title: Leo Strauss

text: Strauss has also been criticized by some conservatives. According to Claes G. Ryn, Strauss's anti-historicist thinking creates an artificial contrast between moral universality and "the conventional", "the ancestral", and "the historical". Strauss, Ryn argues, wrongly and reductively assumes that respect for tradition must undermine reason and universality. Contrary to Strauss's criticism of Edmund Burke, the historical sense may be indispensable to an adequate apprehension of universality. Strauss's abstract, ahistorical conception of natural right distorts genuine universality, Ryn contends. Strauss does not consider the possibility that real universality becomes known to human beings in a concretized, particular form. Strauss and the Straussians have paradoxically taught philosophically unsuspecting American conservatives, not least Roman Catholic intellectuals, to reject tradition in favor of ahistorical theorizing, a bias that flies in the face of the central Christian notion of the Incarnation, which represents a synthesis of the universal and the historical. According to Ryn, the propagation of a purely abstract idea of universality has contributed to the neoconservative advocacy of allegedly universal American principles, which neoconservatives see as justification for American intervention around the world—bringing the blessings of the "West" to the benighted "rest". Strauss's anti-historical thinking connects him and his followers with the French Jacobins, who also regarded tradition as incompatible with virtue and rationality. What Ryn calls the "new Jacobinism" of the "neoconservative" philosophy is, writes Paul Edward Gottfried, also the rhetoric of Saint-Just and Trotsky, which the philosophically impoverished American Right has taken over with mindless alacrity; Republican operators and think tanks apparently believe they can carry the electorate by appealing to yesterday's leftist clichés.


title: Leo Strauss

text: Journalists such as Seymour Hersh have opined that Strauss endorsed noble lies, "myths used by political leaders seeking to maintain a cohesive society". In "The City and Man", Strauss discusses the myths outlined in Plato's "Republic" that are required for all governments. These include a belief that the state's land belongs to it even though it may have been acquired illegitimately and that citizenship is rooted in something more than accidents of birth.


title: Leo Strauss

text: In his 2009 book, "Straussophobia", Peter Minowitz provides a detailed critique of Drury, Xenos, and other critics of Strauss whom he accuses of "bigotry and buffoonery". In his 2006 review of "Reading Leo Strauss" by Steven B. Smith, Robert Alter writes that Smith "persuasively sets the record straight on Strauss's political views and on what his writing is really about". Smith rejects the link between Strauss and neoconservative thought, arguing that Strauss was never personally active in politics, never endorsed imperialism, and questioned the utility of political philosophy for the practice of politics. In particular, Strauss argued that Plato's myth of the philosopher king should be read as a reductio ad absurdum, and that philosophers should understand politics not in order to influence policy but to ensure philosophy's autonomy from politics. Additionally, Mark Lilla has argued that the attribution to Strauss of neoconservative views contradicts a careful reading of Strauss' actual texts, in particular "On Tyranny". Lilla summarizes Strauss as follows:


title: Leo Strauss

text: Philosophy must always be aware of the dangers of tyranny, as a threat to both political decency and the philosophical life. It must understand enough about politics to defend its own autonomy, without falling into the error of thinking that philosophy can shape the political world according to its own lights.


title: Leo Strauss

text: Finally, responding to charges that Strauss's teachings fostered the neoconservative foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration, such as "unrealistic hopes for the spread of liberal democracy through military conquest", Nathan Tarcov, director of the Leo Strauss Center at the University of Chicago, asserts that Strauss as a political philosopher was essentially non-political. After an exegesis of the very limited practical political views to be gleaned from Strauss's writings, Tarcov concludes that "Strauss can remind us of the permanent problems, but we have only ourselves to blame for our faulty solutions to the problems of today." Likewise Strauss's daughter, Jenny Strauss Clay, defended Strauss against the charge that he was the "mastermind behind the neoconservative ideologues who control United States foreign policy." "He was a conservative", she says, "insofar as he did not think change is necessarily change for the better." Since contemporary academia "leaned to the left", with its "unquestioned faith in progress and science combined with a queasiness regarding any kind of moral judgment", Strauss stood outside of the academic consensus. Had academia leaned to the right, he would have questioned it, tooand on certain occasions "did" question the tenets of the right.


title: Leo Strauss

text: Straussianism is the name given "to denote the research methods, common concepts, theoretical presuppositions, central questions, and pedagogic style (teaching style) characteristic of the large number of conservatives who have been influenced by the thought and teaching of Leo Strauss". While it "is particularly influential among university professors of historical political theory ... it also sometimes serves as a common intellectual framework more generally among conservative activists, think tank professionals, and public intellectuals". Within the discipline of political theory, the method calls for its practitioners to use "a 'close reading' of the 'Great Books' of political thought; they strive to understand a thinker 'as he understood himself'; they are unconcerned with questions about the historical context of, or historical influences on, a given author" and strive to be open to the idea that they may find something timelessly true in a great book. The approach "resembles in important ways the old New Criticism in literary studies".


title: Leo Strauss

text: There is some controversy in the approach over what distinguishes a great book from lesser works. Great books are held to be written by authors/philosophers "of such sovereign critical self-knowledge and intellectual power that they can in no way be reduced to the general thought of their time and place", with other works "understood as epiphenomenal to the original insights of a thinker of the first rank". This approach is seen as a counter "to the historicist presuppositions of the mid-twentieth century, which read the history of political thought in a progressivist way, with past philosophies forever cut off from us in a superseded past". Straussianism puts forward the possibility that past thinkers may have "hold of "the truth"and that more recent thinkers are therefore wrong".


title: Leo Strauss

text: Harvey Mansfield has argued that there is no such thing as "Straussianism" yet there are Straussians and a school of Straussians. Mansfield describes the school as "open to the whole of philosophy" and without any definite doctrines that one has to believe in order to belong to it.


title: Leo Strauss

text: Almost the entirety of Strauss's writings has been translated into Chinese; and there even is a school of Straussians in China, the most prominent being Liu Xiaofeng (Renmin University) and Gan Yang. "Chinese Straussians" (who often are also fascinated by Carl Schmitt) represent a remarkable example of the hybridization of Western political theory in a non-Western context. As the editors of a recent volume write, "the reception of Schmitt and Strauss in the Chinese-speaking world (and especially in the People's Republic of China) not only says much about how Schmitt and Strauss can be read today, but also provides important clues about the deeper contradictions of Western modernity and the dilemmas of non-liberal societies in our increasingly contentious world".


title: Leo Strauss

text: Students who studied under Strauss, or attended his lecture courses at the University of Chicago, include George Anastaplo, Hadley Arkes, Seth Benardete, Laurence Berns, Allan Bloom, David Bolotin, Christopher Bruell, Charles Butterworth, Werner Dannhauser, Murray Dry, William Galston, Victor Gourevitch, Harry V. Jaffa, Roger Masters, Clifford Orwin, Thomas Pangle, Stanley Rosen, Abram Shulsky (Director of the Office of Special Plans), Susan Sontag, Warren Winiarski, and Paul Wolfowitz (who attended two lecture courses by Strauss on Plato and Montesquieu's "The Spirit of the Laws" at the University of Chicago). Harvey C. Mansfield, Steven B. Smith and Steven Berg, though never students of Strauss, are "Straussians" (as some followers of Strauss identify themselves). Richard Rorty described Strauss as a particular influence in his early studies at the University of Chicago, where Rorty studied a "classical curriculum" under Strauss.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: The Western Front was a military theatre of World War II encompassing Denmark, Norway, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Germany. World War II military engagements in Southern Europe and elsewhere are generally considered as separate theatres. The Western Front was marked by two phases of large-scale combat operations. The first phase saw the capitulation of Luxembourg, Netherlands, Belgium, and France during May and June 1940 after their defeat in the Low Countries and the northern half of France, and continued into an air war between Germany and Britain that climaxed with the Battle of Britain. The second phase consisted of large-scale ground combat (supported by a massive strategic air war considered to be an additional front), which began in June 1944 with the Allied landings in Normandy and continued until the defeat of Germany in May 1945.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: On 1 September 1939, World War II began with the German invasion of Poland. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September. The next few months in the war were marked by the Phoney War.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: The Phoney War was an early phase of World War II marked by a few military operations in Continental Europe in the months following the German invasion of Poland and preceding the Battle of France. Although the great powers of Europe had declared war on one another, neither side had yet committed to launching a significant attack, and there was relatively little fighting on the ground. This was also the period in which the United Kingdom and France did not supply significant aid to Poland, despite their pledged alliance.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: The French forces launched a small offensive, the Saar Offensive against Germany in the Saar region but halted their advance and returned. While most of the German Army was fighting against Poland, a much smaller German force manned the Siegfried Line, their fortified defensive line along the French border. At the Maginot Line on the other side of the border, French troops stood facing them, whilst the British Expeditionary Force and other elements of the French Army created a defensive line along the Belgian border. There were only some local, minor skirmishes. The British Royal Air Force dropped propaganda leaflets on Germany and the first Canadian troops stepped ashore in Britain, while Western Europe was in a strange calm for seven months.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: In their hurry to re-arm, Britain and France had both begun to buy large numbers of weapons from manufacturers in the United States at the outbreak of hostilities, supplementing their own production. The non-belligerent United States contributed to the Western Allies by discounted sales of military equipment and supplies. German efforts to interdict the Allies' trans-Atlantic trade at sea ignited the Battle of the Atlantic.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: While the Western Front remained quiet in April 1940, the fighting between the Allies and the Germans began in earnest with the Norwegian Campaign when the Germans launched Operation Weserübung, the German invasion of Denmark and Norway. In doing so, the Germans beat the Allies to the punch; the Allies had been planning an amphibious landing in which they could begin to surround Germany, cutting off her supply of raw materials from Sweden. However, when the Allies made a counter-landing in Norway following the German invasion, the Germans repulsed them and defeated the Norwegian armed forces, driving the latter into exile. The "Kriegsmarine", nonetheless, suffered very heavy losses during the two months of fighting required to seize all of mainland Norway.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: In May 1940, the Germans launched the Battle of France. The Western Allies (primarily the French, Belgian and British land forces) soon collapsed under the onslaught of the so-called ""blitzkrieg"" strategy. The majority of the British and elements of the French forces escaped at Dunkirk. With the fighting ended, the Germans began to consider ways of resolving the question of how to deal with Britain. If the British refused to agree to a peace treaty, one option was to invade. However, Nazi Germany's "Kriegsmarine", had suffered serious losses in Norway, and in order to even consider an amphibious landing, Germany's Air Force (the Luftwaffe) had to first gain air superiority or air supremacy.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: With the Luftwaffe unable to defeat the RAF in the Battle of Britain, the invasion of Great Britain could no longer be thought of as an option. While the majority of the German army was mustered for the invasion of the Soviet Union, construction began on the Atlantic Wall – a series of defensive fortifications along the French coast of the English Channel. These were built in anticipation of an Allied invasion of France.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: Because of the massive logistical obstacles a cross-channel invasion would face, the Allied high command decided to conduct a practice attack against the French coast. On 19 August 1942, the Allies began the Dieppe Raid, an attack on Dieppe, France. Most of the troops were Canadian, with some British contingents and a small American and Free French presence along with British and Polish naval support. The raid was a disaster, almost two-thirds of the attacking force became casualties. However, much was learned as a result of the operation – these lessons would be put to good use in the subsequent invasion.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: For almost two years, there was no land-fighting on the Western Front with the exception of commando raids and the guerrilla actions of the resistance aided by the Special Operations Executive (SOE) and Office of Strategic Services (OSS). However, in the meantime, the Allies took the war to Germany, with a strategic bombing campaign the US Eighth Air Force bombing Germany by day and RAF Bomber Command bombing by night. The bulk of the Allied armies were occupied in the Mediterranean, seeking to clear the sea lanes to the Indian Ocean and capture the Foggia Airfield Complex.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: Two early British raids for which battle honours were awarded were Operation Collar in Boulogne (24 June 1940) and Operation Ambassador in Guernsey (14–15 July 1940). The raids for which the British awarded the "North-West Europe Campaign of 1942" battle honour were: Operation Biting – Bruneval (27–28 February 1942), St Nazaire (27–28 March 1942), Operation Myrmidon – Bayonne (5 April 1942), Operation Abercrombie – Hardelot (21–22 April 1942), Dieppe (19 August 1942) and Operation Frankton – Gironde (7–12 December 1942).


