title: The Man Who Sold the World (album)

text: After the completion of "The Man Who Sold the World", Bowie became less active in both the studio and on stage. His contract with music publisher Essex had expired and Defries, his new manager, was facing prior contractual challenges. In August 1970, Visconti parted ways with Bowie owing to his dislike of Defries and his frustration with Bowie's lack of enthusiasm during the making of "The Man Who Sold the World"; it was the last time he would see the artist for three or four years. Ronson and Woodmansey also departed due to other personal conflicts with Bowie. Despite his annoyance with Bowie during the sessions, Visconti still rated "The Man Who Sold the World" as his best work with him until his fourteenth studio album "Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)" (1980).


title: The Man Who Sold the World (album)

text: Although his new single "Holy Holy", recorded in November 1970 and released in January 1971, was a commercial flop, the single earned Bowie a contract with music publisher Chrysalis. The critical success of the album in the US prompted Mercury to send Bowie on a promotional radio tour of the country in February 1971. Upon his return, he wrote the majority of the material that would appear on the follow-up albums "Hunky Dory" (1971) and "Ziggy Stardust". Bowie also convened with Ronson and Woodmansey, who returned to play on both records. Following the commercial disappointment of "Hunky Dory", Bowie finally found commercial success with "Ziggy Stardust" in 1972. Ronson and Woodmansey, along with bassist Trevor Bolder, would become famous as the Spiders from Mars.


title: The Man Who Sold the World (album)

text: "The Man Who Sold the World" has been retrospectively described by Bowie's biographers and commentators as the beginning of Bowie's artistic growth, with many also agreeing that it was his first album where he began to find his sound. Buckley has described the album as "the first Bowie album proper", while "NME" critics Roy Carr and Charles Shaar Murray similarly stated, "this is where the story "really" starts". Erlewine cited "The Man Who Sold the World" as the beginning of Bowie's "classic period". Similarly, Annie Zaleski of "The A.V. Club" called the album his "career blueprint", writing that it musically was a forerunner to the "swaggering electric disorientation" of "Ziggy Stardust" and "Aladdin Sane" (1973), but its greater importance on sequencing and atmosphere, as well as stonger songwriting, predated "Hunky Dory". Meanwhile, Paul Trynka calls it Bowie's "first truly gripping work". Pegg calls "The Man Who Sold the World" one of the best and most important albums in the history of rock music. In a 2013 readers' poll for "Rolling Stone", it was voted Bowie's tenth greatest album.


title: The Man Who Sold the World (album)

text: The album has been praised for the band's performance and the unsettling nature of its music and lyrics. In a review for AllMusic, Erlewine complimented its "tight, twisted heavy guitar rock that appears simple on the surface but sounds more gnarled upon each listen". He viewed its music and Bowie's "paranoid futuristic tales" as "bizarre", adding that: "Musically, there isn't much time for innovation ...but there's an unsettling edge to the band's performance, which makes the record one of Bowie's best albums." In a review upon the album's reissue, a writer for "Q" called it "a robust, sexually charged affair", while a "Mojo" columnist wrote, "A robust set that spins with dizzying disorientation ... Bowie's armoury was being hastily assembled, though it was never deployed with such thrilling abandon again." Douglas Wolk of "Pitchfork" called the album the "dark horse" of Bowie's catalogue. Comparing "The Man Who Sold the World" to its predecessor, he praised the arrangements as tougher and "more effective", and complimented his artistic growth.


title: The Man Who Sold the World (album)

text: The album has since been cited as inspiring the goth rock, dark wave and science fiction elements of work by artists such as Siouxsie and the Banshees, the Cure, Gary Numan, John Foxx and Nine Inch Nails. It has been claimed that glam rock began with the release of "The Man Who Sold the World", though this is also attributed to Bolan's appearance on the UK television programme "Top of the Pops" in March 1971 wearing glitter. In his journal, Kurt Cobain of Nirvana listed it at number 45 on his top 50 favourite albums list. The title track provided an unlikely hit for Scottish pop singer Lulu, which was produced by Bowie and Ronson, and would be covered by many artists over the years, including Richard Barone in 1987, and Nirvana in 1993 for their live album "MTV Unplugged in New York".


title: The Man Who Sold the World (album)

text: "The Man Who Sold the World" was first released on CD by RCA in 1984. The album was reissued by Rykodisc/EMI in 1990 with bonus tracks, including a 1971 rerecording of "Holy Holy" that had originally been issued as a B-side in 1974. "Holy Holy" was incorrectly described in the liner notes as the original single version recorded in 1970. Bowie vetoed inclusion of the earlier recording, and the single remained its only official release until 2015, when it was included on "Re:Call 1", part of the "Five Years (1969–1973)" compilation. Additionally, the liner notes incorrectly listed the personnel for "Lightning Frightening" as those who played with Bowie during the "Space Oddity" period, when in fact the personnel were members of the Arnold Corns sessions proto-group.


title: The Man Who Sold the World (album)

text: In 1999, "The Man Who Sold the World" was reissued again by Virgin/EMI, without the bonus tracks but with 24-bit digitally remastered sound. In 2015, the album was remastered for the "Five Years (1969–1973)" box set. It was released on CD, vinyl and digital formats, both as part of the compilation and separately.


title: The Man Who Sold the World (album)

text: On 6 November 2020, the album was reissued by Parlophone under its working title of "Metrobolist" to commemorate its 50th anniversary. The reissue featured an updated version of the original Weller artwork as its official cover. For this release, Visconti remixed every song, except "After All", because he felt the original mix (as remastered in 2015) was "perfect as is". In 2021, a companion 2-CD set called "The Width of a Circle" was announced to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the British release. A press notice stated that the collection, released on 28 May, will "feature non-album singles, a BBC In Concert session, music for a TV play and further Visconti remixes wrapping up (Bowie's) recordings from 1970 and revealing the first sonic steps toward "Hunky Dory"".


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: The decolonisation of Africa was a process that took place in the mid-to-late 1950s to 1975 during the Cold War, with radical government changes on the continent as colonial governments made the transition to independent states. The process was often marred with violence, political turmoil, widespread unrest, and organised revolts in both northern and sub-Saharan countries including the Algerian War in French Algeria, the Angolan War of Independence in Portuguese Angola, the Congo Crisis in the Belgian Congo, the Mau Mau Uprising in British Kenya, the Zanzibar Revolution in the Sultanate of Zanzibar, and the Nigerian Civil War in the secessionist state of Biafra.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: The "Scramble for Africa" between 1870 and 1914 was a significant period of European imperialism in Africa that ended with almost all of Africa, and its natural resources, being controlled as colonies by a small number of European states. Racing to secure as much land as possible while avoiding conflict amongst themselves, the partition of Africa was confirmed in the Berlin Agreement of 1885, with little regard to local differences. Almost all the pre-colonial states of Africa had lost their sovereignty, with the only exceptions being Liberia (which had been settled in the early 19th century by African-American former slaves) and Ethiopia (later occupied by Italy in 1936). Britain and France had the largest holdings, but Germany, Spain, Italy, Belgium, and Portugal also had colonies. The process of decolonisation began as direct consequence of World War II. By 1977, 50 African countries had gained Independence from European colonial powers.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: During the world wars, African soldiers were conscripted into imperial militaries. Some African soldiers also volunteered. Veterans from over 1.3 million African troops participated in World War II and fought in both European and Asian theatres of war. This led to a deeper political awareness and the expectation of greater respect and self-determination, which was left largely unfulfilled. During the 1941 Atlantic Conference, the British and the US leaders met to discuss ideas for the post-war world. One of the provisions added by President Roosevelt was that all people had the right to self-determination, inspiring hope in British colonies.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: On February 12, 1941, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met to discuss the post-war world. The result was the Atlantic Charter. It was not a treaty and was not submitted to the British Parliament or the Senate of the United States for ratification, but it turned out to be a widely acclaimed document. One of the clauses, Clause Three, referred to the right to decide what form of government people wanted, and to the restoration of self-government.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Prime Minister Churchill argued in the British Parliament that the document referred to "the States and nations of Europe now under the Nazi yoke". President Roosevelt regarded it as applicable across the world. Anticolonial politicians immediately saw it as relevant to colonial empires. The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, three years after the end of World War II, recognised all people as being born free and equal.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: After World War II, the US and the African colonies put pressure on Britain to abide by the terms of the Atlantic Charter. After the war, some Britons considered African colonies to be childish and immature; British colonisers introduced democratic government at local levels in the colonies. Britain was forced to agree but Churchill rejected universal applicability of self-determination for subject nations.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Italy, a colonial power, lost its African Empire, Italian East Africa, Italian Ethiopia, Italian Eritrea, Italian Somalia and Italian Libya, as a result of World War II. Furthermore, colonies such as Nigeria, Senegal and Ghana pushed for self-governance as colonial powers were exhausted by war efforts.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: The United Nations 1960 Declaration on the granting of independence to colonial countries and peoples stated that colonial exploitation is a denial of human rights and that power should be transferred back to the countries or territories concerned.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Colonial economic exploitation involved the siphoning off of resource extraction (such as mining) profits to European shareholders at the expense of internal development, causing major local socioeconomic grievances. For early African nationalists, decolonisation was a moral imperative around which a political movement could be assembled.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: In the 1930s, the colonial powers had cultivated, sometimes inadvertently, a small elite of local African leaders educated in Western universities, where they became familiar with and fluent in ideas such as self-determination. Although independence was not encouraged, arrangements between these leaders and the colonial powers developed, and such figures as Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya), Kwame Nkrumah (Gold Coast, now Ghana), Julius Nyerere (Tanganyika, now Tanzania), Léopold Sédar Senghor (Senegal), Nnamdi Azikiwe (Nigeria), and Félix Houphouët-Boigny (Côte d'Ivoire) came to lead the struggles for African nationalism.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: During the second world war, some local African industries and towns expanded when U-boats patrolling the Atlantic Ocean reduced raw material transportation to Europe.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Over time, urban communities, industries, and trade unions grew, improving literacy and education, and leading to pro-independence newspaper establishments.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: By 1945 the Fifth Pan-African Congress demanded the end of colonialism, and delegates included future presidents of Ghana, Kenya, Malawi and national activists.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: There is an extensive body of literature that has examined the legacy of colonialism and colonial institutions on economic outcomes in Africa, with numerous studies showing disputed economic effects of colonialism.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: The economic legacy of colonialism is difficult to quantify and is disputed. Modernisation theory posits that colonial powers built infrastructure to integrate Africa into the world economy; however, this was built mainly for extraction purposes. African economies were structured to benefit the coloniser and any surplus was likely to be ‘drained’, thereby stifling capital accumulation. Dependency theory suggests that most African economies continued to occupy a subordinate position in the world economy after independence with a reliance on primary commodities such as copper in Zambia and tea in Kenya. Despite this continued reliance and unfair trading terms, a meta-analysis of 18 African countries found that a third of countries experienced increased economic growth post-independence.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Scholars including Dellal (2013), Miraftab (2012) and Bamgbose (2011) have argued that Africa's linguistic diversity has been eroded. Language has been used by western colonial powers to divide territories and create new identities which has led to conflicts and tensions between African nations.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: In the immediate post-independence period, African countries largely retained colonial legislation. However, by 2015 much colonial legislation had been replaced by laws that were written locally.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Following World War II, rapid decolonisation swept across the continent of Africa as many territories gained their independence from European colonisation.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: In August 1941, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met to discuss their post-war goals. In that meeting, they agreed to the Atlantic Charter, which in part stipulated that they would, "respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self-government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them." This agreement became the post-WWII stepping stone toward independence as nationalism grew throughout Africa.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Consumed with post-war debt, European powers were no longer able to afford the resources needed to maintain control of their African colonies. This allowed African nationalists to negotiate decolonisation very quickly and with minimal casualties. Some territories, however, saw great death tolls as a result of their fight for independence.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: On 6 March 1957, Ghana (formerly the Gold Coast) became the first sub-Saharan African country to gain its independence from European colonisation. Starting with the 1945 Pan-African Congress, the Gold Coast's (modern-day Ghana's) independence leader Kwame Nkrumah made his focus clear. In the conference's declaration, he wrote, "we believe in the rights of all peoples to govern themselves. We affirm the right of all colonial peoples to control their own destiny. All colonies must be free from foreign imperialist control, whether political or economic."


