title: The Seven Year Itch

text: "The Seven Year Itch" was filmed between September and November 1954, and is Wilder's only film released by 20th Century-Fox. The characters of Elaine (Dolores Rosedale), Marie, and the inner voices of Sherman and The Girl were dropped from the play; the characters of the Plumber, Miss Finch (Carolyn Jones), the Waitress (Doro Merande), and Kruhulik the janitor (Robert Strauss) were added. Many lines and scenes from the play were cut or re-written because they were deemed indecent by the Hays office. Axelrod and Wilder complained that the film was being made under straitjacketed conditions. This led to a major plot change: in the play, Sherman and The Girl have sex; in the movie, the romance is reduced to suggestion; Sherman and the Girl kiss three times, once while playing Sherman's piano together, once outside the movie theater and once near the end before Sherman goes to take Ricky's paddle to him. The footage of Monroe's dress billowing over a subway grate was shot twice: the first take was shot on location outside the Trans-Lux 52nd Street Theater, then located at 586 Lexington Avenue in Manhattan, while the second take was on a sound stage. Both eventually made their way into the finished film, despite the often-held belief that the original on-location footage's sound had been rendered useless by the overexcited crowd present during filming in New York. The exterior shooting location of Richard's apartment was 164 East 61st Street in Manhattan.


title: The Seven Year Itch

text: Saul Bass created the abstract title sequence, which was mentioned favorably in numerous reviews; up until that time, it was unheard of for trade press reviews to mention film title sequences.


title: The Seven Year Itch

text: Dimaggio was on set during the filming of the dress scene, and reportedly angry and disgusted with the attention his wife received from onlookers, reporters, and photographers in attendance.


title: The Seven Year Itch

text: The original 1955 review by "Variety" was largely positive. Though Hollywood production codes prohibited writer-director Billy Wilder from filming a comedy where adultery takes place, the review expressed disappointment that Sherman remains chaste. Some critics compared Richard Sherman to the fantasizing lead character in James Thurber's short story "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty".


title: The Seven Year Itch

text: On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, 84% of 32 reviews from critics are positive, with an average rating of 7.2/10.


title: The Seven Year Itch

text: In the 1970s Wilder called the movie "a nothing picture because the picture should be done today without censorship... Unless the husband, left alone in New York while the wife and kid are away for the summer, has an affair with that girl there's nothing. But you couldn't do that in those days, so I was just straitjacketed. It just didn't come off one bit, and there's nothing I can say about it except I wish I hadn't made it. I wish I had the property now."


title: The Seven Year Itch

text: In 2000, American Film Institute included the film as No. 51 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs. The film was included in ""The New York Times" Guide to the Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made" in 2002.


title: Attack: Part 1

text: Attack: Part 1 is a 2022 Indian Hindi-language science fiction action film directed by Lakshya Raj Anand, who co-wrote the film with Sumit Batheja and Vishal Kapoor, based on a story by John Abraham, who stars in the film alongside Jacqueline Fernandez and Rakul Preet Singh, with Prakash Raj and Ratna Pathak Shah in supporting roles.


title: Attack: Part 1

text: "Attack" was released on 1 April 2022 in cinemas. The film received mixed reviews from critics who praised the action sequences while criticizing the screenplay, eventually bombing at the box office.


title: Attack: Part 1

text: 25 November 2010: Arjun Shergill (John Abraham) is an Indian Army officer, who embarks on a mission to capture Rehman Gul, a dreaded terrorist, who attacked the Indian army convoy two days ago. A tense shootout between the soldiers and terrorists ensues where Arjun manages to arrest Rehman, while also saving a suicide bomber, who is actually Rehman's son Hamid Gul.


title: Attack: Part 1

text: 12 years later: While leaving for his hometown at the Mumbai Airport, Arjun meets an air hostess Ayesha (Jacqueline Fernandez) and the two fall in love with each other. However, their happiness is short lived, when the airport is attacked by Hamid's men and several other including Ayesha is killed. Arjun gets injured in the fight, but recovers two weeks later and is bound in the wheel chair with only movement in his neck. Vadraj Kumar Subramaniam/V. K. Subramaniam (Prakash Raj), who is the Chief of Indian Intelligence and Arjun's superior officer, proposes the idea of introducing a supersoldier program to the PM, which is operated through AI to save lives in times of war from any collateral damage. The supersoldiers are programmed by DRDO scientist Sabah Qureshi (Rakul Preet Singh), who has been modifing the program for 7 years and is on the verge of a major breakthrough.


title: Attack: Part 1

text: The PM agrees to the proposal, but Sabah explains that the program is developed on paralysed persons. Subramaniam selects Arjun for the program. Arjun reluctantly agrees to the program, as he wants to avenge Ayesha's death. While going through the surgical process, Arjun's chances of survival are shown to be minimal, but manages to survive the on-boarding process. Arjun operates himself, under the command of the Intelligence Robotic Assistant or I.R.A, but the I.R.A gets restricted due to Arjun's trauma. Meanwhile, the government receives information that Hamid is procuring chemical weapons in Eastern Europe. The next day, Sabah arrives at the Parliament to submit Arjun's progress to the Defence Minister, as advised by Subramaniam. While having conversation with I.R.A, Arjun learns that Hamid is planning to attack the Parliament and informs Subramaniam, who is at the Sansad Marg.


title: Attack: Part 1

text: However, Hamid and his fellow terrorists disguised as RAF personnel, thwart all security and hijack the Parliament, capturing the Parliament Ministry and other Union ministers, including the PM and Sabah. Arjun leaves for the Parliament, along with NSG commandos, but Hamid communicates with the government, who demands that the NSG should retreat from the Parliament, in exchange for the release of 50 hostages. Subramabiam insist to the Home Minister Digvijay Singh (who is appointed as the Caretaker Prime Minister) (Rajit Kapur) and others to perform a "partial extraction" and sends Arjun to provide information regarding the incidents inside the Parliament. Arjun sneaks into the Parliament with I.R.A's help and kills 4-5 guards where he barges into the control room and provides live feed to Subramaniam.


title: Attack: Part 1

text: Hamid demands the release of Rehman. Sabah gets caught by the terrorist Hussain, while seeking help from Arjun, but Arjun rescues her by killing Hussain and other terrorists where the two escape, thus making Hamid believe that someone else has arrived and orders to find him. Arjun reveals himself to Hamid via a walkie talkie where Hamid forces Digvijay, Subramaniam and others to force Arjun to surrender. Subramaniam tells Arjun to surrender, which he decides to do, so that he can kill Hamid and save the hostages. Arjun surrenders and is taken to Hamid where one of Hamid's men knocks Arjun's neck, which leads to malfunction in I.R.A. Hamid demands an safe passage to flee in an airline, which leaves to Ecuador and releases the hostages, but activates a sarin gas bomb to explode in the Parliament. Rehman is released from prison and is taken to the airport.


title: Attack: Part 1

text: Meanwhile, Sabah retrieves her bag, which contains her laptop and begins the reboot of I.R.A. With I.R.A rebooted, Arjun attacks and kills all the terrorists. Arjun tells Subramaniam about the bomb and ask to intercept Hamid, but Hamid had already fled by using an old tunnel in the Parliament and leaves for the airport in an ambulance. Arjun tells Sabah to retreat with the hostages and chases after Hamid where he reaches the airport and manages to crash the flight. Arjun kills Hamid and deactivates the bomb. Sabah rescues the hostages and Rehman is killed by the NSG Commandos by throwing him out of the flight in mid-air. Arjun is appreciated by Subramaniam and the ministers, and leaves the parliament on an ambulance. Later, Arjun is appointed for another mission, thus hinting at the sequel "Attack: Part 2".


title: Attack: Part 1

text: Principal photography began in January 2020. Production was put on hold in March 2020 due to COVID-19 pandemic. The shooting resumed in February 2021.


title: Attack: Part 1

text: The film was originally scheduled for theatrical opening worldwide on 14 August 2020. However, it was delayed due to the shooting suspension. It was scheduled for release on 28 January 2022, however, it was postponed due to the surge in Omicron variant cases. It was theatrically released on 1 April 2022. The film streamed on ZEE5 on 27 May.


title: Attack: Part 1

text: "Attack" earned 3.51 crore at the domestic box office on its opening day. On the second day, the film collected 3.75 crore. On the third day the film had a worldwide gross of 4.25 crore, taking total domestic weekend collection to 11.51 crore.


title: Attack: Part 1

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics who praised the action sequences while criticising the screenplay. Rachana Dubey of "The Times of India" gave the film a rating of 3.5/5 and wrote "Attack: Part One, is an engaging watch, from start to finish". Grace Cyril of "India Today" gave the film a rating of 3/5 and wrote "Attack stands well with its VFX and new concepts, all coated in a layer of slick modern sci-fi". Avinash Lohana of "Pinkvilla" gave the film a rating of 3/5 and wrote "Keep an open mind, don’t compare, and give the film a chance. You might like it". Bharathi Pradhan of "Lehren" gave the film a rating of 3/5 and wrote "John may take a bow because he is one of the producers of the film and has been credited with the story idea too". Taran Adarsh of "Bollywood Hungama" gave the film a rating of 3/5 and wrote "ATTACK - PART 1 works due to the novel concept, action, VFX and John Abraham’s first-rate performance". Rohit Bhatnagar of "The Free Press Journal" gave the film a rating of 3/5 and wrote "'Attack - Part 1' might be a beginning of a new era in the Hindi film industry only if you ignore the long list of loopholes and cliché sequences".


