title: Sabrina (1954 film)

text: The following morning Linus has second thoughts, and decides to send David to Paris with Sabrina. This means calling off David's wedding with Elizabeth and the big Tyson deal, and Linus schedules a meeting of the Larrabee board to announce this. David doesn't sail, and enters the meeting room at the last minute. He shows that he will marry Elizabeth after all, and helps Linus recognize his own feelings for Sabrina by insulting her and letting Linus punch him in the face. Linus, who has already arranged a car and a tugboat to wait for David, assists him to rush off and joins Sabrina's ship before it leaves the harbor. Linus seeks out Sabrina on board after providing an inside-joke hint that he is there, and they sail away to Paris together.


title: Sabrina (1954 film)

text: Initially, Cary Grant was considered for the role of Linus, but he declined, and the role was taken by Bogart. Best known for playing tough detectives and adventurers, Bogart was cast against type as a smart businessman gradually transformed into a romantic lead.


title: Sabrina (1954 film)

text: During production of the film, Hepburn and Holden entered into a brief but passionate and much-publicized love affair. Bogart had originally wanted his wife Lauren Bacall to be cast as Sabrina. He complained that Hepburn required too many takes to get her dialogue right and pointed out her inexperience.


title: Sabrina (1954 film)

text: Bogart was unhappy during the filming, convinced that he was totally wrong for this kind of film, mad at not being Wilder's first choice, and not liking Holden or Wilder. But Wilder's offbeat casting produced a performance that critics generally considered successful. Bogart later apologized to Wilder for his behavior on set, citing problems in his personal life.


title: Sabrina (1954 film)

text: Wilder began shooting before the script was finished, and Lehman was writing all day to complete it. Eventually he would finish a scene in the morning, deliver it during lunch, and filming of it would begin in the afternoon.


title: Sabrina (1954 film)

text: Although Edith Head won an Oscar for Best Costumes, most of Hepburn's outfits are rumored to have been created by Hubert de Givenchy and chosen personally by the star. In a 1974 interview, Head stated that she was responsible for creating the dresses, with inspiration from some Givenchy designs that Hepburn liked, but that she made important changes, and the dresses were not by Givenchy. After Head's death, Givenchy stated that Sabrina's iconic black cocktail dress was produced at Paramount under Head's supervision but claimed it was his design.


title: Sabrina (1954 film)

text: The film began a lifelong association between Givenchy and Hepburn. It has been reported that when Hepburn called on Givenchy for the first time in Paris, he assumed that it was Katharine Hepburn in his "salon".


title: Sabrina (1954 film)

text: The location used to portray the Larrabee family's mansion in Glen Cove, New York was 'Hill Grove', the home of George Lewis in Beverly Hills, California. This mansion was later demolished during the 1960s. The location used to portray the Glen Cove train station was the Glen Cove train station on the Oyster Bay Branch of the Long Island Rail Road. The building at 30 Broad Street in Manhattan's financial district was used as the location for the headquarters of the Larrabee company.


title: Sabrina (1954 film)

text: The film opened in New York and Los Angeles on September 23, 1954 and was number one at the US box office for two weeks.


title: Sabrina (1954 film)

text: There have been Indian adaptations of the film. "Manapanthal" (1961) was a Tamil version, followed in the same year by a Telugu version, "Intiki Deepam Illale". In addition "Sabrina" was the inspiration for the successful Hindi film "Yeh Dillagi" (1994), although with some changes to the plot. "Sabrina" was remade in Turkish as "Şoförün Kızı" in 1965. In 1995 there was a Hollywood remake from Paramount Pictures.


title: Hussar

text: A hussar ( , ; , , / ) was a member of a class of light cavalry, originating in Central Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries. The title and distinctive dress of these horsemen were subsequently widely adopted by light cavalry regiments in European armies in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. By the 19th century, hussars wore jackets decorated with braid and shako or busby hats and they developed a romanticized image of being dashing and adventurous.


title: Hussar

text: A small number of modern armies retain the designation of hussars for some armored (tank) units. As well, some modern armies have ceremonial mounted units which wear historical hussar uniforms on parades or to provide a VIP escort to national leaders.


title: Hussar

text: Historically, the term derives from the cavalry of late medieval Hungary, under Matthias Corvinus, with mainly Serb warriors.


title: Hussar

text: Etymologists are divided over the derivation of the word "hussar". Several alternative theories are summarised below.


title: Hussar

text: The hussars reportedly originated in bands of Serb warriors,crossing into southern Hungary after the Ottoman conquest of Serbia in the late 14th century. Regent-Governor John Hunyadi created mounted units inspired by the Ottomans. His son, Matthias Corvinus, later king of Hungary, is claimed to be the creator of these troops, commonly called "Rác" (a Hungarian exonym for Serbs). Initially, they fought in small bands, but were reorganised into larger, trained formations during the reign of King Matthias Corvinus.


title: Hussar

text: The medieval Hungarian written sources spoke disparagingly and contemptuously of the light cavalry and the hussars in general, and during battles the texts praised only the virtues, endurance, courage, training and achievements of the knights. No wonder, since during the Middle Ages the Hungarian noble origin soldiers served exclusively as heavy armoured cavalry.


title: Hussar

text: The first hussar regiments comprised the light cavalry of the Black Army of Hungary. Under Corvinus' command, the hussars took part in the war against the Ottoman Empire in 1485 and proved successful against the "sipahis" (Ottoman cavalry) as well as against the Bohemians and Poles. After the king's death, in 1490, hussars became the standard form of cavalry in Hungary in addition to the heavy cavalry. Their role was limited to irregular warfare, raiding, securing, covering and reconnaissance of main regular forces. According to Antonio Bonfini, this lightly armed cavalry (expeditissimus equitatus) was not allowed to be part of the regular army, when the order of the battle was formed, but was placed outside it in quite separate groups and used to destroy, burn, kill and instil fear in the civilian population, while they rode ahead of the regular army.


title: Hussar

text: The 16th and 17th centuries saw a major change and during the Thirty Years' War they fought as light cavalry and increasingly used firearms. The Habsburg emperors hired Hungarian hussars as mercenaries to serve against the Ottomans and on various battlefields throughout Western Europe.


title: Hussar

text: Early hussars wore armor when they could afford it, as did the later Polish hussars. Hungarian hussars abandoned the use of shields and, at a later date, armor; becoming entirely light cavalry in the first half of the 17th century.


title: Hussar

text: The Polish heavy hussars of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were far more manoeuvrable than the heavily armoured lancers previously employed. The hussars proved vital to the Polish–Lithuanian victories at the Orsza (1514), the Obertyn (1531) and the Battle of Vienna (1683).


title: Hussar

text: Over the course of the 16th century, hussars in Transylvania and Hungary became heavier in character: They had abandoned wooden shields and adopted plate-metal body armour. When Stephen Báthory, a Transylvanian-Hungarian prince, was elected King of Poland in 1576, he reorganised the Polish-Lithuanian Hussars of his Royal Guard along Hungarian lines, making them a heavy formation, equipped with a long lance as their main weapon. By the reign of King Stephen Báthory, the hussars had replaced medieval-style lancers in the Polish–Lithuanian army, and they now formed the bulk of the Polish cavalry. By the 1590s, most Polish–Lithuanian hussar units had been reformed along the same 'heavy', Hungarian model. Due to the same resemblance, the Polish heavy hussars came with their own style, the Polish winged hussars or Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth winged "husaria".


title: Hussar

text: In the Battle of Lubieszów, in 1577, the "Golden Age" of the husaria began. Up to and including the Battle of Vienna in 1683, the Polish–Lithuanian hussars fought countless actions against a variety of enemies. In the battles of Byczyna (1588), Kokenhusen (1601), Kircholm (1605), Kłuszyn (1610), Trzciana (1629), Chocim (1673) and Lwów (1675), the Polish–Lithuanian hussars proved to be the decisive factor, often against overwhelming odds.


title: Hussar

text: Croatian hussar units, often designated simply as "Croats” (military unit), were raised from the Kingdom of Hungary Military Frontier, Croatian-Slavonian and the Kingdom of Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia. One notable captain and chief officer of hussars was Petar Keglević. In 1578, Charles II took command of the Croatian and Slavonian Military Frontier and prepared written orders and rule of service for infantry (Haramije) and horsemen (hussars), using the Serbo-Croatian language. The oldest written trace of the surname Husar in Croatia is from 1507 in Vinica where Petrus Hwzar (Petar Husar) was mentioned, in a document dated 1598 entitled "Regestum", mention was made of "hussar" at Lobor ("Castrum Lobor cum suis pertinentiis portiones magnificorum dominorum Joannis et Petri Keglyewich…“"Blasius Hwszar", Inq(uilinus)”. A second reference to "hussar" appeared in 1613 from Krapina ("desertum Joannes "Huszar" de vinea cb – qr j”).


title: Hussar

text: Croatian hussars were irregular light horsemen characteristic of the Habsburg-Ottoman border area. Croatian units were not inevitably referred as "Croats" but it was the most commonly used name. In the Thirty Years' War other designations used were "Wallachen, Uskocken, Raitzen, Granitscharen, Insulaner, Wenden, Polen, Türken i Zigeuner". Amongst the Croatian hussars could be found other ethno-political groups, such as Hungarians, Serbs, Albanians, Romanians, Poles, Vlachs and Cossacks. Croatian hussars participated in the siege of Magdeburg which was led by Johann Tserclaes as well as the sieges of Heidelberg, Frankenthal, Manheim, Breitenfeld, Lützen, Nördlingen, Wittstock and Breitenfeld.


title: Hussar

text: Between 1746 and 1750 four Grenz Hussar (border) regiments were established: the Karlovac, the Varaždin, the Slavonian and the Syrmia Regiments. The Croatian-Slavonian Grenz Hussars took part in the campaigns of 1793–94 against Revolutionary France In 1751 Maria Theresa prescribed a distinctive hussar uniform.


title: Hussar

text: Hussars outside the Polish Kingdom followed a different line of development. During the early decades of the 17th century, hussars in Hungary ceased to wear metal body armour; and, by 1640, most were light cavalry. It was hussars of this "light" pattern, rather than the Polish heavy hussar, that were later to be copied across Europe. These light hussars were ideal for reconnaissance and raiding sources of fodder and provisions in advance of the army.


title: Hussar

text: In battle, they were used in such light cavalry roles as harassing enemy skirmishers, overrunning artillery positions, and pursuing fleeing troops. In many countries, the hussars and bosniaks actually retained their original Asiatic uniforms. In the late 17th and 18th centuries, many Hungarian hussars sought employment in other Central and Western European countries and became the core of similar light cavalry formations created there. Following their example, hussar regiments were introduced into at least twelve European armies by 1800.