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: In 1948, three Ghanaian veterans were killed by the colonial police on a protest march. Riots broke out in Accra and though Nkrumah and other Ghanaian leaders were temporarily imprisoned, the event became a catalyst for the independence movement. After being released from prison, Nkrumah founded the Convention People's Party (CPP), which launched a wide-scale campaign in support of independence with the slogan "Self Government Now!" Heightened nationalism within the country grew their power and the political party widely expanded. In February 1951, the CPP gained political power by winning 34 of 38 elected seats, including one for Nkrumah who was imprisoned at the time. The British government revised the Gold Coast Constitution to give Ghanaians a majority in the legislature in 1951. In 1956, Ghana requested independence inside the Commonwealth, which was granted peacefully in 1957 with Nkrumah as prime minister and Queen Elizabeth II as sovereign.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Prime Minister Harold Macmillan gave the famous "Wind of Change" speech in South Africa in February 1960, where he spoke of "the wind of change blowing through this continent". Macmillan urgently wanted to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was fighting in Algeria. Under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Britain's remaining colonies in Africa, except for Southern Rhodesia, were all granted independence by 1968. British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process. Kenyan independence was preceded by the eight-year Mau Mau Uprising. In Rhodesia, the 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence by the white minority resulted in a civil war that lasted until the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979, which set the terms for recognised independence in 1980, as the new nation of Zimbabwe.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: The French colonial empire began to fall during the Second World War when the Vichy France regime controlled the Empire. One after another, most of the colonies were occupied by foreign powers (Japan in Indochina, Britain in Syria, Lebanon, and Madagascar, the United States and Britain in Morocco and Algeria, and Germany and Italy in Tunisia). Control was gradually reestablished by Charles de Gaulle, who used the colonial bases as a launching point to help expel the Vichy government from Metropolitan France. De Gaulle, together with most Frenchmen, was committed to preserving the Empire in its new form. The French Union, included in the Constitution of 1946, nominally replaced the former colonial empire, but officials in Paris remained in full control. The colonies were given local assemblies with only limited local power and budgets. A group of elites, known as evolués, who were natives of the overseas territories but lived in metropolitan France emerged.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: De Gaulle assembled a major conference of Free France colonies in Brazzaville, in central Africa, in January–February 1944. The survival of France depended on support from these colonies, and De Gaulle made numerous concessions. These included the end of forced labour, the end of special legal restrictions that applied to natives but not to whites, the establishment of elected territorial assemblies, representation in Paris in a new "French Federation", and the eventual representation of Sub-Saharan Africans in the French Assembly. However, Independence was explicitly rejected as a future possibility:


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: After the war ended, France was immediately confronted with the beginnings of the decolonisation movement. In Algeria demonstrations in May 1945 were repressed with an estimated 6,000 Algerians killed. Unrest in Haiphong, Indochina, in November 1945 was met by a warship bombarding the city. Paul Ramadier's (SFIO) cabinet repressed the Malagasy Uprising in Madagascar in 1947. French officials estimated the number of Malagasy killed from as low as 11,000 to a French Army estimate of 89,000.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: In Cameroun, the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon's insurrection which began in 1955 headed by Ruben Um Nyobé, was violently repressed over two years, with perhaps as many as 100 people killed.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: French involvement in Algeria stretched back a century. Ferhat Abbas and Messali Hadj's movements marked the period between the two wars, but both sides radicalised after the Second World War. In 1945, the Sétif massacre was carried out by the French army. The Algerian War started in 1954. Atrocities characterized both sides, and the number killed became highly controversial estimates that were made for propaganda purposes. Algeria was a three-way conflict due to the large number of "pieds-noirs" (Europeans who had settled there in the 125 years of French rule). The political crisis in France caused the collapse of the Fourth Republic, as Charles de Gaulle returned to power in 1958 and finally pulled the French soldiers and settlers out of Algeria by 1962. Lasting more than eight years, the estimated death toll typically falls between 300,000 and 400,000 people. By 1962, the National Liberation Front was able to negotiate a peace accord with French President Charles de Gaulle, the Évian Accords in which Europeans would be able to return to their native countries, remain in Algeria as foreigners or take Algerian citizenship. Most of the one million Europeans in Algeria poured out of the country.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: The French Union was replaced in the new 1958 Constitution of 1958 by the French Community. Only Guinea refused by referendum to take part in the new colonial organisation. However, the French Community dissolved itself amid the Algerian War; almost all of the other African colonies were granted independence in 1960, following local referendums. Some colonies chose instead to remain part of France, under the status of overseas "départements" (territories). Critics of neocolonialism claimed that the "Françafrique" had replaced formal direct rule. They argued that while de Gaulle was granting independence, on one hand, he was creating new ties with the help of Jacques Foccart, his counsellor for African matters. Foccart supported in particular the Nigerian Civil War during the late 1960s.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Robert Aldrich argues that with Algerian independence in 1962, it appeared that the Empire practically had come to an end, as the remaining colonies were quite small and lacked active nationalist movements. However, there was trouble in French Somaliland (Djibouti), which became independent in 1977. There also were complications and delays in the New Hebrides Vanuatu, which was the last to gain independence in 1980. New Caledonia remains a special case under French suzerainty. The Indian Ocean island of Mayotte voted in referendum in 1974 to retain its link with France and forgo independence.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Nationalist and Independence movements throughout Africa have been predominantly led by men, however, women also held important roles. These roles included organizing at the local and national levels, tending to the wounded, and even being on the front lines of war. Women’s roles in independence movements were diverse and varied by each country. Many women believed that their liberation was directly linked to the liberation of their countries.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Nigeria was granted independence from the British Empire on 1 October 1960. Before this, various forms and demonstrations against colonial rule took place. Women in Nigeria played a significant role during the movement for national independence. Before independence, women organized through movements like the Abeokuta Women's Revolt and the Women's War.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Margaret Ekpo was one of the most important female independence leaders in Nigeria. She worked toward more equitable civil rights and Nigerian independence.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Margaret Ekpo was a chief, a politician, and a nationalist independence leader. In 1945, Ekpo became involved in politics after her husband, Dr. John Udo Ekpo, became dissatisfied with the colonial administration's treatment of indigenous Nigerian doctors. In British-ruled Nigeria, colonial rulers had concentrated the power on male chiefs. After the Women's War, she and other women were appointed to replace warrant chiefs. Ekpo was later appointed to the Eastern House of Chiefs in 1954. As a chief, she rallied women of different ethnic identities to demand women's rights and independence. She was arrested multiple times for instigating these rallies against British colonization. As a warrant chief, Ekpo passed a law that required police to employ more women in Enugu and Lagos.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Before WWII, Ekpo led the Aba Market Women Association in mobilizing women against colonial rule and patriarchal oppression. Following WWII, Ekpo and the Aba Market Women Association continued to mobilize using tactics such as buying up large quantities of scarce commodities and selling them only to registered members of the association who attended meetings regularly. She used this as an opportunity to educate women on the importance of independence and decolonisation.I would tell the women, do you know that your daughter can be the matron of that hospital? Do you know that your husband can be a District Officer (D.O.) or Resident? Do you know that if you join hands with us in the current political activities, your children could one day live in European quarters? I used to tell them these things every time and so they became interested…After being granted independence in 1960, Ekpo participated in the Constitutional Conferences in Lagos and London. Ekpo would also serve as a member of parliament in Nigeria from 1960 to 1966. Ekpo’s work also transcended national politics. She travelled out of Nigeria to represent Nigerian women at several international conferences such as the Inter-Parliamentary Union Conference (1964) and the World Women’s International Domestic Federation Conference (1963).


