title: Far side of the Moon

text: Because the far side of the Moon is shielded from radio transmissions from the Earth, it is considered a good location for placing radio telescopes for use by astronomers. Small, bowl-shaped craters provide a natural formation for a stationary telescope similar to Arecibo in Puerto Rico. For much larger-scale telescopes, the crater Daedalus is situated near the center of the far side, and the rim would help to block stray communications from orbiting satellites. Another potential candidate for a radio telescope is the Saha crater.


title: Far side of the Moon

text: Before deploying radio telescopes to the far side, several problems must be overcome. The fine lunar dust can contaminate equipment, vehicles, and space suits. The conducting materials used for the radio dishes must also be carefully shielded against the effects of solar flares. Finally, the area around the telescopes must be protected against contamination by other radio sources.


title: Far side of the Moon

text: The Lagrange point of the Earth–Moon system is located about above the far side, which has also been proposed as a location for a future radio telescope which would perform a Lissajous orbit about the Lagrangian point.


title: Far side of the Moon

text: One of the NASA missions to the Moon under study would send a sample-return lander to the South Pole–Aitken basin, the location of a major impact event that created a formation nearly across. The force of this impact has created a deep penetration into the lunar surface, and a sample returned from this site could be analyzed for information concerning the interior of the Moon.


title: Far side of the Moon

text: Because the near side is partly shielded from the solar wind by the Earth, the far side maria are expected to have the highest concentration of helium-3 on the surface of the Moon. This isotope is relatively rare on the Earth, but has good potential for use as a fuel in fusion reactors. Proponents of lunar settlement have cited the presence of this material as a reason for developing a Moon base.


title: Warren Ellis

text: Warren Girard Ellis (born 16 February 1968) is a British comic book writer, novelist, and screenwriter. He is best known as the co-creator of several original comics series, including "Transmetropolitan" (1997–2002), "Global Frequency" (2002–2004) and "Red" (2003–2004), which was adapted into the feature films "Red" (2010) and "Red 2" (2013). Ellis is the author of the novels "Crooked Little Vein" (2007) and "Gun Machine" (2013) and the novella "Normal" (2016).


title: Warren Ellis

text: A prolific comic book writer, Ellis has written several Marvel series, including "Astonishing X-Men", "Thunderbolts", "Moon Knight" and the "Extremis" story arc of "Iron Man", which was the basis for the Marvel Cinematic Universe film "Iron Man 3" (2013). Ellis created "The Authority" and "Planetary" for WildStorm, and wrote a run of "Hellblazer" for Vertigo and "James Bond" for Dynamite Entertainment. Ellis wrote the video games (2001), "Cold Winter" (2005), and "Dead Space" (2008). He also wrote the animated TV movie "" (2009) and served as the head writer on the acclaimed animated Netflix series "Castlevania" (2017–2021).


title: Warren Ellis

text: Ellis is well known for sociocultural commentary, both through his online presence and through his writing, which covers transhumanist (most notably nanotechnology, cryonics, mind transfer and human enhancement) and folkloric themes, often in combination with each other. He is a humanist and former patron of Humanists UK, a charity focused on promoting humanism and advancing secularism. He is a resident of Southend-on-Sea, England.


title: Warren Ellis

text: Ellis was born in Essex in February 1968. He has stated that the televised broadcast of the Moon landing is his earliest coherent memory. He was a student at the South East Essex Sixth Form College, commonly known as SEEVIC. He contributed comic work to the college magazine, "Spike", along with Richard Easter, who also later followed a career in writing.


title: Warren Ellis

text: Before starting his career as a writer, he worked in a book and stationery store, a pub, worked in bankruptcy, worked in a record shop, and lifted compost bags for a living.


title: Warren Ellis

text: Ellis's writing career started in the British independent magazine "Deadline" with a six-page short story published in 1990. Other early works include a Judge Dredd short and a "Doctor Who" one-pager. His first ongoing work, "Lazarus Churchyard" with D'Israeli, appeared in "Blast!", a short-lived British magazine.


title: Warren Ellis

text: By 1994, Ellis had begun working for Marvel Comics, where he took over the series "" with issue number 12, which he wrote until its cancellation after issue number 21. He also did some work on the Marvel 2099 imprint, most notably in a storyline in which a futuristic Doctor Doom took over the United States. Other notable early Marvel work is a run on "Excalibur", a superhero series set in Britain. He also wrote a four-issue arc of "Thor" called "Worldengine", in which he dramatically revamped both the character and book (though the changes lasted only as long as Ellis's run on the book), and tackled "Wolverine" with then-rising star Leinil Francis Yu.


title: Warren Ellis

text: Ellis then started working for DC Comics, Caliber Comics and Image Comics' Wildstorm studio, where he wrote the "Gen¹³" spin-off "DV8" and took over "Stormwatch", a previously action-oriented team book, to which he gave a more idea- and character-driven flavor. He wrote issues 37–50 with artist Tom Raney, and the 11 issues of volume two with artists Oscar Jimenez and Bryan Hitch. Hitch and he followed that with the "Stormwatch" spin-off "The Authority", a cinematic super-action series for which Ellis coined the term "widescreen comics".


title: Warren Ellis

text: In 1997, Ellis started "Transmetropolitan", a creator-owned series about an acerbic "gonzo" journalist in a dystopian future America, co-created with artist Darick Robertson and published by DC's Helix imprint. When Helix was discontinued the following year, "Transmetropolitan" was shifted to the Vertigo imprint, and remained one of the most successful nonsuperhero comics DC was then publishing. "Transmetropolitan" ran for 60 issues (plus a few specials), ending in 2002, and the entire run was later collected in a series of trade paperbacks. It remains Ellis's largest work to date.


title: Warren Ellis

text: "Planetary", another Wildstorm series by Ellis and John Cassaday, launched in 1999, as did Ellis's short run on the DC/Vertigo series "Hellblazer". He left that series when DC announced, following the Columbine High School massacre, that it would not publish "Shoot", a "Hellblazer" story about school shootings, although the story had been written and illustrated prior to the Columbine massacre. "Planetary" concluded in October 2009 with the release of issue 27.


title: Warren Ellis

text: Ellis also returned to Marvel Comics as part of the company's "Revolution" event, to head the "Counter-X" line of titles. This project was intended to revitalise the X-Men spin-off books "Generation X", "X-Man" and "X-Force", but it was not successful and Ellis stayed away from mainstream superhero comics for a time.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In 2002, Ellis started "Global Frequency", a 12-issue limited series for Wildstorm, and continued to produce work for various publishers, including DC, Avatar Press, AiT/Planet Lar, Cliffhanger and Homage Comics.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In 2004, Ellis came back to mainstream superhero comics. He took over "Ultimate Fantastic Four" and "Iron Man" for Marvel under a temporary exclusive work for hire contract.


title: Warren Ellis

text: Toward the end of 2004, Ellis released the "Apparat Singles Group", which he described as "An imaginary line of comics singles. Four imaginary first issues of imaginary series from an imaginary line of comics, even". The Apparat titles were published by Avatar, but carried only the Apparat logo on their covers.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In 2006, Ellis worked for DC on "Jack Cross", which was not well received and was subsequently cancelled. For Marvel, he worked on "Nextwave", a 12-issue limited series. He also worked on the Ultimate Galactus trilogy. Ellis also took over the "Thunderbolts" monthly title, which deals with the aftermath of the Marvel Civil War crossover.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In honour of the 20th anniversary of Marvel's New Universe in 2006, Ellis and illustrator Salvador Larroca created a new series that reimagines the New Universe under the title "newuniversal". The first issue was released on 6 December 2006.


title: Warren Ellis

text: Ellis continued to work on several projects for different publishers, including "Desolation Jones" (for DC/Wildstorm) and "Blackgas" and "Black Summer" (for Avatar Press). Ellis also wrote an episode of "Justice League Unlimited" entitled "Dark Heart".


title: Warren Ellis

text: Ellis's first prose novel, "Crooked Little Vein", was published in mid-2007 by William Morrow (an imprint of HarperCollins).


title: Warren Ellis

text: Ellis has described himself as "a notorious pain in the arse for getting involved in book design". According to a comment made in the first issue of "Fell", he has more trade paperbacks in print than anyone else in the American comic industry.


title: Warren Ellis

text: On 29 July 2007, Ellis announced two new projects for Avatar Press: "FreakAngels", a free long-form webcomic illustrated by Paul Duffield, and "Ignition City", a five-issue miniseries. He also has five other current series with Avatar: "Anna Mercury", "No Hero", along with two long series "Doktor Sleepless" and Gravel.


title: Warren Ellis

text: The first quarter of 2009 had the release of "", a series of webisodes written by Warren Ellis and later released on DVD in December.


title: Warren Ellis

text: He worked with D'Israeli again in 2010–2011 for a one-off comic, "SVK", to be published by BERG, a London consultancy firm. It uses a UV torch to reveal the thoughts of the characters in the story.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In 2010, a documentary film on Ellis, "", was announced for 2011 completion. Its co-producer Sequart Organization also plans on publishing, in 2011, three books studying Ellis's work: on "Planetary", "Transmetropolitan" and Ellis's overall career. Sequart has dubbed this push "The Year of Ellis."


title: Warren Ellis

text: Ellis's second novel, hardboiled detective thriller "Gun Machine", was released on 3 January 2013 by Mulholland Books. The novel follows a Manhattan detective investigating a murder, which expands into the hunt of a serial killer. "Gun Machine" hit "The" "New York Times" Best Sellers list and received mostly positive reviews. In June 2013, Ellis announced on his website that he would be ending his relationship with Mulholland Books due to "continuing issues" and cancelling the release of his short story "Dead Pig Collector". In July 2013, "Dead Pig Collector" was picked up by Farrar, Straus and Giroux and published as a digital original.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In March 2014, Ellis relaunched "Moon Knight" for Marvel, with art by Declan Shalvey and colors by Jordie Bellaire. The series received critical acclaim and helped establish Moon Knight as a major character in the Marvel Universe. Ellis ended his run after six issues, after which the series was taken on by writer Brian Wood. "Trees", a new creator-owned comics collaboration between Ellis and artist Jason Howard, debuted in May 2014 through Image Comics. The science fiction series explores a world in which aliens have invaded Earth, but completely ignored humans. The first story arc concluded in January 2015, and was followed by a second volume, "Trees: Two Forests", which ended its run in August 2016"." A third volume is planned.