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: A raid on Sark on the night of 3/4 October 1942 is notable because a few days after the incursion the Germans issued a propaganda communiqué implying at least one prisoner had escaped and two were shot while resisting having their hands tied. This instance of tying prisoner's hands contributed to Hitler's decision to issue his Commando Order instructing that all captured Commandos or Commando-type personnel were to be executed as a matter of procedure.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: By the summer of 1944, when an expectation of an Allied invasion was freely admitted by German commanders, the disposition of troops facing it came under the command of OB West (HQ in Paris). In turn, it commanded three groups: the Wehrmacht Netherlands Command ("Wehrmachtbefehlshaber Niederlande") or WBN, covering the Dutch and Belgian coasts and Army Group B, covering the coast of northern France with the German 15th Army (HQ in Tourcoing), in the area north of the Seine; the 7th Army, (HQ in Le Mans), between the Seine and the Loire defending the English Channel and the Atlantic coast, and Army Group G with responsibility for the Bay of Biscay coast and Vichy France, with its 1st Army, (HQ in Bordeaux), responsible for the Atlantic coast between the Loire and the Spanish border and the 19th Army, (HQ in Avignon), responsible for the Mediterranean coast.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: It was not possible to predict where the Allies might choose to launch their invasion. The chance of an amphibious landing necessitated the substantial dispersal of the German mobile reserves, which contained the majority of their panzer troops. Each army group was allocated its mobile reserves. Army Group B had the 2nd Panzer Division in northern France, 116th Panzer Division in the Paris area, and the 21st Panzer Division in Normandy. Army Group G, considering the possibility of an invasion on the Atlantic coast, had dispersed its mobile reserves, locating the 11th Panzer Division in Gironde, the 2nd SS Panzer Division "Das Reich" refitting around the southern French town of Montauban, and the 9th Panzer Division stationed in the Rhone delta area.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: The OKW retained a substantial reserve of such mobile divisions also, but these were dispersed over a large area: the 1st SS Panzer Division "Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler" was still Netherlands, the 12th SS Panzer Division "Hitlerjugend" and the "Panzer-Lehr" Division were located in the Paris–Orleans area, since the Normandy coastal defence sectors or ("Küstenverteitigungsabschnitte" – KVA) were considered the most likely areas for an invasion. The 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division "Götz von Berlichingen" was located just south of the Loire in the vicinity of Tours.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: On 6 June 1944, the Allies began Operation Overlord (also known as "D-Day") – the long-awaited liberation of France. The deception plans, Operation Fortitude and Operation Bodyguard, had the Germans convinced that the invasion would occur in the Pas-de-Calais, while the real target was Normandy. Following two months of slow fighting in hedgerow country, Operation Cobra allowed the Americans to break out at the western end of the lodgement. Soon after, the Allies were racing across France. They encircled around 200,000 Germans in the Falaise Pocket. As had so often happened on the Eastern Front Hitler refused to allow a strategic withdrawal until it was too late. Approximately 150,000 Germans were able to escape from the Falaise pocket, but they left behind most of their irreplaceable equipment and 50,000 Germans were killed or taken prisoner.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: The Allies had been arguing about whether to advance on a broad-front or a narrow-front from before D-Day. If the British had broken out of the Normandy bridgehead (or beachhead) around Caen when they launched Operation Goodwood and pushed along the coast, facts on the ground might have turned the argument in favour of a narrow front. However, as the breakout took place during Operation Cobra at the western end of the bridge-head, the 21st Army Group that included the British and Canadian forces swung east and headed for Belgium, the Netherlands and Northern Germany, while the U.S. Twelfth Army Group advanced to their south via eastern France, Luxembourg and the Ruhr Area, rapidly fanning out into a broad front. As this was the strategy favoured by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, and most of the American high command, it was soon adopted.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: On 15 August the Allies launched Operation Dragoon – the invasion of Southern France between Toulon and Cannes. The US Seventh Army and the French First Army, making up the US 6th Army Group, rapidly consolidated this beachhead and liberated Southern France in two weeks; they then moved north up the Rhone valley. Their advance only slowed down as they encountered regrouped and entrenched German troops in the Vosges Mountains.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: The Germans in France were now faced by three powerful Allied army groups: in the north the British 21st Army Group commanded by Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery, in the center the American 12th Army Group, commanded by General Omar Bradley and to the south the US 6th Army Group commanded by Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers. By mid-September, the 6th Army Group, advancing from the south, came into contact with Bradley's formations advancing from the west and overall control of Devers' force passed from AFHQ in the Mediterranean so that all three army groups came under Eisenhower's central command at SHAEF (Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Forces).


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: Under the onslaught in both the north and south of France, the German Army fell back. On 19 August, the French Resistance (FFI) organised a general uprising and the liberation of Paris took place on 25 August when general Dietrich von Choltitz accepted the French ultimatum and surrendered to general Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, commander of the Free French 2nd Armored Division, ignoring orders from Hitler that Paris should be held to the last and destroyed.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: The liberation of Northern France and the Benelux countries was of special significance for the inhabitants of London and the southeast of England because it denied the Germans launch sites for their mobile V-1 and V-2 "Vergeltungswaffen" (reprisal weapons).


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: As the Allies advanced across France, their supply lines stretched to breaking point. The Red Ball Express, the Allied trucking effort, was simply unable to transport enough supplies from the port facilities in Normandy all the way to the front line, which by September, was close to the German border.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: Major German units in the French southwest that had not been committed in Normandy withdrew, either eastwards towards Alsace (sometimes directly across the US 6th Army Group's advance) or into the ports with the intention of denying them to the Allies. These latter groups were not thought worth much effort and were left "to rot", with the exception of Bordeaux, which was liberated in May 1945 by French forces under General Edgard de Larminat (Operation Venerable).


