title: Carrier strike group

text: On 1 October 2004, carrier groups and cruiser-destroyer groups were redesignated carrier strike groups. The change in nomenclature from 'Battle' to 'Strike' appears to have been connected with an increasing emphasis on projecting air power ashore; the change acknowledged that battles at sea on the Battle of Midway model were becoming more unlikely.


title: Carrier strike group

text: Carrier strike groups are tasked to accomplish a variety of wartime missions, as well as a wide variety of functions in situations short of war. The peacetime mission is to conduct forward presence operations, to help shape the strategic environment, deter conflict, build interoperability with allies, and respond to crises when necessary. The U.S. Navy provides a regular rotation of strike groups overseas, typically for six-eight months, based on the needs of Unified Combatant Commands that request strike group capabilities in their respective area of responsibility (AOR). The ships in the group often "disaggregate" from the carrier, performing missions hundreds or even thousands of miles away.


title: Carrier strike group

text: CSGs are not restricted to a specific composition and can be modified depending on expected threats, roles, or missions during a deployment, and one may be different from another. The Navy states that "there really is no real definition of a strike group. Strike groups are formed and disestablished on an as-needed basis, and one may be different from another. However, they all are similar types of ships."


title: Carrier strike group

text: While the carrier strike group is the various components' operational superior, administratively the ships and the carrier air wing are assigned to different U.S. Navy type commands (TYCOMs). Aircraft carriers and carrier air wings are under the administrative control of Commander, Naval Air Force U.S. Atlantic Fleet, or Commander, Naval Air Forces, Pacific. Escorts, including guided-missile cruisers and a CSG's destroyer squadron are under the administrative control of Commander, Naval Surface Forces Atlantic or Commander, Naval Surface Forces Pacific.


title: Carrier strike group

text: The Strike Group comprises several commands, all of which reside under the authority of the Commander of the CSG (CCSG or COMCARSTRKGRU). The CCSG is typically a rear admiral (lower half), who often promotes to rear admiral (upper half) while in the job. The CCSG is the Immediate Superior in Command (ISIC) to the carrier, air wing, destroyer squadron, and cruiser commanding officers assigned to the strike group. As such, the CCSG is responsible for unit-level training, integrated training, and readiness for assigned ships and units, as well as maintaining administrative functions and material readiness tracking for ships and squadrons assigned to the group.


title: Carrier strike group

text: In battle, the CCSG is also known as the Composite Warfare Commander (CWC), who acts as the central command authority for the entire strike group. The CWC designates subordinate warfare commanders for various missions:


title: Carrier strike group

text: SUWC and USWC responsibilities are often combined into Sea Combat Commander (SCC), usually delegated to the DESRON commander. The SCC performs these duties from aboard the carrier due to its superior command and control capabilities.


title: Carrier strike group

text: In addition, supporting the CWC and the subordinate warfare commanders are coordinators who manage force sensors and assets within the strike group.


title: Carrier strike group

text: The United States Navy maintains 9 carrier strike groups, 8 of which are based in the United States and one that is forward deployed to Japan. They were all redesignations of former Carrier Groups (CarGrus) and Cruiser-Destroyer Groups (CCDGs). The Fleet Response Plan requires that six CSGs be deployed or ready for deployment within 30 days at any given time, while two additional groups must be ready for deployment within 90 days.


title: Carrier strike group

text: The Navy typically maintains at least one CSG in the U.S. Fifth Fleet in Southwest Asia on rotation basis and one on permanent basis in the U.S. Seventh Fleet in the Western Pacific at all times. CSGs operate in the U.S. Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean, and U.S. Fourth Fleet around the South American continent as they transit to and from other areas.


title: Carrier strike group

text: CSG Commanders report to their respective numbered-fleet commander, depending on where they are operating. When not deployed overseas west coast CSGs report to U.S. Third Fleet.


title: Carrier strike group

text: did not have an embarked CSG while the carrier was going through its four-year-long Refueling and Complex Overhaul (RCOH) which was expected to be completed by August 2013. "Theodore Roosevelt" was assigned to Carrier Strike Group Twelve subsequent to deactivation of on 1 December 2012.


title: Carrier strike group

text: On 14 January 2014, the U.S. Navy announced that would replace as the flagship of Carrier Strike Group Five, the only forward-based carrier strike group home-ported at Yokosuka, Japan, as part of the U.S. Seventh Fleet. "George Washington" was scheduled to shift to Newport News for its mid-life Refueling and Complex Overhaul.


title: Carrier strike group

text: On 14 January 2014, the U.S. Navy announced that would shift its home-port to Naval Base San Diego, California, becoming part of the U.S. Third Fleet. As such, "Theodore Roosevelt" and its assigned carrier strike group would also deploy to the U.S. Seventh Fleet's operating area in the western Pacific.


title: Carrier strike group

text: the U.S. Navy was committed to maintaining 11 carriers, but only had 10 active until went into service in 2017.


title: Carrier strike group

text: On 4 August 2017, "George Washington" entered dry dock in Newport News, Virginia, for a four-year Refueling and Complex Overhaul (RCOH).


title: Carrier strike group

text: On 1 August 2011, the Navy announced that Carrier Strike Group Nine would change its permanent duty station from Naval Station Everett to Naval Base San Diego effective 14 December 2012.


title: Carrier strike group

text: Carrier Strike Group Four was redesignated alongside the other groups in 2004, but has since been redesignated Commander Strike Force Training Atlantic. In 2014, CSFTLANT was again redesignated as Carrier Strike Group 4, retaining its role as the training and certification command for all US Fleet Forces assigned warships.


title: Carrier strike group

text: Carrier Strike Group Six was established from Carrier Group Six with at Naval Station Mayport in 2004, but seems to have since been disestablished.


title: Carrier strike group

text: Carrier Strike Group Fifteen has been disestablished, and its flagship, the carrier , was reassigned to Carrier Strike Group Seven. Commander, Strike Force Training Pacific was subsequently redesignated as Carrier Strike Group Fifteen in 2014.


title: Carrier strike group

text: The deactivation of Carrier Strike Group Seven effective 30 December 2011 reflects the U.S. Navy's future budgetary reductions and the reduced availability of its operational carrier fleet and carrier air wings.


Carrier strike group


title: Naturi Naughton

text: Naturi Cora Maria Naughton (born May 20, 1984) is an American singer, songwriter, and actress. Naughton is best known as one-third of the R&B group 3LW and for her acting roles in the films "Fame" and "Notorious", in which she played rapper Lil' Kim. Naughton was a series regular on the NBC series "The Playboy Club" as Bunny Brenda, starred in the first season of the Lifetime drama series "The Client List" as Kendra and starred in the Starz drama "Power" as Tasha St. Patrick, a role she reprised in the spin-off series "". In 2022, she starred as Jill “Da Thrill” in the ABC series "Queens".


title: Naturi Naughton

text: Naughton was born and raised in East Orange, New Jersey, the daughter of Brenda, a part-time paralegal, and Ezra Naughton, a retired accountant. Her father is originally from St. Croix U.S. Virgin Islands and her mother is from Raleigh, North Carolina. Her musical talent emerged at the age of five years, when she joined her church choir at New Hope Baptist Church (the same church where Whitney Houston performed in her youth) in Newark, New Jersey. She continued her musical studies at the Newark School of the Arts. She attended St. Joseph's Catholic school and Immaculate Conception High School in Montclair, New Jersey. She has sung the national anthem at various events in New Jersey and attended Seton Hall University.


title: Naturi Naughton

text: In 1999, at age 15, Naughton joined Adrienne Bailon and Kiely Williams to form the group 3LW. Their first single, "No More (Baby I'ma Do Right)", was released in the fall of 2000. "No More" was a success and was followed by the second single, "Playas Gon' Play" in early 2001. The group's debut album, "3LW", was released on December 5, 2000. The album went platinum, selling 1.3 million copies in the U.S. In the summer of 2001, the group went on the MTV TRL tour along with Destiny's Child, Dream, Nelly, Eve, and Jessica Simpson.


title: Naturi Naughton

text: 3LW spent the first half of 2002 in the studio, recording an album tentatively titled "Same Game, Different Rules". The album and its intended lead single "Uh Oh" were presented to the label, who felt it did not have enough urban radio appeal. The tracks from "Same Game, Different Rules" were leaked to the Internet in MP3 format, and Epic considered dropping the band. A fan support campaign for 3LW named 'Never Let Go of 3LW' followed, and the act was retained. Recording a new set of tracks, 3LW returned in the summer of 2002 with the P. Diddy-produced single "I Do (Wanna Get Close To You)", featuring Loon.


title: Naturi Naughton

text: By August 2002, the group was set to release its newest LP, "A Girl Can Mack", when Naughton announced that she was no longer a member of the group. Naughton says that the other two girls and their management had forced her out. The problems reached a breaking point after a heated argument with Williams, Bailon, and their manager, which allegedly ended with Williams throwing a hot plate full of KFC food at Naughton. Epic Records then ended their relationship with both 3LW and Naughton. Despite Naughton's departure both Bailon and Williams resumed as a duo for a short amount of time and later Jessica Benson became Naughton's replacement. The group has since disbanded. In May 2017, she reunited with former groupmate Bailon on the daytime talk show "The Real", who promoted the season premiere of "Power".


title: Naturi Naughton

text: Naughton recorded five tracks for the "Fame" soundtrack which was released on August 25, 2009. The following month Naughton scored her first solo chart entry ever with her cover of "Fame" peaking at No. 33 on the UK Singles Chart. The single also reached the Top 20 in Finland, Portugal and Norway. In 2010 an extended play was released titled "Fame Presents Naturi Naughton as Denise: Didn't I Tell You". The EP included tracks already heard before as well as previously unreleased tracks.


title: Naturi Naughton

text: In February 2010, when appearing on the BET talk show "The Mo'Nique Show", Naughton expressed interest in recording a solo-debut album. However, Naughton has revealed she is instead focusing on her acting career but has not ruled out an album. An ensemble of demos have leaked to the internet, including a duet with Lil' Kim. However, it is unknown whether or not they will be released on her debut album. She was believed to be working with music producer Full Force at the time.


title: Naturi Naughton

text: In March 2008 Naughton was cast to portray Grammy Award-winning rap artist Lil' Kim in "Notorious", a biopic film about The Notorious B.I.G. The film was released in January 2009 to mixed reviews and went on to make over $43 million worldwide. Lil' Kim has stated that she wasn't mad at Naughton who portrayed her and that she was mad at how they portrayed her.


