where the upper index represents the current iteration. Since all vertices in the local sets formula_6 have indegree 0, i.e. they are not adjacent, they can be given in an arbitrary order for a valid topological sorting. To assign a global index to each vertex, a prefix sum is calculated over the sizes of formula_6. So each step, there are formula_8 vertices added to the topological sorting.


title: Topological sorting

text: In the first step, PE assigns the indices formula_9 to the local vertices in formula_10. These vertices in formula_10 are removed, together with their corresponding outgoing edges. For each outgoing edge formula_12 with endpoint in another PE formula_13, the message formula_12 is posted to PE . After all vertices in formula_10 are removed, the posted messages are sent to their corresponding PE. Each message formula_12 received updates the indegree of the local vertex . If the indegree drops to zero, is added to formula_17. Then the next iteration starts.


title: Topological sorting

text: In step , PE assigns the indices formula_18, where formula_19is the total amount of processed vertices after step . This procedure repeats until there are no vertices left to process, hence formula_20. Below is a high level, single program, multiple data pseudo code overview of this algorithm.


title: Topological sorting

text: The communication cost depends heavily on the given graph partition. As for runtime, on a CRCW-PRAM model that allows fetch-and-decrement in constant time, this algorithm runs in formula_22, where is again the longest path in and the maximum degree.


title: Topological sorting

text: The topological ordering can also be used to quickly compute shortest paths through a weighted directed acyclic graph. Let be the list of vertices in such a graph, in topological order. Then the following algorithm computes the shortest path from some source vertex to all other vertices:


title: Topological sorting

text: If a topological sort has the property that all pairs of consecutive vertices in the sorted order are connected by edges, then these edges form a directed Hamiltonian path in the DAG. If a Hamiltonian path exists, the topological sort order is unique; no other order respects the edges of the path. Conversely, if a topological sort does not form a Hamiltonian path, the DAG will have two or more valid topological orderings, for in this case it is always possible to form a second valid ordering by swapping two consecutive vertices that are not connected by an edge to each other. Therefore, it is possible to test in linear time whether a unique ordering exists, and whether a Hamiltonian path exists, despite the NP-hardness of the Hamiltonian path problem for more general directed graphs (i.e. cyclic directed graphs).


title: Topological sorting

text: Topological orderings are also closely related to the concept of a linear extension of a partial order in mathematics. A partially ordered set is just a set of objects together with a definition of the "≤" inequality relation, satisfying the axioms of reflexivity ("x" ≤ "x"), antisymmetry (if "x" ≤ "y" and "y" ≤ "x" then "x" = "y") and transitivity (if "x" ≤ "y" and "y" ≤ "z", then "x" ≤ "z"). A total order is a partial order in which, for every two objects "x" and "y" in the set, either "x" ≤ "y" or "y" ≤ "x". Total orders are familiar in computer science as the comparison operators needed to perform comparison sorting algorithms. For finite sets, total orders may be identified with linear sequences of objects, where the "≤" relation is true whenever the first object precedes the second object in the order; a comparison sorting algorithm may be used to convert a total order into a sequence in this way. A linear extension of a partial order is a total order that is compatible with it, in the sense that, if "x" ≤ "y" in the partial order, then "x" ≤ "y" in the total order as well.


title: Topological sorting

text: One can define a partial ordering from any DAG by letting the set of objects be the vertices of the DAG, and defining "x" ≤ "y" to be true, for any two vertices "x" and "y", whenever there exists a directed path from "x" to "y"; that is, whenever "y" is reachable from "x". With these definitions, a topological ordering of the DAG is the same thing as a linear extension of this partial order. Conversely, any partial ordering may be defined as the reachability relation in a DAG. One way of doing this is to define a DAG that has a vertex for every object in the partially ordered set, and an edge "xy" for every pair of objects for which "x" ≤ "y". An alternative way of doing this is to use the transitive reduction of the partial ordering; in general, this produces DAGs with fewer edges, but the reachability relation in these DAGs is still the same partial order. By using these constructions, one can use topological ordering algorithms to find linear extensions of partial orders.


title: Topological sorting

text: By definition, the solution of a scheduling problem that includes a precedence graph is a valid solution to topological sort (irrespective of the number of machines), however, topological sort in itself is "not" enough to optimally solve a scheduling optimisation problem. Hu's algorithm is a popular method used to solve scheduling problems that require a precedence graph and involve processing times (where the goal is to minimise the largest completion time amongst all the jobs). Like topological sort, Hu's algorithm is not unique and can be solved using DFS (by finding the largest path length and then assigning the jobs).


title: Vientiane

text: Vientiane ( , ; , "Viangchan", ) is the capital and largest city of Laos. Vientiane is divided administratively into 9 cities with a total area of only approx. 3,920 square kilometres and is located on the banks of the Mekong, close to the Thai border. Vientiane was the administrative capital during French rule and, due to economic growth in recent times, is now the economic center of Laos. The city had a population of 948,477 as of the 2020 Census.


title: Vientiane

text: Vientiane is noted as the home of the most significant national monuments in Laos – That Luang – which is a known symbol of Laos and an icon of Buddhism in Laos. Other significant Buddhist temples in Laos can be found there as well, such as Haw Phra Kaew, which formerly housed the Emerald Buddha.