title: Warren Ellis

text: Ellis joined main writer Kelly Sue DeConnick to co-write two issues of her "Captain Marvel" series in early 2015. In May 2015, Ellis reteamed with his "Moon Knight" collaborators Shalvey and Bellaire to publish "Injection" with Image Comics. The creator-owned science-fiction series follows the members of a think tank given the task of improving the future, who deal with mistakes made after trying to prevent human innovation from dying off. Three volumes of "Injection" have been released.


title: Warren Ellis

text: Ellis launched a new ongoing comics series featuring James Bond in November 2015, published by Dynamite Entertainment in partnership with Ian Fleming Publications and illustrated by James Masters. "James Bond" depicts the original character from the Ian Fleming novels, as opposed to the one in the films, but is set in present day. The first story arc, "Vargr", was followed in June 2016 with a second arc titled "Eidolon". Ellis stepped down from the series after 12 issues in December 2016 and was succeeded as writer by Benjamin Percy. As part of Marvel's All-New All-Different relaunch, Ellis wrote the series "Karnak", following the eponymous Inhuman character. The series debuted in October 2015 with art by Gerardo Zaffino to positive reviews. "Karnak" suffered several delays which resulted in Zaffino being replaced by Roland Boschi. The series ended its six-issue run in February 2017.


title: Warren Ellis

text: "Normal", Ellis's new novella, was serialized as four digital installments beginning in July 2016. It was published as a single volume by Farrar, Straus and Giroux in November 2016. The near-future thriller follows the residents of an asylum for futurists as they investigate a disappearance. The novella received a mostly positive reception, with reviewers praising its plot, humor and commentary on the future.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In October 2016, Ellis launched "Shipwreck", a new six-issue comics miniseries with artist Phil Hester, published by AfterShock Comics. The series follows the survivor of a shipwreck trying to find out what happened after he washes up on another world. Though Ellis has left open the possibility of expanding the book past six issues, he said he is focused finishing the story as planned first.


title: Warren Ellis

text: Despite rarely returning to his early work, in October 2016, DC Comics announced a relaunch of the WildStorm publishing line as a new imprint curated by Ellis. Taking a similar approach to Gerard Way's Young Animal imprint, DC asked Ellis to write a main series, titled "The Wild Storm", and curating others set in the same universe. The series begins a complete reboot of the WildStorm Universe, with Ellis saying his goal is for the imprint to be new reader-friendly. "The Wild Storm" debuted in February 2017 with art by John Davis-Hunt. In his newsletter "Orbital Operations", Ellis stated that he has a two-year plan for the series. Three more WildStorm series are expected to follow.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In 2017, Netflix launched a "Castlevania" animated television series adaptation, written and produced by Ellis. Ellis had been previously hired to write a screenplay for "Castlevania: Dracula's Curse", an animated film based on "". The first season of the "Castlevania" TV series was released in 2017, and seasons 2 through 4 were released during the period of 2018 to 2021. Executive producer Adi Shankar confirmed that Ellis would be writing every episode.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In 2012, Ellis announced he would publish a nonfiction book, tentatively titled "Spirit Tracks", with Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. The book is "about the future of the city, the ghosts that haunt it and the science-fiction condition we live in." It is based on a talk Ellis gave in Berlin at a conference titled "Cognitive Cities", which was based on a series of posts on his website. At Image Expo 2015, "Heartless", a new creator-owned comic book with Ellis's "Supreme: Blue Rose" collaborator Tula Lotay, was announced. , "Heartless" has yet to be released, though Ellis has commented in 2016 that Lotay and he are working on it at their "own pace".


title: Warren Ellis

text: "Finality", a new webcomic written by Ellis and illustrated by Colleen Doran, was announced in September 2016. Set to be published by Webtoon in 2017, the 26-issue weekly series follows a middle-aged female detective working a murder mystery.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In 2020, anime streaming platform Crunchyroll announced that it was adapting the webcomic "FreakAngels" as one of the first Crunchyroll Originals anime TV series.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In 2006, Ellis was hired to develop a science-fiction television series for AMC titled "Dead Channel", but the project was put on hiatus. The series followed a television network executive who discovers the existence of aliens and decides to turn the discovery into a reality show. "Listener", a near-future science fiction novel, was planned as Ellis's next book after "Crooked Little Vein." The novel has since been lost and cancelled.


title: Warren Ellis

text: "Wastelanders", a web-based "end-of-the-world" collaboration with director Joss Whedon, was postponed due to Whedon's work on "The Avengers". Ellis and British producer Vivek Tiwary developed an adventure thriller television miniseries title "Ascension", with Idris Elba in talks to star, though nothing has come of the project.


title: Warren Ellis

text: Adaptations of Ellis's works have frequently been planned, to limited success. Ellis and Cully Hamner's miniseries, "Red", has been loosely adapted as two films: "Red" (2010) and "Red 2" (2013), written by Jon Hoeber and Erich Hoeber, produced by Lorenzo di Bonaventura and starring Bruce Willis, Morgan Freeman and Helen Mirren. The sequel was simply inspired by the comics as no source material exists outside the original miniseries. The Hoebers were commissioned to write a third installment in 2013, though no further developments have occurred since. A television series based on the "Red" film franchise, produced by di Bonaventura and written the Hoeber brothers, was announced as in development in 2015. The "Iron Man" "Extremis" story arc written by Ellis was used as the primary influence on the plot of the Marvel Cinematic Universe film "Iron Man 3", directed by Shane Black. Elements of "Extremis" were also used in the first "Iron Man" film.


title: Warren Ellis

text: "Global Frequency" has been at various stages of adaptation since its publication. A television pilot written by John Rogers was produced in 2005, but development ended after it was leaked. Several more attempts to bring the limited series to television include writers Scott Nimerfro in 2009, and Rockne S. O'Bannon in 2014, though none have materialized. "Gravel" was at one point being developed with Tim Miller attached as director, with Ellis commissioned to write the first draft of the screenplay and serving as executive producer. "Black Summer" has also been optioned as a feature film. Ellis's comics collaboration with Chris Sprouse, "Ocean", has been optioned, and Ryan Condal hired to write a screenplay. Ellis's novel "Gun Machine" has been set up as a television series first with writer Dario Scardapane at Fox in 2012, and later in 2014 at the now-defunct Xbox Entertainment, with a script by Brett Conrad. In 2016, it was announced that NBCUniversal had optioned the rights to Ellis and Jason Howard's "Trees" and would be developing it as a television series with Tom Hardy's production company.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In 2013, Ellis spoke at the HowTheLightGetsIn festival in Hay. In his first talk, titled Our Hopeless Future and Other Comedy, he discussed the power of Twitter and how it can 'break' other people's websites. In the second, Thinking Differently, he explored how the internet revolution is changing people's lives and asked whether it is changing how people think. A festival regular, he has returned in subsequent years to debate the risks and rewards of artificial intelligence with physicist Stephen Hawking and collaborator Roger Penrose.


title: Warren Ellis

text: Ellis is a contributor of nonfiction articles and columns to magazines and websites. He has been a columnist for SuicideGirls, "Reuters", "Vice", "Wired UK", and "Esquire". From 1995 to 1999, he wrote an email list titled "From the Desk of", where he wrote about various subjects including the comic industry and his work. "From the Desk of" was collected in two print volumes by Avatar Press. When technical issues forced that list to shut down in 2001, Ellis started a new email list, "Bad Signal", which was described as "anarchy in your mailbox to brighten up your day". "Bad Signal" was replaced in 2012, two years after its closing, by "Machine Vision"; Ellis ended "Machine Vision" alongside his relationship with his publisher Mulholland Books a year later. Since 2013, Ellis has been writing the weekly email newsletter "Orbital Operations", which features work updates and thoughts on books, comics and current events. As of late 2015, "Orbital Operations" had 13,000 subscribers.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In 2007, Ellis launched the now-defunct message board "Whitechapel" as a companion to his webcomic "FreakAngels", though it rapidly evolved into his internet home. He is frequently referred to as "The Boss", "Stalin", "The Love Swami" or "Internet Jesus" on these forums. Ellis maintains a blog at his personal website, thought it is rarely updated. Beginning in 2014, he wrote regularly at "Morning.Computer". In 2015, Ellis published "Cunning Plans", an ebook collection of talks he gave at technology and futurism conferences.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In June 2020, several women (including musician Meredith Yayanos, artist Zoetica Ebb and photographer Jhayne Holmes) publicly accused Ellis of sexual coercion and manipulation, in having engaged in simultaneous relationships with several of them without the others' knowledge. "The Daily Beast" reported that "by 19 June, over 60 women had joined a group organized by Holmes, all of them accusing Ellis of a largely consistent pattern of behavior". "The Guardian" later reported that "roughly 100 women have come forward, while 33 of them have composed written statements, supported by emails and text messages, which have been seen by "the Guardian"". These testimonials were posted together on a new website, SoManyofUs.com, in July 2020 and contain accounts of "manipulation, gaslighting, coercion, and other forms of emotional abuse".


