title: University of Glasgow

text: There is an active student media scene at the university, part of, but editorially independent from, the SRC. There is a newspaper, the "Glasgow University Guardian"; "Glasgow University Magazine"; Glasgow University Student Television; and Subcity Radio. In recent years, independent of the SRC, the Queen Margaret Union has published a fortnightly magazine, "qmunicate", and Glasgow University Union has produced the "G-you" magazine, formerly known as GUUi.


title: University of Glasgow

text: Glasgow University Mountaineering Club is an outdoor association whose membership is composed of students and staff. Its origins are known from the late 1930s when students were already meeting on the Arrochar Alps; however, the club was officially constituted at the university in March 1941.


title: University of Glasgow

text: Many distinguished figures have taught, worked and studied at the University of Glasgow, including seven Nobel laureates and three Prime Ministers, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman and Bonar Law. Famous names include the physicist Lord Kelvin, his pupil, and later partner of the Carnegie Steel Corporation, George Lauder, 'father of economics' Adam Smith, engineer James Watt, inventors Henry Faulds and John Logie Baird, chemists William Ramsay, Frederick Soddy and Joseph Black, biologist Sir John Boyd Orr, philosophers Francis Hutcheson, Thomas Reid and Dugald Stewart, mathematician Colin Maclaurin, ethnologist James George Frazer, missionary David Livingstone, writers James Boswell, John Buchan, A. J. Cronin, Amy Hoff, Tobias Smollett and Edwin Morgan, and surgeon Joseph Lister. Famous orientalist and president of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Henry Beveridge, University of Aberdeen founder Bishop William Elphinstone also graduated from Glasgow. In June 1933 Albert Einstein gave the first Gibson Lecture, on his general theory of relativity; he subsequently received an honorary degree from the university. Also John Macintyre, pioneer of radiology and Jocelyn Bell Burnell who discovered radio pulsars. In 1974, professors Graham Teasdale and Bryan Jennett developed the Glasgow Coma Scale.


title: University of Glasgow

text: In more recent times, the university was the focus of the "Glasgow Group" of poets and literary critics, including Philip Hobsbaum, Tom Leonard and Alasdair Gray. The university boasts one of Europe's largest collections of life scientists, as well as having been the training ground of numerous politicians including former Prime Ministers Bonar Law and Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, former First Minister Donald Dewar, former leader of the Liberal Democrats and former Rector Charles Kennedy, Defence Secretaries Liam Fox and Des Browne, the founder of the UK Independence Party Alan Sked, former Labour Party leader John Smith, Business Secretary Vince Cable, former leader of the Liberal Democrats Sir Menzies Campbell, and current First Minister Nicola Sturgeon. Other notable alumni include banker Fred Goodwin, actor Gerard Butler, Rangers and Scottish footballer Neil Murray, actor, writer, television and radio broadcaster Colin Lamont (aka Scottie McClue), novelist Robin Jenkins, founder of the world's largest non-governmental development organisation BRAC Fazle Hasan Abed, television writers Armando Iannucci and Steven Moffat, comedian Greg Hemphill, television presenter Neil Oliver, journalists Andrew Neil and Raman Bhardwaj, and musicians Emeli Sandé and Simon Neil.


title: University of Glasgow

text: With the World-Changing Alumni Award, formerly the Young Alumnus of the Year Award, the university is recognizing and celebrating the achievements of alumni who have graduated within the last 15 years and made a major contribution to the community, arts, sciences, or business.


title: University of Glasgow

text: The award was established in 2001 as part of the university's 550th-anniversary celebrations and is given out once per year. The trophy was donated by the Old Boys of Allan Glen's School, is presented to the winning candidate at one of the year's graduation ceremonies or flagship events.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: WrestleMania 18 (stylized as WrestleMania X8) was the 18th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 17, 2002, at the SkyDome in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, the second WrestleMania at that venue after WrestleMania VI in April 1990. The event marked the final WrestleMania event held under the WWF name and the Attitude Era, as the company was renamed to World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) in May and entered the Ruthless Aggression Era later that year. It was also the last WrestleMania held before the introduction of the brand extension just a week after the event. The record-breaking attendance for the SkyDome of 68,237 grossed approximately $6.1 million CAD ($3.9 million USD). WrestleMania weekend also included WWF Fan Axxess at the Canadian National Exhibition's Automotive Building.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: This WrestleMania would be Hulk Hogan's first WrestleMania appearance in nine years, and his 10th overall. He competed in the first nine WrestleMania events, main eventing eight of those nine (an all-time record) (WrestleMania IV would be the only non main event pay-per-view for Hogan). After WrestleMania IX, Hogan left the WWF in late 1993, and signed with rival company WCW in 1994.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: Eleven matches were contested at the event. The Rock defeated Hollywood Hulk Hogan in the main attraction match dubbed "Icon vs. Icon", while in the main event, Triple H defeated Chris Jericho to win the Undisputed WWF Championship. In other prominent matches on the undercard Stone Cold Steve Austin defeated Scott Hall, The Undertaker defeated Ric Flair in a no disqualification match, and Rob Van Dam defeated William Regal to win the WWF Intercontinental Championship.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: WrestleMania is considered the World Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, which were dubbed the "Big Four", and was considered one of the "Big Five" PPVs, along with King of the Ring. WrestleMania 18, stylized as WrestleMania X8, was scheduled to be held on March 17, 2002, at the SkyDome in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, marking the second WrestleMania at that venue after WrestleMania VI in April 1990.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: The main feud built up in the lead to the event pitted The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin against the New World Order (Hollywood Hogan, Kevin Nash and Scott Hall) with the main attraction being promoted as The Rock vs Hollywood Hogan, billed as an Icon vs Icon, face of the company generational match, pitting Hogan who was the top babyface star of the Golden Era against The Rock, who was the top babyface star of the Attitude Era.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: The Rock's involvement with the nWo started after his win over The Undertaker at No Way Out, when a photo request from Hogan for his son turned into a trade of insults. On the following episode of "Raw", The Rock interrupted Hogan's address to the crowd and challenged Hogan to a match at WrestleMania. When Hogan accepted and shook hands with his future opponent, The Rock kept the hold on and hit the "Rock Bottom" on Hogan. Before The Rock could leave the arena, Hall and Nash ambushed The Rock. Hogan, Nash, and Hall then attacked The Rock with a belt, a hammer, and all three of their finishers, concluding the assault by spray painting the nWo initials on The Rock's back. With medics attending to The Rock and loading him into an ambulance van, the nWo furthered the attack by forcing the medics to retreat, chaining up all possible exits of the van, and driving a semi-truck into the van with The Rock trapped inside. Stone Cold Steve Austin's involvement also commenced at No Way Out, when after having their gift of beer refused, the nWo interfered with Austin's Undisputed WWF Championship match against Chris Jericho, helping Jericho to retain the title before spray painting the nWo initials on Austin's back. Austin finally got his revenge on the February 21 episode of "SmackDown!" when, after the nWo had given a half hearted apology for their attack on The Rock, he chased the nWo out of the ring with a tire iron. Austin managed to catch Hall and attack him with the tire iron, but Hogan and Nash saved Hall from being run over by Austin's pickup truck. After the nWo found their limousine spray-painted "What?" by Austin, the latter kidnapped Hall and closed the show by embarrassing him in the middle of the ring with "3:16" spray-painted on his back. On the following episode of "Raw", Hall challenged Austin to a match at WrestleMania which Austin accepted afterward. The feud between Austin and the nWo continued back and forth for the next couple of weeks with Austin attacked by Hall twice with a cinder block and a wrench, while Austin fired a netgun at Nash before beating down Hall. On the March 7 episode of "SmackDown!", The Rock made his return and immediately challenged Hogan for a fight. Nash and Hall held Hogan back, leaving Hall to challenge for a match instead. Rock's match with Hall ended in a three-on-one attack by the nWo. The nWo's attack was stopped by Austin, however, who saved The Rock with the aid of a steel chair. On the March 11 episode of "Raw", Rock and Austin took on the nWo in a handicap match, resulting in Hogan pinning The Rock after a leg drop.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: The secondary feud leading into WrestleMania X8 involved Triple H against the Undisputed WWF Champion Chris Jericho and Stephanie McMahon. At the Royal Rumble, Jericho defeated The Rock to retain the Undisputed WWF Championship on the same event where Triple H earned his opportunity to compete for the Undisputed WWF Championship at WrestleMania by winning the Royal Rumble match, last eliminating Kurt Angle. The following night on "Raw", Triple H interrupted Jericho and warned that he would prove him that he's worthy enough to be in the main event. Meanwhile, some hostility between Triple H and his wife Stephanie was starting to show, with the face Triple H tired of Stephanie's heel characteristics. In order to recover their relationship, Stephanie suggested on "Raw" that the two should renew their wedding vows on the following week. At first Triple H refused, but Stephanie revealed that she was pregnant, making him change his mind. To further prove it, the two met a doctor on the next episode of "SmackDown!" with ultrasound images. On the February 11 episode of "Raw" just before the wedding, Triple H was met with a phone call by his mother-in-law Linda McMahon, who had sent him a video tape revealing that the doctor was in fact an actor and that Stephanie was not pregnant. At the wedding, Triple H turned on Stephanie and attacked her along with her father Mr. McMahon, saying that their marriage was now over. During these weeks, Kurt Angle was given a match with Triple H's WrestleMania title shot on the line at No Way Out. In revenge for the ruined wedding, Mr. McMahon granted Stephanie the chance to be the special guest referee for the match. At No Way Out, with clear bias from Stephanie, Angle defeated Triple H for the title shot. The following night on "Raw", WWF co-owner Ric Flair granted Triple H a rematch with Stephanie barred from the ring, enabling him to regain his title shot at Chris Jericho. On the February 21 episode of "SmackDown!", Jericho met with Stephanie and put their differences in the past, ending with Stephanie accepting Jericho's proposal to be his new business partner. To further the feud, Jericho later speculated that he ended the marriage by causing Triple H's quadriceps muscle to (legit) tear during their WWF Tag Team Championship match on the May 21, 2001 episode of "Raw Is War", thus diverting Triple H's attention to his wife. Under the divorce settlement for the two, the assets would be split between them "fifty-fifty" to Stephanie's disgust. Among the assets were Triple H's first wrestling robe, Stephanie's Corvette (which Triple H later gave to her with half of it cut off) and Triple H's bulldog Lucy. Stephanie managed to win Lucy in the settlement and later on the March 11 episode of "Raw" sent Jericho to walk the dog. Displeased about this, Jericho tied Lucy to a limousine and ordered the unknowing driver to buy some air fresheners, running Lucy over into a critical condition by accident. Wanting retribution, Triple H stormed into the arena and tried to attack Stephanie, but he was met with two sledgehammer shots to his recovered leg by Jericho. On the following episode of "SmackDown!", Stephanie noted that the sledgehammer shots had left Triple H's quad in a condition that one false move in his WrestleMania match could reinjure his quadriceps once again. At the end of the show, Triple H and Jericho had a brawl in the ring that almost ended with a "Pedigree" on Stephanie. However, Jericho saved her and locked the "Walls of Jericho" on Triple H, leaving the show with the advantage.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: Another major feud for WrestleMania X8 was the rivalry between The Undertaker and the WWF co-owner, Ric Flair. The feud started over The Undertaker's ambush on The Rock during the buildup to No Way Out, with Undertaker giving The Rock a chokeslam and a "Tombstone Piledriver" onto a car. Shortly afterward, Ric Flair openly detested The Undertaker's actions. At the No Way Out event, Flair interfered with Undertaker's match against The Rock, finally hitting Undertaker with a lead pipe to aid The Rock in victory. Far from pleased over this result, The Undertaker challenged Flair to a match at WrestleMania. Flair refused, stating that he is an owner and no longer a wrestler. However, Undertaker tried to convince Flair by attacking select members of Flair's friends and family. Following a match on the February 25 episode of "Raw", Flair's friend Arn Anderson was ambushed by The Undertaker during his road agent duties. The Undertaker followed this the following week by attacking Flair's son David, threatening that the rest of Flair's children would follow. Upon this attack, Flair accepted the match on the March 7 episode of "SmackDown!". Later that night, the two ended up brawling into the audience, resulting in Flair punching out a fan by accident. As a result, Flair was arrested to Undertaker's delight. On the March 11 episode of "Raw", Flair's rival co-owner Mr. McMahon asked for an emergency board meeting with the WWF board of directors citing that Flair's attack of a fan was unacceptable and that either he or Flair should have absolute authority and power over the company. With Flair still keen on taking on Undertaker at WrestleMania, CEO Linda McMahon had no choice but to give Vince total control over the company. Despite this, Linda also stated that the ownership situation would also be reviewed after WrestleMania with a final decision. To add further insult, Mr. McMahon booked David Flair in a match against The Undertaker on the March 14 episode of "SmackDown!". The Undertaker almost gave David a "Last Ride", but was stopped by Ric Flair who saved his son with some steel chair shots.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: Before the pay-per-view event aired began, Mr. Perfect, Lance Storm and Test faced Rikishi, Scotty 2 Hotty and Albert in six-man tag team match on "Sunday Night Heat". Rikishi won the match for his team after pinning Mr. Perfect following a "Banzai Drop".