title: Hussar

text: Bavaria raised its first hussar regiment in 1688 and a second one in about 1700. Prussia followed suit in 1721 when Frederick the Great used hussar units extensively during the War of the Austrian Succession.


title: Hussar

text: France established a number of hussar regiments from 1692 onward, recruiting originally from Hungary and Germany, then subsequently from German-speaking frontier regions within France itself. The first hussar regiment in the French army was the "Hussars-Royaux" (Royal Hussars), raised from Hungarian deserters in 1692.


title: Hussar

text: Spain disbanded its first hussars in 1747 and then raised new units of Húsares in 1795. The Húsares de Pavía were created in 1684 by the Count of Melgar to serve in Spanish possessions in Italy and were named after the Spanish victory over the French army at Pavia, south of Milan, Italy. During the battle, the King of France, Francis I, was captured by the Spanish Cavalry. The Húsares de Pavía fought in Italy during the War of Piedmont (1692–1695) and the War of Spanish Succession, it was transferred back to Spain. In 1719, the regiment was sent again to Italy until 1746.


title: Hussar

text: Then, it served in campaigns against Algerian pirates and in the sieges of Oran and Algiers. During the Spanish War of Independence against Napoleon (1808–1814), the unit fought the Battles of Bailén, Tudela, Velez, Talavera and Ocaña and the actions of Baza, Cuellar, Murviedro and Alaquàs.


title: Hussar

text: The Húsares de Pavía regiment also was involved in the Ten Years' War in Cuba, the Spanish–American War (1898), the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), and in the Campaign of Ifni (1958). Ifni was a Spanish colony in North Africa that was attacked by irregulars from Morocco. At present, this regiment is named Regimiento Acorazado de Caballería Pavía nr 4 (Cavalry armored regiment Pavia nr 4) and is garrisoned in Zaragoza (Spain).


title: Hussar

text: Sweden had hussars from about 1756 and Denmark introduced this class of cavalry in 1762. Britain converted a number of light dragoon regiments to hussars in the early 19th century.


title: Hussar

text: The Dutch Republic took a Bavarian regiment into service in 1745 (Regiment Frangipani). Several new regiments and corps were raised in 1747 and 1748, but eventually these existed only on paper. One regiment, the "Statenhuzaren" ('States' Hussars') remained, but was disbanded in 1752. In 1784, two free companies of hussars were raised, which were taken into service after 1787 and would become two full regiments. These would be united into one regiment in 1795, which would be the 2nd Regiment of the Kingdom of Holland in 1806, with a 3rd Hussars being raised that same year, as well as a Guard Hussars Regiment. The Guard Hussars would become the 2eme Regiment Chevaux-Legeres Lanciers of the Imperial Guard (The Red Lancers) after 1810; the 3rd was disbanded; the 2nd being incorporated into the French line as the 11eme Regiment.


title: Hussar

text: After regaining independence, the new Royal Netherlands Army raised two hussar regiments (nrs. 6 and 8). They were disbanded (nr. 8 in 1830), or converted to lancers (nr. 6 in 1841). In 1867, all remaining cavalry regiments were transferred to hussar regiments. This tradition remains to this day, with the last surviving hussar regiment (Boreel's, 103rd and 104th reconnaissance squadrons) carrying on the tradition of all Dutch cavalry predecessors.


title: Hussar

text: Russia relied on its native cossacks along with kalmyks and other nomads to provide irregular light cavalry until the mid 18th century.


title: Hussar

text: In 1707, Apostol Kigetsch, a Wallachian nobleman serving Russian Emperor Peter the Great, was given the task to form a "khorugv" ("banner" or "squadron") of 300 men to serve on the Ottoman-Russian border. The squadron consisted of Christians from Hungary, Serbia, Moldavia, and Wallachia. In 1711, prior to the Pruth campaign, 6 regiments (4 khorugv's each) of hussars were formed, mainly from Wallachia. Two other "khorugv", for guerilla warfare, were formed, one Polish and one Serbian, to battle the Ottomans. In 1723, Peter the Great formed a Hussar regiment exclusively from Serbian light cavalry serving in the Austrian army. On 14 October 1741, during the regency of Grand Duchess Anna Leopoldovna, four Hussar regiments, a Serbian ("Serbskiy"), a Moldavian ("Moldavskiy"), a Hungarian ("Vengerskiy") and a Georgian ("Gruzinskiy") were authorized.


title: Hussar

text: After the Russo-Turkish War (1735–39), these Hussar regiments were converted to regular service, voluntarily enlisted and not conscripted as the rest of the Russian army. They were on a level between regular and irregular cavalry. Hussars were recruited only from the nation indicated by the regiment's name, i.e., these regiments were national units in Russian service; all troops (including officers) were national, and commands were given in the respective languages. Each regiment was supposed to have a fixed organization of 10 companies, each of about 100 men, but these regiments were recruited from different sources, so they were less than the indicated strength.


title: Hussar

text: By 1741 the foreign hussars in Russian service had disbanded and reliance for light cavalry functions was again placed on the indigenous Cossack irregulars. In that year new hussar regiments were raised, now drawn from Orthodox Christian communities along the Turkish frontier. The newly raised Russian hussar units had increased to 12 regiments by the Seven Years' War. During the 1750s Serbian and Slovakian Orthodox communities and refugees, plus Poles and Hungarians, provided non-Russian recruits for the expanding hussars who evolved into a semi-regular corps of frontier light horse. In 1759–60, three more Hussar regiments, were raised, the Yellow ("Želtiy"), the Macedonian ("Makedonskiy") and the Bulgarian ("Bolgarskiy").


title: Hussar

text: During and after Rákóczi's War of Independence, many Hungarians served in the Habsburg army. Located in garrisons far away from Hungary, some deserted from the Austrian army and joined that of Prussia. The value of the Hungarian hussars as light cavalry was recognised and, in 1721, two Hussaren Corps were organised in the Prussian Army.


title: Hussar

text: Frederick II (later called "The Great") recognised the value of hussars as light cavalry and encouraged their recruitment. In 1741, he established a further five regiments, largely from Polish deserters. Three more regiments were raised for Prussian service in 1744 and another in 1758. While the hussars were increasingly drawn from Prussian and other German cavalrymen, they continued to wear the traditional Hungarian uniform, richly decorated with braid and gold trim.


title: Hussar

text: Possibly due to a daring and impudent surprise raid on his capital, Berlin, by the hussars of Hungarian general András Hadik, Frederick also recognised the national characteristics of his Hungarian recruits and, in 1759, issued a royal order which warned the Prussian officers never to offend the self-esteem of his hussars with insults and abuse. At the same time, he exempted the hussars from the usual disciplinary measures of the Prussian Army, such as physical punishments including cudgeling.


title: Hussar

text: Frederick used his hussars for reconnaissance duties and for surprise attacks against the enemy's flanks and rear. A hussar regiment under the command of Colonel Sigismund Dabasi-Halász won the Battle of Hohenfriedberg at Striegau on May 4, 1745, by attacking the Austrian combat formation on its flank and capturing all of its artillery.


title: Hussar

text: The effectiveness of the hussars in Frederick's army can be judged by the number of promotions and decorations awarded to their officers. Recipients included the Hungarian generals Pal Werner and Ferenc Kőszeghy, who received the highest Prussian military order, the "Pour le Mérite"; General Tivadar Ruesh was awarded the title of baron; Mihály Székely was promoted from the rank of captain to general after less than fifteen years of service.


title: Hussar

text: While Hungarian hussars served in the opposing armies of Frederick and Maria Theresa, there were no known instances of fratricidal clashes between them.


title: Hussar

text: Verbunkos (; other spellings are Verbounko, Verbunko, Verbunkas, Werbunkos, Werbunkosch, Verbunkoche) is an 18th-century Hungarian dance and music genre.


title: Hussar

text: The name is derived from the German word "werben" that means, in particular, "to enroll in the army"; verbunkos means recruiter. The corresponding music and dance were performed during military recruiting, which was a frequent event during this period, hence the character of the music. The verbunkos was an important component of the Hungarian hussar tradition. Potential recruits were dressed in items of hussar uniform, given wine to drink and invited to dance to this music.


title: Hussar

text: The hussars played a prominent role as cavalry in the Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) and Napoleonic Wars (1803–15). As light cavalrymen mounted on fast horses, they would be used to fight skirmish battles and for scouting. Most of the great European powers raised hussar regiments. The armies of France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia had included hussar regiments since the mid-18th century. In the case of Britain, four light dragoon regiments were converted to hussars in 1806–1807.


title: Hussar

text: The hussars of the period created the tradition of sabrage, the opening of a champagne bottle with a sabre. Moustaches were universally worn by Napoleonic-era hussars; the British hussars were the only moustachioed troops in the British Army—leading to their being taunted as being "foreigners", at times. French hussars also wore "cadenettes", braids of hair hanging on either side of the face, until the practice was officially proscribed when shorter hair became universal.


title: Hussar

text: The uniform of the Napoleonic hussars included the pelisse, a short fur-edged jacket which was often worn slung over one shoulder in the style of a cape and was fastened with a cord. This garment was extensively adorned with braiding (often gold or silver for officers) and several rows of buttons. The dolman or tunic, which was also decorated in braid, was worn under it. The hussar's accoutrements included a Hungarian-style saddle covered by a shabraque, a decorated saddlecloth with long, pointed corners surmounted by a sheepskin.


title: Hussar

text: On active service, the hussar normally wore reinforced breeches which had leather on the inside of the leg to prevent them from wearing due to the extensive time spent in the saddle. On the outside of such breeches, running up each outer side, was a row of buttons, and sometimes a stripe in a different colour. A shako or fur "kolpac" (busby) was worn as headwear. The colours of the dolman, pelisse and breeches varied greatly by regiment, even within the same army.


title: Hussar

text: The French hussar of the Napoleonic period was armed with a brass-hilted sabre, a carbine and sometimes with a brace of pistols, although these were often unavailable. A famous military commander in Bonaparte's army who began his military career as a hussar was Marshal Ney, who, after being employed as a clerk in an iron works, joined the 5th Hussars in 1787. He rose through the ranks of the hussars in the wars of Belgium and the Rhineland (1794–1798), fighting against the forces of Austria and Prussia before receiving his marshal's baton in 1804, after the Emperor Napoleon's coronation.