title: Naturi Naughton

text: Naughton was cast as Denise, an aspiring singer, in the Lionsgate remake of the 1980 film of the same name "Fame". Filming took place in New York City and Los Angeles in November and December 2008. The film was released in September 2009 and opened No. 3 at the U.S. box office in its opening weekend despite negative reviews from critics. The film went on to make $77 million worldwide.


title: Naturi Naughton

text: In August 2010, Naughton was announced to appear in an episode of the AMC drama television series "Mad Men". Naughton portrays the role of Toni Charles, a Playboy Bunny mistress to the character Lane Pryce. The episode, "Hands and Knees", aired on September 26, 2010. The role marked the second time Naughton portrayed a fictional Playboy Bunny. That same month Naughton appeared in the Warner Bros. Pictures comedy film "Lottery Ticket".


title: Naturi Naughton

text: In March 2011, Naughton appeared in the drama television series pilot "The Playboy Club" which centers around the lives of the employees of the original Playboy Club operating in Chicago. The series was picked up by NBC in May 2011. Naughton portrayed the role of Brenda, a Playboy Bunny who dreams of being the first African-American Playboy centerfold. The series premiered on September 19, 2011 and was cancelled after three episodes due to low ratings. In October 2011, Naughton appeared in an episode of the sitcom "It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia". Naughton portrays the role of a 1970s jazz club singer named Shadynasty. In December 2011, Naughton was announced to have been cast in the Lifetime drama television series "The Client List" opposite Jennifer Love Hewitt. The series is a re-imagining of the 2010 film of the same name "The Client List". Naughton portrays the role of Kendra a hard-working masseuse at a parlor. The series premiered on April 8, 2012 to 2.79 million viewers and mixed reviews from critics. In May 2012 Lifetime renewed the series for a 15-episode second season.


title: Naturi Naughton

text: In September 2012, Naughton starred in the BET original film "Let The Church Say Amen" which is adapted from author ReShonda Tate Billingsley's 2005 best-selling novel of the same name. The film was the directorial debut of actress Regina King.


title: Naturi Naughton

text: Naughton starred in the Starz drama "Power" as Tasha St. Patrick, the wife of James "Ghost" St. Patrick played by Omari Hardwick, a New York nightclub owner living a double life as a drug kingpin. She won an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, for the third season. She is set to reprise her role as Tasha in the spin-off series "", which began airing in September 2020.


title: Naturi Naughton

text: On March 8, 2021, it was announced that Naughton was to join the cast of American Broadcasting Company's music series "Queens", alongside Brandy and Eve. In May 2021, it was announced the show was being picked up for a full series, followed by the first official trailer, released on May 18, 2021. On October 1, 2021, the first promo single from "Queens" (“Nasty Girl")


title: Naturi Naughton

text: was released featuring Naughton alongside the cast: Brandy, Eve and Velazquez. A music video, directed by Tim Story, was released on the same day. This was followed on October 18, 2021 by another rap song from the "Queens " soundtrack: “The Introduction”, which was co-written by Nas. "Queens" debuted on October 19, 2021 and reviews were largely positive; Caroline Framke for Variety praised the quartet’s musical offering, calling their raps “sharp and distinct […] making clear their talent as both individuals and a swaggering collective”. Angie Han for The Hollywood Reporter called the show “Impressive […] lavish […] magic”.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: Nitrogen fixation is a chemical process by which molecular nitrogen (), with a strong triple covalent bond, in the air is converted into ammonia () or related nitrogenous compounds, typically in soil or aquatic systems but also in industry. Atmospheric nitrogen is molecular dinitrogen, a relatively nonreactive molecule that is metabolically useless to all but a few microorganisms. Biological nitrogen fixation or "diazotrophy" is an important microbials mediated process that converts dinitrogen (N) gas to ammonia (NH) using the nitrogenase protein complex (Nif).


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: Nitrogen fixation is essential to life because fixed inorganic nitrogen compounds are required for the biosynthesis of all nitrogen-containing organic compounds, such as amino acids and proteins, nucleoside triphosphates and nucleic acids. As part of the nitrogen cycle, it is essential for agriculture and the manufacture of fertilizer. It is also, indirectly, relevant to the manufacture of all nitrogen chemical compounds, which includes some explosives, pharmaceuticals, and dyes.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: Nitrogen fixation is carried out naturally in soil by microorganisms termed diazotrophs that include bacteria, such as "Azotobacter," and archaea. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria have symbiotic relationships with plant groups, especially legumes. Looser non-symbiotic relationships between diazotrophs and plants are often referred to as associative, as seen in nitrogen fixation on rice roots. Nitrogen fixation occurs between some termites and fungi. It occurs naturally in the air by means of NO production by lightning.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: All biological reactions involving the process of nitrogen fixation are catalyzed by enzymes called nitrogenases. These enzymes contain iron, often with a second metal, usually molybdenum but sometimes vanadium.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: Biological nitrogen fixation was discovered by Jean-Baptiste Boussingault in 1838. Later, in 1880, the process by which it happens was discovered by German agronomist Hermann Hellriegel and and was fully described by Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: "The protracted investigations of the relation of plants to the acquisition of nitrogen begun by Saussure, Ville, Lawes and Gilbert and others culminated in the discovery of symbiotic fixation by Hellriegel and Wilfarth in 1887."


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: "Experiments by Bossingault in 1855 and Pugh, Gilbert & Lawes in 1887 had shown that nitrogen did not enter the plant directly. The discovery of the role of nitrogen fixing bacteria by Herman Hellriegel and Herman Wilfarth in 1886-8 would open a new era of soil science."


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: In 1901 Beijerinck showed that "Azotobacter chroococcum" was able to fix atmospheric nitrogen. This was the first species of the azotobacter genus, so-named by him. It is also the first known diazotroph, species that use diatomic nitrogen as a step in the complete nitrogen cycle.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) occurs when atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by a nitrogenase enzyme. The overall reaction for BNF is:


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: The process is coupled to the hydrolysis of 16 equivalents of ATP and is accompanied by the co-formation of one equivalent of . The conversion of into ammonia occurs at a metal cluster called FeMoco, an abbreviation for the iron-molybdenum cofactor. The mechanism proceeds via a series of protonation and reduction steps wherein the FeMoco active site hydrogenates the substrate. In free-living diazotrophs, nitrogenase-generated ammonia is assimilated into glutamate through the glutamine synthetase/glutamate synthase pathway. The microbial nif genes required for nitrogen fixation are widely distributed in diverse environments.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: For example, decomposing wood, which generally has a low nitrogen content, has been shown to host a diazotrophic community. The bacteria enrich the wood substrate with nitrogen through fixation, thus enabling deadwood decomposition by fungi.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: Nitrogenases are rapidly degraded by oxygen. For this reason, many bacteria cease production of the enzyme in the presence of oxygen. Many nitrogen-fixing organisms exist only in anaerobic conditions, respiring to draw down oxygen levels, or binding the oxygen with a protein such as leghemoglobin.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: Atmospheric nitrogen is inaccessible to most organisms, because its triple covalent bond is very strong. Life takes up fixed nitrogen in various ways. Considering atom acquisition, for every 100 atoms of carbon, roughly 2 to 20 atoms of nitrogen are assimilated. The atomic ratio of carbon (C) : nitrogen (N) : phosphorus (P) observed on average in planktonic biomass was originally described by Alfred Redfield. The Redfield Ratio, the stoichiometric relationship between C:N:P atoms, is 106:16:1.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: The protein complex nitrogenase is responsible for catalyzing the reduction of nitrogen gas (N) to ammonia (NH). In Cyanobacteria, this enzyme system is housed in a specialized cell called the heterocyst. The production of the nitrogenase complex is genetically regulated, and the activity of the protein complex is dependent on ambient oxygen concentrations, and intra- and extracellular concentrations of ammonia and oxidized nitrogen species (nitrate and nitrite). Additionally, the combined concentrations of both ammonium and nitrate are thought to inhibit N, specifically when intracellular concentrations of 2-oxoglutarate (2-OG) exceed a critical threshold. The specialized heterocyst cell is necessary for the performance of nitrogenase as a result of its sensitivity to ambient oxygen.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: Nitrogenase consist of two proteins, a catalytic iron-dependent protein, commonly referred to as MoFe protein and a reducing iron-only protein (Fe protein). There are three different iron dependent proteins, molybdenum-dependent, vanadium-dependent, and iron-only, with all three nitrogenase protein variations containing an iron protein component. Molybdenum-dependent nitrogenase is the most commonly present nitrogenase. The different types of nitrogenase can be determined by the specific iron protein component. Nitrogenase is highly conserved. Gene expression through DNA sequencing can distinguish which protein complex is present in the microorganism and potentially being express. Most frequently, the "nif"H gene is used to identify the presence of molybdenum-dependent nitrogenase, followed by closely related nitrogenase reductases (component II) "vnf"H and "anf"H representing vanadium-dependent and iron-only nitrogenase, respectively. In studying the ecology and evolution of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, the "nifH" gene is the biomarker most widely used. "nif"H has two similar genes "anf"H and vnfH that also encode for the nitrogenase reductase component of the nitrogenase complex.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: Diazotrophs are widespread within domain Bacteria including cyanobacteria (e.g. the highly significant "Trichodesmium" and "Cyanothece"), green sulfur bacteria, Azotobacteraceae, rhizobia and "Frankia." Several obligately anaerobic bacteria fix nitrogen including many (but not all) "Clostridium" spp. Some archaea such as "Methanosarcina acetivorans" also fix nitrogen. and several other methanogenic taxa, are significant contributors to nitrogen fixation in oxygen-deficient soils.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: Cyanobacteria, commonly known as blue-green algae, inhabit nearly all illuminated environments on Earth and play key roles in the carbon and nitrogen cycle of the biosphere. In general, cyanobacteria can use various inorganic and organic sources of combined nitrogen, such as nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, urea, or some amino acids. Several cyanobacteria strains are also capable of diazotrophic growth, an ability that may have been present in their last common ancestor in the Archean eon. Nitrogen fixation not only naturally occurs in soils but also aquatic systems, including both freshwater and marine. Indeed, the amount of nitrogen fixed in the ocean is at least as much as that on land. The colonial marine cyanobacterium "Trichodesmium" is thought to fix nitrogen on such a scale that it accounts for almost half of the nitrogen fixation in marine systems globally. Marine surface lichens and non-photosynthetic bacteria belonging in Proteobacteria and Planctomycetes fixate significant atmospheric nitrogen. Species of nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria in fresh waters include: "Aphanizomenon" and "Dolichospermum" (previously Anabaena). Such species have specialized cells called heterocytes, in which nitrogen fixation occurs via the nitrogenase enzyme.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: Plants that contribute to nitrogen fixation include those of the legume family—Fabaceae— with taxa such as kudzu, clover, soybean, alfalfa, lupin, peanut and rooibos. They contain symbiotic rhizobia bacteria within nodules in their root systems, producing nitrogen compounds that help the plant to grow and compete with other plants. When the plant dies, the fixed nitrogen is released, making it available to other plants; this helps to fertilize the soil. The great majority of legumes have this association, but a few genera (e.g., "Styphnolobium") do not. In many traditional farming practices, fields are rotated through various types of crops, which usually include one consisting mainly or entirely of clover.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: Fixation efficiency in soil is dependent on many factors, including the legume and air and soil conditions. For example, nitrogen fixation by red clover can range from .