title: WrestleMania X8

text: The actual pay-per-view started with a live performance of "Superstar" by rock band Saliva. After that, William Regal defended his WWF Intercontinental Championship against Rob Van Dam. Twice in the match, Regal tried to use brass knuckles to set up the "Power of the Punch" on Van Dam, but on both occasions Van Dam kicked them away. Van Dam won the match after a "Five-Star Frog Splash" to win his first Intercontinental Championship.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: The WWF European Championship match between the champion Diamond Dallas Page and Christian followed. Christian executed a neckbreaker on Page and Page performed a roll-up on Christian but neither man scored a pinfall. Page won the match after a "Diamond Cutter" on Christian.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: The WWF Hardcore Champion Maven defended his title against Goldust in a Hardcore match. The match ended when both Goldust and Maven knocked each other out with trashcan lids. Spike Dudley came out and pinned Maven for a three count. Under the title's 24/7 rules, Spike became the new champion. His celebration was short-lived, as Crash Holly chased Spike through the crowd with Maven and Goldust following suit. In a promotion for the show's main event, rock band Drowning Pool made a live performance of "Tear Away" with a video package playing in the background. After the performance, the show cut to backstage where Crash Holly and Spike Dudley continued to fight. Al Snow tried to interfere by driving a golf cart (along with referee Theodore Long) towards the two but ended up crashing into some boxes. Spike successfully fought off Holly by throwing him into a steel door, but ended up getting kicked by The Hurricane who swung off a rope. Hurricane then pinned Spike to become the new Hardcore Champion.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: Next, Kurt Angle fought Kane. During the match, Angle executed Kane's signature flying clothesline. Confidently, Angle tried another, but Kane countered with a clothesline of his own. Later on, Kane attempted a "Tombstone Piledriver", but Angle grabbed Kane's mask, distracting him enough for Angle to execute an "Angle Slam". Angle applied the ankle lock on Kane, which was stopped when Kane reached the ropes. With Angle still holding the foot, Kane used the other foot to perform an enzuigiri. A top rope attack by Kane was prevented when Angle rushed to the corner and executed a belly to belly suplex on him. Kane tried a chokeslam but Angle reversed it into a roll-up using the ropes to win the match.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: After that, Ric Flair took on The Undertaker in a no disqualification match. The match started with a brawl outside the ring with Flair's back getting smashed into the ring post. Undertaker tried Old School but Flair pulled him down. Later, Flair locked Undertaker in a figure-four leglock, which Undertaker countered by executing a chokeslam. Arn Anderson interfered and executed a spinebuster on The Undertaker. Flair pinned Undertaker for a near-fall and Undertaker locked Anderson in a Dragon sleeper but Flair hit Undertaker with a chair. The Undertaker retaliated with a big boot and failed to perform a "Last Ride" attempt due to exhaustion, but Undertaker executed the "Tombstone Piledriver" on Flair and pinned him to increase his WrestleMania winning streak to 10–0.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: In the sixth match, Edge faced Booker T. Booker T gained the advantage early on in the match. However, Edge recovered by countering Booker's top rope attack with a hurricanrana and followed this up with a spinning heel kick off the top rope. Booker T executed a "Scissors Kick", for a near-fall while Edge delivered a spear for a near fall. After performing his own version of Booker's Spinaroonie, Edge won the match with an "Edgecution". Backstage, a cautious Hurricane was interviewed by Jonathan Coachman about winning the Hardcore Championship. The Hurricane's sidekick, Mighty Molly, appeared and suggested the two should go to their Hurri-Cycle. Just as Hurricane headed to that direction, Molly smashed a frying pan onto the back of his head and pinned him to become the new Hardcore Champion.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: Next, Stone Cold Steve Austin wrestled Scott Hall. With Kevin Nash in Hall's corner, Austin was left having to fend off both wrestlers. The nWo's teamwork enabled Hall to give Austin an Irish whip into an exposed turnbuckle. Austin executed a "Stunner" on Hall but Nash pulled the referee out of the ring to break the count and attacked Austin. Austin delivered a Stunner to both Nash and Hall but another pin attempt on Hall was prevented when Nash elbow dropped the second referee. Hall's "Razor's Edge" attempt was reversed by Austin into a back drop outside of the ring. Eventually, Nash was forced to leave the stadium by WWF officials. Hall then executed a stunner on Austin for a near-fall but Austin retaliated with two stunners for the win.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: After that, a four corners elimination match pitted for the WWF Tag Team Champions, Billy and Chuck, against the APA, The Dudley Boyz, and The Hardy Boyz. For the Dudleys' entrance, Saliva performed their theme, "Turn the Tables", live. The APA were quickly eliminated when D-Von Dudley pinned Bradshaw following a "3D" from both Dudleys. The Dudleys then set up a table outside. Stacy Keibler, valet for the Dudley Boyz, tried to distract Jeff Hardy, by showing him her thong, but Hardy spanked and kissed her before shoving her off the ring apron. The Dudleys tried to go for a "Whassup" headbutt, but Billy pushed D-Von off the top rope, sending him crashing through the table outside. Bubba Ray Dudley was then given a "Twist of Fate" by Matt Hardy followed by a "Swanton Bomb" from Jeff. Matt then covered Bubba Ray to eliminate The Dudley Boyz. Billy and Chuck retained their titles when Billy hit Jeff with one of the tag team title belts, enabling Chuck to pin him. Backstage, the battle for the Hardcore Championship continued when Mighty Molly ran straight into the top half of a dutch door shutting. Christian then pinned her to win the title.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: Next, The Rock faced Hollywood Hogan in a match dubbed as ""Icon vs. Icon"". Despite Rock portraying a face and Hogan a heel, the Canadian crowd cheered Hulk Hogan over The Rock instead. During the match, The Rock applied the Sharpshooter but the referee was down and unable to acknowledge a submission. The Rock released the hold and tried to revive the referee, but Hogan hit a low blow and a "Rock Bottom" for a near-fall. The two tried their respective finishers, the "Rock Bottom" and the leg drop, but each kicked out. After two more "Rock Bottoms" and a "People's Elbow", The Rock pinned Hogan and won the match. After the match, the two shook hands with respect. As The Rock left the ring, Kevin Nash and Scott Hall came and attacked Hogan, ending Hogan's involvement in the nWo. The Rock returned and saved Hogan from further attack. As a sign of respect, The Rock stopped Hulk from leaving the ring and asked him to pose for the crowd, turning Hogan into a face for the first time since 1999. Hogan gave an interview in 2013 which indicated that he and The Rock changed the thrust of the match on the fly based on the crowd's response.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: In the penultimate match Jazz defended the WWF Women's Championship in a triple threat match against Trish Stratus and Lita. Near the end of the match, Trish attempted a "Stratusfaction" but Lita threw her out of the ring. With Lita by the corner, Jazz followed and delivered a fisherman superplex, allowing her to pin Lita and retain the title. At the parking lot, Christian was getting ready to leave the stadium in a taxi. However, Maven pulled Christian out and quickly pinned him to win the Hardcore Championship. Maven then hopped into the taxi and left, leaving him the final Hardcore Champion of the night.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: In the main event, Chris Jericho defended the Undisputed WWF Championship against Triple H. For his entrance, Triple H had Drowning Pool perform their version of his theme song, "The Game", live. With Triple H's leg bandaged, both Jericho and Stephanie McMahon gave numerous shots at the leg during the match. Triple H outsmarted the two by dodging Jericho's attack, causing him to collide with Stephanie, who was standing on the apron. Outside the ring, Triple H went for the "Pedigree" on Jericho through an announce table but Jericho countered into a back body drop through the Spanish announce table. Stephanie tried to hit Triple H with a chair when referee Earl Hebner interceded. Stephanie pushed Hebner aside but was met by a "Pedigree" from Triple H. Jericho then struck Triple H in the head with the chair while Hebner was attending to Stephanie for an unsuccessful pinfall attempt. Jericho then tried a "Pedigree" on Triple H, but the latter reversed it into a catapult into the turnbuckle. Triple H executed the "Pedigree" on Jericho and pinned him to win the title.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: WrestleMania X8 was met with a generally positive critical reception. Writing for SLAM! Wrestling, John Powell gave the overall event 7 out of 10 stars, which was a lower rating than the previous year's event. The main event between Chris Jericho and Triple H for the Undisputed WWF Championship received the highest rating out of all the matches on the card of 8 out of 10 stars, the match between The Rock and Hollywood Hogan received a rating of 7 out of 10 stars, the match between Stone Cold Steve Austin and Scott Hall received a rating of 6 out of 10 stars, the no disqualification match between The Undertaker and Ric Flair was rated 7.5 out of 10 stars and the four corners elimination match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between Billy and Chuck, The APA, The Hardy Boyz, and The Dudley Boyz being rated 5 out of 10 stars.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: According to Chris Jericho, he tried to not be the last match of the card despite being the Undisputed Champion. According to him, the true main event was Rock vs. Hogan and Triple H and he could not follow that match.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: After WrestleMania, the WWF board of directors made their final decision over the control of the company. Due to the conflicts between Mr. McMahon and Ric Flair making bad business, Linda McMahon proposed a brand extension, essentially splitting the entire WWF roster into two separate entities, named after their two major television shows, "Raw" and "SmackDown!". Vince took control of the SmackDown! brand while Flair controlled the Raw brand. A draft was held with each owner would get a total of thirty picks between the wrestlers. The draft was held on the March 25 episode of "Raw", while the brand extension officially began on April 1.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: Triple H's feud with Stephanie would conclude on the March 25 episode of "Raw" when he defeated her and Chris Jericho in a triple threat match for the Undisputed WWF Championship. By pinning her, Stephanie was forced to leave the WWF in accordance with the match stipulations. Triple H's feud with Jericho would continue with Jericho and The Undertaker interfering with Triple H's championship match at Backlash against Hollywood Hulk Hogan and costing him the Undisputed WWF Championship. Triple H would finish his feud with Jericho in a Hell in a Cell match at Judgment Day and challenged The Undertaker for the Undisputed WWE Championship at King of the Ring, but lost after interference from the returning Rock.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: Until the brand extension separated both parties, The Rock and Hollywood Hogan feuded with Kevin Nash and Scott Hall, with the latter two having had expelled Hogan from the nWo. On the final "SmackDown!" before the brand extension, the team of Rock, Hogan and Kane defeated Nash, Hall and new nWo member X-Pac in a six-man tag match. The Rock left shortly after the WWF draft for three months to go on a media tour to promote his movie, "The Scorpion King".