title: Warren Ellis

text: Ellis responded, writing that he had not considered that others would see him as having "a position of power and privilege", and that "I have hurt many people that I had no intention of hurting. I am culpable. I take responsibility for my mistakes. I will do better and for that, I apologize." DC Comics subsequently announced that, at Ellis's request, a two-page story written by him would not be included in an upcoming anthology. Ellis ended his long-running email newsletter, which he had published under various titles since 1995.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In mid-July 2020, "The Guardian" reported "Ellis responded to these accounts with self-pity and what seemed to be genuine contrition. [...] Ellis insists that the problem was relationship trouble, 'not predatory behaviour', but concedes that '[t]here is a differing of perception here, and I've been listening to it'. He said he was going to try therapy on the advice of friends". "The Hollywood Reporter" later reported Ellis would not be returning to "Castlevania" for subsequent seasons and that a planned Batman comic would no longer be moving forward.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In June 2021, a week after Ben Templesmith announced that he would be reteaming with Ellis for new issues of "Fell", Image Comics announced that they would not be publishing the series following negative reaction from within the industry.


title: Warren Ellis

text: An update on SoManyofUs.com informed that Ellis reached out to the collective which created the site. He wrote that he was made aware of the offer of a mediated dialogue and that he would be available to begin a conversation. After having closed his newsletter in June 2020, he used it again to inform his subscribers about this development.


title: Warren Ellis

text: In an update in January 2022, SoManyofUs.com reported that their members have been in a mediated dialogue with Ellis since August 2021 and that they were making progress in a guided transformative justice process. In February 2022, Ellis relaunched his newsletter, in which he linked to the SoManyofUs.com update and website.


title: Binghamton University

text: The State University of New York at Binghamton (Binghamton University or SUNY Binghamton) is a public research university with campuses in Binghamton, Vestal, and Johnson City, New York. It is one of the four university centers in the State University of New York (SUNY) system. As of Fall 2020, 18,128 undergraduate and graduate students attended the university.


title: Binghamton University

text: Since its establishment in 1946, the school has evolved from a small liberal arts college to a large research university. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity".


title: Binghamton University

text: Binghamton's athletic teams are the Bearcats and they compete in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The Bearcats are members of the America East Conference.


title: Binghamton University

text: Binghamton University was established in 1946 in Endicott, New York, as Triple Cities College to serve the needs of local veterans returning from World War II. Thomas J. Watson, a founding member of IBM in Broome County, viewed the Triple Cities region as an area of great potential. In the early 1940s he collaborated with local leaders to begin establishing Triple Cities College as a two-year junior college operating as a satellite of private Syracuse University. Watson also donated land that would become the school's early home.


title: Binghamton University

text: Originally, Triple Cities College students finished their bachelor's degrees at Syracuse. By the 1948–1949 academic year, the degrees could be completed entirely in Binghamton. In 1950, it split from Syracuse and became incorporated into the public State University of New York (SUNY) system as Harpur College, named in honor of Robert Harpur, a colonial teacher and pioneer who settled in the Binghamton area. At that time, Harpur and Champlain College in Plattsburgh were the only two liberal arts schools in the New York state system. When Champlain closed in 1952 to make way for the Plattsburgh Air Force Base, the records and some students and faculty were transferred to Harpur College in Binghamton. Harpur also received 16,000 non-duplicate volumes and the complete contents of the Champlain College library.


title: Binghamton University

text: In 1955, Harpur began to plan its current location in Vestal, a town next to Binghamton. A site large enough to anticipate future growth was purchased, with the school's move to its new campus being completed by 1961. Colonial Hall, Triple Cities College's original building in Endicott, stands today as the village's Visitor's Center.


title: Binghamton University

text: In 1965, Harpur College was selected to join New York state schools at Stony Brook University, Albany, and Buffalo as one of the four new SUNY university centers. Redesignated the State University of New York at Binghamton, the school's new name reflected its status as an advanced degree granting institution. In a nod to tradition, its undergraduate college of arts and sciences remained "Harpur College". With more than 60% of undergraduate and graduate students enrolled in Harpur's degree programs, it is the largest of Binghamton's constituent schools. In 1967, the School of Advanced Technology was established, the precursor to the Thomas J. Watson School of Engineering and Applied Science, which was founded in 1983. In 2020, the school became the Thomas J. Watson College of Engineering and Applied Science.


title: Binghamton University

text: Since 1992, the school has made an effort to distinguish itself from the SUNY system, rebranding itself as "Binghamton University," or "Binghamton University, State University of New York". Both names are accepted as first reference in news stories. While the school's legal and official name, the State University of New York at Binghamton, still appears on official documents such as diplomas, the administration discourages using the full name unless absolutely necessary. It also discourages references to the school as "SUNY—Binghamton," "SUNY—B," or "Harpur College".


title: Binghamton University

text: The first president of Harpur College, who began as dean of Triple Cities College, was Glenn Bartle. The second president, George Bruce Dearing, served several years before leaving to become vice chancellor for academic affairs at the SUNY Central Administration in Albany. Next was C. Peter Magrath, former interim president of the University of Nebraska, who served from 1972 to 1974 then left to become president at the University of Minnesota.


title: Binghamton University

text: The fourth president at Binghamton was Clifford D. Clark, who left his position as dean of the business school at the University of Kansas to serve as vice president for academic affairs at Binghamton in 1973. He was asked to take on the job of acting president in the fall of 1974, when Magrath left for Minnesota. Clark was selected as president and served from March 1975 through mid-1990. He led the school's evolution from primarily a four-year liberal arts college to a research university. Clark added the Anderson Center for the Performing Arts and inaugurated the Summer Music Festival, created the Harpur Forum (now called the Binghamton University Forum), established the Thomas J. Watson School of Engineering and Applied Science, and fostered the expansion and development of the Decker School of Nursing.


title: Binghamton University

text: Lois B. DeFleur became the university's fifth president upon Clark's retirement in 1990. During her nearly 20-year tenure the university experienced its most significant growth. She oversaw substantial additions to the student and faculty populations, vastly expanded research activities and funding, formalized Binghamton's fundraising efforts, expanded the campus' physical footprint by approximately 20 buildings, launched Binghamton's "green" efforts for which they are now nationally recognized, transitioned the school from Division III athletics to Division I and catalyzed the biggest increase in academic rankings to date. DeFleur retired in 2010 and on July 1, Magrath returned as interim president.


title: Binghamton University

text: On November 22, 2011, the SUNY Board of Trustees appointed Harvey G. Stenger, Jr. as the seventh president of Binghamton University, effective January 1, 2012. Stenger had been interim provost and executive vice president for academic affairs at the University at Buffalo since April 2011.


title: Binghamton University

text: Binghamton is one of four university centers of the State University of New York (SUNY) system and is governed by its board of trustees. The Binghamton University Council oversees such aspects of the school's governance as student conduct, budget and physical facilities. Nine of its ten members are appointed by the state governor, one elected by the student body.


title: Binghamton University

text: The university is organized into six administrative offices: Academic Affairs; Advancement; Diversity, Equity and Inclusion; Operations; Research; and Student Affairs. The Division of Diversity, Equity and Inclusion is managed by a chief diversity officer and the other divisions are managed by a vice president.


title: Binghamton University

text: , the university had an endowment of $152.619 million, managed by the not-for-profit Binghamton University Foundation, which also oversees fundraising. Its most recent drive–'Bold.Brilliant.Binghamton—the Campaign for Binghamton University'– raised more than $100 million before ending on June 30, 2012, $5 million over its original goal.


title: Binghamton University

text: The main campus in Vestal is spread over on a wooded hillside above the Susquehanna River; geographically, the Southern Tier of New York is located on Allegheny Plateau, a physiographic province of the Appalachian Mountains. The campus is shaped like a brain: the primary road on campus creates a closed loop to form the cerebrum and cerebellum, and the main entrance road creates the spinal cord which leads up to a traffic circle (representing the medulla). The main road is thus frequently referred to as "The Brain". The connector road, which goes behind the Mountainview and College-in-the-Woods residential communities, is closed for a portion of the year (in late fall and early spring, to allow for safe migration of salamanders across the road). The campus features a Nature Preserve, which contains forest and wetland areas and includes a six-acre (24,000 m) pond, named Harpur Pond, that adjoins the campus. The Nature Preserve drains into Fuller Hollow Creek, which runs parallel along the eastern portion of the campus. Fuller Hollow Creek meanders north after leaving campus, where it soon empties into the Susquehanna River.


title: Binghamton University

text: Binghamton's nearly 15-acre new Health Sciences Campus is located in Johnson City, NY. The campus is located a block from Main St. and is in close proximity to UHS Wilson Medical Center and Ascension Lourdes Hospital. The School of Pharmacy building opened in 2018, while the first floor floors Decker College of Nursing and Health Sciences building opened in January 2021. The construction of floors five and six are expected to be completed during the summer of 2021. A Research and Development facility is in the design phase and will be constructed immediately adjacent to the pharmacy school; it is slated to be completed by December 2022. The university also plans on developing a park on two acres of land between Corliss Avenue and Main Street, which will offer an attractive and safe connection between university facilities and the downtown business district.


title: Binghamton University

text: The University Downtown Center (UDC), located near the confluence of the Susquehanna and Chenango Rivers, opened in 2007 and houses the College of Community and Public Affairs (CCPA). In 2011, the Downtown Center was severely damaged from flooding caused by Tropical Storm Lee. While only the lowest floor of the building was filled with water, the electric company was unable to shut the power off in time, resulting in the building's electrical system being ruined. Classes were moved to the Main campus until repairs were completed. Repairs took a year to complete, and the UDC reopened for the start of the fall 2012 semester. In 2017, the university received $2.7 million for the flood repairs.


title: Binghamton University

text: The libraries offer a number of services including research consultation and assistance, a laptop lending program, customized instruction sessions and three information commons in the Bartle, Science and UDC libraries. The libraries offer access to various online databases to facilitate research for students and faculty. The entire campus is also served by a wireless internet network that all students, staff and faculty have access to, funded in part by mandatory student technology fees. The computing services center supports Windows, Macintosh and Unix systems, both in public computer labs and for students' personal computers.


title: Binghamton University

text: This theater complex has three stages: Watters Theater, seating 550; the Chamber Hall, seating 450; and the Osterhout Concert Theater, seating 1,200. The concert theater has the ability to become an open-air venue, with its movable, floor-to-ceiling glass windows that open up to a grassy hill. The Anderson Center has hosted performers such as the Russian Symphony and Ballet, the Prague National Symphony and the Shakespearian Theater Company. In March 2006, an overflow house, filling all of the Anderson Center's theaters, was present to hear guest speaker Noam Chomsky.


