title: Monarchy of Australia

text: The monarch is also the locus of oaths of allegiance; many employees of the Crown are required by law to recite this oath before taking their posts, such as all members of the Commonwealth parliament, all members of the state and territorial parliaments, as well as all magistrates, judges, police officers and justices of the peace. This is in reciprocation to the sovereign's Coronation Oath, wherein he or she promises "to govern the Peoples of... Australia... according to their respective laws and customs". New appointees to the Federal Cabinet currently also swear an oath that includes allegiance to the monarch before taking their post. However, as this oath is not written in law, it has not always been observed and depends on the form chosen by the prime minister of the time, suggested to the Governor-General. In December 2007, Kevin Rudd did not swear allegiance to the sovereign when sworn in by the governor-general, making him the first prime minister to do so; however, he (like all other members of parliament) did swear allegiance to the Queen, as required by law, when sworn in by the governor-general as newly elected parliamentarians. Similarly, the Oath of Citizenship contained a statement of allegiance to the reigning monarch until 1994, when a pledge of allegiance to "Australia" and its values was introduced. The High Court found, in 2002, though, that allegiance to the monarch of Australia was the "fundamental criterion of membership" in the Australian body politic, from a constitutional, rather than statutory, point of view.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: Key features of Australia's system of government include its basis on a combination of "written" and "unwritten rules", comprising the sovereign and the governors, and the governor-general. The constitution does not mention the term "head of state". The Constitution defines the governor-general as the monarch's representative. According to the Australian Parliamentary Library, Australia's head of state is the monarch, and its head of government is the prime minister, with powers limited by both law and convention for government to be carried on democratically. The federal constitution provides that the monarch is part of the Parliament and is empowered to appoint the governor-general as the monarch's representative, while the executive power of the Commonwealth which is vested in the monarch is exercisable by the governor-general as the monarch's representative. The few functions which the monarch does perform (such as appointing the governor-general) are done on advice from the prime minister.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: A review of the political situation in Australia from the 1970s to the present shows that, while the position of the monarch as head of state has not been altered, some Australians have argued in favour of changing the constitution into a form of republican government that would, they propose, be better suited to the Commonwealth of Australia than the current monarchy. While current official sources use the description "head of state" for the monarch, in the lead up to the republic referendum in 1999, Sir David Smith proposed an alternative explanation, that Australia already has a head of state in the person of the governor-general, who since 1965 has invariably been an Australian citizen. This view has some support within the group Australians for Constitutional Monarchy. It is designed to counter the objections by republicans, such as the Australian Republic Movement, that no Australian can become, or can be involved in choosing, the Australian head of state. The leading textbook on Australian constitutional law formulates the position thus: "The Queen, as represented in Australia by the governor-general, is Australia's head of state."


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: The sovereign, along with the Senate and the House of Representatives, being one of the three components of parliament, is called the "King-in-Parliament". The authority of the Crown therein is embodied in the mace (House of Representatives) and Black Rod (Senate), which both bear a crown at their apex. The monarch and viceroy do not, however, participate in the legislative process save for the granting of Royal Assent by the governor-general. Further, the constitution outlines that the governor-general alone is responsible for summoning, proroguing, and dissolving parliament.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: All laws in Australia, except in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) Legislative Assembly, are enacted only with the granting of Royal Assent, done by the governor-general, relevant state governor, or Administrator in the case of the Northern Territory (NT), with the Great Seal of Australia or the appropriate state or territory seal. Laws passed by the ACT and NT legislatures, unlike their state counterparts, are subject to the oversight of the government of Australia and can be disallowed by the Australian Parliament. The governor-general may reserve a bill "for the King's pleasure"; that is withhold his consent to the bill and present it to the sovereign for their personal decision. Under the constitution, the sovereign also has the power to disallow a bill within one year of the governor-general having granted Royal Assent.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: The royal prerogative also extends to foreign affairs: the governor-general-in-Council negotiates and ratifies treaties, alliances, and international agreements. As with other uses of the royal prerogative, no parliamentary approval is required.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: In Australia, the sovereign is deemed the "fount of justice". However, he does not personally rule in judicial cases, meaning that judicial functions are normally performed only in the monarch's name. Criminal offences are legally deemed to be offences against the sovereign and proceedings for indictable offences are brought in the sovereign's name in the form of "The King against [Name]" (sometimes also referred to as "the Crown against [Name]"). Hence, the common law holds that the sovereign "can do no wrong"; the monarch cannot be prosecuted in his or her own courts for criminal offences. Civil lawsuits against the Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the government) are permitted; however, lawsuits against the monarch personally are not cognisable. In international cases, as a sovereign and under established principles of international law, the king of Australia is not subject to suit in foreign courts without his express consent. The "prerogative of mercy" lies with the monarch, and is exercised in the state jurisdictions by the governors.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: Official duties involve the sovereign representing the state at home or abroad, or other royal family members participating in a government-organised ceremony either in Australia or elsewhere. The sovereign and/or his or her family have participated in events such as various centennials and bicentennials; Australia Day; the openings of Olympic and other games; award ceremonies; D-Day commemorations; anniversaries of the monarch's accession; and the like. Other royals have participated in Australian ceremonies or undertaken duties abroad, such as Prince Charles at the Anzac Day ceremonies at Gallipoli, or when the Queen, Prince Charles, and Princess Anne participated in Australian ceremonies for the anniversary of D-Day in France in 2004. On 22 February 2009, Princess Anne represented the Queen at the National Bushfires Memorial Service in Melbourne. The Queen also showed her support for the people of Australia by making a personal statement about the bushfires and by also making a private donation to the Australian Red Cross Appeal. The Duke of Edinburgh was the first to sign a book of condolences at the Australian High Commission in London.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: Royal tours traditionally see large crowds of people turn out, often waving flags and snapping photos of the visitors. Republicans have dismissed this as "the cult of celebrity". However, historian Jane Connors, thinks there is something more to it; after William and Catherine toured the Blue Mountains after devastating bush fires in 2014, Dr Connors opined:


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: "They [William and Catherine] went to a street where about nine houses had been burnt down. And it did seem to matter to the people in that street and in the Blue Mountains that they were royal... The quotes from the people who had brought their families along were, 'I've brought my grandson with me because this will be his moment of history.' Or, 'I've bought my daughter because this will be her moment of history, these will be her royals in the way the previous generation were my royals.' And there is still that sense that having the Royal Family come to see you is more healing and significant than just having anyone come to see you. That's still very much with us and they still seem to be able pull together that emotion."


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: Section 68 of the Australian Constitution says: "The command in chief of the naval and military forces of the Commonwealth is vested in the governor-general as the Queen's (monarch's) representative." In practice, however, the governor-general does not play any part in the ADF's command structure other than following the advice of the Minister for Defence in the normal form of executive government.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: Australian naval vessels bear the prefix "His Majesty's Australian Ship" (HMAS) and many regiments carry the "royal" prefix.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: Members of the royal family have presided over military ceremonies, including Trooping the Colour ceremonies, inspections of the troops, and anniversaries of key battles. When the Queen was in Canberra, she laid wreaths at the Australian War Memorial. In 2003, the Queen acted in her capacity as Australian monarch when she dedicated the Australian War Memorial in Hyde Park, London.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: Some members of the royal family are Colonels-in-Chief of Australian regiments, including: the Royal Regiment of Australian Artillery; Royal Australian Army Medical Corps; the Royal Australian Armoured Corps and the Royal Australian Corps of Signals, amongst many others. The Queen's late husband, the Duke of Edinburgh, was an Admiral of the Fleet.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: Royal symbols are the visual and auditory identifiers of the Australian monarchy. The main symbol of the monarchy is the sovereign himself, and his image is thus used to signify Australian sovereignty. Queen Elizabeth II's portrait, for instance, currently appears on all Australian coins, the five-dollar banknote, and postage stamps such as the Queen's Birthday stamp, issued by Australia Post every year since 1980. A Crown is depicted as a royal symbol that appears on the Australian coat of arms, and on various medals and awards. The latter reflects the monarch's place as the "fount of honour"—the formal head of the Australian honours and awards system.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: The sovereign is further both mentioned in and the subject of songs and loyal toasts. Australia inherited the royal anthem "God Save the King" (alternatively, "God Save the Queen" in the reign of a female monarch) from the United Kingdom. It was the national anthem of Australia until 1984, and has since been retained as the country's royal anthem, its use generally restricted to official occasions where the monarch or a member of the royal family is present.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: The Queen's Personal Australian Flag, adopted in 1962, was used to signify Queen Elizabeth II's presence when she visited Australia. It features the coat of arms of Australia in banner form, defaced with a gold seven-pointed federation star with a blue disc containing the crowned letter "E", surrounded by a garland of golden roses. Each of the six sections of the flag represents the heraldic badge of the Australian states, and the whole is surrounded by an ermine border representing the federation of the states. The current monarch, King Charles III, has not adopted a personal flag for Australia.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: As in other Commonwealth realms, the King's Official Birthday is a public holiday and, in Australia, is observed on the second Monday in June in all states and territories, except Queensland and Western Australia. In Queensland, it is celebrated on the first Monday in October, and in Western Australia it is usually the last Monday of September or the first Monday of October. Celebrations are mainly official, including the Australian Birthday Honours list and military ceremonies.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: Until its new constitution went into force in 1962, the Anglican Church of Australia was part of the Church of England. Its titular head was consequently the monarch, in his or her capacity as Supreme Governor of the Church of England. However, unlike in England, Anglicanism was never established as a state religion in Australia.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: The development of a distinctly Australian monarchy came about through a complex set of incremental events, beginning in 1770, when Captain James Cook, in the name of, and under instruction from, King George III, claimed the east coast of Australia. Colonies were eventually founded across the continent, all of them ruled by the monarch of the United Kingdom, upon the advice of his or her British ministers, the Secretary of State for the Colonies, in particular. After Queen Victoria's granting of Royal Assent to the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act on 9 July 1900, which brought about Federation in 1901, whereupon the six colonies became the states of Australia, the relationship between the state governments and the Crown remained as it was pre-1901: References in the constitution to "the Queen" meant the government of the United Kingdom (in the formation of which Australians had no say) and the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865by which colonial laws deemed repugnant to imperial (British) law in force in the colony were rendered void and inoperativeremained in force in both the federal and state spheres; and all the governors, both of the Commonwealth and the states, remained appointees of the British monarch on the advice of the British Cabinet, a situation that continued even after Australia was recognised as a Dominion of the British Empire in 1907.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: In response to calls from some Dominions for a re-evaluation in their status under the Crown after their sacrifice and performance in the First World War, a series of Imperial Conferences was held in London, from 1917 on, which resulted in the Balfour Declaration of 1926, which provided that the United Kingdom and the Dominions were to be considered as "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate to one another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown." The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927, an Act of the Westminster Parliament, was the first indication of a shift in the law, before the Imperial Conference of 1930 established that the Australian Cabinet could advise the sovereign directly on the choice of Governor-General, which ensured the independence of the office. The Crown was further separated amongst its dominions by the Statute of Westminster 1931, and, though it was not adopted by Australia until 1942 (retroactive to 3 September 1939).