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Along with her work in advocating civil and political rights, Ekpo left a legacy that notably lacked ethnic bias in a country where many forms of ethnicism and nepotism existed in politics.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Late in 1961, the predecessor state of Tanganyika was established through the Tanganyika Independence Act of 1961. This act ended British rule and established self-government. A new republican constitution was adopted one year later, in December of 1962. This abolished the remaining role of the British monarchy in Tanganyika. A union with the neighbouring state of Zanzibar in 1964 led to the formation of the Republic of Tanzania.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Popularly known as Bibi Titi, Bibi Titi Mohamed was a prominent figure in African women's politics and the independence movement in Tanganyika, mobilizing women to join the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) political party.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Born in Dar es Salaam, Bibi Titi rose to prominence unexpectedly. Having only four years of primary school education before her political career, she was a housewife and lead singer in a “Bamba<nowiki>"</nowiki> group. However, as the struggle for freedom amplified, Bibi Titi found a more active role in politics. She joined the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) in 1954. Doing so, Bibi Titi became TANU’s first female member. She advocated for political freedom as well as the autonomy of women. By the end of the 1950s, Bibi Titi had become a prominent and powerful voice in politics, campaigning on behalf of freedom and development. After gaining popularity, her voice became a powerful source of African feminist and anti-colonial sentiment.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: After the establishment of the Republic of Tanzania in 1964, she represented the constituency of Rufiji in Parliament. She also served as a member of TANU’s Central Committee and Executive Committee. There, she continued to advocate for greater freedom and women’s rights.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Bibi Titi left a legacy that calls on women to have greater self-respect and encourages women to strive for more education and equal treatment. In a speech, Bibi Titi implored women to take advantage of their latent political influence saying:I told you [women] that we want independence. And we can’t get independence if you don’t want to join the party. We have given birth to all these men. Women are the power in this world. We are the ones who give birth to the world…


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: After almost 10 years of fighting, Mozambique became independent from Portugal in 1975. FRELIMO, the "Frente de Libertação de Moçambique" or the Mozambique Liberation Front, was created in 1962 to liberate Mozambique from Portugal’s colonial rule. FRELIMO actively recruited women and young girls to join the battle for independence. Female members of FRELIMO were either trained to be guerilla soldiers or part of the nonmilitary wing.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Josina Machel was a prominent leader in FRELIMO and a freedom fighter for Mozambique. She was born to a family that was considered to be “assimilados” which gave them a status of whiteness and privilege. Due to her status, Machel was allowed to receive an education until secondary school. At 18 years old, she attempted to flee the country and join FRELIMO in Tanzania. She was subsequently caught and imprisoned for six months. Machel fled successfully after a second attempt.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: After joining FRELIMO, Machel soon became the leader of the women’s wing, Destacamento Feminino. This wing of FRELIMO provided women with political education and military training. Destacamento Feminino also mobilized young women to join FRELIMO.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: As a leader, Machel created health centres, schools, and daycare facilities to help people in the liberated zones of Mozambique. She was also nominated to be a delegate in FRELIMO’s second congress, where she staunchly fought for women to be allowed to fully participate in the liberation movement. As a delegate, Machel passed a resolution allowing girls to receive an education.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: In 1971, Machel died due to unspecified health problems at the age of 25. She never got to see Mozambique as an independent state. But, she is memorialized in Mozambican history: April 7, the date of her death, is Mozambican Woman’s Day.


title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: This table is arranged by the earliest date of independence in this graph; 58 countries have seceded.


title: Nutrient

text: A nutrient is a substance used by an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce. The requirement for dietary nutrient intake applies to animals, plants, fungi, and protists. Nutrients can be incorporated into cells for metabolic purposes or excreted by cells to create non-cellular structures, such as hair, scales, feathers, or exoskeletons. Some nutrients can be metabolically converted to smaller molecules in the process of releasing energy, such as for carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and fermentation products (ethanol or vinegar), leading to end-products of water and carbon dioxide. All organisms require water. Essential nutrients for animals are the energy sources, some of the amino acids that are combined to create proteins, a subset of fatty acids, vitamins and certain minerals. Plants require more diverse minerals absorbed through roots, plus carbon dioxide and oxygen absorbed through leaves. Fungi live on dead or living organic matter and meet nutrient needs from their host.


title: Nutrient

text: Different types of organisms have different essential nutrients. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is essential, meaning it must be consumed in sufficient amounts, to humans and some other animal species, but some animals and plants are able to synthesize it. Nutrients may be organic or inorganic: organic compounds include most compounds containing carbon, while all other chemicals are inorganic. Inorganic nutrients include nutrients such as iron, selenium, and zinc, while organic nutrients include, among many others, energy-providing compounds and vitamins.


title: Nutrient

text: A classification used primarily to describe nutrient needs of animals divides nutrients into macronutrients and micronutrients. Consumed in relatively large amounts (grams or ounces), macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water) are primarily used to generate energy or to incorporate into tissues for growth and repair. Micronutrients are needed in smaller amounts (milligrams or micrograms); they have subtle biochemical and physiological roles in cellular processes, like vascular functions or nerve conduction. Inadequate amounts of essential nutrients, or diseases that interfere with absorption, result in a deficiency state that compromises growth, survival and reproduction. Consumer advisories for dietary nutrient intakes, such as the United States Dietary Reference Intake, are based on deficiency outcomes and provide macronutrient and micronutrient guides for both lower and upper limits of intake. In many countries, macronutrients and micronutrients in significant content are required by regulations to be displayed on food product labels. Nutrients in larger quantities than the body needs may have harmful effects. Edible plants also contain thousands of compounds generally called phytochemicals which have unknown effects on disease or health, including a diverse class with non-nutrient status called polyphenols, which remain poorly understood as of 2017.


title: Nutrient

text: An essential nutrient is a nutrient required for normal physiological function that cannot be synthesized in the body – either at all or in sufficient quantities – and thus must be obtained from a dietary source. Apart from water, which is universally required for the maintenance of homeostasis in mammals, essential nutrients are indispensable for various cellular metabolic processes and for the maintenance and function of tissues and organs. The nutrients considered essential for humans comprise nine amino acids, two fatty acids, thirteen vitamins, fifteen minerals and choline. In addition, there are several molecules that are considered conditionally essential nutrients since they are indispensable in certain developmental and pathological states.


title: Nutrient

text: An essential amino acid is an amino acid that is required by an organism but cannot be synthesized "de novo" by it, and therefore must be supplied in its diet. Out of the twenty standard protein-producing amino acids, nine cannot be endogenously synthesized by humans: phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine.


title: Nutrient

text: Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are fatty acids that humans and other animals must ingest because the body requires them for good health but cannot synthesize them. Only two fatty acids are known to be essential for humans: alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid).


title: Nutrient

text: Vitamins are organic molecules essential for an organism that are not classified as amino acids or fatty acids. They commonly function as enzymatic cofactors, metabolic regulators or antioxidants. Humans require thirteen vitamins in their diet, most of which are actually groups of related molecules (e.g. vitamin E includes tocopherols and tocotrienols): vitamins A, C, D, E, K, thiamine (B), riboflavin (B), niacin (B), pantothenic acid (B), pyridoxine (B), biotin (B), folate (B), and cobalamin (B). The requirement for vitamin D is conditional, as people who get sufficient exposure to ultraviolet light, either from the sun or an artificial source, synthesize vitamin D in the skin.


title: Nutrient

text: Minerals are the exogenous chemical elements indispensable for life. Although the four elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, are essential for life, they are so plentiful in food and drink that these are not considered nutrients and there are no recommended intakes for these as minerals. The need for nitrogen is addressed by requirements set for protein, which is composed of nitrogen-containing amino acids. Sulfur is essential, but again does not have a recommended intake. Instead, recommended intakes are identified for the sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cysteine.


title: Nutrient

text: The essential nutrient elements for humans, listed in order of Recommended Dietary Allowance (expressed as a mass), are potassium, chloride, sodium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc, manganese, copper, iodine, chromium, molybdenum, selenium. Additionally, cobalt is a component of Vitamin B which is essential. There are other minerals which are essential for some plants and animals, but may or may not be essential for humans, such as boron and silicon.


title: Nutrient

text: Choline is an essential nutrient. The cholines are a family of water-soluble quaternary ammonium compounds. Choline is the parent compound of the cholines class, consisting of ethanolamine having three methyl substituents attached to the amino function. Healthy humans fed artificially composed diets that are deficient in choline develop fatty liver, liver damage, and muscle damage. Choline was not initially classified as essential because the human body can produce choline in small amounts through phosphatidylcholine metabolism.


title: Nutrient

text: Conditionally essential nutrients are certain organic molecules that can normally be synthesized by an organism, but under certain conditions in insufficient quantities. In humans, such conditions include premature birth, limited nutrient intake, rapid growth, and certain disease states. Inositol, taurine, arginine, glutamine and nucleotides are classified as conditionally essential and are particularly important in neonatal diet and metabolism.


title: Nutrient

text: Non-essential nutrients are substances within foods that can have a significant impact on health. Insoluble dietary fiber is not absorbed in the human digestive tract, but is important in maintaining the bulk of a bowel movement to avoid constipation. Soluble fiber can be metabolized by bacteria residing in the large intestine. Soluble fiber is marketed as serving a prebiotic function with claims for promoting "healthy" intestinal bacteria. Bacterial metabolism of soluble fiber also produces short-chain fatty acids like butyric acid, which may be absorbed into intestinal cells as a source of food energy.