title: Binghamton University

text: The university's art collection is housed at more than one location, but all within the Fine Arts Building. The building's main-level gallery hosts various artifacts which belong to the Permanent Collection, though typically showcases student work on a rotating basis. The Permanent Collection in the basement level of the building displays ancient art from Egypt, China and other locales. Lastly, the Elsie B. Rosefsky Gallery, just off the Grand Corridor, presents special exhibits and portfolios.


title: Binghamton University

text: The University Union is divided into two sections, sometimes referred to as the old Union and the new Union, sometimes referred to as Union East and West respectively, yet called "University Union (UU)" and "University Union West (UUW)" by the university itself. The Union houses many student organizations, a food co-op, The MarketPlace food court, a number of meeting spaces, many new classrooms, the University Bookstore and a branch of Visions Federal Credit Union.


title: Binghamton University

text: On August 23, 2013, President Barack Obama hosted a town hall meeting in the University Union to discuss college affordability with students, faculty, and staff at Binghamton University.


title: Binghamton University

text: The Events Center is one of the area's largest venue for athletics, concerts, fairs and more. Home court to the Binghamton Bearcats basketball teams, the facility seats about 5,300 people for games. For concerts, Commencement and other larger events, the Events Center can hold up to 8,000 people. Home site for the America East Conference Men's Basketball Championships in 2005, 2006, and 2008, the court hosted the women's championships in 2007 and 2015. It's also held intercollegiate indoor track meets, tennis matches and wrestling matches, as well as opening and closing ceremonies for the Empire State Games. Its construction cost $33.1M and it opened in 2004.


title: Binghamton University

text: In addition to the Events Center, the north end of campus houses the East and West Gyms, which host student recreation and varsity athletics programs. The East Gym underwent a major renovation, completed in winter 2012, and is now called the Recreational Center at the East Gym, and includes the 10,000-sq. ft. FitSpace fitness facility, three new multipurpose rooms, improved pool and court spaces, a new wellness services suite and completely renovated locker rooms. Other varsity facilities include baseball and softball fields, the Bearcats Sports Complex (a soccer and lacrosse stadium) and an outdoor track. With a gift from an anonymous donor, the baseball fields underwent a $2 million facelift including the addition of artificial turf and lights in 2016. Other student recreation features are a series of playing fields used for soccer, football, rugby and ultimate frisbee.


title: Binghamton University

text: The science complex includes five instructional and office buildings, as well as a four-climate teaching greenhouse and the Science Library. Buildings are named sequentially as Science 1 through 5. They contain faculty offices and classrooms for the biological sciences, anthropology, geological sciences and psychology departments.


title: Binghamton University

text: The Academic Complex is a two-building complex that opened in 1999. Academic A houses the School of Management. Academic B houses the Decker School of Nursing.


title: Binghamton University

text: More commonly known as the ITC, the Innovative Technologies Complex is a new development intended to advance venture capital research in both the support of the university's activities and that of the local high-technology industry. Currently the complex includes four buildings: the Biotechnology Building, formerly belonging to NYSEG and now extensively renovated; the Engineering and Science Building, opened in 2011; the Center of Excellence Building, which houses the Small Scale Systems Integration and Packaging Center, a New York State Center of Excellence, opened in 2014; and the Smart Energy Building that houses the chemistry and physics departments, opened in 2017. Early talks indicated plans for a six-building complex at its completion.


title: Binghamton University

text: The university's Nature Preserve is on the southern end of campus and referred to as the largest laboratory on campus. Students have actively worked to make sure the space remains untouched. The preserve features approximately 10 miles(16 km) of maintained paths, a six-acre pond, marsh areas, vernal pools, tall hills and a hill-top meadow. A popular hang-out spot is the long wooden boardwalk constructed across one of the marshes, overlooking the lake. There is continued discussion about management of the rapidly growing deer population in the preserve.


title: Binghamton University

text: Residence halls at Binghamton are grouped into seven communities. The apartment communities used to house graduate students, but now house undergraduates. Of the residential colleges, Dickinson Community and Newing College are the newest. Dickinson features "flats" of either four single rooms or two double rooms and a single, while Newing features semi-private room styles sharing private bathrooms as well as some common bathrooms. College-in-the-Woods mixes suites and double- and triple-occupancy rooms, and Hinman College and Mountainview College consist of suites, exclusively. Susquehanna Community and Hillside Community contain only apartments.


title: Binghamton University

text: The newly completed Newing College, opened in fall 2011, and Dickinson Community, completed in 2013, are part of the university's $375 million East Campus Housing project, which also included a new collegiate center and dining facility. The old Newing community was razed to make room for the new communities. The old Dickinson community was renovated and repurposed for academics, offices and departments. The last of the new Newing and Dickinson residence halls were unveiled in 2013.


title: Binghamton University

text: Binghamton University is one of the most selective schools in the SUNY system. In 2020, the university received more than 42,000 applications. In the Fall of 2020, the undergraduate acceptance rate was 40%.


title: Binghamton University

text: , there are 14,168 undergraduate students and 3,961 graduate students enrolled at Binghamton University, with 768 full-time faculty and a student-to-faculty of 19:1. 84% of undergraduate students at Binghamton are residents of New York state, with more than 60 percent from the greater New York City area and the remainder from all corners of the state. The remaining 16 percent of the undergraduate student body is made up of residents of other states in the U.S. (7.5 percent) and international students (8.5 percent) from around the world. Since 1990, the university has experienced growth in enrollment (with a 1990 enrollment of 11,883). Since the arrival of President Harvey Stenger in 2012, the university had launched a plan to grow to 20,000 students by 2020, while adding faculty and staff to support the growth.


title: Binghamton University

text: Binghamton offers more than 130 academic undergraduate majors, minors, certificates, concentrations, emphases, tracks and specializations and more than 60 master's, 30 doctorate and 50 accelerated (combined bachelor's/master's) degrees. There also exist interdisciplinary programs that allow individualized degree programs at both the undergraduate and graduate level.


title: Binghamton University

text: The school offers several early assurance programs which guarantee acceptance to graduate/professional schools outside of Binghamton, such as the Norton College of Medicine at SUNY Upstate Medical University. BU and Upstate offer an Early Assurance Program (EAP) for pre-medical College Sophomores pursuing their M.D. degree. Students accepted into the program are required to finish their undergraduate education and maintain a 3.50 GPA to be guaranteed a seat at the medical school.


title: Binghamton University

text: The university requires students to have completed 12 general education requirements in order to graduate, with some exceptions depending on the school. These include courses in aesthetics, global inter-dependencies, humanities, laboratory science, composition and oral communication, mathematics, physical activity and wellness, social science and U.S. pluralism. Individual schools within the university have additional requirements. Students in Harpur College must complete a minimum of 126 credits to graduate. Most classes at Binghamton are worth four credits, rather than the more usual three. The typical undergraduate's course load thus consists of four courses (for 16 credits) rather than the usual five (for 15 credits).


title: Binghamton University

text: The university is designated as an advanced research institution, with a division of research, an independent research foundation, several research centers including a New York State Center of Excellence, and partnerships with other institutions. Binghamton University was ranked 163rd nationally in research and development expenditures by the National Science Foundation. In fiscal year 2013, the university had research expenditures of $76 million.


title: Binghamton University

text: The Office of Sponsored Programs supports the Binghamton University community in its efforts to seek and obtain external awards to support research, training, and other scholarly and creative activities. It provides support to faculty and staff in all aspects of proposal preparation, submission and grant administration.


title: Binghamton University

text: The Office of Research Compliance ensures the protection of human subjects, the welfare of animals, safe use of select agents pathogens and toxins, and to enhance the ethical conduct in research programs.


title: Binghamton University

text: The Office of Research Advancement facilitates the growth of research and scholarship, and helps build awareness of the work being done on campus.


title: Binghamton University

text: The Office of Entrepreneurship and Innovation Partnerships supports entrepreneurship, commercialization of technologies, start-ups and business incubation, and facilitates partnerships with the community and industry.


title: Binghamton University

text: The Research Foundation for the State University of New York is a private, nonprofit educational corporation that administers externally funded contracts and grants for and on behalf of SUNY. The foundation carries out its responsibilities pursuant to a 1977 agreement with the university. It is separate from the university and does not receive services provided to New York State agencies or state appropriation to support corporate functions. Sponsored program functions delegated to the campuses are conducted under the supervision of foundation operations managers. The Office of Sponsored Funds Administration, often referred to as "post-award administration," is the fiscal and operational office for the foundation. It provides sponsored project personnel with comprehensive financial, project accounting, human resources, procurement, accounts payable and reporting services, as well as support for projects administered through the Research Foundation.


title: Binghamton University

text: 33 organized research centers and institutes for advanced studies facilitate interdisciplinary and specialized research at the university. The university is home to the New York State Center of Excellence in Small Scale Systems Integration and Packaging (S3IP). S3IP conducts research in areas such as microelectronics manufacturing and packaging, data center energy management, and solar energy. Other research centers and institutes include the Center for Development and Behavioural Neuroscience (CDBN), Center for Interdisciplinary Studies in Philosophy, Interpretation, and Culture (CPIC), Institute for Materials Research (IMR). The Fernand Braudel Center for the Study of Economies, Historical Systems, and Civilizations (FBC) closed on June 30, 2020.


title: Binghamton University

text: The university's Office of Entrepreneurship and Innovation Partnerships can connect people to resources available through programs such as STARTUP NY, the Small Business Development Center, the region's Trade Adjustment Assistance Center, campus Start-Up Suites and the Koffman Southern Tier Incubator.


