title: Near East

text: A large percentage of experts on the modern Middle East began their training in university departments named for the Near East. Similarly the journals associated with these fields of expertise include the words "Near East" or "Near Eastern". The meaning of "Near East" in these numerous establishments and publications is Middle East. Expertise on the modern Middle East is almost never mixed or confused with studies of the ancient Near East, although often "ancient Near East" is abbreviated to "Near East" without any implication of modern times. For example, "Near Eastern languages" in the ancient sense includes such languages as Sumerian and Akkadian. In the modern sense, it is likely to mean any or all of the Arabic languages.


title: Bill Camp

text: Bill Camp (born 1963/1964) is an American actor. He has played supporting roles in many films such as "Lincoln" (2012), "Compliance" (2012), "12 Years a Slave" (2013), "Love & Mercy" (2015), "Loving" (2016), "Molly's Game" (2017), "Vice" (2018), "Wildlife" (2018), "Joker" (2019), and "News of the World" (2021); the HBO miniseries "The Night Of" in 2016 and "The Outsider" in 2020; and the Netflix miniseries "The Queen's Gambit" in 2020. He had a recurring role in the HBO drama series "The Leftovers" from 2015 to 2017 and the Hulu space drama series "The First" in 2018.


title: Bill Camp

text: Camp has appeared in many television series and received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for his role in the miniseries "The Night Of" (2016). He was nominated for a Tony Award for his role in the 2016 Broadway revival of the play "The Crucible".


title: Bill Camp

text: Camp was born and raised in Massachusetts, and is the son of Patricia L., a librarian, and Peter B. Camp, who was an assistant headmaster at the Groton School. He attended the University of Vermont, where he played intramural hockey.


title: Bill Camp

text: Initially, Camp was largely active in theatre, but has taken on character roles in both film and television. In 2002, he left acting and temporarily changed professions (working as a cook and mechanic), only to return two years later in Tony Kushner's "Homebody/Kabul", for which he won an Obie Award (Off-Broadway Theater Awards).


title: Bill Camp

text: Among his works on Broadway are "Heartbreak House" (2006), "Death of a Salesman" (2012) and "The Crucible" (2016). In 2006, Camp joined Philip Bosco and Lily Rabe in the Broadway revival of "Heartbreak House" at the Roundabout Theatre Company's American Airlines Theatre. In 2012, Camp joined Philip Seymour Hoffman and Andrew Garfield in Mike Nichols' Broadway revival of "Death of a Salesman" at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre. The show ran from March 15, 2012, through June 2, 2012 and earned rave reviews, and won the Tony Award for Best Revival of a Play. In 2016, he starred in the Broadway revival of "The Crucible" alongside Saoirse Ronan, Ben Whishaw, Ciaran Hinds and Sophie Okenedo at the Walter Kerr Theatre. He received a Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play nomination for "The Crucible".


title: Bill Camp

text: Off-Broadway credits include starring as Gordon in Sarah Ruhl's "Dead Man's Cell Phone" at Playwrights Horizons in 2008, before having to withdraw due to other work commitments.


title: Bill Camp

text: Camp has been in a wide variety of films such as "Lincoln" (2012), "12 Years a Slave" (2013), "Love and Mercy" (2015), "Loving" (2016), "Molly's Game" (2017), "Woman Walks Ahead" (2017), "Vice" (2018), "Wildlife" (2018), "Dark Waters" (2019), "Joker" (2019), and "The Kitchen" (2019).


title: Bill Camp

text: On August 30, 2021, it was announced that Camp will appear as Matthew Burke in an adaptation of Stephen King's "Salem's Lot" for Warner Bros. Pictures and New Line Cinema.


title: Bill Camp

text: In 2011, he appeared in the second season of the HBO TV series "Boardwalk Empire" as the hunter Glenmore. Camp has also appeared in "Law & Order", "The Good Wife", "The Leftovers" and "The Night Of", receiving a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for "The Night Of". In 2018, he played FBI agent Bob Chesney, in the critically acclaimed and Emmy-nominated miniseries "The Looming Tower". In 2020, Camp became narrator of "Forensic Files II" on HLN and played Mr. Shaibel in "The Queen's Gambit". Camp had a secondary but significant role in Jeff Daniels' TV miniseries, "American Rust," in 2021, on Showtime. His performance was widely praised by television critics. The script was an adaptation of Philipp Meyer's novel of the same title.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: Kerberos () is a computer-network authentication protocol that works on the basis of "tickets" to allow nodes communicating over a non-secure network to prove their identity to one another in a secure manner. Its designers aimed it primarily at a client–server model, and it provides mutual authentication—both the user and the server verify each other's identity. Kerberos protocol messages are protected against eavesdropping and replay attacks.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: Kerberos builds on symmetric-key cryptography and requires a trusted third party, and optionally may use public-key cryptography during certain phases of authentication. Kerberos uses UDP port 88 by default.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: The protocol was named after the character "Kerberos" (or "Cerberus") from Greek mythology, the ferocious three-headed guard dog of Hades.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) developed Kerberos in 1988 to protect network services provided by Project Athena. The protocol is based on the earlier Needham–Schroeder symmetric-key protocol. Several versions of the protocol exist; versions 1–3 occurred only internally at MIT.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: Kerberos version 4 was primarily designed by Steve Miller and Clifford Neuman. Published in the late 1980s, version 4 was also targeted at Project Athena.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: Neuman and John Kohl published version 5 in 1993 with the intention of overcoming existing limitations and security problems. Version 5 appeared as RFC 1510, which was then made obsolete by RFC 4120 in 2005.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: Authorities in the United States classified Kerberos as "Auxiliary Military Equipment" on the US Munitions List and banned its export because it used the Data Encryption Standard (DES) encryption algorithm (with 56-bit keys). A Kerberos 4 implementation developed at the Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden named KTH-KRB (rebranded to Heimdal at version 5) made the system available outside the US before the US changed its cryptography export regulations (around 2000). The Swedish implementation was based on a limited version called eBones. eBones was based on the exported MIT Bones release (stripped of both the encryption functions and the calls to them) based on version Kerberos 4 patch-level 9.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: In 2005, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Kerberos working group updated specifications. Updates included:


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: MIT makes an implementation of Kerberos freely available, under copyright permissions similar to those used for BSD. In 2007, MIT formed the Kerberos Consortium to foster continued development. Founding sponsors include vendors such as Oracle, Apple Inc., Google, Microsoft, Centrify Corporation and TeamF1 Inc., and academic institutions such as the Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden, Stanford University, MIT, and vendors such as CyberSafe offering commercially supported versions.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: Windows 2000 and later versions use Kerberos as their default authentication method. Some Microsoft additions to the Kerberos suite of protocols are documented in RFC 3244 "Microsoft Windows 2000 Kerberos Change Password and Set Password Protocols". RFC 4757 documents Microsoft's use of the RC4 cipher. While Microsoft uses and extends the Kerberos protocol, it does not use the MIT software.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: Kerberos is used as the preferred authentication method: in general, joining a client to a Windows domain means enabling Kerberos as the default protocol for authentications from that client to services in the Windows domain and all domains with trust relationships to that domain.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: In contrast, when either client or server or both are not joined to a domain (or not part of the same trusted domain environment), Windows will instead use NTLM for authentication between client and server.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: Internet web applications can enforce Kerberos as an authentication method for domain-joined clients by using APIs provided under SSPI.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: Microsoft Windows and Windows Server include , a command-line utility that can be used to read, modify, or delete the Service Principal Names (SPN) for an Active Directory service account.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: Many Unix-like operating systems, including FreeBSD, OpenBSD, Apple's macOS, Red Hat Enterprise Linux, Oracle's Solaris, IBM's AIX, HP-UX and others, include software for Kerberos authentication of users or services. A variety of non-Unix like operating systems such as z/OS, IBM i and OpenVMS also feature Kerberos support. Embedded implementation of the Kerberos V authentication protocol for client agents and network services running on embedded platforms is also available from companies.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: The client authenticates itself to the Authentication Server (AS) which forwards the username to a key distribution center (KDC). The KDC issues a ticket-granting ticket (TGT), which is time stamped and encrypts it using the ticket-granting service's (TGS) secret key and returns the encrypted result to the user's workstation. This is done infrequently, typically at user logon; the TGT expires at some point although it may be transparently renewed by the user's session manager while they are logged in.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: When the client needs to communicate with a service on another node (a "principal", in Kerberos parlance), the client sends the TGT to the TGS, which usually shares the same host as the KDC. The service must have already been registered with the TGS with a Service Principal Name (SPN). The client uses the SPN to request access to this service. After verifying that the TGT is valid and that the user is permitted to access the requested service, the TGS issues ticket and session keys to the client. The client then sends the ticket to the service server (SS) along with its service request.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: The Data Encryption Standard (DES) cipher can be used in combination with Kerberos, but is no longer an Internet standard because it is weak. Security vulnerabilities exist in many legacy products that implement Kerberos because they have not been updated to use newer ciphers like AES instead of DES.


title: Kerberos (protocol)

text: In November 2014, Microsoft released a patch (MS14-068) to rectify an exploitable vulnerability in Windows implementation of the Kerberos Key Distribution Center (KDC). The vulnerability purportedly allows users to "elevate" (and abuse) their privileges, up to Domain level.


title: The Three-Body Problem (TV series)

text: The Three-Body Problem is an upcoming science fiction television series based on the novel of the same name by Liu Cixin. The series is set to premiere on Netflix.


title: The Three-Body Problem (TV series)

text: Chinese physicist and nanomaterial researcher Wang Miao gets entangled in a vast conspiracy after state intelligence asks him to infiltrate a group known as The Frontiers of Science, which has been associated with a string of suicides among its members. Ye Wenjie is an astrophysicist, who saw her father brutally murdered during the Chinese Cultural Revolution more than forty years before the main story. After her father's murder, she was taken to a labor camp but later conscripted because of her scientific background and sent to a secret radar base in a remote region of China. Ye's daughter was one of the suicides Wang must investigate, and they become friends as she recounts her secret work in the base to him. At the same time, Wang progresses through a mysterious VR game called Three Body, which takes place on an alien world with highly irregular weather and day/night cycles. The game follows the attempts of an alien race to build a functional calendar while their society is periodically destroyed by pattern-less waves of extreme heat and extreme cold. The object of the game is for the player to use the scientific method to help the creatures understand the nature of their world.