title: Vientiane

text: The city hosted the 25th Southeast Asian Games in December 2009, celebrating 50 years of the Southeast Asian Games.


title: Vientiane

text: 'Vientiane' is the French name derived from the Lao "Viangchan" . The name was previously written " (in Thai, เวียงจันทน์) but now usually written ". Lao "viang" () refers to a 'walled city' whereas "chan" (, previously ), derives from Sanskrit "candana" (, ), 'sandalwood' and can be translated as the 'walled city of sandalwood'. Some Laotians mistakenly believe it refers to the 'walled city of the moon' as "chan" can also represent 'moon', although this was previously distinguished in writing as ". Other romanisations include 'Viangchan' and 'Wiangchan'.


title: Vientiane

text: By the 6th century in the Chao Phraya River Valley, Mon peoples had coalesced to create the Dvaravati kingdoms. In the north, Haripunjaya (Lamphun) emerged as a rival power to the Dvaravati. By the 8th century the Mon had pushed north to create city states, in Fa Daet (modern Kalasin, northeastern Thailand), Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) near modern Tha Khek, Laos, Muang Sua (Luang Prabang), and Chantaburi (Vientiane). In the 8th century CE, Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) was the strongest of these early city states, and controlled trade throughout the middle Mekong region. The city states were loosely bound politically, but were culturally similar and introduced Therevada Buddhism from Sri Lankan missionaries throughout the region.


title: Vientiane

text: The great Laotian epic, the Phra Lak Phra Lam, claims that Prince Thattaradtha founded the city when he left the legendary Lao kingdom of "Muong Inthapatha Maha Nakhone" because he was denied the throne in favor of his younger brother. Thattaradtha founded a city called "Maha Thani Si Phan Phao" on the western banks of the Mekong River; this city was said to have later become today's Udon Thani, Thailand. One day, a seven-headed Naga told Thattaradtha to start a new city on the east bank of the river opposite "Maha Thani Si Phan Phao". The prince called this city "Chanthabuly Si Sattanakhanahud"; which was said to be the predecessor of modern Vientiane.


title: Vientiane

text: Contrary to the Phra Lak Phra Lam, most historians believe Vientiane was an early Khmer settlement centered around a Hindu temple, which the Pha That Luang would later replace. In the 11th and 12th centuries, the time when the Lao and Thai people are believed to have entered Southeast Asia from Southern China, the few remaining Khmers in the area were either killed, removed, or assimilated into the Lao civilization, which would soon overtake the area.


title: Vientiane

text: The earliest reference of the name Vientiane can be seen on a Vietnamese inscription of Duke Đỗ Anh Vũ, dated 1159 during the Khmer-Viet conflict. The inscription says that in 1135, Văn Đan (Vientiane), a vassal of Zhenla (Khmer Empire), invaded Nghe An, but was repelled by the Duke; the Duke led an army chased the invaders as far as Vũ Ôn? (unattested), and then returned with captives. This name may have traced it origin to "Wèndān", a supposedly kingdom located in the Khorat Plateau, mentioned by a ninth-century Chinese writer described a trade route which started at Hanoi and crossed the western mountains to Wèndān.


title: Vientiane

text: In 1354, when Fa Ngum founded the kingdom of Lan Xang. Vientiane became an important administrative city, even though it was not made the capital. King Setthathirath officially established it as the capital of Lan Xang in 1563, to avoid Burmese invasion. When Lan Xang fell apart in 1707, it became an independent Kingdom of Vientiane. In 1779, it was conquered by the Siamese general Phraya Chakri and made a vassal of Siam.


title: Vientiane

text: When King Anouvong raised an unsuccessful rebellion, it was obliterated by Siamese armies in 1827. The city was burned to the ground and was looted of nearly all Laotian artifacts, including Buddha statues and people. Vientiane was in great disrepair, depopulated and disappearing into the forest when the French arrived. It eventually passed to French rule in 1893. It became the capital of the French protectorate of Laos in 1899. The French rebuilt the city and rebuilt or repaired Buddhist temples such as Pha That Luang, Haw Phra Kaew, and left many colonial buildings behind.


title: Vientiane

text: During French rule, the Vietnamese were encouraged to migrate to Laos, which resulted in 53% of the population of Vientiane being Vietnamese in the year 1943. As late as 1945, the French drew up an ambitious plan to move massive Vietnamese population to three key areas, i.e. the Vientiane Plain, Savannakhet region, Bolaven Plateau, which was only discarded by the Japanese invasion of Indochina. If this plan had been implemented, according to Martin Stuart-Fox, the Lao might well have lost control over their own country.


title: Vientiane

text: During World War II, Vientiane fell with little resistance and was occupied by Japanese forces, under the command of Sako Masanori. On 9 March 1945 French paratroopers arrived, and reoccupied the city on 24 April 1945.


title: Vientiane

text: As the Laotian Civil War broke out between the Royal Lao Government and the Pathet Lao, Vientiane became unstable. In August 1960, Kong Le seized the capital and insisted that Souvanna Phouma become prime minister. In mid-December, Phoumi Nosavan then seized the capital, overthrew the Phouma Government, and installed Boun Oum as prime minister. In mid-1975, Pathet Lao troops moved towards the city and Americans began evacuating the capital. On 23 August 1975, a contingent of 50 Pathet Lao women symbolically liberated the city. On 2 December 1975, the communist party of the Pathet Lao took over Vientiane, defeated the Kingdom of Laos, and renamed the country the Lao People's Democratic Republic, which ended the Laotian Civil War. The next day, an Insurgency in Laos began in the jungle, with the Pathet Lao fighting factions of Hmong and royalists.


