title: Jon-Erik Hexum

text: Jon-Erik Hexum (; November 5, 1957 – October 18, 1984) was an American actor and model, known for his lead roles in the TV series "Voyagers!" and "Cover Up", and his supporting role as Pat Trammell in the biopic "The Bear". He died by an accidental self-inflicted blank cartridge gunshot to the head on the set of "Cover Up".


title: Jon-Erik Hexum

text: Hexum was born in Englewood, New Jersey, in 1957 to Thorleif Andreas Hexum, a Norwegian immigrant, and Gretha Olivia (Paulsen) Hexum, a Minnesota-born American of Norwegian parentage. He and his elder brother Gunnar were raised in Tenafly by their mother after their parents divorced when Hexum was four.


title: Jon-Erik Hexum

text: After graduating from Tenafly High School, Hexum went on to Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland to study biomedical engineering, and soon transferred to Michigan State University in East Lansing. During that time, he worked as a radio disc jockey, played football for the Spartans in 1978, and acted in minor stage roles.


title: Jon-Erik Hexum

text: A few days after graduation, he moved to New York in 1980 to pursue his acting career. While working as an apartment cleaner, he met Bob LeMond of LeMond/Zetter Management, John Travolta's manager. LeMond saw great potential in Hexum.


title: Jon-Erik Hexum

text: At LeMond's urging, Hexum relocated to Los Angeles in September 1981 to audition for a movie called "Summer Lovers"; he lost the part to Peter Gallagher. Hexum was soon cast in "Voyagers!" as Phineas Bogg, the lead role on the new NBC series. "Voyagers!" aired during the 1982–83 television season, with Hexum's role earning him $10,000 a week. Hexum was then cast opposite Joan Collins in the made-for-television movie "Making of a Male Model", also starring Jeff Conaway and Roxie Roker.


title: Jon-Erik Hexum

text: Hexum guest-starred in a 1984 episode of ABC's primetime drama "Hotel", playing Prince Erik, a Prince Charming–type character. That same year Hexum played terminally ill quarterback Pat Trammell, a small role in the feature film "The Bear", a tribute to University of Alabama football coach Paul "Bear" Bryant, played by Gary Busey. "The Bear" would be Hexum's sole feature film performance, released just three weeks before his death. For the upcoming fall television season, Hexum was cast as Mac Harper, an undercover CIA operative posing as a male model, opposite co-star Jennifer O'Neill in "Cover Up".


title: Jon-Erik Hexum

text: On October 12, 1984, the cast and crew of "Cover Up" were filming the seventh episode of the series, "Golden Opportunity", on Stage 18 of the 20th Century Fox lot. One of the scenes filmed that day called for Hexum's character to load cartridges into a .44 Magnum handgun, so he was provided with a functional gun and blanks. When the scene did not play as the director wanted it to in the master shot, there was a delay in filming. Hexum became restless and impatient during the delay and began playing around to lighten the mood. He had unloaded all but one (blank) round, spun it, and—simulating Russian roulette—he put the revolver to his right temple and pulled the trigger, unaware of the danger.


title: Jon-Erik Hexum

text: Some blanks use paper or plastic wadding to seal gunpowder into the cartridge. This wadding is propelled from the barrel of the gun with enough explosive force to cause death or serious injury if the weapon is fired within a few feet of the body, particularly at a vulnerable spot such as the temple or the eye. The paper wadding in the blank that Hexum discharged did not penetrate his skull. However, the explosive effect of the muzzle blast caused enough blunt force trauma to fracture a quarter-sized piece of his skull and propel this into his brain, causing massive hemorrhaging.


title: Jon-Erik Hexum

text: Hexum was rushed to Beverly Hills Medical Center, where he underwent five hours of surgery to repair his wounds. On October 18, aged 26, six days after the accident, Hexum was declared brain-dead.


title: Jon-Erik Hexum

text: With his mother's permission, his body was flown to San Francisco on life support, where his heart was transplanted into a 36-year-old Las Vegas man at California Pacific Medical Center. Hexum's kidneys and corneas were also donated: One cornea went to a 66-year-old man, the other to a young girl. One of the kidney recipients was a critically ill five-year-old boy, and the other was a 43-year-old grandmother of three who had waited eight years for a kidney. Skin that was donated was used to treat a -year-old boy with third-degree burns.


title: Jon-Erik Hexum

text: Hexum's body was then flown back to Los Angeles. He was cremated at Grandview Crematory in Glendale, California, and a private funeral was held. His ashes were scattered in the Pacific Ocean, near Malibu, California, by his mother. He left an estate estimated to be worth $255,000. The death was ruled accidental. His mother later received an out-of-court settlement from 20th Century Fox Television and Glen A. Larson Productions, the production company behind "Cover Up".


title: Jon-Erik Hexum

text: The episode on which Hexum had been working was broadcast on November 3, 1984, two weeks after his death. "Cover Up" continued production without Hexum's character. Three weeks later, in the episode "Writer's Block", aired on November 24, Antony Hamilton was introduced as agent Jack Striker, posing as a new member of the modeling team. Hexum's character Mac is noticeably absent, said to be on another mission. At the end of the episode, Henry Towler (Richard Anderson) breaks the news that Mac has been killed on the other assignment and would not be coming back. As the tears flow, the camera pans back, and a memoriam written by Glen Larson appears on-screen:


title: Jaiden Animations

text: Jaiden Animations (born September 27, 1997) is the pseudonym of an American YouTuber and animator, known for her story-time animations. Her videos explore a variety of topics, spanning from her experiences to personal stories. She also creates videos centered on video games.


title: Jaiden Animations

text: Jaiden's primary channel has amassed over 11.5 million subscribers and over 2.15 billion views At the 10th Streamy Awards in 2020, she received a Streamy Award in the Animated category. She was previously nominated for the award in 2018.


title: Jaiden Animations

text: Jaiden started her YouTube channel when she was a teenager in 2014. Prior to working on her own channel, she had worked with other YouTubers on their channels, including iHasCupquake. In 2016 and 2017, Jaiden's channel had started trending on the website becoming more prominent to bigger audiences.


title: Jaiden Animations

text: Jaiden mainly uploads animated YouTube videos that tell stories about her personal life. The videos often discuss subjects such as toxic relationships, body positivity, anxiety, and depression. She also creates videos centered on her travels and video games such as "Pokémon".


title: Jaiden Animations

text: On June 1, 2021, her YouTube channel reached 10 million subscribers. She received a nomination in the Animated category for the 11th Streamy Awards in December 2021. In 2022, she signed with the Creative Artists Agency.


title: Jaiden Animations

text: With fellow YouTuber TheOdd1sOut, Jaiden is a part of the "Animation Squad," a group of animators who frequently create videos together. Her channel is managed by the Channel Frederator multi-channel network.


title: Jaiden Animations

text: In December 2017, Jaiden appeared in "", the first "YouTube Rewind" installment to include YouTube animators. In September 2018, she received a nomination in the Animated category for the 8th Streamy Awards. In "", she made an animation featuring PewDiePie's chair.


title: Jaiden Animations

text: In March 2019, Jaiden participated in an airsoft gun tournament organized by YouTuber MrBeast and sponsored by game developer Electronic Arts. The event, organized in order to promote the release of "Apex Legends", featured 36 players, all of which were prominent YouTube influencers.


title: Jaiden Animations

text: In January 2021, Jaiden appeared on "YIAY Time: The Game Show", a YouTube Original comedy program hosted by Jack Douglass.


title: Jaiden Animations

text: She also frequently appears on the improv game show Scribble Showdown with TheOdd1sOut, Domics, RubberRoss, Egoraptor, and Emirichu.


title: Jaiden Animations

text: In April 2019, Jaiden published a video encouraging people to donate to Bird Gardens of Naples, a non-profit bird sanctuary in Florida, via a GoFundMe campaign. Within nine weeks, the campaign had raised over $22,000. Jaiden was also among many social media figures who donated to the Team Trees fundraiser in 2019. For World Health Day in April 2020, Jaiden participated in #HopeFromHome, a charity livestream initiated by fellow YouTuber Jacksepticeye that raised over $260,000 for COVID-19 relief.


title: Jaiden Animations

text: In October 2021, Jaiden participated in a charity tournament for the video game "Nickelodeon All-Star Brawl" hosted by YouTuber Alpharad and Coney of the esports organization Panda Global, playing as the character CatDog. In her campaign, she raised over $73,000 after uploading a now-deleted video asking for donations to help choose CatDog as the character she wished to play for the tournament.


title: Jaiden Animations

text: In 2016, Jaiden stated in a video that she resides in Arizona. In another video, posted 2018, she stated that she moved to Los Angeles, California.


title: Jaiden Animations

text: On March 20, 2022, in her video titled "Being Not Straight", Jaiden came out as aromantic and asexual, also known as "aroace". YouTube ranked the video as among the ten most-watched videos of 2022, as it reached over 17 million views by the end of the year.


title: Money supply

text: In macroeconomics, the money supply (or money stock) refers to the total volume of currency held by the public at a particular point in time. There are several ways to define "money", but standard measures usually include currency in circulation (i.e. physical cash) and demand deposits (depositors' easily accessed assets on the books of financial institutions). The central bank of a country may use a definition of what constitutes legal tender for its purposes.


title: Money supply

text: Money supply data is recorded and published, usually by a government agency or the central bank of the country. Public and private sector analysts monitor changes in the money supply because of the belief that such changes affect the price levels of securities, inflation, the exchange rates, and the business cycle.


title: Money supply

text: The relationship between money and prices has historically been associated with the quantity theory of money. There is some empirical evidence of a direct relationship between the growth of the money supply and long-term price inflation, at least for rapid increases in the amount of money in the economy. For example, a country such as Zimbabwe which saw extremely rapid increases in its money supply also saw extremely rapid increases in prices (hyperinflation). This is one reason for the reliance on monetary policy as a means of controlling inflation.


title: Money supply

text: Commercial banks play a role in the process of money creation, under the fractional-reserve banking system used throughout the world. In this system, credit is created whenever a bank gives out a new loan and destroyed when the borrower pays back the principal on the loan.