title: The Three-Body Problem (TV series)

text: It was announced in September 2020 that David Benioff and D.B. Weiss were developing a television adaptation of the novel at Netflix, with Alexander Woo co-writing alongside them.


title: The Three-Body Problem (TV series)

text: In August 2021, Eiza González entered negotiations to join the cast. The same month, Derek Tsang was hired to direct the pilot episode. González would be confirmed by October, with the additional castings including Benedict Wong, Tsai Chin, John Bradley, Liam Cunningham and Jovan Adepo announced. In June 2022, Jonathan Pryce, Rosalind Chao, Ben Schnetzer and Eve Ridley were added to cast.


title: Assault

text: An assault is the act of committing physical harm or unwanted physical contact upon a person or, in some specific legal definitions, a threat or attempt to commit such an action. It is both a crime and a tort and, therefore, may result in criminal prosecution, civil liability, or both. Generally, the common law definition is the same in criminal and tort law.


title: Assault

text: Traditionally, common law legal systems have separate definitions for assault and battery. When this distinction is observed, battery refers to the actual bodily contact, whereas assault refers to a credible threat or attempt to cause battery. Some jurisdictions combined the two offences into a single crime called "assault and battery", which then became widely referred to as "assault". The result is that in many of these jurisdictions, assault has taken on a definition that is more in line with the traditional definition of battery. The legal systems of civil law and Scots law have never distinguished assault from battery.


title: Assault

text: Legal systems generally acknowledge that assaults can vary greatly in severity. In the United States, an assault can be charged as either a misdemeanor or a felony. In England and Wales and Australia, it can be charged as either common assault, assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH) or grievous bodily harm (GBH). Canada also has a three-tier system: assault, assault causing bodily harm and aggravated assault. Separate charges typically exist for sexual assaults, affray and assaulting a police officer. Assault may overlap with an attempted crime; for example an assault may be charged as an attempted murder if it was done with intent to kill.


title: Assault

text: In jurisdictions that make a distinction between the two, assault usually accompanies battery if the assailant both threatens to make unwanted contact and then carries through with this threat. See common assault. The elements of battery are that it is a volitional act, done for the purpose of causing a harmful or offensive contact with another person or under circumstances that make such contact substantially certain to occur, and which causes such contact.


title: Assault

text: Aggravated assault is, in some jurisdictions, a stronger form of assault, usually using a deadly weapon. A person has committed an aggravated assault when that person attempts to:


title: Assault

text: Aggravated assault can also be charged in cases of attempted harm against police officers or other public servants.


title: Assault

text: Although the range and precise application of defenses varies between jurisdictions, the following represents a list of the defenses that may apply to all levels of assault:


title: Assault

text: Exceptions exist to cover unsolicited physical contact which amount to normal social behavior known as de minimis harm. Assault can also be considered in cases involving the spitting on, or unwanted exposure of bodily fluids to others.


title: Assault

text: Consent may be a complete or partial defense to assault. In some jurisdictions, most notably England, it is not a defense where the degree of injury is severe, as long as there is no legally recognized good reason for the assault. This can have important consequences when dealing with issues such as consensual sadomasochistic sexual activity, the most notable case being the Operation Spanner case. Legally recognized good reasons for consent include surgery, activities within the rules of a game (mixed martial arts, wrestling, boxing, or contact sports), bodily adornment ("R v Wilson" [1996] Crim LR 573), or horseplay ("R v Jones" [1987] Crim LR 123). However, any activity outside the rules of the game is not legally recognized as a defense of consent. In Scottish law, consent is not a defense for assault.


title: Assault

text: Police officers and court officials have a general power to use force for the purpose of performing an arrest or generally carrying out their official duties. Thus, a court officer taking possession of goods under a court order may use force if reasonably necessary.


title: Assault

text: In some jurisdictions such as Singapore, judicial corporal punishment is part of the legal system. The officers who administer the punishment have immunity from prosecution for assault.


title: Assault

text: In the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Canada, corporal punishment administered to children by their parent or legal guardian is not legally considered to be assault unless it is deemed to be excessive or unreasonable. What constitutes "reasonable" varies in both statutory law and case law. Unreasonable physical punishment may be charged as assault or under a separate statute for child abuse.


title: Assault

text: Many countries, including some US states, also permit the use of corporal punishment for children in school. In English law, s. 58 Children Act 2004 limits the availability of the lawful correction defense to common assault under s. 39 Criminal Justice Act 1988.


title: Assault

text: This may or may not involve self-defense in that, using a reasonable degree of force to prevent another from committing a crime could involve preventing an assault, but it could be preventing a crime not involving the use of personal violence.


title: Assault

text: Some jurisdictions allow force to be used in defense of property, to prevent damage either in its own right, or under one or both of the preceding classes of defense in that a threat or attempt to damage property might be considered a crime (in English law, under s5 Criminal Damage Act 1971 it may be argued that the defendant has a "lawful excuse" to damage property during the defense and a defense under s3 Criminal Law Act 1967) subject to the need to deter vigilantes and excessive self-help. Furthermore, some jurisdictions, such as Ohio, allow residents in their homes to use force when ejecting an intruder. The resident merely needs to assert to the court that they felt threatened by the intruder's presence.


title: Assault

text: The following are the countries with the most cases of assault according to the United Nations in 2018.


title: Assault

text: The term 'assault', when used in legislation, commonly refers to both common assault and battery, even though the two offences remain distinct. Common assault involves intentionally or recklessly causing a person to apprehend the imminent infliction of unlawful force, whilst battery refers to the actual infliction of force.


title: Assault

text: Each state has legislation relating to the act of assault, and offences against the act that constitute assault are heard in the magistrates' court of that state or indictable offences are heard in a district or supreme court of that state. The legislation that defines assault of each state outline what the elements are that make up the assault, where the assault is sectioned in legislation or criminal codes, and the penalties that apply for the offence of assault.


title: Assault

text: In New South Wales, the Crimes Act 1900 defines a range of assault offences deemed more serious than common assault and which attract heavier penalties. These include:


title: Assault

text: Assault is an offence under s. 265 of the Canadian Criminal Code. There is a wide range of the types of assault that can occur. Generally, an assault occurs when a person directly or indirectly applies force intentionally to another person without their consent. It can also occur when a person attempts to apply such force, or threatens to do so, without the consent of the other person. An injury need not occur for an assault to be committed, but the force used in the assault must be offensive in nature with an intention to apply force. It can be an assault to "tap", "pinch", "push", or direct another such minor action toward another, but an accidental application of force is not an assault.


title: Assault

text: The potential punishment for an assault in Canada varies depending on the manner in which the charge proceeds through the court system and the type of assault that is committed. The Criminal Code defines assault as a dual offence (indictable or summary offence). Police officers can arrest someone without a warrant for an assault if it is in the public's interest to do so notwithstanding S.495(2)(d) of the Code. This public interest is usually satisfied by preventing a continuation or repetition of the offence on the same victim.


title: Assault

text: An individual cannot consent to an assault with a weapon, assault causing bodily harm, aggravated assault, or any sexual assault. Consent will also be vitiated if two people consent to fight but serious bodily harm is intended and caused (R v Paice; R v Jobidon). A person cannot consent to serious bodily harm.


title: Assault

text: Assault in Ancient Greece was normally termed hubris. Contrary to modern usage, the term did not have the extended connotation of overweening pride, self-confidence or arrogance, often resulting in fatal retribution. In Ancient Greece, "hubris" referred to actions which, intentionally or not, shamed and humiliated the victim, and frequently the perpetrator as well. It was most evident in the public and private actions of the powerful and rich.


title: Assault

text: Violations of the law against hubris included, what would today be termed, assault and battery; sexual crimes ranging from forcible rape of women or children to consensual but improper activities; or the theft of public or sacred property. Two well-known cases are found in the speeches of Demosthenes, a prominent statesman and orator in ancient Greece. These two examples occurred when first, in addition to other acts of violence, Meidias allegedly punched Demosthenes in the face in the theater (Against Meidias), and second (Against Konon), when the defendant allegedly severely beat him.


title: Assault

text: Hubris, though not specifically defined, was a legal term and was considered a crime in classical Athens. It was also considered the greatest sin of the ancient Greek world. That was so because it not only was proof of excessive pride, but also resulted in violent acts by or to those involved. The category of acts constituting hubris for the ancient Greeks apparently broadened from the original specific reference to mutilation of a corpse, or a humiliation of a defeated foe, or irreverent, "outrageous treatment", in general.


title: Assault

text: The meaning was eventually further generalized in its modern English usage to apply to any outrageous act or exhibition of pride or disregard for basic moral laws. Such an act may be referred to as an "act of hubris", or the person committing the act may be said to be hubristic. Atë, Greek for 'ruin, folly, delusion', is the action performed by the hero, usually because of their hubris, or great pride, that leads to their death or downfall.


title: Assault

text: Crucial to this definition are the ancient Greek concepts of honor (timē) and shame. The concept of timē included not only the exaltation of the one receiving honor, but also the shaming of the one overcome by the act of hubris. This concept of honor is akin to a zero-sum game. Rush Rehm simplifies this definition to the contemporary concept of "insolence, contempt, and excessive violence".


title: Assault

text: The Indian Penal Code covers the punishments and types of assault in Chapter 16, sections 351 through 358.


title: Assault

text: The Code further explains that "mere words do not amount to an assault. But the words which a person uses may give to their gestures or preparation such a meaning as may make those gestures or preparations amount to an assault". Assault is in Indian criminal law an attempt to use criminal force (with criminal force being described in s.350). The attempt itself has been made an offence in India, as in other states.


title: Assault

text: The Criminal Code Act (chapter 29 of Part V; sections 351 to 365) creates a number of offences of assault. Assault is defined by section 252 of that Act. Assault is a misdemeanor punishable by one year imprisonment; assault with "intent to have carnal knowledge of him or her" or who indecently assaults another, or who commits other more-serious variants of assault (as defined in the Act) are guilty of a felony, and longer prison terms are provided for.