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: The ability to fix nitrogen in nodules is present in actinorhizal plants such as alder and bayberry, with the help of "Frankia" bacteria. They are found in 25 genera in the orders Cucurbitales, Fagales and Rosales, which together with the Fabales form a "nitrogen-fixing clade" of eurosids. The ability to fix nitrogen is not universally present in these families. For example, of 122 Rosaceae genera, only four fix nitrogen. Fabales were the first lineage to branch off this nitrogen-fixing clade; thus, the ability to fix nitrogen may be plesiomorphic and subsequently lost in most descendants of the original nitrogen-fixing plant; however, it may be that the basic genetic and physiological requirements were present in an incipient state in the most recent common ancestors of all these plants, but only evolved to full function in some of them.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: In addition, "Trema" ("Parasponia"), a tropical genus in the family Cannabaceae, is unusually able to interact with rhizobia and form nitrogen-fixing nodules.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: Some other plants live in association with a cyanobiont (cyanobacteria such as "Nostoc") which fix nitrogen for them:


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: A method for nitrogen fixation was first described by Henry Cavendish in 1784 using electric arcs reacting nitrogen and oxygen in air. This method was implemented in the Birkeland–Eyde process of 1903. The fixation of nitrogen by lightning is a very similar natural occurring process.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: The possibility that atmospheric nitrogen reacts with certain chemicals was first observed by Desfosses in 1828. He observed that mixtures of alkali metal oxides and carbon react with nitrogen at high temperatures. With the use of barium carbonate as starting material, the first commercial process became available in the 1860s, developed by Margueritte and Sourdeval. The resulting barium cyanide reacts with steam, yielding ammonia. In 1898 Frank and Caro developed what is known as the Frank–Caro process to fix nitrogen in the form of calcium cyanamide. The process was eclipsed by the Haber process, which was discovered in 1909.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: The dominant industrial method for producing ammonia is the Haber process also known as the Haber-Bosch process. Fertilizer production is now the largest source of human-produced fixed nitrogen in the terrestrial ecosystem. Ammonia is a required precursor to fertilizers, explosives, and other products. The Haber process requires high pressures (around 200 atm) and high temperatures (at least 400 °C), which are routine conditions for industrial catalysis. This process uses natural gas as a hydrogen source and air as a nitrogen source. The ammonia product has resulted in an intensification of nitrogen fertilizer globally and is credited with supporting the expansion of the human population from around 2 billion in the early 20th century to roughly 8 billion people now.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: Much research has been conducted on the discovery of catalysts for nitrogen fixation, often with the goal of lowering energy requirements. However, such research has thus far failed to approach the efficiency and ease of the Haber process. Many compounds react with atmospheric nitrogen to give dinitrogen complexes. The first dinitrogen complex to be reported was (). Some soluble complexes do catalyze nitrogen fixation.


title: Nitrogen fixation

text: Nitrogen can be fixed by lightning converting nitrogen gas () and oxygen gas () in the atmosphere into (nitrogen oxides). The molecule is highly stable and nonreactive due to the triple bond between the nitrogen atoms. Lightning produces enough energy and heat to break this bond allowing nitrogen atoms to react with oxygen, forming . These compounds cannot be used by plants, but as this molecule cools, it reacts with oxygen to form , which in turn reacts with water to produce (nitrous acid) or (nitric acid). When these acids seep into the soil, they make (nitrate), which is of use to plants.


title: Sea level

text: Mean sea level (MSL, often shortened to sea level) is an average surface level of one or more among Earth's coastal bodies of water from which heights such as elevation may be measured. The global MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic datumthat is used, for example, as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation, or, in aviation, as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured to calibrate altitude and, consequently, aircraft flight levels. A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is instead the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location.


title: Sea level

text: Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales. Current sea level rise is mainly caused by human-induced climate change. When temperatures rise, mountain glaciers and the polar ice caps melt, increasing the amount of water in water bodies. Because most of human settlement and infrastructure was built in response to a more normalized sea level with limited expected change, populations affected by climate change in connection to sea level rise will need to invest in climate adaptation to mitigate the worst effects or when populations are in extreme risk, a process of managed retreat.


title: Sea level

text: The term "above sea level" generally refers to above mean sea level (AMSL). The term APSL means above present sea level, comparing sea levels in the past with the level today.


title: Sea level

text: Earth's radius at sea level is 6,378.137 km (3,963.191 mi) at the equator. It is 6,356.752 km (3,949.903 mi) at the poles and 6,371.001 km (3,958.756 mi) on average.


title: Sea level

text: Precise determination of a "mean sea level" is difficult because of the many factors that affect sea level. Instantaneous sea level varies quite a lot on several scales of time and space. This is because the sea is in constant motion, affected by the tides, wind, atmospheric pressure, local gravitational differences, temperature, salinity, and so forth. The easiest way this may be calculated is by selecting a location and calculating the mean sea level at that point and using it as a datum. For example, a period of 19 years of hourly level observations may be averaged and used to determine the mean sea level at some measurement point.


title: Sea level

text: "Still-water level" or "still-water sea level" (SWL) is the level of the sea with motions such as wind waves averaged out.


title: Sea level

text: Then MSL implies the SWL further averaged over a period of time such that changes due to, e.g., the tides, also have zero mean.


title: Sea level

text: One often measures the values of MSL in respect to the land; hence a change in relative MSL can result from a real change in sea level, or from a change in the height of the land on which the tide gauge operates.


title: Sea level

text: In the UK, the Ordnance Datum (the 0 metres height on UK maps) is the mean sea level measured at Newlyn in Cornwall between 1915 and 1921. Before 1921, the vertical datum was MSL at the Victoria Dock, Liverpool.


title: Sea level

text: Since the times of the Russian Empire, in Russia and its other former parts, now independent states, the sea level is measured from the zero level of Kronstadt Sea-Gauge.


title: Sea level

text: In Hong Kong, "mPD" is a surveying term meaning "metres above Principal Datum" and refers to height of 0.146m above chart datum and 1.304m below the average sea level.


title: Sea level

text: In France, the Marégraphe in Marseilles measures continuously the sea level since 1883 and offers the longest collated data about the sea level. It is used for a part of continental Europe and the main part of Africa as the official sea level. Spain uses the reference to measure heights below or above sea level at Alicante, and another European vertical elevation reference (European Vertical Reference System) is to the Amsterdam Peil elevation, which dates back to the 1690s.


title: Sea level

text: Satellite altimeters have been making precise measurements of sea level since the launch of TOPEX/Poseidon in 1992. A joint mission of NASA and CNES, TOPEX/Poseidon was followed by Jason-1 in 2001 and the Ocean Surface Topography Mission on the Jason-2 satellite in 2008.


title: Sea level

text: "Height above mean sea level" ("AMSL") is the elevation (on the ground) or altitude (in the air) of an object, relative to the average sea level datum. It is also used in aviation, where some heights are recorded and reported with respect to mean sea level (MSL) (contrast with flight level), and in the atmospheric sciences, and land surveying. An alternative is to base height measurements on an ellipsoid of the entire Earth, which is what systems such as GPS do. In aviation, the ellipsoid known as World Geodetic System 84 is increasingly used to define heights; however, differences exist between this ellipsoid height and mean tidal height. The alternative is to use a geoid-based vertical datum such as NAVD88 and the global EGM96 (part of WGS84).


title: Sea level

text: When referring to geographic features such as mountains on a topographic map, variations in elevation are shown by contour lines. The elevation of a mountain denotes the highest point or summit and is typically illustrated as a small circle on a topographic map with the AMSL height shown in metres, feet or both.


title: Sea level

text: In the rare case that a location is below sea level, the elevation AMSL is negative. For one such case, see Amsterdam Airport Schiphol.


title: Sea level

text: To extend this definition far from the sea means comparing the local height of the mean sea surface with a "level" reference surface, or geodetic datum, called the geoid. In a state of rest or absence of external forces, the mean sea level would coincide with this geoid surface, being an equipotential surface of the Earth's gravitational field which, in itself, does not conform to a simple sphere or ellipsoid and exhibits measurable variations such as those measured by NASA's GRACE satellites to determine mass changes in ice-sheets and aquifers. In reality, this ideal does not occur due to ocean currents, air pressure variations, temperature and salinity variations, etc., not even as a long-term average. The location-dependent, but persistent in time, separation between mean sea level and the geoid is referred to as (mean) ocean surface topography. It varies globally in a range of ±2m.


title: Sea level

text: The melting of glaciers at the end of ice ages is one example of eustatic sea level rise. The subsidence of land due to the withdrawal of groundwater is an isostatic cause of relative sea level rise.


title: Sea level

text: Paleoclimatologists can track sea level by examining the rocks deposited along coasts that are very tectonically stable, like the east coast of North America. Areas like volcanic islands are experiencing relative sea level rise as a result of isostatic cooling of the rock which causes the land to sink.


title: Sea level

text: On other planets that lack a liquid ocean, planetologists can calculate a "mean altitude" by averaging the heights of all points on the surface. This altitude, sometimes referred to as a "sea level" or zero-level elevation, serves equivalently as a reference for the height of planetary features.