title: Nutrient

text: Ethanol (CHOH) is not an essential nutrient, but it does supply approximately of food energy per gram. For spirits (vodka, gin, rum, etc.) a standard serving in the United States is , which at 40%ethanol (80proof) would be 14 grams and . At 50%alcohol, 17.5 g and . Wine and beer contain a similar amount of ethanol in servings of , respectively, but these beverages also contribute to food energy intake from components other than ethanol. A serving of wine contains . A serving of beer contains . According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, based on NHANES 2013–2014 surveys, women ages 20 and up consume on average 6.8grams of alcohol per day and men consume on average 15.5 grams per day. Ignoring the non-alcohol contribution of those beverages, the average ethanol contributions to daily food energy intake are , respectively. Alcoholic beverages are considered empty calorie foods because, while providing energy, they contribute no essential nutrients.


title: Nutrient

text: By definition, phytochemicals include all nutritional and non-nutritional components of edible plants. Included as nutritional constituents are provitamin A carotenoids, whereas those without nutrient status are diverse polyphenols, flavonoids, resveratrol, and lignans – often claimed to have antioxidant effects – that are present in numerous plant foods. A number of phytochemical compounds are under preliminary research for their potential effects on human diseases and health. However, the qualification for nutrient status of compounds with poorly defined properties "in vivo" is that they must first be defined with a Dietary Reference Intake level to enable accurate food labeling, a condition not established for most phytochemicals that are claimed to be antioxidant nutrients.


title: Nutrient

text: An inadequate amount of a nutrient is a deficiency. Deficiencies can be due to a number of causes including an inadequacy in nutrient intake, called a dietary deficiency, or any of several conditions that interfere with the utilization of a nutrient within an organism. Some of the conditions that can interfere with nutrient utilization include problems with nutrient absorption, substances that cause a greater than normal need for a nutrient, conditions that cause nutrient destruction, and conditions that cause greater nutrient excretion. Nutrient toxicity occurs when excess consumption of a nutrient does harm to an organism.


title: Nutrient

text: In the United States and Canada, recommended dietary intake levels of essential nutrients are based on the minimum level that "will maintain a defined level of nutriture in an individual", a definition somewhat different from that used by the World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization of a "basal requirement to indicate the level of intake needed to prevent pathologically relevant and clinically detectable signs of a dietary inadequacy".


title: Nutrient

text: In setting human nutrient guidelines, government organizations do not necessarily agree on amounts needed to avoid deficiency or maximum amounts to avoid the risk of toxicity. For example, for vitamin C, recommended intakes range from 40 mg/day in India to 155 mg/day for the European Union. The table below shows U.S. Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamins and minerals, PRIs for the European Union (same concept as RDAs), followed by what three government organizations deem to be the safe upper intake. RDAs are set higher than EARs to cover people with higher than average needs. Adequate Intakes (AIs) are set when there is not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs. Countries establish tolerable upper intake levels, also referred to as upper limits (ULs), based on amounts that cause adverse effects. Governments are slow to revise information of this nature. For the U.S. values, with the exception of calcium and vitamin D, all of the data date from 1997 to 2004.


title: Nutrient

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki> The daily recommended amounts of niacin and magnesium are higher than the tolerable upper limit because, for both nutrients, the ULs identify the amounts which will not increase risk of adverse effects when the nutrients are consumed as a serving of a dietary supplement. Magnesium supplementation above the UL may cause diarrhea. Supplementation with niacin above the UL may cause flushing of the face and a sensation of body warmth. Each country or regional regulatory agency decides on a safety margin below when symptoms may occur, so the ULs may differ based on source.


title: Nutrient

text: RDA U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowances; higher for adults than for children, and may be even higher for women who are pregnant or lactating.


title: Nutrient

text: AI U.S. Adequate Intake; AIs established when there is not sufficient information to set EARs and RDAs.


title: Nutrient

text: PRI Population Reference Intake is European Union equivalent of RDA; higher for adults than for children, and may be even higher for women who are pregnant or lactating. For Thiamin and Niacin, the PRIs are expressed as amounts per megajoule (239 kilocalories) of food energy consumed.


title: Nutrient

text: NE EARs, PRIs or AIs have not yet been established or will not be (EU does not consider chromium an essential nutrient).


title: Nutrient

text: Plant nutrients consist of more than a dozen minerals absorbed through roots, plus carbon dioxide and oxygen absorbed or released through leaves. All organisms obtain all their nutrients from the surrounding environment.


title: Nutrient

text: Plants absorb carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from air and soil in the form of carbon dioxide and water. Other nutrients are absorbed from soil (exceptions include some parasitic or carnivorous plants). Counting these, there are 17 important nutrients for plants: these are macronutrients; nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), magnesium (Mg), carbon (C), oxygen(O) and hydrogen (H), and the micronutrients; iron (Fe), boron (B), chlorine (Cl), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo) and nickel (Ni). In addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur are also needed in relatively large quantities. Together, the "Big Six" are the elemental macronutrients for all organisms.


title: Nutrient

text: They are sourced from inorganic matter (for example, carbon dioxide, water, nitrates, phosphates, sulfates, and diatomic molecules of nitrogen and, especially, oxygen) and organic matter (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins).


title: Adriano Martins

text: Adriano Soares Martins (born June 12, 1982) is a Brazilian mixed martial artist currently competing in the Lightweight division of Taura MMA. A professional competitor since 2004, he has competed for the Ultimate Fighting Championship, Strikeforce and DREAM and Fight Nights Global.


title: Adriano Martins

text: Originally from Manaus, Brazil, Martins began training in Judo in 1994, which he continued with until the year 2000, reaching the rank of brown belt. Due to his desire to learn submissions, Martins began training in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu in 1999. Martins went on to have an accomplished career in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, winning various titles. In 2004, needing to support his newly formed family, Martins began mixed martial arts.


title: Adriano Martins

text: Martins made his professional mixed martial arts debut in 2004 and compiled a 23–6 record on the Brazilian circuit before being signed by Strikeforce.


title: Adriano Martins

text: Martins was scheduled to make his Strikeforce debut against Isaac Vallie-Flagg on September 29, 2012 at . However, the event was cancelled due to an injury to headliner Gilbert Melendez.


title: Adriano Martins

text: Martins made his promotional debut against Daron Cruickshank on November 9, 2013 at . He won via submission due to a straight armbar in the second round. The win also earned him his first "Submission of the Night" bonus award.


title: Adriano Martins

text: Martins faced Donald Cerrone on January 25, 2014 at UFC on Fox 10. He lost the fight via knockout in the first round.


title: Adriano Martins

text: As the first bout of his new four-fight contract, Martins faced promotional newcomer Juan Puig on July 6, 2014 at The Ultimate Fighter 19 Finale. He won the fight via knockout in the first round, after landing a short, counter right hand. The knockout earned him his first "Performance of the Night" bonus award.


title: Adriano Martins

text: Martins faced Rustam Khabilov on February 22, 2015 at UFC Fight Night 61. He won the fight by split decision. In the fight, he was able to take and knock Khabilov down at the end of the second round.


title: Adriano Martins

text: Martins faced Islam Makhachev at UFC 192 on October 3, 2015. He won the fight via knockout in the first round, which produced a "Performance of the Night" bonus. This was the first loss in Makhachev’s career and as of November 2022 it is the current UFC Lightweight champion’s only loss.


title: Adriano Martins

text: Martins next faced Leonardo Santos on October 8, 2016 at UFC 204. Santos was awarded a split decision victory.


title: Adriano Martins

text: Martins faced Kajan Johnson on September 9, 2017 at UFC 215. He lost the fight via knockout in the third round.


title: Adriano Martins

text: Martins was scheduled to face Rafael Alves at Titan FC 48 on February 16, 2018. However, the bout was cancelled for unknown reason.


title: Adriano Martins

text: On 19 February 2018 he signed a six-fight deal with the Fight Nights Global. In his debut at FNG 87 on May 20, 2018, he lost to Alexandr Shabily by unanimous decision.


title: Tim Miller (director)

text: Timothy Miller (born October 10, 1964) is an American filmmaker. He made his feature-film directing debut with "Deadpool" (2016). He was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film as co-story writer and executive producer of the short animated film "Gopher Broke" (2004). Miller directed "" (2019), and also designed the title sequences of "The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo" and "". He is the creator, showrunner and producer of the animated anthology series "Love, Death & Robots", for which he has received several Primetime Emmy nominations and awards.


title: Tim Miller (director)

text: In March 1995, Miller co-founded Blur Studio, a visual effects, animation and design company with David Stinnett and Cat Chapman. Miller and Jeff Fowler were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film in 2005 for the short film "Gopher Broke".


title: Tim Miller (director)

text: In March 2008, Miller was set to produce and direct one of eight animated tales based on the "Heavy Metal" magazine. David Fincher and Kevin Eastman were also attached to produce and direct a story segment. Miller was set by Legendary Pictures on March 15, 2012 to direct a live-action adaptation of the Warren Ellis comic book series "Gravel", from a script by Oliver Butcher and Stephen Cornwell. On November 14, 2012, Sony Pictures set Miller to direct Joe Haldeman's science fiction novella "Seasons", which Sebastian Gutierrez was set to adapt and Michael De Luca to produce. Miller and Jeff Fowler are also set to direct and produce the animated film "The Goon" through their Blur Studio. As of 2018, these films are still in development.


title: Tim Miller (director)

text: Miller designed the title sequences of the film "The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo" (2011), and of the film "" (2013). The latter was completed in 12 weeks and included 75 shots, most of which were computer-generated.


title: Tim Miller (director)

text: On April 8, 2011, Miller was hired by 20th Century Fox to direct the feature film "Deadpool", based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. It was his directorial debut, and was written by Rhett Reese and Paul Wernick, with Ryan Reynolds starring in the title role. Filming began late March 2015 in Vancouver, and the film was released on February 12, 2016. Miller was set to direct the sequel, "Deadpool 2", released in 2018, but he departed the project due to creative differences with Reynolds.