title: Vientiane

text: Vientiane was the host of the incident-free 2009 Southeast Asian Games. Eighteen competitions were dropped from the previous games held in Thailand, due to Laos' landlocked borders and the lack of adequate facilities in Vientiane.


title: Vientiane

text: Vientiane features a tropical savanna climate (Köppen "Aw") with a distinct wet season and a dry season. Vientiane's dry season spans from November through March. April marks the onset of the wet season which in Vientiane lasts about seven months. Vientiane tends to be very hot and humid throughout the course of the year, though temperatures in the city tend to be somewhat cooler during the dry season than the wet season.


title: Vientiane

text: Although still a small city, the capital attracts many tourists. The city contains many temples and Buddhist monuments. A popular attraction for foreign visitors is Pha That Luang, an important national cultural monument of Laos and one of its best known stupas. It was originally built in 1566 by King Setthathirath and was restored in 1953. The golden stupa is 45 metres tall and is believed to contain a relic of the Buddha.


title: Vientiane

text: Another site that is also popular amongst tourists is Wat Si Muang. The temple was built on the ruins of a Khmer Hindu shrine, the remains of which can be seen behind the ordination hall. It was built in 1563 and is believed to be guarded by the spirit of a local girl, Nang Si. Legend tells that Nang Si, who was pregnant at the time, leapt to her death as a sacrifice, just as the pillar was being lowered into the hole. In front of the temple stands a statue of King Sisavang Vong.


title: Vientiane

text: The memorial monument, Patuxai, built between 1957 and 1968, is perhaps the most prominent landmark in the city. While the Arc de Triomphe in Paris inspired the architecture, the design incorporates typical Lao motifs including Kinnari, a mythical bird woman. Energetic visitors can climb to the top of the monument for a panoramic view of the city.


title: Vientiane

text: Buddha Park was built in 1958 by Luang Pu Bunleua Sulilat and contains a collection of Buddhist and Hindu sculptures, scattered amongst gardens and trees. The park is 28 kilometres south of Vientiane at the edge of the Mekong River.


title: Vientiane

text: Vientiane is home to one of the three bowling alleys in Laos (the other two are in Luang Prabang and Pakse).


title: Vientiane

text: Vientiane is the driving force behind economic change in Laos. In recent years, the city has experienced rapid economic growth from foreign investment. In 2011, the stock exchange opened with two listed company stocks, with the cooperation of South Korea.


title: Vientiane

text: There are regular bus services connecting Vientiane Bus Station with the rest of the country. In Vientiane, regular bus services around the city are provided by Vientiane Capital State Bus Enterprise.


title: Vientiane

text: The First Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge, built in the 1990s, crosses the river 18 kilometres downstream of the city of Nong Khai in Thailand, and is the major crossing between the two countries. The official name of the bridge was changed in 2007 by the addition of "First", after the Second Friendship Bridge linking Mukdahan in Thailand with Savannakhet in Laos was opened early in 2007.


title: Vientiane

text: A metre gauge railway link over the first bridge was formally inaugurated on 5 March 2009, ending at Thanaleng Railway Station, in Dongphosy village (Vientiane Prefecture), 20 km east of Vientiane. As of November 2010, Lao officials plan to convert the station into a rail cargo terminal for freight trains, allowing cargo to be transported from Bangkok into Laos more cheaply than via road. This rail link is being extended into Vientiane city, with the new Khamsavath Train Station scheduled to open in mid-2023.


title: Vientiane

text: The Boten–Vientiane railway (sometimes referred to as the "China–Laos railway" or "Laos–China railway") is an electrified railway in Laos, running between the capital Vientiane and the town of Boten on the border with China. The line was officially opened on 3 December 2021.


title: Vientiane

text: Vientiane is served by Wattay International Airport with international connections to other Asian countries. Lao Airlines has regular flights to several domestic destinations in the country (including several flights daily to Luang Prabang, plus a few flights weekly to other local destinations). In Thailand, Udon Thani International Airport, one of Wattay's main connections, is less than 90 km distant.


title: Vientiane

text: The "Centre Medical de l'Ambassade de France" is available to the foreign community in Laos. The Mahosot Hospital is an important local hospital in treating and researching diseases and is connected with the University of Oxford. In 2011 the Alliance Clinic opened near the airport, with a connection to Thai hospitals. The Setthathirat International Clinic has foreign doctors. A free, 24/7 ambulance service is provided by Vientiane Rescue, a volunteer-run rescue service established in 2010.


title: Mawra Hocane

text: Mawra Hussain (born 28 September 1992) Known professionally as Mawra Hocane is a Pakistani actress and model who primarily works in Urdu television. She made her acting debut with A-Plus's serial "Khichari Salsa" in 2011. Hocane is best known for her portrayal of Nadia in "Ek Tamanna Lahasil Si", Haya in "Aahista Aahista" and Anaya Aziz in "Sabaat".