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: Fighting on the Western front seemed to stabilize, and the Allied advance stalled in front of the Siegfried Line ("Westwall") and the southern reaches of the Rhine. Starting in early September, the Americans began slow and bloody fighting through the Hurtgen Forest (""Passchendaele with tree bursts""—Hemingway) to breach the Line.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: However, it lay at the end of the long Scheldt Estuary, and so it could not be used until its approaches were clear of heavily fortified German positions. The Breskens pocket on the southern bank of the Scheldt was cleared with heavy casualties by allied forces in Operation Switchback, during the Battle of the Scheldt. This was followed by a tedious campaign to clear a peninsula dominating the estuary, and finally, the amphibious assault on Walcheren Island in November. The campaign to clear the Scheldt Estuary along with Operation Pheasant was a decisive victory for the Allies, as it allowed a greatly improved delivery of supplies directly from Antwerp, which was far closer to the front than the Normandy beaches.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: In October the Americans decided that they could not just invest Aachen and let it fall in a slow siege, because it threatened the flanks of the U.S. Ninth Army. As it was the first major German city to face capture, Hitler ordered that the city be held at all costs. In the resulting battle, the city was taken, at a cost of 5,000 casualties on both sides, with an additional 5,600 German prisoners.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: South of the Ardennes, American forces fought from September until mid-December to push the Germans out of Lorraine and from behind the Siegfried Line. The crossing of the Moselle River and the capture of the fortress of Metz proved difficult for the American troops in the face of German reinforcements, supply shortages, and unfavorable weather. During September and October, the Allied 6th Army Group (U.S. Seventh Army and French First Army) fought a difficult campaign through the Vosges Mountains that was marked by dogged German resistance and slow advances. In November, however, the German front snapped under the pressure, resulting in sudden Allied advances that liberated Belfort, Mulhouse, and Strasbourg, and placed Allied forces along the Rhine River. The Germans managed to hold a large bridgehead (the Colmar Pocket), on the western bank of the Rhine and centered around the city of Colmar. On 16 November the Allies started a large scale autumn offensive called Operation Queen. With its main thrust again through the Hürtgen Forest, the offensive drove the Allies to the Rur River, but failed in its core objectives to capture the Rur dams and pave the way towards the Rhine. The Allied operations were then succeeded by the German Ardennes offensive.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: The port of Antwerp was liberated on 4 September by the British 11th Armoured Division. Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery, commanding the Anglo-Canadian 21st Army Group, persuaded the Allied High Command to launch a bold attack, Operation Market Garden, which he hoped would get the Allies across the Rhine and create the narrow-front he favoured. Airborne troops would fly in from the United Kingdom and take bridges over the main rivers of the German-occupied Netherlands in three main cities; Eindhoven, Nijmegen, and Arnhem. The British XXX Corps would punch through the German lines along the Maas–Schelde canal and link up with the airborne troops of the U.S. 101st Airborne Division in Eindhoven, the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division at Nijmegen and the British 1st Airborne Division at Arnhem. If all went well XXX Corps would advance into Germany without any remaining major obstacles. XXX Corps was able to advance beyond six of the seven airborne-held bridges but was unable to link up with the troops near the bridge over the Rhine at Arnhem. The result was the near-destruction of the British 1st Airborne Division during the Battle of Arnhem, which sustained almost 8,000 casualties. The offensive ended with Arnhem remaining in German hands and the Allies holding an extended salient from the Belgian border to the area between Nijmegen and Arnhem. A German attempt to recapture the salient ended in failure in early October.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: The Germans had been preparing a massive counter-attack in the West since the Allied breakout from Normandy. The plan called "Wacht am Rhein ("Watch on the Rhine")" was to attack through the Ardennes and swing north to Antwerp, splitting the American and British armies. The attack started on 16 December in what became known as the Battle of the Bulge. Defending the Ardennes were troops of the US First Army. Initial successes in bad weather, which gave them cover from the Allied air forces, resulted in a German penetration of over to within less than of the Meuse. Having been taken by surprise, the Allies regrouped and the Germans were stopped by a combined air and land counter-attack which eventually pushed them back to their starting points by 25 January 1945.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: The Germans launched a second, smaller offensive ("Nordwind") into Alsace on 1 January 1945. Aiming to recapture Strasbourg, the Germans attacked the 6th Army Group at multiple points. Because the Allied lines had become severely stretched in response to the crisis in the Ardennes, holding and throwing back the "Nordwind" offensive was a costly affair that lasted almost four weeks. The culmination of Allied counter-attacks restored the front line to the area of the German border and collapsed the Colmar Pocket.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: In January 1945 the German bridgehead over the river Roer between Heinsberg and Roermond was cleared during Operation Blackcock. This was followed by a pincer movement of the First Canadian Army in Operation Veritable advancing from the Nijmegen area of the Netherlands, and the US Ninth Army crossing the Roer in Operation Grenade. Veritable and Grenade were planned to start on 8 February 1945, but Grenade was delayed by two weeks when the Germans flooded the Roer valley by destroying the gates of the Rur Dam upstream. Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt requested permission to withdraw east behind the Rhine, arguing that further resistance would only delay the inevitable, but was ordered by Hitler to fight where his forces stood.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: By the time the water had subsided and the US Ninth Army was able to cross the Roer on 23 February, other Allied forces were also close to the Rhine's west bank. Von Rundstedt's divisions, which had remained on the west bank, were cut to pieces in the ''battle of the Rhineland' – 280,000 men were taken prisoner. With a large number of men captured, the stubborn German resistance during the Allied campaign to reach the Rhine in February and March 1945 had been costly. Total losses reached an estimated 400,000 men. By the time they prepared to cross the Rhine in late March, the Western Allies had taken 1,300,000 German soldiers prisoner in western Europe.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: Once the Allies had crossed the Rhine, the British fanned out northeast towards Hamburg crossing the river Elbe and on towards Denmark and the Baltic. British forces captured Bremen on 26 April after a week of combat. British and Canadian paratroopers reached the Baltic city of Wismar just ahead of Soviet forces on 2 May. The US Ninth Army, which had remained under British command since the battle of the Bulge, went south as the northern pincer of the Ruhr encirclement as well as pushing elements east. XIX Corps of the Ninth Army captured Magdeburg on 18 April and the US XIII Corps to the north occupied Stendal.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: The US 12th Army Group fanned out, and the First Army went north as the southern pincer of the Ruhr encirclement. On 4 April the encirclement was completed and the Ninth Army reverted to the command of Bradley's 12th Army Group. The German Army Group B commanded by Field Marshal Walther Model was trapped in the Ruhr Pocket and 300,000 soldiers became POWs. The Ninth and First American armies then turned east and pushed to the Elbe river by mid-April. During the push east, the cities of Frankfurt am Main, Kassel, Magdeburg, Halle and Leipzig were strongly defended by ad hoc German garrisons made up of regular troops, Flak units, Volkssturm and armed Nazi Party auxiliaries. Generals Eisenhower and Bradley concluded that pushing beyond the Elbe made no sense since eastern Germany was destined in any case to be occupied by the Red Army. The First and Ninth Armies stopped along the Elbe and Mulde rivers, making contact with Soviet forces near the Elbe in late April. The US Third Army had fanned out to the east into western Czechoslovakia and southeast into eastern Bavaria and northern Austria. By V-E Day, the US 12th Army Group was a force of four armies (First, Third, Ninth and Fifteenth) that numbered over 1.3 million men.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: General Eisenhower's Armies were facing resistance that varied from almost non-existent to fanatical as they advanced toward Berlin, which was located from their positions in early April 1945. Britain's Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, urged Eisenhower to continue the advance toward Berlin by the 21st Army Group, under the command of Montgomery with the intention of capturing the city. Even Patton agreed with Churchill that he should order the attack on the city since Montgomery's troops could reach Berlin within three days. The British and Americans contemplated an airborne operation before the attack. In Operation Eclipse, the 17th Airborne Division, 82d Airborne Division, 101st Airborne Division, and a British brigade were to seize the Tempelhof, Rangsdorf, Gatow, Staaken, and Oranienburg airfields. In Berlin, the Reichsbanner resistance organization identified possible drop zones for Allied paratroopers and planned to guide them past German defenses into the city.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: After General Omar Bradley warned, however, that capturing a city located in a region that the Soviets had already received at the Yalta Conference might cost 100,000 casualties, by 15 April Eisenhower ordered all armies to halt when they reached the Elbe and Mulde Rivers, thus immobilizing these spearheads while the war continued for three more weeks. 21st Army Group was then instead ordered to move northeast toward Bremen and Hamburg. While the U.S. Ninth and First Armies held their ground from Magdeburg through Leipzig to western Czechoslovakia, Eisenhower ordered three Allied field armies (1st French, and the U.S. Seventh and Third Armies) into southeastern Germany and Austria. Advancing from northern Italy, the British Eighth Army pushed to the borders of Yugoslavia to defeat the remaining "Wehrmacht" elements there. This later caused some friction with the Yugoslav forces, notably around Trieste.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: The US 6th Army Group fanned out to the southwest, passing to the east of Switzerland through Bavaria and into Austria and northern Italy. The Black Forest and Baden were overrun by the French First Army. Determined stands were made in April by German forces at Heilbronn, Nuremberg, and Munich but were overcome after several days. Elements of the US 3rd Infantry Division were the first Allied troops to arrive at Berchtesgaden, which they secured, while the French 2nd Armoured Division seized the Berghof (Hitler's Alpine residence) on 4 May 1945. German Army Group G surrendered to US forces at Haar, in Bavaria, on 5 May. Field Marshal Montgomery took the German military surrender of all German forces in The Netherlands, northwest Germany and Denmark on Lüneburg Heath, an area between the cities of Hamburg, Hanover and Bremen, on 4 May 1945. As the operational commander of some of these forces was Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, the new Reichspräsident (head of state) of the Third Reich this signaled that the European war was over.


title: Western Front (World War II)

text: On 7 May at his headquarters in Rheims, Eisenhower took the unconditional surrender of all German forces to the western Allies and the Soviet Union, from the German Chief-of-Staff, General Alfred Jodl, who signed the first general instrument of surrender at 0241 hours. General Franz Böhme announced the unconditional surrender of German troops in Norway. Operations ceased at 2301 hours Central European time (CET) on 8 May. On that same day Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, as head of OKW and Jodl's superior, was brought to Marshal Georgy Zhukov in Karlshorst and signed another instrument of surrender that was essentially identical to that signed in Rheims with two minor additions requested by the Soviets.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: Zahia Dehar (born 25 February 1992) is a French-Algerian fashion and lingerie designer, model and actress who became known due to a sex scandal involving footballers and her as the victim of sex trafficking as an underage prostitute.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: Zahia Dehar was born in Ghriss, Algeria, on 25 February 1992. She moved to Champigny-sur-Marne, France with her mother and younger brother at the age of 10. She entered into prostitution at the age of sixteen, and was successful in high-end prostitution, earning up to €20,000 per month at the rate of €1,000 or €2,000 a time.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: Her father, Hacène Dehar, still lives in Algeria. He has refused any form of contact with his daughter since the prostitution allegations appeared.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: In 2009, Dehar, who was then under 18 years old, was allegedly paid for sex by Franck Ribéry and Karim Benzema, who were players on the France national football team. The age of consent in France is 15, but prostitution was legal at the time only if the worker was over the age of 18.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: The case started to come to light during an investigation by the Brigade de répression du proxénétisme into the activities of "Abousofiane Moustaid", also known as "Abou Sofiane", a former contestant on Nouvelle Star who became the host of a celebrity show on the TNT channel. The authorities were particularly interested in the "Zaman Café", a Parisian bar, part of whose turnover came from prostitution. After the administrative closure of the establishment, the police officers questioned the prostitutes who worked there. They discovered that one of them, Zahia Dehar, started to work there while she was still a minor, and had also served several footballers. The young woman claimed to have met Karim Benzema in May 2008 on the sidelines of the Trophées UNFP du football ceremony, and to have met Franck Ribéry on 7 April 2009, in a hotel in Munich where she and another escort had been sent to join the footballer, as a "birthday present" for the latter. Zahia Dehar was interviewed three times in April 2010.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: The investigation became public in 2010, just before the French team participated in the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The then-current French national team manager Raymond Domenech cited Benzema's struggle for form with his new club Real Madrid rather than his alleged involvement in the sex scandal as his reason for excluding the striker from the squad.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: In July 2010, Ribéry and Benzema were indicted for "solicitation of minor prostitute", an offence punishable in France by up to three years in prison and a €45,000 fine. Another member of the team, Sidney Govou, was also interviewed; however, he avoided prosecution as the investigation revealed that his meeting with Zahia took place after she had reached the age of majority.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: The mediatization of Dehar started from this case. Very quickly, her face was revealed by the media, and many photos of her circulated on the web, making the young woman a real "Internet phenomenon". "Le Monde" initially revealed her name, simply calling her "Zahia D." In May 2010, she gave an interview to "Paris Match", which revealed her full name. She gave her version of the case and declared, among other things, "I consider myself an escort, but not a prostitute" (providing support services without having sex with the client), and denied having a pimp or belonging to a network.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: The case continued until the mid 2010s. In late 2011, the Paris prosecutor asked for a dismissal for Ribéry and Benzema; but in August 2012, nine people were sent back by the investigating judge to the criminal court, including Benzema and Ribéry for "solicitation of minor prostitute".