title: Binghamton University

text: Student organizations at Binghamton are organized and run through the Student Association at Binghamton University. The Student Association provides a number of services and entertainment for students, including bus transportation and the annual Spring Fling festival. In 2013, the university and the Student Association collaborated to introduce B-Engaged, a website which features a complete list of all involvement opportunities at Binghamton.


title: Binghamton University

text: The Student Association of Binghamton University, Inc. (SA) is the student union of undergraduate students at the university. It is a 501-c3 non-for-profit organization that is autonomous from the university. It was first formed in 1978 and now represents and provides resources for over 13,000 undergraduate students, charters student groups, provides concerts and programming, and transportation services. Although it is run primarily by students, it has a small professional staff consisting of an assistant director and a finance director.


title: Binghamton University

text: The Intercollegiate Athletics program comprises 21 sports that compete in the America East Conference for all sports except wrestling and golf. The 21 sports include Baseball, Men's & Women's Basketball, Men's & Women's Cross Country, Men's Golf, Men's & Women's Lacrosse, Men's & Women's Soccer, Softball, Men's & Women's Swimming & Diving, Men's & Women's Tennis, Men's & Women's Indoor Track, Men's & Women's Outdoor Track, Women's Volleyball and Men's Wrestling.


title: Binghamton University

text: The school also hosts several intramural and inter-community sports. Binghamton University, and more specifically Hinman College, is considered to be the creator of Co-Rec Football, a popular version of flag/touch football and is generally played amongst several teams within each dormitory community.


title: Binghamton University

text: Binghamton athletics gained significant negative attention during the Binghamton University basketball scandal in 2010, when it was revealed that the school had compromised its integrity and committed internal violations in pursuit of athletic glory. The scandal left Binghamton's basketball team in ruin.


title: Binghamton University

text: "In the Rolling Hills of Binghamton" is the official alma mater of Binghamton University, composed by David Engel (class of 1986)


title: Binghamton University

text: To fans of the Americana-psychedelic-rock band The Grateful Dead, the name "Harpur College" specifically refers to a concert the band played at the college on May 2, 1970. The reverence in which this concert is held owes both to the performance and to the fact that high quality bootleg cassette recordings circulated widely among Deadheads for decades before the recording was officially released on CD as "Dick's Picks Volume 8". According to Jimmy Cawley writing in the Boston "Globe", "The Harpur College show has long been prized by tape collectors as an example of the depth the Dead were capable of on any given night."


title: Seawater

text: Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, 35 ppt, 600 mM). This means that every kilogram (roughly one liter by volume) of seawater has approximately of dissolved salts (predominantly sodium () and chloride () ions). The average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/L. Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water (density 1.0 kg/L at ) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases. At typical salinity, it freezes at about . The coldest seawater still in the liquid state ever recorded was found in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier: the measured temperature was . Seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units.


title: Seawater

text: Although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 and 38 g/kg, that is 3.1–3.8%, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with freshwater runoff from river mouths, near melting glaciers or vast amounts of precipitation (e.g. Monsoon), seawater can be substantially less saline. The most saline open sea is the Red Sea, where high rates of evaporation, low precipitation and low river run-off, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water can be considerably greater still about ten times higher in the case of the Dead Sea. Historically, several salinity scales were used to approximate the absolute salinity of seawater. A popular scale was the "Practical Salinity Scale" where salinity was measured in "practical salinity units (PSU)". The current standard for salinity is the "Reference Salinity" scale with the salinity expressed in units of "g/kg".


title: Seawater

text: The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m, depending on the temperature and salinity. At a temperature of 25 °C, the salinity of 35 g/kg and 1 atm pressure, the density of seawater is 1023.6 kg/m. Deep in the ocean, under high pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m or higher. The density of seawater also changes with salinity. Brines generated by seawater desalination plants can have salinities up to 120 g/kg. The density of typical seawater brine of 120 g/kg salinity at 25 °C and atmospheric pressure is 1088 kg/m. Seawater pH is limited to the range 7.5 to 8.4. The speed of sound in seawater is about 1,500 m/s (whereas the speed of sound is usually around 330 m/s in air at roughly 101.3 kPa pressure, 1 atmosphere), and varies with water temperature, salinity, and pressure. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C and a salinity of 35 g/kg.


title: Seawater

text: The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature.


title: Seawater

text: Seawater contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater. However, the ratios of solutes differ dramatically. For instance, although seawater contains about 2.8 times more bicarbonate than river water, the percentage of bicarbonate in seawater as a ratio of "all" dissolved ions is far lower than in river water. Bicarbonate ions constitute 48% of river water solutes but only 0.14% for seawater. Differences like these are due to the varying residence times of seawater solutes; sodium and chloride have very long residence times, while calcium (vital for carbonate formation) tends to precipitate much more quickly. The most abundant dissolved ions in seawater are sodium, chloride, magnesium, sulfate and calcium. Its osmolarity is about 1000 mOsm/L.


title: Seawater

text: Small amounts of other substances are found, including amino acids at concentrations of up to 2 micrograms of nitrogen atoms per liter, which are thought to have played a key role in the origin of life.


title: Seawater

text: Research in 1957 by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography sampled water in both pelagic and neritic locations in the Pacific Ocean. Direct microscopic counts and cultures were used, the direct counts in some cases showing up to 10 000 times that obtained from cultures. These differences were attributed to the occurrence of bacteria in aggregates, selective effects of the culture media, and the presence of inactive cells. A marked reduction in bacterial culture numbers was noted below the thermocline, but not by direct microscopic observation. Large numbers of spirilli-like forms were seen by microscope but not under cultivation. The disparity in numbers obtained by the two methods is well known in this and other fields. In the 1990s, improved techniques of detection and identification of microbes by probing just small snippets of DNA, enabled researchers taking part in the Census of Marine Life to identify thousands of previously unknown microbes usually present only in small numbers. This revealed a far greater diversity than previously suspected, so that a litre of seawater may hold more than 20,000 species. Mitchell Sogin from the Marine Biological Laboratory feels that "the number of different kinds of bacteria in the oceans could eclipse five to 10 million."


title: Seawater

text: Bacteria are found at all depths in the water column, as well as in the sediments, some being aerobic, others anaerobic. Most are free-swimming, but some exist as symbionts within other organisms – examples of these being bioluminescent bacteria. Cyanobacteria played an important role in the evolution of ocean processes, enabling the development of stromatolites and oxygen in the atmosphere.


title: Seawater

text: Some bacteria interact with diatoms, and form a critical link in the cycling of silicon in the ocean. One anaerobic species, "Thiomargarita namibiensis", plays an important part in the breakdown of hydrogen sulfide eruptions from diatomaceous sediments off the Namibian coast, and generated by high rates of phytoplankton growth in the Benguela Current upwelling zone, eventually falling to the seafloor.


title: Seawater

text: Bacteria-like Archaea surprised marine microbiologists by their survival and thriving in extreme environments, such as the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. Alkalotolerant marine bacteria such as "Pseudomonas" and "Vibrio" spp. survive in a pH range of 7.3 to 10.6, while some species will grow only at pH 10 to 10.6. Archaea also exist in pelagic waters and may constitute as much as half the ocean's biomass, clearly playing an important part in oceanic processes. In 2000 sediments from the ocean floor revealed a species of Archaea that breaks down methane, an important greenhouse gas and a major contributor to atmospheric warming. Some bacteria break down the rocks of the sea floor, influencing seawater chemistry. Oil spills, and runoff containing human sewage and chemical pollutants have a marked effect on microbial life in the vicinity, as well as harbouring pathogens and toxins affecting all forms of marine life. The protist dinoflagellates may at certain times undergo population explosions called blooms or red tides, often after human-caused pollution. The process may produce metabolites known as biotoxins, which move along the ocean food chain, tainting higher-order animal consumers.


title: Seawater

text: "Pandoravirus salinus", a species of very large virus, with a genome much larger than that of any other virus species, was discovered in 2013. Like the other very large viruses "Mimivirus" and "Megavirus", "Pandoravirus" infects amoebas, but its genome, containing 1.9 to 2.5 megabases of DNA, is twice as large as that of "Megavirus", and it differs greatly from the other large viruses in appearance and in genome structure.


title: Seawater

text: In 2013 researchers from Aberdeen University announced that they were starting a hunt for undiscovered chemicals in organisms that have evolved in deep sea trenches, hoping to find "the next generation" of antibiotics, anticipating an "antibiotic apocalypse" with a dearth of new infection-fighting drugs. The EU-funded research will start in the Atacama Trench and then move on to search trenches off New Zealand and Antarctica.


title: Seawater

text: The ocean has a long history of human waste disposal on the assumption that its vast size makes it capable of absorbing and diluting all noxious material.


title: Seawater

text: While this may be true on a small scale, the large amounts of sewage routinely dumped has damaged many coastal ecosystems, and rendered them life-threatening. Pathogenic viruses and bacteria occur in such waters, such as "Escherichia coli", "Vibrio cholerae" the cause of cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis E and polio, along with protozoans causing giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. These pathogens are routinely present in the ballast water of large vessels, and are widely spread when the ballast is discharged.


title: Seawater

text: The water in the sea was thought to come from the Earth's volcanoes, starting 4 billion years ago, released by degassing from molten rock. More recent work suggests much of the Earth's water may come from comets.


title: Seawater

text: Scientific theories behind the origins of sea salt started with Sir Edmond Halley in 1715, who proposed that salt and other minerals were carried into the sea by rivers after rainfall washed it out of the ground. Upon reaching the ocean, these salts concentrated as more salt arrived over time (see Hydrologic cycle). Halley noted that most lakes that don't have ocean outlets (such as the Dead Sea and the Caspian Sea, see endorheic basin), have high salt content. Halley termed this process "continental weathering".


title: Seawater

text: Halley's theory was partly correct. In addition, sodium leached out of the ocean floor when the ocean formed. The presence of salt's other dominant ion, chloride, results from outgassing of chloride (as hydrochloric acid) with other gases from Earth's interior via volcanos and hydrothermal vents. The sodium and chloride ions subsequently became the most abundant constituents of sea salt.