title: Assault

text: The offence of assault is created by section 113 of the Criminal Code. A person is guilty of this offence if they unlawfully offer or attempt, with force or violence, to strike, beat, wound, or do bodily harm to, another.


title: Assault

text: Section 2 of the Non-Fatal Offences against the Person Act 1997 creates the offence of assault, and section 3 of that Act creates the offence of assault causing harm.


title: Assault

text: South African law does not draw the distinction between assault and battery. "Assault" is a common law crime defined as "unlawfully and intentionally applying force to the person of another, or inspiring a belief in that other that force is immediately to be applied to him". The law also recognises the crime of "assault with intent to cause grievous bodily harm", where grievous bodily harm is defined as "harm which in itself is such as seriously to interfere with health". The common law crime of "indecent assault" was repealed by the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 2007, and replaced by a statutory crime of "sexual assault".


title: Assault

text: English law provides for two offences of assault: common assault and battery. Assault (or common assault) is committed if one intentionally or recklessly causes another person to apprehend immediate and unlawful personal violence. "Violence" in this context means any unlawful touching, though there is some debate over whether the touching must also be hostile. The terms "assault" and "common assault" often encompass the separate offence of battery, even in statutory settings such as s 40(3)(a) of the Criminal Justice Act 1988.


title: Assault

text: A common assault is an assault that lacks any of the aggravating features which Parliament has deemed serious enough to deserve a higher penalty. Section 39 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988 provides that common assault, like battery, is triable only in the magistrates' court in England and Wales (unless it is linked to a more serious offence, which is triable in the Crown Court). Additionally, if a defendant has been charged on an indictment with assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH), or racially/religiously aggravated assault, then a jury in the Crown Court may acquit the defendant of the more serious offence, but still convict of common assault if it finds common assault has been committed.


title: Assault

text: An assault which is aggravated by the scale of the injuries inflicted may be charged as offences causing "actual bodily harm" (ABH) or, in the severest cases, "grievous bodily harm" (GBH).


title: Assault

text: Other aggravated assault charges refer to assaults carried out against a specific target or with a specific intent:


title: Assault

text: In Scots Law, assault is defined as an "attack upon the person of another". There is no distinction made in Scotland between assault and battery (which is not a term used in Scots law), although, as in England and Wales, assault can be occasioned without a "physical" attack on another's person, as demonstrated in "Atkinson v. HM Advocate" wherein the accused was found guilty of assaulting a shop assistant by simply jumping over a counter wearing a ski mask. The court said:


title: Assault

text: Scottish law also provides for a more serious charge of aggravated assault on the basis of such factors as severity of injury, the use of a weapon, or "Hamesucken" (to assault a person in their own home). The "mens rea" for assault is simply "evil intent", although this has been held to mean no more than that assault "cannot be committed accidentally or recklessly or negligently" as upheld in "Lord Advocate's Reference No 2 of 1992" where it was found that a "hold-up" in a shop justified as a joke would still constitute an offence.


title: Assault

text: It is a separate offence to assault on a constable in the execution of their duty, under Section 90, Police and Fire Reform (Scotland) Act 2012 (previously Section 41 of the Police (Scotland) Act 1967) which provides that it is an offence for a person to, amongst other things, assault a constable in the execution of their duty or a person assisting a constable in the execution of their duty.


title: Assault

text: Several offences of assault exist in Northern Ireland. The Offences against the Person Act 1861 creates the offences of:


title: Assault

text: That Act formerly created the offence of 'Assault on a constable in the execution of his duty'. under section 7(1)(a), but that section has been superseded by section 66(1) of the Police (Northern Ireland) Act 1998 (c.32) which now provides that it is an offence for a person to, amongst other things, assault a constable in the execution of his duty, or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty.


title: Assault

text: In the United States, assault may be defined as an attempt to commit a battery. However, the crime of assault can encompass acts in which no battery is intended, but the defendant's act nonetheless creates reasonable fear in others that a battery will occur.


title: Assault

text: As the criminal law evolved, element one was weakened in most jurisdictions so that a reasonable fear of bodily injury would suffice. These four elements were eventually codified in most states.


title: Assault

text: The crime of assault generally requires that both the perpetrator and the victim of an assault be a natural person. Thus, unless the attack is directed by a person, an animal attack does not constitute an assault. However, under limited circumstances the Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004 treats a fetus as a separate person for the purposes of assault and other violent crimes.


title: Assault

text: Possible examples of defenses, mitigating circumstances, or failures of proof that may be raised in response to an assault charge include:


title: Assault

text: Laws on assault vary by state. Since each state has its own criminal laws, there is no universal assault law. Acts classified as assault in one state may be classified as battery, menacing, intimidation, reckless endangerment, etc. in another state. Assault is often subdivided into two categories, simple assault and aggravated assault.


title: Assault

text: In some states, consent is a complete defense to assault. In other jurisdictions, mutual consent is an incomplete defense to an assault charge such that an assault charge is prosecuted as a less significant offense such as a "petty misdemeanor".


title: Assault

text: States vary on whether it is possible to commit an "attempted assault" since it can be considered a double inchoate offense.


title: Assault

text: In New York State, assault (as defined in the New York State Penal Code Article 120) requires an actual injury. Other states define this as battery; there is no crime of battery in New York. However, in New York if a person threatens another person with imminent injury without engaging in physical contact, that is called "menacing". A person who engages in that behavior is guilty of aggravated harassment in the second degree (a Class A misdemeanor; punishable with up to one year incarceration, probation for an extended time, and a permanent criminal record) when they threaten to cause physical harm to another person, and guilty of aggravated harassment in the first degree (a Class E felony) if they have a previous conviction for the same offense. New York also has specific laws against hazing, when such threats are made as requirement to join an organization.


title: Assault

text: A person convicted of simple assault can be ordered to up to two years in prison as a second-degree misdemeanor.


title: Assault

text: A person convicted of aggravated assault can face up to 10 years in prison as a second-degree felony. However, if the crime is perpetrated against a firefighter or police officer, the offender may face first-degree felony charges carrying a penalty of up to 20 years in prison.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Bartholemew William Barclay "Bat" Masterson (November 26, 1853 – October 25, 1921) was a U.S. Army scout, lawman, professional gambler, and journalist known for his exploits in the 19th and early 20th-century American Old West. He was born to a working-class Irish family in Quebec, but he moved to the Western frontier as a young man and quickly distinguished himself as a buffalo hunter, civilian scout, and Indian fighter on the Great Plains. He later earned fame as a gunfighter and sheriff in Dodge City, Kansas, during which time he was involved in several notable shootouts.


title: Bat Masterson

text: By the mid-1880s, Masterson had moved to Denver, Colorado and established himself as a "sporting man" or gambler. He took an interest in prizefighting and became a leading authority on the sport, attending almost every important match and title fight in the United States from the 1880s until his death in 1921. He moved to New York City in 1902 and spent the rest of his life there as a reporter and columnist for "The Morning Telegraph". His column covered boxing and other sports, and it frequently gave his opinions on crime, war, politics, and other topics, as well. He became a close friend of President Theodore Roosevelt and was one of the "White House Gunfighters" who received federal appointments from Roosevelt, along with Pat Garrett and Ben Daniels.


title: Bat Masterson

text: By the time of his death in 1921, Masterson was known throughout the country as a leading sports writer and celebrity. He is remembered today for his connection to many of the Wild West's most iconic people, places, and events, and his life and likeness are frequently depicted in American popular culture.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson was born on November 26, 1853, at Henryville, Quebec, in the Eastern Townships of what was then known as Canada East. He was baptized under the name Bartholomew Masterson.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson was the second child of Thomas Masterson (or Mastersan), who was born in Canada to an Irish family, and Catherine McGurk (or McGureth), who was born in Ireland. The other six Masterson children were Edward John (1852–1878), James Patrick (1855–1895), Nellie E. (1857–1925), Thomas (1858–1941), George Henry (1860–1889), and Emma Anna "Minnie" (1862–1884). The children were raised on farms in Quebec, New York, Illinois, and Missouri until the family finally settled near Wichita, Kansas.


title: Bat Masterson

text: In his late teens, Masterson and his brothers Ed and Jim left their family's farm to hunt buffalo on the Great Plains. In July 1872, Ed and Bat Masterson were hired by a subcontractor named Raymond Ritter to grade a five-mile section of track for the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad. Ritter skipped out without paying the Masterson brothers all of the wages to which they were entitled.


title: Bat Masterson

text: It took Masterson nearly a year, but he finally collected his overdue wages from Ritter, at gunpoint. On April 15, 1873, Masterson learned that Ritter was due to arrive in Dodge City, Kansas, aboard a Santa Fe train and that Ritter was carrying a large roll of cash. When Ritter's train pulled in, Masterson entered the car alone and confronted him and marched him out onto the rear platform of the train, where he forced him to hand over the $300 owed to him, his brother Ed, and a friend named Theodore Raymond. A loud cheer then went up from a large crowd which had witnessed the event.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson was once again engaged in buffalo hunting on June 27, 1874, when he became an involuntary participant in one of the Wild West's most celebrated Indian fights: a five-day siege by several hundred Comanche, Kiowa and Cheyenne warriors led by Quanah Parker at a collection of ramshackle buildings in the Texas panhandle known as Adobe Walls. Masterson was one of only 28 hunters who defended the outpost during the attack. The Comanche suffered the most losses during the battle, though the actual number killed is not known, with reports ranging from a low of 30 to a high of 70. The defenders of Adobe Walls lost only four men, one of whom shot himself by accident. After being fought to a standstill, Quanah Parker and his followers rode off.


