title: Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle

text: Roger Ebert gave the film stars out of 4, a higher score than the half star he gave to the first film. Ebert explained: "I realized I did not hate or despise the movie, and [...] I decided that I sort of liked it because of the high spirits of the women involved".


title: Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle

text: Amy Dawes of "Variety magazine" wrote: "Bigger, sleeker and better than the first, sequel "Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle" is a joyride of a movie that takes the winning elements of the year 2000 hit to the next level".


title: Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle

text: The film received seven nominations at the 24th Golden Raspberry Awards including Worst Picture, Worst Actress for both Drew Barrymore and Cameron Diaz, Worst Screenplay, and Worst Excuse for an Actual Movie (All Concept/No Content), winning two trophies for Worst Remake or Sequel and Worst Supporting Actress for Demi Moore. The film also received seven nominations at the 2003 Stinkers Bad Movie Awards: Worst Director (McG), Worst Actress (Barrymore), Worst Screenplay for a Film Grossing More Than $100 Million Worldwide Using Hollywood Math, Most Intrusive Musical Score, Worst Sequel, Least "Special" Special Effects, and Worst On-Screen Group (the Angels). It won for Worst Director and Most Intrusive Musical Score.


title: Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle

text: Demi Moore was nominated for the MTV Movie Award for Best Villain, but lost against co-star Lucy Liu for her role as O-Ren Ishii in Quentin Tarantino's "".


title: Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle

text: Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle is the soundtrack album to the 2003 Columbia Pictures film "Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle". The album was released on June 24, 2003 by Columbia Records and Interscope Records.


title: Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle

text: Following the release of "Full Throttle", the franchise was confirmed for a third and fourth film, but in 2004 the idea was cancelled. A fictional sequel titled "Charlie's Angels III: The Legend of Charlie's Gold" (2007) was presented within the 2001 "Futurama" episode "I Dated a Robot", with Lucy Liu reprising her role; the film follows the Angels dealing with an outbreak of vampires.


title: Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle

text: In 2015, Sony began the development on new "Charlie's Angels" installment. Elizabeth Banks directed and produced the film with her husband Max Handelman producing. Initially developed as a reboot of the franchise, the film is a continuation of the original TV series and the McG-directed 2000s films.


title: Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle

text: The third installment stars Kristen Stewart, Naomi Scott and Ella Balinska as the new generation of Angels. Banks and Djimon Hounsou also star as Charlie's assistants, known as Bosleys, while Patrick Stewart replaced Bill Murray in the role of John Bosley and Jaclyn Smith reprised her role as Kelly Garrett for the second time for a cameo appearance. It is also the first installment to feature Robert Clotworthy as the voice of Charlie, replacing John Forsythe, following his death in 2010.


title: Philip Bailey

text: Philip James Bailey (born May 8, 1951) is an American R&B, soul, gospel and funk singer, songwriter and percussionist, best known as an early member and one of the two lead singers (along with group founder Maurice White) of the band Earth, Wind & Fire. Noted for his four-octave vocal range and distinctive falsetto register, Bailey has won seven Grammy Awards. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and the Vocal Group Hall of Fame as a member of Earth, Wind & Fire. Bailey was also inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame for his work with the band.


title: Philip Bailey

text: Bailey has released several solo albums. "Chinese Wall" from 1984, which received a Grammy Award nomination for Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male, included the international hit, "Easy Lover", a duet with Phil Collins. "Easy Lover" won an MTV Video Music Award for Best Overall Performance in a Video in and was Grammy nominated for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals.


title: Philip Bailey

text: In May 2008, Bailey was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Music from Berklee College of Music at Berklee's Commencement Ceremony where he was the commencement speaker.


title: Philip Bailey

text: Bailey was born and raised in Denver, Colorado. He attended Denver's East High School. He later attended the Metropolitan State University of Denver and the University of Colorado thereafter. Bailey was also in a local R&B band called Friends & Love. Some of Bailey's early influences included jazz musicians such as Miles Davis, John Coltrane and Max Roach, the Motown sound, in particular the music of Stevie Wonder and he was also largely influenced by female singers such as Sarah Vaughan and Dionne Warwick.


title: Philip Bailey

text: In 1972, while attending the University of Colorado, Bailey was invited to join the band Earth, Wind & Fire by founder and bandleader Maurice White. Bailey was the featured lead vocalist on popular Earth, Wind & Fire songs as "Devotion", "Keep Your Head to the Sky", "Reasons", "Fantasy", "Star", "I've Had Enough", "Turn on (The Beat Box)" and "Guiding Lights". He also shared lead vocals with Maurice White on such EWF hits as "Shining Star", "Getaway", "September", "Sing A Song", "Serpentine Fire", "Saturday Nite", “Can’t Hide Love,” “That’s the Way of the World,” “Sing a Song,” and sang lead with both White and the girl group The Emotions on their classic disco collaboration "Boogie Wonderland".


title: Philip Bailey

text: With Maurice White's retirement from the road, Bailey became the on-stage leader of Earth, Wind & Fire, performing alongside longtime members, bassist Verdine White and vocalist/percussionist Ralph Johnson.


title: Philip Bailey

text: During EWF's live performances, Bailey will sing in his falsetto, and then at times switch to the tenor originally sung by Maurice White, showing off his vocal prowess and versatility.


title: Philip Bailey

text: During 1983, Bailey issued his debut studio album, titled "Continuation", on Columbia Records. The album reached No. 19 on the US Billboard Top R&B Albums chart, No. 36 on the Dutch Pop Albums chart and No. 31 on the Swedish Pop Albums chart. Martin Basch of the Boston Globe declared "this is the rare R&B dance album where each cut is outstanding". Hugh Wyatt of the New York Daily News also called Continuation "a top-notch recording".


title: Philip Bailey

text: Bailey issued his second solo album, a gospel album titled "The Wonders of His Love" on Myrrh Records in 1984. During 1984, Bailey also released his third solo album, titled "Chinese Wall" on Columbia. The album reached No. 22 on the "Billboard" 200 chart and No. 10 on the Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. The album was certified Gold in the US by the RIAA. A duet with Phil Collins entitled "Easy Lover", rose to No. 1 on the UK Pop Singles chart and No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.


title: Philip Bailey

text: During 1986 Bailey went on to issue his fourth studio album, titled "Inside Out" on Columbia. The album reached No. 30 on the US Billboard Top R&B Albums chart, No. 29 on the Swiss Pop Albums chart and No. 30 on the Swedish Pop Albums chart. Carlo Wolff of the Boston Globe wrote "Bailey's most coherent and relaxed solo album chronicles his walk through city streets, his eyes turned toward the heavens". Thom Duffy of the Orlando Sentinel said "on this new album, Bailey aims for a polished yet punchy funk and ballad style."


title: Philip Bailey

text: A single from the album entitled "State of the Heart" reached No. 20 on the US Billboard Hot R&B Songs chart.


title: Philip Bailey

text: During 1994, Bailey issued his self titled fifth studio album on Zoo Entertainment. Artists including Brian McKnight, Chuckii Booker and PM Dawn guested on the LP. Carol Cooper of Newsday wrote, ""Philip Bailey" takes another step forward for neo-traditionalism in black music, with the sensitive gentleman-crooner triumphantly ascendant."


title: Philip Bailey

text: Michael Eric Dyson of Rolling Stone stated "In the hands of a lesser talent, some of these songs might barely seep through the cracks, less than memorable fare conjured up to please a legend. But Bailey's grace and magic, apparent throughout, redeem the recordings." Dyson added "What's remarkable above all on this album is that Bailey's brilliant falsetto retains its sweet purity, even as he employs more of a pleasing baritone than he has revealed before. While that alone doesn't compensate for some of the just-OK stuff he has to work with, it delights nonetheless."


title: Philip Bailey

text: Bailey went on to release his first jazz album, titled "Dreams" in 1999 on Heads Up International records. The album featured artists such as Gerald Albright, Grover Washington, Jr. and Pat Metheny. It reached No. 43 on the Billboard Jazz Albums chart. Paula Edelstein of All About Jazz said "Philip sings with the spiritual essence from on high and with the finesse and soul of the Song Master that he is. This CD is worth the wait". Al Hunter Jr. of the Philadelphia Daily News wrote ""Dreams" is an excellent showcase for Bailey" adding "Bailey serves up a jazz-flavored disc that is as impressive as his four-octave singing range."


title: Philip Bailey

text: During 2002 he released "Soul on Jazz", his sophomore jazz album once again on Heads Up. The album rose to No. 45 upon the Billboard Jazz Albums chart. Christopher Loudon of Jazz Times proclaimed "reinterpreting jazz treasures both familiar and lesser-known, he moves from triumph to triumph." Eugene Holley Jr. of Vibe also stated "backed by a swinging combo, Bailey's vivid vocals extend to realms beyond category."


title: Philip Bailey

text: Bailey then issued in 2019 his third jazz album entitled Love Will Find A Way on Verve Records. That album reached No. 1 on both the Billboard Top Jazz Albums chart and the Billboard Contemporary Jazz Albums chart.


title: Philip Bailey

text: Bailey featured on Andraé Crouch's 1979 Grammy winning album "I'll Be Thinking of You" and alongside Maurice White on Walter Hawkins' 1980 Grammy nominated album, "The Hawkins Family".


title: Philip Bailey

text: In 1980, Bailey joined with friends, Deniece Williams, Billy Davis and Marilyn McCoo to present a gospel show at a popular Los Angeles club named The Roxy. The show was called "Jesus At the Roxy". Williams later reported that "God did something miraculous. Over three hundred people were saved." After that, both Bailey and Williams decided to pursue careers in Christian music.


title: Philip Bailey

text: During 1984, Bailey issued his first gospel album titled "The Wonders of His Love" on Myrrh Records. The album reached No. 13 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart and No. 17 on the Billboard Top Gospel Albums chart. The Wonders of His Love was also Grammy nominated in the category of Best Inspirational Performance.