title: Zahia Dehar

text: On 31 January 2014, Benzema and Ribéry were acquitted by the criminal court of Paris, the court saying they were unaware that Zahia was under age. Five other suspects, including Abu Sufyan, who acted as a "matchmaker" between the young woman and footballers, were convicted for procuring. Abu Sofiane appealed and published a book in which he claimed his innocence and accused Dehar of having taken advantage of his address book. In June 2015, the Court of Appeal confirmed his conviction and he received a heavier sentence.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: Dehar's involvement in the scandal and other acts, such as posting indiscreet photos on Twitter, have earned her the nickname "la scandaleuse" ("the scandalous one") in the French press.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: Dehar achieved celebrity status as a result of the scandal. She capitalized on her fame by modelling for various artists such as Pierre et Gilles and Karl Lagerfeld, and became a fashion and lingerie designer.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: In February 2011, the American and Spanish editions of V Magazine published a twelve-page tribute to Brigitte Bardot, It included several photos of Dehar shot in New York, marking her return in the media. To publicise her modelling a website was officially launched on 1 March 2011.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: In late May 2011, photographer and director Greg Williams featured Dehar in a futuristic short film entitled "Bionic". The following month, Pierre et Gilles created a painting representing her as Eve. "An artistic and friendly thunderbolt was born our new Eve. Dehar: magical beautiful, innocent and luminous, she is the dream model" declared the two artists about this piece. In August 2011, Alix Malka photographed Dehar for the Italian edition of the American fashion magazine Vanity Fair, which also contained an interview with Dehar.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: In the last quarter of 2011, her appearances in the media were less common, although she was photographed with Christian Louboutin and Farida Khelfa, at a shoe exhibition at the Galerie du Passage in November 2011. A few months later, Pierre Passebon produced a lingerie exhibition "Zahia de 5 à 7", which had the effect of re-kindling interest in her by the press.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: After a brief eclipse, Dehar experienced a resurgence of media exposure at the beginning of 2012: a new series of photographs, shot by Karl Lagerfeld in January 2012, was published just after her first lingerie show. She was photographed by Ali Mahdavi, artistic director of the Crazy Horse, in February for an article that Françoise-Marie Santucci wrote about Dehar in Libération "Next". Then the same month, Isabelle Adjani announced her intention to produce a documentary about Dehar, in collaboration with Farida Khelfa.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: Another series of photos was shot by photographer Ellen von Unwerth after Dehar's second lingerie show in July 2012.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: In December 2013, Dehar returned to the lens of Alix Malka for the Magazine 7 Holywood, published on the 15th of the month.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: From 8 April to 27 September 2014, Pierre et Gilles exhibition, at the Galerie des Gobelins (Paris), an exhibit of an envelope richly adorned with a portrait of Dehar, was specially made for the occasion.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: A resolute vegetarian, she became one of PETA's European "muses" in June 2015, posing for musician and photographer Bryan Adams in a campaign entitled "Have a heart, become a vegetarian".


title: Zahia Dehar

text: In November 2015, a few hours before the attacks in Paris, the artists Pierre et Gilles published on their Facebook account a photo taken a few months ago, Dehar posing as Marianne. This photograph was used on social networks as a response to the terrorist acts that occurred on that evening.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: In 2010, several brands were registered with the European Union Intellectual Property Office (OHIM), including: "Zahia", "Zahia Dehar", "Pretty Zahia", "Zahiadora", "Zahiadise" and "A dream by Zahia". The name Zahia and several derived words are thus claimed as private property, for several sectors of activity such as massage oils, cosmetics, travel bags, jewellery, condoms, and the production of films and broadcasts. (Most of these brand names, according to the official website of the OHIM, are not in use.)


title: Zahia Dehar

text: The first presentation of her lingerie collection, "ligne de tenues d'intérieur légères, raffinées", which was mostly trendy pink, was on 25 January 2012 at the Palais de Chaillot during the French fashion week, in the presence of many professionals of fashion. Dehar herself closed the half-naked parade in the traditional tulle wedding dress decorated with cherry blossom petals, and embroidered with Swarovski rhinestones. A second collection was presented a few months after.


title: Zahia Dehar

text: The launch of the two lingerie collections was funded by First Mark Investments, an investment fund based in Hong Kong that supports young designers.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: A mouth ulcer (aphtha) is an ulcer that occurs on the mucous membrane of the oral cavity. Mouth ulcers are very common, occurring in association with many diseases and by many different mechanisms, but usually there is no serious underlying cause. Rarely, a mouth ulcer that does not heal may be a sign of oral cancer. These ulcers may form individually or multiple ulcers may appear at once (i.e., a "crop" of ulcers). Once formed, an ulcer may be maintained by inflammation and/or secondary infection.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: The two most common causes of oral ulceration are local trauma (e.g. rubbing from a sharp edge on a broken filling or braces, biting one's lip, etc.) and aphthous stomatitis ("canker sores"), a condition characterized by recurrent formation of oral ulcers for largely unknown reasons. Mouth ulcers often cause pain and discomfort and may alter the person's choice of food while healing occurs (e.g. avoiding acidic, sugary, salty or spicy foods and beverages).


title: Mouth ulcer

text: An ulcer (; from Latin "ulcus", "ulcer, sore") is a break in the skin or mucous membrane with loss of surface tissue and the disintegration and necrosis of epithelial tissue. A "mucosal ulcer" is an ulcer which specifically occurs on a mucous membrane.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: An ulcer is a tissue defect which has penetrated the epithelial-connective tissue border, with its base at a deep level in the submucosa, or even within muscle or periosteum. An ulcer is a deeper breach of epithelium compared to an erosion or excoriation, and involves damage to both epithelium and lamina propria.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: An "erosion" is a superficial breach of the epithelium, with little damage to the underlying lamina propria. A "mucosal erosion" is an erosion which specifically occurs on a mucous membrane. Only the superficial epithelial cells of the epidermis or of the mucosa are lost, and the lesion can reach the depth of the basement membrane. Erosions heal without scar formation.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: "Excoriation" is a term sometimes used to describe a breach of the epithelium which is deeper than an erosion but shallower than an ulcer. This type of lesion is tangential to the rete pegs and shows punctiform (small pinhead spots) bleeding, caused by exposed capillary loops.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Simple mechanisms which predispose the mouth to trauma and ulceration are xerostomia (dry mouth – as saliva usually lubricates the mucous membrane and controls bacterial levels) and epithelial atrophy (thinning, e.g., after radiotherapy), making the lining more fragile and easily breached. Stomatitis is a general term meaning inflammation within the mouth, and often may be associated with ulceration.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Pathologically, the mouth represents a transition between the gastrointestinal tract and the skin, meaning that many gastrointestinal and cutaneous conditions can involve the mouth. Some conditions usually associated with the whole gastrointestinal tract may present only in the mouth, e.g., orofacial granulomatosis/oral Crohn's disease.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Similarly, cutaneous (skin) conditions can also involve the mouth and sometimes only the mouth, sparing the skin. The different environmental conditions (saliva, thinner mucosa, trauma from teeth and food), mean that some cutaneous disorders which produce characteristic lesions on the skin produce only non specific lesions in the mouth. The vesicles and bullae of blistering mucocutaneous disorders progress quickly to ulceration in the mouth, because of moisture and trauma from food and teeth. The high bacterial load in the mouth means that ulcers may become secondarily infected. Cytotoxic drugs administered during chemotherapy target cells with fast turnovers such as malignant cells. However, the epithelia of the mouth also has a high turnover rate and makes oral ulceration (mucositis) a common side effect of chemotherapy.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Erosions, which involve the epithelial layer, are red in appearance since the underlying lamina propria shows through. When the full thickness of the epithelium is penetrated (ulceration), the lesion becomes covered with a fibrinous exudate and takes on a yellow-grey color. Because an ulcer is a breach of the normal lining, when seen in cross section, the lesion is a crater. A "halo" may be present, which is a reddening of the surrounding mucosa and is caused by inflammation. There may also be edema (swelling) around the ulcer. Chronic trauma may produce an ulcer with a keratotic (white, thickened mucosa) margin. Malignant lesions may ulcerate either because the tumor infiltrates the mucosa from adjacent tissues, or because the lesion originates within the mucosa itself, and the disorganized growth leads to a break in the normal architecture of the lining tissues. Repeat episodes of mouth ulcers can be indicative of an immunodeficiency, signaling low levels of immunoglobulin in the oral mucous membranes. Chemotherapy, HIV, and mononucleosis are all causes of immunodeficiency/immunosuppression with which oral ulcers may become a common manifestation. Autoimmunity is also a cause of oral ulceration. Mucous membrane pemphigoid, an autoimmune reaction to the epithelial basement membrane, causes desquamation/ulceration of the oral mucosa.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Numerous aphthous ulcers could be indicative of an inflammatory autoimmune disease called Behçet's disease. This can later involve skin lesions and uveitis in the eyes. Vitamin C deficiency may lead to scurvy which impairs wound healing, which can contribute to ulcer formation. For a detailed discussion of the pathophysiology of aphthous stomatitis, see Aphthous stomatitis#Causes.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Diagnosis of mouth ulcers usually consists of a medical history followed by an oral examination as well as examination of any other involved area. The following details may be pertinent: The duration that the lesion has been present, the location, the number of ulcers, the size, the color and whether it is hard to touch, bleeds or has a rolled edge. As a general rule, a mouth ulcer that does not heal within 2 or 3 weeks should be examined by a health care professional who is able to rule out oral cancer (e.g. a dentist, oral physician, oral surgeon, or maxillofacial surgeon). If there have been previous ulcers that have healed, then this again makes cancer unlikely.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: An ulcer that keeps forming on the same site and then healing may be caused by a nearby sharp surface, and ulcers that heal and then recur at different sites are likely to be RAS. Malignant ulcers are likely to be single in number, and conversely, multiple ulcers are very unlikely to be oral cancer. The size of the ulcers may be helpful in distinguishing the types of RAS, as can the location (minor RAS mainly occurs on non-keratinizing mucosa, major RAS occurs anywhere in the mouth or oropharynx). Induration, contact bleeding and rolled margins are features of a malignant ulcer. There may be nearby causative factor, e.g. a broken tooth with a sharp edge that is traumatizing the tissues. Otherwise, the person may be asked about problems elsewhere, e.g. ulceration of the genital mucous membranes, eye lesions or digestive problems, swollen glands in neck (lymphadenopathy) or a general unwell feeling.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: The diagnosis comes mostly from the history and examination, but the following special investigations may be involved: blood tests (vitamin deficiency, anemia, leukemia, Epstein-Barr virus, HIV infection, diabetes) microbiological swabs (infection), or urinalysis (diabetes). A biopsy (minor procedure to cut out a small sample of the ulcer to look at under a microscope) with or without immunofluorescence may be required, to rule out cancer, but also if a systemic disease is suspected. Ulcers caused by local trauma are painful to touch and sore. They usually have an irregular border with erythematous margins and the base is yellow. As healing progresses, a keratotic (thickened, white mucosa) halo may occur.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Due to various factors (saliva, relative thinness of oromucosa, trauma from teeth, chewing, etc.), vesicles and bullae which form on the mucous membranes of the oral cavity tend to be fragile and quickly break down to leave ulcers.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Aphthous stomatitis and local trauma are very common causes of oral ulceration; the many other possible causes are all rare in comparison.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Most mouth ulcers that are not associated with recurrent aphthous stomatitis are caused by local trauma. The mucous membrane lining of the mouth is thinner than the skin, and easily damaged by mechanical, thermal (heat/cold), chemical, or electrical means, or by irradiation.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Common causes of oral ulceration include rubbing on sharp edges of teeth, fillings, crowns, false teeth (dentures), or braces (orthodontic appliances), or accidental biting caused by a lack of awareness of painful stimuli in the mouth (e.g., following local anesthetic used during dental treatment, which the person becomes aware of as the anesthetic wears off).