title: Bat Masterson

text: In August 1874, Masterson signed on as a U.S. Army scout with Colonel Nelson Miles, who was leading a force from Fort Dodge to pursue Comanche and Apache war parties across the Cherokee Strip and into Texas. The force was eventually engaged to recover four sisters—ranging in age from 9 to 15—who had been captured by a group of Cheyenne Dog Soldiers. The sisters were part of a family that had been attacked outside of Ellis, Kansas, on September 11, 1874, while migrating to Colorado Territory. Their parents, brother, and two older sisters had been killed and scalped. All four sisters were recovered alive by Miles' force over a period of about six months.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson's first gunfight took place on January 24, 1876, in Sweetwater, Texas (later Mobeetie in Wheeler County). He was attacked by a soldier, Corporal Melvin A. King (real name Anthony Cook) allegedly because he was with a woman named Mollie Brennan. Brennan was hit by one of King's bullets, possibly by accident, and was killed. King died of his wounds. Masterson was shot in the pelvis but recovered. This is the reason why he used a cane. The cane would become one of his famous trademarks.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson soon settled in Dodge City. On June 6, 1877, Masterson tried to prevent the arrest of Robert Gilmore, who was known to the locals as "Bobby Gill." Masterson managed to wrap his arms about the girth of the 315 pound city marshal, Lawrence Edward "Larry" Deger, thereby permitting Gill to escape. Masterson was grabbed by friends of Deger and pistol-whipped by the lawman. The following day, Masterson was fined $25 for disturbing the peace. Bobby Gill, the cause of Masterson's fine, was assessed only $5.


title: Bat Masterson

text: During July 1877, Masterson was hired to serve as under-sheriff to Sheriff Charles E. Bassett. Bassett was prohibited by the Kansas State Constitution from seeking a third consecutive term. With the job up for grabs, Masterson decided to run for the office. Masterson's opponent turned out to be Larry Deger. On November 6, 1877, Masterson was elected county sheriff of Ford County, Kansas, by the narrow margin of three votes. Within a month of Masterson's election, on December 6, 1877, Ed Masterson replaced Larry Deger as city marshal of Dodge, so together the Masterson brothers controlled the city and county police forces.


title: Bat Masterson

text: On February 1, 1878, Sheriff Masterson captured the notorious outlaws Dave Rudabaugh and Ed West, who were wanted for an attempted train robbery. Two more of the train robbers were caught by Bat and brother Ed on March 15. The tandem law enforcement effort came to an abrupt end, however, when 25-year-old City Marshal Ed Masterson was shot and killed in the line of duty on April 9, 1878. Ed Masterson was mortally wounded by a cowboy named Jack Wagner, who was unaware that Bat Masterson was in the vicinity. As Ed stumbled away from the scene, Bat Masterson responded from across the street, firing on both Wagner and Wagner's boss, Alf Walker—who was holding a gun. Wagner died the next day, but Walker was taken back to Texas and recovered. The local newspapers were ambiguous about who shot Wagner and Walker, and this led some later historians to question whether Bat Masterson was involved. However, the rediscovery of two court cases in which Bat Masterson testified under oath that he had shot both men adds credence to the idea that Bat had avenged his brother.


title: Bat Masterson

text: More violence followed on October 4, 1878, when a variety actress named Dora Hand, known professionally as "Fannie Keenan," was shot and killed by James Kenedy, son of the wealthy Texas cattleman, Miflin Kenedy. Masterson's posse, which included Wyatt Earp and Bill Tilghman, captured Kenedy the following day after Masterson shot him in the left arm, and other posse members killed his horse.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Santa Fe Railroad officials had wired Sheriff Bat Masterson asking him to recruit men to battle the forces of the Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, which were contesting the right-of-way through the Royal Gorge near Pueblo, Colorado. As a sheriff in Kansas, Masterson had no authority in Colorado, but this did not prevent him from enlisting a large company of men. Among Masterson's recruits were such noted gunmen as Ben Thompson, "Mysterious Dave" Mather, John Joshua Webb, and possibly Doc Holliday. The end of Masterson's involvement came on June 12, 1879, when he surrendered a roundhouse his men were holding at Cañon City, Colorado. The "war" between the railroads was finally settled out of court. Masterson's Colorado activities did not go over well with the voters of Ford County, Kansas. On November 4, 1879, a bartender named George T. Hinkel defeated Masterson in his re-election bid for sheriff by a vote of 404 to 268.


title: Bat Masterson

text: The 1880 Dodge City census shows that, at that time, Masterson was living with Annie Ladue, age 19 (described as his "concubine"). City Marshal James Masterson, Bat's younger brother, was listed on the same census as living with Minnie Roberts, age 16. Not long after this census was taken, Bat Masterson received a telegram from Ben Thompson asking Bat to save Ben's troublesome brother, Billy Thompson, from almost certain lynching in Ogallala, Nebraska. Billy Thompson had shot the thumb off a man named Tucker, who, despite missing a digit, managed to fire back and seriously wound Billy. Masterson took Billy Thompson out of Ogallala by a midnight train bound for North Platte, Nebraska. In North Platte, Masterson was provided with assistance by William F. "Buffalo Bill" Cody, who promptly offered to help. According to Masterson, he and Billy Thompson "were given a royal welcome and were immediately taken in charge by Colonel Cody, who found a safe place for us to remain until he could outfit us for the trip across the country to Dodge City." This episode was reported in the "Dodge City Times", which noted that "W.B. Masterson arrived from a visit to Ogallala, this week. He says Nebraska is dry and many people are leaving the state. He came by wagon, and was accompanied by 'Texas Billy' Thompson. The latter has recovered from his wounds."


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson spent the remainder of 1880 in Kansas City and Dodge. On February 8, 1881, he left Dodge City and joined Wyatt Earp in Tombstone, Arizona Territory, where he met Luke Short for the first time. Earp, Short, and Masterson worked as faro dealers, or "look outs", at Tombstone's Oriental Saloon. Masterson had only been in Tombstone for two months when he received an urgent telegram that compelled him to return to Dodge City. His brother Jim had a partnership with Alfred James "A.J." Peacock in Dodge City's Lady Gay Saloon and Dance Hall. Albert "Al" Updegraff was Peacock's brother-in-law and bartender. Updegraff was a drunk, and Jim thought him dishonest. Jim had demanded that Peacock fire Updegraff, but Peacock refused. Their disagreement grew until threats were made, prompting the telegram.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson arrived in Dodge City on April 16, 1881, where he accosted Updegraff and Peacock. Recognizing Masterson, Updegraff and Peacock retreated behind the jail and exchanged gunfire with him. Who had fired first is not clear. Citizens ran for cover as bullets ripped through the Long Branch Saloon. Other individuals began firing in support of both sides until Updegraff was wounded. Mayor A.B. Webster arrested Masterson. Afterward, Masterson learned that his brother Jim was not in danger. Updegraff recovered from his wounds, but the shooter who hit him could not be identified, so Masterson was fined $8.00 and released. Citizens were outraged and warrants were issued, but Bat and Jim Masterson were permitted to leave Dodge City.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Bat Masterson became more widely known as a gunfighter as a result of a practical joke played on a gullible newspaper reporter in August 1881. Seeking copy in Gunnison, Colorado, the reporter asked Dr. W.S. Cockrell about man-killers. Dr. Cockrell pointed to a young man nearby and said it was Masterson and that he had killed 26 men. Cockrell then regaled the reporter with the story of Ed Masterson's death and how Bat responded fearlessly and heroically against his brother's killers. The story was published in The Sun newspaper in New York (November 7, 1881) and was also widely reprinted in papers all over the country. Cockrell subsequently apologized to Masterson, who insisted he was not in Gunnison at the time.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson was appointed city marshal of Trinidad, Colorado, on April 17, 1882. He had hardly settled into his $75-a-month marshal's job when Wyatt Earp requested his help to prevent the extradition of Doc Holliday from Colorado to Arizona. Masterson took his case directly to Colorado Governor Frederick W. Pitkin, who listened to Masterson's appeal and finally refused to grant Holliday's extradition. However, Masterson's rescue of Doc Holliday, as well as his nightly "moonlighting" as a faro dealer, spelled doom for his career as city marshal of Trinidad. On March 28, 1883, a local paper noted: "There are now two 'bankers' running for city offices – Mr. Taylor of the Las Animas County Bank, and Mr. Masterson of the bank of 'Fair O.' Both have a large number of depositors – one of time depositors and the other receives his deposits for keeps." On April 3, 1883, Masterson was defeated by a lopsided vote of 637 to 248.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson's term as city marshal of Trinidad ended just in time for him to come to the aid of his friend, Luke Short, who had been run out of Dodge City by the mayor and Masterson's long-time enemy, Larry Deger. Within weeks, a group of gunfighters recruited by Masterson and Earp descended upon Dodge City to resolve what became known as the "Dodge City War." The result of this gathering reinstated Luke Short in Dodge. Before disbanding on June 10, 1883, Short, Masterson, Earp, and five other notable men from frontier history posed for a group portrait that was soon labeled "The Dodge City Peace Commission." The photo became an iconic image of the Old West.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson was back in Dodge City on November 1, 1884, where he issued a small newspaper called "Vox Populi" which was devoted to local political issues. Three days after its appearance, he received a flattering – and prophetic – review of his journalistic effort from another Dodge City paper which observed: "We are in receipt of the first number of "Vox Populi", W.B. Masterson, editor, which in appearance is very neat and tidy. The news and statements it contains seem to be of a somewhat personal nature. The editor is very promising; if he survives the first week of his literary venture, there is no telling what he may accomplish in the journalistic field." Editor Masterson did not survive his first week. "Vox Populi" folded after printing just one issue and almost another 20 years would pass before he made journalism a full-time profession in New York City.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson finally left Dodge City and made Denver, Colorado, his center of interest, where he soon became involved in a divorce scandal. The trouble began in a Denver theater on September 18, 1886, when a comedian named Lou Spencer, who was performing on stage, spotted his wife, Nellie, seated in the audience on Masterson's knee. Spencer cut short his routine and confronted Masterson, who hit Spencer across the face with his pistol. Nellie Spencer watched from the wings while the two men slugged it out. Finally, they were arrested, fined, and released a short time later. In its account of the incident, the "Rocky Mountain News" described Masterson as one "who pleases the ladies", and Nellie McMahon Spencer as "a beautiful woman, with a fine wardrobe and a sweet voice." Three days later, Nellie filed for divorce and the Denver papers were quick to report that Nellie had "eloped" with Masterson. No record has been found of the two ever getting married, and she soon disappeared from Masterson's life.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson dealt faro for "Big Ed" Chase at the Arcade gambling house. In 1888, he managed and then purchased the Palace Variety Theater. There, Masterson probably first met an Indian club swinger and singer, Emma Moulton. The pair subsequently lived together and they were widely reported to have married in Denver on November 21, 1891. The only known source for that date was given by Masterson's brother, Thomas Masterson, years after Bat had died. Emma was not divorced from her first husband, Edwin Winford Moulton, until November 9, 1893. When they were later enumerated in the 1910 U.S. Census, Bat and Emma claimed that they had been married for 17 years, suggesting a marriage date of 1893. Masterson's biographer has raised the possibility that they were married on November 21, 1893, two weeks after Emma's divorce from Edwin Moulton. The two were traveling through the eastern states at that time, but an actual marriage record has not been found.