title: Hussar

text: In the British Army, hussar cavalry were introduced at a later date than in other major European armies. Towards the end of the 18th century, British light dragoon regiments began to adopt hussar style accoutrements such as laced jackets, pelisses and sabretaches. In 1805, four light dragoon regiments were permitted to use the "hussar" name, initially in parentheses after their regimental title, and adopted full hussar uniforms. British hussars were armed with, in addition to firearms, the highly regarded 1796-pattern light-cavalry sabre.


title: Hussar

text: There were several Russian regiments of hussars by the time of Napoleonic Wars and extensive use was made of them.


title: Hussar

text: Although the Romanian cavalry were not formally designated as hussars, their pre-1915 uniforms, as described below, were of the classic hussar type. These regiments were created in the second part of the 19th century, under the rule of Alexandru Ioan Cuza, creator of Romania by the unification of Moldavia and Wallachia. Romania diplomatically avoided the word "hussar" due to its connotation at the time with Austria-Hungary, traditional rival of the Romanian principates. Therefore, these cavalry regiments were called ""Călărași"" in Moldavia, and later the designation ""Roșiori"" was adopted in Wallachia. (The word "călăraș" means "mounted soldier", and "roșior" means "of red colour" which derived from the colour of their uniform.)


title: Hussar

text: The three (later expanded to ten) Roșiori regiments were the regular units, while the Călărași were territorial reserve cavalry who supplied their own horses.


title: Hussar

text: These troops played an important role in the Romanian Independence War of 1877, on the Russo-Turkish front. The Roșiori, as their Romanian name implies, wore red dolmans with black braiding while the Călărași wore dark blue dolmans with red loopings. Both wore fur busbies and white plumes. The Roșiori regiments were distinguished by the different colours of their cloth busby bags (yellow, white, green, light blue, light green, dark blue, light brown, lilac, pink and light grey according to regiment). The Regimentul 1 Roșiori "General de armată Alexandru Averescu" was formed in 1871, while the Regimentul 4 Roșiori "Regina Maria" was created in 1893.


title: Hussar

text: After World War I, the differences between the two branches of Romanian cavalry disappeared, although the titles of Roșiori and Călărași remained. Both types of cavalry served through World War II on the Russian front as mounted and mechanised units.


title: Hussar

text: In Argentina, the 'Regimiento de Húsares del Rey' was created in 1806 to defend Buenos Aires from the British 1806–1807 expeditions. After the revolution in 1810, it became the 'Regimiento Húsares de Pueyrredón' after its founder and first colonel, Juan Martín de Pueyrredón. Today, its traditions and historic name and uniform are kept by the 8th Tank Regiment of the Argentinian Army.


title: Hussar

text: In Chile, the "Regimiento de Húsares de la Gran Guardia Nacional" (Grand National Guard Hussars Regiment) was created by José Miguel Carrera, who was himself previously a hussar in the Spanish Army. In 1813, as part of the army of the newly independent Chile, the regiment fought against the Spanish Army until its defeat at the disaster of the Battle of Rancagua. It was dissolved by José de San Martín after the Chilean Army fled to Argentina. In addition, the 'Húsares de la Muerte', or 'Death Hussars', were created as a paramilitary corps by Manuel Rodríguez after the 'Desastre de Cancha Rayada' (Disaster of Cancha Rayada) on 26 March 1818, during the period known as the Patria Vieja (Old Fatherland).


title: Hussar

text: In Peru, the squadrons of "Hussars of the Peruvian Legion of the Guard" were created in 1821 by General José de San Martín, from officers and troopers of the Squadron of "Hussars of the General's Escort", the former Squadron of Horse-Chasseurs of the Andes, which were included in the new army of the newly independent republic of Peru.


title: Hussar

text: The 4th Squadron of the Hussars of the Peruvian Legion of the Guard was organized in Trujillo under the command of Peruvian Colonel Antonio Gutiérrez de la Fuente. Originally designated as "Cuirassiers" in 1823, it became the "Hussars of Perú" Squadron in 1824.


title: Hussar

text: It was renamed "Hussars of Junín" for its performance in 1824 at the Battle of Junín, which was one of the Spanish-Peruvian battles which determined the final defeat of Spanish colonial rule.


title: Hussar

text: The Hussars of Junín fought at the Battle of Ayacucho on 9 December 1824, among the liberating forces commanded by Antonio de Sucre against the Royalist Spanish forces commanded by Viceroy José de la Serna. The heroic action of the Hussars of Junín Regiment as part of the light cavalry commanded by General José María Córdova was victorious, the battle eventuating in the capitulation of the Spanish forces, affirming the final independence of Peru.


title: Hussar

text: For this heroic action, the "Hussars of Junín" Light Cavalry Regiment was declared the "Liberator of Perú" with an inscription on the regimental flag.


title: Hussar

text: In the United States, the Georgia Hussars were a cavalry regiment founded before the American Revolution that continues today as part of the Georgia National Guard. The Hussars served the State of Georgia as part of the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War, and after reconciliation served in Mexico, World War I, World War II, Korea, Vietnam, Desert Storm, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and The War on Terror. Another famous Confederate regiment designated as Hussars were the 1st Virginia Cavalry, known as the Black Horse Troop. Their grey uniforms had black facings, and unique rows of braid across the chest.


title: Hussar

text: The Union army had two hussar regiments during the Civil War. The 3rd New Jersey Cavalry, nicknamed the Butterflies, wore dark blue pelisses with yellow braid, short blue cloaks with red lining, and a distinctive peakless forage cap similar to the British army. The 5th Missouri Cavalry, known as the Benton Hussars, wore sky blue uniforms with dark blue facings and chest braid. On campaign, a kepi was worn in place of the traditional fur cap. The Benton Hussars served as General Charles S. Hamilton's elite bodyguard, and distinguished themselves at the Battle of Pea Ridge and the Battle of Iuka in 1862.


title: Hussar

text: On the eve of World War I, there were still hussar regiments in the British, Canadian, French, Spanish, German, Russian, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, Romanian, and Austro-Hungarian armies. In most respects, they had now become regular light cavalry, recruited solely from their own countries and trained and equipped along the same lines as other classes of cavalry. But Hussars were still notable for their colourful and elaborate parade uniforms, the most spectacular of which were those worn by the two Spanish regiments, Húsares de Pavía and Húsares de la Princesa.


title: Hussar

text: A characteristic of both the Imperial German and Russian Hussars was the variety of colours apparent in their dress uniforms. These included red, black, green, dark and light blue, brown and even pink (the Russian 15th Hussars) dolmans. Most Russian hussar regiments wore red breeches, as did all the Austro-Hungarian hussars of 1914. This rainbow-effect harked back to the 18th-century origins of hussar regiments in these armies and helped regrouping after battle or a charge.


title: Hussar

text: The fourteen French hussar regiments were an exception to this rule – they wore the same relatively simple uniform, with only minor distinctions, as the other branches of French light cavalry. This comprised a shako, light blue tunic and red breeches. The twelve British hussar regiments were distinguished by different coloured busby bags and a few other distinctions such as the yellow plumes of the 20th, the buff collars of the 13th and the crimson breeches of the 11th Hussars.


title: Hussar

text: Hussar influences were apparent even in those armies which did not formally include hussar regiments. Thus, both the Belgian Guides (prior to World War I) and the Mounted Escort, the so-called Blue Hussars, of the Irish Defence Forces (during the 1930s) wore hussar-style uniforms.


title: Hussar

text: The colourful military uniforms of hussars from 1700 onwards were inspired by the prevailing Hungarian fashions of the day. Usually, this uniform consisted of a short jacket known as a "dolman", or later a medium-length atilla jacket, both with heavy, horizontal gold braid ("sujtás") on the breast and yellow braided or gold Austrian knots ("vitézkötés") on the sleeves, a matching pelisse (a short-waisted over-jacket often worn slung over one shoulder), coloured trousers, sometimes with yellow braided or gold Austrian knots at the front, a busby ("kucsma") (a high, fur hat with a cloth bag hanging from one side, although some regiments wore the shako ("csákó") of various styles), and high riding boots (often Hessian boots). A sabretache, an ornate pouch hung from the belt, often completed the accoutrements.


title: Hussar

text: European hussars traditionally wore long moustaches (but no beards) and long hair, with two plaits hanging in front of the ears as well as a larger queue at the back, a style known as the "cadenette". They often retained the queue, which used to be common to all soldiers, after other regiments had dispensed with it and adopted short hair.


title: Hussar

text: Hussars had a reputation for being the dashing, if unruly, adventurers of the army. The traditional image of the hussar is of a reckless, hard-drinking, womanising, moustachioed swashbuckler. General Lasalle, an archetypal hussar officer, epitomized this attitude by his remarks, among which the most famous is: "Any hussar who is not dead by the age of thirty is a blackguard." He died at the Battle of Wagram at the age of 34.


title: Hussar

text: Arthur Conan Doyle's character Brigadier Etienne Gerard of the French Hussards de Conflans has come to epitomise the hussar of popular fiction – brave, conceited, amorous, a skilled horseman and (according to Napoleon) not very intelligent. Brigadier Gerard's boast that the Hussards de Conflans (an actual regiment) could set a whole population running, the men away from them and the women towards them, may be taken as a fair representation of the esprit de corps of this class of cavalry.


title: Hussar

text: Less romantically, 18th-century hussars were also known (and feared) for their poor treatment of local civilians. In addition to commandeering local food-stocks for the army, hussars were known to also use the opportunity for personal looting and pillaging.


title: Hussar

text: Hussar armament varied over time. Until the 17th century, it included a cavalry sabre, lance, long, wooden shield and, optionally, light, metal armour or simple leather vest. Their usual form of attack was a rapid charge in compact formation against enemy infantry or cavalry units. If the first attack failed, they would retire to their supporting troops, who re-equipped them with fresh lances, and then would charge again.


title: Hussar

text: Apart from the Polish sabre and the lance, Polish heavy hussars were usually equipped with two horse pistols, a small, rounded shield and koncerz, a long (up to 2 metres) stabbing sword used in charges when the lance was broken or lost, and some even carried horseman's picks or war hammers. The Polish hussars quickly enough (by 1590s) abandoned using the "Balkan" shield (a large shield of an asymmetric shape), and most of them now had metal breastplates.


title: Hussar

text: Unlike their lighter counterparts, the Polish hussars were used as a heavy cavalry for line-breaking charges against enemy infantry. The famous low losses were achieved by the unique tactic of "late concentration". Until the first musket salvo of the enemy infantry, the hussars approached relatively slowly, in a loose formation. Each rider was at least 5 steps away from his colleagues and the infantry, still using undeveloped muskets, could not aim at any particular cavalryman. Also, if a hussar's horse was wounded, the following lines had time to steer clear of him. After the salvo, the cavalry rapidly accelerated and tightened the ranks. At the moment of the clash of the charging cavalry with the defenders, the hussars were riding knee-to-knee.


