title: Case Western Reserve University

text: Case Western Reserve is a founding and current member of the University Athletic Association (UAA). The conference participates in the National Collegiate Athletic Association's (NCAA) Division III. Case Institute of Technology and Western Reserve University were also founding members of the Presidents' Athletic Conference (PAC) in 1958. When the athletic departments of the two universities merged in 1971 they dominated the (PAC) for several years. The university remained a member of the PAC until 1983. In the fall of 1984 the university joined the North Coast Athletic Conference (NCAC), a pioneer in gender equality in sports, as a charter member. The 1998–99 school year marked the final season in which the Spartans were members of the NCAC. As the university had held joint conference membership affiliation with the UAA and the NCAC for over a decade. In 2014, the football team began competing as an associate member of the PAC, as only four out of the eight UAA member institutions sponsored football. The university offers ten men's sports and nine women's sports.


title: Case Western Reserve University

text: Case Western Reserve has a long and stories cross country program. The team won the conference every year for twelve straight years from 1967 to 1978 led by Coach Bill Sudeck, continued to win conference titles in 1985, 1986, 1988, 1992, 1993, and 1994. The Case Western Reserve's women's cross country team finished the 2006 season with a UAA Championship and a bid to the NCAA Championship. The Lady Spartans finished 10th in the nation. The women's team went on to finish even higher at nationals in 2007, earning a sixth-place finish at the NCAA DIII national championship. Both the men's and women's Cross Country teams qualified for and competed in the NCAA DIII national championships in 2008, with the women's team coming away with two All-Americans and a 16th-place finish. In 2009, they had two All-Americans and finished 15th. In 2010, the lady Spartans finished 19th, with one all-American. From 2006 to 2010 the women's cross country team earned 8 individual All-American Titles, including current professional marathoner Esther Erb.


title: Case Western Reserve University

text: The Case Western Reserve football team reemerged in the mid-2000s under the direction of Head Coach Greg Debeljak. The 2007 team finished undefeated earning the school's first playoff appearance and first playoff victory, winning against the Widener Pride. The undefeated seasons continued in both 2008 and 2009, earning more UAA titles and NCAA Division III playoff appearances, helping set up an all-time school record of a 38-game regular season win streak. In 2017, the Spartans again went undefeated and advanced to the NCAA Division III playoffs, defeating the Illinois Wesleyan Titans in the first round, before being eliminated in the second round by the Mount Union Purple Raiders, the eventual NCAA Division III national champion. In total, the team has won eight UAA football championships–1988, 1996, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2016, and 2017. In 2014, the football team began competing as an associate member of the Presidents' Athletic Conference, winning the conference in 2017. All other sports continue to compete in the University Athletic Association. In 2019, the Spartans finished 9–2, winning an outright PAC title, and earning an automatic bid to the Division III playoffs, where they were defeated in the first round.


title: Case Western Reserve University

text: The Spartan men's tennis team has been ranked in the Division III for numerous years led by Coach Todd Wojtkowski. Beginning in 2013, the team advanced in the NCAA tournament. In 2014, two CWRU tennis players, Eric Klawitter and Christopher Krimbill, won the NCAA men's doubles title. In 2016, the team made the NCAA tournament again. The break through year was in 2021, when the Spartan men's tennis team advanced all the way to the finals of the NCAA Division III championship before losing to Emory 5–2. The 2021 team finished with an overall 14–3 record, with two of those losses coming against non-Division III competition. The 2022 team finished national runner-up losing to Chicago 5–2, finishing the season 25–5, with four of those losses coming against non-Division III competition. Also in 2022, James Hopper and Jonathan Powell won the NCAA men's doubles national title. The team won the 2022 ITA Division III Men's National Team Indoor Championship.


title: Case Western Reserve University

text: In 2018, the Case Western Reserve men's soccer team made their deepest NCAA run ever, advancing to the NCAA Division III "Elite Eight" before falling in the quarterfinals to the Calvin Knights, 3–1. The 2018 team finished the season with a record of 16–2–2. The Case Western Reserve men's soccer team finished their 2006 season with a 17–2–2 record and a UAA championship. The team reached the Sweet 16 in their first-ever NCAA Division III tournament appearance and concluded the season ranked 12th in the nation.


title: Case Western Reserve University

text: The CWRU Spartan men's basketball team received their first bid to the NCAA Division III tournament in 2022 following an 18-6 regular season. The Spartans defeated Dubuque College in the first round 91–87 in overtime, and then upset the top seeded and defending national champion Wisconsin-Oshkosh in Round Two 77–74. The Spartans fell to Mary Hardin-Baylor in the Sweet 16 89–84 in overtime.


title: Case Western Reserve University

text: In recent years, the Case Western Reserve baseball team has made appearances in the NCAA post-season and won several UAA titles. UAA titles have been won in 2013, 2014, 2018, and 2022. In 2018, the team advanced to the third round of the NCAA tournament. In 2014, the Spartans advanced to the NCAA Mid-East Regional Final before losing to Salisbury State 3–2. The 2014 team set a school record for victories in a season with 34, and also won a UAA title. In 2011, Spartan third baseman Chad Mullins was named the D3Baseball.com Player of the Year after hitting .437 with eight home runs and 71 RBIs. Mullins also ranked in the Division III national top ten in hits, runs scored, and total bases.


title: Case Western Reserve University

text: CWRU has produced eight individual Division III national champions in Indoor and Outdoor Track and Field. Mostly recently, Cassandra Laios won the national title for hammer throw in 2019.


title: Case Western Reserve University

text: The Case Western Reserve Ultimate Frisbee Team, although a club sport, competes against Division I teams around the country. Established in 1995, the Fighting Gobies have been successful, with the men's team taking home first place in the Ohio Valley Regional Tournament.


title: Case Western Reserve University

text: Notable alumni include John Charles Cutler, former surgeon general who violated human rights and led to deaths in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, Terre Haute prison experiments, and the syphilis experiments in Guatemala; Anthony Russo and Joe Russo, Hollywood movie directors, Paul Buchheit, creator and lead developer of Gmail; Craig Newmark, billionaire founder of Craigslist; Peter Tippett, developer of the anti-virus software Vaccine, which Symantec purchased and turned into the popular Norton AntiVirus.


title: Case Western Reserve University

text: Founders of Fortune 500 companies include Herbert Henry Dow, founder of Dow Chemical, Art Parker, founder of Parker Hannifin, and Edward Williams, co-founder of Sherwin-Williams.


title: Case Western Reserve University

text: Other notable alumni include Larry Hurtado, New Testament scholar; Harvey Hilbert, a zen master, psychologist and expert on post-Vietnam stress syndrome; Peter Sterling, neuroscientist and co-founder of the concept of allostasis; Ogiame Atuwatse III, Tsola Emiko the 21st Olu of Warri – a historic monarch of the Itsekiri people in Nigeria's Delta region, and Donald Knuth, a leading expert on computer algorithms and creator of the TeX typesetting system.


title: Operations management

text: Operations management is an area of management concerned with designing and controlling the process of production and redesigning business operations in the production of goods or services. It involves the responsibility of ensuring that business operations are efficient in terms of using as few resources as needed and effective in meeting customer requirements.


title: Operations management

text: It is concerned with managing an entire production or service system which is the process that converts inputs (in the forms of raw materials, labor, consumers, and energy) into outputs (in the form of goods and/or services for consumers). Operations produce products, manage quality and create services. Operation management covers sectors like banking systems, hospitals, companies, working with suppliers, customers, and using technology. Operations is one of the major functions in an organization along with supply chains, marketing, finance and human resources. The operations function requires management of both the strategic and day-to-day production of goods and services.


title: Operations management

text: In managing manufacturing or service operations several types of decisions are made including operations strategy, product design, process design, quality management, capacity, facilities planning, production planning and inventory control. Each of these requires an ability to analyze the current situation and find better solutions to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of manufacturing or service operations. A modern, integrated vision of the many aspects of operations management may be found in recent textbooks on the subject.


title: Operations management

text: The history of production and operation systems begins around 5000 B.C. when Sumerian priests developed the ancient system of recording inventories, loans, taxes, and business transactions. The next major historical application of operation systems occurred in 4000 B.C. It was during this time that the Egyptians started using planning, organization, and control in large projects such as the construction of the pyramids. By 1100 B.C., labor was being specialized in China; by about 370 B.C., Xenophon described the advantages of dividing the various operations necessary for the production of shoes among different individuals in ancient Greece:


title: Operations management

text: In the Middle Ages, kings and queens ruled over large areas of land. Loyal noblemen maintained large sections of the monarch's territory. This hierarchical organization in which people were divided into classes based on social position and wealth became known as the feudal system. In the feudal system, vassals and serfs produced for themselves and people of higher classes by using the ruler's land and resources. Although a large part of labor was employed in agriculture, artisans contributed to economic output and formed guilds. The guild system, operating mainly between 1100 and 1500, consisted of two types: merchant guilds, who bought and sold goods, and craft guilds, which made goods. Although guilds were regulated as to the quality of work performed, the resulting system was rather rigid, shoemakers, for example, were prohibited from tanning hides.