title: Sea level

text: Local mean sea level (LMSL) is defined as the height of the sea with respect to a land benchmark, averaged over a period of time (such as a month or a year) long enough that fluctuations caused by waves and tides are smoothed out. One must adjust perceived changes in LMSL to account for vertical movements of the land, which can be of the same order (mm/yr) as sea level changes. Some land movements occur because of isostatic adjustment of the mantle to the melting of ice sheets at the end of the last ice age. The weight of the ice sheet depresses the underlying land, and when the ice melts away the land slowly rebounds. Changes in ground-based ice volume also affect local and regional sea levels by the readjustment of the geoid and true polar wander. Atmospheric pressure, ocean currents and local ocean temperature changes can affect LMSL as well.


title: Sea level

text: Eustatic sea level change (as opposed to local change) results in an alteration to the global sea levels due to changes in either the volume of water in the world's oceans or net changes in the volume of the oceanic basins.


title: Sea level

text: There are many factors which can produce short-term (a few minutes to 14 months) changes in sea level. Two major mechanisms are causing sea level to rise. First, shrinking land ice, such as mountain glaciers and polar ice sheets, is releasing water into the oceans. Second, as ocean temperatures rise, the warmer water expands.


title: Sea level

text: Pilots can estimate height above sea level with an altimeter set to a defined barometric pressure. Generally, the pressure used to set the altimeter is the barometric pressure that would exist at MSL in the region being flown over. This pressure is referred to as either QNH or "altimeter" and is transmitted to the pilot by radio from air traffic control (ATC) or an automatic terminal information service (ATIS). Since the terrain elevation is also referenced to MSL, the pilot can estimate height above ground by subtracting the terrain altitude from the altimeter reading. Aviation charts are divided into boxes and the maximum terrain altitude from MSL in each box is clearly indicated. Once above the transition altitude, the altimeter is set to the international standard atmosphere (ISA) pressure at MSL which is 1013.25 hPa or 29.92 inHg.


title: Lindsay Crouse

text: Lindsay Ann Crouse is a retired American actress. She made her Broadway debut in the 1972 revival of "Much Ado About Nothing" and appeared in her first film in 1976 in "All the President's Men". For her role in the 1984 film "Places in the Heart", she received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress. Her other films include "Slap Shot" (1977), "Between the Lines" (1977), "The Verdict" (1982), "Prefontaine" (1997), and "The Insider" (1999). She also had a leading role in the 1987 film "House of Games", which was directed by her then-husband David Mamet. In 1996, she received a Daytime Emmy Award nomination for "Between Mother and Daughter", an episode of "CBS Schoolbreak Special". She is also a Grammy Award nominee.


title: Lindsay Crouse

text: Crouse was born in New York City, the daughter of Anna (née Erskine) and Russel Crouse, a playwright. Her maternal grandparents were author and educator John Erskine and his wife Pauline Ives. Lindsay Ann Crouse's full name is an intentional tribute to the Broadway writing partnership of Lindsay and Crouse, which consisted of her father and his writing partner, Howard Lindsay. The two wrote much of "The Sound of Music". Their 1946 play "State of the Union" won that year's Pulitzer Prize for Drama. Their last collaboration was "Mr. President" in 1962. As Crouse has said: "In our family, the work ethic was held up as some kind of byword ... At any hour, somebody's typewriter was going."


title: Lindsay Crouse

text: and Radcliffe College in 1970, Crouse began her performing career as a modern and jazz dancer, but she soon switched to acting and made her Broadway debut in "Much Ado About Nothing" in 1972. She received her acting training at HB Studio in New York City.


title: Lindsay Crouse

text: Crouse's film career began in 1976, with small roles in television and theatrical movies. In 1977, she appeared as Lily Braden, the discontented wife of hockey player Ned Braden in "Slap Shot". In 1982 she appeared as the decisive witness in "The Verdict". Crouse was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role in the 1984 movie "Places in the Heart". Among her films was a starring role in "House of Games", the 1987 film directed and written by her then-husband David Mamet, in which she plays Margaret Ford, a psychiatrist who is intrigued by the art of the con. "It's always hard to be directed by someone who's close to you," Crouse says. "Because everybody needs to go home and complain about the director. Everybody."


title: Lindsay Crouse

text: Crouse has appeared in featured and guest roles in a number of television series. Notable roles include a recurring portrayal of Kate McBride, a lesbian police officer on "Hill Street Blues" during its sixth season in 1986. This was the first lesbian recurring character on a major network. Crouse is also known for her role in the fourth season of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", where she was a recurring supporting cast member playing Professor Maggie Walsh. Crouse has also guest-starred on "Alias", "", "Columbo", "Criminal Minds", "Law & Order", "ER", "Millennium", and "NYPD Blue".


title: Lindsay Crouse

text: In recent years, Crouse has concentrated on the theater. "Once you get your driver's license, you end your film career," says Crouse. "Look at my generation. Great actresses like Glenn Close and Susan Sarandon—there's nothing written for anyone over a certain age." In 2007, Crouse opened a revival of "The Belle of Amherst", a one-woman show about the life of poet Emily Dickinson, at the Gloucester Stage in Gloucester, Massachusetts. "You can't stop and recite something," says Crouse. "You have to keep the poetry very, very active, which is pretty easy with Dickinson. She was striving so hard to understand what life was about. It's very dramatic poetry in that way.


title: Lindsay Crouse

text: Crouse appeared in Lee Blessing's "Going to St. Ives" with the Gloucester Stage Company during the summer of 2008 and provided the narration for "Virginia Lee Burton: A Sense of Place", a documentary film about Virginia Lee Burton. In 2021, she appeared in a limited engagement of "Mornings at Seven" at Broadway's Theatre at St. Clements.


title: Lindsay Crouse

text: After a relationship with Robert Duvall, Crouse married playwright David Mamet in 1977. The two had met during the production on "Slap Shot". John Lahr writes in his book "Show and Tell: New Yorker Profiles" that when Mamet married Crouse in 1977, he "married into show business aristocracy". Lahr also writes that Mamet got his first screenwriting assignment through Crouse. Crouse was on her way to audition for Bob Rafelson's 1981 remake of "The Postman Always Rings Twice", and jokingly Mamet told Crouse to tell Rafelson that "he was a fool if he didn't hire me to write the screenplay." But Crouse said this to Rafelson, who called Mamet; when the director asked why he should hire him for the screenplay, Mamet replied, "Because I'll give you a good screenplay or a sincere apology." Mamet got the job. She and Mamet divorced in 1990. Their marriage produced two daughters, Willa and Zosia Mamet.


title: Lindsay Crouse

text: Crouse's brother is Timothy Crouse, author of "The Boys on the Bus" about political journalism during the 1972 presidential campaign.


title: Lindsay Crouse

text: Crouse is a Buddhist. In 2005, she organized an annual Buddhist educational program, originally held at the Windhover Center for the Performing Arts in Rockport, Massachusetts, and then in 2010 moved to The Governor's Academy in Byfield, Massachusetts. Crouse has spoken on the relevance of Buddhism in the modern world:


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: The Boeing B-50 Superfortress is an American strategic bomber. A post–World War II revision of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, it was fitted with more powerful Pratt & Whitney R-4360 radial engines, stronger structure, a taller tail fin, and other improvements. It was the last piston-engined bomber built by Boeing for the United States Air Force, and was further refined into Boeing's final such design, the B-54. Although not as well known as its direct predecessor, the B-50 was in USAF service for nearly 20 years.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: After its primary service with Strategic Air Command (SAC) ended, B-50 airframes were modified into aerial tankers for Tactical Air Command (TAC) (KB-50) and as weather reconnaissance aircraft (WB-50) for the Air Weather Service. Both the tanker and hurricane hunter versions were retired in March 1965 due to metal fatigue and corrosion found in the wreckage of KB-50J, "48-065", which crashed on 14 October 1964.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: Development of an improved B-29 started in 1944, with the desire to replace the unreliable Wright R-3350 Duplex-Cyclone engines with the more powerful four-row, 28-cylinder Pratt & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major radial engine, America's largest-ever displacement aircraft piston engine in large-scale production. A B-29A-5-BN (serial number "42-93845") was modified by Pratt & Whitney as a testbed for the installation of the R-4360 in the B-29, with four R-4360-33s replacing the R-3350s. The modified aircraft, designated XB-44 Superfortress, first flew in May 1945.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: The planned Wasp-Major powered bomber, the B-29D, was to incorporate considerable changes in addition to the engine installation tested in the XB-44. The use of a new alloy of aluminum, 75-S rather than the existing 24ST, gave a wing that was both stronger and lighter, while the undercarriage was strengthened to allow the aircraft to operate at weights of up to greater than the B-29. A larger vertical fin and rudder (which could fold to allow the aircraft to fit into existing hangars) and enlarged flaps were provided to deal with the increased engine power and weight, respectively.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: Armament was similar to that of the B-29, with two bomb bays carrying of bombs, and a further externally. Defensive armament was 13 × 12.7mm (.50 inch) machine guns (or 12 machine guns and one cannon) in five turrets.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: First flying in May 1945, the sole XB-44 proved faster than the standard B-29, although existing sources do not indicate how much of this increased speed was due to differing aircraft weight due to deleted armament or increased power due to the R-4360-33 engines.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: An order for 200 B-29Ds was placed in July 1945, but the ending of World War II in August 1945 prompted mass cancellations of outstanding orders for military equipment, with over 5,000 B-29s canceled in September 1945. In December that year, B-29D orders were cut from 200 to 60, while at the same time the designation of the aircraft was changed to B-50.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: Officially, the aircraft's new designation was justified by the changes incorporated into the revised aircraft, but according to Peter M. Bowers, a long-time Boeing employee and aircraft designer and a well-known authority on Boeing aircraft, "the re-designation was an outright military ruse to win appropriations for the procurement of an airplane that by its B-29D designation appeared to be merely a later version of an existing model that was being canceled wholesale, with many existing examples being put into dead storage."