title: Tim Miller (director)

text: In January 2017, "Deadline" reported that Miller was in talks with James Cameron to work on and possibly direct a new "Terminator" film. Skydance Media confirmed in September 2017 that Miller would direct the next "Terminator" film. The title of the film was officially announced as "" in 2019. During production of the film, when asked about backlash regarding the female main characters, Miller said that Mackenzie Davis's character Grace would "scare the fuck" out of "closet misogynist[s]." Despite decent reviews, the film became a box-office bomb, set to lose upwards of $100 million.


title: Tim Miller (director)

text: In October 2016, Miller was hired to serve as executive producer for a "Sonic the Hedgehog" feature film, originally being set to be produced by Sony Pictures, before being acquired by Paramount Pictures. Miller and director Jeff Fowler first created a pitch for a "Sonic" movie with Ben Schwartz voicing the character. After the movie was green-lighted by Paramount, the two chose to cast Schwartz as the voice of Sonic in the film, having enjoyed his performance in the test reading. The film was released on February 14, 2020, and received a warm critical and commercial reception. Miller returned as executive producer for the film's sequel, released on April 8, 2022.


title: Tim Miller (director)

text: In mid-2017, Miller was hired to direct an adaptation of William Gibson's 1984 science-fiction novel "Neuromancer" for Fox, which will be produced by Simon Kinberg.


title: Undergarment

text: Undergarments, underclothing, or underwear are items of clothing worn beneath outer clothes, usually in direct contact with the skin, although they may comprise more than a single layer. They serve to keep outer garments from being soiled or damaged by bodily excretions, to lessen the friction of outerwear against the skin, to shape the body, and to provide concealment or support for parts of it. In cold weather, long underwear is sometimes worn to provide additional warmth. Special types of undergarments have religious significance. Some items of clothing are designed as undergarments, while others, such as T-shirts and certain types of shorts, are appropriate both as undergarments and as outer clothing. If made of suitable material or textile, some undergarments can serve as nightwear or swimsuits, and some are intended for sexual attraction or visual appeal.


title: Undergarment

text: Undergarments are generally of two types, those that are worn to cover the torso and those that are worn to cover the waist and legs, although there are also garments which cover both. Different styles of undergarments are generally worn by females and males. Undergarments commonly worn by females today include bras and panties (knickers in British English), while males often wear classic briefs, boxer briefs, or boxer shorts. Items worn by both sexes include T-shirts, sleeveless shirts (also called singlets, tank tops, A-shirts, or vests), bikini underpants, thongs, G-strings and T-fronts.


title: Undergarment

text: Undergarments are known by a number of terms. "Underclothes", "underclothing" and "underwear" are formal terms, while undergarments may be more casually called, in Australia, "Reg Grundys" (rhyming slang for "undies") and "Reginalds", and, in the United Kingdom, "smalls" (from the earlier "smallclothes") and (historically) "unmentionables". In the United States, women's underwear may be known as "delicates" due to the recommended washing machine cycle or because they are, simply put, delicate.


title: Undergarment

text: Women's undergarments collectively are also called "lingerie". They also are called "intimate clothing" and "intimates".


title: Undergarment

text: An undershirt ("vest" in the United Kingdom) is a piece of underwear covering the torso, while underpants ("pants" in the United Kingdom), drawers, and undershorts cover the genitals and buttocks. Terms for specific undergarments are shown in the table below.


title: Undergarment

text: Underwear is worn for a variety of reasons. They keep outer garments from being soiled by perspiration, urine, semen, pre-seminal fluid, feces, vaginal discharge, and menstrual blood. Women's brassieres provide support for the breasts, and men's briefs serve the same function for the male genitalia. A corset may be worn as a foundation garment to provide support for the breasts and torso, as well as to alter a woman's body shape. For additional support and protection when playing sports, men often wear more tightly fitting underwear, including jockstraps and jockstraps with cup pocket and protective cup. Women may wear sports bras which provide greater support, thus increasing comfort and reducing the chance of damage to the ligaments of the chest during high-impact exercises such as jogging.


title: Undergarment

text: In cold climates, underwear may constitute an additional layer of clothing helping to keep the wearer warm. Underwear may also be used to preserve the wearer's modesty – for instance, some women wear camisoles and slips (petticoats) under clothes that are sheer. Conversely, some types of underwear can be worn for sexual titillation, such as edible underwear or crotchless panties.


title: Undergarment

text: Undergarments are worn for insulation under space suits and dry suits. In the case of dry suits, the insulation value of the undergarments is selected to match the expected water temperature and the level of activity for the planned dive or water activity.


title: Undergarment

text: Some items of clothing are designed exclusively as underwear, while others such as T-shirts and certain types of shorts are suitable both as underwear and as outer clothing. The suitability of underwear as outer clothing is, apart from the indoor or outdoor climate, largely dependent on societal norms, fashion, and the requirements of the law. If made of suitable material, some underwear can serve as nightwear or swimsuits.


title: Undergarment

text: The loincloth is the simplest form of underwear; it was probably the first undergarment worn by human beings. In warmer climates, the loincloth was often the only clothing worn (effectively making it an outer garment rather than an undergarment), as was doubtless its origin, but in colder regions, the loincloth often formed the basis of a person's clothing and was covered by other garments. In most ancient civilizations, this was the only undergarment available.


title: Undergarment

text: A loincloth may take three major forms. The first, and simplest, is simply a long strip of material that is passed between the legs and then around the waist. Archaeologists have found the remains of such loincloths made of leather dating back 7,000 years. The ancient Hawaiian "malo" was of this form, as are several styles of the Japanese "fundoshi". Another form is usually called a cache-sexe: a triangle of cloth is provided with strings or loops, which are used to fasten the triangle between the legs and over the genitals. Egyptian king Tutankhamun (1341 BC – 1323 BC) was found buried with numerous linen loincloths of this style. An alternate form is more skirt-like: a cloth is wrapped around the hips several times and then fastened with a girdle.


title: Undergarment

text: Men are said to have worn loincloths in ancient Greece and Rome, though it is unclear whether Greek women wore undergarments. There is some speculation that only slaves wore loincloths and that citizens did not wear undergarments beneath their chitons. Mosaics of the Roman period indicate that women (primarily in an athletic context, whilst wearing nothing else) sometimes wore "strophiae" (breastcloths) or brassieres made of soft leather, along with "subligacula" which were either in the form of shorts or loincloths. "Subligacula" were also worn by men.


title: Undergarment

text: The fabric used for loincloths may have been wool, linen or a linsey-woolsey blend. Only the upper classes could have afforded imported silk.


title: Undergarment

text: The loincloth continues to be worn by people around the world – it is the traditional form of undergarment in many Asian societies, for example. In various, mainly tropical, cultures, the traditional male dress may still consist of only a single garment below the waist or even none at all, with underwear as optional, including the Indian "dhoti" and "lungi", or the Scottish kilt.


title: Undergarment

text: In the Middle Ages, western men's underwear became looser fitting. The loincloth was replaced by loose, trouser-like clothing called braies, which the wearer stepped into and then laced or tied around the waist and legs at about mid-calf. Wealthier men often wore chausses as well, which only covered the legs. Braies (or rather braccae) were a type of trouser worn by Celtic and Germanic tribes in antiquity and by Europeans subsequently into the Middle Ages. In the later Middle Ages they were used exclusively as undergarments.


title: Undergarment

text: By the time of the Renaissance, braies had become shorter to accommodate longer styles of chausses. Chausses were also giving way to form-fitting hose, which covered the legs and feet. Fifteenth-century hose were often particolored, with each leg in a different-colored fabric or even more than one color on a leg. However, many types of braies, chausses and hose were not intended to be covered up by other clothing, so they were not actually underwear in the strict sense.


title: Undergarment

text: Braies were usually fitted with a front flap that was buttoned or tied closed. This codpiece allowed men to urinate without having to remove the braies completely. Codpieces were also worn with hose when very short doublets – vest- (UK: waistcoat-) like garments tied together in the front and worn under other clothing – were in fashion, as early forms of hose were open at the crotch. Henry VIII of England began padding his codpiece, which caused a spiralling trend of larger and larger codpieces that only ended by the end of the 16th century. It has been speculated that the King may have had the sexually transmitted disease syphilis, and his large codpiece may have included a bandage soaked in medication to relieve its symptoms. Henry VIII also wanted a healthy son and may have thought that projecting himself in this way would portray fertility. Codpieces were sometimes used as a pocket for holding small items.


title: Undergarment

text: Over the upper part of their bodies, both medieval men and women usually wore a close-fitting shirt-like garment called a chemise in France, or a smock or shift in England. The forerunner of the modern-day shirt, the chemise was tucked into a man's braies, under his outer clothing. Women wore a chemise underneath their gowns or robes, sometimes with petticoats over the chemise. Elaborately quilted petticoats might be displayed by a cut-away dress, in which case they served a skirt rather than an undergarment. During the 16th century, the farthingale was popular. This was a petticoat stiffened with reed or willow rods so that it stood out from a woman's body like a cone extending from the waist.


title: Undergarment

text: Corsets also began to be worn about this time. At first they were called pairs of bodies, which refers to a stiffened decorative bodice worn on top of another bodice stiffened with buckram, reeds, canes, whalebone or other materials. These were not the small-waisted, curved corsets familiar from the Victorian era, but straight-lined stays that flattened the bust.


title: Undergarment

text: Men's braies and hose were eventually replaced by simple cotton, silk, or linen drawers, which were usually knee-length trousers with a button flap in the front.


title: Undergarment

text: Medieval people wearing only tunics, without underpants, can be seen on works like by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, in the


title: Undergarment

text: In 2012, findings in Lengberg Castle, in Austria, showed that lace and linen brassiere-like garments, one of which greatly resembled the modern bra, date back to hundreds of years before it was thought to exist.


title: Undergarment

text: The invention of the spinning jenny machines and the cotton gin in the second half of the 18th century made cotton fabrics widely available. This allowed factories to mass-produce underwear, and for the first time, large numbers of people began buying undergarments in stores rather than making them at home.