title: Attack: Part 1

text: Saibal Chatterjee of "NDTV" gave the film a rating of 2.5/5 and wrote "To the credit of director Lakshya Raj Anand, the fast-paced hostage drama stops short of being a dreadful assault on the senses". Shubhra Gupta of "Indian Express" gave the film a rating of 2.5/5 and wrote "We know exactly how things will pan out, no strain on the brain. Everything is straight-forward, no complicated characters, no morally ambiguous situations". Shubham Kulkarni of "Koimoi" gave the film a rating of 2/5 and wrote "Lakshya Raj Anand only focuses on the battle sequences and everything that happens between them looks lazy". Tatsam Mukherjee of "Firstpost" gave the film a rating of 1/5 and wrote "Whatever might be the measures taken by an earlier John Abraham film, there seems to be a renewed bloodlust in Attack, that’s actively trying to court the ‘masses’ of "" and "The Kashmir Files"".


title: John Lee Hooker

text: John Lee Hooker (August 22, 1912 or 1917 – June 21, 2001) was an American blues singer, songwriter, and guitarist. The son of a sharecropper, he rose to prominence performing an electric guitar-style adaptation of Delta blues. Hooker often incorporated other elements, including talking blues and early North Mississippi hill country blues. He developed his own driving-rhythm boogie style, distinct from the 1930s–1940s piano-derived boogie-woogie. Hooker was ranked 35 in "Rolling Stone"s 2015 list of 100 greatest guitarists.


title: John Lee Hooker

text: Some of his best known songs include "Boogie Chillen'" (1948), "Crawling King Snake" (1949), "Dimples" (1956), "Boom Boom" (1962), and "One Bourbon, One Scotch, One Beer" (1966). Several of his later albums, including "The Healer" (1989), "Mr. Lucky" (1991), "Chill Out" (1995), and "Don't Look Back" (1997), were album chart successes in the U.S. and UK. "The Healer" (for the song "I'm In The Mood") and "Chill Out" (for the album) both earned him Grammy wins as well as "Don't Look Back", which went on to earn him a double-Grammy win for Best Traditional Blues Recording and Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals (with Van Morrison).


title: John Lee Hooker

text: Hooker's date of birth is a subject of debate; the years 1912, 1915, 1917, 1920, and 1923 have all been suggested. Most official sources list 1917, though at times Hooker stated he was born in 1920. Information found in the 1920 and 1930 censuses indicates that he was actually born in 1912. In 2017, a series of events took place to celebrate the purported centenary of his birth. In the 1920 federal census, John Hooker is seven years old and one of nine children living with William and Minnie Hooker in Tutwiler, Mississippi.


title: John Lee Hooker

text: It is believed that he was born in Tutwiler, in Tallahatchie County, although some sources say his birthplace was near Clarksdale, in Coahoma County. He was the youngest of the 11 children of William Hooker (born 1871, died after 1923), a sharecropper and Baptist preacher, and Minnie Ramsey (born c. 1880, date of death unknown). In the 1920 federal census, William and Minnie were recorded as being 48 and 39 years old, respectively, which implies that Minnie was born about 1880, not 1875. She was said to have been a "decade or so younger" than her husband, which gives additional credibility to this census record as evidence of Hooker's origins.


title: John Lee Hooker

text: The Hooker children were homeschooled. They were permitted to listen only to religious songs; the spirituals sung in church were their earliest exposure to music. In 1921, their parents separated. The next year, their mother married William Moore, a blues singer, who provided John Lee with an introduction to the guitar (and whom he would later credit for his distinctive playing style).


title: John Lee Hooker

text: Moore was his first significant blues influence. He was a local blues guitarist who, in Shreveport, Louisiana, learned to play a droning, one-chord blues that was strikingly different from the Delta blues of the time.


title: John Lee Hooker

text: Another influence was Tony Hollins, who dated Hooker's sister Alice, helped teach Hooker to play, and gave him his first guitar. For the rest of his life, Hooker regarded Hollins as a formative influence on his style of playing and his career as a musician. Among the songs that Hollins reputedly taught Hooker were versions of "Crawlin' King Snake" and "Catfish Blues".


title: John Lee Hooker

text: At the age of 14, Hooker ran away from home, reportedly never seeing his mother or stepfather again. In the mid-1930s, he lived in Memphis, Tennessee, where he performed on Beale Street, at the New Daisy Theatre and occasionally at house parties.


title: John Lee Hooker

text: He worked in factories in various cities during World War II, eventually getting a job with the Ford Motor Company in Detroit in 1943. He frequented the blues clubs and bars on Hastings Street, the heart of the black entertainment district, on Detroit's east side. In a city noted for its pianists, guitar players were scarce. Hooker's popularity grew quickly as he performed in Detroit clubs, and, seeking an instrument louder than his acoustic guitar, he bought his first electric guitar.


title: John Lee Hooker

text: Hooker was working as janitor in a Detroit steel mill when his recording career began in 1948, when Modern Records, based in Los Angeles, released a demo he had recorded for Bernie Besman in Detroit. The single, "Boogie Chillen', became a hit and the best-selling race record of 1949. Though illiterate, Hooker was a prolific lyricist. In addition to adapting traditional blues lyrics, he composed original songs. In the 1950s, like many black musicians, Hooker earned little from record sales, and so he often recorded variations of his songs for different studios for an up-front fee. To evade his recording contract, he used various pseudonyms, including John Lee Booker (for Chess Records and Chance Records in 1951–1952), Johnny Lee (for De Luxe Records in 1953–1954), John Lee, John Lee Cooker, Texas Slim, Delta John, Birmingham Sam and his Magic Guitar, Johnny Williams, and the Boogie Man.


title: John Lee Hooker

text: His early solo songs were recorded by Bernie Besman. Hooker rarely played with a standard beat, but instead he changed tempo to fit the needs of the song. This often made it difficult to use backing musicians, who were not accustomed to Hooker's musical vagaries. As a result, Besman recorded Hooker playing guitar, singing and stomping on a wooden pallet in time with the music.


title: John Lee Hooker

text: For much of this period he recorded and toured with Eddie Kirkland. In Hooker's later sessions for Vee-Jay Records in Chicago, studio musicians accompanied him on most of his recordings, including Eddie Taylor, who could handle his musical idiosyncrasies. "Boom Boom" (1962) and "Dimples", two popular songs by Hooker, were originally released by Vee-Jay.


title: John Lee Hooker

text: Beginning in 1962, Hooker gained greater exposure when he toured Europe in the annual American Folk Blues Festival. His "Dimples" became a successful single on the UK Singles Charts in 1964, eight years after its first US release. Hooker began to perform and record with rock musicians. One of his earliest collaborations was with British blues rock band the Groundhogs. In 1970, he recorded the joint album "Hooker 'n Heat", with the American blues and boogie rock group Canned Heat, whose repertoire included adaptations of Hooker songs. It became the first of Hooker's albums to reach the "Billboard" charts, peaking at number 78 on the Billboard 200. Other collaboration albums soon followed, including "Endless Boogie" (1971) and "Never Get Out of These Blues Alive" (1972), which included Steve Miller, Elvin Bishop, Van Morrison, and others.


title: John Lee Hooker

text: Hooker appeared in the 1980 film "The Blues Brothers". He performed "Boom Boom" in the role of a street musician. In 1989, he recorded the album "The Healer" with Carlos Santana, Bonnie Raitt, and others. The 1990s saw additional collaboration albums: "Mr. Lucky" (1991), "Chill Out" (1995), and "Don't Look Back" (1997) with Morrison, Santana, Los Lobos, and additional guest musicians. His re-recording of "Boom Boom" (the title track for his 1992 album) with guitarist Jimmie Vaughan became Hooker's highest charting single (number 16) in the UK. "Come See About Me", a 2004 DVD, includes performances filmed between 1960 and 1994 and interviews with several of the musicians.


title: John Lee Hooker

text: Hooker owned five houses in his later life, including houses located in Los Altos, California; Redwood City, California, Long Beach, California, and Gilroy, California.


title: John Lee Hooker

text: Among his many awards, Hooker was inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame in 1980, and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1991. He was a recipient of a 1983 National Heritage Fellowship awarded by the National Endowment for the Arts, which is the United States government's highest honor in the folk and traditional arts. He was awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2000 and has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. He is also inducted into the Mississippi Musicians Hall of Fame.


title: John Lee Hooker

text: Two of his songs, "Boogie Chillen" and "Boom Boom", are included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's list of the 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll. "Boogie Chillen" is also included in the Recording Industry Association of America's list of the "Songs of the Century".


title: Vril

text: The Coming Race is a novel by Edward Bulwer-Lytton, published anonymously in 1871. It has also been published as Vril, the Power of the Coming Race.


title: Vril

text: Some readers have believed the account of a superior subterranean master race and the energy-form called "Vril", at least in part; some theosophists, notably Helena Blavatsky, William Scott-Elliot, and Rudolf Steiner, accepted the book as based on occult truth, in part. One 1960 book, "The Morning of the Magicians" by Jacques Bergier and Louis Pauwels, suggested that a secret Vril Society existed in Weimar Berlin.


title: Vril

text: The original, British edition of "The Coming Race" was published anonymously in May 1871, by Blackwood and Sons of Edinburgh and London. (Blackwood published four more "editions" in 1871.) Anonymous American and Canadian editions were published in August, as "The Coming Race, or The New Utopia", by Francis B. Felt & Co. in New York and by Copp, Clark & Co. in Toronto. Late in 1871 Bulwer-Lytton was known to be the author. "Erewhon", which was also published anonymously in March 1872, was initially assumed to be a "Coming Race" sequel by Bulwer-Lytton. When it was revealed that Samuel Butler was the writer in the 25 May 1872 issue of the "Athenaeum"; sales dropped by 90 percent.


title: Vril

text: The novel centres on a young, independent, unnamed, wealthy traveller (the narrator), who visits a friend, a mining engineer. They explore a natural chasm in a mine which has been exposed by an exploratory shaft. The narrator reaches the bottom of the chasm safely, but the rope breaks and his friend is killed. The narrator finds his way into a subterranean world occupied by beings who seem to resemble angels. He befriends the first being he meets, who guides him around a city that is reminiscent of ancient Egyptian architecture. The explorer meets his host's wife, two sons and daughter who learn to speak English by way of a makeshift dictionary during which the narrator unconsciously teaches them the language. His guide comes towards him, and he and his daughter, Zee, explain who they are and how they function.