title: Money supply

text: This new money, in net terms, makes up the non-M0 component in the M1-M3 statistics. In short, there are two types of money in a fractional-reserve banking system:


title: Money supply

text: In the money supply statistics, central bank money is MB while the commercial bank money is divided up into the M1-M3 components. Generally, the types of commercial bank money that tend to be valued at lower amounts are classified in the narrow category of M1 while the types of commercial bank money that tend to exist in larger amounts are categorized in M2 and M3, with M3 having the largest.


title: Money supply

text: In the United States, a bank's reserves consist of U.S. currency held by the bank (also known as "vault cash") plus the bank's balances in Federal Reserve accounts. For this purpose, cash on hand and balances in Federal Reserve ("Fed") accounts are interchangeable (both are obligations of the Fed). Reserves may come from any source, including the federal funds market, deposits by the public, and borrowing from the Fed itself.


title: Money supply

text: Central banks can influence the money supply by open market operations. They can increase the money supply by purchasing government securities, such as government bonds or treasury bills. This increases the liquidity in the banking system by converting the illiquid securities of commercial banks into liquid deposits at the central bank. This also causes the price of such securities to rise due to the increased demand, and interest rates to fall. These funds become available to commercial banks for lending, and by the multiplier effect from fractional-reserve banking, loans and bank deposits go up by many times the initial injection of funds into the banking system.


title: Money supply

text: In contrast, when the central bank "tightens" the money supply, it sells securities on the open market, drawing liquid funds out of the banking system. The prices of such securities fall as supply is increased, and interest rates rise. This also has a multiplier effect.


title: Money supply

text: This kind of activity reduces or increases the supply of short term government debt in the hands of banks and the non-bank public, also lowering or raising interest rates. In parallel, it increases or reduces the supply of loanable funds (money) and thereby the ability of private banks to issue new money through issuing debt.


title: Money supply

text: The simple connection between monetary policy and monetary aggregates such as M1 and M2 changed in the 1970s as the reserve requirements on deposits started to fall with the emergence of money funds, which require no reserves. At present, reserve requirements apply only to "transactions deposits" – essentially checking accounts. The vast majority of funding sources used by private banks to create loans are not limited by bank reserves. Most commercial and industrial loans are financed by issuing large denomination CDs. Money market deposits are largely used to lend to corporations who issue commercial paper. Consumer loans are also made using savings deposits, which are not subject to reserve requirements. This means that instead of the value of loans supplied responding passively to monetary policy, we often see it rising and falling with the demand for funds and the willingness of banks to lend.


title: Money supply

text: Some economists argue that the money multiplier is a meaningless concept, because its relevance would require that the money supply be exogenous, i.e. determined by the monetary authorities via open market operations. If central banks usually target the shortest-term interest rate (as their policy instrument) then this leads to the money supply being endogenous.


title: Money supply

text: Neither commercial nor consumer loans are any longer limited by bank reserves. Nor are they directly linked proportional to reserves. Between 1995 and 2008, the value of consumer loans has steadily increased out of proportion to bank reserves. Then, as part of the financial crisis, bank reserves rose dramatically as new loans shrank.


title: Money supply

text: In recent years, some academic economists renowned for their work on the implications of rational expectations have argued that open market operations are irrelevant. These include Robert Lucas Jr., Thomas Sargent, Neil Wallace, Finn E. Kydland, Edward C. Prescott and Scott Freeman. Keynesian economists point to the ineffectiveness of open market operations in 2008 in the United States, when short-term interest rates went as low as they could go in nominal terms, so that no more monetary stimulus could occur. This zero bound problem has been called the liquidity trap or "pushing on a string" (the pusher being the central bank and the string being the real economy).


title: Money supply

text: Money is used as a medium of exchange, as a unit of account, and as a ready store of value. These different functions are associated with different empirical measures of the money supply. There is no single "correct" measure of the money supply. Instead, there are several measures, classified along a spectrum or continuum between narrow and broad "monetary aggregates". Narrow measures include only the most liquid assets: those most easily used to spend (currency, checkable deposits). Broader measures add less liquid types of assets (certificates of deposit, etc.).


title: Money supply

text: This continuum corresponds to the way that different types of money are more or less controlled by monetary policy. Narrow measures include those more directly affected and controlled by monetary policy, whereas broader measures are less closely related to monetary-policy actions. It is a matter of perennial debate as to whether narrower or broader versions of the money supply have a more predictable link to nominal GDP.


title: Money supply

text: The different types of money are typically classified as "M"s. The "M"s usually range from M0 (narrowest) to M3 (broadest) but which "M"s are actually focused on in policy formulation depends on the country's central bank. The typical layout for each of the "M"s is as follows:


title: Money supply

text: In 1967, when sterling was devalued, the Hong Kong dollar's peg to the pound was increased from 1 shilling 3 pence (£1 = HK$16) to 1 shilling 4½ pence (£1 = HK$14.5455) although this did not entirely offset the devaluation of sterling relative to the US dollar (it went from US$1 = HK$5.71 to US$1 = HK$6.06). In 1972 the Hong Kong dollar was pegged to the US dollar at a rate of US$1 = HK$5.65. This was reduced to HK$5.085 in 1973. Between 1974 and 1983 the Hong Kong dollar floated. On October 17, 1983, the currency was pegged at a rate of US$1 = HK$7.80 through the currency board system.


title: Money supply

text: As of May 18, 2005, in addition to the lower guaranteed limit, a new upper guaranteed limit was set for the [Hong Kong dollar at 7.75 to the American dollar. The lower limit was lowered from 7.80 to 7.85 (by 100 pips per week from May 23 to June 20, 2005). The Hong Kong Monetary Authority indicated that this move was to narrow the gap between the interest rates in Hong Kong and those of the United States. A further aim of allowing the Hong Kong dollar to trade in a range is to avoid the HK dollar being used as a proxy for speculative bets on a renminbi revaluation.


title: Money supply

text: The Hong Kong Basic Law and the Sino-British Joint Declaration provides that Hong Kong retains full autonomy with respect to currency issuance. Currency in Hong Kong is issued by the government and three local banks under the supervision of the territory's "de facto" central bank, the Hong Kong Monetary Authority. Bank notes are printed by Hong Kong Note Printing.


title: Money supply

text: A bank can issue a Hong Kong dollar only if it has the equivalent exchange in US dollars on deposit. The currency board system ensures that Hong Kong's entire monetary base is backed with US dollars at the linked exchange rate. The resources for the backing are kept in Hong Kong's exchange fund, which is among the largest official reserves in the world. Hong Kong also has huge deposits of US dollars, with official foreign currency reserves of 331.3 billion USD .


title: Money supply

text: There are just two official UK measures. M0 is referred to as the "wide monetary base" or "narrow money" and M4 is referred to as "broad money" or simply "the money supply".


title: Money supply

text: There are several different definitions of money supply to reflect the differing stores of money. Owing to the nature of bank deposits, especially time-restricted savings account deposits, M4 represents the most illiquid measure of money. M0, by contrast, is the most liquid measure of the money supply.


title: Money supply

text: The United States Federal Reserve published data on three monetary aggregates until 2006, when it ceased publication of M3 data and only published data on M1 and M2. M1 consists of money commonly used for payment, basically currency in circulation and checking account balances; and M2 includes M1 plus balances that generally are similar to transaction accounts and that, for the most part, can be converted fairly readily to M1 with little or no loss of principal. The M2 measure is thought to be held primarily by households. Prior to its discontinuation, M3 comprised M2 plus certain accounts that are held by entities other than individuals and are issued by banks and thrift institutions to augment M2-type balances in meeting credit demands, as well as balances in money market mutual funds held by institutional investors. The aggregates have had different roles in monetary policy as their reliability as guides has changed. The principal components are:


title: Money supply

text: Prior to 2020, savings accounts were counted as M2 and not part of M1 as they were not considered "transaction accounts" by the Fed. (There was a limit of six transactions per cycle that could be carried out in a savings account without incurring a penalty.) On March 15, 2020, the Federal Reserve eliminated reserve requirements for all depository institutions and rendered the regulatory distinction between reservable "transaction accounts" and nonreservable "savings deposits" unnecessary. On April 24, 2020, the Board removed this regulatory distinction by deleting the six-per-month transfer limit on savings deposits. From this point on, savings account deposits were included in M1.


title: Money supply

text: Although the Treasury can and does hold cash and a special deposit account at the Fed (TGA account), these assets do not count in any of the aggregates. So in essence, money paid in taxes paid to the Federal Government (Treasury) is excluded from the money supply. To counter this, the government created the Treasury Tax and Loan (TT&L) program in which any receipts above a certain threshold are redeposited in private banks. The idea is that tax receipts won't decrease the amount of reserves in the banking system. The TT&L accounts, while demand deposits, do not count toward M1 or any other aggregate either.


title: Money supply

text: When the Federal Reserve announced in 2005 that they would cease publishing M3 statistics in March 2006, they explained that M3 did not convey any additional information about economic activity compared to M2, and thus, "has not played a role in the monetary policy process for many years." Therefore, the costs to collect M3 data outweighed the benefits the data provided. Some politicians have spoken out against the Federal Reserve's decision to cease publishing M3 statistics and have urged the U.S. Congress to take steps requiring the Federal Reserve to do so. Congressman Ron Paul (R-TX) claimed that "M3 is the best description of how quickly the Fed is creating new money and credit. Common sense tells us that a government central bank creating new money out of thin air depreciates the value of each dollar in circulation." Modern Monetary Theory disagrees. It holds that money creation in a free-floating fiat currency regime such as the U.S. will not lead to significant inflation unless the economy is approaching full employment and full capacity. Some of the data used to calculate M3 are still collected and published on a regular basis. Current alternate sources of M3 data are available from the private sector.


title: Money supply

text: As of April 2013, the monetary base was $3 trillion and M2, the broadest measure of money supply, was $10.5 trillion.