title: Mawra Hocane

text: In 2016, She made her Bollywood debut with Radhika Rao's romantic drama "Sanam Teri Kasam" opposite Harshvardhan Rane. Hocane made her Pakistani film debut in 2018 with Nadeem Baig's Comedy drama "Jawani Phir Nahi Ani 2", which ranks among the highest-grossing Pakistani films.


title: Mawra Hocane

text: Hocane changed the spelling of her family name from "Hussain" to "Hocane" in 7th-grade class to give it a unique spelling.


title: Mawra Hocane

text: She holds a degree in law from the University of London which she finished after returning to school.


title: Mawra Hocane

text: She performed as a theater artist before working as a VJ at ARY Musik. Hocane performed in the Pakistani television serial dramas "Aahista Aahista", "Ik Tamanna Lahasil Si" and "Nikhar Gaye Gulab Sare". She made her Hindi film debut in the Indian romance film, "Sanam Teri Kasam", opposite Harshvardhan Rane.


title: Mawra Hocane

text: In December 2018 she modelled in Pantene Hum Bridal couture week. She showcased golden bridal couture for designer Nilofer Shahid. She was the show stopper for designer HSY creation.


title: Mawra Hocane

text: She narrated and appeared in the period drama "Aangan", on Hum TV. She also portrayed the role of Sunehri in "Daasi" and Anaya in "Sabaat".


title: Mawra Hocane

text: Hocane once tweeted about the Indian film "Phantom", which was banned in Pakistan, prompting social media harassment.


title: Phil Margera

text: Phil Margera (born July 13, 1957) is an American reality television personality known for appearing on "Viva La Bam", the "CKY" videos and the "Jackass" television series and movies. He is the father of CKY drummer Jess Margera and "Jackass" star and professional skateboarder Bam Margera.


title: Phil Margera

text: Margera is the second of seven children born to Phillip and Darlene Margera (). He moved to West Chester where he met and married his wife April. Margera has Italian ancestry and worked as a baker prior to his career in television.


title: Phil Margera

text: He first appeared on film in the "CKY" series of videos, and it was these appearances that later got featured on "Jackass". He was also in the main cast of "Viva La Bam". On television, Margera is depicted as kind, gentle, easy going and quiet, whereas his brother Vincent "Don Vito" Margera was portrayed as loud and obnoxious.


title: Phil Margera

text: Margera appeared on the second season of "Celebrity Fit Club" on VH1. When the show began, he weighed in at 353 pounds (160 kg). He lost the most weight on the show, losing a total of 41 pounds (18 kg), down to 312 pounds (142 kg). In season 4, both BoneCrusher and Tina Yothers beat Margera's record, losing 51 and 42 lbs (23 and 19 kg) respectively. During a weigh-in on the show, Margera stated his reason for losing weight was to extend his life in order to spend more time with his granddaughter, Ava.


title: Phil Margera

text: He also appeared in the 2004 video game "Tony Hawk's Underground 2", in which he joins Tony Hawk's and Bam Margera's crew on a "World Destruction Tour" wearing nothing but underwear and dress socks.


title: Villain

text: A villain (also known as a "black hat" or "bad guy"; the feminine form is villainess) is a stock character, whether based on a historical narrative or one of literary fiction. "Random House Unabridged Dictionary" defines such a character as "a cruelly malicious person who is involved in or devoted to wickedness or crime; scoundrel; or a character in a play, novel, or the like, who constitutes an important evil agency in the plot". The antonym of a villain is a hero.


title: Villain

text: The villain's structural purpose is to serve as the opposition of the hero character and their motives or evil actions drive a plot along. In contrast to the hero, who is defined by feats of ingenuity and bravery and the pursuit of justice and the greater good, a villain is often defined by their acts of selfishness, evilness, arrogance, cruelty, and cunning, displaying immoral behavior that can oppose or pervert justice.


title: Villain

text: The term "villain" first came into English from the Anglo-French and Old French "vilain", which is further derived from the Late Latin word "villanus", which referred to those bound to the soil of the Villa and worked on an equivalent of a plantation in Late Antiquity, in Italy or Gaul.


title: Villain

text: "Vilain" later shifted to "villein", which referred to a person of a less than knightly status, implying a lack of chivalry and politeness. All actions that were unchivalrous or evil (such as treachery or rape) eventually fell under the identity of belonging to a villain in the modern sense of the word. Additionally, "villein" became used as a term of abuse and eventually took on its modern meaning.


title: Villain

text: The landed aristocracy of Middle Age Europe used politically and linguistically the Middle English descendant of "villanus" meaning "villager" (styled as "vilain" or "vilein") with the meaning "a person of uncouth mind and manners." As the common equating of manners with morals gained in strength and currency, the connotations worsened, so that the modern word "villain" is no unpolished villager, but is instead (among other things) a deliberate scoundrel or criminal.


title: Villain

text: At the very same time the medieval expression "vilein" or "vilain" is closely influenced by the word "vile", referring to something wicked or worthless.


title: Villain

text: From late XIII Century Vile meant "morally repugnant; morally flawed, corrupt, wicked; of no value; of inferior quality; disgusting, foul, ugly; degrading, humiliating; of low estate, without worldly honor or esteem," from Anglo-French "ville", Old French "vil," from Latin "vilis" "cheap, worthless, of low value,"


title: Villain

text: Although the relation of these terms became intertwined at some later in time, it is unknown when this happened.