title: Undergarment

text: Women's stays of the 18th century were laced behind and drew the shoulders back to form a high, round bosom and erect posture. Colored stays were popular. With the relaxed country styles of the end of the century, stays became shorter and were unboned or only lightly boned, and were now called corsets. As tight waists became fashionable in the 1820s, the corset was again boned and laced to form the figure. By the 1860s, a tiny ("wasp") waist came to be seen as a symbol of beauty, and the corsets were stiffened with whalebone or steel to accomplish this. While "tight lacing" of corsets was not a common practice except among a minority of women, which sometimes led to a woman needing to retire to the fainting room, the primary use of a corset was to create a smooth line for the garments to effect the fashionable shape of the day, using the optical illusion created by the corset and garments together to achieve the look of a smaller waist. By the 1880s, the dress reform movement was campaigning against the alleged pain and damage to internal organs and bones caused by tight lacing. Inez Gaches-Sarraute invented the "health corset", with a straight-fronted bust made to help support the wearer's muscles.


title: Undergarment

text: The corset was usually worn over a thin shirt-like shift of linen or cotton or muslin. Skirt styles became shorter and long drawers called pantalettes or pantaloons kept the legs covered. Pantalettes originated in France in the early 19th century, and quickly spread to Britain and America. Pantalettes were a form of leggings or long drawers. They could be one-piece or two separate garments, one for each leg, attached at the waist with buttons or laces. The crotch was left open for hygiene reasons.


title: Undergarment

text: As skirts became fuller from the 1830s, women wore many petticoats to achieve a fashionable bell shape. By the 1850s, stiffened crinolines and later hoop skirts allowed ever wider skirts to be worn. The bustle, a frame or pad worn over the buttocks to enhance their shape, had been used off and on by women for two centuries, but reached the height of its popularity in the later 1880s, and went out of fashion for good in the 1890s.


title: Undergarment

text: Another common undergarment of the late 19th century for men, women, and children was the union suit. Invented in Utica, New York and patented in 1868, this was a one-piece front-buttoning garment usually made of knitted material with sleeves extending to the wrists and legs down to the ankles. It had a buttoned flap (known colloquially as the "access hatch", "drop seat", or "fireman's flap") in the back to ease visits to the toilet. The union suit was the precursor of long johns, a two-piece garment consisting of a long-sleeved top and long pants possibly named after American boxer John L. Sullivan who wore a similar garment in the ring.


title: Undergarment

text: The jockstrap was invented in 1874, by C.F. Bennett of a Chicago sporting goods company, Sharp & Smith, to provide comfort and support for bicycle jockeys riding the cobblestone streets of Boston, Massachusetts. In 1897 Bennett's newly formed Bike Web Company patented and began mass-producing the Bike Jockey Strap.


title: Undergarment

text: By the early 20th century, the mass-produced undergarment industry was booming, and competition forced producers to come up with all sorts of innovative and gimmicky designs to compete. The Hanes company emerged from this boom and quickly established itself as a top manufacturer of union suits, which were common until the 1930s. Textile technology continued to improve, and the time to make a single union suit dropped from days to minutes.


title: Undergarment

text: Meanwhile, designers of women's undergarments relaxed the corset. The invention of new, flexible but supportive materials allowed whalebone and steel bones to be removed. The emancipation or liberty bodice offered an alternative to constricting corsets, and in Australia and the UK the liberty bodice became a standard item for girls as well as women.


title: Undergarment

text: Men's underwear was also on the rise. Benjamin Joseph Clark, a migrant to Louisiana from New Jersey, opened a venture capitalist firm named Bossier in Bossier Parish. One product manufactured by his firm was tightly fitting boxer shorts that resembled modern underwear. Though the company was bankrupt by the early 20th century, it had some impact on men's underwear design.


title: Undergarment

text: Underwear advertising first made an appearance in the 1910s. The first underwear print advertisement in the US appeared in "The Saturday Evening Post" in 1911 and featured oil paintings by J. C. Leyendecker of the "Kenosha Klosed Krotch". Early underwear advertisements emphasized durability and comfort, and fashion was not regarded as a selling point.


title: Undergarment

text: By the end of the 1910s, Chalmers Knitting Company split the union suit into upper and lower sections, effectively inventing the modern undershirt and drawers. Women wore lacier versions of this basic duo known as the camisole and tap pants.


title: Undergarment

text: In 1912, the US had its first professional underwear designer. Lindsay "Layneau" Boudreaux, a French immigrant, established the short-lived panty company Layneau. Though her company closed within one year, it had a significant impact on many levels. Boudreaux showed the world that an American woman could establish and run a company, and she also caused a revolution in the underwear industry.


title: Undergarment

text: In 1913, a New York socialite named Mary Phelps Jacob created the first modern brassiere by tying two handkerchiefs together with ribbon. Jacob's original intention was to cover the whalebone sticking out of her corset, which was visible through her sheer dress. Jacob began making brassieres for her family and friends, and news of the garment soon spread by word of mouth. By 1914, Jacob had a patent for her design and was marketing it throughout the US. Although women had worn brassiere-like garments in years past, Jacob's was the first to be successfully marketed and widely adopted.


title: Undergarment

text: By the end of the decade, trouser-like "bloomers", which were popularized by Amelia Jenks Bloomer (1818–1894) but invented by Elizabeth Smith Miller, gained popularity with the so-called Gibson Girls who enjoyed pursuits such as cycling and tennis. This new female athleticism helped push the corset out of style. The other major factor in the corset's demise was the fact that metal was globally in short supply during the First World War. Steel-laced corsets were dropped in favor of the brassiere.


title: Undergarment

text: Meanwhile, World War I soldiers were issued button-front shorts as underwear. The buttons attached to a separate piece of cloth, or "yoke", sewn to the front of the garment, and tightness of fit was adjusted by means of ties on the sides. This design proved so popular that it began to supplant the union suit in popularity by the end of the war. Rayon garments also became widely available in the post-war period.


title: Undergarment

text: In the 1920s, manufacturers shifted emphasis from durability to comfort. Union suit advertisements raved about patented new designs that reduced the number of buttons and increased accessibility. Most of these experimental designs had to do with new ways to hold closed the crotch flap common on most union suits and drawers. A new woven cotton fabric called nainsook gained popularity in the 1920s for its durability. Retailers also began selling preshrunk undergarments.


title: Undergarment

text: Also in the 1920s, as hemlines of women's dresses rose, women began to wear stockings to cover the exposed legs. Women's bloomers also became much shorter. The shorter bloomers became looser and less supportive as the boyish flapper look came into fashion. By the end of the decade, they came to be known as "step-ins", very much like modern panties but with wider legs. They were worn for the increased flexibility they afforded.


title: Undergarment

text: In 1928, Maidenform, a company operated by Ida Rosenthal, a Jewish immigrant from Russia, developed the brassiere and introduced modern cup sizes for bras.


title: Undergarment

text: Modern men's underwear was largely an invention of the 1930s. On 19 January 1935, Coopers Inc. sold the world's first briefs in Chicago. Designed by an "apparel engineer" named Arthur Kneibler, briefs dispensed with leg sections and had a Y-shaped overlapping fly. The company dubbed the design the "Jockey" since it offered a degree of support that had previously only been available from the jockstrap. Jockey briefs proved so popular that over 30,000 pairs were sold within three months of their introduction. Coopers, renaming their company Jockey decades later, sent its "Mascul-line" plane to make special deliveries of "masculine support" briefs to retailers across the US. In 1938, when jockeys were introduced in the UK, they sold at the rate of 3,000 a week.


title: Undergarment

text: In this decade, companies also began selling buttonless drawers fitted with an elastic waistband. These were the first true boxer shorts, which were named for their resemblance to the shorts worn by professional fighters. Scovil Manufacturing introduced the snap fastener at this time, which became a popular addition to various kinds of undergarments.


title: Undergarment

text: Women of the 1930s brought the corset back, now called the "girdle". The garment lacked the whalebone and metal supports and usually came with a brassiere (now usually called a "bra") and attached garters.


title: Undergarment

text: During World War II, elastic waistbands and metal snaps gave way once again to button fasteners due to rubber and metal shortages. Undergarments were harder to find as well, since soldiers abroad had priority to obtain them. By the end of the war, Jockey and Hanes remained the industry leaders in the US, but Cluett, Peabody and Company made a name for itself when it introduced a preshrinking process called "Sanforization", invented by Sanford Cluett in 1933, which came to be licensed by most major manufacturers.


title: Undergarment

text: Meanwhile, some women adopted the corset once again, now called the "waspie" for the wasp-shaped waistline it gave the wearer. Many women began wearing the strapless bra as well, which gained popularity for its ability to push the breasts up and enhance cleavage.


title: Undergarment

text: Before the 1950s, underwear consisted of simple, functional, white pieces of clothing which were not to be shown in public. In the 1950s, underwear came to be promoted as a fashion item in its own right, and came to be made in prints and colors. Manufacturers also experimented with rayon and newer fabrics like Dacron, nylon, and Spandex. By the 1960, men's underwear was regularly printed in loud patterns, or with messages or images such as cartoon characters. By the 1960s, department stores began offering men's double-seat briefs, an optional feature that would double the wear and add greater comfort. Stores advertising the double thickness seat as well as the manufacturing brands such as Hanes and BVD during this time period can be viewed using Newspapers.com.


title: Undergarment

text: Women's undergarments began to emphasize the breasts instead of the waist. The decade saw the introduction of the bullet bra pointed bust, inspired by Christian Dior's "New Look", which featured pointed cups. The original Wonderbra and push-up bra by Frederick's of Hollywood finally hit it big. Women's panties became more colorful and decorative, and by the mid-1960s were available in two abbreviated styles called the hip-hugger and the bikini (named after the Pacific Ocean island of that name), frequently in sheer nylon fabric.


title: Undergarment

text: Pantyhose, also called "tights" in British English, which combined panties and hose into one garment, made their first appearance in 1959, invented by Glen Raven Mills of North Carolina. The company later introduced seamless pantyhose in 1965, spurred by the popularity of the miniskirt. By the end of the decade, the girdle had fallen out of favor as women chose sexier, lighter, and more comfortable alternatives.