title: Money supply

text: The money supply is important because it is linked to inflation by the equation of exchange in an equation proposed by Irving Fisher in 1911:


title: Money supply

text: In mathematical terms, this equation is an identity which is true by definition rather than describing economic behavior. That is, velocity is defined by the values of the other three variables. Unlike the other terms, the velocity of money has no independent measure and can only be estimated by dividing by . Some adherents of the quantity theory of money assume that the velocity of money is stable and predictable, being determined mostly by financial institutions. If that assumption is valid then changes in can be used to predict changes in . If not, then a model of is required in order for the equation of exchange to be useful as a macroeconomics model or as a predictor of prices.


title: Money supply

text: Most macroeconomists replace the equation of exchange with equations for the demand for money which describe more regular and predictable economic behavior. However, predictability (or the lack thereof) of the velocity of money is equivalent to predictability (or the lack thereof) of the demand for money (since in equilibrium real money demand is simply ). Either way, this unpredictability made policy-makers at the Federal Reserve rely less on the money supply in steering the U.S. economy. Instead, the policy focus has shifted to interest rates such as the fed funds rate.


title: Money supply

text: In practice, macroeconomists almost always use real GDP to define , omitting the role of all transactions except for those involving newly produced goods and services (i.e., consumption goods, investment goods, government-purchased goods, and exports). But the original quantity theory of money did not follow this practice: was the monetary value of all new transactions, whether of real goods and services or of paper assets.


title: Money supply

text: The monetary value of assets, goods, and services sold during the year could be grossly estimated using nominal GDP back in the 1960s. This is not the case anymore because of the dramatic rise of the number of financial transactions relative to that of real transactions up until 2008. That is, the total value of transactions (including purchases of paper assets) rose relative to nominal GDP (which excludes those purchases).


title: Money supply

text: Ignoring the effects of monetary growth on real purchases and velocity, this suggests that the growth of the money supply may cause different kinds of inflation at different times. For example, rises in the U.S. money supplies between the 1970s and the present encouraged first a rise in the inflation rate for newly-produced goods and services ("inflation" as usually defined) in the 1970s and then asset-price inflation in later decades: it may have encouraged a stock market boom in the 1980s and 1990s and then, after 2001, a rise in home prices, i.e., the famous housing bubble. This story, of course, assumes that the amounts of money were the causes of these different types of inflation rather than being endogenous results of the economy's dynamics.


title: Money supply

text: When home prices went down, the Federal Reserve kept its loose monetary policy and lowered interest rates; the attempt to slow price declines in one asset class, e.g. real estate, may well have caused prices in other asset classes to rise, e.g. commodities.


title: Money supply

text: In terms of percentage changes (to a close approximation, under low growth rates), the percentage change in a product, say , is equal to the sum of the percentage changes ). So, denoting all percentage changes as per unit of time,


title: Money supply

text: Inflation (%ΔP) is equal to the rate of money growth (%Δ), plus the change in velocity (%Δ), minus the rate of output growth (%Δ). So if in the long run the growth rate of velocity and the growth rate of real GDP are exogenous constants (the former being dictated by changes in payment institutions and the latter dictated by the growth in the economy’s productive capacity), then the monetary growth rate and the inflation rate differ from each other by a fixed constant.


title: Money supply

text: As before, this equation is only useful if %Δ follows regular behavior. It also loses usefulness if the central bank lacks control over %Δ.


title: Money supply

text: Historically, in Europe, the main function of the central bank is to maintain low inflation. In the USA the focus is on both inflation and unemployment. These goals are sometimes in conflict (according to the Phillips curve). A central bank may attempt to do this by artificially influencing the demand for goods by increasing or decreasing the nation's money supply (relative to trend), which lowers or raises interest rates, which stimulates or restrains spending on goods and services.


title: Money supply

text: An important debate among economists in the second half of the 20th century concerned the central bank's ability to predict how much money should be in circulation, given current employment rates and inflation rates. Economists such as Milton Friedman believed that the central bank would always get it wrong, leading to wider swings in the economy than if it were just left alone. This is why they advocated a non-interventionist approach: one of targeting a pre-specified path for the money supply independent of current economic conditions, even though in practice this might involve regular intervention with open market operations (or other monetary-policy tools) to keep the money supply on target.


title: Money supply

text: The former Chairman of the US Federal Reserve, Ben Bernanke, suggested in 2004 that over the preceding 10 to 15 years, many modern central banks became relatively adept at manipulation of the money supply, leading to a smoother business cycle, with recessions tending to be smaller and less frequent than in earlier decades, a phenomenon termed "The Great Moderation" This theory encountered criticism during the global financial crisis of 2008–2009. Furthermore, it may be that the functions of the central bank need to encompass more than the shifting up or down of interest rates or bank reserves: these tools, although valuable, may not in fact moderate the volatility of money supply (or its velocity).


title: WWE Raw Women's Championship

text: The WWE Raw Women's Championship is a women's professional wrestling world championship created and promoted by the American promotion WWE, defended on the Raw brand division. It is one of two women's world titles for WWE's main roster, along with the WWE SmackDown Women's Championship on SmackDown. The current champion is Bianca Belair, who is in her first reign.


title: WWE Raw Women's Championship

text: Introduced as the WWE Women's Championship on April 3, 2016, at WrestleMania 32, it replaced the Divas Championship and has a unique title history, separate from WWE's original Women's Championship and the Divas Championship. Charlotte Flair, then known simply as Charlotte, was the inaugural champion. As a result of the 2016 draft, the championship became exclusive to Raw with a subsequent rename and SmackDown created the SmackDown Women's Championship as a counterpart title. The Raw Women's Championship was the first women's title to headline a WWE pay-per-view event at Hell in a Cell in 2016. It also headlined WWE's only all-female event, Evolution in 2018, and, along with the SmackDown Women's Championship, was also defended in the main event match of WWE's flagship event WrestleMania in 2019.


title: WWE Raw Women's Championship

text: On April 3, 2016, WWE Hall of Famer Lita appeared during the WrestleMania 32 pre-show: after recapping the history of women's professional wrestling in WWE, she declared that WWE's women would no longer be referred to as WWE Divas, but as "WWE Superstars" like their male counterparts. The term "Diva" had been criticized by some commentators, fans, and several past and present female wrestlers, including reigning Divas Champion Charlotte, as diminishing the athletic abilities of female wrestlers and relegating them to "eye candy". Lita also unveiled a new title belt and revealed that the Divas Championship would be retired in favor of a new WWE Women's Championship. The inaugural champion was determined by a triple threat match between Charlotte, Becky Lynch, and Sasha Banks later that night, which was originally scheduled for the Divas Championship. Charlotte, the final Divas Champion, became the first WWE Women's Champion by winning that match.


title: WWE Raw Women's Championship

text: Following the reintroduction of the brand split in July 2016, reigning champion Charlotte was drafted to the Raw brand, making the championship exclusive to Raw. It was subsequently renamed to Raw Women's Championship after SummerSlam in August, when SmackDown created the SmackDown Women's Championship as a counterpart title. The NXT Women's Championship would become WWE's third main women's title when the NXT brand, formerly the promotion's developmental territory, became WWE's third major brand in September 2019 when it was moved to the USA Network.


title: WWE Raw Women's Championship

text: When the title was introduced, it shared its name with the original Women's Championship. However, the new title does not share the same title history as the original, which was unified with the Divas Championship in 2010, with the combined title inheriting the latter's lineage and history. WWE acknowledges the original championship as its predecessor, and notes that the lineage of female champions dates back to The Fabulous Moolah's reign in 1956.


title: WWE Raw Women's Championship

text: The championship was the first women's title to be defended in a WWE pay-per-view main event, which was at Hell in a Cell in October 2016; this was also the first-ever women's Hell in a Cell match and the first women's match to main event a WWE pay-per-view. At the event, Charlotte (whose ring name was lengthened to Charlotte Flair) defeated Sasha Banks to become a three-time champion. After two years, it was again featured in the main event match of a pay-per-view, which was the first-ever all-women's pay-per-view Evolution in October 2018, where Ronda Rousey retained the title against Nikki Bella. Rousey then defended the title in a winner takes all triple threat match against SmackDown Women's Champion Charlotte Flair and Becky Lynch in the main event of WrestleMania 35 in April 2019, which Lynch won. This was the first women's match to main event a WrestleMania – WWE's flagship event.


title: WWE Raw Women's Championship

text: On May 10, 2020, the championship became the first in history to be directly rewarded as a result of winning the Money in the Bank ladder match (taped April 15, 2020), which was revealed when the briefcase was opened by Becky Lynch the following night on "Raw". Lynch announced that she was forfeiting the title due to pregnancy and announced the Money in the Bank match winner, Asuka, as the new champion.


title: WWE Raw Women's Championship

text: When the championship was unveiled, there was no brand division as that had ended in August 2011. From its inception until the reintroduction of the brand extension in July 2016, reigning champion Charlotte defended the title on both "Raw" and "SmackDown". As its name implies, the championship is for the Raw brand. However, the title is still eligible to switch brands during the annual WWE Draft.


title: WWE Raw Women's Championship

text: The Raw Women's Championship belt is similar in appearance to the WWE Championship belt (introduced in 2014), with a few notable differences. The strap is smaller for the women, and white, as opposed to black. The die-cut WWE logo in the center plate sits on a red background, as opposed to a black one. The small print below the logo reads "Women's Champion". Gold divider bars separate the center plate from the belt's two side plates. In what has become a prominent feature of the majority of WWE's championship belts, the side plates feature a removable center section, which can be customized with the champion's logo; the default side plates feature the WWE logo on a red globe. This was the first women's title in WWE with customizable side plates.


title: WWE Raw Women's Championship

text: In what has become a tradition since fall 2014, WWE has presented custom WWE Championship belts to winners in both male and female professional sports with the side plates commemorating the achievement. In September 2018, WWE began presenting custom Raw Women's Championship belts to winners in just female sports. The first of these was given to the Seattle Storm for winning the 2018 WNBA Finals. Custom Raw Women's Championship belts have since been presented to the United States Women's National Soccer Team for winning the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup, a team that previously received a custom WWE Championship for this feat in 2015, to Bianca Andreescu for winning the 2019 Women's US Open, and to the Chicago Sky for winning the 2021 WNBA Finals.


title: WWE Raw Women's Championship

text: As of 28, 2022, there have been 24 reigns between 11 champions. Charlotte Flair, then known simply as Charlotte, was the inaugural champion. She also has the most reigns at six. Becky Lynch's first reign is the longest at 373 days (398 days as recognized by WWE due to tape delay), while Flair's fifth reign is the shortest at 22 hours. Lynch also has the longest combined reign at 535 days (560 days as recognized by WWE). Asuka is the oldest champion, winning the title at the age of 38, while Sasha Banks is the youngest when she won the title at 24 years, 181 days old.


title: WWE Raw Women's Championship

text: Bianca Belair is the current champion in her first reign. She won the title by defeating Becky Lynch during Night 1 of WrestleMania 38 on April 2, 2022 in Arlington, Texas.