title: Hussar

text: Hussars of the Polish Commonwealth were also famous for the huge wings worn on their backs or attached to the saddles of their horses. Several theories attempt to explain the meaning of the wings. According to some, they were designed to foil attacks by Tatar lasso; another theory maintains that the sound of vibrating feathers attached to the wings made a strange sound that frightened enemy horses during the charge. However, recent experiments performed by Polish historians in 2001 did not support any of these theories and the phenomenon remains unexplained. They might have simply intended as a distinctive feature. The wings were probably worn only during parades and not during combat, but this explanation is also disputed. Because Poland has a large population of devout Catholics, it seems possible the wings and uniforms were meant to resemble St. Michael the Archangel.


title: Hussar

text: In the 18th and 19th centuries, hussars of Central and Western Europe retained the use of the sabre throughout the time. Some cavalrymen such as the chasseurs were also armed with firearms, primarily carbines or pistols.


title: Hussar

text: After horse cavalry became obsolete, hussar units were generally converted to armoured units, though retaining their traditional titles. Hussar regiments still exist today and horses are sometimes used for ceremonial purposes. In the British Army (although amalgamations have reduced their number to only two), the French Army, the Swedish Army (Livregementets husarer, the Life Regiment Hussars), the Dutch Army and the Canadian Forces, they are usually tank forces or light mechanised infantry. The Danish Guard Hussars provide a ceremonial mounted squadron, which is the last to wear the slung pelisse.


title: Hussar

text: In certain German states, notably Rheinpfalz, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz, hussars were sometimes used as a mounted police force or gendarmerie. A rare exception to the usual pattern of German police uniforms were those of the "Mecklenburg-Strelitzsche Districts-Husaren". This gendarmerie corps retained their 19th century-style uniforms until 1905.


title: Hussar

text: The 'Regimiento ' (10th Tank Pueyrredon Hussars Regiment) currently serves as an armoured regiment ( "Husares de Pueyrredón") of the Argentine Army using its revolution-era full dress uniforms worn during formal parades.


title: Hussar

text: The National Guards Unit of Bulgaria were established as a hussar regiment in 1879, and served as the personal escort of Alexanderi I of Bulgaria. In modern times they serve as the president's honor guard and security detail, and carry AK-47s and SKS instead of sabres, worn only by officers assigned to the unit.


title: Hussar

text: The only remaining hussar unit in the Chilean Army is the 3rd Cavalry Regiment "Hussars" () in Angol. It forms part of the 3rd Army Mountain Division, and is the only horse-mounted regiment remaining in the army, aside from the Presidential Horse Grenadiers. The regiment has a mounted troop and mounted military band. It is named after one of the nation's founding fathers, José Miguel de Carrera, and is informally named "The Hussars of Death", as the successor regiment to Manuel Rodríguez's cavalry unit of that name. The modern regiment has the Totenkopf as its insignia as well as on the regimental camp flag.


title: Hussar

text: Gardehusarregimentet (English: The Guard Hussar Regiment), founded in 1762, is currently a unit with four battalions: an armoured infantry battalion, a light (motorized) reconnaissance battalion and two training battalions. In addition to its operational role, the Guard Hussar Regiment is one of two regiments in the Danish Army (along with the Den Kongelige Livgarde) to be categorised as 'Guards'; in this case, the Mounted Squadron perform the same role as the Household Cavalry do in the British Army. In mounted parade uniform, the Gardehusarregimentet are the only hussars to still wear the slung and braided pelisse, which was formerly characteristic of this class of cavalry.


title: Hussar

text: Because of political upheavals such as the French Revolution and the Restoration of 1815, the French hussar regiments do not have the same historical continuity as their counterparts in some other armies.


title: Hussar

text: The Mounted Escort, popularly known as "Blue Hussars", was an Irish Army unit which was used for state and ceremonial functions and wore bright blue hussar-style uniforms. They were created in 1932 and disbanded in 1948. The name is sometimes used to refer to their successors: the motorcycle unit that has provided presidential escort since then.


title: Hussar

text: The "King Mindaugas Hussar Battalion" of the Iron Wolf Mechanised Infantry Brigade is a unit of the Lithuanian Land Forces. It is named after King Mindaugas of Lithuania (–1263).


title: Hussar

text: Except for the Huzaren van Boreel, the regiments operate in an armoured role in one of the two mechanised brigades of the Dutch army, using the Leopard 2 main battle tank. Each of these brigades also has a squadron from the Huzaren van Boreel attached for reconnaissance.


title: Hussar

text: There is also a mounted unit for ceremonies: Cavalerie Ere-Escorte. It is linked to the Huzaren Prins Alexander, although riders from other regiments participate as well.


title: Hussar

text: The 1st Light Cavalry Regiment, the "Glorious Hussars of Junín", was until 2012 the horse guards unit of the Peruvian Army, with a history spanning almost two centuries. Raised on August 18, 1821 by José de San Martín as the mounted component of the Peruvian Guard Legion, the regiment served in the final battles of the Latin American wars of independence in Junin and Ayacucho, in the Gran Colombia–Peru War, in the War of the Confederation and in the War of the Pacific.


title: Hussar

text: Following an extended period as part of the Army Education Command, the regiment became the Presidential horse guards regiment in 1987. However, by Ministerial Resolution No 139-2012/DE/EP of 2 February 2012, signed under the administration of President Ollanta Humala Tasso, the Field Marshal Domingo Nieto Cavalry Regiment has been reestablished as the official presidential escort, with the main mission of guaranteeing the security of the President of the Republic and the Government Palace of Perú in Lima.


title: Hussar

text: The Hussars of Junín wear a stylised dress uniform of a blue and red shako, red coat and blue breeches modelled on that worn in 1824 in the Battle of Junín. This uniform is of similar design, but with different colors and braiding, to that worn by the Argentine Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers General San Martín, which assisted in its raising and in the training of its first troopers.


title: Hussar

text: The Hussars of Junin carry lances and sabers on parade and perform as a ceremonial guard together with the Marshal Nieto Dragoon Guards and the other ceremonial units of the Peruvian Armed Forces and the National Police of Peru. As noted above, The Hussars of Junín no longer serve as the presidential escort, but are now based in the Peruvian Army Education Command and still participates in ceremonies and parades, representing the Peruvian Army. The regiment also provides honor guards and escorts for welcoming-ceremonies and other events of national importance. An example of such occasions is the annual ceremony commemorating the 1929 reintegration of the Tacna Region into Peru.


title: Hussar

text: Livregementets husarer (English: 'Life Regiment Hussars'). One of the most distinguished hussar regiments in European history, with roots extending back to 1536. Today, Livregementets husarer, also known as K 3, is the last active hussar regiment in Sweden and trains an airborne battalion and an intelligence battalion, and hosts the Swedish Army's Parachute Ranger School and the Armed Forces Survival School.


title: Hussar

text: Presently, the first two regiments and C Sqn RWxY operate in the armoured role, primarily operating the Challenger 2 main battle tank. The Hussar regiments are grouped together with the Dragoon and Lancer regiments in the order of precedence, all of which are below the Dragoon Guards. A Dragoon regiment, the Light Dragoons, was formed by the amalgamation of two Hussar regiments, the 13th/18th Royal Hussars and the 15th/19th The King's Royal Hussars, in 1992, reversing the mid-19th-century trend of all existing light-dragoon regiments being converted to hussars. 710 (Royal Buckinghamshire Hussars) Laundry Squadron, RLC is an Reserve Operational Hygiene Squadron within 165 Port and Maritime Regiment RLC and was formed in April 2014 from 60 Signal Squadron, Royal Corps of Signals.


title: Hussar

text: The of Venezuela wear hussar style full-dress uniforms, thus maintaining the traditions and legacy of Simón Bolívar's Hussar Troop. This unit was established in 1815, serving under Bolivar during the Venezuelan War of Independence and Spanish American wars of independence. The modern brigade serves as a ceremonial escort to the President of Venezuela at Miraflores Palace and attends all state arrival ceremonies conducted there, as well as providing security for the palace complex. The brigade also provides honor guards (i) at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at Carabobo Field, Carabobo commemorating the memory of national heroes and the fallen of the Battle of Carabobo; (ii) at the Montana Barracks in Caracas in memory of the late Hugo Chávez; and (iii) at the National Pantheon in Caracas in memory of Bolívar and other national heroes buried there. The brigade also performs public-duty functions as required. Brigade personnel come from all branches of the National Bolivarian Armed Forces of Venezuela and public security services. The brigade is commanded by a general or flag officer and includes a Presidential mounted escort of platoon size.


title: Terrier

text: Terrier (from Latin "terra", 'earth') is a type of dog originally bred to hunt vermin. A terrier is a dog of any one of many breeds or landraces of the terrier type, which are typically small, wiry, game, and fearless. Terrier breeds vary greatly in size from just to over 60 kg (132 lb, e.g. Black Russian Terrier) and are usually categorized by size or function. There are five different groups of terrier, with each group having different shapes and sizes.


title: Terrier

text: The gameness of the early hunting terriers was exploited by using them in sporting contests. Initially, terriers competed in events such as clearing a pit of rats. The dog that was fastest in killing all the rats won. In the eighteenth century some terriers were crossed with hounds to improve their hunting, and some with fighting dog breeds to "intensify tenacity and increase courage". Some of the crosses with fighting dogs, bull and terrier crosses, were used in the blood sport of dog-fighting. Modern pet breeds such as the Miniature Bull Terrier are listed by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) under Bull type terriers.


title: Terrier

text: Today, most terriers are kept as companion dogs and family pets. They are generally loyal and affectionate to their owners.


title: Terrier

text: In the 18th century in Britain, only two types of terriers were recognized, long- and short-legged. Today, terriers are often informally categorized by size or by function.


title: Terrier

text: Hunting-types are still used to find, track, or trail quarry, especially underground, and sometimes to bolt the quarry. Modern examples include the Jack Russell Terrier, the Jagdterrier, the Rat Terrier, and the Patterdale Terrier. There are also the short-legged terriers such as the Cairn Terrier, the Scottish Terrier, and the West Highland White Terrier, which were also used to kill small vermin.


title: Terrier

text: The original hunting terriers include the Fell Terrier (developed in northern England to assist in the killing of foxes) and the Hunt Terrier (developed in southern England to locate, kill or bolt foxes during a traditional mounted fox hunt).