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: The Curtin Labor Government appointed Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, as Governor-General during the Second World War. Curtin hoped the appointment might influence the British to despatch men and equipment to the Pacific War, and the selection of the brother of King George VI reaffirmed the important role of the Crown to the Australian nation at that time. The Queen became the first reigning monarch to visit Australia in 1954, greeted by huge crowds across the nation. Her son Charles III (then Prince Charles) attended school in Australia in 1967. Her grandson Prince Harry undertook a portion of his gap-year living and working in Australia in 2003.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: The sovereign did not possess a title unique to Australia until the Australian parliament enacted the Royal Styles and Titles Act in 1953, after the accession of Elizabeth to the throne, and giving her the title of "Queen of the United Kingdom, Australia and Her other Realms and Territories". Still, Elizabeth remained both as a queen who reigned in Australia both as Queen of Australia (in the federal jurisdiction) and Queen of the United Kingdom (in each of the states), as a result of the states not wishing to have the Statute of Westminster apply to them, believing that the "status quo" better protected their sovereign interests against an expansionist federal government, which left the Colonial Laws Validity Act in effect. Thus, the British government could stillat least in theory, if not with some difficulty in practicelegislate for the Australian states, and the viceroys in the states were appointed by and represented the sovereign of the United Kingdom, not that of Australia; as late as 1976, the British ministry advised the Queen to reject Colin Hannah as the nominee of the Queensland Cabinet for governor, and court cases from Australian states could be appealed directly to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London, thereby bypassing the Australian High Court. In 1973 reference to the United Kingdom was removed by the Royal Style and Titles Act. Henceforth, the monarch would be styled uniquely as 'Queen of Australia'. The Queen signed her assent to the Act at Government House, Canberra that year, leading Senior Vice President of the Labor Party, Jack Egerton, to remark to her, "They tell me, love, you’ve been naturalised." It was with the passage of the Australia Act in 1986, which repealed the Colonial Laws Validity Act and abolished appeals of state cases to London, that the final vestiges of the British monarchy in Australia were removed, leaving a distinct Australian monarchy for the nation. The view in the Republic Advisory Committee's report in 1993 was that if, in 1901, Victoria, as Queen-Empress, symbolised the British Empire of which all Australians were subjects, all of the powers vested in the monarch under Australia's Constitution were now exercised on the advice of the Australian government.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: The 1999 Australian republic referendum was defeated by 54.4% of the populace, despite polls showing that the majority supported becoming a republic. It is believed the proposed model of the republic (not having a directly elected president) was unsatisfactory to most Australians. The referendum followed the recommendation of a 1998 Constitutional Convention called to discuss the issue of Australia becoming a republic. Still, nearly another ten years later, Kevin Rudd was appointed as Prime Minister, whereafter he affirmed that a republic was still a part of his party's platform, and stated his belief that the debate on constitutional change should continue.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: Former Prime Minister Julia Gillard re-affirmed her party's platform about a possible future republic. She stated that she would like to see Australia become a republic, with an appropriate time being when there is a change in monarch. A statement unaligned to this position was recorded on 21 October 2011 at a reception in the presence of the Queen at Parliament House in Canberra when Gillard stated that the monarch is "a vital constitutional part of Australian democracy and would only ever be welcomed as a beloved and respected friend." The then Opposition Leader, Tony Abbott, a former head of Australians for Constitutional Monarchy stated on 21 October 2011, "Your Majesty, while 11 prime ministers and no less than 17 opposition leaders have come and gone, for 60 years you have been a presence in our national story and given the vagaries of public life, I'm confident that this will not be the final tally of the politicians that you have outlasted."


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: A Morgan poll taken in October 2011 found that support for constitutional change was at its lowest for 20 years. Of those surveyed 34% were pro-republic as opposed to 55% pro-monarchist, preferring to maintain the current constitutional arrangements. A peer-reviewed study published in the Australian Journal of Political Science in 2016 found that there had been a significant increase to support for monarchy in Australia after a twenty-year rapid decline following the 1992 "annus horribilis".


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: A poll in November 2018 found support for the monarchy has climbed to a record high. A YouGov poll in July 2020 found that 62 percent of respondents supporting replacing the monarch with an Australian head of state. This is an exception to the rule, however, as polls have shown a steady decline in support for republicanism since the 1999 referendum. A 2021 Ipsos poll found 40 percent of respondents were opposed to Australia becoming a republic, 34 percent were in favour and 26 percent didn't know. This was the lowest support recorded for republicanism since 1979.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: The Queen died on 8 September 2022. She was the longest serving monarch and was succeeded by her son, Charles III. Shortly after her death, the Prime Minister, Anthony Albanese, said that he would not hold a referendum on Australia becoming a republic during his first term.


title: Monarchy of Australia

text: In 1939, the Australian Crown emerged as an independent entity from that of the British Crown due to the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 (retroactive to 3 September 1939).


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: On January 18, 2016, Daniel Leetin Shaver of Granbury, Texas, was fatally shot by police officer Philip Brailsford in the hallway of a La Quinta Inn & Suites hotel in Mesa, Arizona. Police were responding to a report that a rifle had been pointed out of the window of Shaver's hotel room.


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: After the shooting, the rifle (previously assumed to be a lethal weapon), which remained in the room, was determined to be a pellet gun. Following an investigation, Brailsford was charged with second-degree murder and a lesser manslaughter charge and later found not guilty by a jury.


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: Daniel Leetin Shaver (December 29, 1989January 18, 2016) grew up in Nashville, Tennessee, and graduated from Hillwood High School in 2007. He lived in Granbury, Texas, with his wife and two daughters. Shaver was employed as a pest control specialist, and was visiting Mesa for a business trip when he was killed. He was 26 years old.


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: Philip Mitchell Brailsford, like Daniel Shaver, was 26 years old at the time of the shooting. He had been employed with the Mesa Police Department since 2013. He was "administratively cleared" of wrongdoing in a 2015 incident involving excessive use of force during an arrest of three unarmed teenage suspects. Brailsford's father was a police sergeant who had also worked for the Mesa Police Department. Brailsford graduated from Mesa Desert Ridge High School in 2009 and had signed up with the Arizona National Guard before being hired by Mesa Police.


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: According to a police report, Shaver had been staying at a Mesa La Quinta Inn & Suites on business. He invited two acquaintances, Monique Portillo and Luis Nunez, to his room for drinks. There he showed them a scoped air rifle he was using to exterminate birds inside grocery stores. At one point, the gun was pointed outside his fifth-floor window, prompting a witness to notify the hotel receptionist; the police were immediately called.


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: Nunez left the hotel room shortly before six police officers arrived at about 9:20 p.m. The officers, led by Sergeant Charles Langley, stood in the corridor outside Shaver's hotel room and called out to the occupants to exit the room, but received no response. Portillo later testified that she and Shaver did not hear these initial commands. Police then telephoned Shaver's room and again ordered the occupants to step outside. Shaver and Portillo then walked into the hotel corridor, where Langley gave them orders for several minutes while the other officers, including Philip Brailsford, trained rifles on them. Portillo was taken into custody unharmed.


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: Langley then ordered Shaver, who was lying prone at Langley's request, to cross his legs. Moments later, he ordered Shaver to push himself "up to a kneeling position". While complying with the order to kneel, Shaver uncrossed his legs and Langley shouted that Shaver needed to keep his legs crossed. Startled, Shaver then put his hands behind his back and was again warned by Langley to keep his hands in the air. Langley yelled at Shaver that if he deviated from police instructions again, they would shoot him. Sergeant Langley told Shaver not to put his hands down for any reason. Shaver said, "Please don't shoot me". Upon being instructed to crawl, Shaver put his hands down and crawled on all fours. While crawling towards the officers, Shaver moved his right hand towards his waistband. Brailsford, who later testified he believed that Shaver was reaching for a weapon, then opened fire with his AR-15 rifle, striking Shaver five times and killing him almost instantly. Shaver was unarmed and may have been attempting to prevent his shorts from slipping down. An autopsy report found that Shaver was intoxicated, which police stated may have contributed to his confused response to their commands.