title: Philip Bailey

text: His second gospel album "Triumph" was released in 1986 on Horizon Records. The LP reached No. 18 on the Top Christian Albums chart and No. 33 on the Billboard Top Gospel Albums chart. Triumph also won a Grammy for Best Gospel Performance, Male.


title: Philip Bailey

text: During 1989 he released his third gospel album titled "Family Affair" on Myrrh Records. The album reached No. 37 on the Billboard Top Gospel Albums chart.


title: Philip Bailey

text: Bailey later played percussion and sang on the King Baptist Church Mass Choir's 1990 album "Holding on to Jesus' Hand".


title: Philip Bailey

text: Bailey sang on Jazz guitarist Alphonso Johnson's 1976 LP "Yesterday's Dreams". He later played percussion alongside Verdine White on bass upon the track "Tahiti Hut" composed by both Maurice White and Eumir Deodato from Deodato's 1978 album "Love Island". He also sang on Ronnie Laws' 1978 album Flame.


title: Philip Bailey

text: Bailey went on to produce R&B Band Kinsman Dazz's 1978 debut LP "Kinsman Dazz" and work as an arranger and guest artist on their sophomore 1979 album "Dazz". As a band, Kinsman Dazz later became known as the Dazz Band. Bailey also collaborated as a vocalist with Ramsey Lewis on his 1980 LP "Routes", Stanley Turrentine on his 1981 album "Tender Togetherness" and Deniece Williams on her 1983 Grammy nominated album "I'm So Proud".


title: Philip Bailey

text: As well he guested on Stevie Wonder's 1985 "In Square Circle" album, Kenny Loggins' 1985 LP "Vox Humana", Ray Parker Jr.'s 1987 album "After Dark" and Anita Pointer's 1987 LP "Love for What It Is". Bailey also collaborated with Julio Iglesias on his 1988 album "Non Stop", Deniece Williams on her 1988 album "As Good As It Gets" and collaborated with Little Richard on the title tune of the soundtrack to the 1988 feature film "Twins". That song reached No. 16 on the Dutch Pop Singles chart and No. 36 on the Belgian Pop Singles chart. Twins was also nominated for a Golden Globe in the category of Best Original Song.


title: Philip Bailey

text: He later featured on Nancy Wilson's 1989 LP "A Lady with a Song", Dianne Reeves' 1990 album "Never Too Far" and George Duke and Stanley Clarke's 1990 LP "3". Bailey also guested on jazz group Fourplay's 1991 self-titled debut album, Ronnie Laws' 1992 LP "Deep Soul", George Duke's 1992 album "Snapshot" and Fourplay's 1993 sophomore LP "Between the Sheets".


title: Philip Bailey

text: Bailey then featured on Chante Moore's 1994 album "A Love Supreme", Keiko Matsui's 1994 LP "Doll", Doc Powell's 1996 album "Inner City Blues", George Duke's 2000 Grammy nominated album "Cool", Boney James's 2006 LP "Shine", Deniece Williams' 2007 album "Love Niecy Style" and Gerald Albright's 2008 Grammy nominated LP "Sax for Stax".


title: Philip Bailey

text: He then featured on the song Fool for You from CeeLo Green's 2010 album "The Lady Killer". Fool for You got to No. 1 on the Billboard Adult R&B Songs chart and No. 13 on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. That song also won two Grammy awards in the categories of Best Traditional R&B Performance and Best R&B Song. Bailey later featured on Nathan East's 2017 LP "Reverence". A cover of "Serpentine Fire" from that album featuring Bailey, Verdine White and Ralph Johnson reached No. 17 on the Billboard Smooth Jazz Songs chart. Bailey later made a guest appearance on Chick Corea's 2018 album "Chinese Butterfly".


title: Philip Bailey

text: He also sang uncredited vocals on Travis Scott's "Stop Trying to Be God". The song also features fellow musicians Stevie Wonder, Kid Cudi, and James Blake and appeared on Scott's 2018 album "Astroworld".


title: Philip Bailey

text: Bailey appeared in an episode of the TV show "Matlock" in the role of Pvt. Bobby Thomas. He also played a soldier in the 1987 feature film "Full Metal Jacket" and appeared in the 1995 staging of "Raisin", the Broadway musical based on "A Raisin In The Sun".


title: Philip Bailey

text: On October 27, 2007, Bailey sang "God Bless America" during the seventh-inning stretch in Game 3 of the 2007 World Series held at Coors Field, Denver, Colorado. This was the first World Series game that was ever played in his hometown of Denver. He also threw out the ceremonial first pitch on June 30, 2012, in an MLB game between the Tampa Bay Rays and the Detroit Tigers held at Tropicana Field, St. Petersburg, Florida.


title: Philip Bailey

text: The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. Bailey has received one award out of four solo nominations.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: A variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a type of motor drive used in electro-mechanical drive systems to control AC motor speed and torque by varying motor input frequency and, depending on topology, to control associated voltage or current variation. VFDs may also be known as 'AFDs' (adjustable-frequency drives), 'ASDs' (adjustable-speed drives), 'VSDs' (variable-speed drives), 'AC drives', 'micro drives', 'inverter drives' or, simply, 'drives'.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: VFDs are used in applications ranging from small appliances to large compressors. An increasing number of end users are showing greater interest in electric drive systems due to more stringent emission standards and demand for increased reliability and better availability. Systems using VFDs can be more efficient than those using throttling control of fluid flow, such as in systems with pumps and damper control for fans. However, the global market penetration for all applications of VFDs is relatively small.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Over the last four decades, power electronics technology has reduced VFD cost and size and has improved performance through advances in semiconductor switching devices, drive topologies, simulation and control techniques, and control hardware and software.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: A variable-frequency drive is a device used in a drive system consisting of the following three main sub-systems: AC motor, main drive controller assembly, and drive/operator interface.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: The AC electric motor used in a VFD system is usually a three-phase induction motor. Some types of single-phase motors or synchronous motors can be advantageous in some situations, but generally three-phase induction motors are preferred as the most economical. Motors that are designed for fixed-speed operation are often used. Elevated-voltage stresses imposed on induction motors that are supplied by VFDs require that such motors be designed for definite-purpose inverter-fed duty in accordance with such requirements as Part 31 of NEMA Standard MG-1.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: The VFD controller is a solid-state power electronics conversion system consisting of three distinct sub-systems: a rectifier bridge converter, a direct current (DC) link, and an inverter. Voltage-source inverter (VSI) drives (see 'Generic topologies' sub-section below) are by far the most common type of drives. Most drives are AC-AC drives in that they convert AC line input to AC inverter output. However, in some applications such as common DC bus or solar applications, drives are configured as DC-AC drives. The most basic rectifier converter for the VSI drive is configured as a three-phase, six-pulse, full-wave diode bridge. In a VSI drive, the DC link consists of a capacitor which smooths out the converter's DC output ripple and provides a stiff input to the inverter. This filtered DC voltage is converted to quasi-sinusoidal AC voltage output using the inverter's active switching elements. VSI drives provide higher power factor and lower harmonic distortion than phase-controlled current-source inverter (CSI) and load-commutated inverter (LCI) drives (see 'Generic topologies' sub-section below). The drive controller can also be configured as a phase converter having single-phase converter input and three-phase inverter output.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Controller advances have exploited dramatic increases in the voltage and current ratings and switching frequency of solid-state power devices over the past six decades. Introduced in 1983, the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) has in the past two decades come to dominate VFDs as an inverter switching device.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: In variable-torque applications suited for Volts-per-Hertz (V/Hz) drive control, AC motor characteristics require that the voltage magnitude of the inverter's output to the motor be adjusted to match the required load torque in a linear V/Hz relationship. For example, for 460 V, 60 Hz motors, this linear V/Hz relationship is 460/60 = 7.67 V/Hz. While suitable in wide-ranging applications, V/Hz control is sub-optimal in high-performance applications involving low speed or demanding, dynamic speed regulation, positioning, and reversing load requirements. Some V/Hz control drives can also operate in quadratic V/Hz mode or can even be programmed to suit special multi-point V/Hz paths.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: The two other drive control platforms, vector control and direct torque control (DTC), adjust the motor voltage magnitude, angle from reference, and frequency so as to precisely control the motor's magnetic flux and mechanical torque.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Although space vector pulse-width modulation (SVPWM) is becoming increasingly popular, sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) is the most straightforward method used to vary drives' motor voltage (or current) and frequency. With SPWM control (see Fig. 1), quasi-sinusoidal, variable-pulse-width output is constructed from intersections of a saw-toothed carrier signal with a modulating sinusoidal signal which is variable in operating frequency as well as in voltage (or current).