title: Vril

text: The hero discovers that these beings, who call themselves Vril-ya, have great telepathic and other parapsychological abilities, such as being able to transmit information, get rid of pain, and put others to sleep. The narrator is offended by the idea that the Vril-ya are better adapted to learn about him than he is to learn about them. Nevertheless, the guide (who turns out to be a magistrate) and his son Ta behave kindly towards him.


title: Vril

text: The narrator soon discovers that the Vril-ya are descendants of an antediluvian civilization called the Ana, who live in networks of caverns linked by tunnels. Originally surface dwellers, they fled underground thousands of years ago to escape a massive flood and gained greater power by facing and dominating the harsh conditions of the Earth. The place where the narrator descended houses 12,000 families, one of the largest groups. Their society is a technologically-supported Utopia, chief among their tools being an "all-permeating fluid" called "Vril", a latent source of energy that the spiritually elevated hosts are able to master through training of their will, to a degree that depends on their hereditary constitution. This mastery gives them access to an extraordinary force that can be controlled at will. It is this fluid that the Vril-ya employ to communicate with the narrator. The powers of the Vril include the ability to heal, change, and destroy beings and things; the destructive powers in particular are immense, allowing a few young Vril-ya children to destroy entire cities if necessary.


title: Vril

text: Men (called An, pronounced "Arn") and women (called Gy, pronounced "Gee") have equal rights. The women are stronger and larger than the men. The women are also the pursuing party in romantic relationships. They marry for just three years, after which the men choose whether to remain married, or be single. The female may then pursue a new husband. However, they seldom make the choice to remarry.


title: Vril

text: Their religion posits the existence of a superior being but does not dwell on his nature. The Vril-ya believe in the permanence of life, which according to them is not destroyed but merely changes form.


title: Vril

text: The narrator adopts the attire of his hosts and begins also to adopt their customs. Zee falls in love with him and tells her father, who orders Taë to kill him with his staff. Eventually both Taë and Zee conspire against such a command, and Zee leads the narrator through the same chasm which he first descended. Returning to the surface, he warns that in time the Vril-ya will run out of habitable space underground and will claim the surface of the Earth, destroying mankind in the process, if necessary.


title: Vril

text: The uses of Vril in the novel amongst the Vril-ya vary from destruction to healing. According to Zee, the daughter of the narrator's host, Vril can be changed into the mightiest agency over all types of matter, both animate and inanimate. It can destroy like lightning or replenish life, heal, or cure. It is used to rend ways through solid matter. Its light is said to be steadier, softer and healthier than that from any flammable material. It can also be used as a power source for animating mechanisms. Vril can be harnessed by use of the Vril staff or mental concentration.


title: Vril

text: A Vril staff is an object in the shape of a wand or a staff which is used as a channel for Vril. The narrator describes it as hollow with "stops", "keys", or "springs" in which Vril can be altered, modified, or directed to either destroy or heal. The staff is about the size of a walking stick but can be lengthened or shortened according to the user's preferences. The appearance and function of the Vril staff differs according to gender, age, etc. Some staves are more potent for destruction; others, for healing. The staves of children are said to be much simpler than those of sages; in those of wives and mothers, the destructive part is removed while the healing aspects are emphasised.


title: Vril

text: The book was quite popular in the late 19th century, and for a time the word "Vril" came to be associated with "life-giving elixirs". The best known use of "Vril" in this context is in the name of Bovril (a blend word of Bovine and Vril). There was even a Vril-ya Bazaar held at the Royal Albert Hall in London in March 1891.


title: Vril

text: It also had a strong influence on other contemporary authors. When H. G. Wells' novella "The Time Machine" was published in 1895, The Guardian wrote in its review: "The influence of the author of "The Coming Race" is still powerful, and no year passes without the appearance of stories which describe the manners and customs of peoples in imaginary worlds, sometimes in the stars above, sometimes in the heart of unknown continents in Australia or at the Pole, and sometimes below the waters under the earth. The latest effort in this class of fiction is "The Time Machine", by HG Wells."


title: Vril

text: Recent research has shown that Bulwer-Lytton developed his ideas about "Vril" against the background of his long preoccupation with occult natural forces, which were widely discussed at that time, especially in relation to animal magnetism or, later, spiritualism. In his earlier novels "Zanoni" (1842) and "A Strange Story" (1862), Bulwer-Lytton had discussed electricity and other "material agents" as the possible natural causes for occult phenomena. In "The Coming Race", those ideas are continued in the context of a satirical critique of contemporary philosophical, scientific, and political currents. In a letter to his friend John Forster, Bulwer-Lytton explained his motives:


title: Vril

text: Bulwer-Lytton has been regarded as an "initiate" or "adept" by esotericists, especially because of his Rosicrucian novel "Zanoni" (1842). However, there is no historical evidence that suggests that Bulwer-Lytton can be seen as an occultist, or that he has been the member of any kind of esoteric association. Instead, it has been shown that Bulwer-Lytton has been "esotericized" since the 1870s. In 1870, the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia appointed Bulwer-Lytton as its "Grand Patron." Although Bulwer-Lytton complained about this by letter in 1872, the claim has never been revoked. Other claims, such as his membership in a German masonic lodge "Zur aufgehenden Morgenröthe", have been proven wrong.


title: Vril

text: Those claims, as well as the recurrent esoteric topics in Bulwer-Lytton's works, convinced some commentators that the fictionalised Vril was based on a real magical force. Helena Blavatsky, the founder of Theosophy, endorsed this view in her book "Isis Unveiled" (1877) and again in "The Secret Doctrine" (1888). In Blavatsky, the Vril power and its attainment by a superhuman elite are worked into a mystical doctrine of race. However, the character of the subterranean people was transformed. Instead of potential conquerors, they were benevolent (if mysterious) spiritual guides. Blavatsky's recurrent homage to Bulwer-Lytton and the Vril force has exerted a lasting influence on other esoteric authors.


title: Vril

text: When the theosophist William Scott-Elliot describes life in Atlantis in , the aircraft of the Atlanteans are propelled by Vril-force. His books are still published by the Theosophical Society. Scott-Elliot's description of Atlantean aircraft has been identified as an early inspiration for authors who have related the Vril force to UFOs after World War II.


title: Vril

text: George Bernard Shaw read the book and was attracted to the idea of Vril, according to Michael Holroyd's biography of him.


title: Vril

text: French writer Jules Lermina included a Vril-powered flying machine in his 1910 novel "L'Effrayante Aventure (Panic in Paris)".


title: Vril

text: In his 2011 book of correspondences with David Woodard, Swiss writer Christian Kracht discusses his longstanding interest in Vril. David Bowie's 1971 song "Oh! You Pretty Things" makes reference to the novel.


title: Vril

text: A stage adaptation of the book was written by journalist David Christie Murray and magician Nevil Maskelyne. The production premiered at Saint George's Hall in London on 2 January 1905. Both Nevil Maskelyne and his father John Nevil Maskelyne collaborated on the special effects for the play. The play did not meet with success and closed after a run of eight weeks.


title: Vril

text: Willy Ley was a German rocket engineer who had immigrated to the United States in 1937. In 1947, he published an article titled "Pseudoscience in Naziland" in the magazine "Astounding Science Fiction". He wrote that the high popularity of irrational convictions in Germany at that time explained how Nazism could have fallen on such fertile ground. Among various pseudoscientific groups he mentions one that looked for the Vril:


title: Vril

text: "The next group was literally founded upon a novel. That group which I think called itself 'Wahrheitsgesellschaft' – Society for Truth – and which was more or less localised in Berlin, devoted its spare time looking for Vril."


title: Vril

text: The existence of a Vril Society was alleged in 1960 by Jacques Bergier and Louis Pauwels. In their book "The Morning of the Magicians", they claimed that the Vril-Society was a secret community of occultists in pre-Nazi Berlin that was a sort of inner circle of the Thule Society. They also thought that it was in close contact with the English group known as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. The Vril information takes up about a tenth of the volume, the remainder of which details other esoteric speculations, but the authors fail to clearly explain whether this section is fact or fiction. Historians have shown that there has been no actual historical foundation for the claims of Pauwels and Bergier, and that the article of Willy Ley has only been a vague inspiration for their own ideas. Nevertheless, Pauwels and Bergier have influenced a whole new literary genre dealing with the alleged occult influences on Nazis which have often been related to the fictional Vril Society.


title: Vril

text: In his book "Monsieur Gurdjieff", Louis Pauwels claimed that a Vril Society had been founded by General Karl Haushofer, a student of Russian magician and metaphysician Georges Gurdjieff.


title: Vril

text: The book of Jacques Bergier and Louis Pauwels was published in German with the title: "Aufbruch ins dritte Jahrtausend: von der Zukunft der phantastischen Vernunft" (literally "Departure into the Third Millennium: The Future of the Fantastic Reason") in 1969.


title: Vril

text: In his book "Black Sun", Professor Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke refers to the research of the German author Peter Bahn. Bahn writes in his 1996 essay, "Das Geheimnis der Vril-Energie" ("The Secret of Vril Energy"), of his discovery of an obscure esoteric group calling itself the "Reichsarbeitsgemeinschaft", which revealed itself in a rare 1930 publication "Vril. Die Kosmische Urkraft" (Vril, the cosmic elementary power) written by a member of this Berlin-based group, under the pseudonym "Johannes Täufer" (German: "John [the] Baptist"). Published by the influential astrological publisher, Otto Wilhelm Barth (whom Bahn believes was "Täufer"), the 60-page pamphlet says little of the group other than that it was founded in 1925 to study the uses of Vril energy. The German historian Julian Strube has argued that the historical existence of the "Reichsarbeitsgemeinschaft" can be regarded as irrelevant to the post-war invention of the Vril Society, as Pauwels and Bergier have developed their ideas without any knowledge of that actual association. Strube has also shown that the Vril force has been irrelevant to the other members of the "Reichsarbeitsgemeinschaft," who were supporters of the theories of the Austrian inventor Karl Schappeller (1875–1947).


title: Vril

text: After World War II, a group referred to by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke as the Vienna Circle elaborated an esoteric neo-Nazism that contributed to the circulation of the Vril theme in a new context. In their writings, Vril is associated with Nazi UFOs and the Black Sun concept. Julian Strube wrote that a younger generation related to the Tempelhofgesellschaft, has continued the work of the Vienna Circle and exerts a continuous influence on the most common notions of Vril. Those notions are not only popular in neo-Nazi circles but also in movies or computer games, such as "", "Wolfenstein", and "Call of Duty".