title: WrestleMania X8

text: Stone Cold Steve Austin no-showed the following two weeks, claiming to be burned out. When he returned, on the April 1 episode of "Raw", the show was centered on which brand he would choose. Both McMahon and Flair would attempt to win his signature, with Austin eventually choosing the Raw brand. After being drafted to Raw, Austin would get himself involved in the feud between The Undertaker and Ric Flair, fighting Undertaker at Backlash for an Undisputed WWF Championship shot, which he would lose. The storyline itself evolved into a feud between Austin and Flair, with the nWo's involvement on Flair's behalf.


title: WrestleMania X8

text: WrestleMania X8 was the last WrestleMania held before the introduction of the brand extension on March 25, which split the roster between the Raw and SmackDown! brands, where wrestlers were exclusively assigned to perform. It was also the last WrestleMania held under the WWF name, as the company was renamed to World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) in May.


title: Mauser

text: Mauser, originally Königlich Württembergische Gewehrfabrik ("Royal Württemberg Rifle Factory"), was a German arms manufacturer. Their line of bolt-action rifles and semi-automatic pistols has been produced since the 1870s for the German armed forces. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Mauser designs were also exported and licensed to many countries which adopted them as military and civilian sporting firearms. The Gewehr 98 in particular was widely adopted and copied, and is the foundation of many of today's sporting bolt-action rifles.


title: Mauser

text: King Frederick I founded the enterprise as Königliche Waffen Schmieden (literally: Royal Weapons Forges) on 31 July 1811. Originally located partly at Ludwigsburg and partly in Christophsthal, the factory transferred to the former Augustine Cloister in Oberndorf am Neckar, where Andreas Mauser worked as the master gunsmith. Of his seven sons who worked with him there, Peter Paul Mauser showed an outstanding ability to develop methods of operation that were faster and more efficient. His older brother Wilhelm assumed many of his father's duties as he became ill.


title: Mauser

text: Peter Paul Mauser, often referred to as Paul Mauser, was born on 27 June 1838, in Oberndorf am Neckar, Württemberg. His brother Wilhelm was four years older. Another brother, Franz Mauser, went to America in 1853 with his sister and worked at E. Remington & Sons.


title: Mauser

text: Peter Paul was conscripted in 1859 as an artilleryman at the Ludwigsburg arsenal, where he worked as a gunsmith. By December 1859 he had so impressed his superiors that he was placed on inactive military service and assigned to the royal factory at Oberndorf. Paul engaged his older brother Wilhelm in working on a new gun system in their spare time after work. Paul was the engineer and designer but Wilhelm took on the task of manager for their interests with the Oberndorf factory.


title: Mauser

text: Paul's first invention was a cannon and its ammunition. During his entire career he had a unique ability to produce both the gun and the ammunition for it. Following the success of the Dreyse needle gun ("Zündnadelgewehr") Paul turned his energies to improving on that design and producing a new one. Paul and Wilhelm had separated due to differences during this time. After Paul developed a new turning-bolt design, Wilhelm was impressed enough to rejoin the business and succeeded in obtaining the financing to purchase machinery and continue development. While the original needle gun used a pin that pierced the base of the cartridge to ignite the primer in the middle, Mauser soon developed a needle that ignited the charge at the base, a superior design.


title: Mauser

text: Locally the Dreyse needle gun had just been adopted, so the brothers turned to the Austrian ambassador to try to sell their own gun. He forwarded their new gun to Vienna for testing. It was here that American Norris of the Remington company saw the new Mauser rifle design. In 1867 Norris hired the Mauser brothers to go to Liège to work on a new design. He also stipulated that patents were to be taken out in his name and that a royalty would be paid to the Mauser brothers for rifles sold. Norris was convinced that he could sell the design to the French to convert their Chassepot rifles. The Norris-Mauser patent was taken out in the United States. Remington was outraged at the behavior of Norris and never made an effort to sell the new rifle.


title: Mauser

text: Based on the Dreyse needle gun, he developed a rifle with a turn-bolt mechanism that cocked the gun as it was manipulated by the user. The rifle initially used a firing needle; a later version used a firing pin and a rear-ignition cartridge. The rifle was shown to the Austrian War Ministry by Samuel Norris of E. Remington & Sons. Norris believed the design could be adapted to convert Chassepot needle guns to fire metallic cartridges. Shortly thereafter, a partnership was formed in Oberndorf between Norris and the Mauser brothers. The partners went to Liège in 1867, but when the French government showed no interest in a Chassepot conversion, the partnership dissolved. Paul Mauser returned to Oberndorf in December 1869, and Wilhelm arrived in April 1870. Before leaving Liège, the Mausers insisted that he submit the rifle to Royal Prussian School of Riflemanship. The results were impressive and Wilhelm was invited to the arsenal at Spandau.


title: Mauser

text: Peter Paul and Wilhelm Mauser continued development of their new rifle in Paul's father-in-law's home. The Mauser rifle was accepted by the Prussian government on 2 December 1871, and was accepted for service until 14 February 1872, after a requested design change to the safety lock. The Mauser brothers received an order for 3,000 rifle sights, but actual production of the rifle was given to government arsenals and large firms. The sights were produced at the Xaver Jauch house starting 1 May 1872. After an order for 100,000 rifle sights was received from the Bavarian Rifle Factory at Amberg, the Mauser brothers began negotiations to purchase the Württemberg Royal Armoury. A delay in the purchase forced them to buy real estate overlooking the Neckar River Valley, where the upper works was built that same year. A house in Oberndorf was also rented to fulfill the Bavarian order.


title: Mauser

text: The Königlich Württembergische Gewehrfabrik was acquired on May 23, 1874, after an agreement between the Württemberg government and the Mausers to produce 100,000 Model 71 rifles. The partnership of Mauser Brothers and Company was formed between the Württemberg Vereinsbank of Stuttgart and Paul and Wilhelm Mauser on February 5, 1874. By 23 May 1874, the Mauser partnership had three factories in Oberndorf.


title: Mauser

text: Wilhelm Mauser suffered from health problems throughout his life, which were aggravated by his frequent business travels. A combination of these led to his death on 13 January 1882. The partnership became a stock company with the name of Waffenfabrik Mauser on 1 April 1884. The shares held by the Württemberg Vereinsbank and Paul Mauser were sold to Ludwig Löwe & Company on 28 December 1887, and Paul Mauser stayed as the technical leader. Ludwig Löwe & Company was fifty per cent owner of Fabrique Nationale d'Armes de Guerre, a company formed in 1889 to manufacture Mauser rifles for the Belgian government. Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken A.G. (DWM) formed on 7 November 1896 as a merger of Ludwig Löwe & Company A.G., Deutsche Metallpatronenfabrik A.G., Rheinisch-Westfälischen Powder Company, and Rottweil-Hamburg Powder Company. Mauser A.G. was formed on 23 April 1897. After World War II, DWM was renamed Industrie-Werke Karlsruhe A.G. (IWK).


title: Mauser

text: Mausers were readily adapted as hunting rifles; in Africa, safari rifles were often made from Mausers. These rifles were often rechambered in larger rounds up to and including .50 caliber (12.7 mm). The adaptations usually consisted of shortening the foregrip and barrel, rechambering to accommodate popular British rounds, and minor alterations to the action. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, companies that made alterations were generally Commonwealth-based. Several proprietary big-game rounds were specifically for hunting large and dangerous game. Today, large- and small-bore Mauser-derived rifles are made all over the world for the civilian market and are popular with hunters.