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Operation of the motors above rated nameplate speed (base speed) is possible, but is limited to conditions that do not require more power than the nameplate rating of the motor. This is sometimes called "field weakening" and, for AC motors, means operating at less than rated V/Hz and above rated nameplate speed. Permanent magnet synchronous motors have quite limited field-weakening speed range due to the constant magnet flux linkage. Wound-rotor synchronous motors and induction motors have much wider speed range. For example, a 100 HP, 460 V, 60 Hz, 1775 RPM (4-pole) induction motor supplied with 460 V, 75 Hz (6.134 V/Hz), would be limited to 60/75 = 80% torque at 125% speed (2218.75 RPM) = 100% power. At higher speeds, the induction motor torque has to be limited further due to the lowering of the breakaway torque of the motor. Thus, rated power can be typically produced only up to 130–150% of the rated nameplate speed. Wound-rotor synchronous motors can be run at even higher speeds. In rolling mill drives, often 200–300% of the base speed is used. The mechanical strength of the rotor limits the maximum speed of the motor.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD controller. Basic programming of the microprocessor is provided as user-inaccessible firmware. User programming of display, variable, and function block parameters is provided to control, protect, and monitor the VFD, motor, and driven equipment.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: The basic drive controller can be configured to selectively include such optional power components and accessories as follows:


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: The operator interface provides a means for an operator to start and stop the motor and adjust the operating speed. The VFD may also be controlled by a programmable logic controller through Modbus or another similar interface. Additional operator control functions might include reversing, and switching between manual speed adjustment and automatic control from an external process control signal. The operator interface often includes an alphanumeric display or indication lights and meters to provide information about the operation of the drive. An operator interface keypad and display unit is often provided on the front of the VFD controller as shown in the photograph above. The keypad display can often be cable-connected and mounted a short distance from the VFD controller. Most are also provided with input and output (I/O) terminals for connecting push buttons, switches, and other operator interface devices or control signals. A serial communications port is also often available to allow the VFD to be configured, adjusted, monitored, and controlled using a computer.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: There are two main ways to control the speed of a VFD; networked or hardwired. Networked involves transmitting the intended speed over a communication protocol such as Modbus, Modbus/TCP, EtherNet/IP, or via a keypad using Display Serial Interface while hardwired involves a pure electrical means of communication. Typical means of hardwired communication are: 4-20mA, 0-10VDC, or using the internal 24VDC power supply with a potentiometer. Speed can also be controlled remotely and locally. Remote control instructs the VFD to ignore speed commands from the keypad while local control instructs the VFD to ignore external control and only abide by the keypad.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Depending on the model a VFD's operating parameters can be programmed via: dedicated programming software, internal keypad, external keypad, or SD card. VFDs will often block out most programming changes while running. Typical parameters that need to be set include: motor nameplate information, speed reference source, on/off control source and braking control. It is also common for VFDs to provide debugging information such as fault codes and the states of the input signals.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Most VFDs allow auto-starting to be enabled. Which will drive the output to a designated frequency after a power cycle, or after a fault has been cleared, or after the emergency stop signal has been restored (generally emergency stops are active low logic). One popular way to control a VFD is to enable auto-start and place L1, L2, and L3 into a contactor. Powering on the contactor thus turns on the drive and has it output to a designated speed. Depending on the sophistication of the drive multiple auto-starting behavior can be developed e.g. the drive auto-starts on power up but does not auto-start from clearing an emergency stop until a reset has been cycled.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Referring to the accompanying chart, drive applications can be categorized as single-quadrant, two-quadrant, or four-quadrant; the chart's four quadrants are defined as follows:


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Most applications involve single-quadrant loads operating in quadrant I, such as in variable-torque (e.g. centrifugal pumps or fans) and certain constant-torque (e.g. extruders) loads.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Certain applications involve two-quadrant loads operating in quadrant I and II where the speed is positive but the torque changes polarity as in case of a fan decelerating faster than natural mechanical losses. Some sources define two-quadrant drives as loads operating in quadrants I and III where the speed and torque is same (positive or negative) polarity in both directions.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Certain high-performance applications involve four-quadrant loads (Quadrants I to IV) where the speed and torque can be in any direction such as in hoists, elevators, and hilly conveyors. Regeneration can occur only in the drive's DC link bus when inverter voltage is smaller in magnitude than the motor back-EMF and inverter voltage and back-EMF are the same polarity.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: In starting a motor, a VFD initially applies a low frequency and voltage, thus avoiding high inrush current associated with direct-on-line starting. After the start of the VFD, the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a controlled rate or ramped up to accelerate the load. This starting method typically allows a motor to develop 150% of its rated torque while the VFD is drawing less than 50% of its rated current from the mains in the low-speed range. A VFD can be adjusted to produce a steady 150% starting torque from standstill right up to full speed. However, motor cooling deteriorates and can result in overheating as speed decreases such that prolonged low-speed operation with significant torque is not usually possible without separately motorized fan ventilation.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: With a VFD, the stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting sequence. The frequency and voltage applied to the motor are ramped down at a controlled rate. When the frequency approaches zero, the motor is shut off. A small amount of braking torque is available to help decelerate the load a little faster than it would stop if the motor were simply switched off and allowed to coast. Additional braking torque can be obtained by adding a braking circuit (resistor controlled by a transistor) to dissipate the braking energy. With a four-quadrant rectifier (active front-end), the VFD is able to brake the load by applying a reverse torque and injecting the energy back to the AC line.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Many fixed-speed motor load applications that are supplied direct from AC line power can save energy when they are operated at variable speed by means of VFD. Such energy cost savings are especially pronounced in variable-torque centrifugal fan and pump applications, where the load's torque and power vary with the square and cube, respectively, of the speed. This change gives a large power reduction compared to fixed-speed operation for a relatively small reduction in speed. For example, at 63% speed a motor load consumes only 25% of its full-speed power. This reduction is in accordance with affinity laws that define the relationship between various centrifugal load variables.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: In the United States, an estimated 60–65% of electrical energy is used to supply motors, 75% of which are variable-torque fan, pump, and compressor loads. Eighteen percent of the energy used in the 40 million motors in the U.S. could be saved by efficient energy improvement technologies such as VFDs.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Only about 3% of the total installed base of AC motors are provided with AC drives. However, it is estimated that drive technology is adopted in as many as 30–40% of all newly installed motors.<ref name="Motoring Ahead 1/11"></ref>


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: An energy consumption breakdown of the global population of AC motor installations is as shown in the following table:


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: AC drives are used to bring about process and quality improvements in industrial and commercial applications' acceleration, flow, monitoring, pressure, speed, temperature, tension, and torque.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Fixed-speed loads subject the motor to a high starting torque and to current surges that are up to eight times the full-load current. AC drives instead gradually ramp the motor up to operating speed to lessen mechanical and electrical stress, reducing maintenance and repair costs, and extending the life of the motor and the driven equipment.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Variable-speed drives can also run a motor in specialized patterns to further minimize mechanical and electrical stress. For example, an S-curve pattern can be applied to a conveyor application for smoother deceleration and acceleration control, which reduces the backlash that can occur when a conveyor is accelerating or decelerating.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Performance factors tending to favor the use of DC drives over AC drives include such requirements as continuous operation at low speed, four-quadrant operation with regeneration, frequent acceleration and deceleration routines, and need for the motor to be protected for a hazardous area. The following table compares AC and DC drives according to certain key parameters:


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Variable-frequency drives are also categorized by the following load torque and power characteristics:


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: VFDs are available with voltage and current ratings covering a wide range of single-phase and multi-phase AC motors. Low-voltage (LV) drives are designed to operate at output voltages equal to or less than 690 V. While motor-application LV drives are available in ratings of up to the order of 5 or 6 MW, economic considerations typically favor medium-voltage (MV) drives with much lower power ratings. Different MV drive topologies (see Table 2) are configured in accordance with the voltage/current-combination ratings used in different drive controllers' switching devices such that any given voltage rating is greater than or equal to one to the following standard nominal motor voltage ratings: generally either .16 kV (60 Hz) or .6 kV (50 Hz), with one thyristor manufacturer rated for up to 12 kV switching. In some applications a step-up transformer is placed between a LV drive and a MV motor load. MV drives are typically rated for motor applications greater than between about . MV drives have historically required considerably more application design effort than required for LV drive applications. The power rating of MV drives can reach , a range of different drive topologies being involved for different rating, performance, power quality, and reliability requirements.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: While harmonics in the PWM output can easily be filtered by carrier-frequency-related filter inductance to supply near-sinusoidal currents to the motor load, the VFD's diode-bridge rectifier converts AC line voltage to DC voltage output by super-imposing non-linear half-phase current pulses thus creating harmonic current distortion, and hence voltage distortion, of the AC line input. When the VFD loads are relatively small in comparison to the large, stiff power system available from the electric power company, the effects of VFD harmonic distortion of the AC grid can often be within acceptable limits. Furthermore, in low-voltage networks, harmonics caused by single-phase equipment such as computers and TVs are partially cancelled by three-phase diode bridge harmonics because their 5th and 7th harmonics are in counterphase. However, when the proportion of VFD and other non-linear load compared to total load or of non-linear load compared to the stiffness at the AC power supply, or both, is relatively large enough, the load can have a negative impact on the AC power waveform available to other power company customers in the same grid.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: When the power company's voltage becomes distorted due to harmonics, losses in other loads such as normal fixed-speed AC motors are increased. This condition may lead to overheating and shorter operating life. Also, substation transformers and compensation capacitors are affected negatively. In particular, capacitors can cause resonance conditions that can unacceptably magnify harmonic levels. To limit the voltage distortion, owners of VFD load may be required to install filtering equipment to reduce harmonic distortion below acceptable limits. Alternatively, the utility may adopt a solution by installing filtering equipment of its own at substations affected by the large amount of VFD equipment being used. In high-power installations, harmonic distortion can be reduced by supplying multi-pulse rectifier-bridge VFDs from transformers with multiple phase-shifted windings.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: It is also possible to replace the standard diode-bridge rectifier with a bi-directional IGBT switching device bridge mirroring the standard inverter which uses IGBT switching device output to the motor. Such rectifiers are referred to by various designations including active infeed converter (AIC), active rectifier, IGBT supply unit (ISU), active front end (AFE), or four-quadrant operation. With PWM control and a suitable input reactor, an AFE's AC line current waveform can be nearly sinusoidal. AFE inherently regenerates energy in four-quadrant mode from the DC side to the AC grid. Thus, no braking resistor is needed, and the efficiency of the drive is improved if the drive is frequently required to brake the motor.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Two other harmonics mitigation techniques exploit use of passive or active filters connected to a common bus with at least one VFD branch load on the bus. Passive filters involve the design of one or more low-pass LC filter traps, each trap being tuned as required to a harmonic frequency (5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, . . . kq+/-1, where k=integer, q=pulse number of converter).