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: Shaver's widow requested that the Mesa Police Department release bodycam footage of the event. The request for the bodycam footage was initially refused. In a recording released by Shaver's widow, purportedly of a meeting between her and Maricopa County prosecutors, she was told that she could watch the video only if she agreed not to discuss its contents with the press. Prosecutors and defense attorneys in Brailsford's murder trial asked that the bodycam footage be sealed. Maricopa County Superior Court Judge Sam Myers granted the motion to seal the footage.


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: On May 25, 2016, Myers ordered portions of the video released. The released video omitted the shooting itself. The redacted version included footage from Brailsford's body camera up to the time when someone exits Shaver's hotel room and footage from another officer's camera while he escorted a woman from the room. The full unedited body camera footage of the shooting was released by the Mesa Police Department hours after Brailsford was found not guilty of murder and reckless manslaughter.


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: In early March 2016, the Maricopa County Attorney's Office announced it would pursue second-degree murder charges against Brailsford in relation to the incident. According to a statement by the county attorney, "after carefully reviewing the relevant facts and circumstances, we have determined that the use of deadly physical force was not justified in this instance." Brailsford pleaded not guilty.


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: Later that month, the Mesa Police Department fired Brailsford, citing several policy violations and unsatisfactory performance. An internal investigation report revealed that Brailsford had violated department weapon policy by engraving his patrol rifle with the phrases "You're fucked" and ""Molon labe"" (a Greek expression meaning "come and take it"). Brailsford had also previously been investigated for body slamming a teenager during an arrest.


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: In the official police report of the incident, Brailsford defended his actions, saying that by crawling towards the officers, Shaver appeared to be "trying to gain a position of advantage in order to gain a better firing position on us". Shaver had indeed crawled towards the officers after one of them instructed him to. The report stated: "Shaver was co-operative, but sometimes confused by the commands and because of his possible intoxication".


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: Four months after the shooting, Charles Langley, the officer who shouted orders to Shaver, retired from the department. By December 2017, Langley had emigrated from the United States to the Philippines.


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: Brailsford's trial for second-degree murder was originally scheduled for February 2017. A defense motion challenging the state's probable cause to send the case to trial; appeals to the Arizona Supreme Court over the release of controversially redacted footage from Brailsford's body camera made a February trial unrealistic. On February 10, 2017, Maricopa County Superior Court Judge George Foster rescheduled the trial for October 23, 2017. Brailsford faced up to 25 years in prison if found guilty of second-degree murder.


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: Also in December 2017, it was revealed that Brailsford had been involved in a prior incident in 2015 regarding an arrest of teenagers in a store. During the arrest, Brailsford was recorded on video throwing a teenager against a shelf, putting the teenager in a headlock, then slamming the teenager onto the ground. At the time, the incident was publicized (but Brailsford was not named) by a witness to the arrest, who alleged excessive force because the teenagers "weren't doing anything". A spokesman for the Mesa Police Department said that the department "looked at" the incident and "administratively cleared" Brailsford, because "police work sometimes isn't pretty".


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: In March 2018, it became known that the United States Department of Justice had reopened the case and was looking into a possible civil rights violation by Brailsford.


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: In January 2018, Brailsford filed for bankruptcy. According to a pay stub attached to Brailsford's bankruptcy file, he has been working for a steel company in Glendale, Arizona.


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: In August 2018, Brailsford was reinstated by the Mesa Police Department, staying for a further 42 days in what the department described as a "budget position". The department agreed to reimburse Brailsford for medical expenses related to his post-traumatic stress disorder -- the result of his shooting of Shaver and the resultant criminal trial. The reinstatement allowed Brailsford to apply for "accidental disability" experienced during the course of work. As a result, Brailsford was unanimously approved to be retired on medical grounds. Brailsford was also given a pension of $2,500 per month. The fact that Brailsford was ultimately medically retired instead of remaining fired was only revealed to the public in July 2019.