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" is a song by American rock band Blue Öyster Cult from the band's 1976 album "Agents of Fortune." The song, written and sung by lead guitarist Donald "Buck Dharma" Roeser, deals with eternal love and the inevitability of death. Dharma wrote the song while picturing an early death for himself.


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: Released as an edited single (omitting the slow building interlude in the original), the song is Blue Öyster Cult's highest chart success, reaching #7 in "Cash Box" and #12 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in late 1976. Critical reception was positive and in December 2003 "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" was listed at number 405 on "Rolling Stone"s list of the top 500 songs of all time.


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: The song is about the inevitability of death and the foolishness of fearing it, and was written when Dharma was thinking about what would happen if he died at a young age. Lyrics such as "Romeo and Juliet are together in eternity" have led many listeners to interpret the song to be about a murder-suicide pact, but Dharma says the song is about eternal love, rather than suicide. He used Romeo and Juliet to describe a couple who wanted to be together in the afterlife. He guessed that "40,000 men and women" died each day (from all causes), and the figure was used several times in the lyrics; but this number was about 100,000 too low.


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" was written and sung by lead guitarist Buck Dharma and produced by David Lucas, Murray Krugman, and Sandy Pearlman. The song's distinctive guitar riff is built on the "I-bVII-bVI" chord progression, in an A minor scale. The riff was recorded with Krugman's Gibson ES-175 guitar, which was run through a Music Man 410 combo amplifier, and Dharma's vocals were captured with a Telefunken U47 tube microphone. The guitar solo and guitar rhythm sections were recorded in one take, while a four-track tape machine amplified them on the recording. Sound engineer Shelly Yakus remembers piecing together the separate vocals, guitar and rhythm section into a master track, with the overdubbing occurring in that order.


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: "Mojo" described its creation: "'Guys, this is it!' engineer Shelly Yakus announced at the end of the first take. 'The legendary once-in-a-lifetime groove!' ... What evolved in the studio was the extended solo section; it took them nearly as long to edit the five-minute track down to manageable length as it did to record it."


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: The song features prominent use of the cowbell percussion instrument, overdubbed on the original recording. Bassist Joe Bouchard remembered the producer requesting his brother, drummer Albert Bouchard, play the cowbell: "Albert thought he was crazy. But he put all this tape around a cowbell and played it. It really pulled the track together." However, producer David Lucas says that he played it; while bandmember Eric Bloom claims that he was the one to play it.


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: The song was on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart for 20 weeks, reaching number 12 for the weeks beginning November 6 and November 13 in 1976. It was BÖC's highest-charting U.S. song and helped "Agents of Fortune" reach number 29 on the "Billboard" 200. "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" charted even higher in Canada, peaking at number 7. The single edit was released in the UK in July 1976 (CBS 4483) but failed to chart. However the unedited album version was released as a single (CBS 6333) in May 1978, where it reached number 16 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: Critical reaction was mostly positive. Denise Sullivan of Allmusic praised the song's "gentle vocals and virtuoso guitar" and "haunting middle break which delivers the listener straight back to the heart of the song once the thunder is finished". Nathan Beckett called it BÖC's "masterpiece" and compared the vocals to the Beach Boys. Writing for "PopMatters," James Mann hailed it as a "landmark, genre-defining masterpiece" that was "as grand and emotional as American rock and roll ever got". "Pitchfork Media" also referred to the song as a "masterpiece". "Extremely poetic" was the verdict of Fountains of Wayne founder Chris Collingwood. "A sad ballad about a man who wants to die with his true love before their love is spoiled by earthly things."'


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: New Zealand band The Mutton Birds recorded a version for the soundtrack of Peter Jackson's film "The Frighteners". In 1997, it peaked at No.48 on the Australian ARIA singles charts, the only Mutton Birds single to chart in Australia.


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: Greek duo Keep Shelly in Athens released a version of the song in 2019 that was later included on the soundtrack of the 2020 film "Unhinged", heard during the closing credits.


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: In 1976 "Rolling Stone" named "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" the song of the year and, in 2004, the magazine placed the song at number 397 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time"; however, the 2010 version of the list moved it down to number 405. In 1997 "Mojo" listed the song as the 80th best single of all time, while "Q" ranked "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" number 404 in its 2003 countdown of the "1001 Best Songs Ever."


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: When "The Guardian" released its unranked list of the "1000 Songs Everyone Must Hear" in 2009, the song was included. The publication wrote that the song's charm "lies in the disjuncture between its gothic storyline and the sprightly, Byrdsian guitar line that carries it." In his book "The Heart of Rock and Soul: The 1001 Greatest Singles Ever Made," rock critic Dave Marsh ranked the song at number 997.


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: The song was memorialized in the April 2000 "Saturday Night Live" comedy sketch "More Cowbell". The six-minute sketch presents a fictionalized version of the recording of "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" on an episode of VH1's "Behind the Music." Will Ferrell wrote the sketch and played Gene Frenkle, an overweight cowbell player. "Legendary" producer Bruce Dickinson, played by Christopher Walken, asked Frenkle to "really explore the studio space" and up the ante on his cowbell playing. The rest of the band is visibly annoyed by Frenkle, but Dickinson tells everyone, "I got a fever, and the only prescription is more cowbell!" Buck Dharma said that the sketch was fantastic and he never gets tired of it but also lamented that it made the song lose its 'creepy' vibe for some time.


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: A segment of the song was performed by Red Hot Chili Peppers on May 22, 2014, as the conclusion of a drumming contest between the band's drummer Chad Smith and actor Will Ferrell. In a repeat of the 2000 "SNL" sketch, Ferrell again played cowbell for the rendition, which appeared on an episode of "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon."


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: Stephen King cited the song as the inspiration for his novel "The Stand," and its lyrics are quoted at the beginning of the novel. It also appears as the opening theme song for the 1994 TV miniseries based on the novel. It was subsequently used as the end credits music for the fifth episode of the 2020-21 miniseries adaptation.


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: In the 1994 book "The Discworld Companion", written by Terry Pratchett and Stephen Briggs, the family motto of Mort of Sto Helit is revealed to be "Non Timetis Messor", dog Latin for "don't fear the reaper". This is referenced once more in Pratchett's 1997 novel "Hogfather", the first reference in the mainline Discworld series. In 2010, Hubert Chesshyre designed Pratchett's coat of arms, which feature the motto "Noli Timere Messorem", a corrected Latin translation of "don't fear the reaper".


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: In the film "Halloween", the song plays in the car when Jamie Lee Curtis and Nancy Kyes' characters, Laurie Strode and Annie Brackett, are being stalked by serial killer Michael Myers. It is used again in the 2022 sequel "Halloween Ends", playing over the final scene and ending credits.


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: The 1994 film "The Stoned Age" features the song when one of the main characters criticizes the song as being "a pussy song" despite it being performed by Blue Oyster Cult.


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: The 2022 horror film "X" by A24 has the song playing on the protagonists' van radio at the film's climactic mid-point. The slasher nature of the scene, as well as the film's setting in 1979, suggests an intentional homage by director Ti West to "Halloween".


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: The song is used throughout the video game "Returnal", appearing unaltered in the house and car sequences and in a modified version against the Hyperion boss fight, played on an organ.


title: (Don't Fear) The Reaper

text: The 2006 video game "Prey" features the song, which is heard playing on a jukebox as Jen's bar is attacked.


title: Al-Rayyan SC

text: Al-Rayyan Sports Club () is a Qatari multi-sports club fielding teams in a number of sports such as football, futsal, basketball, volleyball, handball, athletics, table tennis, and swimming. It is based at the Ahmed bin Ali Stadium in Umm Al Afaei in the city of Al Rayyan. The club was founded in 1967 after merging the old Rayyan team with "Nusoor Club". The official team colours are red and black.


title: Al-Rayyan SC

text: They have won numerous titles in all sports, including two Asian championships in basketball, the Arab championship in handball, futsal domestic titles, table tennis, and volleyball, as well as numerous GCC basketball, handball, and volleyball championships. Both the basketball and handball teams have qualified for the world championships. However, the football team gets the most attention from the club officials, media, and fans.


title: Al-Rayyan SC

text: Al Rayyan's history goes back to the mid-1960s when it was known as "Old Al Rayyan". Old Al Rayyan, though an amateur football team, competed in matches arranged throughout the whole country, not being limited to the city in which it was based. Their headquarters was in a two-bedroom house, and they played their matches on a football field in a school based in the New Rayyan area. The club relied on donations from the fans during this period.


title: Al-Rayyan SC

text: In 1967, Al Rayyan began as a combination of two groups called " new Al Rayyan’sons and old al-Rayyan’son". In 1967, Al-Rayyan started its factory. From 1967 until now, Al-Rayyan has won many trophies not only in soccer even in the rest of the games such as handball, basketball and volleyball. The people who contributed to build Al Rayyan knew that this team would not be a regular team, but it will also represent the culture of the city of Al Rayyan outside of Qatar. In 2008, the club established magazine called SOUT AL RAYYAN (The Voice of Al Rayyan) which is the first magazine that cares about Al Rayyan news, and it is the only team's magazine in Qatar.