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: It is very common practice for power companies or their customers to impose harmonic distortion limits based on IEC or IEEE standards. For example, IEEE Standard 519 limits at the customer's connection point call for the maximum individual frequency voltage harmonic to be no more than 3% of the fundamental and call for the voltage total harmonic distortion (THD) to be no more than 5% for a general AC power supply system.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: One drive uses a default switching frequency setting of 4 kHz. Reducing the drive's switching frequency (the carrier-frequency) reduces the heat generated by the IGBTs.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: A carrier frequency of at least ten times the desired output frequency is used to establish the PWM switching intervals. A carrier frequency in the range of 2,000 to 16,000 Hz is common for LV [low voltage, under 600 Volts AC] VFDs. A higher carrier frequency produces a better sine wave approximation but incurs higher in the IGBT, decreasing the overall power conversion efficiency.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Some drives have a noise smoothing feature that can be turned on to introduce a random variation to the switching frequency. This distributes the acoustic noise over a range of frequencies to lower the peak noise intensity.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: The carrier-frequency pulsed output voltage of a PWM VFD causes rapid rise times in these pulses, the transmission line effects of which must be considered. Since the transmission-line impedance of the cable and motor are different, pulses tend to reflect back from the motor terminals into the cable. The resulting reflections can produce overvoltages equal to twice the DC bus voltage or up to 3.1 times the rated line voltage for long cable runs, putting high stress on the cable and motor windings, and eventual insulation failure. Insulation standards for three-phase motors rated 230 V or less adequately protect against such long-lead overvoltages. On 460 V or 575 V systems and inverters with 3rd-generation 0.1-microsecond-rise-time IGBTs, the maximum recommended cable distance between VFD and motor is about 50 m or 150 feet. For emerging SiC MOSFET powered drives, significant overvoltages have been observed at cable lengths as short as 3 meters. Solutions to overvoltages caused by long lead lengths include minimizing cable length, lowering carrier frequency, installing dV/dt filters, using inverter-duty-rated motors (that are rated 600 V to withstand pulse trains with rise time less than or equal to 0.1 microsecond, of 1,600 V peak magnitude), and installing LCR low-pass sine wave filters. Selection of optimum PWM carrier frequency for AC drives involves balancing noise, heat, motor insulation stress, common-mode voltage-induced motor bearing current damage, smooth motor operation, and other factors. Further harmonics attenuation can be obtained by using an LCR low-pass sine wave filter or dV/dt filter.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Carrier frequencies above 5 kHz are likely to cause bearing damage unless protective measures are taken.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: PWM drives are inherently associated with high-frequency common-mode voltages and currents which may cause trouble with motor bearings. When these high-frequency voltages find a path to earth through a bearing, transfer of metal or electrical discharge machining (EDM) sparking occurs between the bearing's ball and the bearing's race. Over time, EDM-based sparking causes erosion in the bearing race that can be seen as a fluting pattern. In large motors, the stray capacitance of the windings provides paths for high-frequency currents that pass through the motor shaft ends, leading to a circulating type of bearing current. Poor grounding of motor stators can lead to shaft-to-ground bearing currents. Small motors with poorly grounded driven equipment are susceptible to high-frequency bearing currents.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Prevention of high-frequency bearing current damage uses three approaches: good cabling and grounding practices, interruption of bearing currents, and filtering or damping of common-mode currents for example through soft magnetic cores, the so-called inductive absorbers. Good cabling and grounding practices can include use of shielded, symmetrical-geometry power cable to supply the motor, installation of shaft grounding brushes, and conductive bearing grease. Bearing currents can be interrupted by installation of insulated bearings and specially designed electrostatic-shielded induction motors. Filtering and damping high-frequency bearing can be done though inserting soft magnetic cores over the three phases giving a high frequency impedance against the common mode or motor bearing currents. Another approach is to use instead of standard 2-level inverter drives, using either 3-level inverter drives or matrix converters.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Since inverter-fed motor cables' high-frequency current spikes can interfere with other cabling in facilities, such inverter-fed motor cables should not only be of shielded, symmetrical-geometry design but should also be routed at least 50 cm away from signal cables.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Torque generated by the drive causes the induction motor to run at synchronous speed less the slip. If the load drives the motor faster than synchronous speed, the motor acts as a generator, converting mechanical power back to electrical power. This power is returned to the drive's DC link element (capacitor or reactor). A DC-link-connected electronic power switch or braking DC chopper controls dissipation of this power as heat in a set of resistors. Cooling fans may be used to prevent resistor overheating.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Dynamic braking wastes braking energy by transforming it to heat. By contrast, regenerative drives recover braking energy by injecting this energy into the AC line. The capital cost of regenerative drives is, however, relatively high.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Regenerative AC drives have the capacity to recover the braking energy of a load moving faster than the designated motor speed (an "overhauling" load) and return it to the power system.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Cycloconverter, Scherbius, matrix, CSI, and LCI drives inherently allow return of energy from the load to the line, while voltage-source inverters require an additional converter to return energy to the supply.


title: Variable-frequency drive

text: Regeneration is useful in VFDs only where the value of the recovered energy is large compared to the extra cost of a regenerative system, and if the system requires frequent braking and starting. Regenerative VFDs are widely used where speed control of overhauling loads is required.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: The Art of Racing in the Rain is a 2019 American comedy-drama film directed by Simon Curtis and written by Mark Bomback, based on the 2008 novel of the same name by author Garth Stein. The film stars Milo Ventimiglia, Amanda Seyfried and Kevin Costner as the voice of Enzo.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: It was theatrically released on August 9, 2019 by 20th Century Fox. The film received mixed reviews from critics and grossed over $33 million worldwide.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: In Seattle, Enzo (named after Enzo Ferrari) is dying. The old Golden Retriever is waiting for Denny, his master and best friend, to return. When Denny finds Enzo unable to move, the dog begins to narrate his life.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: Years prior, Denny buys a puppy, immediately bonding with young Enzo. Denny divides his time between teaching auto racing and caring for Enzo, while also pursuing a career as a race driver. A year later, Denny meets Eve at the supermarket and they begin to date.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: After Denny and Eve marry the following year, Eve's mother, Trish, is supportive, but her father, Maxwell, doesn't fully approve of Denny due to his career as a race driver. Eve becomes pregnant. On Christmas Day, Denny receives an invitation to drive in the 24 Hours of Daytona in February, which unfortunately takes place close to Eve's due date. She gives birth to daughter Zoë at home with 2 midwives, while the TV in the adjacent room shows Denny racing in Florida, thus missing the birth.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: A few years pass and family life is idyllic for Enzo, while Denny spends prolonged periods away from home to race. Eve begins to fall seriously ill and Enzo can smell a ‘rotting wood’ odor coming from her head. She is diagnosed with brain cancer, with she and Zoë living with her parents during her treatment. Resigned to her fate, Eve admits to Enzo that she is no longer afraid of death and passes away while he watches on.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: Maxwell blames Denny's absence for Eve's illness, so demands custody of Zoë, threatening to sue if Denny does not comply. Furious at Maxwell's revelation of his absence over Zoë's birth, Denny attempts to leave but is grabbed by Maxwell, who falls and breaks a rib in the scuffle. Maxwell reports the incident to the police and Denny is arrested for 4th-degree assault. If he loses the case, Denny faces a 3-month jail sentence plus his in-laws taking permanent custody of his daughter.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: Denny continues to race and is offered a job in Maranello testing prototypes for Ferrari, which he has to decline due to his case; he promises that if his case turns out in his favor, he will accept the offer.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: A frustrated Denny goes jogging in the rain with Enzo. Struggling to keep pace in his old age, Enzo attempts to follow Denny across a street but is hit by a car. Denny rushes him to an animal hospital where the vet explains that Enzo is lucky to be alive and may suffer from hip dysplasia in the near future.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: Exhausted of money and patience, Denny agrees to an out-of-court settlement, giving up custody of Zoë in exchange for visitation and the dropping of the assault charge. However, Enzo grabs the legal document, runs outside and rips it to shreds, convincing Denny to keep fighting. The trial begins and Trish, feeling guilty, admits the truth about the incident while under oath; the charges are dropped, Denny calls the Ferrari representative and takes the job.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: When Maxwell and Trish show up at Zoë's ninth birthday party, Denny is very forgiving, wanting them both in Zoë's life.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: Over the next few weeks, Enzo's health rapidly deteriorates. Realizing that the end is near, Denny arranges to drive him around the track where he used to teach. Enzo laments that he will not be able to travel to Italy or care for his family but insists that he has enjoyed a good life. He recalls a television documentary which showcased Mongolian beliefs that after dogs die, some are reincarnated as a human. Enzo explains that he is looking forward to his new life.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: Eight years later, Denny, now a successful Formula One driver for Scuderia Ferrari, is living in Italy with Zoë. Denny is introduced to a young fan with golden hair who asks for an autograph. He agrees, discovering the boy's name is Enzo. Denny smiles and tells the father that the boy reminds him of an old friend and tells him to bring the boy to him when his father thinks he is ready to race.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: In addition, in the final scene, Lily Dodsworth-Evans has a brief appearance as a 17-year-old Zoë and former Scuderia Ferrari Formula One driver Giancarlo Fisichella is standing in the Ferrari garage.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: In July 2009, Universal Pictures bought the film rights to the prize-winning novel "The Art of Racing in the Rain". The project was not able to find a director and came to a halt with Universal Studios. Walt Disney Studios acquired the rights in January 2016. The film adaptation was to be produced by Neal H. Moritz through his Original Film production company.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: In 2017, screenwriter Mark Bomback revealed that the project was now set up at 20th Century Fox, saying, "I'm hoping the third time's the charm, and I'm optimistic that next year will be when it finally goes into production."


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: Principal photography on the film began on May 9, 2018, in Vancouver, British Columbia. The auto racing scenes were filmed at Canadian Tire Motorsport Park in Bowmanville, Ontario, with additional on-track scenes filmed at Laguna Seca Raceway near Monterey, California, Pacific Raceways near Kent, Washington, and Mission Raceway Park, 80 km (50 mi) southeast of Vancouver.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: Dustin O'Halloran & Volker Bertelmann teamed up to compose the film score. Fox Music & Hollywood Records has released the soundtrack.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: "The Art of Racing in the Rain" was released on Digital HD by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on October 29, 2019, and on DVD and Blu-ray on November 5, 2019. It was added to Disney+ on September 16, 2022.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: "The Art of Racing in the Rain" grossed $26.4 million in the United States and Canada, and $7.4 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $33.8 million.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: In the United States and Canada, the film was released alongside "The Kitchen", "Dora and the Lost City of Gold", "Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark" and "Brian Banks", and was projected to gross $6–8 million from 2,700 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $3 million on its first day, including $450,000 from Thursday night previews. It ended up debuting to $8.1 million, finishing sixth at the box office. It dropped 46% in its second weekend to $4.4 million, finishing in 10th.