title: Undergarment

text: With the emergence of the woman's movement in the United States sales for pantyhose dropped off during the later half of the 1960s having soared initially.


title: Undergarment

text: Underwear as fashion reached its peak in the 1970s and 1980s, and underwear advertisers forgot about comfort and durability, at least in advertising. Sex appeal became the main selling point, in swimwear as well, bringing to fruition a trend that had been building since at least the flapper era.


title: Undergarment

text: The tank top, an undershirt named after the type of swimwear dating from the 1920s known as a tank suit or maillot, became popular warm-weather casual outerwear in the US in the 1980s. Performers such as Madonna and Cyndi Lauper were also often seen wearing their undergarments on top of other clothes.


title: Undergarment

text: Although worn for decades by exotic dancers, in the 1980s the G-string first gained popularity in South America, particularly in Brazil. Originally a style of swimsuit, the back of the garment is so narrow that it disappears between the buttocks. By the 1990s the design had made its way to most of the Western world, and thong underwear became popular. Today, the thong is one of the fastest-selling styles of underwear among women, and is also worn by men.


title: Undergarment

text: While health and practicality had previously been emphasized, in the 1970s retailers of men's underpants began focusing on fashion and sex appeal. Designers such as Calvin Klein began featuring near-naked models in their advertisements for briefs. The increased wealth of the gay community helped to promote a diversity of undergarment choices. In his book "The Philosophy of Andy Warhol" (1975), Andy Warhol wrote:


title: Undergarment

text: Warhol liked his Jockey briefs so much that he used a pair as a canvas for one of his dollar-sign paintings.


title: Undergarment

text: In the UK in the 1970s, tight jeans gave briefs a continued edge over boxer shorts among young men, but a decade later boxers were given a boost by Nick Kamen's performance in Levi's "Laundrette" TV commercial for its 501 jeans, during which he stripped down to a pair of white boxers in a public laundromat. Briefs however remained popular in America from the 1950s (amongst young men) until the mid 1990s and in Australia the brief remains popular today and has become iconic.


title: Undergarment

text: The 1990s saw the introduction of boxer briefs, which take the longer shape of boxer shorts but maintain the tightness of briefs. Hip hop stars popularized "sagging", in which loosely fitting jeans or shorts were allowed to droop below the waist, exposing the waistband or a greater portion of the underpants worn underneath, typically boxer shorts or boxer briefs. The chiseled muscularity of Mark Wahlberg (then known as Marky Mark) in a series of 1990s underwear advertisements for Calvin Klein boxer briefs and briefs led to his success as a white hip hop star and a Hollywood actor.


title: Undergarment

text: Some people choose not to wear any underpants, a practice sometimes referred to as "going commando", for comfort, to enable their outer garments (particularly those which are form-fitting) to look more flattering, to avoid creating a panty line, because they find it sexually exciting, to increase ventilation and reduce moisture or because they do not see any need for them. Certain types of clothes, such as cycling shorts and kilts (See True Scotsman), are designed to be worn or are traditionally worn without underpants. This also applies for most clothes worn as nightwear and as swimwear. Some analysts have encouraged people with a higher than average libido to change their underpants more frequently than average due to hygiene-related issues of by-products such as cowper's fluid and vaginal lubrication.


title: Undergarment

text: Underwear is sometimes partly exposed for fashion reasons or to titillate. A woman may, for instance, allow the top of her brassiere to be visible from under her collar, or wear a see-through blouse over it. Some men wear T-shirts or A-shirts underneath partly or fully unbuttoned shirts. A common style among young men (2018) is to allow the trousers to sag below the waist, thus revealing the waistband or a greater portion of their underpants. This is commonly referred to (in North America) as "hang-low style". A woman wearing low-rise trousers may expose the upper rear portion of her thong underwear is said to display a "whale tail".


title: Undergarment

text: The sale of used female underwear for sexual purposes began in Japan, in stores called burusera, and it was even sold in vending machines. In the 21st century, when the Internet made anonymous mail-order sales possible for individuals, some women in the U.S. and UK, in response to male demand, began selling their dirty panties, and sometimes other underwear. Some men find the odor of a woman's bodily secretions sexually arousing, and will use the dirty panties as a masturbation aid. The sale of dirty panties, sometimes worn for several days, and sometimes customized with requested stains, is a significant niche in the sex work field. A far smaller market sells used male underwear to gay men.


title: Undergarment

text: Celebrity underwear is sometimes sold. A framed pair of Elvis Presley's dirty underwear sold for $8,000 in 2012. Undergarments of Marilyn Monroe, Queen Elizabeth, and former Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph have been sold at auction. The celebrities Jarvis Cocker, Alison Goldfrapp, Nick Cave, Sacha Baron Cohen, Ricky Gervais, Jah Wobble, Fergie, and Helen Mirren donated underwear to be sold for charity.


title: Undergarment

text: In January 2008 it was reported that, according to market research firm Mintel, the men's underwear market in the UK was worth £674 million, and volume sales of men's underpants rose by 24% between 2000 and 2005. British manufacturers and retailers claim that most British men prefer "trunks", or short boxer briefs. The director of menswear of major British retailer Marks & Spencer (M&S), which sells 40 million pairs of men's underpants a year, was quoted as saying that while boxer shorts were still the most popular at M&S, demand was easing off in favor of hipster trunks similar in design to the swimming trunks worn by actor Daniel Craig in the James Bond film "Casino Royale" (2006).


title: Undergarment

text: In 1985, Fruit of the Loom, Hanes, and Jockey International had the largest shares of the U.S. men's underwear market; these companies had about 35%, 15%, and 10% of the market, respectively.


title: Undergarment

text: Gregory Woods, author of "We're Here, We're Queer and We're not Going Catalogue Shopping," stated that in companies often do not market men's underwear to straight men on the assumption that they are not interested in buying underwear for themselves; therefore many such advertisements are catered to women to convince them to buy underwear for their husbands, as well as to gay or bisexual men. In 1985 Jockey International president Howard Cooley stated that women often shop more than men do, and men request women to buy underwear for them. According to multiple studies conducted circa 1985, 60-80% of men's undergarments for sale had been purchased by women.


title: Undergarment

text: A number of major designer labels are renowned for their underwear collections, including Calvin Klein, Dolce & Gabbana, and La Perla. Likewise, specialist underwear brands are constantly emerging, such as Andrew Christian, 2(x)ist, Leonisa, and Papi.


title: Undergarment

text: Specialist retailers of underwear include high street stores La Senza (Canada), Agent Provocateur (UK), Victoria's Secret (U.S.), and GapBody, the lingerie division of the Gap established in 1998 (U.S.). In 2000, the online retailer, Freshpair, started in New York and in 2008 Abercrombie & Fitch opened a new chain of stores, Gilly Hicks, to compete with other underwear retailers.


title: Undergarment

text: The 2014 Stockholm Skateathon was sponsored by Björn Borg and the advertising campaign encouraged participants either skateboarding or longboarding, for example, to wear undergarments, and whilst it received criticism by the skateboarders, some people ended up dressing in the undergarments


title: Undergarment

text: Going without lower body undergarments has come to be known by the slang term going commando, as well as sometimes free-balling or free-buffing (referencing testicles and vulva respectively).


title: Undergarment

text: The origins of the phrase "go commando" are uncertain, with some speculating that it may refer to being "out in the open" or "ready for action". The modern usage may be traced in the United States to university students circa 1974, where it was perhaps associated with soldiers in the Vietnam War, who were reputed to go without underwear to "increase ventilation and reduce moisture". The phrase was in use in the UK before then, referring mainly to women, from the late 1960s. The connection to the UK and women has been suggested to link to a World War II euphemism for prostitutes working in London's West End, who were termed "Piccadilly Commandos". The term was re-popularized after it appeared in a 1996 episode of "Friends", where Joey Tribbiani wears everything Chandler Bing owns in an act of revenge, while also going "commando".


title: Undergarment

text: In a 2014 open-access internet-based poll, "60 Minutes" and "Vanity Fair" asked visitors to their websites the question "How often do you 'go commando'?" A quarter of participants said that they did this at least occasionally, while 39% said they never, and 35% said that they did not know the meaning of the term.


title: Turkish coffee

text: Turkish coffee is a style of coffee prepared in a "cezve" using very finely ground coffee beans without filtering.


title: Turkish coffee

text: Turkish coffee is very finely ground coffee brewed by boiling. Any coffee bean may be used; arabica varieties are considered best, but robusta or a blend is also used. The coffee grounds are left in the coffee when served. The coffee may be ground at home in a manual grinder made for the very fine grind, ground to order by coffee merchants in most parts of the world, or bought ready-ground from many shops.


title: Turkish coffee

text: Coffee and water, usually with added sugar, is brought to the boil in a special pot called "cezve" in Turkey, and often called "ibrik" elsewhere. As soon as the mixture begins to froth, and before it boils over, it is taken off the heat; it may be briefly reheated twice more to increase the desired froth. Sometimes about one-third of the coffee is distributed to individual cups; the remaining amount is returned to the fire and distributed to the cups as soon as it comes to the boil. The coffee is traditionally served in a small porcelain cup called a "" 'coffee cup'.


title: Turkish coffee

text: The amount of sugar is specified when ordering the coffee. It may be unsweetened (), with little or moderate sugar (), or sweet (). Coffee is often served with something small and sweet to eat, such as Turkish delight. It is sometimes flavoured with cardamom, mastic, salep, or ambergris.


title: Turkish coffee

text: A lot of the powdered coffee grounds are transferred from the "cezve" to the cup; in the cup, some settle on the bottom but much remains in suspension and is consumed with the coffee.