title: Bat Masterson

text: It was in Denver that Masterson met and began a long-term friendship with the infamous confidence man and crime boss Soapy Smith. In 1889, the two were involved in election scandal involving fraudulent registration ballot casting.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson maintained an interest in prizefighting and other sports, and was known as a frequent attendee at boxing matches across the country. He frequently placed bets on the fights and occasionally served in an official capacity as a second or a timekeeper. He knew—and was known by—the heavyweight champions of the era, from John L. Sullivan and James J. "Gentleman Jim" Corbett to Jack Johnson and Jack Dempsey. The sports-minded Masterson was ringside during the John L. Sullivan – Jake Kilrain heavyweight championship fight at Richburg, Mississippi, on July 8, 1889. He was the designated timekeeper for Kilrain and came under fire from some sources for how he handled his role. Reportedly, Masterson saw to it that Luke Short, Johnny Murphy, and "twelve other good men were scattered around the ring where they would do the most good in case of an emergency."


title: Bat Masterson

text: In early 1892 Masterson moved to the silver boom-town of Creede, Colorado where he managed the Denver Exchange gambling club until the town was destroyed by fire on June 5, 1892. On September 7, 1892, Masterson, Short, and Charlie Bassett attended the Sullivan–Corbett championship fight in New Orleans. According to a Dodge City paper, Masterson bet on the winner, Corbett, while noting, "Charlie Bassett and Luke Short were among the notables in attendance. Bassett bet his money on Sullivan." Masterson was in Jacksonville, Florida, on January 25, 1894, acting as a second for Charlie Mitchell during Mitchell's heavyweight title shot at the champion, James J. "Gentleman Jim" Corbett. Mitchell was knocked cold in three rounds.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson moved to New York City in 1895 to briefly serve as a bodyguard for millionaire George Gould. He wrote to his Denver friends glowing accounts of fishing trips "...with the Goulds on their yacht..." and announced his intention to remain in New York City indefinitely. On June 6, 1895, a Denver paper quoted a friend of Masterson's, who observed that "Bat has at last fallen into a dead easy game."


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson returned to Denver for several more years. On April 6, 1897, serving as a deputy sheriff of Arapahoe County, he got into a dispute on election day with a Tim Connors. Masterson drew his pistol and Connors attempted to seize it. During the scuffle, the gun discharged and C.C. Louderbaugh was shot in the left wrist.


title: Bat Masterson

text: On April 9, 1899, Masterson became a partner in a boxing club called the Colorado Athletic Association. Within a few days, Masterson was excluded from the organization by his partners. Masterson retaliated on April 18 by founding a rival club, the Olympic, with himself as president. Masterson received favorable media coverage from a Denver newspaper called "George's Weekly", where he was employed as sports editor.


title: Bat Masterson

text: In September 1900, Masterson sold his interest in the Olympic Athletic Club and made another visit to New York City. Masterson had decided to settle in New York City, but had a sudden change of heart and returned to Denver, with humiliating results. Two conflicting versions are given for what caused his final departure from Denver. Masterson's story was that an irate woman belted him with an umbrella on May 2, 1902, when she took exception to an "undesirable" such as Masterson trying to cast his ballot at a local election. An alternate version states that Masterson had become a dangerous drunk who was run out of Denver for being a public nuisance. Whatever actually happened, Masterson left Denver and never returned.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson and Emma moved to New York City on June 5, 1902. The next day, Masterson was having his shoes shined at a public stand when police swooped in and arrested a West Coast gambler named James A. Sullivan, who was standing nearby. They took Masterson, too, alleging he was part of a bunco scheme to fleece a Mormon elder named George H. Snow out of $16,000. Masterson also had a concealed revolver. The bunco charge was dismissed. Masterson paid a $10 fine for the concealed weapon. About his arrest, Masterson complained to a reporter, "This fellow Gargan who arrested me is a warm baby – in his mind. He thinks all people are suckers. That's the trouble with these mush-headed coppers. Give them a political job to keep from starving and they think they own the earth."


title: Bat Masterson

text: A friend, journalist, Alfred Henry Lewis, persuaded his brother, William Lewis, to provide Masterson with employment as a columnist for William's newspaper, the "New York Morning Telegraph". His column, "Masterson's Views on Timely Topics," concerned sports in general and boxing in particular. The column appeared thrice weekly from 1903 until his death in 1921. In 1905, Alfred Henry Lewis published "The Sunset Trail", a fictionalized biography of Masterson.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Lewis encouraged Masterson to write a series of sketches about his adventures, which were published by Lewis in "Human Life" magazine. In 1907, Masterson provided five biographical studies of Ben Thompson, Wyatt Earp, Luke Short, Doc Holliday and Bill Tilghman.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson explained to his audience what he felt were the best properties of a gunfighter. Other articles were supposed to be in Masterson's" Human Life" series, which had appeared under the title of "Famous Gun Fighters of the Western Frontier", but the next three issues of "Human Life" came and went without a Masterson article. In the November 1907 issue, editor Alfred Henry Lewis assured the readers that Masterson would resume the series by explaining that Masterson's reasons for "breaking off the output" were "wholly of an idle, indolent, midsummer sort, which the managers of this magazine hope to overthrow so soon as a cooler temperature comes to the assistance of their arguments." Lewis offered this apology as part of his own article called "The King of the Gun-Players: William Barclay Masterson." Lewis met with only limited success. Masterson provided only one more article, on Buffalo Bill Cody, which was his final "Human Life" contribution.


title: Bat Masterson

text: Concurrent to his career as a newspaper writer, Masterson served as the timekeeper for many prize fights, most notably for the Jack Johnson – Jess Willard title fight in Havana, Cuba, on April 5, 1915. A newsreel featuring the then 61-year-old Masterson's introduction in that role was included in a documentary called "Legendary Champions 1882–1929".


title: Bat Masterson

text: Alfred Henry Lewis introduced Masterson to President Theodore Roosevelt, and the two formed a friendship that resulted in Masterson being a frequent White House guest and also included regular correspondence. President Roosevelt arranged for Masterson's appointment as deputy U.S. Marshal for the Southern District of New York. On February 2, 1905, Roosevelt wrote Masterson a letter which concluded with the lines: "You must be careful not to gamble or do anything while you are a public officer which might afford opportunity to your enemies and my critics to say that your appointment was improper. I wish you to show this letter to Alfred Henry Lewis and go over the matter with him." Masterson served in the position, earning $2,000 per year (equal to $ today), until 1909. Theodore Roosevelt did not seek a third term in 1908, and his successor, William Howard Taft, did not share Roosevelt's enthusiasm for Masterson. President Taft had his attorney general conduct an investigation of Masterson's employment as a deputy U.S. Marshal, which resulted in Masterson being terminated on August 1, 1909. For the remaining 12 years of his life, Masterson covered the major boxing events of that era for the "New York Morning Telegraph".


title: Bat Masterson

text: On April 5, 1915, the 61-year-old Masterson was in Havana, Cuba, attending the heavyweight championship fight between Jack Johnson and Jess Willard. As he arrived, he posed for a newsreel cameraman. In the brief film clip, he doffs his hat, smiles for the camera, and dons his hat. Later that day, in the official film of the fight, Masterson can be seen as one of the seconds for Jess Willard, climbing through the ropes just prior to the fight.


title: Bat Masterson

text: On July 2, 1921, Masterson attended his last heavyweight championship fight, the so-called "Million Dollar Gate", promoted by George "Tex" Rickard, in which Jack Dempsey defended (and retained) his title of heavyweight champion of the world. Three months later, on October 7, silent-screen cowboy star William S. Hart visited Masterson. They were photographed standing together on the roof of the "New York Morning Telegraph" building and went back to Masterson's office where he asked Hart to sit in his chair and pose for a second photo with him. According to Hart: "I did so, and he stood beside me. Mr. Masterson was sitting in that same chair eighteen days later when he heard the last call." Hart subsequently cast a lookalike as Masterson in his biographical film "Wild Bill Hickok", which was released in 1923.


title: Bat Masterson

text: On October 25, 1921, at age 67, Masterson died at his desk from a massive heart attack after writing what became his final column for the "Morning Telegraph".


title: Bat Masterson

text: His last column included this statement "I suppose these ginks who argue that ... because the rich man gets ice in the summer and the poor man gets it in the winter, things are breaking even for both. Maybe so, but I'll swear I can't see it that way."


title: Bat Masterson

text: About 500 people attended Masterson's service at Frank E. Campbell's Funeral Church at Broadway and 66th Street. Masterson's honorary pallbearers included Damon Runyon, Tex Rickard, and William Lewis. Runyon was a close friend of Masterson's and offered this memorable eulogy: "He was a 100 percent, 22-karat real man. Bat was a good hater and a wonderful friend. He was always stretching out his hand to some down-and-outer. He had a great sense of humor and a marvelous fund of reminiscence, and was one of the most entertaining companions we have ever known. There are only too few men in the world like Bat Masterson and his death is a genuine loss."