title: Operations management

text: Services were also performed in the Middle Ages by servants. They provided service to the nobility in the form of cooking, cleaning and providing entertainment. Court jesters were considered service providers. The medieval army could also be considered a service since they defended the nobility.


title: Operations management

text: The industrial revolution was facilitated by two elements: interchangeability of parts and division of labor. Division of labor has been a feature from the beginning of civilization, the extent to which the division is carried out varied considerably depending on period and location. Compared to the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery were characterized by a greater specialization in labor, which was a characteristic of the growing cities and trade networks of Europe. An important leap in manufacturing efficiency came in the late eighteenth century as Eli Whitney popularized the concept of interchangeability of parts when he manufactured 10,000 muskets. Up to this point in the history of manufacturing, each product (e.g. each musket) was considered a special order, meaning that parts of a given musket were fitted only for that particular musket and could not be used in other muskets. Interchangeability of parts allowed the mass production of parts independent of the final products in which they would be used. An entire new market to fill the need for the sale and manufacturing of muskets began at this time.


title: Operations management

text: In 1883, Frederick Winslow Taylor introduced the stopwatch method for accurately measuring the time to perform each single task of a complicated job. He developed the scientific study of productivity and identifying how to coordinate different tasks to eliminate wasting of time and increase the quality of work. The next generation of scientific study occurred with the development of work sampling and predetermined motion time systems (PMTS). Work sampling is used to measure the random variable associated with the time of each task. PMTS allows the use of standard predetermined tables of the smallest body movements (e.g. turning the left wrist by 90°), and integrating them to predict the time needed to perform a simple task. PMTS has gained substantial importance due to the fact that it can predict work measurements without observing the actual work. The foundation of PMTS was laid out by the research and development of Frank B. and Lillian M. Gilbreth around 1912. The Gilbreths took advantage of taking motion pictures at known time intervals while operators were performing the given task.


title: Operations management

text: Service Industries: At the turn of the twentieth century, the services industries were already developed, but largely fragmented. In 1900 the U.S. service industry consisted of banks, professional services, schools, general stores, railroads and telegraph. Services were largely local in nature (except for railroads and telegraph) and owned by entrepreneurs and families. The U.S. in 1900 had 31% employment in services, 31% in manufacturing and 38% in agriculture.


title: Operations management

text: The idea of the production line has been used multiple times in history prior to Henry Ford: the Venetian Arsenal (1104); Smith's pin manufacturing, in the Wealth of Nations (1776) or Brunel's Portsmouth Block Mills (1802). Ransom Olds was the first to manufacture cars using the assembly line system, but Henry Ford developed the first auto assembly system where a car chassis was moved through the assembly line by a conveyor belt while workers added components to it until the car was completed. During World War II, the growth of computing power led to further development of efficient manufacturing methods and the use of advanced mathematical and statistical tools. This was supported by the development of academic programs in industrial and systems engineering disciplines, as well as fields of operations research and management science (as multi-disciplinary fields of problem solving). While systems engineering concentrated on the broad characteristics of the relationships between inputs and outputs of generic systems, operations researchers concentrated on solving specific and focused problems. The synergy of operations research and systems engineering allowed for the realization of solving large scale and complex problems in the modern era. Recently, the development of faster and smaller computers, intelligent systems, and the World Wide Web has opened new opportunities for operations, manufacturing, production, and service systems.


title: Operations management

text: Before the First industrial revolution work was mainly done through two systems: domestic system and craft guilds. In the domestic system merchants took materials to homes where artisans performed the necessary work, craft guilds on the other hand were associations of artisans which passed work from one shop to another, for example: leather was tanned by a tanner, passed to curriers, and finally arrived at shoemakers and saddlers.


title: Operations management

text: The beginning of the industrial revolution is usually associated with 18th century English textile industry, with the invention of flying shuttle by John Kay in 1733, the spinning jenny by James Hargreaves in 1765, the water frame by Richard Arkwright in 1769 and the steam engine by James Watt in 1765.


title: Operations management

text: In 1851 at the Crystal Palace Exhibition the term American system of manufacturing was used to describe the new approach that was evolving in the United States of America which was based on two central features: interchangeable parts and extensive use of mechanization to produce them.


title: Operations management

text: Henry Ford was 39 years old when he founded the Ford Motor Company in 1903, with $28,000 capital from twelve investors. The model T car was introduced in 1908, however it was not until Ford implemented the assembly line concept, that his vision of making a popular car affordable by every middle-class American citizen would be realized. The first factory in which Henry Ford used the concept of the assembly line was Highland Park (1913), he characterized the system as follows:


title: Operations management

text: This became one of the central ideas that led to mass production, one of the main elements of the Second Industrial Revolution, along with emergence of the electrical industry and petroleum industry.


title: Operations management

text: The post-industrial economy was noted in 1973 by Daniel Bell. He stated that the future economy would provide more GDP and employment from services than from manufacturing and have a great effect on society. Since all sectors are highly interconnected, this did not reflect less importance for manufacturing, agriculture, and mining but just a shift in the type of economic activity.


title: Operations management

text: Although productivity benefited considerably from technological inventions and division of labor, the problem of systematic measurement of performances and the calculation of these by the use of formulas remained somewhat unexplored until Frederick Taylor, whose early work focused on developing what he called a "differential piece-rate system" and a series of experiments, measurements and formulas dealing with cutting metals and manual labor. The differential piece-rate system consisted in offering two different pay rates for doing a job: a higher rate for workers with high productivity (efficiency) and who produced high quality goods (effectiveness) and a lower rate for those who fail to achieve the standard. One of the problems Taylor believed could be solved with this system, was the problem of soldiering: faster workers reducing their production rate to that of the slowest worker.


title: Operations management

text: In 1911 Taylor published his "The Principles of Scientific Management", in which he characterized scientific management (also known as Taylorism) as:


title: Operations management

text: Taylor is also credited for developing stopwatch time study, this combined with Frank and Lillian Gilbreth motion study gave way to time and motion study which is centered on the concepts of standard method and standard time. Frank Gilbreth is also responsible for introducing the flow process chart in 1921. Other contemporaries of Taylor worth remembering are Morris Cooke (rural electrification in the 1920s and implementer of Taylor's principles of scientific management in the Philadelphia's Department of Public Works), Carl Barth (speed-and-feed-calculating slide rules ) and Henry Gantt (Gantt chart). Also in 1910 Hugo Diemer published the first industrial engineering book: Factory Organization and Administration.


title: Operations management

text: In 1913 Ford Whitman Harris published his "How many parts to make at once" in which he presented the idea of the economic order quantity model. He described the problem as follows:


title: Operations management

text: This paper inspired a large body of mathematical literature focusing on the problem of production planning and inventory control.


title: Operations management

text: In 1924 Walter Shewhart introduced the control chart through a technical memorandum while working at Bell Labs, central to his method was the distinction between common cause and special cause of variation. In 1931 Shewhart published his Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product, the first systematic treatment of the subject of Statistical Process Control (SPC). He defined control:


title: Operations management

text: In the 1940s methods-time measurement (MTM) was developed by H.B. Maynard, J.L. Schwab and G.J. Stegemerten. MTM was the first of a series of predetermined motion time systems, predetermined in the sense that estimates of time are not determined in loco but are derived from an industry standard. This was explained by its originators in a book they published in 1948 called "Method-Time Measurement".


title: Operations management

text: Up to this point in history, optimization techniques were known for a very long time, from the simple methods employed by F.W.Harris to the more elaborate techniques of the calculus of variations developed by Euler in 1733 or the multipliers employed by Lagrange in 1811, and computers were slowly being developed, first as analog computers by Sir William Thomson (1872) and James Thomson (1876) moving to the electromechanical computers of Konrad Zuse (1939 and 1941). During World War II however, the development of mathematical optimization went through a major boost with the development of the Colossus computer, the first electronic digital computer that was all programmable, and the possibility to computationally solve large linear programming problems, first by Kantorovich in 1939 working for the Soviet government and latter on in 1947 with the simplex method of Dantzig. These methods are known today as belonging to the field of operations research.


title: Operations management

text: From this point on a curious development took place: while in the United States the possibility of applying the computer to business operations led to the development of management software architecture such as MRP and successive modifications, and ever more sophisticated optimization techniques and manufacturing simulation software, in post-war Japan a series of events at Toyota Motor led to the development of the Toyota Production System (TPS) and Lean Manufacturing.