title: Seawater

text: Ocean salinity has been stable for billions of years, most likely as a consequence of a chemical/tectonic system which removes as much salt as is deposited; for instance, sodium and chloride sinks include evaporite deposits, pore-water burial, and reactions with seafloor basalts.


title: Seawater

text: Climate change, rising levels of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere, excess nutrients, and pollution in many forms are altering global oceanic geochemistry. Rates of change for some aspects greatly exceed those in the historical and recent geological record. Major trends include an increasing acidity, reduced subsurface oxygen in both near-shore and pelagic waters, rising coastal nitrogen levels, and widespread increases in mercury and persistent organic pollutants. Most of these perturbations are tied either directly or indirectly to human fossil fuel combustion, fertilizer, and industrial activity. Concentrations are projected to grow in coming decades, with negative impacts on ocean biota and other marine resources.


title: Seawater

text: One of the most striking features of this is ocean acidification, resulting from increased CO uptake of the oceans related to higher atmospheric concentration of CO and higher temperatures, because it severely affects coral reefs, mollusks, echinoderms and crustaceans (see coral bleaching).


title: Seawater

text: Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if the seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via urine) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself. In normal circumstances, it would be considered ill-advised to consume large amounts of unfiltered seawater.


title: Seawater

text: The renal system actively regulates the levels of sodium and chloride in the blood within a very narrow range around 9 g/L (0.9% by mass).


title: Seawater

text: In most open waters concentrations vary somewhat around typical values of about 3.5%, far higher than the body can tolerate and most beyond what the kidney can process. A point frequently overlooked in claims that the kidney can excrete NaCl in Baltic concentrations of 2% (in arguments to the contrary) is that the gut cannot absorb water at such concentrations, so that there is no benefit in drinking such water. The salinity of Baltic surface water, however, is never 2%. It is 0,9% or less, and thus never higher than that of bodily fluids. Drinking seawater temporarily increases blood's NaCl concentration. This signals the kidney to excrete sodium, but seawater's sodium concentration is above the kidney's maximum concentrating ability. Eventually the blood's sodium concentration rises to toxic levels, removing water from cells and interfering with nerve conduction, ultimately producing fatal seizure and cardiac arrhythmia.


title: Seawater

text: Survival manuals consistently advise against drinking seawater. A summary of 163 life raft voyages estimated the risk of death at 39% for those who drank seawater, compared to 3% for those who did not. The effect of seawater intake on rats confirmed the negative effects of drinking seawater when dehydrated.


title: Seawater

text: The temptation to drink seawater was greatest for sailors who had expended their supply of fresh water and were unable to capture enough rainwater for drinking. This frustration was described famously by a line from Samuel Taylor Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner":


title: Seawater

text: Although humans cannot survive on seawater, some people claim that up to two cups a day, mixed with fresh water in a 2:3 ratio, produces no ill effect. The French physician Alain Bombard survived an ocean crossing in a small Zodiak rubber boat using mainly raw fish meat, which contains about 40% water (like most living tissues), as well as small amounts of seawater and other provisions harvested from the ocean. His findings were challenged, but an alternative explanation was not given. In his 1948 book "", Thor Heyerdahl reported drinking seawater mixed with fresh in a 2:3 ratio during the 1947 expedition. A few years later, another adventurer, William Willis, claimed to have drunk two cups of seawater and one cup of fresh per day for 70 days without ill effect when he lost part of his water supply.


title: Seawater

text: During the 18th century, Richard Russell advocated the medical use of this practice in the UK, and René Quinton expanded the advocation of this practice to other countries, notably France, in the 20th century. Currently, it is widely practiced in Nicaragua and other countries, supposedly taking advantage of the latest medical discoveries.


title: Seawater

text: Most oceangoing vessels desalinate potable water from seawater using processes such as vacuum distillation or multi-stage flash distillation in an evaporator, or, more recently, reverse osmosis. These energy-intensive processes were not usually available during the Age of Sail. Larger sailing warships with large crews, such as Nelson's , were fitted with distilling apparatus in their galleys.


title: Seawater

text: Animals such as fish, whales, sea turtles, and seabirds, such as penguins and albatrosses, have adapted to living in a high-saline habitat. For example, sea turtles and saltwater crocodiles remove excess salt from their bodies through their tear ducts.


title: Seawater

text: Minerals have been extracted from seawater since ancient times. Currently the four most concentrated metals – Na, Mg, Ca and K – are commercially extracted from seawater. During 2015 in the US 63% of magnesium production came from seawater and brines. Bromine is also produced from seawater in China and Japan. Lithium extraction from seawater was tried in the 1970s, but the tests were soon abandoned. The idea of extracting uranium from seawater has been considered at least from the 1960s, but only a few grams of uranium were extracted in Japan in the late 1990s. The main issue is not one of technological feasibility but that current prices on the uranium market for uranium from other sources are about three to five times lower than the lowest price achieved by seawater extraction. Similar issues hamper the use of reprocessed uranium and are often brought forth against nuclear reprocessing and the manufacturing of MOX fuel as economically unviable.


title: Seawater

text: ASTM International has an international standard for artificial seawater: ASTM D1141-98 (Original Standard ASTM D1141-52). It is used in many research testing labs as a reproducible solution for seawater such as tests on corrosion, oil contamination, and detergency evaluation.


title: Scooby-Doo (character)

text: Scooby-Doo is the eponymous character and protagonist of the animated television franchise of the same name, created in 1969 by the American animation company Hanna-Barbera. He is a male Great Dane and lifelong companion of amateur detective Shaggy Rogers, with whom he shares many personality traits. He features a mix of both canine and human behaviors (reminiscent of other talking animals in Hanna-Barbera's series), and is treated by his friends more or less as an equal. Scooby often speaks in a rhotacized way, substituting the first letters of many words with the letter 'r'. His catchphrase is "Scooby-Dooby-Doo!"


title: Scooby-Doo (character)

text: Writers Joe Ruby and Ken Spears created the original "Scooby-Doo" series, "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!" for Hanna-Barbera, as a part of CBS's 1969–1970 Saturday morning cartoon schedule. Originally titled "Mysteries Five", the dog who later became Scooby was originally more of a sidekick character – a bongo-playing dog named "Too Much" whose breed varied between Great Dane and sheepdog between treatments.


title: Scooby-Doo (character)

text: By the time the series was pitched to the network as "Who's S-S-Scared?" in early 1969, Too Much was solidified as a cowardly Great Dane. Both the dog and the series would be renamed "Scooby-Doo" by Fred Silverman, CBS's head of daytime programming, between its unsuccessful first pitch and a second pitch, which earned the show a green light. Silverman stated that he came up with the name from the syllables "doo-be-doo-be-doo" in Frank Sinatra's hit song "Strangers in the Night", but the term "skooby-doo" had already been in use long before that as Cockney rhyming slang for the word "clue" (fitting with the show's mystery genre). A character in the 1953 TV film "Swingin' Together" is named Skooby-doo, and the name was featured in the title of the single "Feelin' So Good (S.K.O.O.B.Y.-D.O.O.)", released just a few months earlier in 1968 by The Archies, a fictional band from the CBS series "The Archie Show" that was overseen and intensively monitored by Silverman as CBS's head of children's programming.


title: Scooby-Doo (character)

text: Taking notes from a Hanna-Barbera colleague who was also a breeder of Great Danes, production designer Iwao Takamoto designed the Scooby-Doo character with a sloping chin, spots, a long tail, a sloped back, and bow legs – all traits in direct opposition to those of a prize-winning purebred Great Dane. In defining the personality of the dog, Ruby and Spears looked for inspiration to the characters played by Bob Hope in his horror-comedies – a coward who shows traits of bravery when his friends are in danger. Veteran Hanna-Barbera voice artist Don Messick was the original voice of Scooby and spent decades working on the character.


title: Scooby-Doo (character)

text: "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!" premiered on CBS on September 13, 1969, at 10:30 a.m. Eastern Time. It ran for two seasons, with a total of 25 episodes. Its final first-run episode aired on October 31, 1970.


title: Scooby-Doo (character)

text: In most incarnations of the series, Scooby is regarded as a unique Great Dane dog who is able to speak in broken English, and usually puts the letter "R" in front of words and noises made. Other incarnations, such as "A Pup Named Scooby-Doo", present him as a speech-impaired dog in the larger fictional universe as nobody in Coolsville seems bothered by his speaking ability. In recent years (most notably in "Scooby-Doo! Mystery Incorporated"), Scooby is able to speak in complete sentences and has more dialogue, though partially retaining his speech impediment. He consistently shows about the same level of intelligence as his friends, while also being subject to the same knack for clumsiness and moments of being dimwitted as well.


title: Scooby-Doo (character)

text: Different iterations of the character have been developed and expanded in the various series featuring the characters, many of them contradicting, such as the original series and the recent live-action films where Shaggy and Scooby first meet as older teenagers for the first time. This contradicts the animated series "A Pup Named Scooby-Doo", where they know each other from almost infancy, though the films may be seen as having a different continuity altogether than the cartoon products. As an adult canine, Scooby is usually treated as a mix of a pet and a friend by his companions.


title: Scooby-Doo (character)

text: In all versions of the character, Scooby and Shaggy share several personality traits, mostly being cowardly and perpetually hungry. Yet their friends (Fred, Daphne, and Velma) encourage them to go after the costumed villains, usually with "Scooby Snacks". The biscuit-like dog treat or cookie snack is usually shaped like a bone or, in later versions of the cartoons, Scooby's dog tag. However, Scooby's inherent loyalty and courage do often force him to take a more heroic stance even without any prodding. Scooby is also extremely ticklish, and this is seen in many of the television series and films.