title: Mauser

text: Surplus military Mausers, many in mint condition, have also entered the civilian market, to be purchased by collectors and gun owners. A considerable number of surplus Karabiner 98ks were available after World War II, and some were used by Schultz & Larsen in Denmark as the basis for target rifles. Some of these are still in competitive use, although with the benefit of new barrels.


title: Mauser

text: The strong following enjoyed by surplus military Mausers is partly a testament to their reliability and quality of manufacture. Additionally, the comparative low cost of surplus military ammunition has served to continue their use by shooting enthusiasts, however, in recent years it is becoming more difficult to obtain as stocks dry up. That being said, vintage surplus ammunition usually requires specialized cleaning regimens to prevent aggressive and rapid metal oxidation caused by corrosive salts (moisture attracting) contained in their priming compounds. Care must be taken to thoroughly and promptly clean and neutralize these salts after firing corrosive ammunition, lest the weapon suffer metal and mechanical damage.


title: Mauser

text: The first Western-made handguns introduced into South Asia were made by the Mauser company, and the term has entered the lexicon in India and the surrounding regions, to mean any heavy pistol.


title: Mauser

text: Between 1867 and 1869, the Mauser brothers and Samuel Norris developed a single-shot bolt-action rifle. The caliber and number produced are not known. Ludwig Olson wrote that an example had at one time been on display at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. The rifle was patented in Austria by Samuel Norris on 24 December 1867. The bolt head did not rotate, a feature chosen by Paul Mauser to "protect the heads of paper cartridges from friction and possible damage while locking the bolt, and to provide a non-rotary seat for the extractor when metallic cartridges were used."


title: Mauser

text: An improved version of the rifle used a coil spring wrapped around the firing pin and a safety and a cocking piece attached to the rear of the firing pin. This rifle was shown to the Prussian government, and after some design changes to the safety, was accepted for service as the Infantry Rifle Model 71 on 14 February 1872. Although it is sometimes considered a close relative of the Chassepot rifle, and borrowing Dreyse's turning-bolt action lock, the most innovative features of the new weapon were the work of Peter Paul Mauser.


title: Mauser

text: The Mauser Model 1871 was the Mauser brothers' first rifle. It was adopted by the German Empire (except for the Kingdom of Bavaria) as the Gewehr 71 or Infanterie-Gewehr 71 (I.G.Mod.71 was engraved on the rifles). Production began at the Oberndorf factory for the infantry version, which fired a black powder 11×60mm round from a long barrel. Shorter versions were introduced with the barreled Jäger and cavalry carbine.


title: Mauser

text: Slightly modified versions were widely sold to other countries, firing bullets that would today be considered very large, typically 9.5mm to 11.5mm. Such large bullets were necessary due to the limitations of black powder, which hindered velocities. Serbia designed an improved version of the Model 71 in 10.15mm, made in Germany and called the Mauser-Milovanović M1878/80. In 1884 an 8-shot tubular magazine was added by Mauser to the Model 71/84. The Turkish model 1887 rifle was the first of a series of rifles produced for the Turkish Army. Its design echoed that of the German Gewehr 71/84 service rifle: a bolt-action weapon with a tubular magazine beneath the barrel. The Turkish contract specified that if any other nation ordered Mauser rifles with more advanced technology, that design would be used in the Model 1887 to fill the remainder of the Turkish order. This clause was utilized after Belgium adopted the Model 1889 rifle.


title: Mauser

text: After the Mauser brothers finished work on the Model 71/84 in 1880, the design team set out to create a small caliber repeater that used smokeless powder. Because of setbacks brought on by Wilhelm Mauser's death, they failed to have the design completed by 1882, and the German Rifle Test Commission ("Gewehr-Prüfungskommission") was formed. The commission preferred to create their own design. Paul Mauser created two different variations of the same rifle, one with a stock strengthened with a barrel shroud and a traditional design following the layout of the 71 series in hope he might be able to overturn the commission's decision, or at least sell his design to the Kingdom of Bavaria, which adopted its own arms. The two rifles became known as the 89 Belgian (with a barrel shroud) and the 91 Argentine (with a 71 layout) Mausers, identical in their function and feed system. The main features were the ability to use stripper clips to feed the magazine (a revolution in rate of fire), and its rimless 7.65×53mm Mauser ammunition, advanced for the time.


title: Mauser

text: The system proved impressive at the 1884 Bavarian Arms Trials. Both firearms were a success, but decision-makers were not convinced that the stripper feed was superior to the en-bloc system employed by Mannlicher. In response, Mauser started small-scale production of the design in an effort to interest foreign nations, but failed to convince any of the European major powers.


title: Mauser

text: The Belgian attache, however, urged his government to contact Mauser, hoping the design might give them a chance to found a domestic arms industry. The heavy-barreled Mauser with the barrel shroud resulted in the founding of arms manufacturer FN Herstal. FN could not keep up with orders, so they outsourced production to the Birmingham Small Arms Company in England.


title: Mauser

text: The Belgians' talks with Mauser prompted the Ottoman Empire to consider the design. In the end they ordered their own simpler variation of the 91 Argentine Mauser known as the 90 Turkish. While this was taking place, the Argentine Small Arms Commission contacted Mauser in 1886 to replace their Model 71s; since they wished to keep retraining of their armed forces to a minimum, they went for the Mauser 91. As with other early Mausers, most such arms were made by the Ludwig Loewe company, who in 1896 joined with other manufactures to form Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken.


title: Mauser

text: All variations used the same 7.65 mm round-nosed cartridge. Many parts were interchangeable, with the exception of the bayonets of the 89 and 90/91; the barrel shroud made the bayonet ring too wide. The 89 Mauser rejected by Germany in 1884 entered service in 1940 with the second-line units of Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands and Denmark.


title: Mauser

text: A non-rotating Mauser claw extractor was introduced in the Model 92. Several variations of this model participated in rifle trials for the U.S. Army of that year; the Norwegian Krag–Jørgensen rifle was ultimately chosen.


title: Mauser

text: The Mauser Model 1893 is a bolt-action rifle commonly referred to as the "Spanish Mauser", though the model was adopted by other countries in other calibers, most notably the Ottoman Empire. The M93 introduced a short staggered-column box magazine as standard, holding five smokeless 7×57mm Mauser rounds flush with the bottom of the rifle, which could be reloaded quickly by pushing a strip of rounds from the top of the open bolt. It still had only two locking lugs.


title: Mauser

text: The Swedish army was issued the Model 94. The similar Model 1895 was sold to Mexico, Chile, Uruguay, China, Persia, and the South African states of Transvaal and the Orange Free State (Boers). A safety feature offered by the Model 1895 was a low shoulder at the rear of the receiver, just behind the base of the bolt handle, which would contain the bolt in the unlikely event that the front locking lugs sheared off due to excessive pressure. South African Mausers were highly effective against the British during the Second Boer War; these proved deadly at long ranges, prompting the British to design their own Mauser-inspired high-velocity cartridge and rifle. These rare Mauser carbines and rifles—especially the Model 1895—can be easily identified by the letters "OVS" (Oranje-Vrijstaat [Dutch for "Orange Free State"]) either marked on the weapons' receiver ring and the stock directly below, or otherwise carved into the right side of the buttstock. The British Pattern 1914 Enfield with a Mauser-style lug might have replaced the Lee–Enfield, but the exigencies of World War I prevented this from happening. The Lee–Enfield continued to see service until it was replaced by a semi-automatic L1A1 after World War II. The Germans had faced the U.S. M1917 rifle during World War I, which was the Pattern 14 rifle adapted to fire the U.S. .30-06 cartridge of the American M1903 Springfield rifle.


title: Mauser

text: The Mauser Model 1895 adopted as Fusil Mauser Chileno Mo 1895 by Chilean forces, is a bolt operated magazine fed rifle using the 7×57mm Mauser cartridge. It is the first major modification of the Mauser Model 1893 and was produced by Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken, known as DWM, and Ludwig Loewe Company from 1895 to 1900.


title: Mauser

text: On 3 November 1893, the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway adopted the 6.5×55 mm cartridge. As a result, the Swedes chambered their new service weapons, the m/94 carbine and m/96 rifle, in this round. The rifle action was manufactured relatively unchanged from 1896 to 1944, and the m/94 Carbine, m/96 Rifle, m/38 Short Rifle, and m/41 Sharpshooter models are known by collectors as "Swedish Mausers". They are still sought after by military service rifle shooters and hunters. Initial production of the weapons was in Germany by Waffenfabrik Mauser, with the remainder being manufactured under license by Sweden's state-operated Bofors Carl Gustaf factory. The m/38 short rifle was produced by Husqvarna; additional m/38s were converted from Model 96 rifles.


title: Mauser

text: "Swedish steel" is a term for the steel used by the German Mauser, and later by Swedish manufacturing facilities, to make the m/96 rifles. Swedish iron ore contains the proper percentages of trace elements to make good alloy steel. Thus, though lacking the industrial base necessary for mass-producing steel and iron, the Swedish steel industry developed a niche market for specialty high-strength steel alloys containing nickel, copper, and vanadium. Swedish steels were noted for their strength and corrosion resistance and were especially suited for use in toolmaking, cutlery, and firearms. When Mauser was contracted to fabricate the initial production runs of Swedish Mausers in Germany due to production delays, Sweden required the use of Swedish steel in the manufacturing process. The Swedish Ordnance Office continued to specify the same Swedish steel alloy in Swedish-made Mausers until the last new-production m/38 barrelled actions were completed in 1944.


title: Mauser

text: In 1898 the German Army purchased a Mauser design, the Model 98, which incorporated improvements introduced in earlier models. The weapon was originally chambered for the "Patrone 88" and officially entered German service as the Gew. 98 on April 5, 1898. This remains by far the most successful of the Mauser designs, helped by the onset of two world wars that demanded vast numbers of rifles.


title: Mauser

text: Noticeable changes from previous Mauser rifle models included better ruptured case gas venting, better receiver metallurgy, and a larger diameter receiver ring compared to previous Mauser "small ring" bolt-action designs that had diameter receiver rings for additional strength and safety. Mauser incorporated a third "safety" lug on the bolt body to protect the shooter in the event that one or more of the forward locking lugs failed. In 1903 the improved 7.92×57mm Mauser "S Patrone" "spitzer" (pointed) round was introduced. Mauser had nothing to do with the development of this round. The "S Patrone" provided the accuracy and barrel life improvements the German military was looking for and it was in response to the French adoption of a pointed boat-tail bullet, which offered better external ballistic performance. The bullet diameter was increased from to . Pointed or spitzer bullets give bullets a lower drag coefficient (C) making them decelerate less rapidly and also markedly decreases the lateral drift caused by crosswinds, improving the effective range of the cartridge.