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, and an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads: "Its heartstring-tugging overtures may be difficult for dog lovers to resist, but "The Art of Racing in the Rain" is sentimental and contrived." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 43 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale, while those at PostTrak gave it an average 4.5 out of 5 stars and a 72% "definite recommend."


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: Ed Potton of "The Sunday Times" gave the film a positive review, observing that the premise "really shouldn't work, yet somehow it steers a course between corniness and barminess. By the end I was crying like a baby, along with many of the other people in my screening, as well as giggling at the preposterousness of it all." Peter Debruge of "Variety" wrote: "Granted, there aren't a lot of surprises in "The Art of Racing in the Rain". If anything, knowing — or at least anticipating — how the film's myriad tragedies will unfold seems to heighten the effect."


title: The Art of Racing in the Rain (film)

text: Charlotte O'Sullivan of the "Evening Standard" gave the film 2 out of 5 stars, calling it "strong contender for most ridiculous tearjerker of the year," while Adam Graham of "The Detroit News" gave the film a "C" on an A to F scale, noting that "this tale of friendship and companionship between man and man's best friend is bogged down in weepy cliches ripped straight from the Art of Making the Audience Cry handbook."


title: Tom Courtenay

text: Sir Thomas Daniel Courtenay (; born 25 February 1937) is an English actor. After studying at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, Courtenay achieved prominence in the 1960s with a series of acclaimed film roles, including "The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner" (1962), for which he received the BAFTA Award for Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Roles, and "Doctor Zhivago" (1965), for which he received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. Other notable film roles during this period include "Billy Liar" (1963), "King and Country" (1964), for which he was awarded the Volpi Cup for Best Actor at the Venice Film Festival, "King Rat" (1965), and "The Night of the Generals" (1967). More recently, he received critical acclaim for his performance in Andrew Haigh's film "45 Years" (2015).


title: Tom Courtenay

text: Expressing a preference for stage work, Courtenay elected to focus on performing in the theatre from the mid 1960s onwards. Nonetheless, Courtenay has continued to perform on screen. For his performance in the 1983 film adaptation of the play "The Dresser", in which he reprised the role of Norman he originated both on the West End and Broadway, Courtenay won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor and received Academy and BAFTA Award nominations. He has been feted for his work on television also, winning two British Academy Television Awards for his performances in the television film "A Rather English Marriage" (1998) and the first series of the crime drama "Unforgotten" (2015). Courtenay was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for the miniseries "Little Dorrit" (2008). As well as his competitive honours, Courtenay has been recognised with an honorary doctorate from the University of Hull and was knighted for his services to cinema and theatre in the 2001 New Year Honours.


title: Tom Courtenay

text: Courtenay was born on 25 February 1937 in Kingston upon Hull, East Riding of Yorkshire, the son of Annie Eliza ("née" Quest) and Thomas Henry Courtenay, a boat painter in Hull fish docks. He attended Kingston High School and went on to study English at University College London, where he failed his degree. After this he studied drama at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) in London.


title: Tom Courtenay

text: Courtenay made his stage debut in 1960 with the Old Vic theatre company at the Lyceum, Edinburgh, before taking over from Albert Finney in the title role of "Billy Liar" at the Cambridge Theatre in 1961. In 1963, he played that same title role in the film version, directed by John Schlesinger. He said of Albert Finney, "We both have the same problem, overcoming the flat harsh speech of the North."


title: Tom Courtenay

text: Courtenay's film debut was in 1962 with "Private Potter", directed by Finnish-born director Caspar Wrede, who had first spotted Courtenay while he was still at RADA. This was followed by "The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner", directed by Tony Richardson and "Billy Liar", two highly acclaimed films and performances which helped usher in the British New Wave of the early-to-mid-1960s. For these performances Courtenay was awarded the 1962 BAFTA Award for most promising newcomer and the 1963 BAFTA Award for best actor respectively. He also was the first to record the song "Mrs. Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter", doing so for the TV play "The Lads". The song was released by Decca on a 45 rpm record.


title: Tom Courtenay

text: For his role as the dedicated revolutionary leader Pasha Antipov in "Doctor Zhivago" (1965), he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, but was bested by Martin Balsam. Among his other well-known films is "King & Country", directed by Joseph Losey, where he played opposite Dirk Bogarde; the all-star war film, "Operation Crossbow", directed by Michael Anderson (starring George Peppard and Sophia Loren); "King Rat", directed by Bryan Forbes and costarring James Fox and George Segal; and "The Night of the Generals", directed by Anatole Litvak with Peter O'Toole and Omar Sharif. He provided physical slapstick comedy in the ultimately chilling anti-nuke black comedy "The Day The Fish Came Out" in 1967. In 1969 and 1971, he was in two spy-comedies, "Otley" (in the title role) along with "Catch Me A Spy" (1970) starring Kirk Douglas and previously, in 1968, he co-starred in a serious film of that genre, "A Dandy in Aspic" (1968) opposite Laurence Harvey.


title: Tom Courtenay

text: Despite being catapulted to fame by the aforementioned films, Courtenay has said that he has not particularly enjoyed film acting; from the mid-1960s he concentrated more on stage work, although in a later Telegraph interview on 4/20/2005, he admitted "I slightly overdid the anti-film thing". In 1968, Courtenay began a long association with Manchester when he played in "The Playboy of the Western World" for the Century Theatre at Manchester University directed by Michael Elliott. In 1969, Courtenay played Hamlet (John Nettles playing Laertes) for 69 Theatre Company at University Theatre in Manchester, this being the precursor of the Royal Exchange Theatre, which was founded in 1976 where he was to give many performances, firstly under the direction of Casper Wrede. His first roles for the Royal Exchange were as Faulkland in Richard Brinsley Sheridan's The Rivals and the hero of Heinrich von Kleist's "The Prince of Homburg". Since then he has played a variety of roles, including in 1999 the leading role in the theatre's production of "King Lear", and in 2001 "Uncle Vanya".


title: Tom Courtenay

text: Courtenay's working relationship with Wrede returned to film when he played the title role in the latter's 1970 production of "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich". His best known film role since then was in "The Dresser", from Ronald Harwood's play of the same name (in which he also appeared) with Albert Finney. Both Courtenay and Finney received nominations for Best Actor in the 1983 Academy Awards for their roles, losing to Robert Duvall. He played the father of Derek Bentley (Christopher Eccleston) in the 1991 film "Let Him Have It". And for an actor known to be cast in good or great films, he surprisingly co-starred in what's been considered one of the worst movies ever, the infamous "Leonard Part 6" starring Bill Cosby.


title: Tom Courtenay

text: Courtenay's television and radio appearances have been relatively few, but have included "She Stoops to Conquer" in 1971 on BBC and several Ayckbourn plays. He appeared in "I Heard the Owl Call My Name" on US television in 1973. In 1994, he starred as Quilp opposite Peter Ustinov in a Disney Channel 'made for television' version of "The Old Curiosity Shop". Rather unexpectedly, he had a cameo role as the anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski in the 1995 US TV film "Young Indiana Jones and the Treasure of the Peacock's Eye". In 1998 he teamed with Albert Finney again for the acclaimed BBC drama "A Rather English Marriage". He played the role of God, opposite Sebastian Graham-Jones, in Ben Steiner's radio play "A Brief Interruption", broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in 2004. In the same year, he played the role of Stanley Laurel in Neil Brand's radio play 'Stan', broadcast on Radio 4. Also for Radio 4, he played the title role in Nick Leather's "The Domino Man of Lancashire" and "Maurice" in Richard Lumsden's "Man in the Moon", both broadcast in 2007. Courtenay also appeared in the 2008 Christmas special of the BBC show The Royle Family, playing the role of Dave's father, David Sr.


title: Tom Courtenay

text: In 2002, based on an idea by Michael Godley, Courtenay compiled a one-man show "Pretending To Be Me" based on the letters and writings of poet Philip Larkin, which first played at the West Yorkshire Playhouse in Leeds. It later transferred to the Comedy Theatre in the West End in London.


title: Tom Courtenay

text: In 2007, Courtenay appeared in two films: "Flood", a disaster epic in which London is overwhelmed by floods, and "The Golden Compass", an adaptation of Philip Pullman's novel, playing the part of Farder Coram. In 2008, he appeared in the BBC adaptation of "Little Dorrit" by Charles Dickens, playing William Dorrit, and the Christmas edition of "The Royle Family", playing David (Senior). In March 2011, he joined the cast of "Gambit", a film starring fellow RADA alumnus Alan Rickman that began filming in May. The film was released in Great Britain in November 2012. In 2012, he co-starred in "Quartet", directed by Dustin Hoffman.


title: Tom Courtenay

text: In 2015, he co-starred with Charlotte Rampling in the highly-praised Andrew Haigh film, "45 Years". Courtenay won international awards for his role as Geoff Mercer, and the film was critically-acclaimed and very well-received internationally as well as in the U.S.


title: Tom Courtenay

text: In 2019, he was a panellist on "Harry Hill's Alien Fun Capsule", Season 3 episode 1. For his introduction, after the other 3 guests had been announced Harry expressed surprise that the fourth seat (Courtenay's) was empty. Harry said he knew the guest had set off some time ago, which was followed by a cut to the 1962 film "The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner" in which Courtenay's character was running. Courtenay then entered the studio, apparently out of breath and in the same running kit he'd been wearing in the film.


title: Tom Courtenay

text: Also in 2019 he voiced the character of Prince Philip in "The Queen's Corgi", his first voice role, and also appeared in "The Aeronauts" starring Felicity Jones and Eddie Redmayne.