title: Scooby-Doo (character)

text: Scooby has a speech impediment and tends to pronounce most words as if they begin with an "R"; however, most characters are able to understand him almost perfectly. In most iterations, he keeps his sentences relatively short, usually using charades for anything longer than three or four words. His catchphrase, usually howled at the end of every production, is "Scooby-Dooby-Doo!" or "Rooby-Rooby-Roo". Scooby was voiced by Don Messick through "Arabian Nights" in 1994, after which point Messick quit smoking; quitting smoking changed his voice and prevented him from achieving the same raspy vocal effect (despite Messick's efforts, he suffered a career-ending stroke in 1996 and died in 1997, before any further "Scooby-Doo" productions were made). Messick is also known for providing the voice of the dogs Astro on "The Jetsons" and Muttley (who snickered). The characteristic speech impediments of Scooby and Astro are so similar that Astro's signature phrase, "Ruh-roh!", is popularly and improperly attributed to Scooby (as in "Ruh-roh, Raggy!"); of the two voices, Scooby's had a deeper and throatier timbre than Astro's.


title: Scooby-Doo (character)

text: According to Fred in "", the thought having a dog with an Adam's apple was a little strange, but they got used to it, so when he started talking, it wasn't a big deal. But despite his special gift of speech, he did have his shortcomings like his cowardice. But as Mystery Inc. bonded, he would form a special partnership with Shaggy, comparing themselves to Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson. Shaggy says that things just clicked and whenever the gang needs bait for a villain, they would send Shaggy and Scooby in and he says there's no one else he would rather work with. Fred claims that the only thing that scares Scooby more than monsters is a trip to the vet.


title: Scooby-Doo (character)

text: Scooby is brown from head to toe with several distinctive black spots on his upper body and does not seem to have a melanistic mask. He is generally a quadruped but displays bipedal 'human' characteristics occasionally. Scooby also has opposable thumbs and can use his front paws like hands. He has a black nose and wears an off-yellow, diamond-shaped-tagged blue collar with an "SD" (his initials) and has four toes on each foot. Unlike other dogs, Scooby only has one pad on each of his paws (so that it was easier to draw in the Scooby-Doo Annuals).


title: Scooby-Doo (character)

text: Scooby has a fully prehensile tail he can use to swing from or press buttons. Both his head and tail are malleable and useful as a communication aid or creating a distraction.


title: Scooby-Doo (character)

text: Creator Iwao Takamoto later explained that before he designed the character, he first spoke to a Great Dane breeder, who described to him the desirable characteristics of a pedigree dog. Takamoto then drew Scooby as the opposite of this. He said "I decided to go the opposite [way] and gave him a hump back, bowed legs, small chin and such. Even his color is wrong."


title: Scooby-Doo (character)

text: Don Messick originated the character's speech patterns and provided Scooby-Doo's voice in every "Scooby-Doo" production from 1969 until his retirement in 1996. Voice actor Hadley Kay voiced the character for a brief period in 1997, for two episodes of "Johnny Bravo", and a few television commercials. Scott Innes (also the then-voice of Shaggy) voiced Scooby-Doo in the 1998-2001 direct-to-video films and continued to voice the character regularly for video games (such as "Scooby-Doo! Night of 100 Frights"), toys and some commercials until 2008. Neil Fanning provided the voice of the computer-generated Scooby-Doo in the 2002 live-action film and its . Frank Welker (also the voice of Fred since 1969) has voiced Scooby since 2002, taking over beginning with "What's New, Scooby-Doo?" and other spin-offs including the live-action prequels "Scooby-Doo! The Mystery Begins" and "Scooby-Doo! Curse of the Lake Monster". Dave Coulier and Seth Green have both voiced the character in "Robot Chicken".


title: Scooby-Doo (character)

text: Casey Kasem, the original voice actor for Shaggy Rogers, said that Scooby is "the star of the show—the Shaquille O'Neal of the show." Kasem explained, "People love animals more than they love people. Am I right or wrong? They give more love to their pets than they give to people. Scooby is vulnerable and lovable and not brave, and very much like the kids who watch. But like kids, he likes to think that he's brave."


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: Pet Sematary (sometimes referred to as Stephen King's Pet Sematary) is a 1989 American supernatural horror film and the first adaptation of Stephen King's 1983 novel of the same name. Directed by Mary Lambert and written by King, it stars Dale Midkiff, Denise Crosby, Blaze Berdahl, Fred Gwynne, and Miko Hughes as Gage Creed. The title is a sensational spelling of "pet cemetery".


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: The film was released on April 21, 1989, and grossed $89.5 million at the box office on a budget of $11.5 million. A sequel, "Pet Sematary Two", was released in 1992 and a second film adaptation was released in 2019.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: The Creed family—Louis, Rachel, their children Ellie and Gage, and their pet cat Church—move from Chicago to rural Ludlow, Maine, after Louis accepts a job as a physician with the University of Maine. They befriend their neighbor Jud Crandall, who takes them to an isolated pet cemetery (misspelled "sematary") in the forest behind the Creeds' new home.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: Louis encounters Victor Pascow, a jogger who is mortally injured after being hit by a truck. He warns Louis about the pet sematary before dying, calling Louis by name though they have never met. That night, Pascow appears to Louis as a ghost and leads him to the sematary, warning him not to cross the barrier because the ground beyond is "sour". Louis awakens, assuming it was a dream, but notices his feet are covered in dirt.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: During Thanksgiving while the family is gone, Church is run down on the highway. Realizing Ellie will be devastated, Jud takes Louis beyond the pet sematary and deep into the woods, where they reach an ancient Miꞌkmaq burial ground. Jud instructs Louis to bury the cat and warns him not to tell anyone about what they have done. The next day a reanimated Church returns to the house. He now stinks, moves sluggishly, and is vicious toward Louis. Jud explains that as a boy he revived his pet dog, and that although the cat might be different, it will save Ellie the grief of losing her pet.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: Sometime later, Gage is killed by a truck along the same highway. Jud anticipates that Louis is considering burying his son in the Miꞌkmaq ground, although Louis denies it. Jud believes that introducing Louis to the ritual ground aroused the malevolent forces present there, which caused Gage's death. He tells him the story of a local named Bill Baterman who buried his son Timmy in the Miꞌkmaq ground after he was killed in World War II. Timmy returned as a malevolent zombie, terrifying the townsfolk. A group of men including Jud tried destroying Timmy by lighting the Baterman house on fire, only for Bill to perish with his son. Jud insists that the burial ground is evil and Louis must not bury his son there.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: After the funeral, Rachel and Ellie leave for Chicago while Louis remains home, ostensibly to take care of loose ends. Despite Pascow and Jud's warnings, Louis exhumes his son's body and buries him at the ritual site. In Chicago, Pascow appears to Ellie in a dream and warns her that Louis is about to do something terrible. Rachel is unnerved by her daughter's dream but can only reach Jud when she calls, who tells her Louis is not home. She decides to return to Maine, much to Jud's alarm.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: That night, a reanimated Gage returns home and steals a scalpel from his father's bag. He taunts Jud before slashing his Achilles tendon and his mouth, before biting his throat, killing him. Rachel returns home and is lured into Jud's house by the voice and specter of her dead sister Zelda, only to discover that she is actually seeing Gage, holding a scalpel. In shock and disbelief, Rachel reaches down to hug her son and he kills her.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: Waking up from his sleep, Louis notices Gage's muddy footprints in the house and discovers his scalpel is missing. Receiving a phone call from Gage that he has "played" with Jud and Mommy, he fills three syringes with morphine and heads to Jud's house. Encountering Church, he kills the cat with an injection before entering the house. Gage taunts him further and Louis is startled by Rachel's body hanging from the attic before Gage attacks him.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: After a brief battle, Louis overpowers Gage and injects him with the morphine syringe. He then lights Jud's house on fire, leaving it to burn as he carries Rachel's body from the fire. Pascow appears and warns Louis not to "make it worse", but despite his warnings, Louis, grief-stricken to the point of insanity, believes that he waited too long when he buried Gage, but burying Rachel "will work this time" because she had died just hours ago.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: That night, Rachel returns to Louis and the couple embrace. Rachel takes a large knife from the counter, before Louis screams.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: The film rights were sold to George A. Romero in 1984 for $10,000. King had previously declined several other offers for a film adaptation. Romero eventually had to pull out of the production, as he was busy with "Monkey Shines". Development executive Lindsay Doran loved the finished script and advocated for it to be made at Embassy Pictures and then at Paramount Pictures, after she became vice president of production there in 1985. She was told each time that there was no more demand for Stephen King films after the slew of adaptations from his novels released in the early 80's.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: It was only during the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike that Paramount reconsidered because the studio was facing a possible shortage of new productions for 1989 release. Stephen King's script for "Pet Sematary" was finished and ready to go, so Doran was given the greenlight to obtain the rights for Paramount and start production. King, who had final say on the choice of a director, met with the studio's first choice of Mary Lambert. She impressed him with her enthusiasm for his novels and her commitment to stay faithful to his source material, which secured her the job.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: The original cut of the film delivered to Paramount's executives was judged to be too long, so excess footage had to be removed. The original ending scene was more ambiguous: it showed only the undead Rachel entering the kitchen where Louis is playing solitaire, leaving his fate uncertain. Although Lambert called this the "more spooky, sad... tragic" ending, because the audience knows "it's not going to be what he wants. She's not coming back as his wife", the studio decided it was too tame and at their request it was re-shot to be more graphic. Rachel's appearance was made far more gruesome with special prosthetic effects, and she kills Louis at the end as alluded to in his screams when the film cuts to black.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: Initially, Paramount executives wanted a pair of twins to play the role of Gage, like those chosen to play Ellie, which was the more cost-effective option. However, Lambert was very impressed with three-year-old Miko Hughes, who she felt was a natural talent despite his young age, so she lobbied the studio to accept her choice. She also faced resistance from executives over her choice to cast Fred Gwynne, whom the studio believed audiences would not take seriously because of his fame as Herman Munster. After first auditioning girls for the role of Zelda, Lambert changed course and ended up casting Andrew Hubatsek in the role, because she felt having a grown man playing the role of a teenage girl deformed by spinal meningitis made the character more frightening.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: As stipulated by King when selling the rights, "Pet Sematary" was shot in Maine where the story was set and King himself wrote the screenplay. Production was based in Ellsworth and auditions held at The Grand theater, where several hundred locals auditioned to be extras or for small spoken roles. King himself was very involved in the filming process, consulting with Lambert frequently on her ideas for the story and any deviations from the script she wished to make.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: The house used for the Creeds' home is a private residence near Hancock, while Jud's house across the street was actually a facade constructed around an existing house that was insulated with fireproof material so that the mock-up could be burned around it. The interiors of the Creed house were recreated on a soundstage in Ellsworth, while the interiors of Jud's house were built inside the Bangor Arsenal. The approach to the Miꞌkmaq burial ground was filmed at an abandoned granite quarry on Mount Desert Island in Acadia National Park, while a hilltop near Sedgwick was the site of the Miꞌkmaq ground itself. Other locations included a forest near Ellsworth for the pet cemetery, Mount Hope Cemetery in Bangor for the graveyard scenes, and Ellsworth Town Hall, which stood in for the hospital of the University of Maine, Orono.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: The film's score was written by Elliot Goldenthal. The film features two songs by the Ramones, one of Stephen King's favorite bands: "Sheena Is a Punk Rocker" appears in a scene, and "Pet Sematary", a new track written specially for the picture, plays over the credits.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: The song "Pet Sematary" became one of the Ramones' biggest charting hits, reaching number four on "Billboard"s "Modern Rock Tracks" list, despite being, in the words of AMG, "reviled by most of the band's hardcore fans".