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Eating hard foods (e.g., potato chips) can damage the lining of the mouth. Some people cause damage inside their mouths themselves, either through an absentminded habit or as a type of deliberate self-harm (factitious ulceration). Examples include biting the cheek, tongue, or lips, or rubbing a fingernail, pen, or toothpick inside the mouth. Tearing (and subsequent ulceration) of the upper labial frenum may be a sign of child abuse (non-accidental injury).


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Iatrogenic ulceration can also occur during dental treatment, where incidental abrasions to the soft tissues of the mouth are common. Some dentists apply a protective layer of petroleum jelly to the lips before carrying out dental work to minimize this.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: The lingual frenum is also vulnerable to ulceration by repeated friction during oral sexual activity ("cunnilingus tongue"). Rarely, infants can ulcerate the tongue or lower lip with the teeth, termed Riga-Fede disease.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Thermal burns usually result from placing hot food or beverages in the mouth. This may occur in those who eat or drink before a local anesthetic has worn off. The normal painful sensation is absent and a burn may occur. Microwave ovens sometimes produce food that is cold externally and very hot internally, and this has led to a rise in the frequency of intra-oral thermal burns. Thermal food burns are usually on the palate or posterior buccal mucosa, and appear as zones of erythema and ulceration with necrotic epithelium peripherally. Electrical burns more commonly affect the oral commissure (corner of the mouth). The lesions are usually initially painless, charred and yellow with little bleeding. Swelling then develops and by the fourth day following the burn the area becomes necrotic and the epithelium sloughs off.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Electrical burns in the mouth are usually caused by chewing on live electrical wiring (an act that is relatively common among young children). Saliva acts as a conducting medium and an electrical arc flows between the electrical source and the tissues, causing extreme heat and possible tissue destruction.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Caustic chemicals may cause ulceration of the oral mucosa if they are of strong-enough concentration and in contact for a sufficient length of time. The holding of medication in the mouth instead of swallowing it occurs mostly in children, those under psychiatric care, or simply because of a lack of understanding. Holding an aspirin tablet next to a painful tooth in an attempt to relieve pulpitis (toothache) is common, and leads to epithelial necrosis. Chewable aspirin tablets should be swallowed, with the residue quickly cleared from the mouth.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Other caustic medications include eugenol and chlorpromazine. Hydrogen peroxide, used to treat gum disease, is also capable of causing epithelial necrosis at concentrations of 1–3%. Silver nitrate, sometimes used for pain relief from aphthous ulceration, acts as a chemical cauterant and destroys nerve endings, but the mucosal damage is increased. Phenol is used during dental treatment as a cavity sterilizing agent and cauterizing material, and it is also present in some over-the-counter agents intended to treat aphthous ulcerations. Mucosal necrosis has been reported to occur with concentrations of 0.5%. Other materials used in endodontics are also caustic, which is part of the reason why use of a rubber dam is now recommended.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: As a result of radiotherapy to the mouth, radiation-induced stomatitis may develop, which can be associated with mucosal erosions and ulceration. If the salivary glands are irradiated, there may also be xerostomia (dry mouth), making the oral mucosa more vulnerable to frictional damage as the lubricating function of saliva is lost, and mucosal atrophy (thinning), which makes a breach of the epithelium more likely. Radiation to the bones of the jaws causes damage to osteocytes and impairs the blood supply. The affected hard tissues become hypovascular (reduced number of blood vessels), hypocellular (reduced number of cells), and hypoxic (low levels of oxygen). Osteoradionecrosis is the term for when such an area of irradiated bone does not heal from this damage. This usually occurs in the mandible, and causes chronic pain and surface ulceration, sometimes resulting in non-healing bone being exposed through a soft tissue defect. Prevention of osteradionecrosis is part of the reason why all teeth of questionable prognosis are removed before the start of a course of radiotherapy.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Aphthous stomatitis (also termed recurrent aphthous stomatitis, RAS, and commonly called "canker sores") is a very common cause of oral ulceration. 10–25% of the general population have this non-contagious condition. Three types of aphthous stomatitis exists based on their appearance, namely minor, major and herpetiform major aphthous ulceration. Minor aphthous ulceration is the most common type, presenting with 1–6 small (2-4mm diameter), round/oval ulcers with a yellow-grey color and an erythematous (red) "halo". These ulcers heal with no permanent scarring in about 7–10 days. Ulcers recur at intervals of about 1–4 months. Major aphthous ulceration is less common than the minor type, but produces more severe lesions and symptoms. Major aphthous ulceration presents with larger (>1 cm diameter) ulcers that take much longer to heal (10–40 days) and may leave scarring. The minor and major subtypes of aphthous stomatitis usually produce lesions on the non-keratinized oral mucosa (i.e. the inside of the cheeks, lips, underneath the tongue and the floor of mouth), but less commonly major aphthous ulcers may occur in other parts of the mouth on keratinized mucosal surfaces. The least common type is herpetiform ulceration, so named because the condition resembles primary herpetic gingivostomatitis. Herpetiform ulcers begin as small blisters (vesicles) which break down into 2-3mm sized ulcers. Herpetiform ulcers appear in "crops" sometimes hundreds in number, which can coalesce to form larger areas of ulceration. This subtype may cause extreme pain, heals with scarring and may recur frequently.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: The exact cause of aphthous stomatitis is unknown, but there may be a genetic predisposition in some people. Other possible causes include hematinic deficiency (folate, vitamin B, iron), stopping smoking, stress, menstruation, trauma, food allergies or hypersensitivity to sodium lauryl sulphate (found in many brands of toothpaste). Aphthous stomatitis has no clinically detectable signs or symptoms outside the mouth, but the recurrent ulceration can cause much discomfort to those affected. Treatment is aimed at reducing the pain and swelling and speeding healing, and may involve systemic or topical steroids, analgesics (pain killers), antiseptics, anti-inflammatories or barrier pastes to protect the raw area(s).


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Many infections can cause oral ulceration (see table). The most common are herpes simplex virus (herpes labialis, primary herpetic gingivostomatitis), varicella zoster (chicken pox, shingles), and coxsackie A virus (hand, foot and mouth disease). Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) creates immunodeficiencies which allow opportunistic infections or neoplasms to proliferate. Bacterial processes leading to ulceration can be caused by "Mycobacterium tuberculosis" (tuberculosis) and "Treponema pallidum" (syphilis).