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson was buried at Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx. His first name, Bartholemew, does NOT appear on his gravestone, which is inscribed "William Barclay Masterson" (see photo), appears above his epitaph on the large granite grave marker. Masterson's epitaph states that he was "Loved by Everyone".


title: Bat Masterson

text: Masterson's life has been portrayed in countless works of fiction and non-fiction in film, television, literature, and other popular media.


title: Ziggurat of Ur

text: The Ziggurat (or Great Ziggurat) of Ur (Sumerian: "Etemenniguru", meaning "temple whose foundation creates aura") is a Neo-Sumerian ziggurat in what was the city of Ur near Nasiriyah, in present-day Dhi Qar Province, Iraq. The structure was built during the Early Bronze Age (21st century BC) but had crumbled to ruins by the 6th century BC of the Neo-Babylonian period, when it was restored by King Nabonidus.


title: Ziggurat of Ur

text: Its remains were excavated in the 1920s and 1930s by Sir Leonard Woolley. Under Saddam Hussein in the 1980s, they were encased by a partial reconstruction of the façade and the monumental staircase. The Ziggurat of Ur is the best-preserved of those known from Mesopotamia, besides the ziggurat of Dur Untash (Chogha Zanbil). It is one of three well-preserved structures of the Neo-Sumerian city of Ur, along with the Royal Mausolea and the Palace of Ur-Nammu (the "E-hursag").


title: Ziggurat of Ur

text: The ziggurat was built by King Ur-Nammu, who dedicated it in honour of Nanna/Sîn in approximately the 21st century BC (short chronology) during the Third Dynasty of Ur. The massive step pyramid measured in length, in width and over in height. The height is speculative, as only the foundations of the Sumerian ziggurat have survived.


title: Ziggurat of Ur

text: The ziggurat was a piece in a temple complex that served as an administrative center for the city, and which was a shrine of the moon god Nanna, the patron deity of Ur.


title: Ziggurat of Ur

text: The construction of the ziggurat was finished in the 21st century BC by King Shulgi, who, in order to win the allegiance of cities, proclaimed himself a god. During his 48-year reign, the city of Ur grew to be the capital of a state controlling much of Mesopotamia. Many ziggurats were made by stacking mud-bricks up and using mud to seal them together.


title: Ziggurat of Ur

text: King Nabonidus, the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in the 6th century BC, after "finding little left but the last stage and nothing to guide him as to the monument's original appearance", had it restored in seven stages rather than three.


title: Ziggurat of Ur

text: The remains of the ziggurat were rediscovered by William Loftus in 1850. The first excavations at the site were conducted by John George Taylor (mistakenly credited as "J. E. Taylor") in the 1850s, leading to the identification of the site as Ur.


title: Ziggurat of Ur

text: After World War I, preliminary excavations were performed by Reginald Campbell Thompson and Henry Hall. The site was extensively excavated in the 1920s by Sir Leonard Woolley by appointment of the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania and the British Museum in the period of 1922 to 1934.


title: Ziggurat of Ur

text: The remains of the ziggurat consist of a three-layered solid mass of mud brick faced with burnt bricks set in bitumen. The lowest layer corresponds to the original construction of Ur-Nammu, while the two upper layers are part of the Neo-Babylonian restorations. The façade of the lowest level and the monumental staircase were rebuilt under the orders of Saddam Hussein.


title: Ziggurat of Ur

text: The ziggurat was damaged in the Gulf War in 1991 by small arms fire, and the structure was shaken by explosions. Four bomb craters can be seen nearby, and the walls of the ziggurat are marred by over 400 bullet holes.


title: Opinion polling for the 2023 Turkish general election

text: Opinion polls for the 2023 Turkish general election are organized by the specific office or leadership approvals.


title: Belgravia

text: Belgravia () is a district in Central London, covering parts of the areas of both the City of Westminster and the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea.


title: Belgravia

text: Belgravia was known as the 'Five Fields' during the Tudor Period, and became a dangerous place due to highwaymen and robberies. It was developed in the early 19th century by Richard Grosvenor, 2nd Marquess of Westminster under the direction of Thomas Cubitt, focusing on numerous grand terraces centred on Belgrave Square and Eaton Square. Much of Belgravia, known as the Grosvenor Estate, is still owned by a family property company, the Duke of Westminster's Grosvenor Group, although owing to the Leasehold Reform Act 1967, the estate has been forced to sell many freeholds to its former tenants.


title: Belgravia

text: Belgravia is near the former course of the River Westbourne, a tributary of the River Thames. The area is mostly in the City of Westminster, with a small part of the western section in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea.


title: Belgravia

text: The district lies mostly to the south-west of Buckingham Palace, and is bounded notionally by Knightsbridge (the road) to the north, Grosvenor Place and Buckingham Palace Road to the east, Pimlico Road to the south, and Sloane Street to the west. To the north is Hyde Park, to the northeast is Mayfair and Green Park and to the east is Westminster.


title: Belgravia

text: The area is mostly residential, the particular exceptions being Belgrave Square in the centre, Eaton Square to the south, and Buckingham Palace Gardens to the east.


title: Belgravia

text: The nearest London Underground stations are Hyde Park Corner, Knightsbridge and Sloane Square. Victoria station, a major National Rail, tube and coach interchange, is to the east of the district. Frequent bus services run to all areas of Central London from Grosvenor Place. The A4, a major road through West London, and the London Inner Ring Road run along the boundaries of Belgravia.


title: Belgravia

text: The area takes its name from the village of Belgrave, Cheshire, two miles (3 km) from the Grosvenor family's main country seat of Eaton Hall. One of the Duke of Westminster's subsidiary titles is Viscount Belgrave.


title: Belgravia

text: During the Middle Ages, the area was known as the Five Fields and was a series of fields used for grazing, intersected by footpaths. The Westbourne was crossed by Bloody Bridge, probably called so as it was frequented by robbers and highwaymen, and it was unsafe to cross the fields at night. In 1728, a man's body was discovered by the bridge with half his face and five fingers removed. In 1749, a muffin man was robbed and left blind. Five Fields' distance from London also made it a popular spot for duelling.


title: Belgravia

text: Despite its reputation for crime and violence, Five Fields was a pleasant area during the daytime, and various market gardens were established. The area began to be built up after George III moved to Buckingham House and constructed a row of houses on what is now Grosvenor Place. In 1826, Richard Grosvenor, 2nd Marquess of Westminster received rights from Parliament to build on land that was to become Belgravia; and came into agreement with Thomas Cubitt to design an estate. The construction of the stucco grand terraces were built between 1830 and 1847. Belgravia is characterised by grand terraces of white stucco houses, and is focused on Belgrave Square and Eaton Square. It was one of London's most fashionable residential districts from its beginnings. Towards the late 19th century, Belgravia ranked among other fashionable areas in London such as Tyburnia and Mayfair.


title: Belgravia

text: After World War II, some of the largest houses ceased to be used as residences, or townhouses for the country gentry and aristocracy, and were increasingly occupied by embassies, charity headquarters, professional institutions and other businesses. Belgravia has become a relatively quiet district in the heart of London, contrasting with neighbouring districts, which have far more busy shops, large modern office buildings, hotels and entertainment venues. Many embassies are located in the area, especially in Belgrave Square.


title: Belgravia

text: In the early 21st century, some houses are being reconverted to residential use, because offices in old houses are no longer as desirable as they were in the post-war decades, while the number of super-rich in London is at a high level not seen since at least 1939. The average house price in Belgravia, as of March 2010, was £6.6 million, although many houses in Belgravia are among the most expensive anywhere in the world, costing up to £100 million, £4,671 per square foot (£50,000 per m).


title: Belgravia

text: As of 2013, many residential properties in Belgravia were owned by wealthy foreigners who may have other luxury residences in exclusive locations worldwide; so many are temporarily unoccupied as their owners are elsewhere. The increase in land value has been in sharp contrast to the UK average and has left the area empty and isolated.


title: Belgravia

text: Belgrave Square, one of the grandest and largest 19th-century squares, is the centrepiece of Belgravia. It was laid out by the property contractor Thomas Cubitt for the 2nd Earl Grosvenor, later to be the 1st Marquess of Westminster, beginning in 1826. Building was largely complete by the 1840s.


title: Belgravia

text: The original scheme consisted of four terraces, each made up of eleven grand white stuccoed houses, apart from the south-east terrace, which had twelve; detached mansions were in three of the corners and there was a private central garden. The numbering is anti-clockwise from the north: NW terrace Nos. 1 to 11, west corner mansion No. 12, SW terrace 13–23, south corner mansion No. 24, SE terrace Nos. 25–36, east corner mansion No. 37, NE terrace Nos. 38–48.


title: Belgravia

text: There is also a slightly later detached house at the northern corner, No. 49, which was built by Cubitt for Sidney Herbert in 1847. The terraces were designed by George Basevi (cousin of Benjamin Disraeli). The largest of the corner mansions, Seaford House in the east corner, was designed by Philip Hardwick, and the one in the west corner was designed by Robert Smirke, completed around 1830.


title: Belgravia

text: The square contains statues of Christopher Columbus, Simón Bolívar, José de San Martín, Prince Henry the Navigator, the 1st Marquess of Westminster, a bust of George Basevi and a sculpture entitled "Homage to Leonardo, the Vitruvian Man", by Italian sculptor Enzo Plazzotta.


title: Belgravia

text: Eaton Square is one of three garden squares built by the Grosvenor family, and is named after Eaton Hall, Cheshire, the family's principal seat. It is longer but less grand than Belgrave Square, and is an elongated rectangle. The first block was laid out by Cubitt in 1826, but the square was not completed until 1855, the year of his death. The long construction period is reflected in the variety of architecture along the square.


title: Belgravia

text: The houses in Eaton Square are large, predominantly three bay wide buildings, joined in regular terraces in a classical style, with four or five main storeys, plus attic and basement and a mews house behind. The square is one of London's largest and is divided into six compartments by the upper end of King's Road (northeast of Sloane Square), a main road, now busy with traffic, that occupies its long axis, and two smaller cross streets.


title: Belgravia

text: Although not as fashionable as some of the other squares in London, Eaton Square was home to several key figures. George FitzClarence, 1st Earl of Munster, the illegitimate son of William IV, lived at No. 13, while Stanley Baldwin and Neville Chamberlain lived at No 93 and No. 37 respectively. Since World War II, Eaton Square has become less residential; the Bolivian Embassy is at No. 106 while the Belgian Embassy is at No. 103.


title: Belgravia

text: At the east end of the square is St Peter's Church. It was designed by Henry Hakewill and built between 1824 and 1827 during the first development of Eaton Square. The first church was destroyed by fire in 1836 and rebuilt by Hakewill, and again in 1987, when it was restored by the Braithwaite Partnership. It is a Grade II* listed building, in a Greek revival style featuring a six-columned Ionic portico and a clock tower.