title: Villain

text: In classical literature, the villain character is not always the same as those that appear in modern and postmodern incarnations, as the lines of morality are often blurred to imply a sense of ambiguity or affected by historical context and cultural ideas. Often the delineation of heroes and villains in this literature is left unclear.


title: Villain

text: William Shakespeare modelled the villain archetype to be three-dimensional in characteristics and gave way to the complex nature that villains showcase in modern literature. However, Shakespeare's incarnations of historical figures were influenced by the propaganda pieces coming from Tudor sources, and his works often showed this bias and discredited their reputation. For example, Shakespeare famously portrayed Richard III as a hideous monster who destroyed his family out of spite.


title: Villain

text: In an analysis of Russian fairy tales, Vladimir Propp concluded that the majority of stories had only eight "dramatis personae", one being the villain. This analysis has been widely applied to non-Russian tales. The actions that fell into a villain's sphere were:


title: Villain

text: When a character displays these traits, it is not necessarily tropes specific to the fairy tale genre, but it does imply that the one who performs certain acts to be the villain. The villain, therefore, can appear twice in a story to fulfill certain roles: once in the opening of the story, and a second time as the person sought out by the hero.


title: Villain

text: When a character has only performed actions or displayed traits that coincide with Vladimir Propp's analysis, that character can be identified as a pure villain. Folklore and fairy tale villains can also play a myriad of roles that can influence or drive a story forward. In fairy tales villains can perform an influential role; for example, a witch who fought the hero and ran away, and who lets the hero follow her, is also performing the task of "guidance" and thus acting as a helper.


title: Villain

text: Propp also proposed another two archetypes of the villain's role within the narrative, in which they can portray themselves as villainous in a more general sense. The first is the false hero: This character is always villainous, presenting a false claim to be the hero that must be rebutted for the happy ending. Examples of characters who display this trait, and interfere with the success of a tale's hero, are the Ugly Stepsisters in Cinderella who chopped off parts of their feet to fit in the shoe.


title: Villain

text: Another role for the villain would be the dispatcher, who sends the hero on their quest. At the beginning of the story, their request may appear benevolent or innocent, but the dispatcher's real intentions might be to send the hero on a journey in the hopes of being rid of them.


title: Villain

text: The roles and influences that villains can have over a narrative can also be transferred over to other characters – to continue their role in the narrative through another character. The legacy of the villain is often transferred through that of bloodlines (family) or a devoted follower. For example, if a dragon played the role of a villain but was killed by the hero, another character (such as the dragon's sister) might take on the legacy of the previous villain and pursue the hero out of revenge.


title: Villain

text: The fairy tale genre utilises villains as key components to push the narrative forward and influence the hero's journey. These, while not as rounded as those that appear in other forms of literature, are what is known as archetypes. The archetypal villain is a common occurrence within the genre and come under different categories that have different influences on the protagonist and the narrative.


title: Villain

text: The false donor is a villain who utilises trickery to achieve their ends. Often the false donor will pose as a benevolent figure or influence on the protagonist (or those associated with them) to present them with a deal. The deal will present a short-term solution or benefit for whoever accepts it and, in return, benefit the villain in the long term. During the story's climax, the hero often has to find a way to rectify the agreement in order to defeat the villain or achieve the happy ending.


title: Villain

text: Similarly, the devil archetype is one that also makes an offer to the protagonist (or someone associated with them) and appeals to their needs and desires. However, the devil archetype does not hide their intentions from the protagonist. The subsequent story often follows the protagonist's journey to try and annul the agreement before any damage can be done.


title: Villain

text: The beast is a character who relies on their instincts and ability to cause destruction to achieve their ends. The evil intentions of their actions are often easily identified, as they act without concern for others (or their wellbeing) or subtlety. The rampaging villain can take the form of a very powerful individual or a rampaging beast but is still one of the more dangerous villain archetypes due to their affinity for destruction.


title: Villain

text: The authority figure is one that has already attained a level of command and power but always craves more. They are often driven by their desire for material wealth, distinguished stature or great power and appear as a monarch, corporate climber or other powerful individual. Their end goal is often the total domination of their corporation, nation, or world through mystical means or political manipulation. Often this villain is defeated by their own greed, pride, or arrogance.


title: Villain

text: The traitor is a villain who emphasizes the traits of trickery, manipulation and deception to achieve their goals, which is often to offer or supply information to the protagonist's opposition to halt them on their journey; often in exchange for their own freedom or safety. The traitor's goals are not always evil but the actions they commit to reach their goal can be considered inherently evil.


title: Villain

text: Villains in fiction commonly function in the dual role of adversary and foil to a story's heroes. In their role as an adversary, the villain serves as an obstacle the hero must struggle to overcome. In their role as a foil, they exemplify characteristics that are diametrically opposed to those of the hero, creating a contrast distinguishing heroic traits from villainous ones.


title: Villain

text: Other have pointed out that many acts of villains have a hint of wish-fulfillment, which makes some readers or viewers identify with them as characters more strongly than with the heroes. Because of this, a convincing villain must be given a characterization that provides a motive for doing wrong, as well as being a worthy adversary to the hero. As put by film critic Roger Ebert: "Each film is only as good as its villain. Since the heroes and the gimmicks tend to repeat from film to film, only a great villain can transform a good try into a triumph."