title: Al-Rayyan SC

text: They applied to be a member club of the Qatar Football Association, but were rejected with the QFA proposing that they merge with Al Nusoor, a local sports club also based in Al Rayyan. In 1967, after an announcement by the Al Rayyan Sports Committee that Old Al Rayyan would merge with Al Nusoor, Al Rayyan SC was officially founded. A new headquarters was established to accommodate increased size demands as a result of the merger. The first head coach of Al Rayyan was Ashour Salem, a Sudanese national, who, besides working as a local physical education coach, trained the first team and youth team. In the early years, the club branched out to other sports, notably basketball and handball. As a result of donations from the club supporters, Al Rayyan was able to establish their home grounds in Doha Stadium, the largest stadium in Qatar at that time.


title: Al-Rayyan SC

text: The club had success in the Qatar Stars League within the first decade of its formation, with the club participating in their first official season in 1972–73. In the 1974–75, after a mass brawl between the fans and players of Al Rayyan and Al Sadd, the QFA relegated Al Rayyan, who were in 2nd place at the time, to the second division. They won back promotion the following season and achieved their first league title 1976. In the 1977 season, the QFA annulled the results of Al Rayyan due to actions which took place in a match against Al Arabi. The perpetrator, who was an Al Arabi player by the name of Yassin Mustafa, was banned permanently from all league matches whereas the two clubs were warned.


title: Al-Rayyan SC

text: In 1983, under the leadership of Mohammed Bin Hammam Al Abdulla, a new club headquarters and home stadium were constructed. They won the league with a negative goal difference in 1983–84, making them one of the only 6 teams in the world and the only Qatari team in history to achieve this feat.


title: Al-Rayyan SC

text: In the 1987–88 season, much to the surprise of critics and fans, they got relegated for the first time in league history. The relegation was preceded by a 0–1 loss to Al Sadd, as Hassan Jowhar scored a header goal which would prove to be the final nail in the coffin of Al Rayyan. They won back promotion to the premier league in their first season in the second division.


title: Al-Rayyan SC

text: They would go on to win the league in 1990, the same season they were promoted back to the first division, beating out rivals Al Sadd. They won an additional league title in 1995.


title: Al-Rayyan SC

text: They inaugurated their home ground, Ahmed bin Ali Stadium, in 2003 during the reign of Sheikh Mishaal Al Thani. The first match held on the grounds was the 2003 Emir Cup finals.


title: Al-Rayyan SC

text: The club has not experienced much league success as of late, with the last successful league campaign being in 1994–95; however they finished third in the 2010–11 season under Paulo Autuori. Nonetheless, they faced great success in the Emir's Cup and Heir Apparent Cup winning eight cups in total in 14 years.


title: Al-Rayyan SC

text: In 2014–15 the club won the Qatargas League and returned to Qatar Stars League. On 28 November 2015, Al-Rayyan Broke the record of most consecutive league matches won to 11.


title: Al-Rayyan SC

text: On 5 March 2016, after 21 years Al-Rayyan won the league once again, and became the first ever team to win both leagues in two years.


title: Al-Rayyan SC

text: Al-Rayyan one of the most popular clubs in Qatar and supported throughout the entire Gulf region, as well as other parts of the world due to their high-profile signings. In 2010, they had the highest attendance in the Qatar Stars League. The fan club won the QFA-sanctioned award of "best fans" in the 2008/09 season, and shared the award with Al Sadd in the 2012/13 season.


title: Al-Rayyan SC

text: Ahmed bin Ali Stadium (), popularly known as the Al-Rayyan Stadium, is a multi-purpose stadium in Al-Rayyan, Qatar which serves as the home stadium for Al Rayyan's football section. It will be used as a venue for the 2022 FIFA World Cup.


title: Al-Rayyan SC

text: "This list includes players whom have made significant contributions to their national team and to the club. At least 90 caps for the club or 100 caps for their national team is needed to be considered for inclusion."


title: Kokomo (song)

text: "Kokomo" is a song by the American rock band the Beach Boys from the 1988 film "Cocktail" and album "Still Cruisin'". Written by John Phillips, Scott McKenzie, Mike Love, and Terry Melcher, the song was released as a single on June 21, 1988 by Elektra Records and became a number one hit in the U.S. and Australia. It was the band's first original Top 20 single in 20 years, their first #1 hit in 22 years, and to date, their final Top 40 hit.


title: Kokomo (song)

text: The lyrics describe two lovers taking a trip to a relaxing place on Kokomo, a utopic island off the Florida Keys. In addition to the fictional Kokomo, the song also makes references to many real Caribbean islands, including Aruba, Jamaica, Bermuda, Bahamas, Martinique, and Montserrat.


title: Kokomo (song)

text: The verse of the song came from a demo by John Phillips (formerly of the Mamas & the Papas) and Scott McKenzie (best known for his 1967 song “San Francisco (Be Sure To Wear Flowers In Your Hair)," which Phillips wrote). The Beach Boys' Mike Love added the chorus which lists the names of islands.


title: Kokomo (song)

text: "Kokomo" was recorded on March 22 and April 5–6, 1988 with production by Terry Melcher, who had previously produced the band's "Rock 'n' Roll to the Rescue" (1986) and "California Dreamin'" (1986). It was created through overdubbing parts onto the band's demo for the song.


title: Kokomo (song)

text: The recording featured every current member of the group except Brian Wilson, who did not attend the sessions. In his 1991 memoir "", it was stated that Wilson was unable to contribute to the song because he was committed to recording his first solo album, and his bandmates deliberately did not inform him of the session date until it was too late. According to biographer Mark Dillon, "Available session-date information does not substantiate this claim, however."


title: Kokomo (song)

text: Mike Love stated that Wilson was not on "Kokomo" because Eugene Landy, Wilson's therapist-turned-collaborator, refused to "let Brian sing on it unless Landy was a producer and co-writer" and Melcher did not "feel he needed Landy since he had produced some number-one records. It was pathetic of Landy to do that, but he controlled Brian completely at that time." According to a 2018 article in Stereogum, "When [Brian] first heard the song on the radio, he didn’t even recognize it as a Beach Boys tune." The group later recorded a Spanish-language version of "Kokomo" with participation from Wilson.


title: Kokomo (song)

text: The video for "Kokomo" was filmed at the then-recently opened Grand Floridian Resort at Walt Disney World in Florida. Although they had not played these instruments on the recording, Mike Love is seen playing saxophone, while actor and occasional Beach Boys live guest John Stamos is shown playing steel drum.


title: Kokomo (song)

text: In 2011, "NME" ranked the video as the 17th worst of all time, commenting, "It was as if Mike Love had taken the 'Beach Boys' name straight out of Brian Wilson's hands and we were forced to watch footage of Tom Cruise mixing up Bloody Marys. Thanks guys."


title: Kokomo (song)

text: After being released as a single in 1988, the song was included on the soundtrack album for the movie "Cocktail" as well as the 1989 Beach Boys album "Still Cruisin'."


title: Kokomo (song)

text: "Kokomo" was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television in 1988, but lost to Phil Collins' "Two Hearts" (from the film "Buster"). "Two Hearts" and Carly Simon's "Let the River Run" from "Working Girl" jointly beat it for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song.


title: Kokomo (song)

text: In spite of its commercial success, "Kokomo" has attracted uniformly negative reviews from music writers. Jimmy Guterman of "Rolling Stone" wrote that the song "sets the pattern for the new, passion-free songs" on "Still Cruisin'", while the "Rolling Stone" album guide called it a "joyless ditty". In a 1998 piece, Steve Simels of "Stereo" noted "just how insipid 'Kokomo' was". "Blender" stated the song was "perhaps most kindly described as a Beach Boys–influenced song with the Beach Boys singing on it."


title: Kokomo (song)

text: In the years following its release, "Kokomo" has become notorious for its perceived poor quality: as Tom Breihan of "Stereogum" writes, "People "hate" 'Kokomo.' The Beach Boys' improbable late-career hit has a reputation as a monument to mediocrity. To this day, it serves as a textbook cautionary tale of a once-beloved group poisoning its own legacy and goodwill by making smarmy '80s yuppie pablum." In a retrospective dubbing the song the "worst summer song ever", "MEL Magazine's" Tim Grierson similarly noted, "A lot of us have taken immense delight in hating this 1988 smash." As such, it has appeared on several worst songs of all time lists, such "Blender's" top 50 worst songs, "Dallas Observer's" ten worst songs by great artists, and "Forbes'" worst lyrics of all time. Both Breihan and Grierson attribute the personal unpopularity of Mike Love as a possible factor for the song's reputation.


title: Kokomo (song)

text: Drummer Jim Keltner, who played on "Kokomo", attributed the critical disdain to the fact that "it's just sooo syrupy pop." He continued, "But while the critics killed it with their words, they couldn't kill the 'hitness' of it. It's just a bona fide hit record, that's all there is to it."


title: BMP file format

text: The BMP file format, also known as bitmap image file, device independent bitmap (DIB) file format and bitmap, is a raster graphics image file format used to store bitmap digital images, independently of the display device (such as a graphics adapter), especially on Microsoft Windows and OS/2 operating systems.


title: BMP file format

text: The BMP file format is capable of storing two-dimensional digital images both monochrome and color, in various color depths, and optionally with data compression, alpha channels, and color profiles. The Windows Metafile (WMF) specification covers the BMP file format.


title: BMP file format

text: Microsoft has defined a particular representation of color bitmaps of different color depths, as an aid to exchanging bitmaps between devices and applications with a variety of internal representations. They called these device-independent bitmaps or DIBs, and the file format for them is called DIB file format or BMP image file format.