title: Mauser

text: Most existing early Model 98s and many Model 88s were modified before World War I to take the new round, designated "7,9mm" or ""S Patrone"" by the German military. Modified Model 88s can be identified by an "S" on the receiver. Due to the possibility for overpressure from the undersize barrel, the spitzer round cannot safely be used in unmodified guns, particularly with Model 88 rifles.


title: Mauser

text: Paul Mauser died on 29 May 1914, before the start of World War I that August. The war caused a spike in demand for the company's rifles. The 98 carbines were sold, as well as an experimental version with a twenty-rather than five-round box magazine. The extended magazine was not well received, however.


title: Mauser

text: A number of carbine versions known as Karabiner 98s were introduced and used in World War I, some even shorter than the later K.98k. These carbines were originally only distributed to cavalry troops, but later in the war to the special storm troop units as well.


title: Mauser

text: Many military rifles derive from the M98 design. Some of these were German-made by various contractors other than Mauser:


title: Mauser

text: The Mauser 1918 T-Gewehr was the world's first anti-tank rifle—the first rifle designed for the sole purpose of destroying armored targets. The weapon, essentially an enlarged G98, fired 13×92mm (.525-caliber) TuF ("Tank und Flieger", "tanks and aeroplanes") semi-rimmed cartridges. In May 1918, the Mauser Company began mass-producing the Mauser 13mm Tank Abwehr Gewehr Mod. 18 in Oberndorf am Neckar.


title: Mauser

text: Following the collapse of the German Empire after World War I, many countries that were using Mauser models chose to develop, assemble, or modify their own G98-action rifle designs. The most prolific of them were the Czechoslovak M1922 CZ 98 and M1924 CZ and the Belgian Fabrique Nationale M1924 and M1930.


title: Mauser

text: The Belgians and Czechs produced and widely exported their "Mausers" in various calibers throughout the 1920s and 1930s, before their production facilities were absorbed by Nazi Germany to make parts or whole rifles for the German Army. Strictly speaking, these were not "Mauser" rifles, as they were not engineered or produced by the German company.


title: Mauser

text: To take advantage of the widespread and popular German single-shot 8.15×46mmR cartridge for use in a military firearm, a modified Gewehr 98 referred to as a ""Wehrmannsgewehr"" was designed. These were made primarily as single shots; some only had a wood block in the magazine space. These became the 1936 Olympic team rifles for the Germans.


title: Mauser

text: As the restrictions on production were increasingly ignored by the Germans in the 1930s, a new Mauser, the Mauser standard model, was developed from the rifle-length Karabiner 98b. It was nominally intended for export and civilian sales. While many standard model rifles were indeed exported, it was meant primarily for use by the revived German military. It rapidly evolved into the Karabiner 98 Kurz, which was adopted by Nazi Germany as the standard infantry rifle in 1935 and saw service until the end of World War II.


title: Mauser

text: A series of very successful hunting rifles were developed in the first decades of the 20th century. The Special Rifle Type A was the top-of-the-line sporting rifle of the early 20th century. The Model B (B for Büchse) and Model K were sport rifles offered in many configurations. The Model C, made from 1903 to 1930, was a cheap rifle made to accommodate a range of cartridges for hunting. The Mauser Africa Model, introduced around 1904 or 1905, was used mainly by settlers in Africa.


title: Mauser

text: The Mauser M1916, or Mauser "selbstladekarabiner" (self-loading carbine), was a semi-automatic rifle that used a delayed blowback mechanism and fed from 25-round detachable magazine. The process of developing a semi-automatic rifle cost Paul Mauser an eye when a prototype suffered an out-of-battery detonation. The mechanism was quite delicate, working reliably only when completely clean, which made the rifle unsuitable for infantry use. However, the Imperial German Flying Corps adopted the rifle for its aircraft crews in 1915, and more generally in 1916. Aerial combat provided the clean environment the rifle required, and its semi-automatic capability was an advancement over bolt-action rifles.


title: Mauser

text: However, the rifle was expensive to make. The air service turned to the Swiss-produced Mondragón rifle, which was tested by the army; though less accurate than Mauser's design, it cost about a third as much. The widespread adoption of machine guns then made all self-loading rifles obsolete in the air service.


title: Mauser

text: The 1925 Special range rifle was a commercial product introduced in 1925 and sold in the United States. It was intended for high accuracy range shooting. The company also produced a .22 caliber training rifle during this time frame.


title: Mauser

text: The Karabiner 98k "Mauser" (often abbreviated "K98k" or "Kar98k"), adopted in the mid- 1930s, became the most common infantry rifle in service in the German Army during World War II. The design was developed from the Karabiner 98b, one of the carbines developed from the Model 1898. The K98k was first adopted by the "Wehrmacht" in 1935 as their standard issue rifle, with many older versions being converted and shortened.


title: Mauser

text: The Mauser KKW cadet rifle is a single shot, .22 caliber rifle that was introduced in 1938. It is virtually identical to the Karabiner 98k. These cadet rifles were used by all German military, paramilitary and police organizations, especially the Hitler Youth.


title: Mauser

text: The Gewehr 41 rifles, commonly known as the "G41(W)" or "G41(M)", were semi-automatic rifles used by Nazi Germany during World War II. By 1940 the "Wehrmacht" issued a specification to various manufacturers, and Mauser and Walther submitted prototypes that were very similar. Both Gewehr 41 models used a mechanism known as the "Bang" system (named after the designer of the M1922 Bang rifle). In this system, gases from the bullet were trapped near the muzzle in a ring-shaped cone, which in turn pulled on a long piston rod that opened the breech and re-loaded the gun. Both models also included inbuilt 10-round magazines that were loaded using two of the stripper clips from the Karabiner 98k, utilizing 7.92×57mm Mauser rounds, which made reloading relatively slow. The Mauser design, the G41(M), failed as it, along with its G41(W) counterpart, suffered from gas system fouling problems. Only 6,673 G41(M) rifles were produced before production was halted, and of these, 1,673 were returned as unusable.


title: Mauser

text: The Mauser C78 zig-zag was a revolver manufactured by Mauser during the late 19th century. It was Paul Mauser's first handgun design.


title: Mauser

text: Mauser branched out into pistol design in 1896, producing the C96, commonly known as "broomhandle," designed by the three brothers Fidel, Friedrich, and Josef Feederle (often erroneously spelled "Federle"). All versions used detachable shoulder stock holsters. Over a million C96s were produced between 1896 and the late 1930s.


title: Mauser

text: The Mauser Model 1910 was a small self-loading pistol chambered for .25 ACP (6.35 mm). It was introduced in 1910; an updated model chambered for .32 ACP (7.65 mm), the Mauser Model 1914, came out in 1914. Most of these were used by the "Wehrmacht" and the "Kriegsmarine". They were also sold commercially.


title: Mauser

text: This was a small pocket pistol chambered for .32 ACP (7.65 mm) based on the earlier Model 1910/14. The Mauser Model 1934 is virtually identical to the 1914 except for the grip, which has a more curved back. It was used by the "Kriegsmarine" and was also sold commercially.


title: Mauser

text: The Mauser HSc was a self-loading handgun introduced in the 1940s. It was a compact double-action blowback design in .32 ACP. Production ran from 1940 until the end of World War II, and into the 1960s and early 1970s. The post-war models were also available in .380 ACP.


title: Mauser

text: In 1940 the Mauser Company was invited to take part in a competition to re-equip the German Army with a semi-automatic rifle, the Gewehr 41. A number of impractical requirements were specified, including that the design should not use holes drilled into the barrel to take off gas for the operating mechanism, thereby requiring mechanisms that proved unreliable. Two designs were submitted, and the Mauser version, the G 41(M), failed miserably in testing. It was canceled after a short production run. The resulting design did not see real success before it was switched to a simpler gas-operated system in the Gewehr 43. During World War II, the Mauser factory in Oberndorf was strategically bombed by the Allies, resulting in the deaths of 26 workers and the destruction of the company's power plant. French forces entered Oberndorf (which they subsequently occupied for some time) on 20 April 1945 when the town's mayor and planning committee surrendered without any resistance; no blood was shed there on that day.


title: Mauser

text: After the war in Europe, the factory was briefly put back in order to produce weapons for the now under-equipped and exhausted French military. The plant was dismantled by the occupying forces for the purpose of war reparations, most factory buildings (approximately 60% in total) were demolished and the records destroyed on orders of the local French Army commander. For a number of years, Mauser Werke manufactured precision measurement instruments and tools, such as micrometers. Edmund Heckler, Theodor Koch, and Alex Seidel, former Mauser engineers, saved what they could and founded Heckler & Koch, which has since become Germany's main small-arms manufacturer. Mauser continued to make hunting and sporting rifles. In 1994, it became a subsidiary of Rheinmetall, a manufacturer of autocannons such as the Mauser BK-27 and other munitions until 2004, when it was merged into Rheinmetall Waffe Munition GmbH. In 1999 the civilian manufacture of hunting, defense, and sporting rifles were split off from Rheinmetall.


title: Mauser

text: Peter Mauser designed the 7.65×53mm Mauser (1889) and 7×57mm Mauser (1892) rifle cartridges. These cartridges were chambered in military Mauser service rifles and were high-performance service cartridge designs compared to other contemporary smokeless powder service cartridges such as the 8mm Lebel (1886), 8×50mmR Mannlicher (1890) and .303 British (1891). Mauser also developed the 6.5x57mm, about 1890, and the 6x57mm, about 1895, both not used by any military, but saw use as hunting cartridges. The 6.5x57mm probably influenced the design of several 6.5 military cartridges. The 6x57mm became obsolete.


title: Mauser

text: A rifle design by Walter Gehmann was purchased, and went into production in 1965 as the model 66. Some self-loading pistols were also offered, such as the Mauser HSc.


title: Mauser

text: In 1995 the firearms division of Mauser was bought by Rheinmetall Berlin AG; the sale was completed in 1996 and the company is named Mauser-Werke Oberndorf Waffensysteme GmbH. Rheinmetall Berlin AG was renamed Rheinmetall AG in the same year.