title: Belgravia

text: Eaton Place is an extension to the square, developed by Cubitt between 1826 and 1845. The scientist William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin lived here, as did the Irish Unionist Edward Carson. Sir Henry Wilson, 1st Baronet was assassinated by Irish Republicans in 1922 as he was leaving No. 36.


title: Belgravia

text: Upper Belgrave Street was constructed in the 1840s to connect King's Road with Belgrave Square. It is a wide one-way residential street with grand white stuccoed buildings. It stretches from the south-east corner of Belgrave Square to the north-east corner of Eaton Square. Most of the houses have now been divided into flats and achieve sale prices as high as £3,500 per square foot. Many of the buildings were constructed by Cubitt in the 1820s and 1830s.


title: Belgravia

text: Walter Bagehot, a writer, banker and economist, lived at No. 12 during the 1860s. Alfred, Lord Tennyson lived at No 9 in 1880–1881. John Bingham, 7th Earl of Lucan lived at No. 46, and disappeared without trace from there in 1974 after his children's nanny was found murdered.


title: Belgravia

text: Chester Square is a smaller, residential garden square, the last of the three garden squares built by the Grosvenor family. It is named after the city of Chester, near Eaton Hall. Members of the family also served as Members of Parliament (MPs) for Chester. The garden, just under in size, is planted with shrubs and herbaceous borders. It was refurbished in 1997, to the layout that appears in the Ordnance Survey map of 1867. Past residents include the poet Matthew Arnold (1822–88) at No. 2, Mary Shelley (1797–1851) at No. 24, John Liddell (1794–1868) at No. 72, Margaret Thatcher (1925–2013) at No. 73, and Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands (1880–1962) resided at No. 77 from 1940 until 1945.


title: Belgravia

text: Wilton Crescent was created by Thomas Cundy II, the Grosvenor family estate surveyor, and was drawn up with the original 1821 Wyatt plan for Belgravia. It is named after the 2nd Earl of Wilton, second son of the 1st Marquess of Westminster. The street was built in 1827 by William Howard Seth-Smith.


title: Belgravia

text: In the 19th and 20th centuries, it was home to many prominent British politicians, ambassadors and civil servants. Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma lived at No. 2 for many years and Alfonso López Pumarejo, twice President of Colombia, lived and died at No. 33 (which is marked by a blue plaque).


title: Belgravia

text: Like much of Belgravia, Wilton Crescent has grand terraces with lavish white houses which are built in a crescent shape, many of them with stuccoed balconies, particularly in the southern part of the crescent. The houses to the north of the crescent are stone clad, and five storeys high, and were refaced between 1908 and 1912. Most of the houses had originally been built in the stucco style, but such houses became stone clad during this renovation period. Other houses today have black iron balconies.


title: Belgravia

text: Wilton Crescent lies east of Lowndes Square and Lowndes Street, to the northwest of Belgrave Square. It is accessed via Wilton Place, constructed in 1825 to connect it to Knightsbridge. It is adjacent to Grosvenor Crescent to the east, which contains the Indonesian Embassy. Further to the east lies Buckingham Palace. The play "Major Barbara" is partly set at Lady Britomart's house in Wilton Crescent. In 2007, Wilton Garden, in the middle of the crescent, was awarded a bronze medal by the London Gardens Society.


title: Belgravia

text: Lowndes Square is named after the Secretary to the Treasury William Lowndes. Like much of Belgravia, it has grand terraces with white stucco houses. To the east lie Wilton Crescent and Belgrave Square. The square runs parallel with Sloane Street to the east, east of the Harvey Nichols department store and Knightsbridge Underground station. It has some of the most expensive properties in the world. Russian businessman Roman Abramovich bought two stucco houses in Lowndes Square in 2008. The merged houses, with a total of eight bedrooms, are expected to be worth £150 million, which exceeds the value of the previous most expensive house in London.


title: Belgravia

text: George Basevi designed many of the houses in the square. Mick Jagger and James Fox once filmed in Leonard Plugge's house in Lowndes Square. The square was used as a setting for the Edward Frederic Benson novel "The Countess of Lowndes Square".


title: Belgravia

text: The novels of Anthony Trollope (1815–1882): "The Way We Live Now", "Phineas Finn", "Phineas Redux", "The Prime Minister", and "The Duke's Children" all give accurate descriptions of 19th-century Belgravia.


title: Belgravia

text: "Flunkeyania or Belgravian Morals", written under the pseudonym "Chawles", was one of the novels serialised in "The Pearl", an allegedly pornographic Victorian magazine.


title: Belgravia

text: In a 1967 episode of the television series Batman, Batman and Robin are invited to a private audience with visiting Queen Bess of Belgravia, to be held at the Belgravian Embassy. Meanwhile, Catwoman (played by Eartha Kitt), who has decided to purrrrloin all of the best designer clothing in the world, hatches a plan to steal the Golden Fleece from Queen Bess. Catwoman gases Queen Bess and her staff, stealing the gold-threaded dress, but is still foiled in the end. Batman, Robin, Batgirl, Commissioner Gordon, and Chief O’Hara are awarded with the Royal Order of the Belgravian Garter for recovering the Golden Fleece and rescuing Queen Bess. In this case the show parodies both Queen Elizabeth I and the London district.


title: Belgravia

text: In the popular British television series "Upstairs, Downstairs" (1971–1975), the scene is set in the household of Richard Bellamy (later 1st Viscount Bellamy of Haversham) at 165 Eaton Place, Belgravia (65 Eaton Place was used for exterior shots; a "1" was painted in front of the house number). It depicts the lives of the Bellamys and their staff of domestic servants in the years 1903–1930, as they experience the tumultuous events of the Edwardian era, World War I and the postwar 1920s, culminating with the stock market crash of 1929, which ends the world they had known. In 2010, filming began on a mini-series intended to pick up the story of one of the main characters, Rose Buck, in 1936, as she returns to 165 Eaton Place to serve as the Holland family's housekeeper.


title: Belgravia

text: The first episode of the second series of the television programme "Sherlock" is "A Scandal in Belgravia", loosely based on the Arthur Conan Doyle short story "A Scandal in Bohemia".


title: Belgravia

text: "Belgravia" is a period television series, broadcast in 2020, based on a novel of the same name by Julian Fellowes, published in 2016, which Fellowes himself adapted for the series.


title: Bicarbonate

text: In inorganic chemistry, bicarbonate (IUPAC-recommended nomenclature: hydrogencarbonate) is an intermediate form in the deprotonation of carbonic acid. It is a polyatomic anion with the chemical formula .


title: Bicarbonate

text: The term "bicarbonate" was coined in 1814 by the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston. The name lives on as a trivial name.


title: Bicarbonate

text: The bicarbonate ion (hydrogencarbonate ion) is an anion with the empirical formula and a molecular mass of 61.01 daltons; it consists of one central carbon atom surrounded by three oxygen atoms in a trigonal planar arrangement, with a hydrogen atom attached to one of the oxygens. It is isoelectronic with nitric acid . The bicarbonate ion carries a negative one formal charge and is an amphiprotic species which has both acidic and basic properties. It is both the conjugate base of carbonic acid ; and the conjugate acid of , the carbonate ion, as shown by these equilibrium reactions:


title: Bicarbonate

text: A bicarbonate salt forms when a positively charged ion attaches to the negatively charged oxygen atoms of the ion, forming an ionic compound. Many bicarbonates are soluble in water at standard temperature and pressure; in particular, sodium bicarbonate contributes to total dissolved solids, a common parameter for assessing water quality.


title: Bicarbonate

text: Bicarbonate () is a vital component of the pH buffering system of the human body (maintaining acid–base homeostasis). 70%–75% of CO in the body is converted into carbonic acid (HCO), which is the conjugate acid of and can quickly turn into it.


title: Bicarbonate

text: With carbonic acid as the central intermediate species, bicarbonate – in conjunction with water, hydrogen ions, and carbon dioxide – forms this buffering system, which is maintained at the volatile equilibrium required to provide prompt resistance to pH changes in both the acidic and basic directions. This is especially important for protecting tissues of the central nervous system, where pH changes too far outside of the normal range in either direction could prove disastrous (see acidosis or alkalosis). Recently it has been also demonstrated that cellular bicarbonate metabolism can be regulated by mTORC1 signaling.


title: Bicarbonate

text: Additionally, bicarbonate plays a key role in the digestive system. It raises the internal pH of the stomach, after highly acidic digestive juices have finished in their digestion of food. Bicarbonate also acts to regulate pH in the small intestine. It is released from the pancreas in response to the hormone secretin to neutralize the acidic chyme entering the duodenum from the stomach.


title: Bicarbonate

text: Bicarbonate is the dominant form of dissolved inorganic carbon in sea water, and in most fresh waters. As such it is an important sink in the carbon cycle.


title: Bicarbonate

text: In freshwater ecology, strong photosynthetic activity by freshwater plants in daylight releases gaseous oxygen into the water and at the same time produces bicarbonate ions. These shift the pH upward until in certain circumstances the degree of alkalinity can become toxic to some organisms or can make other chemical constituents such as ammonia toxic. In darkness, when no photosynthesis occurs, respiration processes release carbon dioxide, and no new bicarbonate ions are produced, resulting in a rapid fall in pH.


title: Bicarbonate

text: The flow of bicarbonate ions from rocks weathered by the carbonic acid in rainwater is an important part of the carbon cycle.


title: Bicarbonate

text: The most common salt of the bicarbonate ion is sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO, which is commonly known as baking soda. When heated or exposed to an acid such as acetic acid (vinegar), sodium bicarbonate releases carbon dioxide. This is used as a leavening agent in baking.


title: Bicarbonate

text: In diagnostic medicine, the blood value of bicarbonate is one of several indicators of the state of acid–base physiology in the body. It is measured, along with carbon dioxide, chloride, potassium, and sodium, to assess electrolyte levels in an electrolyte panel test (which has Current Procedural Terminology, CPT, code 80051).


title: Bicarbonate

text: The parameter "standard bicarbonate concentration" (SBC) is the bicarbonate concentration in the blood at a PCO of , full oxygen saturation and 36 °C.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: Lincoln Cathedral, Lincoln Minster, or the Cathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Lincoln and sometimes St Mary's Cathedral, in Lincoln, England, is a Grade I listed cathedral and is the seat of the Anglican Bishop of Lincoln. Construction commenced in 1072 and continued in several phases throughout the High Middle Ages. Like many of the medieval cathedrals of England, it was built in the Early Gothic style.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: Some historians claim it became the tallest building in the world upon the completion of its high central spire in 1311, although this is disputed. If so, it was the first building to hold that title after the Great Pyramid of Giza, and held it for 238 years until the spire collapsed in 1548, and was not rebuilt. Had the central spire remained intact, Lincoln Cathedral would have remained the world's tallest structure until the completion of the Washington Monument in 1884. For hundreds of years the cathedral held one of the four remaining copies of the original Magna Carta, now securely displayed in Lincoln Castle. The cathedral is the fourth largest in the UK (in floor area) at around , after Liverpool, St Paul's and York Minster. It is highly regarded by architectural scholars; the Victorian writer John Ruskin declared: "I have always held ... that the cathedral of Lincoln is out and out the most precious piece of architecture in the British Isles and roughly speaking worth any two other cathedrals we have."