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: The first production B-50A (there were no prototypes, as the aircraft's engines and new tail had already been tested) made its maiden flight on 25 June 1947, with a further 78 B-50As following. The last airframe of the initial order was held back for modification to the prototype YB-50C, a planned version to be powered by R-4360-43 turbo-compound engines. It was to have a longer fuselage, allowing the two small bomb bays of the B-29 and the B-50A to be replaced by a single large bomb bay, more suited to carrying large nuclear weapons. It would also have longer wings, which required additional outrigger wheels to stabilize the aircraft on the ground.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: Orders for 43 B-54s, the planned production version of the YB-50C, were placed in 1948, but the program was unpopular with Curtis LeMay, commander of Strategic Air Command (SAC), as being inferior to the Convair B-36 Peacemaker and having little capacity for further improvement, while requiring an expensive redevelopment of air bases owing to the type's undercarriage. The B-54 program was therefore canceled in April 1949, work on the YB-50C being stopped before it was completed.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: While the B-54 was canceled, production of less elaborate developments continued as a stopgap until jet bombers such as the Boeing B-47 and B-52 could enter service. Forty-five B-50Bs, fitted with lightweight fuel tanks and capable of operating at higher weights, were built, followed by 222 B-50Ds, capable of carrying underwing fuel tanks and distinguished by a one-piece plastic nose dome.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: To give the Superfortress the range to reach the Soviet Union, B-50s were fitted to be refueled in flight. Most (but not all) of the B-50As were fitted with the early "looped hose" refueling system, developed by the British company Flight Refuelling Limited, in which the receiving aircraft would use a grapple to catch a line trailed by the tanker aircraft (normally a Boeing KB-29) before hauling over the fuel line to allow transfer of fuel to begin. While this system worked, it was clumsy, and Boeing designed the alternative Flying Boom method to refuel SAC's bombers, with most B-50Ds being fitted with receptacles for Flying Boom refueling.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: Revisions to the B-50 (from its predecessor B-29) increased top speed to just under . Changes included:


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: The C-97 military transport was, in its 1944 prototype, essentially a large upper fuselage tube attached to a B-29 lower fuselage and wings, with an inverted figure-eight cross-section. In its production version it incorporated the key elements of the B-50 platform including, after the first 10 in production, the enlarged tailfin of the B-50. The B-29 and B-50 were phased out with introduction of the jet-powered B-47 Stratojet. The B-50 was nicknamed "Andy Gump", because the redesigned engine nacelles reminded aircrew of the chinless newspaper comic character popular at the time.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: Boeing built 370 of the various B-50 models and variants between 1947 and 1953, the tanker and weather reconnaissance versions remaining in service until 1965.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: The first B-50As were delivered in June 1948 to the Strategic Air Command's 43d Bombardment Wing, based at Davis–Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona. The 2d Bombardment Wing at Chatham Air Force Base, Georgia also received B-50As; the 93d Bombardment Wing at Castle Air Force Base, California and the 509th Bombardment Wing at Walker Air Force Base, New Mexico received B-50Ds in 1949. The fifth and last SAC wing to receive B-50Ds was the 97th Bombardment Wing at Biggs Air Force Base, Texas in December 1950.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: The 301st Bombardment Wing at MacDill Air Force Base, Florida received some B-50As reassigned from Davis–Monthan in early 1951, but used them for non-operational training pending the delivery of B-47A Stratojets in June 1951. The B-50 was built as an interim strategic bomber to be replaced by the B-47 Stratojet, but delays to the Stratojet forced the B-50 to soldier on until well into the 1950s.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: A strategic reconnaissance version of the B-50B, the RB-50 was developed in 1949 to replace the aging RB-29s used by SAC in its intelligence-gathering operations against the Soviet Union. Three different configurations were produced, which were later redesignated RB-50E, RB-50F, and RB-50G. The RB-50E was earmarked for photographic reconnaissance and observation missions; The RB-50F resembled the RB-50E but carried the SHORAN radar navigation system designed to conduct mapping, charting, and geodetic surveys, and the mission of the RB-50G was electronic reconnaissance. These aircraft were operated primarily by the 55th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing. RB-50Es were also operated by the 91st Strategic Reconnaissance Wing as a replacement for RB-29 photographic reconnaissance aircraft flown over North Korea during the Korean War.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: The vast northern borders of the Soviet Union were wide open in many places during the early Cold War years, with little defensive radar coverage and limited detection capability. RB-50 aircraft of the 55th SRW flew many sorties along the periphery and, where necessary, into the interior. Initially, there was little opposition from the Soviet forces as radar coverage was limited and, if the overflying aircraft were detected, the World War II-era Soviet fighters could not intercept the RB-50s at their high altitude.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: The deployment of the MiG-15 interceptor in the early 1950s made these flights exceedingly hazardous, with several being shot down by Soviet air defenses and the wreckage being examined by intelligence personnel. RB-50 missions over Soviet territory ended by 1954, replaced by the RB-47 Stratojet intelligence aircraft that could fly higher at near-supersonic speed.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: The B-47 Stratojet was manufactured in large numbers beginning in 1953 and eventually replaced the B-50Ds in SAC service; the last being retired in 1955. With its retirement from the nuclear-bomber mission, many B-50 airframes were converted to aerial refueling tankers.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: The B-50, with more powerful engines than the KB-29s in use by Tactical Air Command (TAC), was much more suitable to refuel tactical jet fighter aircraft, such as the F-100 Super Sabre. As tankers, KB-50s had extensively reinforced outer wing panels, the necessary equipment to air-refuel simultaneously three fighter-type aircraft by the probe and drogue method, and removed defensive armament.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: The first KB-50 flew in December 1955 and was accepted by the Air Force in January 1956. The tankers steadily entered the operational inventory of TAC supplanting TAC's KB-29s. By the end of 1957, all of the command's aerial refuling squadrons had their full complement of KB-50s. KB-50s, and later KB-50Js with two General Electric J47 jet engines were used by TAC, and also by USAFE and PACAF overseas as aerial tankers. Some were deployed to Thailand and flew refueling missions over Indochina in the early years of the Vietnam War until being retired in March 1965 due to metal fatigue and corrosion.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: In addition to the aerial tanker conversion, the Air Weather Service by 1955 had worn out the WB-29s used for hurricane hunting and other weather reconnaissance missions. Thirty-six former SAC B-50Ds were stripped of their armament and equipped for long-range weather reconnaissance missions. The WB-50 could fly higher, faster and longer than the WB-29. However, between 1956 and 1960 it experienced 13 major operational accidents, six of them involving the loss of the entire crew, and 66 crew-member fatalities. After the weather reconnaissance fleet was grounded in May 1960 because of fuel leaks, plans were set in motion in 1962 to modify B-47 Stratojets being phased out of SAC to replace it in the role. The WB-50 had an important role during the Cuban Missile Crisis, when it monitored the weather around Cuba to plan photo-reconnaissance flights. The WB-50 was finally retired in 1965 due to metal fatigue and corrosion.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: AF Ser. No. 46-0010 "Lucky Lady II" – The first plane to fly around the world nonstop, between February 26 and March 2, 1949. Was refueled four times in air by KB-29 tanker planes of the 43rd Air Refuelling Squadron, over the Azores, Saudi Arabia, the Philippines and Hawaii. The circumnavigation took 94 hours and 1 minute, and covered 37,743 km (23,452 miles) at an average speed of 398 km/h (249 mph). Lucky Lady II was disassembled after a serious accident and its forward fuselage is stored outside at Planes of Fame Air Museum in Chino, California.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: AF Ser. No. 49-0310 – National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: AF Ser. No. 49-0351 "Flight Of The Phoenix" – Castle Air Museum at the former Castle Air Force Base in Atwater, California. This was the last B-50 to be flown, being delivered to MASDC at Davis–Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, on 6 October 1965. It was put on display at the Castle Air Museum in 1980.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: AF Ser No. 49-0372 – Pima Air & Space Museum adjacent to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in Tucson, Arizona.


title: Boeing B-50 Superfortress

text: AF Ser. No. 49-0389 – Air Mobility Command Museum in Dover, Delaware. Formerly an outdoor display at MacDill Memorial Park at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, Florida. In 2018, 49–0389 was dismantled and relocated to the Air Mobility Command Museum, where the air frame is being repaired before reassembly.


title: Vinay Rai

text: Vinay Rai (born 18 September 1979) is an Indian actor who primarily appears in Tamil films. He is best known for his performance in the films "Unnale Unnale" (2007), "Jayamkondaan" (2008), "Endrendrum Punnagai" (2013) and "Aranmanai" (2014). He turned villain in "Thupparivaalan" (2017) and has played negative roles in several films including "Doctor" (2021) and "Etharkkum Thunindhavan" (2022).


title: Vinay Rai

text: Vinay was originally a commercial model in Mumbai. He played rugby for BRFC and was part of the Indian squad that toured Bahrain in 2001.


title: Vinay Rai

text: He debuted as an actor in director Jeeva's "Unnale Unnale" (2007) co-starring Sadha and Tanisha Mukherjee. The film became a huge success upon release and brought in more acting offers for Vinay. He was supposed to play the lead role in Gandhi Krishna's "Ananda Thandavam" but he was later replaced by newcomer Siddharth Venugopal.


title: Vinay Rai

text: Since his debut film, he has appeared in a Telugu language film, "Vaana" (2008), which flopped at the box-office and it was dubbed in Tamil as "Gnabagangal Thalattum" in 2013. Despite getting offers to act in romance films, Vinay stayed away from them and he stated that he didn't want to be stereotyped as a "chocolate boy". His second Tamil film "Jayamkondaan" (2008) was commercially and critically successful. Playing the role of an NRI civil engineer who returned to Chennai to set up his own business, his performance fetched positive reviews with a reviewer citing that "Vinay, as the protagonist is very comfortable in his role. He has expressive eyes, emotes well, and makes sure his audience isn't disappointed". In 2009, he starred in Saran's "Modhi Vilayadu" for which he dubbed in his own voice for the first time. The film, starring Kajal Aggarwal and Kalabhavan Mani, opened to mixed reviews from critics and became a box office failure. Three of his films including "Veelle" and "Nootruku Nooru" were shelved because the production companies went broke.