title: Mauser

text: In 1999 part of Mauser was sold to Schweizerische Industrie Gesellschaft (SIG) (no longer in the arms industry). This became Mauser Jagdwaffen GmbH. The division owned by Rheinmetall was named Mauser-Werke Oberndorf Waffensysteme GmbH.


title: Mauser

text: In 2000 Mauser Jagdwaffen GmbH was sold to Luke & Ortmeier Group during the divestiture by SIG of all its firearms businesses, but remains an operation.


title: Mauser

text: In 2004 Rheinmetall Waffen Munition GmbH was formed by a merger of Rheinmetall W & M GmbH, Mauser-Werke Oberndorf Waffensysteme GmbH, Buck Neue Technologien GmbH, Pyrotechnik Silberhütte GmbH and the NICO pyrotechnics Hanns-Jürgen Diederichs GmbH & Co. KG.


title: Mauser

text: Note: The reference from Sportsmansvintagepress is a reprint of the W.H.B. Smith: "Mauser Rifles and Pistols"


title: Magnetite

text: Magnetite is a mineral and one of the main iron ores, with the chemical formula FeFeO. It is one of the oxides of iron, and is ferrimagnetic; it is attracted to a magnet and can be magnetized to become a permanent magnet itself. With the exception of extremely rare native iron deposits, it is the most magnetic of all the naturally occurring minerals on Earth. Naturally magnetized pieces of magnetite, called lodestone, will attract small pieces of iron, which is how ancient peoples first discovered the property of magnetism.


title: Magnetite

text: Magnetite is black or brownish-black with a metallic luster, has a Mohs hardness of 5–6 and leaves a black streak. Small grains of magnetite are very common in igneous and metamorphic rocks.


title: Magnetite

text: The chemical IUPAC name is iron(II,III) oxide and the common chemical name is "ferrous-ferric oxide".


title: Magnetite

text: In addition to igneous rocks, magnetite also occurs in sedimentary rocks, including banded iron formations and in lake and marine sediments as both detrital grains and as magnetofossils. Magnetite nanoparticles are also thought to form in soils, where they probably oxidize rapidly to maghemite.


title: Magnetite

text: The chemical composition of magnetite is Fe(Fe)(O). This indicates that magnetite contains both ferrous (divalent) and ferric (trivalent) iron, suggesting crystallization in an environment containing intermediate levels of oxygen. The main details of its structure were established in 1915. It was one of the first crystal structures to be obtained using X-ray diffraction. The structure is inverse spinel, with O ions forming a face-centered cubic lattice and iron cations occupying interstitial sites. Half of the Fe cations occupy tetrahedral sites while the other half, along with Fe cations, occupy octahedral sites. The unit cell consists of 32O ions and unit cell length is "a" = 0.839 nm.


title: Magnetite

text: As a member of the inverse spinel group, magnetite can form solid solutions with similarly structured minerals, including ulvospinel () and magnesioferrite ().


title: Magnetite

text: Titanomagnetite, also known as titaniferous magnetite, is a solid solution between magnetite and ulvospinel that crystallizes in many mafic igneous rocks. Titanomagnetite may undergo oxyexsolution during cooling, resulting in ingrowths of magnetite and ilmenite.


title: Magnetite

text: Natural and synthetic magnetite occurs most commonly as octahedral crystals bounded by {111} planes and as rhombic-dodecahedra. Twinning occurs on the {111} plane.


title: Magnetite

text: Hydrothermal synthesis usually produces single octahedral crystals which can be as large as across. In the presence of mineralizers such as 0.1M HI or 2M NHCl and at 0.207MPa at 416–800 °C, magnetite grew as crystals whose shapes were a combination of rhombic-dodechahedra forms. The crystals were more rounded than usual. The appearance of higher forms was considered as a result from a decrease in the surface energies caused by the lower surface to volume ratio in the rounded crystals.


title: Magnetite

text: Magnetite has been important in understanding the conditions under which rocks form. Magnetite reacts with oxygen to produce hematite, and the mineral pair forms a buffer that can control how oxidizing its environment is (the oxygen fugacity). This buffer is known as the hematite-magnetite or HM buffer. At lower oxygen levels, magnetite can form a buffer with quartz and fayalite known as the QFM buffer. At still lower oxygen levels, magnetite forms a buffer with wüstite known as the MW buffer. The QFM and MW buffers have been used extensively in laboratory experiments on rock chemistry. The QFM buffer, in particular, produces an oxygen fugacity close to that of most igneous rocks.


title: Magnetite

text: Commonly, igneous rocks contain solid solutions of both titanomagnetite and hemoilmenite or titanohematite. Compositions of the mineral pairs are used to calculate oxygen fugacity: a range of oxidizing conditions are found in magmas and the oxidation state helps to determine how the magmas might evolve by fractional crystallization. Magnetite also is produced from peridotites and dunites by serpentinization.


title: Magnetite

text: Lodestones were used as an early form of magnetic compass. Magnetite has been a critical tool in paleomagnetism, a science important in understanding plate tectonics and as historic data for magnetohydrodynamics and other scientific fields.


title: Magnetite

text: The relationships between magnetite and other iron oxide minerals such as ilmenite, hematite, and ulvospinel have been much studied; the reactions between these minerals and oxygen influence how and when magnetite preserves a record of the Earth's magnetic field.


title: Magnetite

text: At low temperatures, magnetite undergoes a crystal structure phase transition from a monoclinic structure to a cubic structure known as the Verwey transition. Optical studies show that this metal to insulator transition is sharp and occurs around 120K. The Verwey transition is dependent on grain size, domain state, pressure, and the iron-oxygen stoichiometry. An isotropic point also occurs near the Verwey transition around 130K, at which point the sign of the magnetocrystalline anisotropy constant changes from positive to negative. The Curie temperature of magnetite is .


title: Magnetite

text: If magnetite is in a large enough quantity it can be found in aeromagnetic surveys using a magnetometer which measures magnetic intensities.


title: Magnetite

text: Magnetite is sometimes found in large quantities in beach sand. Such black sands (mineral sands or iron sands) are found in various places, such as Lung Kwu Tan of Hong Kong; California, United States; and the west coast of the North Island of New Zealand. The magnetite, eroded from rocks, is carried to the beach by rivers and concentrated by wave action and currents. Huge deposits have been found in banded iron formations. These sedimentary rocks have been used to infer changes in the oxygen content of the atmosphere of the Earth.


title: Magnetite

text: Large deposits of magnetite are also found in the Atacama region of Chile (Chilean Iron Belt); the Valentines region of Uruguay; Kiruna, Sweden; the Tallawang Region of New South Wales; and in the Adirondack region of New York in the United States. Kediet ej Jill, the highest mountain of Mauritania, is made entirely of the mineral. Deposits are also found in Norway, Romania, and Ukraine. Magnetite-rich sand dunes are found in southern Peru. In 2005, an exploration company, Cardero Resources, discovered a vast deposit of magnetite-bearing sand dunes in Peru. The dune field covers 250 square kilometers (100 sq mi), with the highest dune at over 2,000 meters (6,560 ft) above the desert floor. The sand contains 10% magnetite.


title: Magnetite

text: In large enough quantities magnetite can affect compass navigation. In Tasmania there are many areas with highly magnetized rocks that can greatly influence compasses. Extra steps and repeated observations are required when using a compass in Tasmania to keep navigation problems to the minimum.


title: Magnetite

text: Magnetite crystals with a cubic habit are rare but have been found at Balmat, St. Lawrence County, New York, and at Långban, Sweden. This habit may be a result of crystallization in the presence of cations such as zinc.


title: Magnetite

text: Magnetite can also be found in fossils due to biomineralization and are referred to as magnetofossils. There are also instances of magnetite with origins in space coming from meteorites.


title: Magnetite

text: Biomagnetism is usually related to the presence of biogenic crystals of magnetite, which occur widely in organisms. These organisms range from magnetotactic bacteria (e.g., "Magnetospirillum magnetotacticum") to animals, including humans, where magnetite crystals (and other magnetically sensitive compounds) are found in different organs, depending on the species. Biomagnetites account for the effects of weak magnetic fields on biological systems. There is also a chemical basis for cellular sensitivity to electric and magnetic fields (galvanotaxis).


title: Magnetite

text: Pure magnetite particles are biomineralized in magnetosomes, which are produced by several species of magnetotactic bacteria. Magnetosomes consist of long chains of oriented magnetite particle that are used by bacteria for navigation. After the death of these bacteria, the magnetite particles in magnetosomes may be preserved in sediments as magnetofossils. Some types of anaerobic bacteria that are not magnetotactic can also create magnetite in oxygen free sediments by reducing amorphic ferric oxide to magnetite.


title: Magnetite

text: Several species of birds are known to incorporate magnetite crystals in the upper beak for magnetoreception, which (in conjunction with cryptochromes in the retina) gives them the ability to sense the direction, polarity, and magnitude of the ambient magnetic field.


title: Magnetite

text: Chitons, a type of mollusk, have a tongue-like structure known as a radula, covered with magnetite-coated teeth, or denticles. The hardness of the magnetite helps in breaking down food.


title: Magnetite

text: Biological magnetite may store information about the magnetic fields the organism was exposed to, potentially allowing scientists to learn about the migration of the organism or about changes in the Earth's magnetic field over time.


title: Magnetite

text: Living organisms can produce magnetite. In humans, magnetite can be found in various parts of the brain including the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, brainstem, cerebellum and basal ganglia. Iron can be found in three forms in the brain – magnetite, hemoglobin (blood) and ferritin (protein), and areas of the brain related to motor function generally contain more iron. Magnetite can be found in the hippocampus. The hippocampus is associated with information processing, specifically learning and memory. However, magnetite can have toxic effects due to its charge or magnetic nature and its involvement in oxidative stress or the production of free radicals. Research suggests that beta-amyloid plaques and tau proteins associated with neurodegenerative disease frequently occur after oxidative stress and the build-up of iron.


title: Magnetite

text: Some researchers also suggest that humans possess a magnetic sense, proposing that this could allow certain people to use magnetoreception for navigation. The role of magnetite in the brain is still not well understood, and there has been a general lag in applying more modern, interdisciplinary techniques to the study of biomagnetism.