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Denzel Justus Morris Dumfries (born 18 April 1996) is a Dutch professional footballer who plays as a right-back for club Inter Milan and the Netherlands national team.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Dumfries began his senior career in 2014 at Sparta Rotterdam, helping them gain promotion to the Eredivisie in 2016 as the Eerste Divisie Talent of the Year. In 2017, he joined Heerenveen, before moving to PSV the following year, eventually becoming the club captain. In 2021, Dumfries joined Serie A side Inter Milan.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Born in the Netherlands to an Aruban father, Dumfries initially represented Aruba internationally in 2014, before switching allegiance to the Netherlands. He made his senior debut in 2018, and represented the Netherlands at UEFA Euro 2020 and the 2022 FIFA World Cup.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Denzel Justus Morris Dumfries was born on 18 April 1996 in Rotterdam, South Holland, to a Surinamese mother and Aruban father. His parents named him after American actor Denzel Washington.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Growing up, Dumfries said he was determined to make it as a professional footballer, for which he was ridiculed and mocked by his peers, due to his lack of technical skills at the time. But Dumfries proved his doubters wrong, saying in an interview with "Voetbal International": "I knew I would become a professional football player and I said it to everyone: I'm sure I'll make the Dutch national team. I knew that they all thought that doesn't make sense. But I have always proclaimed it. The people who have not seen it in me have been limited in their vision. They only looked at me at the time, but they should have looked further. How can he develop? I think everyone should look at themselves that way, not limit yourself to someone small. You have to look up, not down. What can I achieve, what is my potential and how am I going to get there? I knew exactly what I had to do to take certain steps."


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: As a Rotterdam native, Dumfries began his football career at Spartaan '20 and spent two years before he was released by the club for being "not considered good enough as a boy" and was not well liked by teammates and even trainers. Shortly after, Dumfries then joined Smitshoek, having to "sign up for himself" and said about his time at the club, saying: "As a youth I could already go to Spartaan'20, but that was difficult. My parents always had to bring me, I had to wait until I could ride my own bike. It took some getting used to. Smitshoek was a village, this was in the city. You had to fight for your place, maybe I was a bit too timid among all those city boys. You might find it hard to believe now, but I was a bit shy and reserved. They were all men, tough guys." When he started out playing football, Dumfries played as a striker before converting to defender. Dumfries then signed up for amateur side Barendrecht and spent a year at the club. At one point, Feyenoord scouted the player but they rejected him, claiming that "he's not good enough."


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Dumfries then left Barendrecht for Sparta Rotterdam in 2014. Having progressed with the club's youth system within months, he signed his first professional contract with Sparta Rotterdam on a multi-year contract, keeping him at the club until 2017. Dumfries then made his professional debut on 20 February 2015 against FC Emmen, coming on as a second-half substitute, in a 2–1 loss. He later made two more appearances in the 2014–15 season, both coming on as a substitute.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: At the start of the 2015–16 season, Dumfries started out on the substitute bench before he established himself in the first team, playing in the right–back position and helped Sparta Rotterdam become contenders for promotion to Eredivisie. On 7 November 2015, Dumfries signed a contract extension with the club, keeping him at the club until 2019. He then scored his first goal in his professional career, in a 5–2 win against RKC Waalwijk on 18 January 2016. Dumfries started in every match, playing in the right–back position, to help the club maintain their promotion to Eredivisie until he was suspended for one match for picking up five yellow cards this season. After serving a one match suspension, Dumfries returned to the starting line–up against Almere City on 14 March 2016, as Sparta Rotterdam lost 1–0. He later helped the club beat Jong Ajax 3–1 on 11 April 2016 to confirm their promotion to the Eredivisie next season. Throughout the 2015–16 season, Dumfries' performance led to Dutch media, calling him the best player in the league. For his performance, he won both Eerste Divisie Talent of the Year Award and the Bronze Bull. At the end of the 2015–16 season, Dumfries went on to make thirty–three appearances and scoring once in all competitions.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: At the start of the 2016–17 season, Dumfries said about the new season, saying: "So the Eredivisie came for me at a good time. I want to keep developing myself, so it's good to have better and smarter opponents against me now. They force me to be smarter in choosing the moments I can come up with, but I think I picked this up pretty quickly." He continued to establish himself in the first team, playing in the right–back position. However, Dumfries received a red card for a second bookable offence, in a 1–1 draw against AZ Alkmaar on 2 October 2016. After serving a one match suspension, he returned to the starting line–up, in a 1–0 loss against PSV Eindhoven on 22 October 2016. Dumfries then scored his first Eredivisie goal, in a 3–2 loss against Excelsior on 19 November 2016. After serving a one match suspension in the next match, he returned to the starting line–up, in a 6–1 loss against Feyenoord on 4 December 2016. However, Dumfries found himself competing with new signing Janne Saksela over the right–back position. As a result, he was dropped to the substitute in favour of Saksela for two separate matches. Despite this, Dumfries continued to regain his first team place, playing in the right–back position for the rest of the 2016–17 season. He later helped Sparta Rotterdam avoid relegation after the club won the last two matches of the season against FC Twente and Go Ahead Eagles. A month after leaving Sparta Rotterdam, Dumfries was given a farewell send-off prior to the club's match against PEC Zwolle, along with departing teammates Mart Dijkstra, Rick Ketting and David Mendes da Silva.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: In October 2016, Dumfries stated that he wanted to leave Sparta Rotterdam in hopes of playing in a higher level. In summer 2017, Dumfries joined Heerenveen to replace Belgium-bound Stefano Marzo and signed a four–year contract with the club.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: He made his debut for Heerenveen, starting a match in the opening game of the season against FC Groningen and set up two goals, in a 3–3 draw. Dumfries set up three goals, with twice against ADO Den Haag and once against PSV Eindhoven on 26 August 2017 and 10 September 2017 respectively. Both of the matches led to Dutch media Algemeen Dagblad named him Team of the Week. He also awarded Eredivisie's Talent of the Month for August. During a match against PSV Eindhoven, Dumfries was subjected of the attention after Jürgen Locadia allegedly spat him, which was caught on camera, leading to an investigation from the KNVB committee. Eventually, Locadia was cleared by the committee after the player came forward with the investigation. Since making his debut for the club, he quickly established himself in the first team, playing in the right–back position. His performances impressed the Dutch media that Dumfries was named Team of the Week by Algemeen Dagblad at least four occasions in the 2017–18 season. On 9 December 2017, he scored his first goal for Heerenveen, scoring a header with a first equaliser, in an eventual 2–2 draw against VVV-Venlo. In a league match against AZ Alkmaar on 23 December 2017, Dumfries scored an own goal to give the opposition team an equaliser, which the club eventually lost 3–1. But he was able to make amends by scoring his second goal for Heerenveen, in a 2–1 win against his former club, Sparta Rotterdam on 26 January 2018. A week later on 6 February 2018, Dumfries scored his third goal for the club and setting up one of the goals, in a 3–2 loss against PEC Zwolle. After serving a one match suspension due to picking up five yellow cards this season, he returned to the starting line–up against Willem II and set up a goal, in a 2–0 win on 3 March 2018. In the first leg of the league playoffs for the place in the UEFA Europa League spot against FC Utrecht, Dumfries scored his fourth goal of the season, in a 4–3 win. However, in the return leg, FC Utrecht managed to turn the deficit with the results by winning 2–1, resulting the opposition team going through, thanks to away goal rule. At the end of the 2017–18 season, he went on to make thirty–seven appearances and scoring four times in all competitions.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: On 19 June 2018, Dumfries signed a five-year contract for PSV Eindhoven on a four–year contract, keeping him until 2023. The transfer fee reportedly be to have cost 5.5 million euros. It came after when he replaced the departing defender duo Joshua Brenet and Santiago Arias.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Dumfries made his PSV Eindhoven debut, playing in the right–back position against Feyenoord in the Johan Cruyff Shield and started the whole game throughout 120 minutes, as PSV Eindhoven lost 6–5 on penalties. He scored on his league debut, scoring from a header, as the club won 4–0 against FC Utrecht in the opening game of the season. After the match, Dumfries was named Team of the Week by both De Telegraaf and Algemeen Dagblad. He helped PSV Eindhoven got off to a good start to the season, including qualifying for the UEFA Champions League Group Stage after beating Bate Borisov 6–3 on aggregate and saw the club on a winning streak, resulting in them at the top of the table by the end of the month. Dumfries made his UEFA Champions League debut against FC Barcelona on 18 September 2018 and started the whole game in the right–back, as PSV Eindhoven lost 4–0. He helped PSV Eindhoven keep five clean sheets in five league matches between 15 September 2018 and 20 October 2018, including a 3–0 win over rivals, Ajax. Dumfires scored his second goal for the club against FC Groningen on 27 October 2018, which turned out to be a winning goal, in a 2–1 win. Since the start of the 2018–19 season, he immediately established himself in the first team, playing in the right–back position. Dumfries then scored his third goal for PSV Eindhoven, scoring from a header, in a 4–0 win against Heracles Almelo on 15 December 2018. He then helped the club keep three clean sheets in three matches between 3 March 2019 and 17 March 2019 in attempt to maintain their title contender status. Dumfries set up two goals in two matches between 7 April 2019 and 14 April 2019 against Vitesse and De Graafschap. This was followed up by scoring his fourth goal of the season, in a 3–1 win against ADO Den Haag. However, he was unable to help PSV Eindhoven defend the league title after surrendering it to their rivals, Ajax. Having played in every league match throughout his first season at the club, Dumfries went on to make forty–three appearances and scoring four times in all competitions. For his performance, he was named Eredivisie Team of the Year of 2018–19 season