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Opportunistic activity by combinations of otherwise normal bacterial flora, such as aerobic streptococci, "Neisseria", "Actinomyces", spirochetes, and "Bacteroides" species can prolong the ulcerative process. Fungal causes include "Coccidioides immitis" (valley fever), "Cryptococcus neoformans" (cryptococcosis), and "Blastomyces dermatitidis" ("North American Blastomycosis"). Entamoeba histolytica, a parasitic protozoan, is sometimes known to cause mouth ulcers through formation of cysts. Epstein-Barr virus-positive mucocutaneous ulcer is a rare form of the Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases in which infiltrating, Epstein-Barr virus (i.e. EBV)-infected B cells cause solitary, well-circumscribed ulcers in mucous membranes and skin.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Many drugs can cause mouth ulcers as a side effect. Common examples are alendronate (a bisphosphonate, commonly prescribed for osteoporosis), cytotoxic drugs (e.g. methotrexate, i.e. chemotherapy), non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, nicorandil (may be prescribed for angina) and propylthiouracil (e.g. used for hyperthyroidism). Some recreational drugs can cause ulceration, e.g. cocaine.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Rarely, a persistent, non-healing mouth ulcer may be a cancerous lesion. Malignancies in the mouth are usually carcinomas, but lymphomas, sarcomas and others may also be possible. Either the tumor arises in the mouth, or it may grow to involve the mouth, e.g. from the maxillary sinus, salivary glands, nasal cavity or peri-oral skin. The most common type of oral cancer is squamous cell carcinoma. The main risk factors are long-term smoking and alcohol consumption (particularly when combined) and betel use.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Common sites of oral cancer are the lower lip, the floor of the mouth, and the sides, underside of the tongue and mandibular alveolar ridge, but it is possible to have a tumor anywhere in the mouth. Appearances vary greatly, but a typical malignant ulcer would be a persistent, expanding lesion that is totally red (erythroplasia) or speckled red and white (erythroleukoplakia). Malignant lesions also typically feel indurated (hardened) and attached to adjacent structures, with "rolled" margins or a punched out appearance and bleeds easily on gentle manipulation. If someone has an unexplained mouth ulcer persisting for more than 3 weeks this may indicate a need for a referral from the GDP or GP to hospital to exclude oral cancer.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Some of the viral infections mentioned above are also classified as vesiculobullous diseases. Other example vesiculobullous diseases include pemphigus vulgaris, mucous membrane pemphigoid, bullous pemphigoid, dermatitis herpetiformis, linear IgA disease, and epidermolysis bullosa.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Rarely, allergic reactions of the mouth and lips may manifest as erosions; however, such reactions usually do not produce frank ulceration. An example of one common allergen is Balsam of Peru. If individuals allergic to this substance have oral exposure they may experience stomatitis and cheilitis (inflammation, rash, or painful erosion of the lips, oropharyngeal mucosa, or angles of their mouth). Balsam of Peru is used in foods and drinks for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, and in medicine and pharmaceutical items for healing properties.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: A wide range of other diseases may cause mouth ulcers. Hematological causes include anemia, hematinic deficiencies, neutropenia, hypereosinophilic syndrome, leukemia, myelodysplastic syndromes, other white cell dyscrasias, and gammopathies. Gastrointestinal causes include celiac disease, Crohn's disease (orofacial granulomatosis), and ulcerative colitis. Dermatological causes include chronic ulcerative stomatitis, erythema multiforme (Stevens-Johnson syndrome), angina bullosa haemorrhagica and lichen planus. Other examples of systemic disease capable of causing mouth ulcers include lupus erythematosus, Sweet syndrome, reactive arthritis, Behçet syndrome, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, periarteritis nodosa, giant cell arteritis, diabetes, glucagonoma, sarcoidosis and periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Macroglossia, an abnormally large tongue, can be associated with ulceration if the tongue protrudes constantly from the mouth. Caliber persistent artery describes a common vascular anomaly where a main arterial branch extends into superficial submucosal tissues without a reduction of diameter. This commonly occurs in elderly people on the lip and may be associated with ulceration.


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Treatment is cause-related, but also symptomatic if the underlying cause is unknown or not correctable. It is also important to note that most ulcers will heal completely without any intervention. Treatment can range from:


title: Mouth ulcer

text: Oral ulceration is a common reason for people to seek medical or dental advice. A breach of the oral mucosa probably affects most people at various times during life. For a discussion of the epidemiology of aphthous stomatitis, see the epidemiology of aphthous stomatitis.


title: Apothecary

text: Apothecary () is a mostly archaic term for a medical professional who formulates and dispenses "materia medica" (medicine) to physicians, surgeons, and patients. The modern chemist (British English) or pharmacist (British and North American English) now perform this role. In some languages and regions, the word "apothecary" is still used to refer to a retail pharmacy or a pharmacist who owns one. Apothecaries' investigation of herbal and chemical ingredients was a precursor to the modern sciences of chemistry and pharmacology.


title: Apothecary

text: In addition to dispensing herbs and medicine, apothecaries offered general medical advice and a range of services that are now performed by other specialist practitioners, such as surgeons and obstetricians. Apothecary shops sold ingredients and the medicines they prepared wholesale to other medical practitioners, as well as dispensing them to patients. In 17th-century England, they also controlled the trade in tobacco which was imported as a medicine.


title: Apothecary

text: The term "apothecary" derives from the Ancient Greek ἀποθήκη ("apothḗkē", "a repository, storehouse") via Latin "apotheca" ("repository, storehouse, warehouse", cf. "bodega" and "boutique"), Medieval Latin "apothecarius" ("storekeeper"), and eventually Old French "apotecaire".


title: Apothecary

text: In some languages the term is used to designate a pharmacist/chemist, such as German and Dutch "Apotheker", Latvian "aptiekārs" and Luxembourgish "Apdikter". Likewise, "pharmacy" translates as "apotek" in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, "apteekki" in Finnish, "apoteka" in Bosnian, "aptieka" in Latvian, апотека ("apoteka") in Serbian, аптека ("apteka") in Russian, Bulgarian, Macedonian and Ukrainian, "Apotheke" in German and "apteka" in Polish. The word in Indonesian is "apoteker", which was borrowed from the Dutch "apotheker". In Yiddish the word is אַפּטייק "apteyk".


title: Apothecary

text: Use of the term in the names of businesses varies with time and location. It is generally an Americanism, though some areas of the United States use it to invoke an experience of nostalgic revival and it has been used for a wide variety of businesses; while in other areas such as California its use is restricted to licensed pharmacies.


title: Apothecary

text: The profession of apothecary can be dated back at least to 2600 BC to ancient Babylon, which provides one of the earliest records of the practice of the apothecary. Clay tablets have been found with medical texts recording symptoms, prescriptions, and the directions for compounding.


title: Apothecary

text: In ancient India, the "Sushruta Samhita", a compendium on the practice of medicine and medical formulations, has been traced back to the 1st century BC.


title: Apothecary

text: The Papyrus Ebers from ancient Egypt, written around 1500 BC, contain a collection of more than 800 prescriptions. It lists over 700 different drugs.


title: Apothecary

text: The "Shen-nung pen ts'ao ching", a Chinese book on agriculture and medicinal plants (3rd century AD), is considered a foundational material for Chinese medicine and herbalism and became an important source for Chinese apothecaries. The book, which documented 365 treatments, had a focus on roots and grass. It had treatments which came from minerals, roots and grass, and animals. Many of the mentioned drugs and their uses are still followed today. Ginseng's use as a sexual stimulant and aid for erectile dysfunction stems from this book. Ma huang, an herb first mentioned in the book, led to the introduction of the drug ephedrine into modern medicine.


title: Apothecary

text: According to Sharif Kaf al-Ghazal, and S. Hadzovic, apothecary shops existed during the Middle Ages in Baghdad, operated by pharmacists in 754 during the Abbasid Caliphate, or Islamic Golden Age. Apothecaries were also active in Islamic Spain by the 11th century.


title: Apothecary

text: By the end of the 14th century, Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1342–1400) was mentioning an English apothecary in the "Canterbury Tales", specifically "The Nun's Priest's Tale" as Pertelote speaks to Chauntecleer (lines 181–184):


title: Apothecary

text: In Renaissance Italy, Italian Nuns became a prominent source for medicinal needs. At first they used their knowledge in non-curative uses in the convents to solidify the sanctity of religion among their sisters. As they progressed in skill they started to expand their field to create profit. This profit they used towards their charitable goals. Because of their eventual spread to urban society, these religious women gained "roles of public significance beyond the spiritual realm (Strocchia 627). Later apothecaries led by nuns were spread across the Italian peninsula.


title: Apothecary

text: From the 15th century to the 16th century, the apothecary gained the status of a skilled practitioner. In England, the apothecaries merited their own livery company, the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries, founded in 1617. Its roots, however, go back much earlier to the Guild of Pepperers formed in London in 1180.


title: Apothecary

text: However, there were ongoing tensions between apothecaries and other medical professions, as is illustrated by the publication of 'A Short View of the Frauds and Abuses Committed by Apothecaries' by the Physician Christopher Merrett in 1669 and the experiences of Susan Reeve Lyon and other women apothecaries in 17th century London. Often women (who were prohibited from entering medical school) became apothecaries which took away business from male physicians. In 1865 Elizabeth Garrett Anderson became the first woman to be licensed to practice medicine in Britain by passing the examination of the Society of Apothecaries. By the end of the 19th century, the medical professions had taken on their current institutional form, with defined roles for physicians and surgeons, and the role of the apothecary was more narrowly conceived, as that of pharmacist (dispensing chemist in British English).


title: Apothecary

text: In German-speaking countries, such as Germany, Austria and Switzerland, pharmacies or chemist stores are still called apothecaries or in German "Apotheken". The "Apotheke" ("store") is legally obligated to be run at all times by at least one "Apotheker" (male) or "Apothekerin" (female), who actually has an academic degree as a pharmacist – in German "Pharmazeut" (male) or "Pharmazeutin" (female) – and has obtained the professional title "Apotheker" by either working in the field for numerous years, usually by working in a pharmacy store, or taking additional exams. Thus a "Pharmazeut" is not always an "Apotheker". Magdalena Neff became the first woman to gain a medical qualification in Germany when she studied pharmacy at the Technical University of Kalsruhe and later passed the apothecary's examination in 1906.


title: Apothecary

text: Apothecaries used their own measurement system, the apothecaries' system, to provide precise weighing of small quantities. Apothecaries dispensed vials of poisons as well as medicines, and as is still the case, medicines could be either beneficial or harmful if inappropriately used. Protective methods to prevent accidental ingestion of poisons included the use of specially-shaped containers for potentially poisonous substances such as laudanum.


title: Apothecary

text: Apothecary businesses were typically family-run, and wives or other women of the family worked alongside their husbands in the shops, learning the trade themselves. Women were still not allowed to train and be educated in universities so this allowed them a chance to be trained in medical knowledge and healing. Previously, women had some influence in other women's healthcare, such as serving as midwives and other feminine care in a setting that was not considered appropriate for males. Though physicians gave medical advice, they did not make medicine, so they typically sent their patients to particular independent apothecaries, who did also provide some medical advice, in particular remedies and healing.