title: Shooting of Daniel Shaver

text: In 2021, Shaver's parents settled with the city for $1.5 million. Shaver's common-law widow, Laney Sweet, was seeking $75 million in a wrongful death lawsuit, and refused to settle at that time. In November 2022, Sweet agreed to settle her lawsuit against the city for $8 million.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović (; born 29 April 1968) is a Croatian politician and diplomat who served as President of Croatia from 2015 to 2020. She was the first woman to be elected to the office since the first multi-party elections in 1990 and independence from Yugoslavia in 1991. At 46 years of age, she also became the youngest person to assume the presidency.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Before her election as President of Croatia, Grabar-Kitarović held a number of governmental and diplomatic posts. She was minister of European Affairs from 2003 to 2005, the first female minister of Foreign Affairs and European Integration from 2005 to 2008, Croatian ambassador to the United States from 2008 to 2011 and assistant secretary general for public diplomacy at NATO under Secretaries General Anders Fogh Rasmussen and Jens Stoltenberg from 2011 to 2014.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: She is a recipient of the Fulbright Lifetime Achievement Award and a number of national and international awards, decorations, honorary doctorates and honorary citizenships.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Grabar-Kitarović was a member of the conservative Croatian Democratic Union party from 1993 to 2015 and was also one of three Croatian members of the Trilateral Commission, but she was required to resign both positions upon taking office as president in 2015, as Croatian presidents are not permitted to hold other political positions or party membership while in office. As president, she launched the Three Seas Initiative in 2015, together with Polish President Andrzej Duda. In 2017, "Forbes" magazine listed Grabar-Kitarović as the world's 39th most powerful woman.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Kolinda Grabar was born on 29 April 1968 in Rijeka, Croatia, then part of Yugoslavia, to Dubravka (b. 1947) and Branko Grabar (b. 1944). She was raised mainly in her parents' village of Lopača, just north of Rijeka, where the family owned a butcher shop and a ranch. As a high school student, she entered a student exchange program and at 17 moved to Los Alamos, New Mexico, subsequently graduating from Los Alamos High School in 1986.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Upon her return to Yugoslavia, she enrolled at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb, graduating in 1993 with a Bachelor of Arts in English and Spanish languages and literature. From 1995 to 1996, she attended the Diploma Course at the Diplomatic Academy of Vienna. In 2000 she obtained a master's degree in international relations from the Faculty of Political Science at the University of Zagreb.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: In 2002–2003 she attended George Washington University's Elliott School of International Affairs as a Fulbright scholar. She also received a Luksic Fellowship at the Harvard Kennedy School at Harvard University and was a visiting scholar at the School of Advanced International Studies at Johns Hopkins University.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: In December 2015, Grabar-Kitarović began her doctoral studies in international relations at the Zagreb Faculty of Political Science.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: In 1992, Grabar-Kitarović became an advisor to the international cooperation department of the Ministry of Science and Technology. In 1993 she joined the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ). In the same year she transferred to the Foreign ministry, becoming an advisor. She became the head of the North American department of the Foreign ministry in 1995 and held that post until 1997. That year she began to work at the Croatian embassy in Canada as a diplomatic councilor until October 1998, and then as a minister-councilor.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: When Social Democratic Party of Croatia (SDP) came to power after 2000 elections Tonino Picula became minister of Foreign Affairs. After taking office he immediately started to remove politically appointed staff that was appointed by the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) to high-ranking diplomatic positions. Grabar-Kitarović was ordered to return to Croatia from Canada within next six weeks, which she at first refused to do because she was pregnant and had already made plans to give birth in Canada, however, she eventually decided to return after being strongly pressured by the ministry to do so. During her stay in the hospital, she applied for Fulbright scholarship for studying international relations and security policy. She eventually moved to the United States and enrolled at the George Washington University. After graduating, she returned to Croatia and continued to live in Rijeka.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Two years later, she was elected to the Croatian Parliament from the seventh electoral district as a member of the Croatian Democratic Union in the 2003 parliamentary elections. With the formation of the new government led by HDZ chairman Ivo Sanader she became Minister of European integration, which entailed the commencement of negotiations regarding Croatia's ascension to the European Union.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: After the separate ministries of Foreign Affairs and European Integration were merged in 2005 Grabar-Kitarović was nominated to become minister of Foreign Affairs and European Integration. She was confirmed by the Parliament and sworn in on 17 February 2005. Her main task as foreign minister was to guide Croatia into the European Union and NATO. On 18 January 2005, she became head of the State Delegation for Negotiations on the Croatian accession to the European Union. Furthermore, on 28 November 2005 she was elected by the international community to preside over the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention's Sixth Meeting of the States Parties, or Ottawa Treaty, held that year in Zagreb. Grabar-Kitarović was the first woman to be named president of the Ottawa Treaty.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Following the HDZ's victory in the 2007 parliamentary election and the subsequent formation of the Second Sanader Cabinet, she was reappointed as foreign minister, but was suddenly removed from the position on 12 January 2008. The exact reason for her removal is not known. Gordan Jandroković succeeded her.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: On March 8, 2008, while the President of Croatia was Stjepan Mesić, she became the Croatian ambassador to the United States, where she replaced Neven Jurica. She served as ambassador until 4 July 2011.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: On October 24, 2008, Grabar-Kitarović joined President George W. Bush and NATO Secretary General Jaap De Hoop Scheffer during the signing of NATO accession protocols in the East Room of the White House, in support of the nations of Albania and Croatia to join the NATO alliance.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: On May 6, 2010, Croatian Embassy held a reception to celebrate women diplomats Croatian Embassy, which was attended by ambassadors to the U.S. from Croatia, India, Liechtenstein, Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Senegal, and Antigua and Barbuda. The event was opened by Grabar-Kitarović by discussing the importance of taking small steps when it comes to mentoring.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: In 2010 Croatian Embassy in Washington, DC discovered that Grabar-Kitarović's husband, Jakov, has continually been filmed while using an official embassy car. A member of the embassy's security staff had followed and filmed Kitarović, recording footage that was posted on YouTube. As a result, Foreign Minister Gordan Jandroković launched an internal investigation as the unauthorized filming of members of the diplomatic staff and their families by a member of the embassy's security staff. Member of embassy's security staff who had filmed her family was fired.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: In 2011, Grabar-Kitarović was appointed Assistant Secretary General for Public Diplomacy at NATO, the first women to hold the position. Her task was to take care of the "communication strategy" and to "bring NATO closer to the common people". Her colleagues at NATO often referred to her as SWAMBO (She Who Must Be Obeyed). She served until 2 October 2014.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: During her presidential candidacy, Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović supported protesting war veterans, despite the fact that the group of protesters near the central tent blocked the traffic and brought bottles of gasoline on Savska street which they apparently threatened to ignite if the police refused to back off. This support for war veterans, regardless threats of violence, was considered an unacceptable populist posture in order to gain the support of more of the right-leaning electorate in the upcoming presidential election.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Croatian daily newspaper "Jutarnji List" published an article in September 2012 stating that Grabar-Kitarović was being considered as a possible candidate for the 2014–15 Croatian presidential election by the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ). It was confirmed in mid-2014 that she was to become the party's official candidate, going up against incumbent Ivo Josipović and newcomers Ivan Vilibor Sinčić and Milan Kujundžić. In the first round of election in December 2014 Grabar-Kitarović won 37.2% of the vote, second to Josipović who received 38.5%, while Sinčić and Kujundžić won 16.4% and 6.3% of the vote respectively. Since no candidate received more than 50% of the vote, a run-off election was scheduled between the top two candidates, Josipović and Grabar-Kitarović, in two weeks time.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Grabar-Kitarović contested the presidential election held in December 2014 and January 2015 as the only female candidate (out of four in total), finishing as the runner-up in the first round and thereafter proceeding to narrowly defeat incumbent President Ivo Josipović in the second round. In the second round, Grabar-Kitarović defeated Josipović (by a margin of 1.48%). Furthermore, as the country had previously also had a female prime minister, Jadranka Kosor, from 2009 until 2011, Grabar-Kitarović's election as president of Croatia also included it into a small group of parliamentary republics which have had both a female head of state and head of government.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: The run-off took place on 11 January 2015, with Grabar-Kitarović winning 50.7% of the vote. She thereby became Croatia's first female post-independence head of state and the country's first conservative president in 15 years. She was ceremonially sworn into office on 15 February, and assumed office officially at midnight on 19 February 2015.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Upon election, Grabar-Kitarović became the first woman in Europe to defeat an incumbent president running for reelection, as well as the second woman in the world to do so, after Violeta Chamorro of Nicaragua in 1990. She is also the first candidate of any gender to defeat an incumbent Croatian president. In addition, Grabar-Kitarović is the only presidential candidate to date to have won a Croatian presidential election without having won the most votes in the first round of elections, as she lost it by 1.24% or 21,000 votes. Furthermore, the 1.114 million votes she received in the second round is the lowest number of votes for any winning candidate in a presidential election in Croatia and the 1.48% victory margin against Josipović is the smallest in any such election to date.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Less than nine months into Grabar-Kitarović's term the European migrant crisis began to escalate with large numbers of migrants entering Greece and Macedonia and crossing from Serbia into Hungary, with the latter beginning the construction of a fence on its southern border as a result. In September 2015, after Hungary constructed a fence and closed its border with Serbia, the flow of migrants was redirected towards Croatia, causing over 21,000 migrants to enter the country by 19 September, with the number rising to 39,000 immigrants, while 32,000 migrants exited Croatia, leaving through Slovenia and Hungary. She appointed Andrija Hebrang her commissioner for the refugee crisis.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: With the parliament expected to dissolve by 25 September, Grabar-Kitarović called parliamentary elections for 8 November 2015. They proved inconclusive and negotiations on forming a government lasted for 76 days. Grabar-Kitarović had previously announced on 22 December 2015, if there were no agreement on a possible Prime Minister-designate in the next 24 hours, she would call for an early election and name a non-partisan transitional government (which would have reportedly been headed by Damir Vanđelić), thereby putting intense pressure on the political parties involved in the negotiations regarding the formation of the new government, to find a solution. The crisis finally ended on 23 December 2015 when Grabar-Kitarović gave the 30-day mandate to form a government to the non-partisan Croatian-Canadian businessman Tihomir Orešković, who had been selected by HDZ and MOST only hours before the expiration of the President's delegated time frame for the naming of a Prime-Minister-designate.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: On 24 August 2015, Grabar-Kitarović was, as Armed Forces Commander-in-Chief, presented with a petition for the introduction of a Croatian fascist Ustaše movement salute Za dom spremni to the official use in the Croatian Armed Forces. She immediately rejected petition calling it "frivolous, unacceptable and provocative". She called the salute a "Croatian historical greeting" that was "compromised and unacceptable". Following a backlash from historians that the salute was not historical, Grabar-Kitarović admitted that she was wrong in that part of the statement.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: On 29 September 2015, at the initiative of Grabar-Kitarović the Atlantic Council co-hosted an informal high-level Adriatic-Baltic-Black Sea Leaders' Meeting in New York City which would later grow to Three Seas Initiative. The Initiative was officially formed in 2016 and held its first summit in Dubrovnik, Croatia, on 25–26 August 2016.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: On 11 April 2016, after meeting with Nicolas Dean, the special envoy for Holocaust of the United States Department of State, Grabar-Kitarović stated that the "Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was least independent and was least protecting the interests of the Croatian people". Adding that the "Ustaše regime was criminal regime", that "anti-fascism is in the foundation of the Croatian Constitution" and that the "modern Croatian state has grown on the foundations of the Croatian War of Independence." In May 2016, Grabar-Kitarović visited Tehran on the invitation of Iranian President Hassan Rouhani. Rouhani called on Croatia to be the gateway to Iran's ties with Europe. The two presidents reaffirmed the traditionally good relations between their countries and signed an agreement on economic cooperation.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Grabar-Kitarović expressed her condolences to Slobodan Praljak's family after he committed suicide in The Hague where he was facing trial, calling him "a man who preferred to give his life, rather than to live, having been convicted of crimes he firmly believed he had not committed", adding that "his act struck deeply at the heart of the Croatian people and left the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia with the weight of eternal doubt about the accomplishment of its tasks".


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: In a speech held at the ceremony at which Grabar-Kitarović was named honorary citizen of Buenos Aires in March 2018, she stated that "after World War II, many Croats found a space of freedom in Argentina where they could testify to their patriotism and express their justified demands for the freedom of the Croatian people and homeland." Following the end of the war and the establishment of a communist regime, about 20,000 Croats, mostly political emigrants, moved to Argentina. As some among them were members of the Ustaše movement, her statement was interpreted by some, including Efraim Zuroff of the Simon Wiesenthal Center, as support for them. In a press release, Grabar-Kitarović rejected what she described as "malicious interpretations" of her statement.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: During the 2018 FIFA World Cup, held in Russia, Grabar-Kitarović attended the quarter-final and final matches, wearing the colors of the national flag in support of the national team, which ultimately ended up as tournament runners-up. According to the analytics company Mediatoolkit, she "emerged as her country’s star of the tournament" with "25% more focus on her in news stories about the final than any of the players on the pitch", as she "travelled to Russia at her own expense in economy class and often watched from the non-VIP stands". Commenting on the appearance of Croatian nationalist singer Marko Perković at the celebration, whose songs and concerts are said to glorify the fascist Ustaše regime, and have been banned recently in some places, Grabar-Kitarović stated that she “never heard” such songs nor “seen any evidence that they exist”, was "very fond" of some of his songs and that she did not see any evidence for the controversies associated to him, claiming his songs are "good for national unity". She condemned all totalitarian regimes, including nazism, fascism, and communism.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Grabar-Kitarović was awarded Fulbright Association's 2019 Lifetime Achievement Award for her "remarkable, contributions as a leader, diplomat, and public servant".


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: In August 2019, during the Victory Day celebrations in Knin, Grabar-Kitarović informally hinted that she would be seeking reelection to a second and final 5-year term as president in the upcoming election, and formally confirmed this several days later in an interview for the right-wing publication "Hrvatski tjednik" (Croatian Weekly). Prime Minister and HDZ President Andrej Plenković announced that the HDZ would support her bid for a second term. On 2 October 2019, Grabar-Kitarović formally announced her bid for re-election with the campaign slogan "Because I believe in Croatia".