title: Operations management

text: In 1943, in Japan, Taiichi Ohno arrived at Toyota Motor company. Toyota evolved a unique manufacturing system centered on two complementary notions: just in time (produce only what is needed) and autonomation (automation with a human touch). Regarding JIT, Ohno was inspired by American supermarkets: workstations functioned like a supermarket shelf where the customer can get products they need, at the time they need and in the amount needed, the workstation (shelf) is then restocked. Autonomation was developed by Toyoda Sakichi in Toyoda Spinning and Weaving: an automatically activated loom that was also foolproof, that is automatically detected problems. In 1983 J.N Edwards published his "MRP and Kanban-American style" in which he described JIT goals in terms of seven zeros: zero defects, zero (excess) lot size, zero setups, zero breakdowns, zero handling, zero lead time and zero surging. This period also marks the spread of Total Quality Management (TQM) in Japan, ideas initially developed by American authors such as Deming, Juran and Armand V. Feigenbaum. TQM is a strategy for implementing and managing quality improvement on an organizational basis, this includes: participation, work culture, customer focus, supplier quality improvement and integration of the quality system with business goals. Schnonberger identified seven fundamentals principles essential to the Japanese approach:


title: Operations management

text: Meanwhile, in the sixties, a different approach was developed by George W. Plossl and Oliver W. Wight, this approach was continued by Joseph Orlicky as a response to the TOYOTA Manufacturing Program which led to Material Requirements Planning (MRP) at IBM, latter gaining momentum in 1972 when the American Production and Inventory Control Society launched the "MRP Crusade". One of the key insights of this management system was the distinction between dependent demand and independent demand. Independent demand is demand which originates outside of the production system, therefore not directly controllable, and dependent demand is demand for components of final products, therefore subject to being directly controllable by management through the bill of materials, via product design. Orlicky wrote "Materials Requirement Planning" in 1975, the first hard cover book on the subject. MRP II was developed by Gene Thomas at IBM, and expanded the original MRP software to include additional production functions. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is the modern software architecture, which addresses, besides production operations, distribution, accounting, human resources and procurement.


title: Operations management

text: Dramatic changes were occurring in the service industries, as well. Beginning in 1955 McDonald's provided one of the first innovations in service operations. McDonald's is founded on the idea of the production-line approach to service. This requires a standard and limited menu, an assembly-line type of production process in the back-room, high customer service in the front-room with cleanliness, courtesy and fast service. While modeled after manufacturing in the production of the food in the back-room, the service in the front-room was defined and oriented to the customer. It was the McDonald's operations system of both production and service that made the difference. McDonald's also pioneered the idea of franchising this operation system to rapidly spread the business around the country and later the world.


title: Operations management

text: FedEx in 1971 provided the first overnight delivery of packages in the U.S. This was based on the innovative idea of flying all packages into the single airport in Memphis Tenn by midnight each day, resorting the packages for delivery to destinations and then flying them back out the next morning for delivery to numerous locations. This concept of a fast package delivery system created a whole new industry, and eventually allowed fast delivery of online orders by Amazon and other retailers.


title: Operations management

text: Walmart provided the first example of very low cost retailing through design of their stores and efficient management of their entire supply chain. Starting with a single store in Roger's Arkansas in 1962, Walmart has now become the world's largest company. This was accomplished by adhering to their system of delivering the goods and the service to the customers at the lowest possible cost. The operations system included careful selection of merchandise, low cost sourcing, ownership of transportation, cross-docking, efficient location of stores and friendly home-town service to the customer.


title: Operations management

text: In 1987 the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), recognizing the growing importance of quality, issued the ISO 9000, a family of standards related to quality management systems. There standards apply to both manufacturing and service organizations. There has been some controversy regarding the proper procedures to follow and the amount of paperwork involved, but much of that has improved in current ISO 9000 revisions.


title: Operations management

text: With the coming of the Internet, in 1994 Amazon devised a service system of on-line retailing and distribution. With this innovative system customers were able to search for products they might like to buy, enter the order for the product, pay online, and track delivery of the product to their location, all in two days. This required not only very large computer operations, but dispersed warehouses, and an efficient transportation system. Service to customers including a high merchandise assortment, return services of purchases, and fast delivery is at the forefront of this business. It is the customer being in the system during the production and delivery of the service that distinguishes all services from manufacturing.


title: Operations management

text: A production system comprises both the technological elements (machines and tools) and organizational behavior (division of labor and information flow). An individual production system is usually analyzed in the literature referring to a single business, therefore it's usually improper to include in a given production system the operations necessary to process goods that are obtained by purchasing or the operations carried by the customer on the sold products, the reason being simply that since businesses need to design their own production systems this then becomes the focus of analysis, modeling and decision making (also called "configuring" a production system).


title: Operations management

text: A first possible distinction in production systems (technological classification) is between continuous process production and discrete part production (manufacturing).


title: Operations management

text: Another possible classification is one based on Lead Time (manufacturing lead time vs delivery lead time): engineer to order (ETO), purchase to order (PTO), make to order (MTO), assemble to order (ATO) and make to stock (MTS). According to this classification different kinds of systems will have different customer order decoupling points (CODP), meaning that work in progress (WIP) cycle stock levels are practically nonexistent regarding operations located after the CODP (except for WIP due to queues). (See Order fulfillment)


title: Operations management

text: The concept of production systems can be expanded to the service sector world keeping in mind that services have some fundamental differences in respect to material goods: intangibility, client always present during transformation processes, no stocks for "finished goods". Services can be classified according to a service process matrix: degree of labor intensity (volume) vs degree of customization (variety). With a high degree of labor intensity there are Mass Services (e.g., commercial banking bill payments and state schools) and Professional Services (e.g., personal physicians and lawyers), while with a low degree of labor intensity there are Service Factories (e.g., airlines and hotels) and Service Shops (e.g., hospitals and auto mechanics).


title: Operations management

text: The systems described above are ideal types: real systems may present themselves as hybrids of those categories. Consider, for example, that the production of jeans involves initially carding, spinning, dyeing and weaving, then cutting the fabric in different shapes and assembling the parts in pants or jackets by combining the fabric with thread, zippers and buttons, finally finishing and distressing the pants/jackets before being shipped to stores. The beginning can be seen as process production, the middle as part production and the end again as process production: it's unlikely that a single company will keep all the stages of production under a single roof, therefore the problem of vertical integration and outsourcing arises. Most products require, "from a supply chain perspective", both process production and part production.


title: Operations management

text: Operations strategy concerns policies and plans of use of the firm productive resources with the aim of supporting long term competitive strategy. Metrics in operations management can be broadly classified into efficiency metrics and effectiveness metrics. Effectiveness metrics involve:


title: Operations management

text: A more recent approach, introduced by Terry Hill, involves distinguishing competitive variables in order winner and order qualifiers when defining operations strategy. Order winners are variables which permit differentiating the company from competitors, while order qualifiers are prerequisites for engaging in a transaction. This view can be seen as a unifying approach between operations management and marketing (see segmentation and positioning).


title: Operations management

text: Productivity is a standard efficiency metric for evaluation of production systems, broadly speaking a ratio between outputs and inputs, and can assume many specific forms, for example: machine productivity, workforce productivity, raw material productivity, warehouse productivity (=inventory turnover). It is also useful to break up productivity in use U (productive percentage of total time) and yield η (ratio between produced volume and productive time) to better evaluate production systems performances. Cycle times can be modeled through manufacturing engineering if the individual operations are heavily automated, if the manual component is the prevalent one, methods used include: time and motion study, predetermined motion time systems and work sampling.


title: Operations management

text: ABC analysis is a method for analyzing inventory based on Pareto distribution, it posits that since revenue from items on inventory will be power law distributed then it makes sense to manage items differently based on their position on a revenue-inventory level matrix, 3 classes are constructed (A, B and C) from cumulative item revenues, so in a matrix each item will have a letter (A, B or C) assigned for revenue and inventory. This method posits that items away from the diagonal should be managed differently: items in the upper part are subject to risk of obsolescence, items in the lower part are subject to risk of stockout.


title: Operations management

text: Throughput is a variable which quantifies the number of parts produced in the unit of time. Although estimating throughput for a single process maybe fairly simple, doing so for an entire production system involves an additional difficulty due to the presence of queues which can come from: machine breakdowns, processing time variability, scraps, setups, maintenance time, lack of orders, lack of materials, strikes, bad coordination between resources, mix variability, plus all these inefficiencies tend to compound depending on the nature of the production system. One important example of how system throughput is tied to system design are bottlenecks: in job shops bottlenecks are typically dynamic and dependent on scheduling while on transfer lines it makes sense to speak of "the bottleneck" since it can be univocally associated with a specific station on the line. This leads to the problem of how to define capacity measures, that is an estimation of the maximum output of a given production system, and capacity utilization.


title: Operations management

text: Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) is defined as the product between system availability, cycle time efficiency and quality rate. OEE is typically used as key performance indicator (KPI) in conjunction with the lean manufacturing approach.


title: Operations management

text: Designing the "configuration of production systems" involves both technological and organizational variables. Choices in production technology involve: dimensioning capacity, fractioning capacity, capacity location, outsourcing processes, process technology, automation of operations, trade-off between volume and variety (see Hayes-Wheelwright matrix). Choices in the organizational area involve: defining worker skills and responsibilities, team coordination, worker incentives and information flow.


title: Operations management

text: In "production planning", there is a basic distinction between the push approach and the pull approach, with the later including the singular approach of just in time. Pull means that the production system authorizes production based on inventory level; push means that production occurs based on demand (forecasted or present, that is purchase orders). An individual production system can be both push and pull; for example activities before the CODP may work under a pull system, while activities after the CODP may work under a push system.


title: Operations management

text: The traditional pull approach to inventory control, a number of techniques have been developed based on the work of Ford W. Harris (1913), which came to be known as the economic order quantity (EOQ) model. This model marks the beginning of inventory theory, which includes the Wagner-Within procedure, the newsvendor model, base stock model and the fixed time period model. These models usually involve the calculation of cycle stocks and buffer stocks, the latter usually modeled as a function of demand variability. The economic production quantity (EPQ) differs from the EOQ model only in that it assumes a constant fill rate for the part being produced, instead of the instantaneous refilling of the EOQ model.