title: Magnetite

text: Electron microscope scans of human brain-tissue samples are able to differentiate between magnetite produced by the body's own cells and magnetite absorbed from airborne pollution, the natural forms being jagged and crystalline, while magnetite pollution occurs as rounded nanoparticles. Potentially a human health hazard, airborne magnetite is a result of pollution (specifically combustion). These nanoparticles can travel to the brain via the olfactory nerve, increasing the concentration of magnetite in the brain. In some brain samples, the nanoparticle pollution outnumbers the natural particles by as much as 100:1, and such pollution-borne magnetite particles may be linked to abnormal neural deterioration. In one study, the characteristic nanoparticles were found in the brains of 37 people: 29 of these, aged 3 to 85, had lived and died in Mexico City, a significant air pollution hotspot. Some of the further eight, aged 62 to 92, from Manchester, England, had died with varying severities of neurodegenerative diseases. Such particles could conceivably contribute to diseases like Alzheimer's disease. Though a causal link has not yet been established, laboratory studies suggest that iron oxides such as magnetite are a component of protein plaques in the brain. Such plaques have been linked to Alzheimer's disease.


title: Magnetite

text: Increased iron levels, specifically magnetic iron, have been found in portions of the brain in Alzheimer's patients. Monitoring changes in iron concentrations may make it possible to detect the loss of neurons and the development of neurodegenerative diseases prior to the onset of symptoms due to the relationship between magnetite and ferritin. In tissue, magnetite and ferritin can produce small magnetic fields which will interact with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) creating contrast. Huntington patients have not shown increased magnetite levels; however, high levels have been found in study mice.


title: Magnetite

text: Due to its high iron content, magnetite has long been a major iron ore. It is reduced in blast furnaces to pig iron or sponge iron for conversion to steel.


title: Magnetite

text: Audio recording using magnetic acetate tape was developed in the 1930s. The German magnetophon utilized magnetite powder as the recording medium. Following World War II, 3M Company continued work on the German design. In 1946, the 3M researchers found they could improve the magnetite-based tape, which utilized powders of cubic crystals, by replacing the magnetite with needle-shaped particles of gamma ferric oxide (γ-FeO).


title: Magnetite

text: Approximately 2–3% of the world's energy budget is allocated to the Haber Process for nitrogen fixation, which relies on magnetite-derived catalysts. The industrial catalyst is obtained from finely ground iron powder, which is usually obtained by reduction of high-purity magnetite. The pulverized iron metal is burnt (oxidized) to give magnetite or wüstite of a defined particle size. The magnetite (or wüstite) particles are then partially reduced, removing some of the oxygen in the process. The resulting catalyst particles consist of a core of magnetite, encased in a shell of wüstite, which in turn is surrounded by an outer shell of iron metal. The catalyst maintains most of its bulk volume during the reduction, resulting in a highly porous high-surface-area material, which enhances its effectiveness as a catalyst.


title: Magnetite

text: Magnetite micro- and nanoparticles are used in a variety of applications, from biomedical to environmental. One use is in water purification: in high gradient magnetic separation, magnetite nanoparticles introduced into contaminated water will bind to the suspended particles (solids, bacteria, or plankton, for example) and settle to the bottom of the fluid, allowing the contaminants to be removed and the magnetite particles to be recycled and reused. This method works with radioactive and carcinogenic particles as well, making it an important cleanup tool in the case of heavy metals introduced into water systems.


title: Magnetite

text: Another application of magnetic nanoparticles is in the creation of ferrofluids. These are used in several ways, in addition to being fun to play with. Ferrofluids can be used for targeted drug delivery in the human body. The magnetization of the particles bound with drug molecules allows "magnetic dragging" of the solution to the desired area of the body. This would allow the treatment of only a small area of the body, rather than the body as a whole, and could be highly useful in cancer treatment, among other things. Ferrofluids are also used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology.


title: Magnetite

text: For the separation of coal from waste, dense medium baths were used. This technique employed the difference in densities between coal (1.3–1.4 tonnes per m³) and shales (2.2–2.4 tonnes per m³). In a medium with intermediate density (water with magnetite), stones sank and coal floated.


title: Austrian School

text: The Austrian School is a heterodox school of economic thought that advocates strict adherence to methodological individualism, the concept that social phenomena result exclusively from the motivations and actions of individuals. Austrian school theorists hold that economic theory should be exclusively derived from basic principles of human action.


title: Austrian School

text: The Austrian School originated in late-19th- and early-20th-century Vienna with the work of Carl Menger, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Friedrich von Wieser, and others. It was methodologically opposed to the Historical School (based in Germany), in a dispute known as "Methodenstreit", or methodology struggle. Current-day economists working in this tradition are located in many different countries, but their work is still referred to as Austrian economics. Among the theoretical contributions of the early years of the Austrian School are the subjective theory of value, marginalism in price theory and the formulation of the economic calculation problem, each of which has become an accepted part of mainstream economics.


title: Austrian School

text: Since the mid-20th century, mainstream economists have been critical of the modern-day Austrian School and consider its rejection of mathematical modeling, econometrics and macroeconomic analysis to be outside mainstream economics, or "heterodox". In the 1970s, the Austrian School attracted some renewed interest after Friedrich Hayek shared the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Gunnar Myrdal.


title: Austrian School

text: The Austrian School owes its name to members of the German historical school of economics, who argued against the Austrians during the late-19th century "Methodenstreit" ("methodology struggle"), in which the Austrians defended the role of theory in economics as distinct from the study or compilation of historical circumstance. In 1883, Menger published "Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics", which attacked the methods of the historical school. Gustav von Schmoller, a leader of the historical school, responded with an unfavorable review, coining the term "Austrian School" in an attempt to characterize the school as outcast and provincial. The label endured and was adopted by the adherents themselves.


title: Austrian School

text: The school originated in Vienna in the Austrian Empire. Carl Menger's 1871 book "Principles of Economics" is generally considered the founding of the Austrian School. The book was one of the first modern treatises to advance the theory of marginal utility. The Austrian School was one of three founding currents of the marginalist revolution of the 1870s, with its major contribution being the introduction of the subjectivist approach in economics.


title: Austrian School

text: Despite such claim, John Stuart Mill had used "value in use" in this sense in 1848 in "Principles of Political Economy", where he wrote: "Value in use, or as Mr. De Quincey calls it, "teleologic" value, is the extreme limit of value in exchange. The exchange value of a thing may fall short, to any amount, of its value in use; but that it can ever exceed the value in use, implies a contradiction; it supposes that persons will give, to possess a thing, more than the utmost value which they themselves put upon it as a means of gratifying their inclinations."


title: Austrian School

text: While marginalism was generally influential, there was also a more specific school that began to coalesce around Menger's work, which came to be known as the "Psychological School", "Vienna School", or "Austrian School". Menger's contributions to economic theory were closely followed by those of Eugen Böhm von Bawerk and Friedrich von Wieser. These three economists became what is known as the "first wave" of the Austrian School. Böhm-Bawerk wrote extensive critiques of Karl Marx in the 1880s and 1890s and was part of the Austrians' participation in the late 19th-century "Methodenstreit", during which they attacked the Hegelian doctrines of the historical school.


title: Austrian School

text: Frank Albert Fetter (1863–1949) was a leader in the United States of Austrian thought. He obtained his PhD in 1894 from the University of Halle and then was made Professor of Political Economy and Finance at Cornell in 1901. Several important Austrian economists trained at the University of Vienna in the 1920s and later participated in private seminars held by Ludwig von Mises. These included Gottfried Haberler, Friedrich Hayek, Fritz Machlup, Karl Menger (son of Carl Menger), Oskar Morgenstern, Paul Rosenstein-Rodan, Abraham Wald, and Michael A. Heilperin, among others, as well as the sociologist Alfred Schütz.


title: Austrian School

text: By the mid-1930s, most economists had embraced what they considered the important contributions of the early Austrians. Fritz Machlup quoted Hayek's statement that "the greatest success of a school is that it stops existing because its fundamental teachings have become parts of the general body of commonly accepted thought". Sometime during the middle of the 20th century, Austrian economics became disregarded or derided by mainstream economists because it rejected model building and mathematical and statistical methods in the study of economics. Mises' student Israel Kirzner recalled that in 1954, when Kirzner was pursuing his PhD, there was no separate Austrian School as such. When Kirzner was deciding which graduate school to attend, Mises had advised him to accept an offer of admission at Johns Hopkins because it was a prestigious university and Fritz Machlup taught there.


title: Austrian School

text: After the 1940s, Austrian economics can be divided into two schools of economic thought and the school "split" to some degree in the late 20th century. One camp of Austrians, exemplified by Mises, regards neoclassical methodology to be irredeemably flawed; the other camp, exemplified by Friedrich Hayek, accepts a large part of neoclassical methodology and is more accepting of government intervention in the economy. Henry Hazlitt wrote economics columns and editorials for a number of publications and wrote many books on the topic of Austrian economics from the 1930s to the 1980s. Hazlitt's thinking was influenced by Mises. His book "Economics in One Lesson" (1946) sold over a million copies and he is also known for "The Failure of the "New Economics"" (1959), a line-by-line critique of John Maynard Keynes's "General Theory".


title: Austrian School

text: The reputation of the Austrian School rose in the late 20th century due in part to the work of Israel Kirzner and Ludwig Lachmann at New York University and to renewed public awareness of the work of Hayek after he won the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. Hayek's work was influential in the revival of "laissez-faire" thought in the 20th century.


title: Austrian School

text: Economist Leland Yeager discussed the late 20th-century rift and referred to a discussion written by Murray Rothbard, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Joseph Salerno and others in which they attack and disparage Hayek. Yeager stated: "To try to drive a wedge between Mises and Hayek on [the role of knowledge in economic calculation], especially to the disparagement of Hayek, is unfair to these two great men, unfaithful to the history of economic thought". He went on to call the rift subversive to economic analysis and the historical understanding of the fall of Eastern European communism.


title: Austrian School

text: In a 1999 book published by the Ludwig von Mises Institute, Hoppe asserted that Rothbard was the leader of the "mainstream within Austrian Economics" and contrasted Rothbard with Nobel Laureate Friedrich Hayek, whom he identified as a British empiricist and an opponent of the thought of Mises and Rothbard. Hoppe acknowledged that Hayek was the most prominent Austrian economist within academia, but stated that Hayek was an opponent of the Austrian tradition which led from Carl Menger and Böhm-Bawerk through Mises to Rothbard. Austrian economist Walter Block says that the Austrian School can be distinguished from other schools of economic thought through two categories—economic theory and political theory. According to Block, while Hayek can be considered an Austrian economist, his views on political theory clash with the libertarian political theory which Block sees as an integral part of the Austrian School.