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: At the start of the 2019–20 season, Dumfries started in the right–back position in the Johan Cruyff Shield against rivals, Ajax, as PSV Eindhoven lost 2–0. In the opening game of the season, he scored his first goal of the season, scoring an equaliser header, in a 1–1 draw against FC Twente. Throughout the club's matches in the UEFA Europa League qualification, Dumfries started four times and helped PSV Eindhoven advance to the group stage after beating FK Haugesund and Apollon Limassol (which he also earned a scoresheet in the first leg). He then scored his third goal of the season, in a 3–1 win against FC Groningen on 25 September 2019. A week later on 6 October 2019 against VVV-Venlo, Dumfries set up a goal for teammate Steven Bergwijn, who in return, set up a goal for him, as the club won 4–1. After the absent of Ibrahim Afellay and Pablo Rosario, it was announced that the player would be appointed as the new captain of PSV Eindhoven. He hinted about taking a captaincy for the club earlier in the season. Dumfries captained his first match for PSV Eindhoven against his former club, SC Heerenveen on 24 November 2019 and helped the club win 2–1. However, he was suspended for one match for picking five yellow cards, causing him to miss a match against PEC Zwolle on 21 December 2019 and was an ever–present in the right–back position since the start of the 2019–20 season until his suspension. Along the way, Dumfries received criticism for his performance, both domestically and internationally in the first half of the 2019–20 season, which he vowed to make an improvement in the second half of the season. After serving a one match suspension, Dumfries scored on his return, scoring a late minute equaliser, in a 1–1 draw against VVV-Venlo on 19 January 2020. This was followed up by scoring again in a 1–1 draw against FC Twente. Two weeks later on 8 February 2020, he scored his seventh goal of the season, in a 3–0 win against Willem II. Dumfries scored his eighth goal of the season, in a 1–0 win against FC Groningen on 8 March 2020, in what turned out to be the last game of the season and the team in fourth place when the season was curtailed because of the COVID-19 pandemic. By the time the season was suspended, he went on to make forty appearances and scoring eight times in all competitions.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Ahead of the 2020–21 season, Dumfries was linked with a move to Serie A clubs, such as, Juventus and Milan. Despite weighing up his options, he ended up staying at PSV Eindhoven, leading the club to start a new contract negotiation with the player. At the start of the 2020–21 season, Dumfries continued to resume his captain role at PSV Eindhoven after Roger Schmidt chose him over Pablo Rosario. He helped the club make a good start to the season in first place in the first five league matches of the season and reaching the group stage in the UEFA Europa League. After recovering from COVID-19, Dumfries made his return to the starting line–up against Willem II on 8 November 2020 and set up two goals, in a 3–0 win. Following this, he continued to regain his first team place, playing in the right–back position, as well as, retaining his captaincy for PSV Eindhoven. Dumfries then scored his first goal of the season, in a 4–0 win against AC Omonia in the UEFA Europa League on 10 December 2020. He made his 100th appearance for the club, in a 2–1 win against De Graafschap in the second round of the KNVB Cup on 16 December 2020. Three days later on 19 December 2020, Dumfries scored his third goal of the season, in a 4–1 win against RKC Waalwijk. In late–December, he later said his aim as captain was to help PSV Eindhoven win the league. Dumfries scored his third goal of the season, in a 2–0 win against FC Volendam in the last 16 of the KNVB Cup on 19 January 2021. Having played in the right–back position for most of the season, he played in the right–midfield position against Vitesse on 21 February 2021, due to a rotation change made by Schmidt and the club went on to win 3–1. Dumfries then scored his fourth goal of the season, in a 3–0 win against Heracles Almelo on 4 April 2021. This was followed up by helping PSV Eindhoven keep two clean sheets in the next two matches to make it three in a row. His suspension against SC Heerenveen on 2 May 2021 saw the club draw 2–2, resulting in them losing their league title chances to rivals, Ajax. Despite suffering minor injuries on three separate occasions throughout the 2020–21 season, he went on to make forty–one appearances and scoring four times in all competitions.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Throughout the 2020–21 season, the contract negotiations was a talking point on whether Dumfries would stay at PSV Eindhoven. By February, the agreement has yet been reached between the two parties. In April 2021, it was expected that the player would be leaving the club in the summer transfer window. Throughout the UEFA Euro 2020 with an impressive performance, interests in signing the player increased from clubs around Europe, with Everton and Bayern Munich and Inter Milan interested.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Dumfries joined Serie A champions Inter Milan on 14 August 2021 for 12.5 million euros, with a further 2.5 million euros as a bonus for the PSV Eindhoven. It was reported by the Dutch media that his former clubs would receive compensations as part of the transfer. Upon joining the club, he was given a number two shirt.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Dumfries made his debut for Inter Milan as a second-half substitute against Genoa on the opening day of the 2021–22 Serie A season, winning 4–0.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Dumfries was eligible to play for Aruba through his father, Boris; Suriname through his mother, Marleen; and Netherlands, his birthplace. While still at Barendrecht, Dumfries received a call-up to play for the Aruba national football team. He made his debut in a March 2014 friendly match against Guam, starting a match, in a 2–2 draw. Dumfries scored a goal against the same opposition in their second encounter a few days later.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: However, Dumfries maintained his desires to represent Netherlands because he believed playing for the Oranje was his international future. During his success in the UEFA Euro 2020, then Aruba manager Giovanni Franken told in an interview how people in Aruba were critical of Dumfries' decision to reject the national team, calling him a "traitor" at the time.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: In March 2016, Dumfries was called up to the Netherlands U20 squad for the first time. He made his Oranje U20 debut on 24 March 2016 against Portugal U20 and started the whole game, as they drew 1–1. Dumfries later made three more appearances by the end of the year.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: In November 2016, Dumfries was called up to the Netherlands U21 squad for the first time. He made his debut for the Oranje U21, coming on as a 57th-minute substitute, in a 1–1 draw against Portugal U21 on 15 November 2016. Dumfries became a first choice right–back for Netherlands U21, playing five times in 2017, mostly for the UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualification. However, he continued to remain in the starting eleven for Oranje U21 between March and September. Dumfries went on to make eleven appearances for Netherlands U21.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Ronald Koeman named Dumfries in the Netherlands squad for the first time in October 2018. He played his first international match against Germany on 13 October 2018, as the Oranje national team won 3–0. After the match, Dumfries reflected on his debut, saying: "On the way to the game I had a moment of: this is really what I wanted and in which no one believed in. At that moment you are really proud of yourself. A fantastic moment for me, I worked hard for this." Although he was featured in a 2–0 win against France, Netherlands qualified for League A in the UEFA Nations League where they would qualify to the final four after drawing with Germany on the final match day, beating France by head-to-head records. During a 4–0 win against Belarus on 21 March 2019, Dumfries started in a European qualifier match and played 68 minutes before being substituted, due to suffering from a groin injury. But he quickly recovered and was featured in a match against Germany on 24 March 2019, as Netherlands lost 3–2.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: In May 2019, Dumfries was called up to the Netherlands squad for the inaugural UEFA Nations League Finals. He started the whole game against England in the semi–finals on 6 June 2019 and helped Oranje win 3–1 to reach the final. After the match, his performance was praised by FC Update, saying: "Without him, the Netherlands would probably have fallen 0-2 behind." However, in the final against Portugal three days later on 9 June 2019, Dumfries started the whole game, as Oranje lost 1–0. After the match, his performance came under criticism for his poor display throughout the match, a criticism he knowledge, calling it "sloppy". Between 2018 and 2019, Dumfries fought for his place in with Netherlands, competing in the right–back position with Kenny Tete and Joël Veltman.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Having not played for Oranje for almost a year, Dumfries made his first appearances for Netherlands against Italy on 7 September 2020, coming on as a 70th-minute substitute, in a 1–0 loss. In a UEFA Nations League match against Bosnia and Herzegovina on 15 November 2020, he set up two goals for Oranje, as they won 3–1. In May 2021, Dumfries was named in the Dutch 34-man preliminary squad for Euro 2020 on 14 May 2021, with the 26-man squad to be announced on 26 May. The tournament which is taken place in the summer of 2021 due to the previous year's postponement as a result of Coronavirus. He was included in the final 26-man squad on 26 May. Dutch football expert James Rowe told BBC Sport that prior to the start of the tournament, De Boer's favoured 5-3-2 formation would suit Dumfries and the marauding wing-back has looked more like a right-sided forward at times. On 13 June 2021, Dumfries scored his first goal for the Netherlands, netting the winner in a 3–2 win over Ukraine at UEFA Euro 2020. After the match, FC Update said about his performance: "A taxi can go fast, but if it doesn't drop you off at your destination, it's of little use. With his energy, Dumfries was great in the first half, but the finish was dramatic. He was (in)directly involved in both the first and second Orange goal, although he did not receive an assist before that and in fact he was annoyingly offside for the second goal. But the goal stood still and with his striking header (his first international goal!) it was still Dumfries' evening." He followed this up with a goal in the next game against Austria in a 2–0 win. Having helped Netherlands qualify for the knockout stage, Dumfries was named Best Eleven of the group stage tournament. The Dutch were knocked out in the Round of 16 after a 2–0 loss against Czech Republic on 27 June at the Puskás Aréna in Budapest.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: In November 2022, he was named in the final squad for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar. On 3 December, he scored a goal and provided two assists in a 3–1 win over the United States in the round of 16.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Former teammate Daniël Esajas said about Dumfries: "As humble, almost shy as Denzel could be off the field, he was so convinced of his footballing qualities. He never doubted that he would reach the absolute top. Denzel had one quality that many of his peers lacked: an unwavering commitment. But he sometimes took it too far. He wanted to give the pass and then head the ball in himself. I can still see Denzel racing across that field. Then he would have picked up the ball from his own keeper. And there he then went with those big steps, in one straight line to the other side, directly towards his goal. Denzel wasn't even super wide, rather tall. But he was just unbearable for opponents. He went right through them like an elephant. Boom Boom Boom!" Dumfries said about his position: "Still, I think eliminating the opponent is the most important task of a right back. You are, after all, on the defensive. I can make quite a few meters and I like to do that. It's part of my game. With personal trainer Hans Kroon we do a lot of strength training so that we become stronger every day. I may have to act smarter sometimes, but things like that come with time. Every game I get better and I gain experience. I can use that experience, for example, to ensure that I never get into positional problems again." He further stated: "They used to say I had ADHD, but I like to give gas, I always want to do that. I was thinking about it and thought: these are nice games that I play. I played them last year and not the year before. Very nice. It is addictive to act at the highest level."