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: Lambert was better known for her work directing music videos, especially those for Madonna including "Like a Prayer" and "Material Girl". Through her work in the music industry she was friends with the Ramones. She approached them about recording a song for the film and they agreed to write and perform "Pet Sematary", which is featured in the closing credits.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 53% of 36 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 5.6/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Pet Sematary" is a bruising horror flick that wears its quirks on its sleeves, to the detriment of its scare factor." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 38 out of 100 based on 12 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "B".


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: "Variety" called it "undead schlock dulled by a slasher-film mentality". Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" wrote that the film "has some effectively ghoulish moments" but "fails mostly because it doesn't trust the audience to do any of the work". Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film zero stars out of four and called it "sickening." Kevin Thomas of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "Lambert goes for strong, succinct images and never stops to worry whether there's a lack of credibility or motivation."


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: Richard Harrington of "The Washington Post" called it "bland, clichéd, cheap". Harrington criticized Gage's actions as disturbing and the climax as "an ugly payoff to an inept setup". Philip Strick of "The Monthly Film Bulletin" wrote, "The family feuds and loyalties which lend some coherence to the novel and justify its punchline ... are simply plundered for their shock effect en route to the final bloodletting. Emaciated, then, rather than enhanced by its adaptation, "Pet Semetary" as a movie is nevertheless strikingly well-told."


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: Film historian Leonard Maltin called the picture a "BOMB" (his lowest possible rating) and declared, "Despite being a box-office smash, this picture's contempt for its audience should be obvious even to undiscriminating moviegoers...Still, vastly superior to its sequel."


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: Bloody Disgusting rated it 4.5/5 stars and wrote, "The plot alone would make for a scary movie, but by injecting excellent atmosphere, capable acting and generally nightmarish scenes, "Pet Sematary" is a truly effective horror flick and well worth the price of admission." At Dread Central, Steve Barton rated it 4/5 stars and called it one of the best King adaptations; Jason Jenkins rated it 3.5/5 stars and called it "one of the better King adaptations of the period".


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: The film grossed $57.5 million in the United States and $32 million internationally for a worldwide total of $89.5 million.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: "Pet Sematary" was a top-renting VHS upon release. Paramount released it on DVD in 2006 and on Blu-ray in 2012. "Pet Sematary" was released on 4K UHD Blu-ray on March 26, 2019.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: A sequel, "Pet Sematary Two", was released in 1992 to poor reviews and a disappointing box office. Although it references the events of the first film, the sequel focused on all-new characters.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: "Pet Sematary" was ranked #16 on IFC's list of the best Stephen King film and television adaptations, and also placed at 16 on "Rolling Stone"s Top 30 King adaptations.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: There was intermittent buzz about a possible adaptation of "Pet Sematary". Juan Carlos Fresnadillo was announced to direct an adaptation in October 2013, but nothing came of it.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: In August 2017, the brother-sister team behind the 2017 adaptation of Stephen King's "It", Andy and Barbara Muschietti, told the "Toronto Sun" that they hoped to adapt "Pet Sematary" after the sequel of "It". Again, there was no further action.


title: Pet Sematary (1989 film)

text: Finally, in December 2017 Paramount Pictures announced that it was remaking the film, with Jeff Buhler penning the script and Kevin Kolsch and Dennis Widmyer set to direct. The new adaptation stars Jason Clarke and Amy Seimetz as Louis and Rachel Creed, with John Lithgow appearing as Jud Crandall. The movie began filming in Montreal, Canada, in June 2018 and was released on April 5, 2019.


title: August Wilson

text: August Wilson ( Frederick August Kittel Jr.; April 27, 1945 – October 2, 2005) was an American playwright. He has been referred to as the "theater's poet of Black America". He is best known for a series of ten plays, collectively called "" (or "The Century Cycle")"," which chronicle the experiences and heritage of the African-American community in the 20th century. Plays in the series include "Fences" (1987) and "The Piano Lesson" (1990), both of which won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama, as well as "Ma Rainey's Black Bottom" (1984) and "Joe Turner's Come and Gone" (1988). In 2006, Wilson was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame.


title: August Wilson

text: His works delve into the African-American experience as well as examinations of the human condition. Other themes range from the systemic and historical exploitation of African Americans, as well as race relations, identity, migration, and racial discrimination. Viola Davis said that Wilson's writing "captures our humor, our vulnerabilities, our tragedies, our trauma. And he humanizes us. And he allows us to talk." Since Wilson's death two of his plays have been adapted into films: "Fences" (2016) and "Ma Rainey's Black Bottom" (2020). Denzel Washington has shepherded the films and has vowed to continue Wilson's legacy by adapting the rest of his plays into films for a wider audience. Washington said, "the greatest part of what's left of my career is making sure that August is taken care of".


title: August Wilson

text: Wilson was born Frederick August Kittel Jr. in the Hill District of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the fourth of six children. His father, Frederick August Kittel Sr., was a Sudeten German immigrant, who was a baker/pastry cook. His mother, Daisy Wilson, was an African-American woman from North Carolina who cleaned homes for a living. Wilson's anecdotal history reports that his maternal grandmother walked from North Carolina to Pennsylvania in search of a better life. Wilson's mother raised the children alone until he was five in a two-room apartment behind a grocery store at 1727 Bedford Avenue; his father was mostly absent from his childhood. Wilson later wrote under his mother's surname.


title: August Wilson

text: The economically depressed neighborhood where he was raised was inhabited predominantly by Black Americans and Jewish and Italian immigrants. Life was tough for the Kittel siblings as they were biracial. August struggled with finding a sense of belonging to a particular culture and did not feel that he truly fit into African-American culture or White culture until later in life. Wilson's mother divorced his father and married David Bedford in the 1950s, and the family moved from the Hill District to the then predominantly White working-class neighborhood of Hazelwood, where they encountered racial hostility; bricks were thrown through a window at their new home. They were soon forced out of their house and on to their next home.


title: August Wilson

text: The Hill District went on to become the setting of numerous plays in the "Pittsburgh Cycle". His experiences growing up there with a strong matriarch shaped the way his plays would be written.


title: August Wilson

text: In 1959, Wilson was one of 14 African-American students at Central Catholic High School but dropped out after one year. He then attended Connelley Vocational High School, but found the curriculum unchallenging. He dropped out of Gladstone High School in the 10th grade in 1960 after his teacher accused him of plagiarizing a 20-page paper he wrote on Napoleon I of France. Wilson hid his decision from his mother because he did not want to disappoint her. At the age of 16 he began working menial jobs, where he met a wide variety of people on whom some of his later characters were based, such as Sam in "The Janitor" (1985).


title: August Wilson

text: Wilson's extensive use of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh resulted in its later awarding him an honorary high school diploma. Wilson, who said he had learned to read at the age of four, began reading Black writers at the library when he was 12 and spent the remainder of his teen years educating himself through the books of Ralph Ellison, Richard Wright, Langston Hughes, Arna Bontemps, and others.


title: August Wilson

text: Wilson knew that he wanted to be a writer, but this created tension with his mother, who wanted him to become a lawyer. She forced him to leave the family home and he enlisted in the United States Army for a three-year stint in 1962, but and went back to working various odd jobs as a porter, short-order cook, gardener, and dishwasher.


title: August Wilson

text: Frederick August Kittel Jr. changed his name to August Wilson to honor his mother after his father's death in 1965. That same year, he discovered the blues as sung by Bessie Smith, and he bought a stolen typewriter for $10, which he often pawned when money was tight. At 20, he decided he was a poet and submitted work to such magazines as "Harper's". He began to write in bars, the local cigar store, and cafes—longhand on table napkins and on yellow notepads, absorbing the voices and characters around him. He liked to write on cafe napkins because, he said, it freed him up and made him less self-conscious as a writer. He would then gather the notes and type them up at home. Gifted with a talent for catching dialect and accents, Wilson had an "astonishing memory", which he put to full use during his career. He slowly learned not to censor the language he heard when incorporating it into his work.


title: August Wilson

text: Malcolm X's voice influenced Wilson's life and work (such as "The Ground on Which I Stand," 1996). Both the Nation of Islam (NOI) and the Black Power movement spoke to him regarding self-sufficiency, self-defense, and self-determination, and he appreciated the origin myths that Elijah Muhammad supported. In 1969 Wilson married Brenda Burton, a Muslim, and became associated with the NOI, though he reportedly did not convert. He and Brenda had one daughter, Sakina Ansari-Wilson. The couple divorced in 1972.