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: She thus proceeded to face 10 other candidates in the first round on 22 December 2019, with her main challengers being former Social Democratic Prime Minister Zoran Milanović and conservative folk musician and former Member of Parliament Miroslav Škoro. Zoran Milanović won a plurality of 29.55% of the vote, ahead of Grabar-Kitarović, who received 26.65% of the vote, while Miroslav Škoro attracted the support of 24.45% of voters. Therefore, this election marked the first time in Croatian history that the incumbent president did not receive the highest number of votes in the first round. Grabar-Kitarović only managed to defeat Škoro by a margin of 2.2% of the vote, and therefore narrowly proceeded to the run-off against Milanović. Also, Grabar-Kitarović attained both the lowest number of votes (507,626) and the lowest percentage of votes of any sitting Croatian president competing in either of the two rounds of elections. Furthermore, Milanović attained both the lowest number of votes (562,779) and the lowest percentage of the vote of any winning candidate in the first round of a presidential election.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: A run-off election took place between Milanović and Grabar-Kitarović on 5 January 2020. If Grabar-Kitarović had been reelected, her victory would have marked the second instance in a Croatian presidential election where the result of the first round was overturned in the run-off, with the first instance of this having occurred in the 2014–15 election, in which Grabar-Kitarović won her first term. She would also have become the first, and to date only, Croatian president to have never finished first in the first round of a presidential election. She was eventually defeated in her bid for reelection by Milanovic who won 52.66% of the vote, while Grabar-Kitarovic, who had tried to unite a fractured right wing, garnered 47.3 percent. The turnout was about 55%. She is thus the second (consecutive) President of Croatia to not win a second term, after Ivo Josipović. Grabar-Kitarović left the presidency on 18 February 2020, when she handed over the office to Milanović, who thus became the 5th President of Croatia since independence.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Grabar-Kitarović declared herself a "modern conservative" during the 2014–15 presidential election. Her political positions have mostly been described as conservative in the media. "Agence France-Presse" wrote that Grabar-Kitarović represents moderates within her party. Some observers describe her actions as populist, or nationalist.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: On the issue of same-sex marriage, Grabar-Kitarović expressed her support for the Life Partnership Act, which enabled same-sex couples to enjoy rights equal to heterosexual married couples except in adoption, as good compromise.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Grabar-Kitarović considers that the prohibition of abortion would not solve anything, and stresses that attention should be paid to education in order to prevent unwanted pregnancies. Grabar-Kitarović criticized the hard process of adoption and stated that "the whole system has to be reformed so that through education and social measures it enables every woman to give birth to a child, and that mother and the child can eventually be taken care of in an appropriate manner."


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Grabar-Kitarović has spoken in support of green initiatives along with the dangers of climate change for the environment and global security. In 2016, she signed the Paris Agreement at UN Headquarters in New York City. During another speech at the UN, she stated that climate change was a "powerful weapon of mass destruction."


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: In 2020 she was elected in International Olympic Committee as 5th representative of Croatia in this body and first female in this position.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Grabar-Kitarović has been married to Jakov Kitarović since 1996 and they have two children: Katarina (born on 23 April 2001), a figure skater and Croatia's national junior champion; and Luka (born c. 2003).


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: Grabar-Kitarović is a practising Roman Catholic. In an interview for Croatian Catholic Network, she stated that she regularly attends Mass and prays the Rosary.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: In an interview for Narodni radio, Grabar-Kitarović stated that her favorite singer was Croatian nationalist singer Marko Perković.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: She speaks Croatian, English, Spanish and Portuguese fluently and has basic understanding of German, French and Italian.


title: Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

text: On 30 December 2020, Grabar-Kitarović made a cameo appearance in the Croatian telenovela "Dar mar", playing herself.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The Mercedes-Benz W221 is a chassis code of S-Class, the successor of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W220) and the predecessor of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222). The S-Class are the flagship vehicles of Mercedes-Benz and each generation typically introduces a range of technical innovations and developments that over time will find their way into smaller cars.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The W221 S-Class' exterior styling is distinctly different from the W220. The W220 somewhat broke with tradition in being smaller than its W140 predecessor, whereas the W221 is once more larger in all dimensions than its predecessor, offers more interior space and has improved performance. The W221 looks are often said to be more imposing than those of the W220. The rear styling is similar to the Mercedes-Benz Maybach – the larger saloon from Daimler AG's other flagship brand, which was presented to the public in 1997. Development began in 1999, with the design work beginning in 2000 at the Advanced Design Center in Tokyo, and the final design by Gorden Wagener at the Sindelfingen Advanced Design Center being approved in 2001, frozen for production in early 2002 and patented in Japan on May 21, 2003, under 1208488 and in Germany on December 4, 2003. A final design prototype W221 was presented in December 2002 to Autospies journalists at a consumer design clinic, 2.5 years prior to the official production model unveiling in June 2005.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: Inside, the W221's interior is also significantly different from the preceding model, even more dominated by leather, wood and metal. Where the W220 still had a fair amount of plastic fascias and switches, the W221 has replaced most of these by more luxurious materials such as wood, leather and metal. The interior features an instrument cluster with two large flat panel screens, one for the hard disk based COMAND system which includes the navigation screen and one replacing the analog speedometer by a graphical representation of it, which can display a range of additional information and can also be replaced by the Night View Assist display. Below the central COMAND screen are silver effect air vents, and a square, analog clock within the vents. Below the vents are metal tab switches with a black field behind them, to control the HVAC system (these functions are all also accessible via the COMAND system, which also offers access to some additional HVAC functions, such as foot-well temperature settings and air flow control).


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: Below the HVAC button section is a panel that opens to give access to the DVD changer which also includes a CompactFlash card reader. On the center console, a metal control wheel for the COMAND system sits above a piece of wood, surrounded by metal buttons. There is no longer a central gear shift lever as in previous models, instead a stalk on the steering wheel controls the gearbox (with buttons or, optionally, paddles on the steering wheel for manual gear control). Controls mounted on the door panels provide access to the main seat controls (including the optional seat heating, seat ventilation and memories) and to the electrical mirrors, windows and boot lid opening and closing. Additional seat controls are accessed via the standard COMAND system (these include controlling the optional multi-contour and dynamic driving seats and the massaging seat functions). Throughout the interior, many buttons are metal, with black fields above them denoting the switches' function.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The steering wheel has various control buttons for the cluster display, volume and telephone control and for the optional Linguatronic voice control system. On the electrically adjustable steering wheel column are also mounted the gearbox control lever, the stalk for controlling the speedtronic and cruise control functions, the main combination lever that operates the indicators, high beam and windscreen wipers and a stalk to adjust the steering wheel and control the optional heated steering wheel. Controls for the interior lighting and the sun roof or panoramic sun roof are mounted on the roof, near the interior rear-view mirror. This section also includes a compartment for sun glasses.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The W221 is slightly larger in all dimensions than the W220, with a longer wheelbase and more interior room.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The S-Class is available in short-wheelbase form, except in the US, Mexico, Russia, China and Indonesia, where all models are long-wheelbase.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: Like for all other S-Class generations, the W221 introduced a raft of improved and new features and systems. The standard COMAND now also controlled more of these features and/or provided access to additional settings for various functions, including the HVAC system and seat controls.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The W221 also contains many other safety features, including front and rear crumple zones, eight dual-stage air bags, anti-lock brakes (ABS), collapsible steering column, and traction control.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: Development to further refine the W221 started in 2006 with these design changes being approved in early 2007. The revised 2010 S-Class was announced on April 8, 2009, at Stuttgart. The minor model update includes minor cosmetic changes and several new features:


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The updated models went on sale in June 2009. Early models included: S 350 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY, S 450 CDI, S 350, S 400 HYBRID, S 450, S 500, S 600.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The S 300L (only available in long wheelbase form) was exclusive to some Asian markets, including Singapore and Malaysia. In 2007, the retail price was S$292,888 in Singapore ($190k, all cars are extremely expensive in Singapore); in December 2013, at the end of the W221's life cycle, it was sold at RM657,218 in Malaysia.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The S 280 was sold in other markets like the United Kingdom, Pakistan, and the United Arab Emirates. It appears to be a short wheelbase version of the S 300L with no other significant differences.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: It is a replacement of S 320 CDI with improved fuel efficiency. Changes include: on-demand electric hydraulic power steering pump, standstill decoupling for the 7G-TRONIC automatic transmission, and 17-inch light-alloy wheels with reduced rolling resistance tyres.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The German model has an MSRP of €70,864.50 (incl. VAT) for the short-wheelbase version, €78,718.50 (incl. VAT) for long-wheelbase version.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The S 400 BlueHybrid is a mild hybrid and the first hybrid car to adopt a lithium-ion battery. The battery pack was supplied by Continental AG and the cells were provided by Johnson Controls-Saft. The S 400 BlueHybrid was unveiled at the 2009 Chicago Auto Show. US models went on sale in August 2009, but were delivered to dealers in 2009–10. Japan models went on sale in October 2009.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The 3.5 liter V6 engine in the vehicle, combined with the hybrid system, develops and of torque. It gets in the city and on the highway.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The vehicles were delivered beginning in December 2006, with MSRP of short-wheelbase model at €84,448 (net price €72,800) and the long-wheelbase model at €92,104 (net price €79,400).


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The V8 diesel was updated to offer more power () while reducing emissions and fuel consumption. In spite of same displacement, the model designation is S 450 CDI.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The V8 diesel motors were dropped for the model year 2011 because of more powerful V6 diesel motors and because of low demand.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: It is an armoured vehicle with European B6/B7 resistance level. It resists military-standard small-arms projectiles and provides protection against fragments from hand grenades and other explosive charges. Additional safety features include run-flat tyres, 90L self-sealing fuel tank and a fire-extinguishing system. Other features include Michelin PAX 245–700 R470 AC tires, optional emergency fresh-air system, pneumatic emergency control system for the power windows (operates independently of the on-board electronics), emergency boot opening facility, optional Panic Alarm System, rear camera, heated front windscreen and heated front windows, adjustable doorhold system for all four doors, rear doors that are pulled shut automatically over the last few millimetres, rear electric roller blinds. The vehicle has top speed of , with GVW of .