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Then manager Alex Pastoor said about Dumfries, saying: "He has a lot of conditions to be able to reach the absolute top. Just look at his physique. If you can come up eighty times per half... Those are things that ultimately the biggest clubs in the world fall for." His performance against Ajax on 23 October 2018 led former defender Ben Wijnstekers commenting: "I think he's great. Dumfries led the fight and that was typical of PSV. He was incredibly aggressive in the duels, bit into his opponent and kept coming up. He has an enormous condition and was very irritating for Ajax. Such a player is great to have on your team. He is sometimes too hot-tempered and because of his enthusiasm he occasionally makes unnecessary violations. He has to be a little smarter in that. And in terms of standing up, he might also be able to dose a little more." Italian newspaper "La Gazzetta dello Sport" compared Dumfries to the cryptocurrency Bitcoin, writing: "In the beginning nobody trusts it, but you had better invest in it", which he responded by laughing in the press conference. "De Telegraaf" reporter John de Wolf commented about Dumfries, saying: "Denzel Dumfries played less conspicuously this time, not as compelling as usual. That's possible once. I worked with Denzel at Jong Sparta and later experienced as an assistant how he came to the first of Sparta. That was four years ago and when you see what he has achieved in the meantime, it is very impressive. You could then did not predict that he would achieve this. But Denzel stood out with his head power, jumping power and speed. I got to know him as a very enthusiastic boy, who had the absolute drive and passion to improve himself. It is admirable how he has done that."


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Both Netherlands manager Koeman and then PSV Eindhoven manager Mark van Bommel praised Dumfries' development during the 2018–19 season. However, he faced criticism for playing the ball back instead of pressing more forward often. Dumfries responded to criticism, saying: "Then it's up to me to remain undisturbed. Just do my own thing and don't go crazy, to prove myself extra. Do everything I can to defend that goal. It's nice that I get that ball off the line". Former PSV Eindhoven manager Aad de Mos believed that Dumfries had the potential to be in the national team squad, though he thought that Dumfries needed to improve on his crosses. Dumfries said in an interview on the club's website that he has improved on his crosses since then. Former PSV Eindhoven manager Kenneth Perez described Dumfries as "someone who stands out for his team"


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Dumfries has two cousins, Jason and Jahfarr Wilnis, who are both kickboxers. In September 2020, he became a father for the first time.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: In May 2020, Dumfries was among several players and staff members who agreed to give up a month's salary, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On 25 October 2020, Dumfries tested positive for COVID-19 amid the pandemic in the Netherlands.


title: Denzel Dumfries

text: Dumfries has spoken out about racism, saying: "I don't like to play the victim role, but such incidents do come. I want to hear what drives someone, to think that this is funny. I am very open about that. I want to start such a conversation. That is the only way to learn to understand each other. In a football team, jokes are part and parcel, but it is always done within frameworks and with respect. It is binding, we also show interest in each other, regardless of origin or religion. That is what makes a team and that should be the case for the whole of society apply."


title: Philosophy of science

text: Philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science. The central questions of this study concern what qualifies as science, the reliability of scientific theories, and the ultimate purpose of science. This discipline overlaps with metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology, for example, when it explores the relationship between science and truth. Philosophy of science focuses on metaphysical, epistemic and semantic aspects of science. Ethical issues such as bioethics and scientific misconduct are often considered ethics or science studies rather than the philosophy of science.


title: Philosophy of science

text: There is no consensus among philosophers about many of the central problems concerned with the philosophy of science, including whether science can reveal the truth about unobservable things and whether scientific reasoning can be justified at all. In addition to these general questions about science as a whole, philosophers of science consider problems that apply to particular sciences (such as biology or physics). Some philosophers of science also use contemporary results in science to reach conclusions about philosophy itself.


title: Philosophy of science

text: While philosophical thought pertaining to science dates back at least to the time of Aristotle, general philosophy of science emerged as a distinct discipline only in the 20th century in the wake of the logical positivist movement, which aimed to formulate criteria for ensuring all philosophical statements' meaningfulness and objectively assessing them. Charles Sanders Peirce and Karl Popper moved on from positivism to establish a modern set of standards for scientific methodology. Thomas Kuhn's 1962 book "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" was also formative, challenging the view of scientific progress as the steady, cumulative acquisition of knowledge based on a fixed method of systematic experimentation and instead of arguing that any progress is relative to a "paradigm", the set of questions, concepts, and practices that define a scientific discipline in a particular historical period.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Subsequently, the coherentist approach to science, in which a theory is validated if it makes sense of observations as part of a coherent whole, became prominent due to W. V. Quine and others. Some thinkers such as Stephen Jay Gould seek to ground science in axiomatic assumptions, such as the uniformity of nature. A vocal minority of philosophers, and Paul Feyerabend in particular, argue that there is no such thing as the "scientific method", so all approaches to science should be allowed, including explicitly supernatural ones. Another approach to thinking about science involves studying how knowledge is created from a sociological perspective, an approach represented by scholars like David Bloor and Barry Barnes. Finally, a tradition in continental philosophy approaches science from the perspective of a rigorous analysis of human experience.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Philosophies of the particular sciences range from questions about the nature of time raised by Einstein's general relativity, to the implications of economics for public policy. A central theme is whether the terms of one scientific theory can be intra- or intertheoretically reduced to the terms of another. That is, can chemistry be reduced to physics, or can sociology be reduced to individual psychology? The general questions of philosophy of science also arise with greater specificity in some particular sciences. For instance, the question of the validity of scientific reasoning is seen in a different guise in the foundations of statistics. The question of what counts as science and what should be excluded arises as a life-or-death matter in the philosophy of medicine. Additionally, the philosophies of biology, psychology, and the social sciences explore whether the scientific studies of human nature can achieve objectivity or are inevitably shaped by values and by social relations.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Distinguishing between science and non-science is referred to as the demarcation problem. For example, should psychoanalysis, creation science, and historical materialism be considered pseudosciences? Karl Popper called this the central question in the philosophy of science. However, no unified account of the problem has won acceptance among philosophers, and some regard the problem as unsolvable or uninteresting. Martin Gardner has argued for the use of a Potter Stewart standard ("I know it when I see it") for recognizing pseudoscience.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Early attempts by the logical positivists grounded science in observation while non-science was non-observational and hence meaningless. Popper argued that the central property of science is falsifiability. That is, every genuinely scientific claim is capable of being proven false, at least in principle.


title: Philosophy of science

text: An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim a legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is referred to as pseudoscience, fringe science, or junk science. Physicist Richard Feynman coined the term "cargo cult science" for cases in which researchers believe they are doing science because their activities have the outward appearance of it but actually lack the "kind of utter honesty" that allows their results to be rigorously evaluated.


title: Philosophy of science

text: A closely related question is what counts as a good scientific explanation. In addition to providing predictions about future events, society often takes scientific theories to provide explanations for events that occur regularly or have already occurred. Philosophers have investigated the criteria by which a scientific theory can be said to have successfully explained a phenomenon, as well as what it means to say a scientific theory has explanatory power.


title: Philosophy of science

text: One early and influential account of scientific explanation is the deductive-nomological model. It says that a successful scientific explanation must deduce the occurrence of the phenomena in question from a scientific law. This view has been subjected to substantial criticism, resulting in several widely acknowledged counterexamples to the theory. It is especially challenging to characterize what is meant by an explanation when the thing to be explained cannot be deduced from any law because it is a matter of chance, or otherwise cannot be perfectly predicted from what is known. Wesley Salmon developed a model in which a good scientific explanation must be statistically relevant to the outcome to be explained. Others have argued that the key to a good explanation is unifying disparate phenomena or providing a causal mechanism.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Although it is often taken for granted, it is not at all clear how one can infer the validity of a general statement from a number of specific instances or infer the truth of a theory from a series of successful tests. For example, a chicken observes that each morning the farmer comes and gives it food, for hundreds of days in a row. The chicken may therefore use inductive reasoning to infer that the farmer will bring food "every" morning. However, one morning, the farmer comes and kills the chicken. How is scientific reasoning more trustworthy than the chicken's reasoning?