title: Operations management

text: Joseph Orlickly and others at IBM developed a push approach to inventory control and production planning, now known as material requirements planning (MRP), which takes as input both the master production schedule (MPS) and the bill of materials (BOM) and gives as output a schedule for the materials (components) needed in the production process. MRP therefore is a planning tool to manage purchase orders and production orders (also called jobs).


title: Operations management

text: The MPS can be seen as a kind of aggregate planning for production coming in two fundamentally opposing varieties: plans which try to chase demand and level plans which try to keep uniform capacity utilization. Many models have been proposed to solve MPS problems:


title: Operations management

text: MRP can be briefly described as a 3s procedure: sum (different orders), split (in lots), shift (in time according to item lead time). To avoid an "explosion" of data processing in MRP (number of BOMs required in input) planning bills (such as family bills or super bills) can be useful since they allow a rationalization of input data into common codes.


title: Operations management

text: MRP had some notorious problems such as infinite capacity and fixed lead times, which influenced successive modifications of the original software architecture in the form of MRP II, enterprise resource planning (ERP) and advanced planning and scheduling (APS).


title: Operations management

text: In this context problems of scheduling (sequencing of production), loading (tools to use), part type selection (parts to work on) and applications of operations research have a significant role to play.


title: Operations management

text: Lean manufacturing is an approach to production which arose in Toyota between the end of World War II and the seventies. It comes mainly from the ideas of Taiichi Ohno and Toyoda Sakichi which are centered on the complementary notions of just in time and autonomation (jidoka), all aimed at reducing waste (usually applied in PDCA style). Some additional elements are also fundamental: production smoothing (Heijunka), capacity buffers, setup reduction, cross-training and plant layout.


title: Operations management

text: A series of tools have been developed mainly with the objective of replicating Toyota success: a very common implementation involves small cards known as kanbans; these also come in some varieties: reorder kanbans, alarm kanbans, triangular kanbans, etc. In the classic kanban procedure with one card:


title: Operations management

text: Since the number of kanbans in the production system is set by managers as a constant number, the kanban procedure works as WIP controlling device, which for a given arrival rate, per Little's law, works as a lead time controlling device.


title: Operations management

text: In Toyota the TPS represented more of a philosophy of production than a set of specific lean tools, the latter would include:


title: Operations management

text: Seen more broadly, JIT can include methods such as: product standardization and modularity, group technology, total productive maintenance, job enlargement, job enrichment, flat organization and vendor rating (JIT production is very sensitive to replenishment conditions).


title: Operations management

text: In heavily automated production systems production planning and information gathering may be executed via the control system, attention should be paid however to avoid problems such as deadlocks, as these can lead to productivity losses.


title: Operations management

text: Project Production Management (PPM) applies the concepts of operations management to the execution of delivery of capital projects by viewing the sequence of activities in a project as a production system. Operations managements principles of variability reduction and management are applied by buffering through a combination of capacity, time and inventory.


title: Operations management

text: Service industries are a major part of economic activity and employment in all industrialized countries comprising 80 percent of employment and GDP in the U.S. Operations management of these services, as distinct from manufacturing, has been developing since the 1970s through publication of unique practices and academic research. Please note that this section does not particularly include "Professional Services Firms" and the professional services practiced from this expertise (specialized training and education within).


title: Operations management

text: According to Fitzsimmons, Fitzsimmons and Bordoloi (2014) differences between manufactured goods and services are as follows:


title: Operations management

text: These four comparisons indicate how management of service operations are quite different from manufacturing regarding such issues as capacity requirements (highly variable), quality assurance (hard to quantify), location of facilities (dispersed), and interaction with the customer during delivery of the service (product and process design).


title: Operations management

text: While there are differences there are also many similarities. For example, quality management approaches used in manufacturing such as the Baldrige Award, and Six Sigma have been widely applied to services. Likewise, lean service principles and practices have also been applied in service operations. The important difference being the customer is in the system while the service is being provided and needs to be considered when applying these practices.


title: Operations management

text: One important difference is service recovery. When an error occurs in service delivery, the recovery must be delivered on the spot by the service provider. If a waiter in a restaurant spills soup on the customer's lap, then the recovery could include a free meal and a promise of free dry cleaning. Another difference is in planning capacity. Since the product cannot be stored, the service facility must be managed to peak demand which requires more flexibility than manufacturing. Location of facilities must be near the customers and scale economics can be lacking. Scheduling must consider the customer can be waiting in line. Queuing theory has been devised to assist in design of service facilities waiting lines. Revenue management is important for service operations, since empty seats on an airplane are lost revenue when the plane departs and cannot be stored for future use.


title: Operations management

text: There are also fields of mathematical theory which have found applications in the field of operations management such as operations research: mainly mathematical optimization problems and queue theory. Queue theory is employed in modelling queue and processing times in production systems while mathematical optimization draws heavily from multivariate calculus and linear algebra. Queue theory is based on Markov chains and stochastic processes. Computations of safety stocks are usually based on modeling demand as a normal distribution and MRP and some inventory problems can be formulated using optimal control.


title: Operations management

text: When analytical models are not enough, managers may resort to using simulation. Simulation has been traditionally done through the discrete event simulation paradigm, where the simulation model possesses a state which can only change when a discrete event happens, which consists of a clock and list of events. The more recent transaction-level modeling paradigm consists of a set of resources and a set of transactions: transactions move through a network of resources (nodes) according to a code, called a process.


title: Operations management

text: Since real production processes are always affected by disturbances in both inputs and outputs, many companies implement some form of quality management or quality control. The Seven Basic Tools of Quality designation provides a summary of commonly used tools:


title: Operations management

text: These are used in approaches like total quality management and Six Sigma. Keeping quality under control is relevant to both increasing customer satisfaction and reducing processing waste.


title: Operations management

text: Operations management textbooks usually cover demand forecasting, even though it is not strictly speaking an operations problem, because demand is related to some production systems variables. For example, a classic approach in dimensioning safety stocks requires calculating the standard deviation of forecast errors. Demand forecasting is also a critical part of push systems, since order releases have to be planned ahead of actual clients’ orders. Also, any serious discussion of capacity planning involves adjusting company outputs with market demands.


title: Operations management

text: Other important management problems involve maintenance policies (see also reliability engineering and maintenance philosophy), safety management systems (see also safety engineering and Risk management), facility management and supply chain integration.


title: LGA 1151

text: LGA 1151, also known as Socket H4, zero insertion force flip-chip land grid array (LGA) socket for Intel desktop processors which comes in two distinct versions: the first revision which supports both Intel's Skylake and Kaby Lake CPUs, and the second revision which supports Coffee Lake CPUs exclusively.


title: LGA 1151

text: LGA 1151 is designed as a replacement for the LGA 1150 (known as "Socket H3"). LGA 1151 has 1151 protruding pins to make contact with the pads on the processor. The Fully Integrated Voltage Regulator, i.e. a voltage regulator which integrated on the CPU's die, introduced with Haswell and Broadwell, has again been moved to the motherboard.


title: LGA 1151

text: Most motherboards for the first revision of the socket support solely DDR4 memory, a lesser number support DDR3(L) memory, and the least number have slots for both DDR4 or DDR3(L) but only one memory type can be installed. Some have UniDIMM support, enabling either type of memory to be placed in the same DIMM, rather than having separate DDR3 and DDR4 DIMMs. The second revision socket motherboards support only DDR4 memory.


title: LGA 1151

text: Skylake, Kaby Lake, and Coffee Lake chipsets support VT-d, Intel Rapid Storage Technology, Intel Clear Video Technology, and Intel Wireless Display Technology (an appropriate CPU is required). Most motherboards with the LGA 1151 socket support varying video outputs (DVI, HDMI 1.4 or DisplayPort 1.2 – depending on the model). VGA output is "optional" since Intel dropped support for this video interface starting with Skylake. HDMI 2.0 (4K@60 Hz) is only supported on motherboards equipped with Intel's Alpine Ridge Thunderbolt controller.


title: LGA 1151

text: Skylake, Kaby Lake, and Coffee Lake chipsets do not support the legacy conventional PCI interface; however, motherboard vendors may implement it using external chips.


title: LGA 1151

text: The 4 holes for fastening the heatsink to the motherboard are placed in a square with a lateral length of 75 mm for Intel's sockets LGA 1156, LGA 1155, LGA 1150, LGA 1151 and LGA 1200. Cooling solutions should therefore be interchangeable.


title: LGA 1151

text: Intel officially states that Skylake's and Kaby Lake's integrated memory controllers (IMC) support DDR3L memory modules only rated at 1.35 V and DDR4 at 1.2 V, which led to the speculation that higher voltages of DDR3 modules could damage or destroy the IMC and processor. Meanwhile, ASRock, Gigabyte, and Asus guarantee that their Skylake and Kaby Lake DDR3 motherboards support DDR3 modules rated at 1.5 and 1.65V.