title: Turkish coffee

text: Turkish coffee probably was brought in the Ottoman Empire by traveling merchants by the 15th century. The governor in charge of Yemen, Özdemir Pasha, may have officially introduced it to Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, who popularized it. Under the strictest interpretations of the Quran, the strong coffee was considered a drug and its consumption was forbidden. Sultan Murad IV outlawed coffee and executed by decapitation anyone who drank it. But due to the immense popularity of the beverage, the prohibition was eventually lifted.


title: Turkish coffee

text: Turkish coffee culture had reached Britain and France by the mid to late 17th century. The first coffee house in Britain was opened by an Ottoman Jew in the mid 17th century. In the 1680s, the Turkish ambassador to France reportedly threw lavish parties for the city's elite where African slaves served coffee to guests in porcelain "finjan"s on gold or silver saucers.


title: Turkish coffee

text: The grounds left after drinking Turkish coffee are sometimes used to tell fortunes, a practice known as tasseography. The cup is turned over into the saucer to cool, and the patterns of the coffee grounds are interpreted.


title: Turkish coffee

text: As well as being an everyday beverage, Turkish coffee is also a part of the traditional Turkish wedding custom. As a prologue to marriage, the bridegroom's parents (in the lack of his father, his mother and an elderly member of his family) must visit the young girl's family to ask the hand of the bride-to-be and the blessings of her parents upon the upcoming marriage. During this meeting, the bride-to-be must prepare and serve Turkish coffee to the guests. For the groom's coffee, the bride-to-be sometimes uses salt instead of sugar to gauge his character. If the bridegroom drinks his coffee without any sign of displeasure, the bride-to-be assumes that the groom is good-tempered and patient. As the groom already comes as the demanding party to the girl's house, in fact it is the boy who is passing an exam and etiquette requires him to receive with all smiles this particular present from the girl, although in some parts of the country this may be considered as a lack of desire on the part of the girl for marriage with that candidate.


title: Turkish coffee

text: There is controversy about its name e.g. in some ex-Ottoman dependencies, mostly due to nationalistic feelings or political rivalry with Turkey.


title: Turkish coffee

text: This type of strong coffee is a standard of Armenian households. Armenians introduced the coffee to Corfu when they settled the island, where it is known as "eastern coffee" due to its Eastern origin. Corfu, which had never been part of the Ottoman holdings, did not have an established Ottoman coffee culture before it was introduced by the Armenians.


title: Turkish coffee

text: According to "The Reuben Percy Anecdotes" compiled by journalist Thomas Byerley, an Armenian opened a coffee shop in Europe in 1674, at a time when coffee was first becoming fashionable in the West.


title: Turkish coffee

text: The term "Turkish coffee" is still used in many languages but in Armenian language it is either called , or , referring to the traditional preparation done without milk or creamer. If unsweetened it is called , but more commonly it is brewed with a little sugar ("normal"). Armenians will sometimes serve a plate of baklava alongside the coffee.


title: Turkish coffee

text: A beverage called "turecká káva" or "turek" is very popular in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, although other forms of coffee preparation such as espresso have become more popular in the last few decades, decreasing the popularity of "turek". "Turek" is usually no longer served in cafés, but it is prepared in pubs and kiosks, and in homes. The Czech and Slovak form of Turkish coffee is different from Turkish coffee in Turkey, the Arab world or Balkan countries, since a "cezve" is not used; instead the desired amount of ground coffee is put in a cup and boiling or almost boiling water is poured over it. In recent years, Turkish coffee is also made in a "cezve" ( in Czech), but "Turkish coffee" usually means the method described above. Coffee is prepared in the same way in Poland and Lithuania.


title: Turkish coffee

text: In Greece, Turkish coffee was formerly referred to simply as 'Turkish' (). But political tensions with Turkey in the 1960s led to the political euphemism "Greek coffee" ()," which became even more popular after the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974: "... Greek–Turkish relations at all levels became strained, 'Turkish coffee' became 'Greek coffee' by substitution of one Greek word for another while leaving the Arabic loan-word, for which there is no Greek equivalent, unchanged." There were even advertising campaigns promoting the name "Greek coffee" in the 1990s.


title: Turkish coffee

text: In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Turkish coffee is also called "Bosnian coffee" (), which is made slightly differently from its Turkish counterpart. A deviation from the Turkish preparation is that when the water reaches its boiling point, a small amount is saved aside for later, usually in a coffee cup. Then, the coffee is added to the pot (džezva), and the remaining water in the cup is added to the pot. Everything is put back on the heat source to reach its boiling point again, which only takes a couple of seconds since the coffee is already very hot. Coffee drinking in Bosnia is a traditional daily custom and plays an important role during social gatherings.


title: Turkish coffee

text: In Serbia, Slovenia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Croatia it is called "Turkish coffee" (turska kava / турска кафа / "turska kafa"), "domestic coffee" (domača kava, домаћа кафа / "domaća kafa" / domaća kava) or simply "coffee" (kava, кафа / "kafa"). It is nearly identical to the Turkish version. In Serbia, Turkish coffee is also called "српска кафа" ("srpska kafa"), which means Serbian coffee. The most common name is "домаћа кафа" ("domaća kafa"), meaning domestic coffee.


title: Joel Murray

text: Joel Murray (born April 17, 1963) is an American comedy actor. He is well known for his roles in the television series "Mad Men", "Grand", "Love & War", "Dharma & Greg", "Still Standing", and "Shameless". He has also appeared in films including "God Bless America" and "Monsters University".


title: Joel Murray

text: Murray was born and raised in Wilmette, Illinois, the son of Lucille (née Collins; 19211988), a mail room clerk, and Edward Joseph Murray II (19211967), a lumber salesman. He grew up in an Irish Catholic family.


title: Joel Murray

text: One of nine siblings, he is the younger brother of actors Bill Murray, Brian Doyle-Murray, and John Murray. A sister, Nancy, is an Adrian Dominican Sister in Michigan, who toured the U.S. portraying St. Catherine of Siena. His brother Ed died in 2020. Their father died in 1967 at the age of 46 from complications of diabetes.


title: Joel Murray

text: In high school at Loyola Academy, Murray was captain of the football team and the lead actor in one of the school's musicals. His entertainment career began in Chicago, Illinois, where he performed at various improvisational theaters, including the Improv Olympic, the Improv Institute, and The Second City.


title: Joel Murray

text: Murray voiced Cheetos mascot Chester Cheetah from the character's inception in 1986 until 1997. He was replaced by Pete Stacker in 1997.


title: Joel Murray

text: Murray starred in the 1990 television series "Grand", the 1991 comedy series "Pacific Station", the 1992 comedy series "Love & War" as Ray Litvak, and the ABC series "Dharma & Greg" as Pete Cavanaugh. Murray also featured in commercials for First Chicago NBD. He provided his voice for the short-lived 1994 series "Beethoven" and the TV series "3-South". He played the supporting character "Fitz" on CBS's sitcom "Still Standing". He appeared as Eddie Jackson on Showtime's series "Shameless" in 2011.


title: Joel Murray

text: Murray's first film role was in the 1986 comedy film "One Crazy Summer" as George Calamari. His other roles include the 1988 comedy film "Scrooged", with his brothers Bill, Brian, and John. He appeared in the 1992 movie "Shakes the Clown" with "One Crazy Summer" co-stars Bob Goldthwait and Tom Villard.


title: Joel Murray

text: In the first, second, fourth, fifth and seventh seasons of the Emmy-winning AMC TV series "Mad Men", Murray appeared in 15 episodes as copywriter Freddy Rumsen. He has made guest appearances on television shows such as "The Nanny", "Joan of Arcadia", "Two and a Half Men", "Malcolm in the Middle", "Criminal Minds", and "Blossom".


title: Joel Murray

text: In the 2012 film "God Bless America" he portrays Frank, a man whose contempt for superficiality and meanness in American society sends him over the edge and into a killing spree.


title: Joel Murray

text: In the 2013 Pixar film "Monsters University" he provides the voice of Don Carlton, a middle-aged monster who is a college student and salesman.


title: Joel Murray

text: In April 2014, Murray replaced Chip Esten in the improv-comedy troupe "Whose Live Anyway?" and performs with "Whose Line Is It Anyway?" cast members Ryan Stiles, Greg Proops and Jeff B. Davis. He also portrayed Ted in the comedy horror film "Bloodsucking Bastards".


title: Joel Murray

text: Murray has been married to Eliza Coyle since 1989 and they have four children. He and his brothers own a country club themed restaurant, the Murray Brothers "Caddyshack" (run by his brother Andy), named after the 1980 comedy film that starred his brothers Bill and Brian, located in the World Golf Village resort near St. Augustine, Florida.


title: Nioh

text: Set during a fictionalized version of the year 1600, the plot follows the journeys of William Adams, an Irish sailor named after and inspired by the historic William Adams, an Englishman who became a samurai. Adams pursues the sorcerer Edward Kelley into the final battles of the Sengoku period during Tokugawa Ieyasu's efforts to unify Japan, an effort complicated by the emergence of yōkai that are flourishing in the chaos of war. Gameplay revolves around navigating levels and defeating monsters that have infested an area; combat revolves around stamina or "Ki" management and different sword stances that are strong or weak against different enemies.


title: Nioh

text: "Nioh" began development in 2004 for PlayStation 3 as part of a multimedia project based on an unfinished Akira Kurosawa script. The project went through a turbulent and prolonged pre-production period, going through multiple revisions until its final version began development in 2014 for PlayStation 4. The story was based on the life of Western samurai William Adams, though it was embellished with supernatural elements. Development information was sporadic until 2015, when it was reintroduced to the public.


title: Nioh

text: Alpha and beta demos were released during 2016, to both gauge public reaction to the title and make adjustments based on feedback. Initially scheduled for a 2016 release, the adjustments pushed the release into the following year. Upon release, "Nioh" received positive reviews, with praise going to the gameplay and graphics while the story was criticized as lacking or confusing. It reached high positions in sales charts, going on to ship over 3 million copies worldwide. A follow-up, "Nioh 2", was released in 2020.