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: It was based on the Mercedes Benz S 600 L Guard, but in limousine form with an extra-long wheelbase. It includes a rear entrance with increased headroom, 4 seats behind driver partition. Other features included reinforcement of the links between the suspension components and the bodyshell, specifically targeted modification of the suspension components themselves, an additional brace (strut tower brace) between the front suspension struts, two additional steel springs at the rear to complement the air suspension, larger twin-calliper front brake discs.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The vehicles were delivered beginning in late 2008 (the first one in early part of the year for the inauguration of new Russian president Dmitry Medvedev). The production launch marked the 80th anniversary of the Mercedes-Benz special-protection unit. The President of India travels in a black Mercedes-Benz S-Class (S 600) Pullman Guard, which is stretched to limousine form and the limousine has a longer wheelbase.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The S 63 AMG is powered by the Mercedes-Benz M156 V8 engine rated at and of torque. It can accelerate from in 4.6 seconds and has a top speed limited to .


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The S 63 AMG has an aluminum and steel body with 19" light-alloy multispoke wheels in the front and back, shod with 255/40 tires in front, and 275/40 tires in the rear, and covered with a high-sheen finish. The S 63 w feature LED turn signals in front, and in the back, 52 LEDS form a "C" on both tail lights.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The S 65 AMG is powered by the Mercedes-Benz M275 V12 engine rated at or (on facelift version after 2010) and of torque. It includes restyled front and rear bumpers and rocker panels, larger wheels, brakes, and tires, four exhaust pipes, modified and reprogrammed suspension for sport biased handling, and various interior changes. Apart from the higher output engine, many of the AMG modifications give the S 65 AMG a distinctly different character than the S 600 base V12 model. The S65 continues to use the 5 speed transmission, because it can handle the higher torque of the engine, as opposed to the 7-speed transmission.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: Mercedes unveiled the S 250 CDI at the Paris Motor Show. The car is powered by a four-cylinder diesel engine which produces and of torque. Despite this relatively small engine, the S 250 accelerates from in 8.2 seconds and can reach a top speed of . Fuel consumption is 5.7 liters per 100 kilometers (41.2 mpg US), while emissions are 149 g/km. The engine has two turbos, and turns off when stopped.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: All models with the exception of the S600 and S65 AMG are equipped with the 7G-TRONIC transmission. S350, S350 4MATIC, S400 Hybrid, S450, S450 4MATIC, S500 include 7G-TRONIC Sport transmission. Models with 7G-TRONIC transmission include DIRECT SELECT, which allows 7G-TRONIC to be electronically controlled by touching the lever on the right-hand side of the steering column.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: The S600 retains the 5G-TRONIC automatic transmission. S65 AMG included five-speed automatic SPEEDSHIFT transmission with DIRECT SELECT.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: Beginning in 2009, S63 AMG includes AMG SPEEDSHIFT 7G-TRONIC transmission, S65 AMG includes AMG SPEEDSHIFT 5-speed automatic transmission.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: All models except S 63 AMG, S 600 L, S 65 L AMG use AIRMATIC suspension, with optional Active Body Control except for 4MATIC models. S 63 AMG, S 600 L, S 65 L AMG include Active Body Control as standard.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: 4MATIC models were unveiled in the 2006 Paris Motor Show. Initial products include S 450 4MATIC and S 500 4MATIC, followed by S 320 CDI 4MATIC in 2006–12, then S 350 4MATIC in mid 2007. All 4MATIC models were made in short and long wheelbases. S 320 CDI 4MATIC was replaced by S 350 CDI 4MATIC.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: S 600 Guard and S 600 Guard Pullman were built in Sindelfingen plant with a separate production line.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: As part of the W221 launch campaign, Mercedes-Benz Accessories GmbH introduced a series of 17 products under S-Class Collection, beginning in 2005–09. Products include wrist watch designed with Sindelfingen-based Design Centre, piqué polo shirt, cufflinks, pen, umbrella, key fob, mouse pads, pen cases, cigar set, note pad, wallet, 1/43 S-Class scale model car. Mercedes-Benz Accessories GmbH also introduced a series of 1,200 units of S-Class vehicle freight train.


title: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

text: In the 2007 J.D. Power Initial Quality Study, the W221 tied for first ranking in its category (with the Audi A8) for having the fewest quality problems in the industry after 90 days of ownership. The W221 was given the "Bild am Sonntag" 2006 Golden Steering Wheel Award in the Luxury category, "Drive" Car of the Year Awards Best Luxury Car over A$60,000, and top luxury auto in the Topauto 2006 awards. Safety awards include "Popular Mechanics" 2007 Automotive Excellence Award for Safety, 2007's "What Car?" Safety Award, and 2006 British Insurance Car Security Award. Design awards include "Wheels Magazine's" 2006 Automotive Design Award, Automotive Circle International (ACI) "EuroCarBody Award 2005", Topauto 2006 award winner in the Innovation category for the "Distronic Plus" adaptive cruise control, and 2006 Automotive Interior of the Year Awards for Best Seat.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: The following is a general overview of the "Heer" main uniforms, used by the German army prior to and during World War II.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Terms such as "M40" and "M43" were never designated by the "Wehrmacht", but are names given to the different versions of the "Model 1936" field tunic by modern collectors, to discern between variations, as the M36 was steadily simplified and tweaked due to production time problems and combat experience.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Uniforms of the "Heer" as the ground forces of the "Wehrmacht" were distinguished from other branches by two devices: the army form of the "Wehrmachtsadler" or "Hoheitszeichen" (national emblem) worn above the right breast pocket, and – with certain exceptions – collar tabs bearing a pair of "Litzen" ("Doppellitze" "double braid"), a device inherited from the old Prussian Guard which resembled a Roman numeral II on its side. Both eagle and "Litzen" were machine-embroidered or woven in white or grey (hand-embroidered in silk, silver or aluminium for officers and in gold bullion for generals). Rank was worn on shoulder-straps except for junior enlisted ("Mannschaften"), who wore plain shoulder-straps and their rank insignia, if any, on the left upper sleeve. NCO's wore a 9mm silver or grey braid around the collar edge.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Shoulder-straps and, in many cases, collar patches were piped or underlaid in "Waffenfarbe", a color code which often identified the branch of service to which the unit belonged: white for infantry, red for artillery, rose-pink for Panzer troops and so on.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: When the Nazis came to power in early 1933 the "Reichswehr", the armed forces of the Weimar Republic, were near the end of a two-year project to redesign the Army "Feldbluse" (field-blouse). Beginning in that year the new tunic was issued to the "Reichsheer" and then the rapidly growing "Wehrmacht Heer", although minor design changes continued to be made until the appearance of the standardized "Heeres Dienstanzug Modell 1936". The M36 tunic still retained the traditional Imperial and "Reichswehr" uniform color of grey-green "field gray" ("feldgrau") wool, but incorporated four front patch pockets with scalloped flaps and pleats (on "Reichswehr" tunics the lower pockets were internal and angled). The front was closed with five buttons rather than the previous eight, and the collar and shoulder straps were of a dark bottle-green instead of the "Reichswehr" grey. Compared to the Weimar-era uniforms the skirt of the "feldbluse" was shorter and the tailoring was more form-fitting due to Germany's adoption of mechanized warfare: soldiers now spent much time in the confined space of a vehicle and a shorter jacket was less likely to pick up dirt from the seats. It also included an internal suspension system, whereby a soldier could hang an equipment belt on a series of hooks outside of the tunic. These hooks were connected to two straps inside the lining, which spread the weight of equipment without having to use external equipment suspenders. The M36 was produced and issued until the very end of the war, though successive patterns became predominant.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: SS field uniforms were of similar appearance externally but to fit their larger patches had a wider, "feldgrau" collar, and the lower pockets were of an angled slash type similar to the black or grey SS service-dress. The second button of an SS "Feldbluse" was positioned somewhat lower, so that it could be worn open-collar with a necktie. Due to supply problems the SS were often issued army uniforms.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: The M40 uniform was the first design change in the standard army uniform. It differed from the M36 only in the substitution of "feldgrau" for the bottle green collar and shoulder straps, which began to be phased out in 1938/39, though most combat examples show this variation appearing in 1940, hence the unofficial M40 pattern. The troops liked the older green collars, and M40 (and later) tunics modified with salvaged M36 collars or bottle-green collar overlays are not uncommon.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: The M41 is exactly the same as the M40, but with a 6 button front due to the decline of material quality, which by now was 50% or more viscose rayon and recycled shoddy. SS-specific uniforms nonetheless stayed with 5 buttons.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: The M42 is essentially an M40/41 tunic, but with pleats removed from all the pockets to save on materials and production time.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: The M43 saw the removal of all pleats and scalloped flaps from the field tunic, and pockets began to be cut straight rather than with rounded edges. Many M43 tunics were made with a much simplified version of the internal suspension system, or omitted it entirely.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: In late 1944, in order to cut down on tailoring and production costs, the "Wehrmacht" introduced the M44 pattern uniform. Similar in appearance to the British Battledress or the related US "Ike" jacket, the M44 was unlike any other German pattern uniform, and the first major deviation in uniform design since 1936. The tunic skirt was shortened to waist length, an internal belt was added, and the tunic could be worn with an open or closed collar. The color was the new ""Feldgrau 44"", a drab greenish-brown. The rarely used and complicated internal suspension system was finally dropped. German insignia was still worn (breast eagle, collar "Litzen" and shoulder boards). Except for the elite Panzer-Lehr-Division, which field-tested the new uniform in summer 1944 before its approval for general issue, the M44 was usually seen at the front only in the war's last months and generally on the greenest of troops: new replacements, teenage "Flakhelfer", and "Hitlerjugend" and "Volkssturm" militia.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Field grey double-breasted great coat with dark green collar and shoulder-strap. It was worn by all ranks below general officers. Generals and field marshals wore a variant with scarlet ("hochrot") turnback lapels and gold buttons.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Originally the M1936 tunic was worn with the same stone gray ("steingrau") trousers that the "Reichswehr" had introduced in 1922. These were high-waisted, straight legged, button-fly trousers with suspenders (braces) and three internal pockets plus a watch-pocket; in the field they were worn tucked into jackboots.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: In 1940 contractors were ordered to discontinue the manufacture of "steingrau" fabric and instead produce trousers from the same "feldgrau" cloth as the tunic; however Army depots continued to issue existing stocks and the older dark trousers were still frequently seen until around 1942.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: A new design of field trousers was introduced in 1942, replacing the old World War I style straight legged ""Langhosen"". These were based on the gebirgsjäger model of trousers, designed to be worn with low boots and gaiters, which began replacing Jackboots in 1941. New features included tapered ankles, reinforced seat, and a straight-cut waist, which included belt loops and two tabs for optional suspender use, as opposed to the fishtail design of the m36 model. HBT models often were straight legged, and featured a tab and buttons to taper the ankles, for optional use without gaiters.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: In the late war, lower quality, often recycled material was being used for uniforms. The m43 trousers saw extra fly buttons being added to accommodate a reinforced waistband, all other features remained virtually the same.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: The original soft cover for the "Heer", introduced in 1934, was a folding garrison or envelope cap in "feldgrau" wool, similar to that worn by American, Soviet and RAF personnel but with a "scoop" in the front; the "Schiffchen" ("little ship") was popular, convenient, and worn throughout the war. Variants in black wool and olive cotton were issued with the Panzer and tropical uniforms. Insignia consisted of an embroidered national emblem ("Wehrmachtsadler") and red-white-black cockade, and (until 1942) an inverted chevron ("soutache") in "Waffenfarbe". Officers' caps (M38) were piped in silver or aluminum (gold for generals). A variant appeared in 1942 with a two-part "fold" intended to serve as ear flaps in cold weather, secured by two front buttons: this was rapidly overtaken by the M43 field cap.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Since before World War I German and Austrian mountain troops had worn a visored "ski cap" ("Gebirgsmütze") with turn-down ear flaps secured in front by two buttons. A version of this cap with longer visor, false turn-down, and slightly lower crown in olive cotton twill had been issued with the tropical uniform. In 1943 a similar cap in field-grey wool with a visor intermediate in length between the mountain and tropical versions was issued to all troops for field wear only; it quickly became the most commonly seen soft headgear at the front. Insignia was similar to that of the side-cap, although the eagle and cockade were both worn above the turn-up. A black version was issued to Panzer crewmen.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: The dress, service and walking-out cap for all ranks was the peaked cap as finalized in 1934. The semi-rigid band was covered in bottle-green fabric, and the stiff visor came in variety of materials and were made of either black vulcanized rubber, fibre, plastic, or (occasionally) patent leather. The oval wool crown was stiffened with wire into a curved "saddleback" shape with a high front. Insignia consisted of the national cockade surrounded by an oakleaf wreath on the front of the band, with the "Wehrmachtsadler" above; these were stamped aluminum or sometimes embroidered in bullion for officers (silver for company and field-grade officers, and gold for generals). The edges of the band and crown were piped in "Waffenfarbe." Enlisted men wore the cap with a black leather chinstrap; officers wore a pair of braided silver or aluminum cords (gold for generals). NCOs were authorized to wear the "Schirmmütze" when the uniform of the day prescribed the field cap.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Officers' caps were frequently private-purchase and had covers of higher-quality fabric; these were often interchangeable and included summer white and tropical olive versions as well as "feldgrau."