title: Philosophy of science

text: One approach is to acknowledge that induction cannot achieve certainty, but observing more instances of a general statement can at least make the general statement more probable. So the chicken would be right to conclude from all those mornings that it is likely the farmer will come with food again the next morning, even if it cannot be certain. However, there remain difficult questions about the process of interpreting any given evidence into a probability that the general statement is true. One way out of these particular difficulties is to declare that all beliefs about scientific theories are subjective, or personal, and correct reasoning is merely about how evidence should change one's subjective beliefs over time.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Some argue that what scientists do is not inductive reasoning at all but rather abductive reasoning, or inference to the best explanation. In this account, science is not about generalizing specific instances but rather about hypothesizing explanations for what is observed. As discussed in the previous section, it is not always clear what is meant by the "best explanation". Ockham's razor, which counsels choosing the simplest available explanation, thus plays an important role in some versions of this approach. To return to the example of the chicken, would it be simpler to suppose that the farmer cares about it and will continue taking care of it indefinitely or that the farmer is fattening it up for slaughter? Philosophers have tried to make this heuristic principle more precise in terms of theoretical parsimony or other measures. Yet, although various measures of simplicity have been brought forward as potential candidates, it is generally accepted that there is no such thing as a theory-independent measure of simplicity. In other words, there appear to be as many different measures of simplicity as there are theories themselves, and the task of choosing between measures of simplicity appears to be every bit as problematic as the job of choosing between theories. Nicholas Maxwell has argued for some decades that unity rather than simplicity is the key non-empirical factor in influencing choice of theory in science, persistent preference for unified theories in effect committing science to the acceptance of a metaphysical thesis concerning unity in nature. In order to improve this problematic thesis, it needs to be represented in the form of a hierarchy of theses, each thesis becoming more insubstantial as one goes up the hierarchy.


title: Philosophy of science

text: When making observations, scientists look through telescopes, study images on electronic screens, record meter readings, and so on. Generally, on a basic level, they can agree on what they see, e.g., the thermometer shows 37.9 degrees C. But, if these scientists have different ideas about the theories that have been developed to explain these basic observations, they may disagree about what they are observing. For example, before Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, observers would have likely interpreted an image of the Einstein cross as five different objects in space. In light of that theory, however, astronomers will tell you that there are actually only two objects, one in the center and four different images of a second object around the sides. Alternatively, if other scientists suspect that something is wrong with the telescope and only one object is actually being observed, they are operating under yet another theory. Observations that cannot be separated from theoretical interpretation are said to be theory-laden.


title: Philosophy of science

text: All observation involves both perception and cognition. That is, one does not make an observation passively, but rather is actively engaged in distinguishing the phenomenon being observed from surrounding sensory data. Therefore, observations are affected by one's underlying understanding of the way in which the world functions, and that understanding may influence what is perceived, noticed, or deemed worthy of consideration. In this sense, it can be argued that all observation is theory-laden.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Should science aim to determine ultimate truth, or are there questions that science cannot answer? "Scientific realists" claim that science aims at truth and that one ought to regard scientific theories as true, approximately true, or likely true. Conversely, "scientific anti-realists" argue that science does not aim (or at least does not succeed) at truth, especially truth about unobservables like electrons or other universes. Instrumentalists argue that scientific theories should only be evaluated on whether they are useful. In their view, whether theories are true or not is beside the point, because the purpose of science is to make predictions and enable effective technology.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Realists often point to the success of recent scientific theories as evidence for the truth (or near truth) of current theories. Antirealists point to either the many false theories in the history of science, epistemic morals, the success of false modeling assumptions, or widely termed postmodern criticisms of objectivity as evidence against scientific realism. Antirealists attempt to explain the success of scientific theories without reference to truth. Some antirealists claim that scientific theories aim at being accurate only about observable objects and argue that their success is primarily judged by that criterion.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Values intersect with science in different ways. There are epistemic values that mainly guide the scientific research. The scientific enterprise is embedded in particular culture and values through individual practitioners. Values emerge from science, both as product and process and can be distributed among several cultures in the society. When it comes to the justification of science in the sense of general public participation by single practitioners, science plays the role of a mediator between evaluating the standards and policies of society and its participating individuals, wherefore science indeed falls victim to vandalism and sabotage adapting the means to the end.


title: Philosophy of science

text: If it is unclear what counts as science, how the process of confirming theories works, and what the purpose of science is, there is considerable scope for values and other social influences to shape science. Indeed, values can play a role ranging from determining which research gets funded to influencing which theories achieve scientific consensus. For example, in the 19th century, cultural values held by scientists about race shaped research on evolution, and values concerning social class influenced debates on phrenology (considered scientific at the time). Feminist philosophers of science, sociologists of science, and others explore how social values affect science.


title: Philosophy of science

text: The origins of philosophy of science trace back to Plato and Aristotle who distinguished the forms of approximate and exact reasoning, set out the threefold scheme of abductive, deductive, and inductive inference, and also analyzed reasoning by analogy. The eleventh century Arab polymath Ibn al-Haytham (known in Latin as Alhazen) conducted his research in optics by way of controlled experimental testing and applied geometry, especially in his investigations into the images resulting from the reflection and refraction of light. Roger Bacon (1214–1294), an English thinker and experimenter heavily influenced by al-Haytham, is recognized by many to be the father of modern scientific method. His view that mathematics was essential to a correct understanding of natural philosophy was considered to be 400 years ahead of its time.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Francis Bacon (no direct relation to Roger, who lived 300 years earlier) was a seminal figure in philosophy of science at the time of the Scientific Revolution. In his work "Novum Organum" (1620)an allusion to Aristotle's "Organon"Bacon outlined a new system of logic to improve upon the old philosophical process of syllogism. Bacon's method relied on experimental "histories" to eliminate alternative theories. In 1637, René Descartes established a new framework for grounding scientific knowledge in his treatise, "Discourse on Method", advocating the central role of reason as opposed to sensory experience. By contrast, in 1713, the 2nd edition of Isaac Newton's "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" argued that "... hypotheses ... have no place in experimental philosophy. In this philosophy[,] propositions are deduced from the phenomena and rendered general by induction." This passage influenced a "later generation of philosophically-inclined readers to pronounce a ban on causal hypotheses in natural philosophy". In particular, later in the 18th century, David Hume would famously articulate skepticism about the ability of science to determine causality and gave a definitive formulation of the problem of induction. The 19th century writings of John Stuart Mill are also considered important in the formation of current conceptions of the scientific method, as well as anticipating later accounts of scientific explanation.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Instrumentalism became popular among physicists around the turn of the 20th century, after which logical positivism defined the field for several decades. Logical positivism accepts only testable statements as meaningful, rejects metaphysical interpretations, and embraces verificationism (a set of theories of knowledge that combines logicism, empiricism, and linguistics to ground philosophy on a basis consistent with examples from the empirical sciences). Seeking to overhaul all of philosophy and convert it to a new "scientific philosophy", the Berlin Circle and the Vienna Circle propounded logical positivism in the late 1920s.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Interpreting Ludwig Wittgenstein's early philosophy of language, logical positivists identified a verifiability principle or criterion of cognitive meaningfulness. From Bertrand Russell's logicism they sought reduction of mathematics to logic. They also embraced Russell's logical atomism, Ernst Mach's phenomenalism—whereby the mind knows only actual or potential sensory experience, which is the content of all sciences, whether physics or psychology—and Percy Bridgman's operationalism. Thereby, only the "verifiable" was scientific and "cognitively meaningful", whereas the unverifiable was unscientific, cognitively meaningless "pseudostatements"—metaphysical, emotive, or such—not worthy of further review by philosophers, who were newly tasked to organize knowledge rather than develop new knowledge.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Logical positivism is commonly portrayed as taking the extreme position that scientific language should never refer to anything unobservable—even the seemingly core notions of causality, mechanism, and principles—but that is an exaggeration. Talk of such unobservables could be allowed as metaphorical—direct observations viewed in the abstract—or at worst metaphysical or emotional. "Theoretical laws" would be reduced to "empirical laws", while "theoretical terms" would garner meaning from "observational terms" via "correspondence rules". Mathematics in physics would reduce to symbolic logic via logicism, while rational reconstruction would convert ordinary language into standardized equivalents, all networked and united by a logical syntax. A scientific theory would be stated with its method of verification, whereby a logical calculus or empirical operation could verify its falsity or truth.


title: Philosophy of science

text: In the late 1930s, logical positivists fled Germany and Austria for Britain and America. By then, many had replaced Mach's phenomenalism with Otto Neurath's physicalism, and Rudolf Carnap had sought to replace "verification" with simply "confirmation". With World War II's close in 1945, logical positivism became milder, "logical empiricism", led largely by Carl Hempel, in America, who expounded the covering law model of scientific explanation as a way of identifying the logical form of explanations without any reference to the suspect notion of "causation". The logical positivist movement became a major underpinning of analytic philosophy, and dominated Anglosphere philosophy, including philosophy of science, while influencing sciences, into the 1960s. Yet the movement failed to resolve its central problems, and its doctrines were increasingly assaulted. Nevertheless, it brought about the establishment of philosophy of science as a distinct subdiscipline of philosophy, with Carl Hempel playing a key role.


title: Philosophy of science

text: In the 1962 book "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions", Thomas Kuhn argued that the process of observation and evaluation takes place within a paradigm, a logically consistent "portrait" of the world that is consistent with observations made from its framing. A paradigm also encompasses the set of questions and practices that define a scientific discipline. He characterized "normal science" as the process of observation and "puzzle solving" which takes place within a paradigm, whereas "revolutionary science" occurs when one paradigm overtakes another in a paradigm shift.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Kuhn denied that it is ever possible to isolate the hypothesis being tested from the influence of the theory in which the observations are grounded, and he argued that it is not possible to evaluate competing paradigms independently. More than one logically consistent construct can paint a usable likeness of the world, but there is no common ground from which to pit two against each other, theory against theory. Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations. Neither provides a standard by which the other can be judged, so there is no clear way to measure scientific progress across paradigms.


title: Philosophy of science

text: For Kuhn, the choice of paradigm was sustained by rational processes, but not ultimately determined by them. The choice between paradigms involves setting two or more "portraits" against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. For Kuhn, acceptance or rejection of a paradigm is a social process as much as a logical process. Kuhn's position, however, is not one of relativism. According to Kuhn, a paradigm shift occurs when a significant number of observational anomalies arise in the old paradigm and a new paradigm makes sense of them. That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm.