title: Terrier

text: The various combinations of bulldog and terrier that were used for bull-baiting and dog-fighting in the late 19th century were later refined into separate breeds that combined both terrier and bulldog qualities. Except for the Boston Terrier, they are generally included in kennel clubs' Terrier Group. Breeders have bred modern bull-type terrier breeds, such as the Bull Terrier and Staffordshire Bull Terrier, into suitable family dogs and show terriers.


title: Terrier

text: Toy terriers have been bred from larger terriers and are shown in the Toy or Companion group. Included among these breeds are the English Toy Terrier and the Yorkshire Terrier. While small, they retain true terrier character and are not submissive "lap dogs".


title: Terrier

text: Other descendants of the bull and terrier types, such as the Asian Gull Terrier, are among the dogs still raised for dog-fighting.


title: Terrier

text: Terriers range greatly in appearance from very small, light bodied, smooth coated dogs such as the English Toy Terrier (Black and Tan), which weighs as little as , to the very large rough-coated Airedale Terriers, which can be up to or more. As of 2004, the United Kennel Club recognized a new hairless breed of terrier derived from the Rat Terrier called the American Hairless Terrier.


title: Terrier

text: When competing in conformation shows, most kennel clubs including the Fédération Cynologique Internationale group pedigree terrier breeds together in their own terrier group.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: Scharnhorst was a German capital ship, alternatively described as a battleship or battlecruiser, of Nazi Germany's "Kriegsmarine". She was the lead ship of her class, which included her sister ship . The ship was built at the "Kriegsmarinewerft" dockyard in Wilhelmshaven; she was laid down on 15 June 1935 and launched a year and four months later on 3 October 1936. Completed in January 1939, the ship was armed with a main battery of nine 28 cm (11 in) C/34 guns in three triple turrets. Plans to replace these weapons with six 38 cm (15 in) SK C/34 guns in twin turrets were never carried out.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" operated together for much of the early portion of World War II, including sorties into the Atlantic to raid British merchant shipping. During her first operation, "Scharnhorst" sank the armed merchant in a short engagement (November 1939). "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" participated in Operation Weserübung (April–June 1940), the German invasion of Norway. During operations off Norway, the two ships engaged the battlecruiser and sank the aircraft carrier as well as her escort destroyers and . In that engagement "Scharnhorst" achieved one of the longest-range naval gunfire hits in history.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: In early 1942, after British bombing raids, the two ships made the Channel Dash up the English Channel from occupied France to Germany. In early 1943, "Scharnhorst" joined the in Norway to interdict Allied convoys to the Soviet Union. "Scharnhorst" and several destroyers sortied from Norway to attack a convoy but British naval patrols intercepted the German force. During the Battle of the North Cape (26 December 1943), the Royal Navy battleship and her escorts sank "Scharnhorst". Only 36 men survived, out of a crew of 1,968.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: "Scharnhorst" displaced at standard displacement and at full load. She was long overall and had a beam of and a maximum draft of . She was powered by three Brown, Boveri & Cie geared steam turbines, which developed a total of and yielded a maximum speed of on speed trials. Her standard crew numbered 56 officers and 1,613 enlisted men, augmented during the war to 60 officers and 1,780 men. While serving as a squadron flagship, "Scharnhorst" carried an additional 10 officers and 61 enlisted men.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: She was armed with a main battery of nine 28 cm (11.1 in) L/54.5 guns arranged in three triple gun turrets: two turrets were placed forward in a superfiring arrangement (Anton and Bruno), and one aft (Caesar). The design also enabled the ship to be up-gunned with six 15-inch guns, which never took place. Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm (5.9 in) L/55 guns, eight of which were placed in two-gun turrets and the remaining four were carried in individual turrets. Her anti-aircraft armament consisted of fourteen 10.5 cm L/65 and sixteen SK C/30 L/83, and initially ten C/30 anti-aircraft guns. The number of 2 cm guns was eventually increased to thirty-eight. Six above-water torpedo tubes, taken from the light cruisers and , were installed in 1942.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: "Scharnhorst" had an armor belt that was thick in the central portion, where it protected the ship's ammunition magazines and propulsion machinery spaces. The ship had an armored deck that was thick on the flat portion, increasing to on downward-sloping sides that connected to the bottom of the belt. Her main battery turrets had of armor on their faces and on their sides. The conning tower was protected with 350 mm on the sides.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: At her commissioning, "Scharnhorst" was commanded by "Kapitän zur See" ("KzS") Otto Ciliax. His tenure as the ship's commander was brief; in September 1939, an illness forced him to go on sick leave, and he was replaced by "KzS" Kurt-Caesar Hoffmann. Hoffmann served as the ship's captain until 1942. On 1 April 1942, Hoffmann, who had been promoted to "Konteradmiral" (Rear Admiral) and awarded the Knight's Cross, transferred command of the ship to "KzS" Friedrich Hüffmeier. In October 1943, shortly before "Scharnhorst"s last mission, Hüffmeier was replaced by "KzS" Fritz Hintze, who was killed during the ship's final battle.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: "Scharnhorst" was ordered as "Ersatz Elsass" as a replacement for the old pre-dreadnought , under the contract name "D." The "Kriegsmarinewerft" in Wilhelmshaven was awarded the contract, where the keel was laid on 16 July 1935. The ship was launched on 3 October 1936, witnessed by Adolf Hitler, Minister of War Generalfeldmarschall Werner von Blomberg, and the widow of "Kapitän zur See" Schultz, the commander of the armored cruiser , which had been sunk at the Battle of the Falkland Islands during World War I. Fitting-out work followed her launch, and was completed by January 1939. "Scharnhorst" was commissioned into the fleet on 9 January for sea trials, which revealed a dangerous tendency to ship considerable amounts of water in heavy seas. This caused flooding in the bow and damaged electrical systems in the forward gun turret. As a result, she went back to the dockyard for extensive modification of the bow. The original straight stem was replaced with a raised "Atlantic bow." A raked funnel cap was also installed during the reconstruction, along with an enlarged aircraft hangar; the main mast was also moved further aft. The modifications were completed by November 1939, by which time the ship was finally fully operational.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: "Scharnhorst"s first operation began on 21 November 1939; the ship, in company with her sister , the light cruiser , and nine destroyers, was to patrol the area between Iceland and the Faroe Islands. The intent of the operation was to draw out British units and ease the pressure on the heavy cruiser ("pocket battleship") , which was being pursued in the South Atlantic. Two days later, the German flotilla intercepted the British armed merchant cruiser . At 16:07, lookouts aboard "Scharnhorst" spotted the vessel, and less than an hour later "Scharnhorst" had closed the range. At 17:03, "Scharnhorst" opened fire, and three minutes later a salvo of her 28 cm guns hit "Rawalpindi"s bridge, killing the captain Edward Coverly Kennedy, and the majority of the officers. During the brief engagement, "Rawalpindi" managed to score a hit on "Scharnhorst", which caused minor splinter damage.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: By 17:16, "Rawalpindi" was burning badly and in the process of sinking. Admiral Wilhelm Marschall, aboard "Gneisenau", ordered "Scharnhorst" to pick up survivors. These rescue operations were interrupted by the appearance of the cruiser . The German force quickly fled north before using inclement weather to make the dash south through the North Sea. Four Allied capital ships, the British , and , and the French "Dunkerque", followed in pursuit. The Germans reached Wilhelmshaven on 27 November, and on the trip both battleships incurred significant damage from heavy seas and winds. "Scharnhorst" was repaired in Wilhelmshaven, and while in dock, her boilers were overhauled.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: Following the completion of repairs, "Scharnhorst" went into the Baltic Sea for gunnery training. Heavy ice in the Baltic kept the ship there until February 1940 when she could return to Wilhelmshaven, arriving on 5 February. Between 18 February and 20 February, she participated in Operation Nordmark, a brief sortie into the North Sea as far as the Shetland Islands.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: She was then assigned to the forces participating in Operation Weserübung, the invasion of Denmark and Norway. "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" were the covering force for the assaults on Narvik and Trondheim; the two ships left Wilhelmshaven on the morning of 7 April. They were joined by the heavy cruiser . Later that day, at around 14:30, the three ships came under attack by a force of British bombers, which failed to make any hits. Heavy winds caused significant structural damage that evening, and flooding contaminated a portion of "Scharnhorst"s fuel stores.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: At 09:15 the following morning, "Admiral Hipper" was detached to reinforce the destroyers at Narvik, which had reported engaging British forces. Early on 9 April, the two ships encountered the British battlecruiser HMS "Renown". "Gneisenau"s Seetakt radar picked up a radar contact at 04:30, which prompted the crews of both vessels to go to combat stations. Half an hour later, "Scharnhorst"s navigator spotted gun flashes from firing at "Gneisenau"; the Germans returned fire three minutes later. "Gneisenau" was hit twice in the opening portion of the engagement, and one shell disabled her rear gun turret. "Scharnhorst"s radar malfunctioned, which prevented her from being able to effectively engage "Renown" during the battle. At 05:18, the British battlecruiser shifted fire to "Scharnhorst", which maneuvered to avoid the falling shells. By 07:15, "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" had used their superior speed to escape from the pursuing "Renown". Heavy seas and the high speed with which the pair of battleships escaped caused them to ship large amounts of water forward. "Scharnhorst"s forward turret was put out of action by severe flooding. Mechanical problems with her starboard turbines developed after running at full speed, which forced the ships to reduce speed to .