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: At the same time the M34 side-cap was introduced for enlisted wear, a folding field cap for officers was authorized. Superficially resembling the "Schirmmütze", this cap had a crown of significantly smaller diameter without the wire stiffener, a soft band, and a visor of flexible leather or "feldgrau" wool. Insignia were jacquard-woven; although no chinstrap was authorized officers often added the "Schirmmütze" silver cords. This cap was officially replaced by the officers' "Schiffchen" M38, with a wear-out date of 1 April 1942, but this order was generally ignored and the popular ""Knautschmütze"" was worn throughout the war, coming to be known as the "ältere Art" (old style) field cap.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Officers and NCOs in the field would sometimes remove the wire stiffener from the "Schirmmütze" to achieve the "crush" look, especially tank crewmen (to facilitate wearing headphones); this unauthorized but widespread practice should not be confused with the true "crusher."


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: In 1935 the Wehrmacht adopted a lower, lighter version of the M1916/18 "coal scuttle" helmet; this became the ubiquitous German helmet of World War II, worn by all branches of the "Wehrmacht" and SS, police, fire brigades and Party organizations. Collectors distinguish slight production variants as the M35, M40 and M42. "Heer" helmets were originally painted "apple green," a semigloss "feldgrau" somewhat darker than the uniform color; wartime factory and field painting covered a gamut from very dark black-green to slate-grey to olive-green (and sand-yellow in Africa), increasingly in matte or textured paint to eliminate reflections. The Army began issuing camouflage helmet covers in 1942, first in "Splittertarnmuster" (splinter-pattern) and then in "Sumpftarnmuster" (swamp/marsh or "water" pattern); these were never plentiful and individual soldiers frequently improvised helmet covers from splinter-pattern "Zeltbahn" (tent/poncho) fabric, or less frequently hand-painted their helmets in camouflage patterns. Soldiers would also cover their helmets with netting or chicken wire into which foliage could be inserted.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Prewar and early-war Army "Stahlhelme" had shield-shaped decals on either side, black-white-red diagonal stripes on the right and the "Heeresadler" (Army eagle) in silver-grey on the left; in 1940 the national colors and then in 1943 the eagle were discontinued, and existing decals were often covered up during repainting. During this early period, SS helmets carried a red shield with swastika on the left and a white shield with the SS sig-runes on the right. The Navy was as the Army but with the eagle in gold, and Luftwaffe helmets substituted that branch's eagle.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: The calf-high pull-on jackboot had been the traditional footwear of the German soldier for generations. The "Wehrmacht" boot was little different from that of World War I: made of brown pebbled leather (blackened with polish), with hobnailed leather soles and heel-irons. Trousers were worn tucked inside. Originally 35–39 cm tall, the boots were shortened to 32–35 cm in 1939 in order to save leather. By 1940 leather was becoming more scarce and issue was restricted to combat branches, and in 1941 jackboots were no longer issued to new recruits. By late 1943 production of jackboots had ceased altogether. However, as late as fall 1944 depots were encouraged to issue "Marschstiefel" to infantry and artillery, to the extent they were available.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Officers' boots were knee-high and more form-fitting, and (as usual) often private purchases of superior quality. They were to be worn with breeches; however, these technically were not "riding" boots, differing somewhat from the "Reitstiefel" worn (with spurs) by regiments with cavalry traditions. By order dated 31 October 1939 most officers in the front lines wore the shorter EM boots with "Langhosen" or "Keilhosen," but some ignored regulations and wore their kneeboots anyway.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: From 1937 each recruit was issued a pair of ankle-height work boots for basic training, and kept them for fatigue duty and the like. Beginning in 1940 the Army ceased issuing jackboots to rear-area personnel and authorized the wearing of the utility boots with the field uniform; canvas gaiters or "Gamaschen" were issued for this purpose. From 1941 "Schnürschuhe" were authorized for combat units as well, and the only footgear issued to new recruits; by 1943 their wear had become universal.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Also in 1935 the "Heer" introduced a new service tunic for officers and senior NCOs. This was broadly similar to the other-ranks tunic, but differed in detail: the collar was of a taller, more pointed rise-and-fall type, the shoulders were padded, the sleeves had deep turnback cuffs, there was no internal suspension system or grommets for belt hooks, and there were two ramp-buttons at the back of the waist to support the belt. Since officers had to purchase their own uniforms, many of these tunics were either tailor-made or produced by gentlemen's clothiers, and if purchased for service dress for the most part used high-quality wool gabardine ("Trikot"), doeskin or whipcord. For this reason the officers' "Dienstrock" did not undergo the cost-saving changes which affected the enlisted M36, and kept its green collar and scalloped, pleated pockets throughout the war. After the Army authorized wearing the collar open with a necktie in 1943, some officers' tunics were made with fixed lapels like the "Luftwaffe" "Tuchrock."