title: Tom Courtenay

text: Courtenay married actress Cheryl Kennedy in 1973. They divorced in 1982. In 1988, he married Isabel Crossley, a stage manager at the Royal Exchange Theatre in Manchester. They have homes in Manchester and Putney in London.


title: Tom Courtenay

text: In 2000, Courtenay's memoir "Dear Tom: Letters From Home" was published to critical acclaim. It comprises a selection of the letters exchanged between Courtenay and his mother, interspersed with his own recollections of life as a young student actor in London in the early 1960s.


title: Opinion polling for the 2022 Australian federal election

text: In the lead-up to the 2022 Australian federal election, a number of polling companies conducted regular opinion polls for various news organisations. These polls collected data on parties' primary vote, and contained an estimation of the two-party-preferred vote. They also asked questions about the electorates' views on major party leaders. Key polling companies are YouGov, Essential Media Communications, Roy Morgan Research, and Resolve Strategic.


text: Ipsos polls used to be published in "The Sydney Morning Herald", "The Age" and the "Australian Financial Review"; however following the shock result of the 2019 Australian federal election, when the Coalition won the election against all of the opinion polls' predictions, the Nine Entertainment group decided to discontinue its relationship with that company. The newspapers did not report any Ipsos political polling until 4 Apr 2022, but continued to report the results of other Ipsos polls.


text: Aggregate data of voting intention from all opinion polling since the last federal election. Local regression trends for each party, weighted by sample size, are shown as solid lines.


text: Following the ‘polling failure’ of the 2019 Australian federal election, where all the major polling organisations’ final polls erroneously predicted a Labor victory, a great deal of attention was paid to changes in methodology and the accuracy of the polls at the 2022 election.


text: Post-election, several well-known psephologists undertook assessments of accuracy for the voting results produced by each major pollster’s final poll. These employed differing methods of assessment, but generally determined that the polling industry was more accurate overall than in 2019, though still tended to overstate Labor’s primary vote share.


text: William Bowe (The Poll Bludger) summed this up by saying, “The 2022 federal election was a much happier experience for the polling industry than 2019, with each of five pollster producing election eve primary vote numbers broadly suggestive of the actual result. However, there was a collective error in favour of Labor, whose actual primary vote came in 2.3% below the pollster consensus while the Coalition landed 0.4% higher”.


text: Psephologists Dr. Adrian Beaumont of The Conversation found Resolve Strategic’s final poll for the Nine newspapers to be the most accurate.


text: Dr. Kevin Bonham’s polling blog said YouGov (which conducts Newspoll) was the best poll in three of the five categories, and "made the most useful contributions to forecasting the result". Solely based on the final poll, he shared the honours between Resolve Strategic and Newspoll on the basis that the former performed better on three of the four measures in his analysis, but the latter performed better on the measure he considered to be more important.


text: Some pollsters provided breakdowns of their polls by state, whilst others only poll a specific state. These results are listed by state below.


title: IDubbbz

text: Ian W. (born July 27, 1990), more commonly known as iDubbbz or Ian Carter, is an American YouTube personality. Creator of YouTube channels iDubbbzTV, iDubbbzTV2, and iDubbbzgames, he is best known for his comedy video series, including "Content Cop", "Bad Unboxing" and "Kickstarter Crap". His 2017 diss track "Asian Jake Paul" charted and peaked at number 24 on Billboard's US R&B/HH Digital Song Sales chart.


title: IDubbbz

text: iDubbbz's "Content Cop" series highlights other YouTube channels, critiquing their content as well as their owner's behavior on social media. From December 2015 to October 2017, iDubbbz released "Content Cop" episodes on a wide variety of YouTube personalities, including LeafyIsHere, Tana Mongeau, and RiceGum.


title: IDubbbz

text: In May 2016, iDubbbz released a "Content Cop" video on Daniel Keem, better known as Keemstar, and his channel DramaAlert. According to "The Daily Beast", iDubbbz accused Keemstar of using DramaAlert to "promote his friends and punish his enemies". In response, Keem called the "Content Cop" video "entertaining" and denied wanting to attack other YouTubers, saying he has "no problem booking guests or landing exclusive interviews".


title: IDubbbz

text: In October 2017, iDubbbz uploaded a video titled "Content Cop – Jake Paul", which has over 50 million views as of May 2021. However, the 31-minute video was not about the YouTube personality Jake Paul, instead it was about RiceGum. in the video, iDubbbz analyzes and critiques RiceGum in a format inspired by the seven deadly sins. Released along with the "Content Cop" episode, iDubbbz released a music video for a diss track of RiceGum titled "Asian Jake Paul", which featured Boyinaband. The song has over 85 million views as of August 2021. The song peaked at number 24 on the R&B/Hip-hop Digital Song Sales chart. RiceGum responded with several videos, including "Frick Da Police", a response diss track, and a 22-minute video response. iDubbbz responded with a follow-up video titled "Content Deputy – AJP" rebutting RiceGum's responses, featuring a comedic cameo by rapper Post Malone, and stating that this would be his final response to the situation.


title: IDubbbz

text: In late 2019, three years after Ian's "Content Cop" episode on LeafyIsHere, YouTube removed the video as a consequence of the website's updated policies on harassment and bullying.


title: IDubbbz

text: In March 2020, many of iDubbbz's fans took to social media after his girlfriend, Anisa Jomha, announced her "lewd" OnlyFans on Twitter. Responding to the remarks of fans accusing him of being a simp, he stated, "I love my girlfriend, and I'm totally fine with it. It doesn't affect me. If you are upset by me admitting this, then I suggest you go idolize someone else."


title: IDubbbz

text: In January 2022, iDubbbz announced Creator Clash, a celebrity boxing charity event that took place on May 14, 2022. Notable participants included Doctor Mike, Harley Morenstein from Epic Meal Time, Arin "Egoraptor" Hanson from "Game Grumps", along with Matt Watson, Nathan Barnatt, TheOdd1sOut, I did a thing, and Michael Reeves. It was later announced that streamers Esfand and Cr1TiKaL would join as interviewer and color commentator respectively. On May 14, the event was held at the Yuengling Center in Tampa, Florida, and was also livestreamed.


title: IDubbbz

text: He attended California State University San Marcos and graduated with a bachelor's degree in Business Management. Although his parents encouraged him to get a job, by the time he had graduated his YouTube channel had grown to the point where it became economically viable to pursue it as a full-time career.