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" had reached a point north-west of Lofoten, Norway, by 12:00 on 9 April. The two ships then turned west for 24 hours while temporary repairs were effected. After a day of steaming west, the ships turned south and rendezvoused with "Admiral Hipper" on 12 April. An RAF patrol aircraft spotted the three ships that day, which prompted an air attack. The German warships were protected by poor visibility, however, and the three ships safely reached port later that day. "Scharnhorst" returned to Germany, and was repaired at the Deutsche Werke in Kiel. During the repair process, the aircraft catapult that had been installed on the rear gun turret was removed.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: The two ships left Wilhelmshaven on 4 June to return to Norway. They were joined by "Admiral Hipper" and four destroyers. The purpose of the sortie was to interrupt Allied efforts to resupply the Norwegians and to relieve the pressure on German troops fighting in Norway. On 7 June, the squadron rendezvoused with the tanker to refuel "Admiral Hipper" and the four destroyers. The next day, the British trawler was discovered and sunk, along with the oil tanker "Oil Pioneer". The Germans then launched their Arado 196 float planes to search for more Allied vessels. "Admiral Hipper" and the destroyers were sent to destroy "Orama", a passenger ship, while "Atlantis", a hospital ship, was allowed to proceed unmolested. Admiral Marschall detached "Admiral Hipper" and the four destroyers to refuel in Trondheim, while he would steam to the Harstad area.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: At 17:45, the German battleships spotted the British aircraft carrier and two escorting destroyers, and , at a range of some . At 18:32 "Scharnhorst" (as the closer ship) opened fire with her main armament on "Glorious", at a range of . Six minutes after opening fire, "Scharnhorst" scored a hit at a range of . The shell struck the carrier's upper hangar and started a large fire. Less than ten minutes later, a shell from "Gneisenau" struck the bridge and killed "Glorious"s captain. The two destroyers attempted to cover "Glorious" with smoke screens, but the German battleships could track the carrier with their radar. By 18:26 the range had fallen to , and "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" were firing full salvos at the carrier. After approximately an hour of shooting, the German battleships sent "Glorious" to the bottom. They also sank the two destroyers. As "Acasta" sank, one of the 4 torpedoes she had fired hit "Scharnhorst" at 19:39. "Acasta" also hit "Scharnhorst"s forward superfiring turret with her 4.7" QF guns, which did negligible damage. The torpedo hit caused serious damage; it tore a hole and allowed of water into the ship. The rear turret was disabled and 48 men were killed. The flooding caused a 5 degree list, increased the stern draft by almost a meter, and forced "Scharnhorst" to reduce speed to . The ship's machinery was also significantly damaged by the flooding, and the starboard propeller shaft was destroyed.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: The damage was severe enough to force "Scharnhorst" to put into Trondheim for temporary repairs. She reached port on the afternoon of 9 June, where the repair ship "Huaskaran" was waiting. The following day a reconnaissance plane from RAF Coastal Command spotted the ship, and a raid by twelve Hudson bombers took place on 11 June. The Hudsons dropped thirty-six armor-piercing bombs, which all missed. The Royal Navy joined in the attacks on the ship by sending the battleship "Rodney" and the aircraft carrier . On 13 June, "Ark Royal" launched fifteen Skua dive bombers; German fighters intercepted the attackers and shot eight of them down. The other seven made it past the air defenses and attacked "Scharnhorst", but only scored one hit, and the bomb failed to detonate. Preliminary repairs were completed by 20 June, which permitted the ship to return to Germany. While "Scharnhorst" was en route under heavy escort on 21 June, the British launched two air attacks, six Swordfish torpedo bombers in the first and nine Beaufort bombers in the second. Both were driven off by anti-aircraft fire and fighters. The Germans intercepted British radio traffic that indicated the Royal Navy was at sea, which prompted "Scharnhorst" to make for Stavanger. British warships were within of "Scharnhorst"s position when she turned to Stavanger. The next day, "Scharnhorst" left Stavanger for Kiel, where repairs were carried out, lasting some six months.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: Following the completion of repairs, "Scharnhorst" underwent trials in the Baltic before returning to Kiel in December 1940. There she joined "Gneisenau", in preparation for Operation Berlin, a planned raid into the Atlantic Ocean designed to wreak havoc on the Allied shipping lanes. Severe storms caused damage to "Gneisenau" but "Scharnhorst" was undamaged. The two ships were forced to put into port during the storm: "Scharnhorst" went to Gotenhafen while "Gneisenau" went to Kiel for repairs. Repairs were quickly completed, and on 22 January 1941, the two ships, under the command of Admiral Günther Lütjens, left port for the North Atlantic. They were detected in the Skagerrak and the heavy units of the British Home Fleet deployed to cover the passage between Iceland and the Faroes. The Germans' radar detected the British at long range, which allowed Lütjens to avoid the British patrols, with the aid of a squall. By 3 February, the two battleships had evaded the last British cruiser patrol, and had broken into the open Atlantic.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: On 6 February, the two ships refueled from the tanker "Schlettstadt" south of Cape Farewell. Shortly after 08:30 on 8 February, lookouts spotted convoy HX 106, escorted by the battleship . Lütjens' orders prohibited him from engaging Allied capital ships, and so the attack was called off. "Scharnhorst"s commander, "KzS" Hoffmann, however, closed to in an attempt to lure "Ramillies" away from the convoy so that "Gneisenau" could attack the convoy. Lütjens ordered Hoffmann to rejoin the flagship immediately. The two battleships steamed off to the northwest to search for more shipping. On 22 February, the pair spotted an empty convoy sailing west, which dispersed at the appearance of the battleships. "Scharnhorst" managed to sink only one ship during the encounter, the 6000 ton tanker "Lustrous".


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: Lütjens then decided to move to a new area, as the surviving members of the dispersed convoy had sent distress signals. He chose the Cape Town-Gibraltar convoy route, and positioned himself to the northwest of Cape Verde. The two ships encountered convoy SL 67, escorted by the battleship , on 8 March. Lütjens again forbade an attack, but he shadowed the convoy and directed U-boats to attack. A pair of U-boats sank a total of 28,488 tons of shipping on the night of 8–9 March. "Malaya" turned on the two battleships and closed to , well within the range of the Germans' guns, but Lütjens refused to be drawn into an engagement. He instead turned toward the mid-Atlantic, where "Scharnhorst" sank the Greek cargo ship "Marathon". The two ships then refueled from the tankers "Uckermark" and "Ermland" on 12 March.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: On 15 March, the two battleships, with the two tankers in company, encountered a dispersed convoy in the mid-Atlantic. "Scharnhorst" sank two ships. Several days later, the main body of the convoy was located, and "Scharnhorst" sank another seven ships totaling 27,277 tons. One of the surviving ships radioed the location of the German battleships, which summoned the powerful British battleships "Rodney" and . "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" used their high speed to escape in a squall, and the intervention by the British battleships convinced Lütjens that the chances of further success were small. He therefore decided to head for Brest in occupied France, which the ships reached on 22 March. Throughout the operation, "Scharnhorst" had difficulties with the superheater tubes in her boilers. Repair work lasted until July, which caused the ship to be unavailable during Operation Rheinübung, the sortie by the new battleship in May 1941.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: After repairs were completed in July, "Scharnhorst" went to La Pallice for trials on the 21st, where she easily steamed at . She did not return to Brest to avoid an undesirable concentration of heavy units in one port (the "Prinz Eugen" had arrived there on 21 July) but moored alongside at La Pallice on 23 July. The RAF had planned a large, complicated raid on the capital ships in Brest for the night of 24 July, but an aerial reconnaissance photograph of "Scharnhorst" in her berth at La Pallice caused a last minute alteration to the operation. The Halifax heavy bombers of No. 35 Squadron RAF and No. 76 Squadron RAF flew the extra to reach "Scharnhorst" and the rest of the raid on Brest went ahead as planned, with "Prinz Eugen" and "Gneisenau" as their principal targets. The 15 Halifaxes attacked "Scharnhorst" at her moorings. They scored five hits in an almost straight line on the starboard side, parallel to the centerline. Three of the bombs were armor-piercing bombs, and the other two were high-explosive bombs. One of the 227 kg bombs hit the deck just forward of the starboard 15 cm twin turret next to the conning tower. It passed through the upper and middle decks before exploding on the main armored deck, which contained the blast. The joints with the torpedo bulkhead were weakened enough to cause leaking. The second 227 kg bomb fell forward of the rear main battery turret and penetrated the first two decks. It also exploded on the armored deck and tore a small hole in it. The explosion caused splinter damage and disabled the ammunition hoists for the 37 mm anti-aircraft guns.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: Two of the 454 kg bombs hit amidships between the 15 cm and 10.5 cm gun turrets; both failed to explode and instead penetrated the ship completely. The first went through each deck and exited the ship through the double bottom, while the other was deflected by the torpedo bulkhead and penetrated the hull beneath the side belt armor. The third 454 kg bomb hit aft of the rear 28 cm turret, about from the side of the ship. It too failed to detonate, and passed through the side of the hull, which was not protected by the main armor belt. These three hits caused significant flooding and an 8 degree list to starboard. The forward and rear gun turrets were temporarily disabled, along with half of her anti-aircraft battery. Two men were killed and fifteen were injured in the attack. Damage-control teams managed to correct the list with counter-flooding, and although draft increased by , "Scharnhorst" was able to leave for Brest at 19:30. On the morning of 25 July, one of the escorting destroyers shot down a British patrol plane. The ship reached Brest later that day and went into dry dock for repairs, which took 4 months. While the damage was being repaired, a new radar system was installed aft, the power output for the forward radar was increased to 100 kW, and the 53.3 cm torpedo tubes were installed.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: The strategic position following the damage to "Scharnhorst" was serious. "Gneisenau" was still being repaired following torpedo damage on 6 April and bomb damage on 9–10 April. The "Prinz Eugen" had been seriously damaged by a bomb on 1 July. "Bismarck" had been sunk on 27 May. All German capital ships deployed to the Atlantic were therefore out of action. In addition, "Tirpitz" was still working up and not ready for service; "Lützow" had been seriously damaged by a torpedo on 13 June 1941; "Admiral Scheer" and "Admiral Hipper" were in dockyards for maintenance.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: On 12 January 1942, the German Naval Command, in a conference with Hitler, made the decision to return "Scharnhorst", "Gneisenau", and the heavy cruiser "Prinz Eugen" to Germany. The intention was to deploy the vessels to Norway to interdict Allied convoys to the Soviet Union. The so-called "Channel Dash", codenamed Operation Cerberus, would avoid the increasingly effective Allied radar and patrol aircraft in the Atlantic. Vice Admiral Otto Ciliax, "Scharnhorst"s first commander, was given command of the operation. In early February, minesweepers swept a route through the English Channel undetected by the British.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: At 23:00 on 11 February, "Scharnhorst", "Gneisenau", and "Prinz Eugen" left Brest. They entered the Channel an hour later; the three ships sped at , hugging the French coast along the voyage. The British failed to detect their departure, as the submarine that had been tasked with observing the port had withdrawn to recharge its batteries. By 06:30, they had passed Cherbourg, at which point they were joined by a flotilla of torpedo boats. The torpedo boats were led by "Kapitän" Erich Bey, aboard the destroyer . "General der Jagdflieger" (General of Fighter Force) Adolf Galland directed Luftwaffe fighter and bomber forces (Operation Donnerkeil) during "Cerberus". The fighters flew at masthead-height to avoid detection by the British radar network. Liaison officers were present on all three ships. German aircraft arrived later to jam British radar with chaff. By 13:00, the ships had cleared the Strait of Dover; half an hour later, a flight of six Swordfish torpedo bombers, with Spitfire escort, attacked the Germans. The British failed to penetrate the Luftwaffe fighter shield, and all six Swordfish were destroyed.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: "Scharnhorst" did not make the voyage unscathed, however; at 15:31 she struck an air-dropped magnetic mine in the mouth of the Scheldt, abreast of the forward superfiring turret. The blast damaged the ship's circuit breakers and knocked out her electrical system for 20 minutes. The explosive shock caused serious damage; turret Bruno was jammed, as were the twin and single 15 cm mounts on the port side. The blast also damaged the fuel oil pumps and the bearings in the turbo-generators, which brought the ship to a halt. The power outage disabled the emergency shut-off switches to the boilers and turbines, which could not be turned off until power was restored. The explosion tore a large gash in the side of the hull and allowed of water into the ship, flooding 30 watertight spaces within five main watertight compartments. "Scharnhorst" took on a list of one degree and was down by the bows by a meter.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: While the ship was immobilized, Admiral Ciliax transferred to "Z29". The engine room crews managed to restart the first turbine at 15:49, nearly twenty minutes after the mine explosion. The second and third turbines were restarted at 15:55 and 16:01, respectively, which permitted a speed of . At around the time the last turbine was restarted, a single bomber dropped several bombs approximately off "Scharnhorst"s port side, which caused no damage. Once the ship was back under way, twelve Beauforts launched a 10-minute attack that was beaten off by anti-aircraft fire and the escorting Luftwaffe fighters. The British carried out a series of attacks that were all unsuccessful; "Scharnhorst"s anti-aircraft guns were red-hot by the end of the action, and one 20 mm gun had burst from the strain.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: The ship struck another mine off Terschelling on the starboard side at 22:34. The mine briefly knocked out the power system and temporarily disabled the rudders. Two of the three turbines were jammed, and the third had to be turned off. Another tons of water flooded ten watertight spaces in four main compartments. Only the centerline shaft was operational, which permitted a speed of only . Partial power was eventually restored to the starboard turbine, which allowed speed to be increased to . The shock damaged the rotating parts of all of the ship's gun turrets, and three of the 15 cm turrets were seriously jammed. By 08:00, "Scharnhorst" had reached the Jade Bight but ice prevented the ship from entering Wilhelmshaven. While waiting outside the port, Admiral Ciliax returned to the ship. The ice had been cleared by noon, permitting "Scharnhorst"s entrance to Wilhelmshaven. Two days later, "Scharnhorst" went to Kiel for permanent repairs. Work was conducted in a floating dry dock and lasted until July 1942. Afterward, another round of trials were conducted in the Baltic, which revealed the necessity of replacing several of the boiler tubes.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: In early August 1942, "Scharnhorst" conducted exercises in cooperation with several U-boats. During the maneuvers, she collided with the , which caused damage that necessitated dry-docking for repairs. Work was completed by September, and the ship conducted further training in the Baltic. "Scharnhorst" steamed to Gotenhafen in late October for a new rudder, the design of which was based on the lessons learned from the torpedoing of "Prinz Eugen" and "Lützow" earlier in the year. Boiler and turbine troubles kept the ship in Germany for the remainder of 1942. By December, only two of the three shafts were operational and a complete overhaul of the propulsion system was required. In early January 1943, the ship was back in service, and after trials, left Germany on 7 January in company with "Prinz Eugen" and five destroyers. Reports of heavy activity in British airfields near the coast prompted the force to return to port, however. Another attempt to reach Norway was canceled under similar circumstances. On 8 March, however, poor weather grounded the British bombers, and so "Scharnhorst" and four destroyers were able to make the journey to Norway. A severe storm off Bergen forced the destroyers to seek shelter but "Scharnhorst" was able to continue on at the reduced speed of . At 16:00 on 14 March, "Scharnhorst" dropped anchor in Bogen Bay outside Narvik. There she met "Lützow" and the battleship .