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: Remigius de Fécamp, the first Bishop of Lincoln, moved the episcopal seat ("cathedra") there "some time between 1072 and 1092". About this, James Essex writes that "Remigius ... laid the foundations of his Cathedral in 1072" and "it is probable that he, being a Norman, employed Norman masons to superintend the building ... though he could not complete the whole before his death."


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: Before that, writes B Winkles, "It is well known that Remigius appropriated the parish church of St Mary Magdalene in Lincoln, although it is not known what use he made of it."


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: When Lincoln Cathedral was first built, William the Conqueror granted the parish of Welton to Remigius in order to endow six prebends which provided income to support six canons attached to the cathedral. These were subsequently confirmed by William II and Henry I.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: Up until then St Mary's Church in Stow was considered to be the "mother church" of Lincolnshire (although it was not a cathedral, because the seat of the diocese was at Dorchester Abbey in Dorchester-on-Thames, Oxfordshire). However, Lincoln was more central to a diocese that stretched from the Thames to the Humber.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: Remigius built the first Lincoln Cathedral on the present site, finishing it in 1092 and then dying on 7 May of that year, two days before it was consecrated. In 1124, the timber roofing was destroyed in a fire. Alexander (bishop, 1123–48) rebuilt and expanded the cathedral, but it was mostly destroyed by an earthquake about forty years later, in 1185 (dated by the British Geological Survey as occurring 15 April 1185). The earthquake was one of the largest felt in the UK: it has an estimated magnitude of over 5. The damage to the cathedral is thought to have been very extensive: the cathedral is described as having "split from top to bottom"; in the current building, only the lower part of the west end and its two attached towers remain of the pre-earthquake cathedral.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: Some (Kidson, 1986; Woo, 1991) have suggested that the damage to Lincoln Cathedral was probably exacerbated by poor construction or design, with the actual collapse most probably caused by a vault failure.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: After the earthquake, a new bishop was appointed. He was Hugh de Burgundy of Avalon, France, who became known as St Hugh of Lincoln. He began a massive rebuilding and expansion programme. With his appointment of William de Montibus as master of the cathedral school and chancellor, Lincoln briefly became one of the leading educational centres in England, producing writers such as Samuel Presbiter and Richard of Wetheringsett, though it declined in importance after William's death in 1213. Rebuilding began with the choir (St Hugh's Choir) and the eastern transepts between 1192 and 1210. The central nave was then built in the Early English Gothic architectural style. Lincoln Cathedral soon followed other architectural advances of the time – pointed arches, flying buttresses and ribbed vaulting were added to the cathedral. This allowed support for incorporating larger windows. There are thirteen bells in the south-west tower, two in the north-west tower, and five in the central tower (including Great Tom). Accompanying the cathedral's large bell, Great Tom of Lincoln, is a quarter-hour striking clock. The clock was installed in the early 19th century. The two large stained glass rose windows, the matching Dean's Eye and Bishop's Eye, were added to the cathedral during the late Middle Ages. The former, the Dean's Eye in the north transept dates from the 1192 rebuild begun by St Hugh, finally being completed in 1235. The latter, the Bishop's Eye, in the south transept was reconstructed a hundred years later in 1330. A contemporary record, “The Metrical Life of St Hugh”, refers to the meaning of these two windows (one on the dark, north, side and the other on the light, south, side of the building):


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: "For north represents the devil, and south the Holy Spirit and it is in these directions that the two eyes look. The bishop faces the south in order to invite in and the dean the north in order to shun; the one takes care to be saved, the other takes care not to perish. With these Eyes the cathedral's face is on watch for the candelabra of Heaven and the darkness of Lethe (oblivion)."


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: After the additions of the Dean's eye and other major Gothic additions it is believed some mistakes in the support of the tower occurred, for in 1237 the main tower collapsed. A new tower was soon started and in 1255 the cathedral petitioned Henry III to allow them to take down part of the town wall to enlarge and expand the cathedral, including the rebuilding of the central tower and spire. They replaced the small rounded chapels (built at the time of St Hugh) with a larger east end to the cathedral. This was to handle the increasing number of pilgrims to the cathedral, who came to worship at the shrine of Hugh of Lincoln.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: In 1290 Eleanor of Castile died and King Edward I of England decided to honour her, his Queen Consort, with an elegant funeral procession. After her body had been embalmed, which in the 13th century involved evisceration, Eleanor's viscera were buried in Lincoln cathedral and Edward placed a duplicate of the Westminster Abbey tomb there. The Lincoln tomb's original stone chest survives; its effigy was destroyed in the 17th century and replaced with a 19th-century copy. On the outside of Lincoln Cathedral are two prominent statues often identified as Edward and Eleanor, but these images were heavily restored in the 19th century and they were probably not originally intended to depict the couple.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: Between 1307 and 1311 the central tower was raised to its present height of . The western towers and front of the cathedral were also improved and heightened. At this time, a tall lead-encased wooden spire topped the central tower but was blown down in a storm in 1548. With its spire, the tower reputedly reached a height of 525 feet (160 m) (which would have made it the world's tallest structure, surpassing the Great Pyramid of Giza, which held the record for almost 4,000 years). Although still doubted, this is the height agreed upon by the majority of historians.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: Other additions to the cathedral at this time included its elaborate carved screen and the 14th-century misericords, as was the Angel Choir. For a large part of the length of the cathedral, the walls have arches in relief with a second layer in front to give the illusion of a passageway along the wall. However the illusion does not work, as the stonemason, copying techniques from France, did not make the arches the correct length needed for the illusion to be effective.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: In 1398 John of Gaunt and Katherine Swynford founded a chantry in the cathedral to pray for the welfare of their souls. In the 15th century the building of the cathedral turned to chantry or memorial chapels. The chapels next to the Angel Choir were built in the Perpendicular style, with an emphasis on strong vertical lines, which survive today in the window tracery and wall panelling.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: Hugh of Wells, Bishop of Lincoln, was one of the signatories to Magna Carta and for hundreds of years the cathedral held one of the four remaining copies of the original, now securely displayed in Lincoln Castle.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: The Lincoln Magna Carta was on display at the British Pavilion during the 1939 New York World's Fair.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: In March 1941, the Foreign Office proposed that the Lincoln Magna Carta be gifted to the United States, citing the "many thousands of Americans who waited in long queues to view it" and the US passage of the Lend-Lease Act, among other reasons.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: In 2009 the Lincoln Magna Carta was lent to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: In August 1255 the body of an eight-year-old boy was found in a well in Lincoln. He had been missing for nearly a month. This incident became the source of a blood libel in the city, with Jews accused of his abduction, torture, and murder. Many Jews were arrested and eighteen were hanged. The boy became known as Little Saint Hugh, to distinguish him from Saint Hugh of Lincoln, but he was never officially canonised.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: The cathedral benefited from these events because Hugh was seen as a martyr, and many devotees came to the city and cathedral to venerate him. Geoffrey Chaucer mentions the case in "The Prioress's Tale" and a ballad was written about it in 1783. In 1955 a plaque was put up near "the remains of the shrine of 'Little St Hugh in the cathedral, that decries the "Trumped up stories of 'ritual murders' of Christian boys by Jewish communities."


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: One of the stone carvings within the cathedral is the Lincoln Imp. There are several variations of the legend surrounding the figure. According to 14th-century legend, two mischievous imps were sent by Satan to do evil work on Earth. After causing mayhem elsewhere in Northern England the two imps headed to Lincoln Cathedral, where they smashed tables and chairs and tripped up the bishop. An angel appeared in the Angel Choir and ordered them to stop. One of the imps sat atop a stone pillar and started throwing stones at the angel whilst the other cowered under the broken tables and chairs. The angel turned the first imp to stone, allowing the second imp to escape. The imp that turned to stone can still be found sitting atop his stone column in the Angel Choir. They also are one of the many carved animals on the structure.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: The Wren Library houses a rare collection of over 277 manuscripts, including the text of the Venerable Bede.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

text: Lincoln Cathedral features two major rose windows, which are a highly uncommon feature among medieval architecture in England. On the north side of the cathedral there is the “Dean's Eye” which survives from the original structure of the building and on the south side there is the “Bishop's Eye” which was most likely rebuilt circa 1325–1350. This south window is one of the largest examples of curvilinear tracery seen in medieval architecture. Curvilinear tracery is a form of tracery where the patterns are continuous curves. This form was often done within pointed arches and squared windows because those are the easiest shapes, so the circular space of the window was a unique challenge to the designers. A solution was created that called for the circle to be divided into smaller shapes that would make it simpler to design and create. Curves were drawn within the window which created four distinct areas of the circle. This made the spaces within the circle where the tracery would go much smaller, and easier to work with. This window is also interesting and unique in that the focus of the tracery was shifted away from the centre of the circle and instead placed in other sections. The glazing of the window was equally difficult as the tracery for many of the same reason; therefore, the designers made a decision to cut back on the amount of iconography within the window. Most cathedral windows during this time displayed many colourful images of the Bible; however, at Lincoln there are very few images. Some of those images that can be seen within the window include saints Paul, Andrew, and James.