title: Villain

text: The actor Tod Slaughter typically portrayed villainous characters on both stage and screen in a melodramatic manner, with mustache-twirling, eye-rolling, leering, cackling, and hand-rubbing.


title: Villain

text: The term villain is the universal term for characters who pose as catalysts for certain ideals that readers or observers find immoral, but the term "villainess" is often used to highlight specific traits that come with their female identity—separating them, in some aspects, from their male counterparts. The use of the female villain (or villainess) is often to highlight the traits that come specifically with the character and the abilities they possess that are exclusive to them. For example, one of the female villain's greatest weapons is her alluring beauty. The perversion of inherently female traits in storytelling also alludes to the demonic display of the succubus and their affinity for utilising their beauty as a weapon—a trait utilised by many female villains throughout modern fiction and mythology.


title: Villain

text: The ethical dimension of history poses the problem of judging those who acted in the past, and at times, tempts scholars and historians to construct a world of black and white in which the terms "hero" and "villain" are used arbitrary and with the pass of time become interchangeable. These binaries of course are reflected to varying degrees in endless movies, novels, and other fictional and non-fictional narratives.


title: Villain

text: As processes of globalization connect the world, cultures with different historical trajectories and political traditions will need to find ways to work together not only economically, but also politically. In this evolving framework of globalization, tradition, according to political theorists like Edmund Burke, historical figures perceived and evaluated as either positive or negative become the embodiment of national political cultures that may collude or collide against one another.


title: Villain

text: The usage of villain to describe a historical figure dates back to Tudor propaganda, pieces of which ended up influencing William Shakespeare's portrayal of Richard III as a spiteful and hunchback dictator.


title: Villain

text: The sympathetic villain or anti-villain is one with the typical traits of a villainous character but differs in their motivations. Their intention to cause chaos or commit evil actions is driven by an ambiguous motivation or is not driven by an intent to cause evil. Their intentions may coincide with the ideals of a greater good, or even a desire to make the world a better place, but their actions are inherently evil in nature. An anti-villain is the opposite of an anti-hero. While the anti-hero often fights on the side of good, but with questionable or selfish motives, the anti-villain plays a villain's game, but for a noble cause in a way that the audience or other characters can sympathize with. They may be more noble or heroic than an anti-hero, but the means to achieve their ends are often considered exploitative, immoral, unjust, or simply evil. Characters who fall into this category are often created with the intention of humanizing them, making them more relatable to the reader/viewer by posing the "how" and "why" behind their motivations rather than simply creating a one-dimensional character. Because of their motives, many of these types of villains are commonly nicknamed as "anti-villains".


title: Villain

text: American writer Brad Warner has argued that "only cartoon villains cackle with glee while rubbing their hands together and dream of ruling the world in the name of all that is wicked and bad". American writer Ben Bova recommends to writers that their works not contain villains. He states, in his "Tips for writers":"In the real world there are no villains. No one actually sets out to do evil ... Fiction mirrors life. Or, more accurately, fiction serves as a lens to focus on what they know in life and bring its realities into sharper, clearer understanding for us. There are no villains cackling and rubbing their hands in glee as they contemplate their evil deeds. There are only people with problems, struggling to solve them."


title: Villain

text: Following up on Bova's point, American writer David Lubar adds: "This is a brilliant observation that has served me well in all my writing. ... The bad guy isn't doing bad stuff so he can rub his hands together and snarl. He may be driven by greed, neuroses, or the conviction that his cause is just, but he's driven by something, not unlike the things that drive a hero."


title: Sean Mathias

text: Sean Gerard Mathias (born 14 March 1956) is a Welsh actor, director, and writer. He is known for directing the film "Bent" and for directing highly acclaimed theatre productions in London, New York City, Cape Town, Los Angeles and Sydney.


title: Sean Mathias

text: He was included in the 2006 list of the 101 most influential gay and lesbian people in Britain in the "Independent on Sunday"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Pink List.


title: Sean Mathias

text: Mathias is co-owner of The Grapes pub along with business partners Ian McKellen and Evgeny Lebedev, since September 2011.


title: Sean Mathias

text: Mathias began his acting career by appearing on the television screen in a small role on an episode of the cult BBC TV series "Survivors", in 1977. Also in 1977, he played an Irish Guards lieutenant in the film "A Bridge Too Far".


title: Sean Mathias

text: In 1978, Mathias appeared in a production at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, during which time he met actor Ian McKellen who subsequently became his lover of about nine years.


title: Sean Mathias

text: Mathias' acting career continued into the 1980s with minor appearances on TV and in films such as "Priest of Love" (1981), which starred McKellen as D. H. Lawrence, and "The Scarlet Pimpernel" (1982), starring Anthony Andrews, Jane Seymour and McKellen. He made one notable appearance in the 1988 film "White Mischief" as Gerald Portman.


title: Sean Mathias

text: Another notable TV appearance was on the TV show "Minder" in 1982. The episode was entitled "Broken Arrow" and, in it, Mathias played the part of a young darts player named Dafydd.


title: Sean Mathias

text: Mathias's play "Cowardice" was produced at the Ambassadors Theatre in London in August 1983, starring Ian McKellen, Janet Suzman and Nigel Davenport and received poor reviews. He followed it with "Infidelities", which premiered at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in 1985 before transferring to London's Donmar Warehouse.