title: BMP file format

text: According to Microsoft support: A device-independent bitmap (DIB) is a format used to define device-independent bitmaps in various color resolutions. The main purpose of DIBs is to allow bitmaps to be moved from one device to another (hence, the device-independent part of the name). A DIB is an external format, in contrast to a device-dependent bitmap, which appears in the system as a bitmap object (created by an application...). A DIB is normally transported in metafiles (usually using the StretchDIBits() function), BMP files, and the Clipboard ( data format).


title: BMP file format

text: The following sections discuss the data stored in the BMP file or DIB in detail. This is the standard BMP file format. Some applications create bitmap image files which are not compliant with the Microsoft documentation. Also, not all fields are used; a value of 0 will be found in these unused fields.


title: BMP file format

text: The bitmap image file consists of fixed-size structures (headers) as well as variable-sized structures appearing in a predetermined sequence. Many different versions of some of these structures can appear in the file, due to the long evolution of this file format.


title: BMP file format

text: A bitmap image file loaded into memory becomes a DIB data structure – an important component of the Windows GDI API. The in-memory DIB data structure is almost the same as the BMP file format, but it does not contain the 14-byte bitmap file header and begins with the DIB header. For DIBs loaded in memory, the color table can also consist of 16-bit entries that constitute indexes to the currently realized palette (an additional level of indirection), instead of explicit RGB color definitions. In all cases, the pixel array must begin at a memory address that is a multiple of 4 bytes. In non-packed DIBs loaded in memory, the optional color profile data should be located immediately after the color table and before the gap1 and pixel array (unlike in diag. 1).


title: BMP file format

text: When the size of gap1 and gap2 is zero, the in-memory DIB data structure is customarily referred to as "packed DIB" and can be referred to by a single pointer pointing to the beginning of the DIB header. In all cases, the pixel array must begin at a memory address that is a multiple of 4 bytes. In some cases it may be necessary to adjust the number of entries in the color table in order to force the memory address of the pixel array to a multiple of 4 bytes. For "packed DIBs" loaded in memory, the optional color profile data should immediately follow the pixel array, as depicted in diag. 1 (with gap1=0 and gap2=0).<br> "Packed DIBs" are required by Windows clipboard API functions as well as by some Windows patterned brush and resource functions.


title: BMP file format

text: This block of bytes is at the start of the file and is used to identify the file. A typical application reads this block first to ensure that the file is actually a BMP file and that it is not damaged. The first 2 bytes of the BMP file format are the character "B" then the character "M" in ASCII encoding. All of the integer values are stored in little-endian format (i.e. least-significant byte first).


title: BMP file format

text: This block of bytes tells the application detailed information about the image, which will be used to display the image on the screen. The block also matches the header used internally by Windows and OS/2 and has several different variants. All of them contain a dword (32-bit) field, specifying their size, so that an application can easily determine which header is used in the image. The reason that there are different headers is that Microsoft extended the DIB format several times. The new extended headers can be used with some GDI functions instead of the older ones, providing more functionality. Since the GDI supports a function for loading bitmap files, typical Windows applications use that functionality. One consequence of this is that for such applications, the BMP formats that they support match the formats supported by the Windows version being run. See the table below for more information.


title: BMP file format

text: The Windows 2.x BITMAPCOREHEADER differs from the OS/2 1.x BITMAPCOREHEADER (shown in the table above) in the one detail that the image width and height fields are signed integers, not unsigned.


title: BMP file format

text: An integrated alpha channel has been introduced with the undocumented and with the documented (since Windows 95) and is used within Windows XP logon and theme system as well as Microsoft Office (since v2000); it is supported by some image editing software, such as Adobe Photoshop since version 7 and Adobe Flash since version MX 2004 (then known as Macromedia Flash). It is also supported by GIMP, Google Chrome, Microsoft PowerPoint and Microsoft Word.


title: BMP file format

text: For compatibility reasons, most applications use the older DIB headers for saving files. With OS/2 no longer supported after Windows 2000, for now the common Windows format is the header. See next table for its description. All values are stored as unsigned integers, unless explicitly noted.


title: BMP file format

text: The color table (palette) occurs in the BMP image file directly after the BMP file header, the DIB header, and after the optional three or four bitmasks if the header with BI_BITFIELDS (12 bytes) or BI_ALPHABITFIELDS (16 bytes) option is used. Therefore, its offset is the size of the plus the size of the DIB header (plus optional 12-16 bytes for the three or four bit masks).<br>


title: BMP file format

text: The number of entries in the palette is either 2 (where n is the number of bits per pixel) or a smaller number specified in the header (in the OS/2 header format, only the full-size palette is supported). In most cases, each entry in the color table occupies 4 bytes, in the order blue, green, red, 0x00 (see below for exceptions). This is indexed in the in the structure member biBitCount.


title: BMP file format

text: The color table is a block of bytes (a table) listing the colors used by the image. Each pixel in an indexed color image is described by a number of bits (1, 4, or 8) which is an index of a single color described by this table. The purpose of the color palette in indexed color bitmaps is to inform the application about the actual color that each of these index values corresponds to. The purpose of the color table in non-indexed (non-palettized) bitmaps is to list the colors used by the bitmap for the purposes of optimization on devices with limited color display capability and to facilitate future conversion to different pixel formats and paletization.


title: BMP file format

text: The colors in the color table are usually specified in the 4-byte per entry RGBA32 format. The color table used with the OS/2 uses the 3-byte per entry RGB24 format. For DIBs loaded in memory, the color table can optionally consist of 2-byte entries – these entries constitute indexes to the currently realized palette instead of explicit RGB color definitions.


title: BMP file format

text: Microsoft does not disallow the presence of a valid alpha channel bit mask in and for 1bpp, 4bpp and 8bpp indexed color images, which indicates that the color table entries can also specify an alpha component using the 8.8.8.[0-8].[0-8] format via the RGBQUAD.rgbReserved member. However, some versions of Microsoft's documentation disallow this feature by stating that the RGBQUAD.rgbReserved member "must be zero".


title: BMP file format

text: As mentioned above, the color table is normally not used when the pixels are in the 16-bit per pixel (16bpp) format (and higher); there are normally no color table entries in those bitmap image files. However, the Microsoft documentation (on the MSDN web site as of Nov. 16, 2010) specifies that for 16bpp (and higher), the color table can be present to store a list of colors intended for optimization on devices with limited color display capability, while it also specifies, that in such cases, no indexed palette entries are present in this Color Table. This may seem like a contradiction if no distinction is made between the mandatory palette entries and the optional color list.


title: BMP file format

text: The bits representing the bitmap pixels are packed in rows(also known as strides or scan lines). The size of each row is rounded up to a multiple of 4 bytes (a 32-bit DWORD) by padding.


title: BMP file format

text: For images with height above 1, multiple padded rows are stored consecutively, forming a Pixel Array.


title: BMP file format

text: The total number of bytes necessary to store an array of pixels in an n bits per pixel (bpp) image, with 2 colors, can be calculated by accounting for the effect of rounding up the size of each row to a multiple of 4 bytes, as follows:


title: BMP file format

text: The pixel array is a block of 32-bit DWORDs, that describes the image pixel by pixel. Usually pixels are stored "bottom-up", starting in the lower left corner, going from left to right, and then row by row from the bottom to the top of the image. Unless is used, uncompressed Windows bitmaps also can be stored from the top to bottom, when the Image Height value is negative.


title: BMP file format

text: In the original OS/2 DIB, the only four legal values of color depth were 1, 4, 8, and 24 bits per pixel (bpp).


title: BMP file format

text: Contemporary DIB Headers allow pixel formats with 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 24 and 32 bits per pixel (bpp). GDI+ also permits 64 bits per pixel.


title: BMP file format

text: Padding bytes (not necessarily 0) must be appended to the end of the rows in order to bring up the length of the rows to a multiple of four bytes. When the pixel array is loaded into memory, each row must begin at a memory address that is a multiple of 4. This address/offset restriction is mandatory only for Pixel Arrays loaded in memory. For file storage purposes, only the size of each row must be a multiple of 4 bytes while the file offset can be arbitrary. A 24-bit bitmap with Width=1, would have 3 bytes of data per row (blue, green, red) and 1 byte of padding, while Width=2 would have 6 bytes of data and 2 bytes of padding, Width=3 would have 9 bytes of data and 3 bytes of padding, and Width=4 would have 12 bytes of data and no padding.


title: BMP file format

text: In order to resolve the ambiguity of which bits define which samples, the DIB headers provide certain defaults as well as specific BITFIELDS, which are bit masks that define the membership of particular group of bits in a pixel to a particular channel. The following diagram defines this mechanism:


title: BMP file format

text: The sample fields defined by the BITFIELDS bit masks have to be contiguous and non-overlapping, but the order of the sample fields is arbitrary. The most ubiquitous field order is: Alpha, Blue, Green, Red (MSB to LSB). The red, green and blue bit masks are valid only when the Compression member of the DIB header is set to BI_BITFIELDS. The alpha bit mask is valid whenever it is present in the DIB header or when the Compression member of the DIB header is set to BI_ALPHABITFIELDS (Windows CE only).


title: BMP file format

text: The BITFIELD mechanism described above allows for the definition of tens of thousands different pixel formats, however only several of them are used in practice, all palettized formats RGB8, RGB4, and RGB1 (marked in yellow in the table above, defined in codice_1.MEDIASUBTYPE names):


title: BMP file format

text: In version 2.1.4 FFmpeg supported (in its own terminology) the BMP pixel formats "bgra, bgr24, rgb565le, rgb555le, rgb444le, rgb8, bgr8, rgb4_byte, bgr4_byte, gray, pal8," and "monob"; i.e., "bgra" was the only supported pixel format with transparency.


title: BMP file format

text: Following is an example of a 4×2 pixel, 32-bit bitmap with opacity values in the alpha channel (Windows DIB Header ) with pixel format ARGB32.


title: BMP file format

text: The simplicity of the BMP file format, and its widespread familiarity in Windows and elsewhere, as well as the fact that this format is relatively well documented and has an open format, makes BMP a very common format that image processing programs from many operating systems can read and write. ICO and CUR files contain bitmaps starting with a BITMAPINFOHEADER.