title: Austrian School

text: Both criticism from Hoppe and Block to Hayek apply to Carl Menger, the founder of the Austrian School. Hoppe emphasizes that Hayek, which for him is from the English empirical tradition, is an opponent of the supposed rationalist tradition of the Austrian School; Menger made strong critiques to rationalism in his works in similar vein as Hayek's. He emphasized the idea that there are several institutions which were not deliberately created, have a kind of "superior wisdom" and serve important functions to society. He also talked about Burke and the English tradition to sustain these positions.


title: Austrian School

text: When saying that the libertarian political theory is an integral part of the Austrian School and supposing Hayek is not a libertarian, Block excludes Menger from the Austrian School too since Menger seems to defend broader state activity than Hayek—for example, progressive taxation and extensive labour legislation.


title: Austrian School

text: Economists of the Hayekian view are affiliated with the Cato Institute, George Mason University (GMU) and New York University, among other institutions. They include Peter Boettke, Roger Garrison, Steven Horwitz, Peter Leeson and George Reisman. Economists of the Mises–Rothbard view include Walter Block, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Jesús Huerta de Soto and Robert P. Murphy, each of whom is associated with the Mises Institute and some of them also with academic institutions. According to Murphy, a "truce between (for lack of better terms) the GMU Austro-libertarians and the Auburn Austro-libertarians" was signed around 2011.


title: Austrian School

text: Many theories developed by "first wave" Austrian economists have long been absorbed into mainstream economics. These include Carl Menger's theories on marginal utility, Friedrich von Wieser's theories on opportunity cost and Eugen Böhm von Bawerk's theories on time preference, as well as Menger and Böhm-Bawerk's criticisms of Marxian economics.


title: Austrian School

text: Former American Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan said that the founders of the Austrian School "reached far into the future from when most of them practiced and have had a profound and, in my judgment, probably an irreversible effect on how most mainstream economists think in this country". In 1987, Nobel Laureate James M. Buchanan told an interviewer: "I have no objections to being called an Austrian. Hayek and Mises might consider me an Austrian but, surely some of the others would not".


title: Austrian School

text: Currently, universities with a significant Austrian presence are George Mason University, New York University, Grove City College, Loyola University New Orleans and Auburn University in the United States; King Juan Carlos University in Spain; and Universidad Francisco Marroquín in Guatemala. Austrian economic ideas are also promoted by privately funded organizations such as the Mises Institute and the Cato Institute.


title: Austrian School

text: The Austrian School theorizes that the subjective choices of individuals including individual knowledge, time, expectation and other subjective factors cause all economic phenomena. Austrians seek to understand the economy by examining the social ramifications of individual choice, an approach called methodological individualism. It differs from other schools of economic thought, which have focused on aggregate variables, equilibrium analysis and societal groups rather than individuals.


title: Austrian School

text: In the 20th and 21st centuries, economists with a methodological lineage to the early Austrian School developed many diverse approaches and theoretical orientations. Ludwig von Mises organized his version of the subjectivist approach, which he called "praxeology", in a book published in English as "Human Action" in 1949. In it, Mises stated that praxeology could be used to deduce "a priori" theoretical economic truths and that deductive economic thought experiments could yield conclusions which follow irrefutably from the underlying assumptions. He wrote that conclusions could not be inferred from empirical observation or statistical analysis and argued against the use of probabilities in economic models.


title: Austrian School

text: Since Mises' time, some Austrian thinkers have accepted his praxeological approach while others have adopted alternative methodologies. For example, Fritz Machlup, Friedrich Hayek and others did not take Mises' strong "a priori" approach to economics. Ludwig Lachmann, a radical subjectivist, also largely rejected Mises' formulation of Praxeology in favor of the "verstehende Methode" ("interpretive method") articulated by Max Weber.


title: Austrian School

text: In the 20th century, various Austrians incorporated models and mathematics into their analysis. Austrian economist Steven Horwitz argued in 2000 that Austrian methodology is consistent with macroeconomics and that Austrian macroeconomics can be expressed in terms of microeconomic foundations. Austrian economist Roger Garrison writes that Austrian macroeconomic theory can be correctly expressed in terms of diagrammatic models. In 1944, Austrian economist Oskar Morgenstern presented a rigorous schematization of an ordinal utility function (the Von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem) in "Theory of Games and Economic Behavior".


title: Austrian School

text: The opportunity cost doctrine was first explicitly formulated by the Austrian economist Friedrich von Wieser in the late 19th century. Opportunity cost is the cost of any activity measured in terms of the value of the next best alternative foregone (that is not chosen). It is the sacrifice related to the second best choice available to someone, or group, who has picked among several mutually exclusive choices. Although a more ephemeral scarcity, expectations of the future must also be considered. Quantified as time preference, opportunity cost must also be valued with respect to one’s preference for present versus future investments.


title: Austrian School

text: Opportunity cost is a key concept in mainstream economics and has been described as expressing "the basic relationship between scarcity and choice". The notion of opportunity cost plays a crucial part in ensuring that resources are used efficiently.


title: Austrian School

text: The Austrian theory of capital and interest was first developed by Eugen Böhm von Bawerk. He stated that interest rates and profits are determined by two factors, namely supply and demand in the market for final goods and time preference.


title: Austrian School

text: Böhm-Bawerk's theory equates capital intensity with the degree of roundaboutness of production processes. Böhm-Bawerk also argued that the law of marginal utility necessarily implies the classical law of costs. Some Austrian economists therefore entirely reject the notion that interest rates are affected by liquidity preference.


title: Austrian School

text: Hayek pointed out that inflationary stimulation exploits the lag between an increase in money supply and the consequent increase in the prices of goods and services:


title: Austrian School

text: The economic calculation problem refers to a criticism of planned economies which was first stated by Max Weber in 1920. Mises subsequently discussed Weber's idea with his student Friedrich Hayek, who developed it in various works including "The Road to Serfdom". What the calculation problem essentially states is that without price signals, the factors of production cannot be allocated in the most efficient way possible, rendering planned economies inefficacious.


title: Austrian School

text: Austrian theory emphasizes the organizing power of markets. Hayek stated that market prices reflect information, the totality of which is not known to any single individual, which determines the allocation of resources in an economy. Because socialist systems lack the individual incentives and price discovery processes by which individuals act on their personal information, Hayek argued that socialist economic planners lack all of the knowledge required to make optimal decisions. Those who agree with this criticism view it as a refutation of socialism, showing that socialism is not a viable or sustainable form of economic organization. The debate rose to prominence in the 1920s and 1930s and that specific period of the debate has come to be known by historians of economic thought as the socialist calculation debate.


title: Austrian School

text: Mises argued in a 1920 essay "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth" that the pricing systems in socialist economies were necessarily deficient because if the government owned the means of production, then no prices could be obtained for capital goods as they were merely internal transfers of goods in a socialist system and not "objects of exchange", unlike final goods. Therefore, they were unpriced and hence the system would be necessarily inefficient since the central planners would not know how to allocate the available resources efficiently. This led him to write "that rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth".


title: Austrian School

text: The Austrian theory of the business cycle (ABCT) focuses on banks' issuance of credit as the cause of economic fluctuations. Although later elaborated by Hayek and others, the theory was first set forth by Mises, who posited that fractional reserve banks extend credit at artificially low interest rates, causing businesses to invest in relatively roundabout production processes which leads to an artificial "boom". Mises stated that this artificial "boom" then led to a misallocation of resources which he called "malinvestment" - which eventually must end in a "bust".


title: Austrian School

text: Mises surmised how government manipulation of money and credit in the banking system throws savings and investment out of balance, resulting in misdirected investment projects that are eventually found to be unsustainable, at which point the economy has to rebalance itself through a period of corrective recession. Austrian economist Fritz Machlup summarized the Austrian view by stating, "monetary factors cause the cycle but real phenomena constitute it." For Austrians, the only prudent strategy for government is to leave money and the financial system to the free market's competitive forces to eradicate the business cycle's inflationary booms and recessionary busts, allowing markets to keep people's saving and investment decisions in place for well-coordinated economic stability and growth.


title: Austrian School

text: A Keynesian would suggest government intervention during a recession to inject spending into the economy when people are not. However, the heart of Austrian macroeconomic theory states the government "fine tuning" through expansions and contractions in the money supply orchestrated by the government are actually the cause of business cycles because of the differing impact of the resulting interest rate changes on different stages in the structure of production. Austrian economist Thomas Woods further supports this view by arguing it is not consumption, but rather production that should be emphasized. A country cannot become rich by consuming, and therefore, by using up all their resources. Instead, production is what enables consumption as a possibility in the first place, since a producer would be working for nothing, if not for the desire to consume.


title: Austrian School

text: According to Ludwig von Mises, central banks enable the commercial banks to fund loans at artificially low interest rates, thereby inducing an unsustainable expansion of bank credit and impeding any subsequent contraction and argued for a gold standard to constrain growth in fiduciary media. Friedrich Hayek took a different perspective not focusing on gold but focusing on regulation of the banking sector via strong central banking.


title: Austrian School

text: Mainstream economists generally reject modern-day Austrian economics, and argue that modern-day Austrian economists are excessively averse to the use of mathematics and statistics in economics. Austrian opposition to mathematization extends to economic theorizing only, as they argue that human behavior is too variable for overarching mathematical models to hold true across time and context. Austrians do, however, support analyzing revealed preference via mathematization to aid business and finance.


title: Austrian School

text: Economist Paul Krugman has stated that Austrians are unaware of holes in their own thinking because they do not use "explicit models".


title: Austrian School

text: Economist Benjamin Klein has criticized the economic methodological work of Austrian economist Israel M. Kirzner. While praising Kirzner for highlighting shortcomings in traditional methodology, Klein argued that Kirzner did not provide a viable alternative for economic methodology. Economist Tyler Cowen has written that Kirzner's theory of entrepreneurship can ultimately be reduced to a neoclassical search model and is thus not in the radical subjectivist tradition of Austrian praxeology. Cowen states that Kirzner's entrepreneurs can be modeled in mainstream terms of search.


title: Austrian School

text: Economist Jeffrey Sachs argues that among developed countries, those with high rates of taxation and high social welfare spending perform better on most measures of economic performance compared to countries with low rates of taxation and low social outlays. He concludes that Friedrich Hayek was wrong to argue that high levels of government spending harms an economy and "a generous social-welfare state is not a road to serfdom but rather to fairness, economic equality and international competitiveness".