title: LGA 1151

text: There is no equivalent Kaby Lake chipset analogous to the H110 chipset. Four additional PCH PCI-E lanes in Kaby Lake chipsets are reserved for implementing an M.2 slot to support Intel Optane Memory. Otherwise, corresponding Kaby Lake and Skylake chipsets are practically the same.


title: LGA 1151

text: The LGA 1151 socket was revised for the Coffee Lake generation CPUs and comes along with the Intel 300-series chipsets. While physical dimensions remain unchanged, the updated socket reassigns some reserved pins, adding power and ground lines to support the requirements of 6-core and 8-core CPUs. The new socket also relocates the processor detection pin, breaking compatibility with earlier processors and motherboards. As a result, desktop Coffee Lake CPUs are officially not compatible with the 100 (original Skylake) and 200 (Kaby Lake) series chipsets. Similarly, 300 series chipsets officially only support Coffee Lake and are not compatible with Skylake and Kaby Lake CPUs.


title: LGA 1151

text: Like with Kaby Lake chipsets, four additional PCH PCI-E lanes in Coffee Lake chipsets are reserved for implementing an M.2 slot to support Intel Optane Memory.


title: LGA 1151

text: There's a 22 nm version of H310 chipset, H310C, which is sold only in China. Motherboards based on this chipset support DDR3 memory as well.


title: Richard Moll

text: Charles Richard Moll (born January 13, 1943) is an American actor. He played the role of Aristotle Nostradamus "Bull" Shannon, a bailiff on the NBC sitcom "Night Court" from 1984 to 1992. He has also done extensive work as a voice actor, typically using his deep voice to portray villainous characters such as Two-Face in "" and "".


title: Richard Moll

text: Charles Richard Moll was born in Pasadena, California, the son of Violet Anita (née Grill), a nurse, and Harry Findley Moll, a lawyer. He was tall early in his life, reaching by age 12. He kept growing until about . He attended the University of California, Berkeley, and was a member of the Kappa Alpha Order fraternity.


title: Richard Moll

text: In the 1977 film "Brigham", Moll (credited as Charles Moll) appeared as Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement. Moll would go on to often portray hulking or imposing characters due to his height and deep voice. In 1979 Moll played the part of Eugene, a gangster on the TV series "Happy Days" in the episode "Fonzie's Funeral". In 1981, Moll co-starred with Jan-Michael Vincent and Kim Basinger in the film "Hard Country", and he also played the abominable snowman in the comedy feature film "Caveman". The same year, he had a small part in the "Mork & Mindy" episode "Alienation", where he appeared with future fellow "Night Court" TV series cast member John Larroquette. In 1982, he played the sorcerer Xusia in "The Sword and the Sorcerer".


title: Richard Moll

text: In 1983, Moll shaved his head for the role of Hurok in the science fiction B movie "". The producers of the TV sitcom "Night Court" liked the look so much in his audition that they asked him to keep it. He also used the Bull persona in commercials for Washington's Lottery.


title: Richard Moll

text: Moll played the role of Big Ben in the 1986 horror film "House". He earned a Saturn Award nomination for the role. Moll made an appearance in the first episode of "" as Slan Quince, the villain who reunites Connor MacLeod with his kinsman and the show's protagonist, Duncan MacLeod. Moll made a guest appearance on "Babylon 5" in the episode "Hunter, Prey" as a lurker criminal who was holding a VIP hostage, and as a gangster on "Married... with Children". Moll made another guest appearance in the TV series "", playing the cyclops in episode two, "Eye of the Beholder".


title: Richard Moll

text: In "Super Password", Moll appeared with Judy Norton Taylor, Nancy Lane, Markie Post, Gloria Loring, Florence Halop, Debra Maffett, Elaine Joyce, and Kim Morgan Greene, with Bert Convy as the game show's host from 1984 to 1987.


title: Richard Moll

text: Moll appeared in "The Flintstones" and "Casper Meets Wendy", both TV spin-offs. In 1999's "But I'm a Cheerleader", Moll went against type and played a gay man who, with his partner (Wesley Mann), helps gay teenagers escape from a nearby camp where parents send their teenage offspring for conversion therapy.


title: Richard Moll

text: In 2001 he played Hugh Kane, the ghost haunting a mansion in "Scary Movie 2". He played the drifter on the Nickelodeon show "100 Deeds for Eddie McDowd". In 2007, he played (along with M. Steven Felty) Kolchak Jefferson Stillwall in Anthony C. Ferrante horror film "Headless Horseman". In 2014, Moll appeared as a security guard on an episode of "Anger Management" with Charlie Sheen.


title: Richard Moll

text: Moll can be heard in many animated productions, often as a villain with a deep, growling voice. He has voiced Two-Face in "", Scorpion in later episodes of "Spider-Man: The Animated Series" (the character was previously voiced by Martin Landau in earlier episodes) and the Abomination in "The Incredible Hulk" (who was originally voiced by Kevin Schon).


title: Richard Moll

text: Moll also provided voice work in the "" episode "Chill of the Night!" voicing Lew Moxon as well as briefly reprising Two-Face (who was currently voiced by James Remar at the time). His first role in an animated film was as a beat poet in Ralph Bakshi's "American Pop". He starred as Norman in the animated series "Mighty Max". He also voiced Vorn the Unspeakable, a Cthulhu-like character in the "Freakazoid!" episode "Statuesque".


title: Richard Moll

text: Moll voiced the Devil Hulk in the 2005 video game "". In the 2010 video game "Dante's Inferno", he voiced Death (which he shared with Dee Bradley Baker) and King Minos.


title: Vocational education

text: Vocational education is education that prepares people to work as a technician or to take up employment in a skilled craft or trade as a tradesperson or artisan. Vocational Education can also be seen as that type of education given to an individual to prepare that individual to be gainfully employed or self employed with requisite skill. Vocational education is known by a variety of names, depending on the country concerned, including career and technical education, or acronyms such as TVET (technical and vocational education and training) and TAFE (technical and further education).


title: Vocational education

text: A vocational school is a type of educational institution specifically designed to provide vocational education.


title: Vocational education

text: Vocational education can take place at the post-secondary, further education, or higher education level and can interact with the apprenticeship system. At the post-secondary level, vocational education is often provided by highly specialized trade schools, technical schools, community colleges, colleges of further education (UK), vocational universities, and institutes of technology (formerly called polytechnic institutes).


title: Vocational education

text: Historically, almost all vocational education took place in the classroom or on the job site, with students learning trade skills and trade theory from accredited instructors or established professionals. However, in recent years, online vocational education has grown in popularity, making learning various trade skills and soft skills from established professionals easier than ever for students, even those who may live far away from a traditional vocational school.


title: Vocational education

text: Trends have emerged in the implementation of TVET and skills development worldwide. From the late 1980s onwards a number of governments began to emphasise on the role of education in preparing learners effectively for the world of work. This school of thought, termed "new vocationalism", placed the skills needs of industry at the centre of discussions on the purpose of public education. TVET and skills development were viewed as an important component in promoting economic growth in general and addressing youth unemployment in particular.


title: Vocational education

text: General education systems had not been effective in developing the skills that many adolescents and adults needed to secure employment in industry. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction and expansion of new vocational curricula and courses, often developed in collaboration with industry, and an increase in the variety of work-based learning routes on offer to young people.


title: Vocational education

text: Wilhelm von Humboldt's educational model goes beyond vocational training. In a letter to the Prussian king, he wrote: "There are undeniably certain kinds of knowledge that must be of a general nature and, more importantly, a certain cultivation of the mind and character that nobody can afford to be without. People obviously cannot be good craftworkers, merchants, soldiers or businessmen unless, regardless of their occupation, they are good, upstanding and – according to their condition – well-informed human beings and citizens. If this basis is laid through schooling, vocational skills are easily acquired later on, and a person is always free to move from one occupation to another, as so often happens in life." The philosopher Julian Nida-Rümelin criticized discrepancies between Humboldt's ideals and the contemporary European education policy, which narrowly understands education as a preparation for the labor market, and argued that we need to decide between "McKinsey", to describe vocational training, and Humboldt.


title: Vocational education

text: Argentina was one of the first countries in Latin America to run apprenticeship and vocational programs. From 1903 to 1909 basic programs were delivered at main cities. The entity charged with delivering these programs was the General Workers' Union (Spanish: Unión General de Trabajadores; abbreviated UGT), an Argentine national labor confederation.


title: Vocational education

text: The massive development of vocational education in Argentina took place during the period between World War I and World War II, with the large influx of immigrants from Europe. During the presidency of Juan Perón, the first formal apprenticeship and vocational training programs were offered free of charge across the country, eventually becoming the National Workers' University (Universidad Obrera Nacional) under the National Vocational Programs Law 13229, implemented on August 19, 1948. These programs were created and supported by the federal government and delivered by provincial governments at various technical colleges and regional universities as well as industrial centers; they were meant to deal with the lack of technical specialists in Argentina at a time of rapid industrialization expansion across the country. The degrees granted were that of technician and factory engineer in many specialties.