title: IDubbbz

text: In April 2021, iDubbbz and his girlfriend Anisa Jomha announced their engagement. They married in June 2021.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: "Single-wall carbon nanotubes" ("SWCNTs") are one of the allotropes of carbon, intermediate between fullerene cages and flat graphene, with diameters in the range of a nanometre. Although not made this way, single-wall carbon nanotubes can be idealized as cutouts from a two-dimensional hexagonal lattice of carbon atoms rolled up along one of the Bravais lattice vectors of the hexagonal lattice to form a hollow cylinder. In this construction, periodic boundary conditions are imposed over the length of this roll-up vector to yield a helical lattice of seamlessly bonded carbon atoms on the cylinder surface.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: "Multi-wall carbon nanotubes" ("MWCNTs") consisting of nested single-wall carbon nanotubes weakly bound together by van der Waals interactions in a tree ring-like structure. If not identical, these tubes are very similar to Oberlin, Endo, and Koyama's long straight and parallel carbon layers cylindrically arranged around a hollow tube. Multi-wall carbon nanotubes are also sometimes used to refer to double- and triple-wall carbon nanotubes.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Carbon nanotubes can also refer to tubes with an undetermined carbon-wall structure and diameters less than 100 nanometres. Such tubes were discovered in 1952 by Radushkevich and Lukyanovich.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: The length of a carbon nanotube produced by common production methods is often not reported, but is typically much larger than its diameter. Thus, for many purposes, end effects are neglected and the length of carbon nanotubes is assumed infinite.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Carbon nanotubes can exhibit remarkable electrical conductivity, while others are semiconductors. They also have exceptional tensile strength and thermal conductivity because of their nanostructure and strength of the bonds between carbon atoms. In addition, they can be chemically modified. These properties are expected to be valuable in many areas of technology, such as electronics, optics, composite materials (replacing or complementing carbon fibers), nanotechnology, and other applications of materials science.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Rolling up a hexagonal lattice along different directions to form different infinitely long single-wall carbon nanotubes shows that all of these tubes not only have helical but also translational symmetry along the tube axis and many also have nontrivial rotational symmetry about this axis. In addition, most are chiral, meaning the tube and its mirror image cannot be superimposed. This construction also allows single-wall carbon nanotubes to be labeled by a pair of integers.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: A special group of achiral single-wall carbon nanotubes are metallic, but all the rest are either small or moderate band gap semiconductors. These electrical properties, however, do not depend on whether the hexagonal lattice is rolled from its back to front or from its front to back and hence are the same for the tube and its mirror image.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: The remarkable properties predicted for SWCNTs were tantalizing, but a path to creating them was lacking until 1993, when Iijima and Ichihashi at NEC and Bethune et al. at IBM independently discovered that co-vaporizing carbon and transition metals such as iron and cobalt could specifically catalyze SWCNT formation. These discoveries triggered research that succeeded in greatly increasing the efficiency of the catalytic production technique, and led to an explosion of work to characterize and find applications for SWCNTs.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: The structure of an ideal (infinitely long) single-walled carbon nanotube is that of a regular hexagonal lattice drawn on an infinite cylindrical surface, whose vertices are the positions of the carbon atoms. Since the length of the carbon-carbon bonds is fairly fixed, there are constraints on the diameter of the cylinder and the arrangement of the atoms on it.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: In the study of nanotubes, one defines a zigzag path on a graphene-like lattice as a path that turns 60 degrees, alternating left and right, after stepping through each bond. It is also conventional to define an armchair path as one that makes two left turns of 60 degrees followed by two right turns every four steps. On some carbon nanotubes, there is a closed zigzag path that goes around the tube. One says that the tube is of the zigzag type or configuration, or simply is a zigzag nanotube. If the tube is instead encircled by a closed armchair path, it is said to be of the armchair type, or an armchair nanotube. An infinite nanotube that is of the zigzag (or armchair) type consists entirely of closed zigzag (or armchair) paths, connected to each other.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: The zigzag and armchair configurations are not the only structures that a single-walled nanotube can have. To describe the structure of a general infinitely long tube, one should imagine it being sliced open by a cut parallel to its axis, that goes through some atom "A", and then unrolled flat on the plane, so that its atoms and bonds coincide with those of an imaginary graphene sheet—more precisely, with an infinitely long strip of that sheet. The two halves of the atom "A" will end up on opposite edges of the strip, over two atoms "A1" and "A2" of the graphene. The line from "A1" to "A2" will correspond to the circumference of the cylinder that went through the atom "A", and will be perpendicular to the edges of the strip. In the graphene lattice, the atoms can be split into two classes, depending on the directions of their three bonds. Half the atoms have their three bonds directed the same way, and half have their three bonds rotated 180 degrees relative to the first half. The atoms "A1" and "A2", which correspond to the same atom "A" on the cylinder, must be in the same class. It follows that the circumference of the tube and the angle of the strip are not arbitrary, because they are constrained to the lengths and directions of the lines that connect pairs of graphene atoms in the same class.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Let u and v be two linearly independent vectors that connect the graphene atom "A1" to two of its nearest atoms with the same bond directions. That is, if one numbers consecutive carbons around a graphene cell with C1 to C6, then u can be the vector from C1 to C3, and v be the vector from C1 to C5. Then, for any other atom "A2" with same class as "A1", the vector from "A1" to "A2" can be written as a linear combination "n" u + "m" v, where "n" and "m" are integers. And, conversely, each pair of integers ("n","m") defines a possible position for "A2". Given "n" and "m", one can reverse this theoretical operation by drawing the vector w on the graphene lattice, cutting a strip of the latter along lines perpendicular to w through its endpoints "A1" and "A2", and rolling the strip into a cylinder so as to bring those two points together. If this construction is applied to a pair ("k",0), the result is a zigzag nanotube, with closed zigzag paths of 2"k" atoms. If it is applied to a pair ("k","k"), one obtains an armchair tube, with closed armchair paths of 4"k" atoms.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Moreover, the structure of the nanotube is not changed if the strip is rotated by 60 degrees clockwise around "A1" before applying the hypothetical reconstruction above. Such a rotation changes the corresponding pair ("n","m") to the pair (−2"m","n"+"m"). It follows that many possible positions of "A2" relative to "A1" — that is, many pairs ("n","m") — correspond to the same arrangement of atoms on the nanotube. That is the case, for example, of the six pairs (1,2), (−2,3), (−3,1), (−1,−2), (2,−3), and (3,−1). In particular, the pairs ("k",0) and (0,"k") describe the same nanotube geometry. These redundancies can be avoided by considering only pairs ("n","m") such that "n" > 0 and "m" ≥ 0; that is, where the direction of the vector w lies between those of u (inclusive) and v (exclusive). It can be verified that every nanotube has exactly one pair ("n","m") that satisfies those conditions, which is called the tube's type. Conversely, for every type there is a hypothetical nanotube. In fact, two nanotubes have the same type if and only if one can be conceptually rotated and translated so as to match the other exactly. Instead of the type ("n","m"), the structure of a carbon nanotube can be specified by giving the length of the vector w (that is, the circumference of the nanotube), and the angle "α" between the directions of u and w, which may range from 0 (inclusive) to 60 degrees clockwise (exclusive). If the diagram is drawn with u horizontal, the latter is the tilt of the strip away from the vertical.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: A nanotube is chiral if it has type ("n","m"), with "m" > 0 and "m" ≠ "n"; then its enantiomer (mirror image) has type ("m","n"), which is different from ("n","m"). This operation corresponds to mirroring the unrolled strip about the line "L" through "A1" that makes an angle of 30 degrees clockwise from the direction of the u vector (that is, with the direction of the vector u+v). The only types of nanotubes that are achiral are the ("k",0) "zigzag" tubes and the ("k","k") "armchair" tubes. If two enantiomers are to be considered the same structure, then one may consider only types ("n","m") with 0 ≤ "m" ≤ "n" and "n" > 0. Then the angle "α" between u and w, which may range from 0 to 30 degrees (inclusive both), is called the "chiral angle" of the nanotube.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: From "n" and "m" one can also compute the circumference "c", which is the length of the vector w, which turns out to be:


title: Carbon nanotube

text: also in picometres. (These formulas are only approximate, especially for small "n" and "m" where the bonds are strained; and they do not take into account the thickness of the wall.)


title: Carbon nanotube

text: The tilt angle "α" between u and w and the circumference "c" are related to the type indices "n" and "m" by:


title: Carbon nanotube

text: where arg("x","y") is the clockwise angle between the "X"-axis and the vector ("x","y"); a function that is available in many programming languages as codice_1("y","x"). Conversely, given "c" and "α", one can get the type ("n","m") by the formulas:


title: Carbon nanotube

text: If "n" and "m" are too small, the structure described by the pair ("n","m") will describe a molecule that cannot be reasonably called a "tube", and may not even be stable. For example, the structure theoretically described by the pair (1,0) (the limiting "zigzag" type) would be just a chain of carbons. That is a real molecule, the carbyne; which has some characteristics of nanotubes (such as orbital hybridization, high tensile strength, etc.) — but has no hollow space, and may not be obtainable as a condensed phase. The pair (2,0) would theoretically yield a chain of fused 4-cycles; and (1,1), the limiting "armchair" structure, would yield a chain of bi-connected 4-rings. These structures may not be realizable.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: The thinnest carbon nanotube proper is the armchair structure with type (2,2), which has a diameter of 0.3 nm. This nanotube was grown inside a multi-walled carbon nanotube. Assigning of the carbon nanotube type was done by a combination of high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), Raman spectroscopy, and density functional theory (DFT) calculations.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: The thinnest "freestanding" single-walled carbon nanotube is about 0.43 nm in diameter. Researchers suggested that it can be either (5,1) or (4,2) SWCNT, but the exact type of the carbon nanotube remains questionable. (3,3), (4,3), and (5,1) carbon nanotubes (all about 0.4 nm in diameter) were unambiguously identified using aberration-corrected high-resolution transmission electron microscopy inside double-walled CNTs.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: The observation of the "longest" carbon nanotubes grown so far, around 0.5 metre (550 mm) long, was reported in 2013. These nanotubes were grown on silicon substrates using an improved chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method and represent electrically uniform arrays of single-walled carbon nanotubes.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: The "shortest" carbon nanotube can be considered to be the organic compound cycloparaphenylene, which was synthesized in 2008 by Ramesh Jasti. Other small molecule carbon nanotubes have been synthesized since.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: The "highest density" of CNTs was achieved in 2013, grown on a conductive titanium-coated copper surface that was coated with co-catalysts cobalt and molybdenum at lower than typical temperatures of 450 °C. The tubes averaged a height of 380 nm and a mass density of 1.6 g cm. The material showed ohmic conductivity (lowest resistance ~22 kΩ).