title: Vinay Rai

text: He made a comeback in 2011 with a role in the English film, "Dam 999", which had a poor commercial and critical response. The next year, Vinay appeared in the action comedy film "Mirattal" (2012), remake of the Telugu film "Dhee" (2007). The film, which starred Sharmila Mandre opposite him, got an average response. Vinay's performances received favourable reviews, with a reviewer citing that "Vinay Rai looks comfortable in his role and dishes out a neat performance". In 2013, he appeared in P. T. Selvakumar's comedy film "Onbadhule Guru". Upon release, the film was panned by the critics for its weak direction, poor execution and crude humour. The same year, he played a supporting role in the comedy-drama film "Endrendrum Punnagai" co-starring Jiiva and Trisha. Upon release, the film won positive reviews citing that the film was "worth a watch" and a critic stated, "Vinay performs with no inhibitions in all his portions, be it comedy, dance or the emotional scenes and this film will prove to be a good vehicle for him to reach a larger audience". Vinay then acted in the horror comedy film "Aranmanai" (2014) directed by Sundar C. which turned out to be a blockbuster. His next release was "Serndhu Polama" (2015), co-starring Nyra Banerjee and Preethi Christina Paul, and directed by Malayalam film director Anil. The film, entirely shot in New Zealand, was released to negative reviews.


title: Vinay Rai

text: In 2017, he played a negative character in the crime thriller "Thupparivaalan" directed by Mysskin. The film opened to positive reviews with a critic from Sify claiming that "Vinay Rai as the ruthless baddie is a revelation". The same year, Vinay played a dual role in the long-delayed film "Aayirathil Iruvar" again with Saran. The film opened to negative reviews with a critic from "IndiaGlitz" stating, "Vinay who just impressed with his heartless killer in "Thupparivaalan" can forget "Aayirathil Iruvar" in a hurry as both his characters are written wafer thin with no underlying subtext for him to score".


title: Vinay Rai

text: His next venture "Nethraa" (2019) was a thriller film directed by A. Venkatesh co-starring Thaman Kumar and Subiksha. The film, which was extensively shot in Canada, opened to negative critical response upon release. In 2021, his films were "Iruvar Ullam" that was delayed after years and Nelson's action comedy, "Doctor" opposing the actor Sivakarthikeyan. Vinay Rai played the antagonist. Vinay Rai's performance adds to the tension created by the solid screenwriting and directing. He has also acted as the antagonist in Suriya’s recent film "Etharkkum Thunindhavan".


title: Mid-Atlantic (United States)

text: The Middle Atlantic states, commonly shortened to Mid-Atlantic states, is a region of the United States generally located in the overlap between the Northeastern and Southeastern states. Its exact definition differs upon source, but the region typically includes Delaware, the District of Columbia, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia. When discussing climate geography, sometimes Connecticut is grouped with the Middle Atlantic states.


title: Mid-Atlantic (United States)

text: The Mid-Atlantic has played an important role in the development of American culture, commerce, trade, and industry; in the late 19th century, the Mid-Atlantic was called "the typically American" region by historian Frederick Jackson Turner.


title: Mid-Atlantic (United States)

text: European Americans of the Mid-Atlantic region have ancestry from its settlement by the Dutch, Swedes, English Catholics, and Quakers through to the period of British rule and beyond to the current day. Religious pluralism existed, particularly in Maryland, which was the only colony in the original Thirteen Colonies to have a substantial Catholic minority population. After the American Revolution, the Mid-Atlantic region hosted each of the historic capitals of the United States, including the current federal capital, Washington, D.C. In the early part of the 19th century, New York and Pennsylvania overtook Virginia as the most populous states and the New England states as the country's most important trading and industrial centers. Large numbers of German, Irish, Italian, Jewish, Polish, and other immigrants transformed the region, especially coastal cities such as New York City, Newark, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, but also interior cities such as Pittsburgh, Rochester, Albany, and Buffalo. New York, with its skyscrapers, subways, and the Headquarters of the United Nations, emerged in the 20th century as an icon of modernity and American economic and cultural power. By the 21st century, the coastal areas of the Mid-Atlantic were thoroughly urbanized.


title: Mid-Atlantic (United States)

text: The Northeast Corridor and Interstate 95 link an almost contiguous sprawl of suburbs and large and small cities, forming the Mid-Atlantic portion of the Northeast megalopolis, one of the world's most important concentrations of finance, media, communications, education, medicine, and technology. The Mid-Atlantic is a relatively affluent region of the nation, having 43 of the 100 highest-income counties in the nation, based on median household income, and 33 of the top 100, based on per capita income. Most of the Mid-Atlantic states rank among the 15 highest-income states in the nation, by median household income and per capita income. The region is home to some of the most prestigious universities in the nation and the world, including Columbia University, Cornell University, Johns Hopkins University, Princeton University, and the University of Pennsylvania, which rank among the top 20 universities in the United States, and the top 25 universities in the world.


title: Mid-Atlantic (United States)

text: There are differing interpretations as to the composition of the Mid-Atlantic, with sources including in the region a number of states from New York to South Carolina. A United States Geological Survey publication describes the Mid-Atlantic Region as all of Maryland, Delaware, the District of Columbia, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, along with the parts of New Jersey, New York, and North Carolina that drain into the Delaware and Chesapeake Bays and the Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds. Sometimes, the region's nucleus is considered to be the area centered on the Washington metropolitan area, including Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and West Virginia. In contrast to other definitions (where the Mid-Atlantic overlaps the Northeast and Southeast), the United States Census Bureau defines the Middle Atlantic as a subregion of the Northeast consisting exclusively of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.


title: Mid-Atlantic (United States)

text: West Virginia and Virginia are atypical of this region in a few ways. They are the only states to lie primarily within the Southern American dialect region, and the major religious tradition in both states is Evangelical Christian, 30% in Virginia and 39% in West Virginia. Although a few of West Virginia's eastern panhandle counties are considered part of the Washington metropolitan area, the major portion of the state is rural and there are no major or even large cities.


title: Mid-Atlantic (United States)

text: Shipping and trade have been important to the Mid-Atlantic economy since the beginning of the colonial era. The explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European to see the region in 1524. Henry Hudson later extensively explored that region in 1611 and claimed it for the Dutch, who then created a fur-trading post in Albany in 1614. Jamestown, Virginia was the first permanent English colony in North America, it was established seven years earlier in 1607.


title: Mid-Atlantic (United States)

text: From early colonial times, the Mid-Atlantic region was settled by a wider range of European people than in New England or the South. The Dutch New Netherland settlement along the Hudson River in New York City and New Jersey, and for a time, New Sweden along the Delaware River in Delaware, divided the two great bulwarks of English settlement from each other. The original English settlements in the region notably provided refuge to religious minorities, Maryland to Roman Catholics and Pennsylvania to Quakers and Anabaptist Pennsylvania Dutch. In time, all these settlements fell under English colonial control, but the region continued to be a magnet for people of diverse nationalities.


title: Mid-Atlantic (United States)

text: The area that came to be known as the Middle Colonies served as a strategic bridge between the North and South. The New York and New Jersey campaign during the American Revolutionary War saw more battles than any other theater of the conflict. Philadelphia, midway between the northern and southern colonies, was home to the Continental Congress, the convention of delegates who organized the American Revolution. The same city was the birthplace of the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the United States Constitution in 1787, while the United States Bill of Rights was drafted and ratified and the first Supreme Court of the United States sat for the first time, in the first capital under the Constitution at New York.


title: Mid-Atlantic (United States)

text: While early settlers were mostly farmers, traders, and fishermen, the Mid-Atlantic states provided the young United States with heavy industry and served as the "melting pot" of new immigrants from Europe. Cities grew along major ports, shipping routes, and waterways, including New York City and Newark on opposite sides of the Hudson River, Philadelphia on the Delaware River, Allentown on the Lehigh River, and Baltimore on the Chesapeake Bay.


title: Mid-Atlantic (United States)

text: The Mid-Atlantic is home to 33 professional sports franchises in the five major leagues and the two most prominent women's professional leagues:


title: Mid-Atlantic (United States)

text: Notable golf tournaments in the Mid-Atlantic include the Barclays, Quicken Loans National and Atlantic City LPGA Classic.


title: Mid-Atlantic (United States)

text: Two high-level professional tennis tournaments are held in the region. The US Open, held in New York, is one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, whereas the Washington Open is part of the ATP Tour 500 series and WTA 250 series.


title: Mid-Atlantic (United States)

text: Notable motorsports tracks include Watkins Glen International, Dover Motor Speedway and Pocono Raceway, which have hosted Formula One, IndyCar, NASCAR, World Sportscar Championship and IMSA races. Also, the Englishtown and Reading drag strips such have hosted NHRA national events. Pimlico Race Course at Baltimore and Belmont Park at New York host the Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes horse races, which are part of the Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing.


title: Mid-Atlantic (United States)

text: With a GDP of nearly $4.75 trillion, the Mid-Atlantic economy would be fourth largest in the world if calculated separately, only behind the remaining United States, China, and Japan. This economic prosperity is buoyed by a significant financial services and banking sector, healthcare and chemicals industry, and telecommunications and entertainment conglomerates.


title: Mid-Atlantic (United States)

text: According to the Global Financial Centres Index, the Mid-Atlantic region is home to the leading financial center in the world (New York) at #1, with Washington also present at #15.


title: Virginia Gardner

text: Virginia Elizabeth Gardner is an American actress who played Karolina Dean in the Hulu original series "Marvel's Runaways" (2017), Vicky in David Gordon Green's horror film "Halloween" (2018) and Shiloh Hunter in Lionsgate's survival film "Fall" (2022).


title: Virginia Gardner

text: Gardner was born in Sacramento, California. She attended Sacramento Country Day School from kindergarten to eighth grade. She took part in many of her middle school's productions. Brian Frishman, head of the drama department, directed Gardner from sixth to eighth grade. In 2011, she took online schooling when she moved to Los Angeles, but then chose to take the California High School Proficiency Exam when she was allowed to, in October 2011. Her desire to act was due to the 2001 Sean Penn film "I Am Sam"; “In the movie, Dakota Fanning’s dad has autism, and I have a brother with autism and I remember watching that as a young girl and relating to her character and being affected by that,” Gardner explains. “That’s what made me want to get into this industry and make things that can affect people and that people can relate to.” She has a black belt in taekwondo, and also took up boxing and nunchucks.


title: Virginia Gardner

text: Gardner initially lived with her mother to pursue acting full-time. Gardner lived with her mother for the first year; however, once she started to be more successful and able to handle herself, she moved into her own apartment and began to live on her own. After appearing on the Disney Channel series "Lab Rats", she took a year off from acting to work on modeling. When she became absorbed in modeling, she was going to stop acting, but then heard about the audition for "Glee". She has modeled for Kohl's, Love Culture, HP, Hollister, LF, and Famous Footwear. In 2015, Gardner starred in the found footage science fiction thriller film "Project Almanac" as Christina Raskin, the main character's younger sister. The movie helped Gardner to establish herself in Hollywood. In February 2017, it was announced that Gardner would star as Karolina Dean in Marvel's "Runaways" (2017), a Hulu original series. She has received wide recognition for her portrayal of the LGBTQ hero. In January 2018, it was announced that Gardner would star as Vicky in the horror film "Halloween" (2018), a sequel to the 1978 film of the same name.