title: BMP file format

text: Many older graphical user interfaces used bitmaps in their built-in graphics subsystems; for example, the Microsoft Windows and OS/2 platforms' GDI subsystem, where the specific format used is the "Windows and OS/2 bitmap file format", usually named with the file extension of codice_2.


title: BMP file format

text: While most BMP files have a relatively large file size due to lack of any compression (or generally low-ratio run-length encoding on palletized images), many BMP files can be considerably compressed with lossless data compression algorithms such as ZIP because they contain redundant data. Some formats, such as RAR, even include routines specifically targeted at efficient compression of such data.


title: BMP file format

text: The X Window System uses a similar XBM format for black-and-white images, and XPM ("pixelmap") for color images. There are also a variety of "raw" formats, which save raw data with no other information. The Portable Pixmap (PPM) and Truevision TGA formats also exist, but are less often used – or only for special purposes; for example, TGA can contain transparency information.


title: Scott Hoying

text: Scott Richard Hoying (born September 17, 1991) is an American singer, musician and songwriter who came to international attention as the baritone of the a cappella group Pentatonix and one-half of the music duo Superfruit. As of June 2021, Pentatonix has released eleven albums (two of which have been number ones) and two EPs, have had four songs in the Billboard Hot 100, and won three Grammy awards as "the first a cappella group to achieve mainstream success in the modern market". , Superfruit's YouTube channel has over 2.4 million subscribers, and over 444 million views.


title: Scott Hoying

text: Scott Richard Hoying was born in Arlington, Texas, to Connie and Rick Hoying. He met Mitch Grassi, another co-founder of Pentatonix, and his partner in the duo Superfruit, when he was young. He also met Kirstin Maldonado, another Pentatonix founder, while they were both attending Martin High School. Hoying and Grassi were both active in theater arts in Arlington and met when they were cast in the musical "Annie", they both also play piano. They were "giggly" together but not best friends immediately; they then were split up being sent to different schools for a year and a half, and reunited while performing in "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory". After graduating high school, he briefly attended the University of Southern California, where he studied popular music performance.


title: Scott Hoying

text: Pentatonix started as a trio, as Hoying, Grassi, and Maldonado had been in choir for most of their high school careers. The three quickly put together an a cappella cover of Lady Gaga's 2010 "Telephone" featuring Beyoncé to compete in a local radio station contest to meet "Glee" cast members. They did not win but kept competing and performing, gaining popularity.


title: Scott Hoying

text: Hoying heard about "The Sing-Off" reality-show competition for a cappella acts; he gained an interest in the genre once in college. It was the first time the three really embraced a cappella. The show required groups to have five or more members, so they recruited bass vocalist Avi Kaplan and singer/beat boxer Kevin Olusola. After they won, they all relocated to Los Angeles to pursue recording artist careers. The main goal of the group was to become the first modern mainstream a cappella group, which they have done.


title: Scott Hoying

text: Pentatonix is a quintet a cappella collective, with most of their songs being covers, and much of their success comes from touring, including internationally. They gained national attention in the U.S. competing on NBC's a cappella reality show "The Sing-Off" in 2011, which they won. The group got a record label, who dropped them as their audience was too niche—with no guarantee of selling albums, or concert tickets—but the group felt it was ultimately advantageous as around late 2012 Pentatonix started posting videos to YouTube building an international fan base. Pentatonix also released the debut EP, "PTX, Volume 1", on their new label in June 2012, followed by a Christmas EP, "PTXmas" in November. They recorded covers of pop 40 hits like Gotye's "Somebody That I Used to Know" (2011), Psy's "Gangnam Style" (2012), and Fun's "We Are Young" (2011). Their big video hit was a November 2013 video doing a medley of Daft Punk songs, it had ten million views in the first week of its release and rose to over 150 million views; as of January 2020 it has over 320 million views.


title: Scott Hoying

text: As of March 2015 they had 7.6 million YouTube subscribers, that rose to seventeen million as of October 2019, and in December 2020, 18.9 million; with over three billion video views. As of February 2020, they had over 4.4 billion views; they also have two million followers on Instagram, and 3.6 million on Facebook.


title: Scott Hoying

text: They continually release YouTube videos, with nearly every one with more than a million views. They also tour extensively including across North America, Europe, Asia, and Latin America—over an estimated forty countries as of December 2016; and have had cameos in shows and movies like "Bones" and "Pitch Perfect 2" (2015); and their own television show, "A Pentatonix Christmas Special" (2016).


title: Scott Hoying

text: As of June 2021, Pentatonix has released eleven albums, ten of which reached the Top Ten on the Billboard 200, all combined selling ten million albums—including two number one albums, and five of Christmas music—and have had four songs in the Billboard Hot 100, and won three Grammy awards. Their three Grammy wins were for their: Daft Punk medley tribute to the French electronic music duo (2015); version of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's "Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy" (2016); Jolene collaboration with Dolly Parton (2017). In addition to their regular tours, they utilize their extensive holiday music for Christmastime tours. Their "That's Christmas to Me" (2014) is the highest-charting Christmas album by a group of two or more since 1962.


title: Scott Hoying

text: The individual members find inspiration to cover recent songs, as well as international classics, then if they decide as a group it is a good match, they compose an arrangement; their friend Ben Bram, who is also their producer, is their co-arranger. Although they are known for their covers and re-arranged popular songs, the band released their first album, "Pentatonix", in October 2015, and it was all original music; it also marked the first time an a cappella group had the top album on the Billboard 200 album chart. Their sold-out North American tour that year was documented in the movie, "On My Way Home." Grassi noted he and Hoying both being openly gay has been appreciated by the group's fans; a common demographic is midwesterners and Christians who comment that the pair have helped them accept their LGBTQ children.


title: Scott Hoying

text: Hoying and Mitch Grassi, lifelong friends, vlogged skits, comedy videos, and duets to YouTube quickly gaining a following; after hundreds of videos they saw the music ones were the most liked so created Superfruit. Some of their viral videos include: "Frozen" medley (with more than thirteen million views as of April 2016) ";" an "Evolution of Miley Cyrus" (12.8 million) and a "Beyoncé" album medley (with over twelve million). According to Hoying, "Superfruit" "came from Mitch's random mind". Hoying noted, "Our first rule with starting Superfruit was: This is for fun, ... This is to be free and do whatever we want. So, let's write stories that we want to write, let's make videos that we want to make, let's not put limitations on it. And not care so much about calculating it to where we think it might be more successful ... And I think that's why it feels so good to the fans." The first Superfruit video was released on August 13, 2013. Navigating Pentatonix versus the duo's projects and touring schedules was simplified by the quintet's rule that the larger groups' commitments come first.


title: Scott Hoying

text: They started to incorporate original music into the project, starting in 2016. Superfruit's first EP, "Future Friends, Part One", was released in June 2017, "Part Two" in September 2017, followed by a full-length album of the same name. The EP's concept is that a friendship can run even deeper than any romantic component. They wrote with songwriters and producers collaborators including Robopop, Justin Tranter, and John Hill; and produced videos for each song. The album won critical acclaim and rose to ninth place on the Billboard 200 album chart.


title: Scott Hoying

text: Superfruit's debut video for "Future Friends", "Imaginary Parties", was noted by "InStyle" for the bold fashions that their stylist Candice McAndrews helped them secure. McAndrews has worked with Pentatonix since the beginning as well. She used Gucci and Balenciaga to elevate with high-fashion inspiration and "a pop art approach to their look". McAndrews shared that a Superfruit fitting will have seven to nine racks of clothing for each, including designers "Alexander Wang, Loewe, Vetements , Haider Ackermann, Raf Simons, and Maison Margiela".


title: Scott Hoying

text: In October 2019, Hoying started another a cappella group, with members who are aged 17 years or younger, calling the group Acapop! KIDS.


title: Scott Hoying

text: On August 18, 2020, 15 year-old member Nolan Gibbons (one of the group's beatboxers) passed away in his sleep from sudden unexplained death in childhood. In his memory, Acapop! KIDS put together a memorial video of Nolan's audition song, This City by Sam Fischer.


title: Scott Hoying

text: The group also auditioned for "America's Got Talent" in 2022, where they sang Nolan's original song “My Turn”. Heidi Klum, Sofia Vergara, and Simon Cowell all voted “yes” for Acapop! (Howie Mandel was sick, so he could not attend), sending them to the next round.


title: Scott Hoying

text: Hoying has been in a relationship with model Mark Manio since 2017. Hoying proposed to Manio on the beach in The Bahamas on April 14, 2022. He resides in Hollywood.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: In the philosophy of mind, mind–body dualism denotes either the view that mental phenomena are non-physical, or that the mind and body are distinct and separable. Thus, it encompasses a set of views about the relationship between mind and matter, as well as between subject and object, and is contrasted with other positions, such as physicalism and enactivism, in the mind–body problem.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Aristotle shared Plato's view of multiple souls and further elaborated a hierarchical arrangement, corresponding to the distinctive functions of plants, animals, and humans: a nutritive soul of growth and metabolism that all three share; a perceptive soul of pain, pleasure, and desire that only humans and other animals share; and the faculty of reason that is unique to humans only. In this view, a soul is the hylomorphic form of a viable organism, wherein each level of the hierarchy formally supervenes upon the substance of the preceding level. For Aristotle, the first two souls, based on the body, perish when the living organism dies, whereas remains an immortal and perpetual intellective part of mind. For Plato, however, the soul was not dependent on the physical body; he believed in metempsychosis, the migration of the soul to a new physical body. It has been considered a form of reductionism by some philosophers, since it enables the tendency to ignore very big groups of variables by its assumed association with the mind or the body, and not for its real value when it comes to explaining or predicting a studied phenomenon.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Dualism is closely associated with the thought of René Descartes (1641), which holds that the mind is a nonphysical—and therefore, non-spatial—substance. Descartes clearly identified the mind with consciousness and self-awareness and distinguished this from the brain as the seat of intelligence. Hence, he was the first documented Western philosopher to formulate the mind–body problem in the form in which it exists today. Dualism is contrasted with various kinds of monism. Substance dualism is contrasted with all forms of materialism, but property dualism may be considered a form of emergent materialism or non-reductive physicalism in some sense.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Ontological dualism makes dual commitments about the nature of existence as it relates to mind and matter, and can be divided into three different types:


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Substance dualism, or Cartesian dualism, most famously defended by René Descartes, argues that there are two kinds of foundation: mental and physical. This philosophy states that the mental can exist outside of the body, and the body cannot think. Substance dualism is important historically for having given rise to much thought regarding the famous mind–body problem.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Copernican Revolution and the scientific discoveries of the 17th century reinforced the belief that the scientific method was the unique way of knowledge. Bodies were seen as biological organisms to be studied in their constituent parts (materialism) by means of anatomy, physiology, biochemistry and physics (reductionism). The mind-body dualism remained the biomedical paradigm and model for the following three centuries.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Substance dualism is a philosophical position compatible with most theologies which claim that immortal souls occupy an independent realm of existence distinct from that of the physical world. In contemporary discussions of substance dualism, philosophers propose dualist positions that are significantly less radical than Descartes's: for instance, a position defended by William Hasker called Emergent Dualism seems, to some philosophers, more intuitively attractive than the substance dualism of Descartes in virtue of its being in line with ("inter alia)" evolutionary biology.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Property dualism asserts that an ontological distinction lies in the differences between properties of mind and matter, and that consciousness may be ontologically irreducible to neurobiology and physics. It asserts that when matter is organized in the appropriate way (i.e., in the way that living human bodies are organized), mental properties emerge. Hence, it is a sub-branch of emergent materialism. What views properly fall under the "property dualism" rubric is itself a matter of dispute. There are different versions of property dualism, some of which claim independent categorisation.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Non-reductive physicalism is a form of property dualism in which it is asserted that all mental states are causally reducible to physical states. One argument for this has been made in the form of anomalous monism expressed by Donald Davidson, where it is argued that mental events are identical to physical events, however, relations of mental events cannot be described by strict law-governed causal relationships. Another argument for this has been expressed by John Searle, who is the advocate of a distinctive form of physicalism he calls biological naturalism. His view is that although mental states are ontologically irreducible to physical states, they are causally reducible. He has acknowledged that "to many people" his views and those of property dualists look a lot alike, but he thinks the comparison is misleading.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Epiphenomenalism is a form of property dualism, in which it is asserted that one or more mental states do not have any influence on physical states (both ontologically and causally irreducible). It asserts that while material causes give rise to sensations, volitions, ideas, etc., such mental phenomena themselves cause nothing further: they are causal dead-ends. This can be contrasted to interactionism, on the other hand, in which mental causes can produce material effects, and vice versa.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Predicate dualism is a view espoused by such non-reductive physicalists as Donald Davidson and Jerry Fodor, who maintain that while there is only one ontological category of substances and properties of substances (usually physical), the predicates that we use to describe mental events cannot be redescribed in terms of (or reduced to) physical predicates of natural languages.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: "Predicate dualism" is most easily defined as the negation of "predicate monism". Predicate monism can be characterized as the view subscribed to by eliminative materialists, who maintain that such intentional predicates as "believe", "desire", "think", "feel", etc., will eventually be eliminated from both the language of science and from ordinary language because the entities to which they refer do not exist. Predicate dualists believe that so-called "folk psychology," with all of its propositional attitude ascriptions, is an ineliminable part of the enterprise of describing, explaining, and understanding human mental states and behavior.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: For example, Davidson subscribes to anomalous monism, according to which there can be no strict psychophysical laws which connect mental and physical events under their descriptions as "mental" and "physical" events. However, all mental events also have physical descriptions. It is in terms of the latter that such events can be connected in law-like relations with other physical events. Mental predicates are irreducibly different in character (rational, holistic, and necessary) from physical predicates (contingent, atomic, and causal).


title: Mind–body dualism

text: This part is about causation between properties and states of the thing under study, not its substances or predicates. Here a state is the set of all properties of what's being studied. Thus each state describes only one point in time.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Interactionism is the view that mental states, such as beliefs and desires, causally interact with physical states. This is a position which is very appealing to common-sense intuitions, notwithstanding the fact that it is very difficult to establish its validity or correctness by way of logical argumentation or empirical proof. It seems to appeal to common-sense because we are surrounded by such everyday occurrences as a child's touching a hot stove (physical event) which causes him to feel pain (mental event) and then yell and scream (physical event) which causes his parents to experience a sensation of fear and protectiveness (mental event) and so on.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Non-reductive physicalism is the idea that while mental states are physical they are not reducible to physical properties, in that an ontological distinction lies in the differences between the properties of mind and matter. According to non-reductive physicalism all mental states are causally reducible to physical states where mental properties map to physical properties and vice versa. A prominent form of non-reductive physicalism, called "anomalous monism", was first proposed by Donald Davidson in his 1970 paper "Mental events", in which he claims that mental events are identical with physical events, and that the mental is anomalous, i.e. under their mental descriptions these mental events are not regulated by strict physical laws.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Epiphenomenalism states that all mental events are caused by a physical event and have no physical consequences, and that one or more mental states do not have any influence on physical states. So, the mental event of deciding to pick up a rock (""M1"") is caused by the firing of specific neurons in the brain (""P1""). When the arm and hand move to pick up the rock (""P2"") this is not caused by the preceding mental event "M1", nor by "M1" and "P1" together, but only by "P1". The physical causes are in principle reducible to fundamental physics, and therefore mental causes are eliminated using this reductionist explanation. If P1 causes both "M1" and "P2", there is no overdetermination in the explanation for "P2".


title: Mind–body dualism

text: The idea that even if the animal were conscious nothing would be added to the production of behavior, even in animals of the human type, was first voiced by La Mettrie (1745), and then by Cabanis (1802), and was further explicated by Hodgson (1870) and Huxley (1874). Jackson gave a subjective argument for epiphenomenalism, but later rejected it and embraced physicalism.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Psychophysical parallelism is a very unusual view about the interaction between mental and physical events which was most prominently, and perhaps "only" truly, advocated by Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz. Like Malebranche and others before him, Leibniz recognized the weaknesses of Descartes' account of causal interaction taking place in a physical location in the brain. Malebranche decided that such a material basis of interaction between material and immaterial was impossible and therefore formulated his doctrine of occasionalism, stating that the interactions were really caused by the intervention of God on each individual occasion. Leibniz's idea is that God has created a pre-established harmony such that it only seems "as if" physical and mental events cause, and are caused by, one another. In reality, mental causes only have mental effects and physical causes only have physical effects. Hence, the term "parallelism" is used to describe this view.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Occasionalism is a philosophical doctrine about causation which says that created substances cannot be efficient causes of events. Instead, all events are taken to be caused directly by God itself. The theory states that the illusion of efficient causation between mundane events arises out of a constant conjunction that God had instituted, such that every instance where the cause is present will constitute an "occasion" for the effect to occur as an expression of the aforementioned power. This "occasioning" relation, however, falls short of efficient causation. In this view, it is not the case that the first event causes God to cause the second event: rather, God first caused one and then caused the other, but chose to regulate such behaviour in accordance with general laws of nature. Some of its most prominent historical exponents have been Al-Ghazali, Louis de la Forge, Arnold Geulincx, and Nicolas Malebranche.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: According to the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, there is a distinction between actions done by desire and those performed by liberty (categorical imperative). Thus, not all physical actions are caused by either matter or freedom. Some actions are purely animal in nature, while others are the result of mental action on matter.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Hermotimus of Clazomenae (fl. c. 6th century BCE) was a philosopher who first proposed the idea of mind being fundamental in the cause of change. He proposed that physical entities are static, while reason causes the change. Sextus Empiricus places him with Hesiod, Parmenides, and Empedocles, as belonging to the class of philosophers who held a dualistic theory of a material and an active principle being together the origin of the universe. Similar ideas were expounded by Anaxagoras.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: In the dialogue "Phaedo", Plato formulated his famous Theory of Forms as distinct and immaterial substances of which the objects and other phenomena that we perceive in the world are nothing more than mere shadows.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: In the "Phaedo", Plato makes it clear that the Forms are the "universalia ante res", i.e. they are ideal universals, by which we are able to understand the world. In his allegory of the cave, Plato likens the achievement of philosophical understanding to emerging into the sun from a dark cave, where only vague shadows of what lies beyond that prison are cast dimly upon the wall. Plato's forms are non-physical and non-mental. They exist nowhere in time or space, but neither do they exist in the mind, nor in the pleroma of matter; rather, matter is said to "participate" in form (μεθεξις, "methexis"). It remained unclear however, even to Aristotle, exactly what Plato intended by that.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Aristotle argued at length against many aspects of Plato's forms, creating his own doctrine of hylomorphism wherein form and matter coexist. Ultimately however, Aristotle's aim was to perfect a theory of forms, rather than to reject it. Although Aristotle strongly rejected the independent existence Plato attributed to forms, his metaphysics do agree with Plato's "a priori" considerations quite often. For example, Aristotle argues that changeless, eternal substantial form is necessarily immaterial. Because matter provides a stable substratum for a change in form, matter always has the potential to change. Thus, if given an eternity in which to do so, it "will", necessarily, exercise that potential.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: Part of Aristotle's "psychology", the study of the soul, is his account of the ability of humans to reason and the ability of animals to perceive. In both cases, perfect copies of forms are acquired, either by direct impression of environmental forms, in the case of perception, or else by virtue of contemplation, understanding and recollection. He believed the mind can literally assume any form being contemplated or experienced, and it was unique in its ability to become a blank slate, having no essential form. As thoughts of earth are not heavy, any more than thoughts of fire are causally efficient, they provide an immaterial complement for the formless mind.


title: Mind–body dualism

text: The philosophical school of Neoplatonism, most active in Late Antiquity, claimed that the physical and the spiritual are both emanations of "the One". Neoplatonism exerted a considerable influence on Christianity, as did the philosophy of Aristotle via scholasticism.