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Trousers were either slate-grey (later field-grey) "Langhosen", or breeches worn with high boots. Generals and General Staff officers wore wide trouser-stripes of scarlet or carmine-red, respectively.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Although the M35 remained the regulation service-dress uniform, soon after the outbreak of the war, officers in combat units of the rank of regimental commander or below were ordered to wear the more practical (and less conspicuous) other-ranks uniform for frontline service, and save the "good" uniform for walking-out, office and garrison wear; some of these EM tunics were privately modified with French cuffs and officer-style collars. Nonetheless, many officers ignored regulations and wore the "Dienstrock" at the front, sometimes even with breeches.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: The "Waffenrock" (military coat) was descended from that introduced by the Prussian Army in 1842 and rapidly adopted by the other German states. In its "Wehrmacht" form as issued in 1935, it was a formfitting thigh-length eight-button tunic of fine "feldgrau" wool, without external pockets. The collar was taller than the service tunic and bore more elaborate "Litzen," embroidered all in silver-white and mounted on "Waffenfarbe" backing; smaller "Ärmelpatten", similar in appearance to "Litzen," appeared under the buttons on the dark-green Swedish cuffs. "Waffenfarbe" piping also edged the collar, cuffs, front closure, and scalloped rear vent.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Officers wore a formal belt of silver braid. Trousers were "steingrau", with the outer seams piped in "Waffenfarbe." In the full-dress uniform ("grosser Gesellschaftanzug") the "Waffenrock" was worn with medals, aiguillette (officers), trousers and shoes, the "Schirmmütze", gloves, and sword (officers/senior NCOs) or dress bayonet (enlisted). Parade dress substituted the steel helmet and jackboots. Semi-formal ("kleiner Gesellschaftanzug") and walking-out ("Ausgangsanzug") uniforms were as full-dress, but without aiguillette and with ribbons replacing medals.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Production and issue of the "Waffenrock" was suspended in 1940, and either the service or the officers' ornamented uniform was worn for dress occasions instead. However, the "Waffenrock" remained authorized for walking out for those who had or could purchase it; and it was a widespread if unauthorized practice to loan a soldier a "Waffenrock" from regimental stocks to get married in, as evidenced by many wartime wedding photos.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: A "Waffenrock" uniform was designed specifically for the Infantry Regiment Großdeutschland, however they were never widely issued and were placed in storage awaiting the end of the war.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: In 1937 officers were authorized the optional purchase of the "ornamented" ("ornamentierte") or "piped" ("mit Vorstössen") uniform, to be worn as a less-formal alternative to the "Waffenrock" for walking-out and some ceremonial occasions. The M37 "Feldbluse" was identical to the M35 service tunic, save that the collar and its "Litzen" were the same as the "Waffenrock", and collar, closure and cuffs were piped in "Waffenfarbe". It was worn with the piped dress trousers. From 1940 the M37 replaced the "Waffenrock" for formal and ceremonial dress.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Officers and certain senior NCOs had the option of wearing a white cotton tunic from April through September. The Reichswehr "old-style" ("ältere Art") model had a stand collar, a six-button front, and plain sleeves; it was authorized for barracks wear, supervising training, and attending sporting events. The newer model introduced in 1937 had a rise-and-fall collar, an eight-button front, and French cuffs, and was authorized as a summer walking-out and undress uniform. Both versions had removable buttons, shoulderboards and metal breast eagle in order to permit laundering; collar insignia was not worn.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: The Panzer uniform ( ) consisted of black wool hip-length double-breasted jacket and trousers, with skulls on the collar patches instead of "Litzen" and, officially until 1942, collar piping in "Waffenfarbe" (usually the rose-pink of the armor branch, but also gold for former cavalry units in the reconnaissance role or black/white twist for combat engineers). The color and Totenköpfe (skulls) were chosen due to their similarity to the uniforms of August von Mackensen's Black Hussars, and also for practical reasons: the black color made oil stains less visible and a short jacket was less likely to get caught in the machinery. The trousers had tapered cuffs with drawstrings and tapes in order to fit into lace-up ankle boots. Although the jacket could be buttoned to the neck in cold weather, ordinarily it was worn open-collar with a field grey or mouse grey shirt and (in theory) a black necktie.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: The jacket was manufactured in three different patterns between 1934 and 1945. First pattern jackets had deep lapels with square collars. There was also no provision to close the collar. Second pattern (1936–42) added three buttons to close the collar, reduced the size of the lapels and had a more pointed collar. Note that some second pattern jackets were produced without collar piping (possibly for non-panzer personnel entitled to wear the jacket). The third pattern (1942–45) deleted the collar piping for all personnel but was otherwise similar to second pattern.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Self-propelled anti-tank artillery ("Panzerjäger") and assault-gun ("Sturmgeschütz") crews were issued similar uniforms in field-grey from 1940.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Originally a large black beret was worn over a hardened-felt helmet. This proved cumbersome and unnecessary and on 27 March 1940 a black version of the standard M34/M38 sidecap was authorized; later in the war the M43 field cap in black was worn. Officers frequently wore old-style ("altere Art") "crusher" peaked caps.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Vehicle crews in North Africa wore the same olive tropical uniform as the infantry, including collar "Litzen;" many tankers pinned their skull insignia to their lapels.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: In 1943 the "Panzertruppe" were issued their own reed-green HBT summer field uniform. This resembled the black uniform but had a single, very large pocket on the left breast and another on the front of the left thigh.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: A one-piece denim overall, known as a "Panzerkombi", was issued to "panzer" (armoured) crews and mechanics for maintenance work and the like; crews sometimes wore it for general field service although the practice was discouraged. Originally issued in blue-grey, the "Waffen-SS" later used camouflage-printed examples. It featured zips running down the inside of the dump leg which could be used to zip both legs together to make a sleeping bag.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: The similarities between the Panzer uniform and the SS Panzer uniform, and the use of a Totenkopf emblem by both, led to incidents of Army Panzer crewmen being shot by Allied soldiers who assumed they were SS members. Ironically the infamous black "Allgemeine SS" uniform, familiar from prewar newsreels, was not worn by combat troops; the Waffen-SS wore "feldgrau" or camouflage.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Early in the war, this consisted of heavy wool greatcoats (a similar pattern was issued to East German border guards until 1989). They had silver dimpled buttons that did not reflect the light and were sometimes painted green to provide further camouflage. Following Hitler's invasion of the USSR, the Germans found themselves ill-equipped to deal with the Russian winter at the end of 1941 and had to improvise. German civilians back home were called upon to donate fur coats and other winter clothing for the war effort until enough specialized military gear for the extreme cold had been produced. Hooded waterproof parkas were issued later in the war, in white for troops on the Eastern Front and in field-grey for mountain troops (Gebirgsjäger soldiers). In addition to the standard-issue snow camouflage, the Germans made extensive use of captured Red Army equipment, especially the fur boots, which provided better protection from the sub-zero temperatures. German troops took drastic action to obtain their winter uniform and gear from dead Russian soldiers, including even cutting off the legs of the corpses to get off their thick boots.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: The M40 Tropical tunics of the Afrikakorps, later authorized for summer field wear in Southern Europe, were basically the same cut as the standard army uniform but with open collar and lapels, and made of a medium-weight olive-drab cotton twill which in service faded to khaki. Also olive were the shirt and the seldom-worn necktie. Insignia were embroidered in dull blue-grey on tan backing cloth. This tunic was issued to all Army personnel in North Africa, including officers and Panzer crews. Officers as usual often purchased uniforms privately, and olive, khaki or mustard-yellow cotton versions of the M35 officers' tunic were worn alongside the standard issue, sometimes with green collars. The M40 Tropical breeches were of jodhpur type, to be worn with knee-boots or puttees: these were very unpopular and most were soon cut off to make shorts (captured British/Commonwealth shorts were frequently worn as well). By mid-1941 conventional trousers in olive cotton were being issued, followed soon thereafter by regulation "Heer" shorts; these had a built-in cloth belt. A chocolate brown overcoat in the same pattern as the continental version was issued as protection from the cold desert nights.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: Pith helmets, ankle boots with puttees, and lace-up canvas knee-boots were also issued in 1941 as protection from the sand and hot tropical sun; the puttees disappeared quickly and the hated knee-boots were for the most part cut down to ankle length. The pith helmets, although effective against the sun, proved bulky and impractical in front-line service and were usually only worn in rear areas. For combat situations, standard steel helmets field-painted in a tan color were issued, usually vehicle interior sand-yellow ("sandgelb") or exterior brown-yellow ("gelbbraun"). The Afrikakorps' soft cover was the M40 visored (peaked) cap similar in shape to that of the mountain troops ("Gebirgsjäger"). This extremely popular cap was made of olive-drab cotton twill lined with loosely woven red cotton fabric for protection from the sun and effective heat transfer from the head. It had a long visor, one-piece "false fold" rather than functional earflaps, and two metal ventilation eyelets on each side; for all but the most extreme climate conditions the M40 cap was generally preferred over the pith helmets. Also worn but less popular, except with Panzer personnel, was an olive cotton version of the M34 ""Schiffchen"" sidecap.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: The Luftwaffe tropical uniform differed significantly from the Army version. Air force uniforms were made of a yellowish-khaki cotton twill that proved to be a more effective camouflage color in the North African desert than Army olive, although the latter did fade to a sage-tan color with use and sun exposure. Its cut was also considered more practical and suited to the local climate than that of the early Army tropical uniform, with loosely cut trousers, a closed-collar tunic, and tan shirt. Unlike the Army, no special tropical overcoat was issued. Headgear, also in tan, initially consisted of a sidecap, pith helmet, or a unique tropical peaked cap design with detachable neckshade, although the latter was eventually replaced with a version of the Army M40 tropical cap in Luftwaffe tan.


title: Uniforms of the German Army (1935–1945)

text: When Tobruk was taken in June 1942, over 18,000 British khaki uniforms were captured; the "Panzerarmee Afrika", perennially short of supplies, issued this store of shirts, shorts and boots to their own troops who wore them with German insignia.