title: Kasthuri Raja

text: Kasthuri Raja is an Indian film director. He is the father of director Selvaraghavan and actor Dhanush. He worked as an assistant director with Director K.S.G. Most of the films he directed were either village based or infatuation of youngsters. He also worked with Director Visu on more than 16 films. Prior to entering the film industry, he ran away from home to Chennai and worked in a mill.


title: Mountain goat

text: The mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus), also known as the Rocky Mountain goat, is a hoofed mammal endemic to mountainous areas of western North America. A subalpine to alpine species, it is a sure-footed climber commonly seen on cliffs and ice.


title: Mountain goat

text: Despite its vernacular name and both genera being in the same subfamily (Caprinae), the mountain goat is not a member of "Capra", the genus that includes all other goats, such as the wild goat ("Capra aegagrus"), from which the domestic goat is derived. Instead, it is more closely allied with the takins ("Budorcas") and chamois ("Rupicapra").


title: Mountain goat

text: The mountain goat is an even-toed ungulate of the order Artiodactyla and the family Bovidae (along with antelopes, gazelles, and cattle). It belongs to the subfamily Caprinae, along with true goats, wild sheep, the chamois, the muskox and other species. The takins of the Himalayan region, while not a sister lineage of the mountain goat, are nonetheless very closely related and almost coeval to the mountain goat; they evolved in parallel from an ancestral goat. Other members of this group are the bharal, the true goats, and the Himalayan tahr. The sheep lineage is also very closely related, while the muskox lineage is somewhat more distant. The mountain goats probably diverged from their relatives in the late Tortonian, some 7.5 to 8 million years ago.


title: Mountain goat

text: Given that all major caprine lineages emerged in the Late Miocene and contain at least one but usually several species from the eastern Himalayan region, their most likely place of origin is between today's Tibet and Mongolia or nearby. The mountain goat's ancestors thus probably crossed the Bering Strait after they split from their relatives, presumably before the Wisconsinian glaciation. No Pliocene mountain goats have been identified yet; the known fossil record is fairly recent, entirely from North America, and barely differs from the living animals. In the Pleistocene era, the small prehistoric mountain goat "Oreamnos harringtoni" lived in the southern Rocky Mountains. Ancient DNA studies suggest that this was the sister species of the living mountain goat, not its ancestor; consequently, the living species would also date back to the Pleistocene at least.


title: Mountain goat

text: The mountain goat is the only living species in the genus "Oreamnos". The name "Oreamnos" is derived from the Greek term "óros" (stem "ore-") meaning "mountain" (or, alternatively, "oreas" "mountain nymph") and the word "amnós" meaning "lamb".


title: Mountain goat

text: Both male and female mountain goats have beards, short tails, and long black horns, in length, which contain yearly growth rings. They are protected from the elements by their woolly greyish white double coats. The fine, dense wool of their undercoats is covered by an outer layer of longer, hollow hairs. Mountain goats molt in spring by rubbing against rocks and trees, with the adult billies shedding their extra wool first and the pregnant nannies shedding last. Their coats help them to withstand winter temperatures as low as and winds of up to .


title: Mountain goat

text: A male goat stands about at the shoulder to the waist and can weigh considerably more than the female (around 30% more in some cases). Male goats also have longer horns and longer beards than females. Mountain goats can weigh between , and billies will often weigh less than . The head-and-body length can range from , with a small tail adding .


title: Mountain goat

text: The mountain goat's feet are well-suited for climbing steep, rocky slopes with pitches exceeding 60°, with inner pads that provide traction and cloven hooves that can spread apart. The tips of their feet have sharp dewclaws that keep them from slipping. They have powerful shoulder and neck muscles that help propel them up steep slopes. Based on a field recording in the Rocky Mountains of Canada of a mountain goat climbing a 45-degree slope, researchers were able to measure the goat's whole body movement as it climbed. Researchers observed that when the goat propelled itself forward, it extended its back legs and the front legs were tucked close up to its chest during its first phase. During the second phase, the goat raised its back legs near to its chest, while the front leg's humerus stayed locked in a persistent location relative to the goat's chest, therefore allowing the elbow to be detained in close proximity to the whole body's center of balance. Extension of the elbow and carpal joints resulted in a vertical translation of the center of mass up the mountain slope.


title: Mountain goat

text: The mountain goat inhabits the Rocky Mountains and Cascade Range and other mountain regions of the Western Cordillera of North America, from Washington, Idaho and Montana through British Columbia and Alberta, into the southern Yukon and southeastern Alaska. British Columbia contains half of the world's population of mountain goats. Its northernmost range is said to be along the northern fringe of the Chugach Mountains in southcentral Alaska. Introduced populations can also be found in such areas as Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, Oregon, Colorado, South Dakota, and the Olympic Peninsula of Washington.


title: Mountain goat

text: Mountain goats are the largest mammals found in their high-altitude habitats, which can exceed elevations of . They sometimes descend to sea level in coastal areas although they are primarily an alpine and subalpine species. The animals usually stay above the tree line throughout the year but they will migrate seasonally to higher or lower elevations within that range. Winter migrations to low-elevation mineral licks often take them several kilometers through forested areas.


title: Mountain goat

text: Daily movements by individual mountain goats are primarily confined to areas on the same mountain face, drainage basin, or alpine opening. Daily movements reflect an individual's needs for foraging, resting, thermoregulation and security from predators or disturbance. Seasonal movements primarily reflect nutritional needs (such as movements to and from mineral licks/salt lick), reproductive needs (in other words, movement of pre-parturient females to "kidding" areas; movement to rutting areas), and climatic influences (including movement to areas in response to foraging conditions). In general, seasonal movements are likely to exhibit a strong elevational component, whereby lower, forested elevations are used during the spring-summer (security cover effects) to access lower elevation mineral licks, and during winter (thermal cover effects) to access forage. The farthest movements are expected to be by dispersing mountain goats. Such movements are likely to involve mountain goats crossing forested valleys as they move between mountain blocks.


title: Mountain goat

text: Mountain goats are herbivores and spend most of their time grazing. Their diets include grasses, herbs, sedges, ferns, mosses, lichens, and twigs and leaves from the low-growing shrubs and conifers of their high-altitude habitat.


title: Mountain goat

text: In captivity, the mountain goat's diet can also include grain, alfalfa, fruits, vegetables and grass.


title: Mountain goat

text: In the wild, mountain goats usually live 12to15 years, with their lifespans limited by the wearing down of their teeth. In zoos, however, they can live for 16-20years.


title: Mountain goat

text: Mountain goats reach sexual maturity at about 30 months. Nannies in a herd undergo synchronized estrus in late October through early December, at which time females and males participate in a mating ritual. Mature billies stare at nannies for long periods, dig rutting pits, and fight each other in showy (though occasionally dangerous) scuffles. Nannies often ignore young billies, who try to participate but are discounted in favor of older partners. Both females and males usually mate with multiple individuals during breeding season, although some billies try to keep other males away from certain nannies. After the breeding season is over, females and males move away from each other. Nannies form loose-knit nursery groups of up to 50 animals. The adult billies leave, often alone or with two-three other billies.


title: Mountain goat

text: Kids are born in the spring (late May or early June) after a six-month gestation period. Nannies give birth, usually to a single offspring, after moving to an isolated ledge; "post partum", they lick the kid dry and ingest the placenta. Kids weigh a little over at birth and begin to run and climb (or attempt to do so) within hours. Although lactation is mostly finished at one month, kids follow their mothers closely for the first year of life (or until the nanny gives birth again, if this does not occur the next breeding season); nannies protect their young by leading them out of danger, standing over them when faced by predators, and positioning themselves below their kids on steep slopes to stop freefalls.


title: Mountain goat

text: Nannies can be very competitive and protective of their space and food sources. They fight with one another for dominance in conflicts that can ultimately include all the nannies in the herd. In these battles, nannies circle each other with their heads lowered, displaying their horns. These conflicts can occasionally lead to injury or death, but are usually harmless. To avoid fighting, an animal may show a posture of nonaggression by stretching low to the ground.


title: Mountain goat

text: In regions below the tree line, nannies use their fighting abilities to protect themselves and their offspring from predators. Predators, including wolves, wolverines, lynxes, and bears, attack goats of most ages given the opportunity. The cougar, or mountain lion, is perhaps the primary predator, being powerful enough to overwhelm the largest adults and uniquely nimble enough to navigate the rocky ecosystem of the goats. Though their size protects them from most potential predators in higher altitudes, nannies must sometimes defend their young from both bald and golden eagles, which can be a predatory threat to kids. Nannies have even been observed trying to dominate the more passive, but often heavier bighorn sheep that share some of their territory. In 2021, a mountain goat gored a grizzly bear to death in Yoho National Park, British Columbia.


title: Mountain goat

text: Mountain goats introduced in the 1920s into Washington’s Olympic Mountains were in time found to be a nuisance there, in particular while seeking human urine and sweat for its salt content, the park lacking natural salt licks, and even aggressively approaching human visitors. One such goat killed a hiker in 2010. Officials finally chose to eradicate them from the Olympic Peninsula, removing hundreds, mostly by capturing them and relocating them to the Cascade Mountains.


title: Mountain goat

text: Although mountain goats have never been domesticated and commercialized for their wool, pre-Columbian indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast did incorporate their wool into their weaving by collecting spring moulted wool left by wild goats.


title: Cougar (slang)

text: Cougar is a slang term for a woman who seeks romantic or sexual relationships with significantly younger men.


title: Cougar (slang)

text: The origin of the word "cougar" as a slang term is debated, but it is thought to have originated in Western Canada and first appeared in print on the Canadian dating website Cougardate.com. It has also been stated to have "originated in Vancouver, British Columbia, as a put-down for older women who would go to bars and go home with whoever was left at the end of the night". Though, like many formerly derogatory terms, there has been an increasing effort to "reclaim" the term in recent years.