title: Sean Mathias

text: In 1987, "A Prayer For Wings", directed by Joan Plowright, was produced in Edinburgh and, after winning a Fringe First awards, transferred to the Bush Theatre in London. Later plays include "Poor Nanny" in 1989, and "Swansea Boys" in 1990.


title: Sean Mathias

text: His writing also includes a novel, "Manhattan Mourning", published in 1988, and the BBC TV film "The Lost Language of Cranes", broadcast in 1992.


title: Sean Mathias

text: A friend of Ian Charleson, whom he also directed in "Bent", Mathias contributed a chapter to the 1990 book, "For Ian Charleson: A Tribute".


title: Sean Mathias

text: In 1989, he directed a revival of "Bent" at the Adelphi Theatre, the award-winning play by Martin Sherman that had opened on Broadway in 1979 starring McKellen. Performed as a benefit, that performance featured McKellen, Richard E Grant, Ian Charleson and Ralph Fiennes. After receiving critical acclaim, Mathias directed a full run in 1990 at the National Theatre with McKellen alongside Paul Rhys and Christopher Eccleston, winning the City Limits Award for Revival of the Year.


title: Sean Mathias

text: Mathias went on to direct theatrical plays both in London and on Broadway, including Pam Gems' adaptation of Chekhov's "Uncle Vanya" with McKellen and Antony Sher in 1992 at the Royal National Theatre; Alan Bennett's "Talking Heads" (again with McKellen), and "Noel and Gertie" starring Patricia Hodge and Edward Petherbridge.


title: Sean Mathias

text: In 1994, Mathias won the London Critics Circle Theatre Award for Best Director for Noël Coward's "Design for Living" (with Rachel Weisz, Clive Owen, Paul Rhys and Rupert Graves) and Jean Cocteau's "Les Parents terribles", starring Sheila Gish, Frances de la Tour, Alan Howard and Jude Law. The latter transferred to the Ethel Barrymore Theatre on Broadway in April 1995 as "Indiscretions", with Law joined by Kathleen Turner, Eileen Atkins, Roger Rees and Cynthia Nixon. It earned nine Tony Award nominations including Best Director of a Play.


title: Sean Mathias

text: Mathias directed his first Stephen Sondheim musical, "A Little Night Music", at the West End National Theatre in October 1995, with Judi Dench and Siân Phillips.


title: Sean Mathias

text: Other London directorial credits include "Antony and Cleopatra", starring Alan Rickman and Helen Mirren, in 1998, and Tennessee Williams' "Suddenly Last Summer" with Sheila Gish in April to July 1999 at the Comedy Theatre.


title: Sean Mathias

text: Mathias' career then moved to New York, where, in October 2001, he directed McKellen and Helen Mirren in August Strindberg's "Dance of Death" on Broadway.


title: Sean Mathias

text: In 2002, he returned to Sondheim to direct "Company" at the Kennedy Center Eisenhower Theater in Washington, D.C. in 2002, as part of its Sondheim Celebration, with a cast including John Barrowman and Lynn Redgrave. Speaking to the Stephen Sondheim Society at the time, he said: "I always wanted to do "Company"; it's the first musical I ever fell in love with." As a youngster in South Wales, Mathias said, he used to listen to the original Broadway recording of the show and sing "The Ladies Who Lunch" with friends: "I couldn't believe the songs, the cynicism, the sexuality."


title: Sean Mathias

text: For the 2004 Christmas season, Mathias directed the pantomime "Aladdin" at the Old Vic in London, with McKellen as Widow Twankey alongside Maureen Lipman, Roger Allam and Joe McFadden. Due to its huge success, Mathias reunited with McKellen and Allam for a second run the following Christmas, with Frances Barber in the cast.


title: Sean Mathias

text: In 2005, Mathias directed Rebecca Lenkiewicz's "Shoreditch Madonna" at the Soho Theatre in London, starring Francesca Annis and Leigh Lawson. He returned to the US to direct Anton Chekhov's "The Cherry Orchard", with Annette Bening, Alfred Molina and Lothaire Bluteau, which opened at the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles in February 2006.


title: Sean Mathias

text: Mathias has had a home in South Africa since 1997 after visiting the country with the National Theatre in 1994 for a series of workshops. He made his South African directing debut in July 2004 with Jean Anouilh's "Antigone" at the Rhodes Theatre at the Grahamstown National Arts Festival, starring the South African actor John Kani. "I had fallen out of love with London," he told the "Financial Times" in October 2004. "I felt I had exhausted my life in London. I couldn't invent myself any more. My life was frenetic and there was never time to absorb experiences. Then I had a series of deaths of people close to me, my mother died and a long-term relationship broke up. After that, right then, I felt I had failed." In 2007, he directed novelist Edna O'Brien's play, "Triptych", in Johannesburg, starring leading South African actor Dorothy-Anne Gould.


title: Sean Mathias

text: He began 2008 by directing a revival of "Ring Round the Moon", Christopher Fry's adaption of Jean Anouilh's comedy, "L'Invitation au Château", starring Angela Thorne at the West End Playhouse Theatre (opening in February 2008). He followed this with the UK production of "Triptych" at the London Southwark Playhouse in April 2008.