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: On 22 March, "Scharnhorst", "Tirpitz", and "Lützow" steamed to Altafjord for repairs to damage incurred in heavy storms. In early April, "Scharnhorst", "Tirpitz", and nine destroyers conducted a training mission to Bear Island in the Arctic Ocean. On the 8th, a serious internal explosion occurred in the aft auxiliary machinery space above the armor deck. The explosion killed or injured 34 men and prompted the crew to flood the magazines for turret Caesar as a precaution against a magazine explosion. A repair ship completed work on the vessel in two weeks. Fuel shortages prevented major operations for the next six months, during which "Scharnhorst" was able to conduct only short training maneuvers.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: "Scharnhorst", "Tirpitz", and nine destroyers embarked from Altafjord on an offensive on 6 September known as Operation Zitronella; the ships were tasked with bombarding the island of Spitzbergen. During the operation, "Scharnhorst" destroyed a battery of two guns and shelled fuel tanks, coal mines, harbor facilities, and military installations. Of particular importance was the weather station that was transmitting weather information to the Allies, which was used to schedule convoys to the Soviet Union. The destroyers landed some 1,000 troops, which pushed the Norwegian garrison into the mountains, completing the mission without major loss. On 22 September, a pair of British X-craft mini-submarines attacked and seriously damaged "Tirpitz", which reduced the Arctic Task Force to "Scharnhorst" and her five escorting destroyers.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: On 25 November 1943 "Scharnhorst" carried out a two-hour full-power trial achieving and it was noted that her draught had increased by over from her 1940 trials where she had attained .


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: With the rapidly deteriorating military situation for the German Army on the Eastern Front, it became increasingly important to interrupt the flow of supplies from the Western Allies to the Soviet Union. By December 1943, the German Army was forced into continuous retreat. The Luftwaffe had been seriously weakened by four long years of war, and increasing Allied anti-submarine capabilities were steadily degrading the effectiveness of the U-boats. The only effective weapon at the disposal of the Germans in Norway was "Scharnhorst"—"Tirpitz" was badly damaged, and the four remaining heavy cruisers were committed to the Baltic. During a conference with Hitler on 19–20 December, "Großadmiral" Karl Dönitz decided to employ "Scharnhorst" against the next Allied convoy that presented itself. Erich Bey, by now promoted to "Konteradmiral", was given command of the task force.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: On 22 December Dönitz ordered Bey to be ready to go to sea on a three-hour notice. Later that day, reconnaissance aircraft located a convoy of some 20 transports escorted by cruisers and destroyers approximately west of Tromsø. The convoy was spotted again two days later, and it was determined that the course was definitively toward the Soviet Union. A U-boat reported the convoy's location at 09:00 on 25 December, and Dönitz ordered "Scharnhorst" into action. In his instructions to Bey, Dönitz advised him to break off the engagement if presented with superior forces, but to remain aggressive. Bey planned to attack the convoy at 10:00 on 26 December if the conditions were favorable for the attack. At this time of year, there was only 45 minutes of full daylight and six hours of twilight, which significantly limited Bey's operational freedom. The Germans were concerned with developments in Allied radar-directed fire control, which allowed British battleships to fire with great accuracy in the darkness; German radar capabilities lagged behind those of their opponents.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: "Scharnhorst" and her five destroyers left port at around 19:00 and were in the open sea four hours later. At 03:19, Bey received instructions from the Fleet Command that "Scharnhorst" was to conduct the attack alone if heavy seas interfered with the destroyers' ability to fight. Unbeknown to the Germans, the British were reading the radio transmissions between "Scharnhorst" and the Fleet Command; Admirals Robert Burnett and Bruce Fraser were aware of Bey's plan for the attack on the convoy and could position their forces accordingly. At 07:03, "Scharnhorst" was some southwest of Bear Island when she made a turn that would put her in position to attack the convoy at 10:00. Admiral Burnett, commanding the three cruisers , , and escorting Convoy JW 55B, placed his ships between the convoy and "Scharnhorst"s expected direction of attack. Fraser in the powerful battleship , along with the cruiser and four destroyers, moved to a position southwest of "Scharnhorst" to block a possible escape attempt.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: An hour after making the turn, Bey deployed his destroyers in a line screening "Scharnhorst", which remained behind. Half an hour later, "Scharnhorst"s loudspeakers called the crew to battle stations in preparation for the attack. At 08:40, "Belfast" picked up "Scharnhorst" on her radar. The Germans were unaware that they had been detected, and they had turned off their radar to prevent the British from picking up on the signals. At 09:21, "Belfast"s lookouts spotted "Scharnhorst" at a range of . The cruiser opened fire three minutes later, followed by "Norfolk" two minutes after. "Scharnhorst" fired a salvo from turret Caesar before turning and increasing speed to disengage from the cruisers. The battleship was hit twice by 20.3 cm (8 in) shells; the first failed to explode and caused negligible damage, but the second struck the forward rangefinders and destroyed the radar antenna. The aft radar, which possessed only a limited forward arc, was the ship's only remaining radar capability.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: "Scharnhorst" turned south and attempted to work around the cruisers, but the superior British radar prevented Bey from successfully carrying out the maneuver. By 12:00, "Scharnhorst" was to the northeast of the convoy, but "Belfast" had reestablished radar contact; it took the cruisers twenty minutes to close the range and begin firing. "Scharnhorst" detected the cruisers with her aft radar and opened fire with her main battery guns before turning away to disengage a second time. Shortly before 12:25, "Scharnhorst" hit "Norfolk" twice with 28 cm shells. The first shell hit the forward superstructure and disabled "Norfolk"s gunnery radar. The second 28 cm round struck the ship's "X" barbette and disabled the turret. "Scharnhorst" then turned again and increased speed, in the hopes of escaping the cruisers and finding the convoy. Burnett chose to keep his distance and shadow "Scharnhorst" with radar while Fraser made his way to the scene in "Duke of York". Meanwhile, the five German destroyers continued searching for the convoy without success. At 13:15, Bey decided to return to base, and at 13:43, he dismissed the destroyers and instructed them to return to port.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: At 16:17, "Duke of York" made radar contact with "Scharnhorst"; thirty minutes later, "Belfast" illuminated the German battleship with star shells. At 16:50, "Duke of York" opened fire at a range of ; "Scharnhorst" quickly returned the fire. Five minutes after opening fire, one of "Duke of York"s 14 in (35.6 cm) shells struck "Scharnhorst" abreast of her forward gun turret. The shell hit jammed the turret's training gears, putting it out of action. Shell splinters started a fire in the ammunition magazine, which forced the Germans to flood both forward magazines to prevent an explosion. The water was quickly drained from turret Bruno's magazine. The ship was now fighting with only two-thirds of her main battery. Shortly thereafter, another 14 in shell struck the ventilation trunk attached to Bruno, which caused the turret to be flooded with noxious propellant gases every time the breeches were opened. A third shell hit the deck next to turret Caesar and caused some flooding; shell splinters caused significant casualties. At 17:30, shells struck the forward 15 cm gun turrets and destroyed them both.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: At around 18:00, another 14 in shell struck the ship on the starboard side, passed through the thin upper belt armor, and exploded in the number 1 boiler room. It caused significant damage to the ship's propulsion system and slowed the ship to . Temporary repairs allowed "Scharnhorst" to return to . She managed to add to the distance between her and "Duke of York", while straddling the ship with several salvos. Shell splinters rained on "Duke of York" and disabled the fire-control radar.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: At 18:42, "Duke of York" ceased fire, having fired 52 salvos and having scored at least 13 hits, but "Scharnhorst" was pulling away. Many of these hits had badly damaged the ship's secondary armament, which left her open to destroyer attacks, which Fraser ordered. The destroyers and launched a total of eight torpedoes at 18:50, four of which hit. One torpedo exploded abreast of turret Bruno, which caused it to jam. The second torpedo hit the ship on the port side and caused some minor flooding, and the third struck toward the rear of the ship and damaged the port propeller shaft. The fourth hit the ship in the bow. The torpedoes slowed "Scharnhorst" to , which allowed "Duke of York" to close to . With only turret Caesar operational, all available men were sent to retrieve ammunition from the forward turrets to keep the last heavy guns supplied. Fraser then ordered "Jamaica" and "Belfast" to move into range and finish the crippled ship off with torpedoes. After several more torpedo hits, "Scharnhorst" settled further into the water and began to list to starboard. At 19:45, the ship went down by the bow, with her propellers still slowly turning. British ships began searching for survivors, but were soon ordered away after just a few were pulled out of the water even though voices could still be heard calling for help from the darkness. Of the crew of 1,968 officers and enlisted men, only 36 men survived.