title: Vocational education

text: Currently, vocational education programs are delivered by public and private learning organizations, supported by the Argentine Ministry of Labour and Ministry of Education. The leading providers of technical and vocational education in the country are the National Technological University (UTN) (Universidad Tecnológica Nacional, UTN) and the National University of the Arts (UNA) (Universidad Nacional de las Artes, UNA).


title: Vocational education

text: In Australia vocational education and training is mostly post-secondary and provided through the vocational education and training (VET) system by registered training organisations. However some secondary schools do offer school-based apprenticeships and traineeships for students in years 10, 11 and 12. There were 24 Technical Colleges in Australia but now only 5 independent Trade Colleges remain with three in Queensland; one in Townsville (Tec-NQ), one in Brisbane (Australian Trade College) and one on the Gold Coast (Australian Industry Trade College) and one in Adelaide and Perth. This system encompasses both public, TAFE, and private providers in a national training framework consisting of the Australian Quality Training Framework, Australian Qualifications Framework and Industry Training Packages which define the competency standards for the different vocational qualifications.


title: Vocational education

text: Australia's apprenticeship system includes both apprenticeships in "traditional" trades and "traineeships" in other more service-oriented occupations. Both involve a legal contract between the employer and the apprentice or trainee and provide a combination of school-based and workplace training. Apprenticeships typically last three to four years, traineeships only one to two years. Apprentices and trainees receive a wage which increases as they progress through the training scheme.


title: Vocational education

text: The states and territories are responsible for providing funding for government subsidised delivery in their jurisdiction and the Commonwealth Government, through the Australian Quality Skills Authority, provides regulation of registered training organisations except in Victoria and Western Australia. A central concept of the VET system is "national recognition", whereby the assessments and awards of any one registered training organisation must be recognised by all others, and the decisions of any VET regulatory authority must be recognised by the all states and territories. This allows national portability of qualifications and units of competency.


title: Vocational education

text: A crucial feature of the training package (which accounts for about 60% of publicly funded training and almost all apprenticeship training) is that the content of the vocational qualifications is theoretically defined by industry and not by government or training providers. A Training Package is endorsed by the Australian Industry and Skills Committee before it can be used by RTOs to deliver Nationally Accredited Training.


title: Vocational education

text: The National Centre for Vocational Education Research or NCVER is a not-for-profit company owned by the federal, state and territory ministries responsible for training. It is responsible for collecting, managing, analysing, evaluating and communicating research and statistics about vocational education and training (VET).


title: Vocational education

text: The boundaries between vocational education and tertiary education are becoming more blurred. A number of vocational training providers such as Melbourne Polytechnic, BHI and WAI are now offering specialised bachelor's degrees in specific areas not being adequately provided by universities. Such applied courses include equine studies, winemaking and viticulture, aquaculture, information technology, music, illustration, culinary management and many more.


title: Vocational education

text: The largest and the most unified system of vocational education was created in the Soviet Union with the professional`no-tehnicheskoye uchilische and Tehnikum. But it became less effective with the transition of the economies of post-Soviet countries to a market economy.


title: Vocational education

text: Education and training is the responsibility of member states, but the single European labour market makes some cooperation on education imperative, including on vocational education and training. The 'Copenhagen process', based on the open method of cooperation between Member States, was launched in 2002 in order to help make vocational education and training better and more attractive to learners throughout Europe. The process is based on mutually agreed priorities that are reviewed periodically. Much of the activity is monitored by Cedefop, the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training.


title: Vocational education

text: There is strong support, particularly in northern Europe, for a shift of resources from university education to vocational training. This is due to the perception that an oversupply of university graduates in many fields of study has aggravated graduate unemployment and underemployment. At the same time, employers are experiencing a shortage of skilled tradespeople.


title: Vocational education

text: In Finland, vocational education belongs to secondary education. After the nine-year comprehensive school, almost all students choose to go to either a "lukio" (high school), which is an institution preparing students for tertiary education, or to a vocational school. Both forms of secondary education last three years, and give a formal qualification to enter university or "ammattikorkeakoulu", i.e., Finnish polytechnics. In certain fields (e.g., the police school, air traffic control personnel training), the entrance requirements of vocational schools include completion of the "lukio", thus causing the students to complete their secondary education twice.


title: Vocational education

text: The education in vocational school is free, and students from low-income families are eligible for a state student grant. The curriculum is primarily vocational, and the academic part of the curriculum is adapted to the needs of a given course. The vocational schools are mostly maintained by municipalities.


title: Vocational education

text: After completing secondary education, one can enter higher vocational schools ("ammattikorkeakoulu", or "AMK") or universities.


title: Vocational education

text: It is also possible for a student to choose both lukio and vocational schooling. The education in such cases lasts usually from three to four years.


title: Vocational education

text: Vocational education in Germany is based on the German model. A law (the "Berufsausbildungsgesetz") was passed in 1969 which regulated and unified the vocational training system and codified the shared responsibility of the state, the unions, associations and "Industrie- und Handelskammer" (chambers of trade and industry). The system is very popular in modern Germany: in 2001, two-thirds of young people aged under 22 began an apprenticeship, and 78% of them completed it, meaning that approximately 51% of all young people under 22 have completed an apprenticeship. One in three companies offered apprenticeships in 2003; in 2004 the government signed a pledge with industrial unions that all companies except very small ones must take on apprentices.


title: Vocational education

text: In Greece, vocational education and training (VET) is usually for lyceum (senior high school) graduates and is provided by public or private Institute of Vocational Training (IEK) (IEK, the Greek abbreviation for the Ινστιτούτο Επαγγελματικής Κατάρτισης). The IEK course offerings are adult education only, except at times when it is rarely offered a course for non-adult students. The duration of study is two-and-a-half academic years full-time, 2 ½ years. 4 semesters in-school education and 1 semester being known as curricular practicum or on-the-job placement or internship, both involve a legal contract between the employer and the student-trainee on the job placement and provide a combination of school-based training and workplace practicum. Public IEKs are government-funded with free education, and it can be attended without tuition fee.


title: Vocational education

text: In Hong Kong, vocational education is usually for post-secondary 6 students. The Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (IVE) provides training in nine different vocational fields, namely: applied science, business administration, child education and community services, construction, design, printing, textiles and clothing, hotel service and tourism studies, information technology, electrical and electronic engineering, and mechanical, manufacturing and industrial engineering.


title: Vocational education

text: Normally at the end of elementary school (at age 14) students are directed to one of three types of upper secondary education: one academic track (gymnasium) and two vocational tracks. Vocational secondary schools (szakgimnázium) provide four years of general education and also prepare students for the "maturata" (school leaving certificate). These schools combine general education with some specific subjects, referred to as pre-vocational education and career orientation. At that point many students enrol in a post-secondary VET programme often at the same institution a vocational qualification, although they may also seek entry to tertiary education.


title: Vocational education

text: Vocational training schools (szakiskola) initially provide two years of general education, combined with some pre-vocational education and career orientation, they then choose an occupation, and then receive two or three years of vocational education and training focusing on that occupation—such as bricklayer. Students do not obtain the "maturata" but a vocational qualification at the end of a successfully completed programme. Demand for vocational training, both from the labour market and among students, has declined while it has increased for upper secondary schools delivering the "maturata".


title: Vocational education

text: Vocational training in India historically has been a subject handled by the Ministry of Labour, other central ministries and various state-level organizations. To harmonize the variations and multiplicity in terms of standards and costs, the National Skills Qualification Framework was launched in December 2013.


title: Vocational education

text: The National Skills Qualifications Framework (NSQF) is a competency-based framework that organizes all qualifications according to a series of levels of knowledge, skills and aptitude. These levels, graded from one to ten, are defined in terms of learning outcomes which the learner must possess regardless of whether they are obtained through formal, non-formal or informal learning. NSQF in India was notified on 27 December 2013. All other frameworks, including the NVEQF (National Vocational Educational Qualification Framework) released by the Ministry of HRD, stand superseded by the NSQF.


title: Vocational education

text: In November 2014 the new Government in India formed the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship. Articulating the need for such a Ministry, the Prime Minister said, , "A separate Ministry, which will look after promoting entrepreneurship and skill development, would be created. Even developed countries have accorded priority to promoting skilled manpower".


title: Vocational education

text: As a continuation of its efforts to harmonize and consolidate skill development activities across the country, the Government launched the 1st Skill India Development Mission (NSDM) on 15 July 2015. Also launched on the day was the National Policy for Skill Development & Entrepreneurship.


title: Vocational education

text: Today all skill development efforts through the Government (Directorate General of Training) and through the Public Private Partnership arm (National Skill Development Corporation) are carried out under the Ministry, through the Skill India Mission.


title: Vocational education

text: The Ministry works with various central ministries and departments and the State government in implementing the NSQF across all Government funded projects, based on a five-year implementation schedule for complete convergence.


title: Vocational education

text: The involvement of the private sector in various aspects of skill development has enhanced access, quality, and innovative financing models leading to sustainable skill development organizations on the ground. The short-term skill development programs (largely offered by private organizations) combined with the long-term programs offered by the Indian technical institutes (ITIs) complement each other under the larger framework. Credit equivalency, transnational standards, quality assurance and standards are being managed by the Ministry through the National Skill Development Agency (an autonomous body under the Ministry) in close partnership with industry-led sector-specific bodies (Sector Skill Councils) and various line ministries.