title: Carbon nanotube

text: There is no consensus on some terms describing carbon nanotubes in scientific literature: both "-wall" and "-walled" are being used in combination with "single", "double", "triple", or "multi", and the letter C is often omitted in the abbreviation, for example, multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNT). The International Standards Organization uses single-wall or multi-wall in its documents.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs) consist of multiple rolled layers (concentric tubes) of graphene. There are two models that can be used to describe the structures of multi-walled nanotubes. In the "Russian Doll" model, sheets of graphite are arranged in concentric cylinders, e.g., a (0,8) single-walled nanotube (SWNT) within a larger (0,17) single-walled nanotube. In the "Parchment" model, a single sheet of graphite is rolled in around itself, resembling a scroll of parchment or a rolled newspaper. The interlayer distance in multi-walled nanotubes is close to the distance between graphene layers in graphite, approximately 3.4 Å. The Russian Doll structure is observed more commonly. Its individual shells can be described as SWNTs, which can be metallic or semiconducting. Because of statistical probability and restrictions on the relative diameters of the individual tubes, one of the shells, and thus the whole MWNT, is usually a zero-gap metal.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWNTs) form a special class of nanotubes because their morphology and properties are similar to those of SWNTs but they are more resistant to attacks by chemicals. This is especially important when it is necessary to graft chemical functions to the surface of the nanotubes (functionalization) to add properties to the CNT. Covalent functionalization of SWNTs will break some C=C double bonds, leaving "holes" in the structure on the nanotube and thus modifying both its mechanical and electrical properties. In the case of DWNTs, only the outer wall is modified. DWNT synthesis on the gram-scale by the CCVD technique was first proposed in 2003 from the selective reduction of oxide solutions in methane and hydrogen.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: The telescopic motion ability of inner shells and their unique mechanical properties will permit the use of multi-walled nanotubes as the main movable arms in upcoming nanomechanical devices. The retraction force that occurs to telescopic motion is caused by the Lennard-Jones interaction between shells, and its value is about 1.5 nN.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Junctions between two or more nanotubes have been widely discussed theoretically. Such junctions are quite frequently observed in samples prepared by arc discharge as well as by chemical vapor deposition. The electronic properties of such junctions were first considered theoretically by Lambin et al., who pointed out that a connection between a metallic tube and a semiconducting one would represent a nanoscale heterojunction. Such a junction could therefore form a component of a nanotube-based electronic circuit. The adjacent image shows a junction between two multiwalled nanotubes.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Junctions between nanotubes and graphene have been considered theoretically and studied experimentally. Nanotube-graphene junctions form the basis of pillared graphene, in which parallel graphene sheets are separated by short nanotubes. Pillared graphene represents a class of three-dimensional carbon nanotube architectures.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Recently, several studies have highlighted the prospect of using carbon nanotubes as building blocks to fabricate three-dimensional macroscopic (>100 nm in all three dimensions) all-carbon devices. Lalwani et al. have reported a novel radical-initiated thermal crosslinking method to fabricate macroscopic, free-standing, porous, all-carbon scaffolds using single- and multi-walled carbon nanotubes as building blocks. These scaffolds possess macro-, micro-, and nano-structured pores, and the porosity can be tailored for specific applications. These 3D all-carbon scaffolds/architectures may be used for the fabrication of the next generation of energy storage, supercapacitors, field emission transistors, high-performance catalysis, photovoltaics, and biomedical devices, implants, and sensors.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Carbon nanobuds are a newly created material combining two previously discovered allotropes of carbon: carbon nanotubes and fullerenes. In this new material, fullerene-like "buds" are covalently bonded to the outer sidewalls of the underlying carbon nanotube. This hybrid material has useful properties of both fullerenes and carbon nanotubes. In particular, they have been found to be exceptionally good field emitters. In composite materials, the attached fullerene molecules may function as molecular anchors preventing slipping of the nanotubes, thus improving the composite's mechanical properties.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: A carbon peapod is a novel hybrid carbon material which traps fullerene inside a carbon nanotube. It can possess interesting magnetic properties with heating and irradiation. It can also be applied as an oscillator during theoretical investigations and predictions.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: In theory, a nanotorus is a carbon nanotube bent into a torus (doughnut shape). Nanotori are predicted to have many unique properties, such as magnetic moments 1000 times larger than that previously expected for certain specific radii. Properties such as magnetic moment, thermal stability, etc. vary widely depending on the radius of the torus and the radius of the tube.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Graphenated carbon nanotubes are a relatively new hybrid that combines graphitic foliates grown along the sidewalls of multiwalled or bamboo style CNTs. The foliate density can vary as a function of deposition conditions (e.g., temperature and time) with their structure ranging from a few layers of graphene (< 10) to thicker, more graphite-like. The fundamental advantage of an integrated graphene-CNT structure is the high surface area three-dimensional framework of the CNTs coupled with the high edge density of graphene. Depositing a high density of graphene foliates along the length of aligned CNTs can significantly increase the total charge capacity per unit of nominal area as compared to other carbon nanostructures.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Cup-stacked carbon nanotubes (CSCNTs) differ from other quasi-1D carbon structures, which normally behave as quasi-metallic conductors of electrons. CSCNTs exhibit semiconducting behavior because of the stacking microstructure of graphene layers.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Many properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes depend significantly on the ("n","m") type, and this dependence is non-monotonic (see Kataura plot). In particular, the band gap can vary from zero to about 2 eV and the electrical conductivity can show metallic or semiconducting behavior.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Carbon nanotubes are the strongest and stiffest materials yet discovered in terms of tensile strength and elastic modulus. This strength results from the covalent sp bonds formed between the individual carbon atoms. In 2000, a multiwalled carbon nanotube was tested to have a tensile strength of . (For illustration, this translates into the ability to endure tension of a weight equivalent to on a cable with cross-section of ). Further studies, such as one conducted in 2008, revealed that individual CNT shells have strengths of up to ≈, which is in agreement with quantum/atomistic models. Because carbon nanotubes have a low density for a solid of 1.3 to 1.4 g/cm, its specific strength of up to 48,000 kN·m·kg is the best of known materials, compared to high-carbon steel's 154 kN·m·kg.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Although the strength of individual CNT shells is extremely high, weak shear interactions between adjacent shells and tubes lead to significant reduction in the effective strength of multiwalled carbon nanotubes and carbon nanotube bundles down to only a few GPa. This limitation has been recently addressed by applying high-energy electron irradiation, which crosslinks inner shells and tubes, and effectively increases the strength of these materials to ≈60 GPa for multiwalled carbon nanotubes and ≈17 GPa for double-walled carbon nanotube bundles. CNTs are not nearly as strong under compression. Because of their hollow structure and high aspect ratio, they tend to undergo buckling when placed under compressive, torsional, or bending stress.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: On the other hand, there was evidence that in the radial direction they are rather soft. The first transmission electron microscope observation of radial elasticity suggested that even van der Waals forces can deform two adjacent nanotubes. Later, nanoindentations with an atomic force microscope were performed by several groups to quantitatively measure radial elasticity of multiwalled carbon nanotubes and tapping/contact mode atomic force microscopy was also performed on single-walled carbon nanotubes. Young's modulus of on the order of several GPa showed that CNTs are in fact very soft in the radial direction.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: It was reported in 2020, CNT-filled polymer nanocomposites with 4 wt% and 6 wt% loadings are the most optimal concentrations, as they provide a good balance between mechanical properties and resilience of mechanical properties against UV exposure for the offshore umbilical sheathing layer.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Unlike graphene, which is a two-dimensional semimetal, carbon nanotubes are either metallic or semiconducting along the tubular axis. For a given ("n","m") nanotube, if "n" = "m", the nanotube is metallic; if "n" − "m" is a multiple of 3 and n ≠ m, then the nanotube is quasi-metallic with a very small band gap, otherwise the nanotube is a moderate semiconductor.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Thus, all armchair ("n" = "m") nanotubes are metallic, and nanotubes (6,4), (9,1), etc. are semiconducting.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Carbon nanotubes are not semimetallic because the degenerate point (the point where the π [bonding] band meets the π* [anti-bonding] band, at which the energy goes to zero) is slightly shifted away from the "K" point in the Brillouin zone because of the curvature of the tube surface, causing hybridization between the σ* and π* anti-bonding bands, modifying the band dispersion.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: The rule regarding metallic versus semiconductor behavior has exceptions because curvature effects in small-diameter tubes can strongly influence electrical properties. Thus, a (5,0) SWCNT that should be semiconducting in fact is metallic according to the calculations. Likewise, zigzag and chiral SWCNTs with small diameters that should be metallic have a finite gap (armchair nanotubes remain metallic). In theory, metallic nanotubes can carry an electric current density of 4 × 10 A/cm, which is more than 1,000 times greater than those of metals such as copper, where for copper interconnects, current densities are limited by electromigration. Carbon nanotubes are thus being explored as interconnects and conductivity-enhancing components in composite materials, and many groups are attempting to commercialize highly conducting electrical wire assembled from individual carbon nanotubes. There are significant challenges to be overcome however, such as undesired current saturation under voltage, and the much more resistive nanotube-to-nanotube junctions and impurities, all of which lower the electrical conductivity of the macroscopic nanotube wires by orders of magnitude, as compared to the conductivity of the individual nanotubes.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Because of its nanoscale cross-section, electrons propagate only along the tube's axis. As a result, carbon nanotubes are frequently referred to as one-dimensional conductors. The maximum electrical conductance of a single-walled carbon nanotube is 2"G", where "G" = 2"e"/"h" is the conductance of a single ballistic quantum channel.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Because of the role of the π-electron system in determining the electronic properties of graphene, doping in carbon nanotubes differs from that of bulk crystalline semiconductors from the same group of the periodic table (e.g., silicon). Graphitic substitution of carbon atoms in the nanotube wall by boron or nitrogen dopants leads to p-type and n-type behavior, respectively, as would be expected in silicon. However, some non-substitutional (intercalated or adsorbed) dopants introduced into a carbon nanotube, such as alkali metals and electron-rich metallocenes, result in n-type conduction because they donate electrons to the π-electron system of the nanotube. By contrast, π-electron acceptors such as FeCl or electron-deficient metallocenes function as p-type dopants because they draw π-electrons away from the top of the valence band.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Intrinsic superconductivity has been reported, although other experiments found no evidence of this, leaving the claim a subject of debate.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: In 2021, Michael Strano, the Carbon P. Dubbs Professor of Chemical Engineering at MIT, published department findings on the use of carbon nanotubes to create an electrical current. By immersing the structures in an organic solvent, the liquid drew electrons out of the carbon particles. Strano was quoted as saying, "This allows you to do electrochemistry, but with no wires," and represents a significant breakthrough in the technology. Future applications include powering micro- or nanoscale robots, as well as driving alcohol oxidation reactions, which are important in the chemicals industry.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Carbon nanotubes have useful absorption, photoluminescence (fluorescence), and Raman spectroscopy properties. Spectroscopic methods offer the possibility of quick and non-destructive characterization of relatively large amounts of carbon nanotubes. There is a strong demand for such characterization from the industrial point of view: numerous parameters of nanotube synthesis can be changed, intentionally or unintentionally, to alter the nanotube quality. As shown below, optical absorption, photoluminescence, and Raman spectroscopies allow quick and reliable characterization of this "nanotube quality" in terms of non-tubular carbon content, structure (chirality) of the produced nanotubes, and structural defects. These features determine nearly any other properties such as optical, mechanical, and electrical properties.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Carbon nanotubes are unique "one-dimensional systems" which can be envisioned as rolled single sheets of graphite (or more precisely graphene). This rolling can be done at different angles and curvatures resulting in different nanotube properties. The diameter typically varies in the range 0.4–40 nm (i.e., (X-ray wavelenghts), "only" ~100 times), but the length can vary ~100,000,000,000 times, from 0.14 nm to 55.5 cm. The nanotube aspect ratio, or the length-to-diameter ratio, can be as high as 132,000,000:1, which is unequalled by any other material. Consequently, all the properties of the carbon nanotubes relative to those of typical semiconductors are extremely anisotropic (directionally dependent) and tunable.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Whereas mechanical, electrical, and electrochemical (supercapacitor) properties of the carbon nanotubes are well established and have immediate applications, the practical use of optical properties is yet unclear. The aforementioned tunability of properties is potentially useful in optics and photonics. In particular, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and photo-detectors based on a single nanotube have been produced in the lab. Their unique feature is not the efficiency, which is yet relatively low, but the narrow selectivity in the wavelength of emission and detection of light and the possibility of its fine tuning through the nanotube structure. In addition, bolometer and optoelectronic memory devices have been realised on ensembles of single-walled carbon nanotubes.


title: Carbon nanotube

text: Crystallographic defects also affect the tube's electrical properties. A common result is lowered conductivity through the defective region of the tube. A defect in armchair-type tubes (which can conduct electricity) can cause the surrounding region to become semiconducting, and single monatomic vacancies induce magnetic properties.