title: German battleship Scharnhorst

text: In September 2000, a joint expedition to find the sunken battleship conducted by the BBC, NRK, and the Royal Norwegian Navy began. The underwater survey vessel "Sverdrup II", operated by the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, was used to scan the sea floor. After locating a large submerged object, the research team then used the Royal Norwegian Navy's underwater recovery vessel to examine the object visually. The wreck was positively identified by an ROV on 10 September, which located armament consistent with that of "Scharnhorst". The ship sank in approximately of water. The hull lies upside down on the seabed, with debris, including the main mast and rangefinders, scattered around the wreck. Extensive damage from shellfire and torpedoes is evident; the bow was blown off, presumably from a magazine explosion in the forward turrets, and lies in a tangled mass of steel some distance from the rest of the hull.


title: Siamese Dream

text: Siamese Dream is the second studio album by American alternative rock band the Smashing Pumpkins, released on July 27, 1993, on Virgin Records. Despite recording sessions fraught with difficulties and tensions, "Siamese Dream" debuted at number ten on the "Billboard" charts, and eventually was certified 4× Platinum, with the album selling over six million copies worldwide, cementing the Smashing Pumpkins as an important group in alternative music.


title: Siamese Dream

text: Four singles were released in support of "Siamese Dream": "Cherub Rock", "Today", "Disarm", and "Rocket". The album has received widespread acclaim from critics and audiences alike, with the album's musical influences and lyrical material standing out compared to other releases during the alternative rock and grunge movements of its time. The album has since been considered "one of the finest alternative rock albums", and is widely regarded as one of the greatest albums of the 1990s and of all time. "Rolling Stone" magazine has ranked it between numbers 341 - 362 on various versions of their 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list.


title: Siamese Dream

text: The band's debut album, "Gish", was released on Caroline Records in 1991 to unexpected success and acclaim. After the release of Nirvana's "Nevermind" later that year, the Smashing Pumpkins were hyped as "the next Nirvana". The band was signed to Caroline Records parent Virgin Records and began recording a follow-up album. Frontman Billy Corgan felt "this great pressure to make the next album to set the world on fire". The immense pressure to succeed intensified an already problematic situation: drummer Jimmy Chamberlin was addicted to heroin, guitarist James Iha and bassist D'arcy Wretzky had recently ended their romantic relationship, and Corgan, aside from battles with weight gain and suicidal depression, was struggling with writer's block.


title: Siamese Dream

text: "Siamese Dream" was recorded mainly between December 1992 and March 1993. The band relocated to Triclops Studios in Marietta, Georgia for the album sessions, so they could avoid local friends and distractions, and to cut Chamberlin off from his known drug connections. Butch Vig reprised his role as producer after working on their debut album "Gish". Butch Vig stated "Billy [Corgan] and I raised the bar really high. We wanted to make a very ambitious sounding record. It was all done on analogue tape so it was time consuming. We were working 12 hours a day, six times a week for about three months, and for the last two months we worked seven days a week, 14 or 15 hours a day because we were behind schedule."


title: Siamese Dream

text: After he suffered a nervous breakdown, Corgan began visiting a therapist. Consequently, his lyrics became more explicit about his troubled past and his insecurities. "Today" was one of the first songs written by Corgan for "Siamese Dream". He played the self-recorded demo to Vig, and received a positive reaction. Soon afterward, executives from Virgin Records came to observe the band after hearing about their problems, but were pleased with the demo and did not soon return to the studio. The reaction from the executives only served to put more stress on Corgan. Corgan worked overtime, practically living in the studio for the recording of "Siamese Dream"—he and Vig would sometimes work on a 45-second section of music for two days, working 16-hour days for weeks at a time to achieve the sound Corgan wanted.


title: Siamese Dream

text: Corgan's desire for musical perfection put further strain on the already-frayed relationships between the band members. Vig later recalled, "D'arcy would lock herself in the bathroom, James wouldn't say anything, or Billy would lock himself in the control room". Corgan often overdubbed Iha's and Wretzky's parts with his own playing. Wretzky stated that Corgan only performed most of the guitar and bass parts because he could lay them down more easily in recording and with far fewer takes. Stories of the album's recording had circulated in the music press. Corgan admitted there was some truth to accusations of tyrannical behavior, though he felt the press misunderstood the situation.


title: Siamese Dream

text: While Chamberlin performed all drum parts on the album, he would disappear for days on drug benders that caused everyone to fear for his life. After one incident where the drummer had disappeared for two or three days, Corgan "put the hammer down", according to Vig, and had Chamberlin perform the drum part for "Cherub Rock" until his hands bled. Due to Corgan's urging, Chamberlin checked into a rehab clinic. Corgan told "Spin" later that year, "You know, I gave them a year and a half to prepare for this record... I'm surrounded by these people who I care about very much, yet they continue to keep failing me." Corgan explained that he began to take the actions of others personally; he said, "If you really think about it, of course, someone doesn't do the job because they're lazy, or they don't think it's important. But I took it as, 'You're not worth going home and working on the song.'"


title: Siamese Dream

text: Meanwhile, Corgan was also going through his own problems. He would admit in 2011 that throughout the recording process he had been planning his own suicide. Stating that he had gotten rid of most of his things and was "fantasizing about my own death, I started thinking what my funeral would be like and what music would be played."


title: Siamese Dream

text: Virgin began to grow impatient with the album's recording as it went over budget and became behind schedule. The band, however, would not let the company cut corners if it meant compromising the sound. By the time recording was completed, Corgan and Vig felt too emotionally exhausted to mix the record. Corgan suggested that engineer Alan Moulder mix the album, due to his work on "Loveless" by My Bloody Valentine. Moulder booked two weeks in a studio to mix the album; the mix ended up taking 36 days to complete. Eventually, the album was finished after four months and $250,000 over budget.


title: Siamese Dream

text: The album boasts relatively high production values and ornate arrangements compared to other early-1990s alternative albums. Vig said, "Billy wanted to make a record that people would put on and say, 'What the fuck was that?' [...] We wanted to have things going on in the left ear and right ear all the time". One of Corgan's main goals was to create a sense of sonic depth, but, as Corgan said, "without necessarily using delays or reverbs—to use tonalities instead." For the album, the guitars were layered multiple times. Corgan has stated that "Soma" alone contains up to 40 overdubbed guitar parts. Vig stated that as many as 100 guitar parts were compressed into a single song.


title: Siamese Dream

text: The album, generally considered alternative rock, has many different musical influences, including shoegazing, dream pop, and heavy metal, with "Rolling Stone" noting that the album was "closer to progressive rock than to punk or grunge."


title: Siamese Dream

text: The subjects of Corgan's lyrics on "Siamese Dream" varied. Corgan noted that most of his lyrics for the album were about his girlfriend and future ex-wife Chris Fabian, with whom he had briefly broken up at the time he wrote the songs. Corgan occasionally wrote about other subjects. In "Cherub Rock", the album's opening track, Corgan attacked the American music industry, and "Today" is about a day that he was experiencing depression and suicidal thoughts. "Spaceboy" was written as a tribute to his autistic half-brother, Jesse.


title: Siamese Dream

text: The artwork for the album was initially going to be created by an outsider artist, but after a series of disagreements with the label, Corgan was forced to step in at the last minute. The album booklet, composed of old photographs of both strangers and Corgan's family members with lyrics handwritten on top, was assembled by Corgan and his wife the day after their wedding. Corgan was not satisfied with the results. The first pressing of the CD contained a 20-page booklet, with a separate page devoted to each song's lyrics and accompanying photograph; later pressings contained a four-panel fold-out liner with thumbnails of each picture. In 1999, Virgin Records reissued the album with the original 20-page booklet.


title: Siamese Dream

text: Shortly after the Pumpkins reformed in 2007, Corgan posted a message to the band's blog saying that they were "[l]ooking for girls from "Siamese Dream" album cover... As you all know, they were quite young when the photo was taken. They are not conjoined anymore, as far as we know." The band's intentions for the search were never made clear. In February 2011, Billy Corgan announced via Twitter that not only had one of the girls been found, she was the current bassist for the Pumpkins, Nicole Fiorentino. According to Corgan, "Just found out the weirdest news: our bass player Nicole just admitted she is one of the girls on the cover of "Siamese Dream"." However, according to the assistant photographer for "Siamese Dream", the cover photo was probably shot specifically for the album. Given Fiorentino's age at the time of the album, this would make her too old to be on the cover of the album. It was later confirmed that the information was false, and both girls were located in 2008, though Corgan has not commented on this. Pictures exist of Corgan standing with Ali Laenger, the girl on the right side of the photograph, but it is unknown if the girl on the left, identified as LySandra Roberts, met Corgan like Laenger did.


title: Siamese Dream

text: The album was also released as a shaped wooden box set (aka "Siamese Dream" Collectors Edition) with metal hinges, limited to only 1,000 copies and containing the UK HUT CD album housed in a recess with individually numbered silver metal embossed plate at the side and a 20-page booklet housed in a similar recess in the lid. Though the CD itself and the booklet are official and genuine, the wooden box is not an official Virgin (US) or HUT (UK) release.