title: Vocational education

text: India has bilateral collaboration with governments including those of the UK, Australia, Germany, Canada, and the UAE, with the intention of implementing globally acceptable standards and providing the Indian workforce with overseas job mobility.


title: Vocational education

text: Israel offers a post-high school college education system for technical occupations and engineering, aimed at high-school graduates of technological tracks. Students demonstrating technological potential in schools supervised by the Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, and Services (MOLSA) may avail themselves of the MENTA Program, which provides scholastic, emotional, and social support throughout their high school and college studies. This support helps students meet the scholastic challenges and demands of the vocational track and, via the program, strives to expand both the number of youth continuing through college Grades 13-14 and the percentage eligible for a diploma at the end of their studies. The program was formulated by JDC-Ashalim in cooperation with the HEZNEK organization, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Economy (and subsequently, MOLSA), and by education networks operating schools. A 2016-17 formative evaluation of MENTA found that the program was successful in helping students complete their matriculation, strengthen their sense of self-efficacy, and create for themselves a picture of the future.  At the same time, the findings suggested that program better clarify the target population, improve the supports for transition to college, and more clearly define the scope of the coordinators' role.


title: Vocational education

text: Japanese vocational schools are known as . They are part of Japan's higher education system. They are two-year schools that many students study at after finishing high school (although it is not always required that students graduate from high school). Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Some examples are computer technology, fashion, and English.


title: Vocational education

text: Vocational high schools offer programmes in five fields: agriculture, technology/engineering, commerce/business, maritime/fishery, and home economics. In principle, all students in the first year of high school (10th grade) follow a common national curriculum, In the second and third years (11th and 12th grades) students are offered courses relevant to their specialisation. In some programmes, students may participate in workplace training through co-operation between schools and local employers. The government is now piloting Vocational Meister Schools in which workplace training is an important part of the programme. Around half of all vocational high schools are private. Private and public schools operate according to similar rules; for example, they charge the same fees for high school education, with an exemption for poorer families.


title: Vocational education

text: The number of students in vocational high schools has decreased, from about half of students in 1995 down to about one-quarter today. To make vocational high schools more attractive, in April 2007 the Korean government changed the name of vocational high schools into professional high schools. With the change of the name the government also facilitated the entry of vocational high school graduates to colleges and universities.


title: Vocational education

text: Most vocational high school students continue into tertiary education; in 2007 43% transferred to junior colleges and 25% to university. At tertiary level, vocational education and training is provided in junior colleges (two- and three-year programmes) and at polytechnic colleges. Education at junior colleges and in two-year programmes in polytechnic colleges leads to an Industrial associate degree. Polytechnics also provide one-year programmes for craftsmen and master craftsmen and short programmes for employed workers. The requirements for admission to these institutions are in principle the same as those in the rest of tertiary sector (on the basis of the College Scholastic Aptitude Test) but candidates with vocational qualifications are given priority in the admission process. Junior colleges have expanded rapidly in response to demand and in 2006 enrolled around 27% of all tertiary students.


title: Vocational education

text: 95% of junior college students are in private institutions. Fees charged by private colleges are approximately twice those of public institutions. Polytechnic colleges are state-run institutions under the responsibility of the Ministry of Labour; government funding keeps student fees much lower than those charged by other tertiary institutions. Around 5% of students are enrolled in polytechnic colleges.


title: Vocational education

text: Skills training are no longer depicted as second-class education in Malaysia. There are numerous vocational education centres here including vocational schools (high schools to train skilled students), technic schools (high schools to train future engineers) and vocational colleges all of them under the Ministry of Education. Then there are 33 polytechnics and 86 community colleges under the Ministry of Higher Education; 10 MARA Advanced Skills Colleges, 13 MARA Skills Institutes, 286 GIATMARAs under Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA) and 15 National Youth Skills Institutes under Ministry of Youth and Sports. The first vocational institute in Malaysia is the Industrial Training Institute of Kuala Lumpur established in 1964 under the Manpower Department. Other institutes under the same department including 8 Advanced Technology Training Centres, one Centre for Instructor and Advanced Skill Training, one Japan-Malaysia Technical Institute and the other 21 ITIs.


title: Vocational education

text: In Mexico, both federal and state governments are responsible for the administration of vocational education. Federal schools are funded by the federal budget, in addition to their own funding sources. The state governments are responsible for the management of decentralised institutions, such as the State Centres for Scientific and Technological Studies (CECyTE) and Institutes of Training for Work (ICAT). These institutions are funded 50% from the federal budget and 50% from the state budget. The state governments also manage and fund "decentralised institutions of the federation", such as CONALEP schools.


title: Vocational education

text: Compulsory education (including primary and lower secondary education) finishes at the age of 15 and about half of those aged 15-to-19 are enrolled full-time or part-time in education. All programmes at upper secondary level require the payment of a tuition fee.


title: Vocational education

text: The upper secondary vocational education system in Mexico includes over a dozen subsystems (administrative units within the Upper Secondary Education Undersecretariat of the Ministry of Public Education, responsible for vocational programmes) which differ from each other to varying degrees in content, administration, and target group. The large number of school types and corresponding administrative units within the Ministry of Public Education makes the institutional landscape of vocational education and training complex by international standards.


title: Vocational education

text: Vocational education and training provided under the Upper Secondary Education Undersecretariat includes three main types of programme:


title: Vocational education

text: Nearly all of those leaving lower secondary school enter upper secondary (vocational) education (Middelbaar BeroepsOnderwijs, MBO), and around 50% of them follow one of four vocational programmes; technology, economics, agricultural, personal/social services & health care. These programmes vary from 1 to 4 years (by level; only level 2, 3 and 4 diplomas are considered formal "start qualifications" for successfully entering the labour market). The programmes can be attended in either of two pathways. One either involving a minimum of 20% of school time (apprenticeship pathway; BBL-BeroepsBegeleidende Leerweg) or the other, involving a maximum of 80% schooltime (BOL -BeroepsOpleidende Leerweg). The remaining time in both cases is apprenticeship/work in a company. So in effect, students have a choice out of 32 trajectories, leading to over 600 professional qualifications.


title: Vocational education

text: BBL-Apprentices usually receive a wage negotiated in collective agreements. Employers taking on these apprentices receive a subsidy in the form of a tax reduction on the wages of the apprentice. (WVA-Wet vermindering afdracht).


title: Vocational education

text: Level 4 graduates of senior secondary VET may go directly to institutes for Higher Profession Education and Training (HBO-Hoger beroepsonderwijs), after which entering university is a possibility. This co-existence of upper secondary (MBO) and higher professional (HBO) education creates opportunities for further education and development, as well as a tension in the labour market because many vocations can be studied at various levels, and employers may prefer higher educated employees.


title: Vocational education

text: The social partners participate actively in the development of policy. As of January 1, 2012 they formed a foundation for Co operation Vocational Education and Entrepreneurship (St. SBB – stichting Samenwerking Beroepsonderwijs Bedrijfsleven; www.s-bb.nl). Its responsibility is to advise the Minister on the development of the national vocational education and training system, based on the full consensus of the constituent members (the representative organisations of schools and of entrepreneurship and their centres of expertise). Special topics are Qualification & Examination, Apprenticeships (BPV-Beroepspraktijkvorming) and (labourmarket) Efficiency of VET.


title: Vocational education

text: The Centres of Expertices are linked to the four vocational education programmes provided in senior secondary VET on the content of VET programmes and on trends and future skill needs.


title: Vocational education

text: The Local County Vocational Training (MBO Raad www.mboraad.nl) represents the VET schools in this foundation and advise on the quality, operations and provision of VET.


title: Vocational education

text: New Zealand is served by 11 Industry Training Organisations (ITO). The unique element is that ITOs purchase training as well as set standards and aggregate industry opinion about skills in the labour market. Industry Training, as organised by ITOs, has expanded from apprenticeships to a more true lifelong learning situation with, for example, over 10% of trainees aged 50 or over. Moreover, much of the training is generic. This challenges the prevailing idea of vocational education and the standard layperson view that it focuses on apprenticeships.


title: Vocational education

text: One source for information in New Zealand is the Industry Training Federation. Another is the Ministry of Education.


title: Vocational education

text: Polytechnics, Private Training Establishments, Wananga and others also deliver vocational training, amongst other areas.


title: Vocational education

text: The educational system or structure of Nigeria has been changing over time. In the 1970's, the Nigerian educational system was 6-5-4. This changed as time passed, between 1980 and 2005, it was changed to 6-3-3-4. 2008 saw another educational system review to 9-3-4 system of education. All these reviews are shown in the National Policy on Education. Due to the type of education Nigeria inherited from her colonial masters, education in the 1960's were more book oriented.


title: Vocational education

text: Nearly all those leaving lower secondary school enter upper secondary education, and around half follow one of nine vocational programmes. These programmes typically involve two years in school followed by two years of apprenticeship in a company. The first year provides general education alongside introductory knowledge of the vocational area. During the second year, courses become more trade-specific.


title: Vocational education

text: Apprentices receive a wage negotiated in collective agreements ranging between 30% and 80% of the wage of a qualified worker; the percentage increase over the apprenticeship period. Employers taking on apprentices receive a subsidy, equivalent to the cost of one year in school.