title: Apothecary

text: Many recipes for medicines included herbs, minerals, and pieces of animals (meats, fats, skins) that were ingested, made into paste for external use, or used as aromatherapy. Some of these are similar to natural remedies used today, including catnip, chamomile, fennel, mint, garlic, and witch hazel. Many other ingredients used in the past such as urine, fecal matter, earwax, human fat, and saliva, are no longer used and are generally considered ineffective or unsanitary. Trial and error were the main source for finding successful remedies, as little was known about the chemistry of why certain treatments worked. For instance, it was known that drinking coffee could help cure headaches, but the existence and properties of caffeine itself was still a mystery.


title: Marc Blucas

text: Marcus Paul Blucas (born January 11, 1972) is an American actor. Prior to his acting career, he played college basketball with the Wake Forest Demon Deacons. He had his first starring role as soldier and love interest Riley Finn on the WB supernatural drama series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" from 1999 to 2000, and later starred as football team manager Matthew Donnelly on the USA drama series "Necessary Roughness" from 2011 to 2013.


title: Marc Blucas

text: Blucas starred alongside Katie Holmes in the romantic comedy film "First Daughter" (2004) and also had lead roles in the thriller films "Three" (2006) and "The Killing Floor" (2007). He had supporting roles in the romance films "I Capture the Castle" (2003), "After Sex" (2007), and "The Jane Austen Book Club" (2007); the horror films "They" (2002), "Deadline" (2009), and "Unearth" (2020); the thriller films "Brawl in Cell Block 99" (2017) and "Looking Glass" (2018); and the drama films "Prey for Rock & Roll" (2004) and "Touchback" (2011).


title: Marc Blucas

text: Marcus Paul Blucas was born on January 11, 1972 in Butler, Pennsylvania, two years after his sister, Kristen. His parents, Walter Joseph Blucas and Mary Catherine (née Gordon), married on January 10, 1970, shortly before both graduated in education from Indiana University of Pennsylvania (IUP). They are divorced. "A self-confessed square who earned good grades," Blucas was, like his father, a skilled sportsman. Wally was the quarterback on the undefeated 1968 Big Indians team, competed in the Boardwalk Bowl, and in 1999 was inducted into the IUP Athletics Hall of Fame. The family moved to Girard in Erie, Pennsylvania in 1974, where Blucas' father rose from teacher to school principal and ultimately to Superintendent of Schools for the District. Blucas became the star player on the Girard High School basketball team, leading them to the Pennsylvania Boys AA State Championship, in the process earning all-state honors and a sports scholarship to Wake Forest University. He played on the Wake Forest Demon Deacons men's basketball team and graduated in 1994 after one season playing on the same court as Tim Duncan. He was also a member of the Sigma Phi Epsilon fraternity.


title: Marc Blucas

text: After Blucas failed to make it into the NBA, he moved to England, where he played professional basketball for a year with British Basketball League's Manchester Giants (1975–2001). He later decided to become a lawyer, but changed his mind and went into acting instead.


title: Marc Blucas

text: Blucas's first television role was in the television movie "Inflammable", made in 1995. From there, he found roles in both television and film. He starred as the Basketball Hero in Gary Ross's "Pleasantville" (1998). However, Blucas landed his first major role in 1999 as Agent Riley Finn in "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". Initially, Blucas was certain that he had blown his audition and had left apologizing for having wasted creator Joss Whedon's time. Whedon asked him to audition again, and he received the part two weeks later. He played Buffy's love interest until 2000.


title: Marc Blucas

text: After Blucas' departure from the series, he went on to act in such films as "Summer Catch" (2001), "We Were Soldiers" (2002), alongside Mel Gibson and Chris Klein, and "First Daughter" (2004), with Katie Holmes. His character in "Summer Catch" was based on real life Cape League baseball player Michael Macone.


title: Marc Blucas

text: Blucas was part of the regular cast of the USA Network show "Necessary Roughness" for the first two seasons, playing Matthew Donnelly. The series premiered on June 29, 2011.


title: Marc Blucas

text: On July 25, 2009, Blucas married journalist Ryan Haddon, daughter of Dayle Haddon; they have two daughters, and Blucas is also stepfather to her two children from her first marriage to actor Christian Slater.


title: Howards End (film)

text: Howards End is a 1992 period romantic drama film directed by James Ivory, from a screenplay written by Ruth Prawer Jhabvala based on the 1910 novel of the same name by E. M. Forster. Marking Merchant Ivory Productions' third adaptation of a Forster novel (following 1985's "A Room with a View", and 1987's "Maurice"), it was the first film to be released by Sony Pictures Classics. The film's narrative explores class relations in turn-of-the-20th-century Britain, through events in the lives of the Schlegel sisters.


title: Howards End (film)

text: "Howards End" premiered at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival, where it competed for the Palme d'Or and won the 45th Anniversary Award. The film was theatrically released on March 13, 1992 in the United States and on May 1, in the United Kingdom to critical acclaim and commercial success, grossing $26.3 million on a $8 million budget. At the 65th Academy Awards, the film received a leading nine nominations including for the Best Picture, and won three; Best Actress (for Thompson), Best Screenplay Based on Material Previously Produced or Published and Best Art Direction. At the 46th British Academy Film Awards, it garnered a leading eleven nominations, winning two awards; Best Film, and Best Actress (for Thompson).


title: Howards End (film)

text: In Edwardian Britain, Helen Schlegel becomes engaged to Paul Wilcox during a moment of passion, while staying at the Wilcox family's country home, Howards End. The Schlegels are an intellectual family of Anglo-German bourgeoisie, while the Wilcoxes are conservative and wealthy, led by hard-headed businessman Henry. Helen and Paul quickly decide against the engagement, but she has already sent a telegram informing her sister Margaret, leading to an uproar when the sisters' Aunt Juley arrives and causes a scene.


title: Howards End (film)

text: Months later in London, when the Wilcoxes take a flat across the street from the Schlegels, Margaret resumes her acquaintance with Ruth, Henry's wife. Ruth is descended from English yeoman stock, and it is through her family that the Wilcoxes have come to own her beloved Howards End. The two women grow close as Mrs. Wilcox's health declines, and unbeknownst to Margaret, a dying Ruth bequeaths Howards End to her. However, the Wilcoxes refuse to believe Ruth would leave the house to a relative stranger, and burn her written bequest. Henry develops an attraction to Margaret, assisting her in finding a new home and eventually proposing marriage, which she accepts.


title: Howards End (film)

text: The Schlegels befriend Leonard Bast, a self-improving young clerk who lives with Jacky, a woman of dubious origins. The sisters pass along advice from Henry to the effect that the insurance company Leonard works for is heading for bankruptcy. Leonard quits, settling for a much lower-paying job which is eventually downsized altogether. Helen is later enraged to learn Henry's advice was wrong; Leonard's first employer was perfectly sound but will not reemploy him.


title: Howards End (film)

text: Months later, Henry and Margaret host the wedding of his daughter Evie at his Shropshire estate. Margaret is shocked when Helen arrives with an impoverished Leonard and Jacky. Considering Henry responsible for their plight, Helen demands his help, but Jacky drunkenly exposes Henry as a former lover from years ago. Henry is ashamed to be revealed as an adulterer, but Margaret forgives him and agrees to send the Basts away. Helen, upset with Margaret's decision to marry a man she loathes, leaves for Germany, but not before giving in to her attraction for Leonard and having sex while out boating. Fearing the Basts will be penniless, Helen instructs her brother Tibby to give them over £5000 of her own money, but Leonard returns the cheque uncashed out of pride.


title: Howards End (film)

text: Margaret and Henry marry, arranging to use Howards End as storage for Margaret's and her siblings' belongings. After months of hearing from Helen only through postcards, Margaret grows concerned, and Helen returns to England when Aunt Juley falls ill but avoids seeing her family. Believing Helen is mentally unstable, Margaret lures her to Howards End to collect her belongings, arriving herself with Henry and a doctor, and realizes Helen is pregnant. Insisting on returning to Germany to raise her baby alone, Helen asks to stay the night at Howards End but Henry refuses, leading to an argument with Margaret.


title: Howards End (film)

text: The next day, Leonard, still living unhappily in poverty with Jacky, travels to Howards End to visit the Schlegel sisters, arriving to find Helen, Margaret, and Henry's brutish eldest son, Charles. Realizing Leonard is the baby's father, Charles assaults him for "dishonoring" Helen and a bookcase collapses on Leonard, who dies of a heart attack. Margaret tells Henry that she is leaving him to help Helen raise her baby, and Henry breaks down, telling her the police inquest will charge Charles with manslaughter.


title: Howards End (film)

text: A year later, Paul, Evie, and Charles's wife, Dolly, gather at Howards End. Henry and Margaret are still together, living with Helen and her young son. Henry tells the others that upon his death, Margaret will inherit Howards End and leave it to her nephew, though Margaret wants none of Henry's money, which will be split among his children. She overhears Dolly point out the irony of Margaret inheriting the house, revealing Mrs. Wilcox's dying wish to leave it to her. Henry tells Margaret he did what he thought was right, but she says nothing.


title: Howards End (film)

text: Merchant-Ivory encountered difficulty securing funding for "Howards End", the budget of which stood at $8 million. This was considerably larger than that of "Maurice" and "A Room with a View", which led to trouble in raising capital in the UK and the United States. Orion Pictures, the film's distributor, was on the verge of bankruptcy and only contributed a small amount to the overall budget. A solution presented itself when Merchant Ivory sought funding through an intermediary in Japan, where the previous Forster adaptations, particularly "Maurice", had been very successful. Eventually Japanese companies including the Sumitomo Corporation, Japan Satellite Broadcasting, and the Imagica Corporation provided the bulk of the film's financing. The distribution problem would be solved when the heads of Orion Classics departed the company for Sony Pictures, creating the entirely new division of Sony Pictures Classics. "Howards End" was the first title distributed by this new division.