title: Cougar (slang)

text: The term has been variously applied to middle-aged women who pursue sexual relations with men more than ten years younger than they are.


title: Cougar (slang)

text: A 2010 British psychological study published in "Evolution and Human Behavior" asserted that men and women, in general, continue to follow traditional gender roles when searching for mates, and thus concluded that the posited "cougar phenomenon" does not exist, or more precisely, exists but is rare. The study found that most men preferred younger, physically attractive women, while most women, of any age, preferred successful, established men their age or older. The study found very few instances of older women pursuing much younger men and vice versa. The study has been criticized, however, for limiting their results to online dating profiles, which are traditionally not used by those seeking older or younger partners, and for excluding the United States from the study.


title: Cougar (slang)

text: The cougar concept has been increasingly used in television shows, advertising, and film. The 2007 film "Cougar Club" was dedicated to the subject and, in spring 2009, TV Land aired a reality show called "The Cougar" where an older woman would pick a date from twenty younger men. The 2009 sitcom "Cougar Town" originally explored the difficulty and stigma of many so-called cougars. In "The Graduate" (1967), a married mother pursues a much younger man (21 in the film). On the soap opera "Days of Our Lives", character Eve Donovan is a cougar, repeatedly sleeping with the much younger JJ Deveraux.


title: Cougar (slang)

text: The "cougar phenomenon", as it is called, is frequently associated with present-day, glamorous celebrities such as Madonna, Sam Taylor-Johnson and Demi Moore. However, it has been claimed that the trend of influential women dating younger men extends back a lot further through history to notable figures including Cleopatra, Catherine the Great and Elizabeth I.


title: Cougar (slang)

text: Rasa von Werder, also known as Kellie Everts, had become a self-proclaimed cougar herself and photographer of younger men in her later years, in and around the college town of Binghamton, New York. At Binghamton University, she was interviewed by and featured several times on the front page of their student newspaper. She has written extensively about her experience as well as the general social phenomenon in several books, including "Old Woman, Young Man: Why They Belong Together", Parts I and II (2011 and 2019, respectively).


title: Miss Moneypenny

text: Miss Moneypenny, later assigned the first names of Eve or Jane, is a fictional character in the James Bond novels and films. She is secretary to M, who is Bond's superior officer and head of the British Secret Intelligence Service (MI6).


title: Miss Moneypenny

text: Although she has a small part in most of the films, it is always highlighted by the underscored romantic tension between her and Bond (something that is virtually non-existent in Ian Fleming's novels, although it is somewhat more apparent in the Bond novels by John Gardner and Raymond Benson). On that note, she is not always considered to be a Bond girl, having never had anything more than a professional relationship with Bond.


title: Miss Moneypenny

text: Although not given a first name by Fleming, the character was given the name Jane in the spin-off book series, "The Moneypenny Diaries"; in the films, she received the first name of Eve in "Skyfall" (2012), which is set in the new continuity opened by 2006's "Casino Royale", where the character spent time as a field officer before becoming secretary to M. According to the film "You Only Live Twice" (1967), she holds the rank of second officer in the Women's Royal Naval Service.


title: Miss Moneypenny

text: In Ian Fleming's first draft of "Casino Royale" (1953), Moneypenny's name was originally "Miss 'Petty' Pettaval", which was taken from Kathleen Pettigrew, the personal assistant to MI6 director Stewart Menzies. Fleming changed it to be less obvious. Other candidates for Moneypenny's inspiration include Vera Atkins of Special Operations Executive; Paddy Ridsdale, a Naval Intelligence secretary; Joan Bright Astley, whom Fleming dated during World War II, and who was noted for giving a warm and friendly reception to senior officers who visited her office to view confidential papers; and Joan Howe, Fleming's red-haired secretary at "The Times" who had typed the manuscript of "Casino Royale". The BBC has used the term "Fleming's Miss Moneypenny" when referring to Jean Frampton, who typed out the manuscripts for Fleming's later works and made plot suggestions to him, even though the two never met.


title: Miss Moneypenny

text: Miss Moneypenny is the private secretary of M, the head of MI6. She holds the rank of Second Officer in the Women's Royal Naval Service, which is a prerequisite rank for this position. She is cleared for Top Secret, Eyes Only, and Cabinet-Level intelligence reports, the last of which she is often required to prepare, and in some cases present.


title: Miss Moneypenny

text: M's personal assistant is utterly dedicated to her work, which means she has little time for a social life. A close confidante of her boss, she also enjoys a flirtatious—though never consummated—relationship with James Bond, whom she understands perfectly.


title: Miss Moneypenny

text: Moneypenny was never given any backstory until the film "Skyfall" (2012), when she was re-introduced to the series following the 2006 reboot of the series' continuity. Moneypenny, now played by Naomie Harris and given the first name Eve, is originally a field officer assigned to work with Bond on an operation in Istanbul. It ends in disaster when she is ordered to shoot through Bond while he is fighting hand-to-hand combat with the mercenary they are chasing. She hits Bond, who falls off a bridge and is assumed dead. She is temporarily suspended for this and reassigned to desk duty, assisting (Ralph Fiennes), the Chairman of the Intelligence and Security Committee, who has been assigned to watch over MI6. When Bond resurfaces and returns to duty, she meets with him in Macau and aids in locating an agent of main villain Raoul Silva's (Javier Bardem) before returning to London. Later in the film, she is a participant in another shootout with Silva, when he ambushes a public inquiry into MI6. By the end of the film, she decides to retire from fieldwork and becomes Mallory's secretary once he takes over the role of M.


title: Miss Moneypenny

text: In both the Bond novels and films based upon them, Moneypenny is smitten with Bond. For example, in the novel "Thunderball" (1961), Fleming wrote that she "often dreamed hopelessly about Bond." However, she never explicitly voices these feelings.


title: Miss Moneypenny

text: Miss Moneypenny's role in Fleming's novels is even smaller than her role in the films. In the novels, Bond also has his own secretary, Loelia Ponsonby and later Mary Goodnight, both of whose lines and relationships were often transferred to Miss Moneypenny for the films. As a rule, Moneypenny generally never directly participates in Bond's missions. However, in "Skyfall", Moneypenny is an MI6 officer who directly assists Bond in the field before becoming the new M's secretary. In the film "Octopussy", Moneypenny has an assistant named Penelope Smallbone (Michaela Clavell), who appears to be equally smitten with Bond, despite a "thorough briefing" on the subject by Moneypenny. Intended as either a foil or a replacement for Moneypenny, Smallbone appeared only that once.


title: Miss Moneypenny

text: In most of the Bond films, there is a scene, usually Bond's arrival at M's office, in which Bond and Moneypenny exchange witty, flirtatious conversation. ("Flattery will get you nowhere, but don't stop trying.") In the earlier films, these exchanges are more sexually charged, with Bond often kissing or caressing Moneypenny sensually. In "Die Another Day" (2002), she puts on Q's (John Cleese) virtual reality glasses and runs a simulation in which she and Bond finally consummate their relationship. Q interrupts her, and she pretends she was using it as a combat simulation.


title: Miss Moneypenny

text: In the original film version of "Casino Royale", actress Barbara Bouchet plays M's current secretary and explains to Sir James Bond (played by David Niven) upon their first meeting that she is actually Miss Moneypenny's daughter. She is referred to thereafter, and in the closing credits, as Moneypenny.


title: Miss Moneypenny

text: Since the character's first appearance in "Casino Royale", neither Fleming nor any succeeding Bond novelist gave Moneypenny a first name. In a number of books and at least one film, Bond refers to her by the nickname "Penny" (a shortened version of her last name). However, "The Moneypenny Diaries" gives her first name as Jane, while in "Skyfall", the character is named Eve.


title: Miss Moneypenny

text: After Lois Maxwell's death, Roger Moore recalled that she would have liked to have become the new M after Moore's retirement. She had suggested herself for the role of M but had been turned down. "I think it was a great disappointment to her that she had not been promoted to play M. She would have been a wonderful M."


title: Miss Moneypenny

text: On 10 October 2005, John Murray published "" (2005), the first of three Ian Fleming Publications' sanctioned novels written by Samantha Weinberg under the pseudonym Kate Westbrook, from the point of view of Miss Moneypenny. The rest of "The Moneypenny Diaries" trilogy was released over the next three years, consisting of "" (2006) and "" (2008).


title: Miss Moneypenny

text: Moneypenny has been played by six actresses in the Bond films: four in the Eon film series, plus two in the non-Eon films. The last three actresses to play Moneypenny (Caroline Bliss, Samantha Bond and Naomie Harris) are all alumni of Bristol Old Vic Theatre School.


title: Miss Moneypenny

text: In "The Last Resort: A Memoir of Zimbabwe" (2009), Douglas Rogers dedicated chapter 11 (titled "Miss Moneypenny") to his father Ian's black market currency dealer in Mutare.


title: Hyrule Warriors: Age of Calamity

text: Hyrule Warriors: Age of Calamity, known in Japan as is a hack-and-slash game developed by Omega Force and published by Koei Tecmo in Japan and by Nintendo internationally for the Nintendo Switch in 2020. In the story, set 100 years before the events of "", Link and Princess Zelda must gather allies across Hyrule to fend off forces led by the evil Calamity Ganon, who is attempting to revive himself and destroy the kingdom.


title: Hyrule Warriors: Age of Calamity

text: Like the original "Hyrule Warriors" (2014), "Age of Calamity" is a crossover mixing the world and characters of Nintendo's "The Legend of Zelda" series with the gameplay of Koei Tecmo's "Dynasty Warriors" series. Upon release, "Hyrule Warriors: Age of Calamity" received positive reviews for its gameplay, varied character playstyles, amount of content, visuals, soundtrack, characterization, and expansion of the "Breath of the Wild" setting. However, some criticized the technical performance, chiefly its inconsistent frame rate, and the story drew mixed responses, particularly the use of time travel elements. "Age of Calamity" shipped over 3 million copies worldwide in its first four days, making it the best-selling game in the entire "Warriors" franchise.


title: Hyrule Warriors: Age of Calamity

text: Like the previous "Hyrule Warriors" game, "Age of Calamity" mixes the hack-and-slash gameplay of Koei Tecmo's "Dynasty Warriors" franchise with the characters, locations, and other elements from Nintendo's "Legend of Zelda" series. The basic gameplay is participating in large-scale battles against enemies, while also completing objectives and taking strategic actions such as capturing bases and commanding troops.