title: Sean Mathias

text: He directed McKellen and Patrick Stewart in Samuel Beckett's "Waiting for Godot", which toured the UK in early 2009 before opening at the Theatre Royal Haymarket, London in May 2009. It was his first production as 2009 artistic director of the Theatre Royal Haymarket.


title: Sean Mathias

text: His second play at the Theatre Royal Haymarket was a stage version of Truman Capote's "Breakfast at Tiffany's", adapted for the stage by British playwright Samuel Adamson and starring Anna Friel, which opened in September 2009, with some critics commenting negatively on the adaptation though noting the actors' "good performances" and the play's "fluent staging".


title: Sean Mathias

text: Mathias directed "Waiting For Godot" and "No Man's Land" in repertory on Broadway at the Cort Theatre again starring Ian McKellen and Patrick Stewart. The plays ran from November 2013 to 30 March 2014 to rave reviews – with Ben Brantley of "The New York Times" calling them "Absurdly Enjoyable" and "...these productions find the pure entertainment value in existential emptiness."


title: Sean Mathias

text: Although his focus is on theatre direction, Mathias is also known as a film director because of his first feature film, "Bent", based on the play that propelled him to success. Released in 1997, it starred Clive Owen alongside McKellen, Mick Jagger, Rupert Graves, Jude Law and Lothaire Bluteau. It won the "Prix de la Jeunesse" at the Cannes film festival.


title: Sean Mathias

text: Mathias has been planning to direct a new film set in South Africa and titled "The Colossus", which he has adapted from the Ann Harries novel "Manly Pursuits". Actors lined up for roles have included Rachel Weisz, Susan Sarandon, Colin Firth and Ian McKellen. As of 2010, this film project was still in its pre-production stage.


title: Sean Mathias

text: Mathias, as of 2014, is also set to direct the film "Somewhat Dead", a horror- adventure- comedy film set in present-day England with a high profile cast.


title: Sean Mathias

text: Mathias was in a relationship with actor Ian McKellen from 1978 to 1988. He married his partner Paul de Lange in South Africa in 2007.


1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die is a musical reference book first published in 2005 by Universe Publishing. Part of the "1001 Before You Die" series, it compiles writings and information on albums chosen by a panel of music critics to be the most important, influential, and best in popular music between the 1950s and the 2010s. The book is edited by Robert Dimery, an English writer and editor who had previously worked for magazines such as "Time Out" and "Vogue".


title: 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die

text: Each entry in the book's roughly chronological list of albums is accompanied by a short essay written by a music critic, along with pictures, quotes, and additional information (such as the album's running time and producer). Compilations of various artists, and most film soundtracks, are excluded.


text: In the book's introduction, general editor Robert Dimery notes that the selections were also intended to bring attention to gifted songwriters. Joni Mitchell, Elvis Costello and Nick Cave are named as examples. The release dates are chosen from the date the album first released in the artist's home country, and the version is the first one released. In most cases, bonus tracks added for later versions are ignored. The editors also attempted to ensure that each album profiled was still available for purchase. Soundtracks that were not original material from a particular artist were also excluded.


text: The 2005 edition starts with Frank Sinatra's "In the Wee Small Hours", and ends with "Get Behind Me Satan" by the White Stripes. As the book has been reissued several times, some albums are removed in each edition to make space for more recent albums.


text: The 2010 edition ends with "It's Blitz!" by the Yeah Yeah Yeahs, while 2013 edition ends with "The Next Day" by David Bowie. The 2016 edition ends with "Blackstar", also by David Bowie. The 2018 edition ends with "Microshift" by Hookworms. The 2021 edition ends with "Heaux Tales" by Jazmine Sullivan.


text: Writing for "The Sun-Herald" in November 2005, John Clare said that he loved the book and that it "is good-looking and has a great body" which is "perfectly proportioned", being "fat but not too wide or tall". Of the jazz albums included in the book, Clare felt that "all are well chosen except one"; he thought that the inclusion of two Stan Getz albums was too many given the absence of a Louis Armstrong album. In a more critical review in the same month, Matt Price of "The Australian" said that "[t]he whole premise of the book is humbug", arguing that it would take too long to listen through all the albums in the book whilst also following new releases. He also criticized several of the book's choices on what albums to include and to not include, concluding that it was "biased, un-Australian and unacceptable".


text: In February 2006, "Publishers Weekly" called the book a "bookshelf-busting testament to music geeks' mania for lists" and said it was "about as comprehensive a 'best-of' as any sane person could want". The reviewer added: "For music lovers, it doesn't get much better." Mirela Roncevic reviewed the book for "Library Journal" in May of that year, citing it as an example of a reference work that is "highly enjoyable to browse" and "downright addictive". Grant Alden also reviewed the book in May 2006 for "No Depression". He stated that he was unaware of most of the critics who contributed to the book and was of the opinion that "[y]ou don't have to hear all these". He also criticized the relative lack of albums included in the book from the 1950s compared to later decades.


text: Most of the book's recommendations are rock and pop albums from the Western world. "1001 Albums" also features selections from world music, rhythm and blues, blues, folk, hip hop, country, electronic music, and jazz. The rock and pop albums include such subgenres as punk rock, grindcore, heavy metal, alternative rock, progressive rock, easy listening, thrash metal, grunge and rockabilly. Classical and modern art music are excluded.