title: Howards End (film)

text: Anthony Hopkins accepted the part of Henry Wilcox after reading the script, passed to him by a young woman who was helping edit "Slaves of New York" and "The Silence of the Lambs" simultaneously in the same building. Phoebe Nicholls, Joely Richardson, Miranda Richardson, and Tilda Swinton were all considered for the part of Margaret Schlegel before Emma Thompson accepted the role. James Ivory was unaware of Emma Thompson before she was recommended to him by Simon Callow, who made a small cameo as the music lecturer in the concert scene. Jemma Redgrave (Evie Wilcox), who played the daughter of Vanessa Redgrave's character (Ruth Wilcox), is her niece off-screen. Samuel West, who played Leonard Bast, is the son of Prunella Scales, who played Aunt Juley.


title: Howards End (film)

text: According to James Ivory, although Vanessa Redgrave was his preferred choice for the role of Ruth Wilcox, her participation was uncertain until the last moment, because she was committed to other projects and it took some time to negotiate an acceptable salary. When she did agree to play the role of Mrs. Wilcox, she mistakenly believed she would be playing Margaret; only when she showed up on set to begin filming her scenes did the person in Hair and Makeup explain that she would be playing the "elder" Mrs. Wilcox.


title: Howards End (film)

text: The score was composed by Richard Robbins, with elements of the score based on Percy Grainger's works "Bridal Lullaby" and "Mock Morris". The piano pieces were performed by the English concert pianist Martin Jones. Orchestral works were conducted by Harry Rabinowitz and performed by the English Chamber Orchestra.


title: Howards End (film)

text: Also of note is a Tango composed and performed by the Teddy Peiro Tango Quintet, and the music of Francis Poulenc, the Nocture #8. This theme is used while Ruth Wilcox walks at Howards End in the Evening Scene.


title: Howards End (film)

text: Filming locations in London included a house in Victoria Square, which stood in for the Schlegel home, Fortnum & Mason in Piccadilly, Simpson's-in-the-Strand restaurant, and St Pancras railway station. Areas around the Admiralty Arch and in front of the Royal Exchange in the City of London were dressed to film traffic scenes of 1910 London. The scene where Margaret and Helen stroll with Henry in the evening was filmed on Chiswick Mall in Chiswick, London. The bank where Leonard encounters Helen is the lobby of the Baltic Exchange, 30 St. Mary Axe, London. Soon after filming the building was bombed and destroyed by the IRA. The Rosewood London on High Holborn, which was then the Pearl Assurance Building, represented the Porphyrion Fire Insurance Company.


title: Howards End (film)

text: The quadrangle of the Founder's Building at Royal Holloway, University of London stood in for the hospital where Margaret visits Mrs. Wilcox. The "Howards End" house in the countryside is Peppard Cottage in Rotherfield Peppard, Oxfordshire. At the time it was owned by an antique silver dealer with whom production designer Luciana Arrighi was acquainted. The bluebell wood where Leonard strolls in his dream, as well as Dolly and Charles' house, were filmed nearby. Henry's country house, Honiton, was actually Brampton Bryan Hall in Herefordshire, near the Welsh border. Bewdley railway station on the historic Severn Valley Railway featured as Hilton station.


title: Howards End (film)

text: The film received massive critical acclaim. On 5 June 2005, Roger Ebert included it on his list of "Great Movies". Leonard Maltin awarded the film 4 stars out of 4, and called the film "Extraordinarily good on every level." Dave Kehr of "The Chicago Tribune" gave a mixed review while reporting that the film "provides more than enough in the way of production values to keep its primary audience entertained. An audible gasp went up at a recent sneak preview over the film's re-creation of a Christmas-bedecked Harrod's of the turn of the century; the movie, like the store, knows how to put its merchandise on display."


title: Howards End (film)

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 94% of 65 reviews are positive for the film, and the average rating is 8.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A superbly-mounted adaptation of E.M. Forster's tale of British class tension, with exceptional performances all round, "Howards End" ranks among the best of Merchant-Ivory's work." On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 89 out of 100, based on 10 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". American audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "B" on a scale of A+ to F.


title: Howards End (film)

text: In 2016, the film was selected for screening as part of the Cannes Classics section at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival, and was released theatrically after restoration on 26 August 2016.


title: Howards End (film)

text: "Howards End" was placed on more top ten lists than any other film in 1992, edging out "The Player" and "Unforgiven". It was placed on 82 of the 106 film critics polled.


title: Howards End (film)

text: The Criterion Collection released Blu-ray and DVD versions of the film on 3 November 2009, which have since gone out of print. The release was unfortunately subject to a bronzing issue which would discolor the disc bronze and render it unplayable, due to a pressing issue at the factory, though not every disc was subject to bronzing. Cohen Film Collection released their own special edition Blu-ray on 6 December 2016. Although this edition was labelled as remastered in 4k, it is a 1080p Blu Ray disc. However in 2018, Concord Video released a 4K Ultra HD Region Free edition in Germany.


title: Gene LeBell

text: Ivan Gene LeBell (October 9, 1932 – August 9, 2022) was an American martial artist, stunt performer, actor, and professional wrestler. Nicknamed "The Godfather of Grappling", he popularized grappling in professional fighting circles, serving as a precursor to modern mixed martial arts. He worked on over 1,000 films and TV shows and authored 12 books.


title: Gene LeBell

text: In 2000, the United States Ju-Jitsu Federation (USJJF) promoted LeBell to 9th dan in jujitsu and taihojutsu. On August 7, 2004, the World Martial Arts Masters Association promoted him to 10th degree. In February 2005, the USJJF made him 9th dan in judo.


title: Gene LeBell

text: LeBell has been reported as the inspiration for the character of Cliff Booth (Brad Pitt) in Quentin Tarantino's "Once Upon a Time in Hollywood". However, Tarantino disputes this claim.


title: Gene LeBell

text: Ivan Gene LeBell was born in Los Angeles, California. He started training in catch wrestling and boxing from his early childhood, influenced by his mother, "Red Head" Aileen Eaton, a promoter of both sports who owned the Olympic Auditorium in Los Angeles. LeBell took up catch wrestling under Ed "Strangler" Lewis at age 7, and later moved to train in judo. After getting his black belt, he went to Japan to train in judo at the Kodokan.


title: Gene LeBell

text: After returning to the United States, LeBell competed as a heavyweight. In 1954 and 1955, while only 22 years of age, he captured both the heavyweight and overall Amateur Athletic Union National Judo Championships. His very first match was against John Osako, one of the highest ranked judokas at the national level. LeBell earned the upset win via an osaekomi. Afterwards, attracted by better potential earnings and the family's legacy in the business, LeBell transitioned to professional wrestling. Despite his pedigree, he did not get over immediately with audiences but gradually became known for his martial arts background. He eventually adopted the role as "policeman" for the promotion, maintaining law and order, especially during matches involving his brother Mike LeBell. Gene also wrestled under a black mask as The Hangman, teaming up with Roy Staggs.


title: Gene LeBell

text: In 1963, LeBell became involved with a challenge by boxer and writer Jim Beck to the practitioners of Japanese martial arts. Beck claimed that a boxer could defeat any martial artist in a straight fight and offered $1000 to anyone who could prove otherwise. Beck engaged in abundant trash-talk, but revealed a very limited knowledge of martial arts, seemingly mistaking judo for karate.


title: Gene LeBell

text: Encouraged by Ed Parker, LeBell accepted the challenge and travelled to Salt Lake City to meet Beck. To his surprise, he learned his opponent would not be Beck but a higher regarded boxer, Milo Savage, who also had a background in amateur wrestling. An agreement was reached for the match to last five rounds, each lasting three minutes. The boxer's side demanded a stipulation in which the smaller and older Savage (Savage was 39 while LeBell was 31 at the date of the fight) could use any type of punch, while the judoka could not kick, in the apparent belief LeBell was a karateka. An additional stipulation prevented LeBell from attempting tackles or takedowns under the waist. In return, Savage offered to wear a judogi. On the day of the match, Savage appeared wearing a karategi instead, much tighter and harder to grab. The Savage camp claimed they did not know the difference. Also, according to LeBell and other sources, Savage's gloves contained brass knuckles and he had greased up his gi with vaseline to make gripping it more difficult. The unusual stipulations convinced LeBell the Savage camp, far from being ignorant about martial arts, had trained Savage in judo in order to defend against LeBell's throws.


title: Gene LeBell

text: The match took place on December 2, 1963. The combatants were initially cautious, with LeBell being the first in pressing the action by attempting to throw Savage down. The boxer blocked the move, which aggravated an old shoulder injury of LeBell. LeBell tried several techniques through the second and third rounds and was finally successful in taking Savage down, but Savage kept defending both standing and on the ground in a very technical manner, seemingly confirming LeBell's theory about his opponent's grappling training. Savage even attempted to sweep the judoka in one instance. Nevertheless, LeBell got mount and found the opportunity to execute an armbar, but he opted instead to seek a choke, concluding that Savage would not surrender to a broken arm. Finally, he performed a left harai goshi in the fourth round and followed by locking a rear naked choke. Within seconds, Savage fell unconscious and LeBell was declared the winner.


title: Gene LeBell

text: The loss by Savage, the hometown favorite, caused the crowd to react violently. Bottles, chairs, and other debris were thrown into the ring. To prevent a full-blown riot, hometown hero and rated professional boxer Jay Fullmer (brother of boxers Gene and Don Fullmer) entered the ring to congratulate LeBell. The judoka and his team showed their sportsmanship by helping to revive Savage using kappo, as neither the referee nor the ring doctor knew how to resuscitate him. Despite this, a man tried to stab LeBell on the way out and the latter had to be protected by the judokas and professional wrestlers who accompanied him.


title: Gene LeBell

text: Following his combat sports career, LeBell, along with his brother Mike, ran the National Wrestling Alliance's Los Angeles territory, NWA Hollywood Wrestling, from 1968 to 1982. In June 1976, LeBell refereed the infamous boxing-versus-wrestling contest between Muhammad Ali and Antonio Inoki in Tokyo, Japan. LeBell was selected from over 200 other applicants to referee the bout. He also continued to work in professional wrestling intermittently, wrestling his final match on August 29, 1981, against Peter Maivia for NWA Hollywood Wrestling.


title: Gene LeBell

text: LeBell has opened two martial art schools in cooperation with others and has touted his 1963 match with Milo Savage as the first televised MMA fight in America.