title: Philosophy of science

text: All scientific study inescapably builds on at least some essential assumptions that are untested by scientific processes. Kuhn concurs that all science is based on an approved agenda of unprovable assumptions about the character of the universe, rather than merely on empirical facts. These assumptions—a paradigm—comprise a collection of beliefs, values and techniques that are held by a given scientific community, which legitimize their systems and set the limitations to their investigation. For naturalists, nature is the only reality, the only paradigm. There is no such thing as 'supernatural'. The scientific method is to be used to investigate all reality, and Naturalism is the implicit philosophy of working scientists.


title: Philosophy of science

text: In contrast to the view that science rests on foundational assumptions, coherentism asserts that statements are justified by being a part of a coherent system. Or, rather, individual statements cannot be validated on their own: only coherent systems can be justified. A prediction of a transit of Venus is justified by its being coherent with broader beliefs about celestial mechanics and earlier observations. As explained above, observation is a cognitive act. That is, it relies on a pre-existing understanding, a systematic set of beliefs. An observation of a transit of Venus requires a huge range of auxiliary beliefs, such as those that describe the optics of telescopes, the mechanics of the telescope mount, and an understanding of celestial mechanics. If the prediction fails and a transit is not observed, that is likely to occasion an adjustment in the system, a change in some auxiliary assumption, rather than a rejection of the theoretical system.


title: Philosophy of science

text: In fact, according to the Duhem–Quine thesis, after Pierre Duhem and W.V. Quine, it is impossible to test a theory in isolation. One must always add auxiliary hypotheses in order to make testable predictions. For example, to test Newton's Law of Gravitation in the solar system, one needs information about the masses and positions of the Sun and all the planets. Famously, the failure to predict the orbit of Uranus in the 19th century led not to the rejection of Newton's Law but rather to the rejection of the hypothesis that the solar system comprises only seven planets. The investigations that followed led to the discovery of an eighth planet, Neptune. If a test fails, something is wrong. But there is a problem in figuring out what that something is: a missing planet, badly calibrated test equipment, an unsuspected curvature of space, or something else.


title: Philosophy of science

text: One consequence of the Duhem–Quine thesis is that one can make any theory compatible with any empirical observation by the addition of a sufficient number of suitable "ad hoc" hypotheses. Karl Popper accepted this thesis, leading him to reject naïve falsification. Instead, he favored a "survival of the fittest" view in which the most falsifiable scientific theories are to be preferred.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Paul Feyerabend (1924–1994) argued that no description of scientific method could possibly be broad enough to include all the approaches and methods used by scientists, and that there are no useful and exception-free methodological rules governing the progress of science. He argued that "the only principle that does not inhibit progress is: "anything goes"".


title: Philosophy of science

text: Feyerabend said that science started as a liberating movement, but that over time it had become increasingly dogmatic and rigid and had some oppressive features, and thus had become increasingly an ideology. Because of this, he said it was impossible to come up with an unambiguous way to distinguish science from religion, magic, or mythology. He saw the exclusive dominance of science as a means of directing society as authoritarian and ungrounded. Promulgation of this epistemological anarchism earned Feyerabend the title of "the worst enemy of science" from his detractors.


title: Philosophy of science

text: According to Kuhn, science is an inherently communal activity which can only be done as part of a community. For him, the fundamental difference between science and other disciplines is the way in which the communities function. Others, especially Feyerabend and some post-modernist thinkers, have argued that there is insufficient difference between social practices in science and other disciplines to maintain this distinction. For them, social factors play an important and direct role in scientific method, but they do not serve to differentiate science from other disciplines. On this account, science is socially constructed, though this does not necessarily imply the more radical notion that reality itself is a social construct.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Michel Foucault sought to analyze and uncover how disciplines within the social sciences developed and adopted the methodologies used by their practitioners. In works like "The Archaeology of Knowledge", he used the term "human sciences". The human sciences do not comprise mainstream academic disciplines; they are rather an interdisciplinary space for the reflection on "man" who is the subject of more mainstream scientific knowledge, taken now as an object, sitting between these more conventional areas, and of course associating with disciplines such as anthropology, psychology, sociology, and even history. Rejecting the realist view of scientific inquiry, Foucault argued throughout his work that scientific discourse is not simply an objective study of phenomena, as both natural and social scientists like to believe, but is rather the product of systems of power relations struggling to construct scientific disciplines and knowledge within given societies. With the advances of scientific disciplines, such as psychology and anthropology, the need to separate, categorize, normalize and institutionalize populations into constructed social identities became a staple of the sciences. Constructions of what were considered "normal" and "abnormal" stigmatized and ostracized groups of people, like the mentally ill and sexual and gender minorities.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Physical objects are conceptually imported into the situation as convenient intermediaries not by definition in terms of experience, but simply as irreducible posits comparable, epistemologically, to the gods of Homer ... For my part I do, qua lay physicist, believe in physical objects and not in Homer's gods; and I consider it a scientific error to believe otherwise. But in point of epistemological footing, the physical objects and the gods differ only in degree and not in kind. Both sorts of entities enter our conceptions only as "cultural posits".


title: Philosophy of science

text: The public backlash of scientists against such views, particularly in the 1990s, became known as the science wars.


title: Philosophy of science

text: A major development in recent decades has been the study of the formation, structure, and evolution of scientific communities by sociologists and anthropologists – including David Bloor, Harry Collins, Bruno Latour, Ian Hacking and Anselm Strauss. Concepts and methods (such as rational choice, social choice or game theory) from economics have also been applied for understanding the efficiency of scientific communities in the production of knowledge. This interdisciplinary field has come to be known as science and technology studies.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Here the approach to the philosophy of science is to study how scientific communities actually operate.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Philosophers in the continental philosophical tradition are not traditionally categorized as philosophers of science. However, they have much to say about science, some of which has anticipated themes in the analytical tradition. For example, Friedrich Nietzsche advanced the thesis in his "The Genealogy of Morals" (1887) that the motive for the search for truth in sciences is a kind of ascetic ideal.


title: Philosophy of science

text: In general, continental philosophy views science from a world-historical perspective. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) became one of the first philosophers to support this view. Philosophers such as Pierre Duhem (1861-1916) and Gaston Bachelard (1884-1962) also wrote their works with this world-historical approach to science, predating Kuhn's 1962 work by a generation or more. All of these approaches involve a historical and sociological turn to science, with a priority on lived experience (a kind of Husserlian "life-world"), rather than a progress-based or anti-historical approach as emphasised in the analytic tradition. One can trace this continental strand of thought through the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), the late works of Merleau-Ponty ("Nature: Course Notes from the Collège de France", 1956–1960), and the hermeneutics of Martin Heidegger (1889-1976).


title: Philosophy of science

text: The largest effect on the continental tradition with respect to science came from Martin Heidegger's critique of the theoretical attitude in general, which of course includes the scientific attitude. For this reason, the continental tradition has remained much more skeptical of the importance of science in human life and in philosophical inquiry. Nonetheless, there have been a number of important works: especially those of a Kuhnian precursor, Alexandre Koyré (1892-1964). Another important development was that of Michel Foucault's analysis of historical and scientific thought in "The Order of Things" (1966) and his study of power and corruption within the "science" of madness. Post-Heideggerian authors contributing to continental philosophy of science in the second half of the 20th century include Jürgen Habermas (e.g., "Truth and Justification", 1998), Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker ("The Unity of Nature", 1980; (1971)), and Wolfgang Stegmüller ("Probleme und Resultate der Wissenschaftstheorie und Analytischen Philosophie", 1973–1986).


title: Philosophy of science

text: Analysis involves breaking an observation or theory down into simpler concepts in order to understand it. Reductionism can refer to one of several philosophical positions related to this approach. One type of reductionism suggests that phenomena are amenable to scientific explanation at lower levels of analysis and inquiry. Perhaps a historical event might be explained in sociological and psychological terms, which in turn might be described in terms of human physiology, which in turn might be described in terms of chemistry and physics. Daniel Dennett distinguishes legitimate reductionism from what he calls "greedy reductionism," which denies real complexities and leaps too quickly to sweeping generalizations.


title: Philosophy of science

text: A broad issue affecting the neutrality of science concerns the areas which science chooses to explore, that is, what part of the world and of humankind are studied by science. Philip Kitcher in his "Science, Truth, and Democracy"


title: Philosophy of science

text: argues that scientific studies that attempt to show one segment of the population as being less intelligent, successful or emotionally backward compared to others have a political feedback effect which further excludes such groups from access to science. Thus such studies undermine the broad consensus required for good science by excluding certain people, and so proving themselves in the end to be unscientific.


title: Philosophy of science

text: In addition to addressing the general questions regarding science and induction, many philosophers of science are occupied by investigating foundational problems in particular sciences. They also examine the implications of particular sciences for broader philosophical questions. The late 20th and early 21st century has seen a rise in the number of practitioners of philosophy of a particular science.


title: Philosophy of science

text: The problem of induction discussed above is seen in another form in debates over the foundations of statistics. The standard approach to statistical hypothesis testing avoids claims about whether evidence supports a hypothesis or makes it more probable. Instead, the typical test yields a p-value, which is the probability of the "evidence" being such as it is, under the assumption that the hypothesis being tested is true. If the "p"-value is too low, the hypothesis is rejected, in a way analogous to falsification. In contrast, Bayesian inference seeks to assign probabilities to hypotheses. Related topics in philosophy of statistics include probability interpretations, overfitting, and the difference between correlation and causation.


title: Philosophy of science

text: Philosophy of mathematics is concerned with the philosophical foundations and implications of mathematics. The central questions are whether numbers, triangles, and other mathematical entities exist independently of the human mind and what is the nature of mathematical propositions. Is asking whether "1+1=2" is true fundamentally different from asking whether a ball is red? Was calculus invented or discovered? A related question is whether learning mathematics requires experience or reason alone. What does it mean to prove a mathematical theorem and how does one know whether a mathematical proof is correct? Philosophers of mathematics also aim to clarify the relationships between mathematics and logic, human capabilities such as intuition, and the material universe.