title: Vocational education

text: After the two years vocational school programme some students opt for a third year in the "general" programme as an alternative to an apprenticeship. Both apprenticeship and a third year of practical training in school lead to the same vocational qualifications. Upper secondary VET graduates may go directly to Vocational Technical Colleges, while those who wish to enter university need to take a supplementary year of education.


title: Vocational education

text: The social partners participate actively in the development of policy. The National Council for Vocational Education and Training advises the Minister on the development of the national vocational education and training system. The Advisory Councils for Vocational Education and Training are linked to the nine vocational education programmes provided in upper secondary education and advise on the content of VET programmes and on trends and future skill needs. The National Curriculum groups assist in deciding the contents of the vocational training within the specific occupations. The Local County Vocational Training Committees advise on the quality, provision of VET and career guidance.


title: Vocational education

text: In Paraguay, vocational education is known as "Bachillerato Técnico" and is part of the secondary education system. These schools combine general education with some specific subjects, referred to as pre-vocational education and career orientation. After nine years of "Educación Escolar Básica" (Primary School), the student can choose to go to either a "Bachillerato Técnico" (Vocational School) or a "Bachillerato Científico" (High School). Both forms of secondary education last three years, and are usually located in the same campus called "Colegio".


title: Vocational education

text: After completing secondary education, one can enter to the universities. It is also possible for a student to choose both Técnico and Científico schooling.


title: Vocational education

text: In Spain, vocational education is divided into 3 stages as of 2014. They're known as "Formación profesional Básica", which can be started in 3º ESO; "Formación profesional de Grado Medio", which can be started after 4º ESO or after graduating from "Formación profesional Básica"; and "Formación profesional de Grado Superior", which can be started after 2º Bachillerato, or after graduating from "Formación profesional de Grado Medio". University can then be accessed after graduating from "Formación profesional de Grado Superior", without the need to pass through Bachillerato.


title: Vocational education

text: There are typically two courses imparted until graduation. Each titulation is called a Ciclo, heavily specialized depending on its related professional discipline.


title: Vocational education

text: Spanish vocational education also features a Dual education system named "Formación Profesional Dual", although not all Vocational Schools may feature it.


title: Vocational education

text: In 2005 the Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training (MVTT) introduced the National Vocational Qualifications (NVQ) framework which was an important milestone for the education, economic and social development of Sri Lanka. The NVQ framework consists of seven levels of instruction. NVQ levels 1 to 4 are for craftsmen designation and successful candidates are issued with National certificates. NVQ levels 5 and 6 are Diploma level, whereas Level 7 is for degree equivalent qualification.


title: Vocational education

text: Training courses are provided by many institutions island wide. All training providers (public and private) must obtain institutional registration and course accreditation from the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC).In order to obtain registration institutions must satisfy specific criteria: infrastructure, basic services, tools and equipment, quality of instruction and staff, based on curriculum and syllabus, and quality of management and monitoring systems.


title: Vocational education

text: Government Ministries and Agencies involved in Vocational Training are The Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training (MVTT), The Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC), The National Apprentice and Industrial Training Authority (NAITA), The Department of Technical Education and Training (DTET), University of Vocational Technology(UoVT), The Vocational Training Authority (VTA) and the National Youth Services Council (NYSC).


title: Vocational education

text: Nearly all of those leaving compulsory schooling immediately enter upper secondary schools, and most complete their upper secondary education in three years. Upper secondary education is divided into 13 vocationally oriented and 4 academic national programmes. Slightly more than half of all students follow vocational programmes. All programmes offer broad general education and basic eligibility to continue studies at the post-secondary level. In addition, there are local programmes specially designed to meet local needs and "individual" programmes.


title: Vocational education

text: A 1992 school reform extended vocational upper secondary programmes by one year, aligning them with three years of general upper secondary education, increasing their general education content, and making core subjects compulsory in all programmes. The core subjects (which occupy around one-third of total teaching time in both vocational and academic programmes) include English, artistic activities, physical education and health, mathematics, natural science, social studies, Swedish or Swedish as a second language, and religious studies. In addition to the core subjects, students pursue optional courses, subjects which are specific to each programme and a special project.


title: Vocational education

text: Vocational programmes include 15 weeks of workplace training (Arbetsplatsförlagt lärande – APL) over the three-year period. Schools are responsible for arranging workplace training and verifying its quality. Most municipalities have advisory bodies: programme councils (programmråd) and vocational councils (yrkesråd) composed of employers' and employees' representatives from the locality. The councils advise schools on matters such as provision of workplace training courses, equipment purchase and training of supervisors in APL.


title: Vocational education

text: The Swiss vocational education and training system (VET) is regarded by many international experts as the strongest in Europe. It is the mainstream upper secondary program serving 65-70% of Swiss young people. It results in one of the lowest youth unemployment rates in Europe. Managers and the staff take pride in their young apprentices. Several Swiss CEO's of big multinational companies and government members have started their own careers as VET-apprentices, for example Sergio Ermotti, CEO of UBS. At this level, vocational education and training is mainly provided through the "dual system". Apprentices rotate between workplace, vocational school and industry training centers where they develop complementary practical skills relating to the occupation. They spend the biggest amount of time at the workplace emphasizing the importance of on-the-job training. Rotation can be organised in different ways - either by switching places during the week or by allocating entire weeks to one place and form of learning. The program can also start with most of the time devoted to in-school education and then gradually increase the share of in-company training.


title: Vocational education

text: Besides the three- or four-year VET programme with Federal VET Diploma, there is also the option of two-year vocational education and training VET programme with Federal VET Certificate for adolescents with lower learning performance. Switzerland draws a distinction between vocational education and training programmes at upper-secondary level, and professional education and training (PET) programmes, which take place at tertiary B level. In 2007, more than half of the population aged 25–64 had a VET or PET qualification as their highest level of education. In addition, universities of applied sciences (Fachhochschulen) offer vocational education at tertiary A level. Pathways enable people to shift from one part of the education system to another.


title: Vocational education

text: Students in Turkey may choose vocational high schools after completing the 8-year-long compulsory primary and secondary education. Vocational high school graduates may pursue two year-long polytechnics or may continue with a related tertiary degree.


title: Vocational education

text: According to a survey by OECD, 38% of 15-year-old students attend vocational study programmes that are offered by "Anatolian vocational", "Anatolian technical", and "technical high schools".


title: Vocational education

text: Municipalities in Turkey also offer vocational training. The metropolitan municipality of Istanbul, the most populous city in Turkey, offers year long free vocational programs in a wide range of topics through ISMEK, an umbrella organization formed under the municipality.


title: Vocational education

text: The first "Trades School" in the UK was "Stanley Technical Trades School" (now Harris Academy South Norwood) which was designed, built and set up by William Stanley. The initial idea was thought of in 1901, and the school opened in 1907.


title: Vocational education

text: The system of vocational education in the UK initially developed independently of the state, with bodies such as the RSA and City & Guilds setting examinations for technical subjects. The Education Act 1944 made provision for a Tripartite System of grammar schools, secondary technical schools and secondary modern schools, but by 1975 only 0.5% of British senior pupils were in technical schools, compared to two-thirds of the equivalent German age group.


title: Vocational education

text: Successive recent British Governments have made attempts to promote and expand vocational education. In the 1970s, the Business And Technology Education Council was founded to confer further and higher education awards, particularly to further education colleges in the United Kingdom. In the 1980s and 1990s, the Conservative Government promoted the Youth Training Scheme, National Vocational Qualifications and General National Vocational Qualifications. However, youth training was marginalised as the proportion of young people staying on in full-time education increased.


title: Vocational education

text: In 1994, publicly funded Modern Apprenticeships were introduced to provide "quality training on a work-based (educational) route". Numbers of apprentices have grown in recent years and the Department for Children, Schools and Families has stated its intention to make apprenticeships a "mainstream" part of England's education system.


title: Vocational education

text: In the UK some higher engineering-technician positions that require 4–5 years' apprenticeship require academic study to HNC / HND or higher City & Guilds level. Apprenticeships are increasingly recognised as the gold standard for work-based training. There are four levels of apprenticeship available for those aged 16 and over:


title: Vocational education

text: Apprentices work towards work-based learning qualifications such as a Level 2 Competence Qualification, Functional Skills and, in most cases, a relevant knowledge-based qualification.


title: Vocational education

text: Apprentices work towards work-based learning such as a Level 3 Competence Qualification, Functional Skills and, in most cases, a relevant knowledge-based qualification. They can take four years to complete.


title: Vocational education

text: Apprentices work towards work-based learning qualifications such as a Level 4 and 5 Competence Qualification, Functional Skills and, in some cases, a knowledge-based qualification such as a Foundation Degree. They can take between four and five years to complete, depending on the level at which an apprentice enrolls.


title: Vocational education

text: They are similar to higher apprenticeships, but differ in that they provide an opportunity to gain a full bachelor's (Level 6) or master's degree (Level 7). The courses are designed in partnership with employers, with part-time study taking place at a university. They can take between four and six years to complete, depending on the level of the course, and the level of entry.