title: Mondegreen

text: In Dutch, mondegreens are popularly referred to as "Mama appelsap" ("Mommy applejuice"), from the Michael Jackson song "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'" which features the lyrics "Mama-se mama-sa ma-ma-coo-sa", and was once misheard as "Mama say mama sa mam[a]appelsap". The Dutch radio station 3FM show "Superrradio" (originally "Timur Open Radio"), run by Timur Perlin and Ramon, featured an item in which listeners were encouraged to send in mondegreens under the name "Mama appelsap". The segment was popular for years.


title: Mondegreen

text: In French, the phenomenon is also known as "hallucination auditive", especially when referring to pop songs.


title: Mondegreen

text: The title of the film "La Vie en Rose" ("Life In Pink" literally; "Life Through Rose-Coloured Glasses" more broadly), depicting the life of Édith Piaf, can be mistaken for "L'Avion Rose" ("The Pink Airplane").


title: Mondegreen

text: The title of the 1983 French novel "Le Thé au harem d'Archi Ahmed" ("Tea in the Harem of Archi Ahmed") by Mehdi Charef (and the 1985 movie of the same name) is based on the main character mishearing "le théorème d'Archimède" ("the theorem of Archimedes") in his mathematics class.


title: Mondegreen

text: A classic example in French is similar to the "Lady Mondegreen" anecdote: in his 1962 collection of children's quotes "La Foire aux cancres", the humorist Jean-Charles refers to a misunderstood lyric of "La Marseillaise" (the French national anthem): "Entendez-vous ... mugir ces féroces soldats" ("Do you hear those savage soldiers roar?") is misheard as "...Séféro, ce soldat" ("that soldier Séféro").


title: Mondegreen

text: Mondegreens are a well-known phenomenon in German, especially where non-German songs are concerned. They are sometimes called, after a well-known example, "Agathe Bauer"-songs ("I got the power", a song by Snap!, misinterpreted as a German female name). Journalist Axel Hacke published a series of books about them, beginning with "Der weiße Neger Wumbaba" ("The White Negro Wumbaba", a mishearing of the line "der weiße Nebel wunderbar" from "Der Mond ist aufgegangen").


title: Mondegreen

text: In urban legend, children's paintings of nativity scenes, occasionally include next to the Child, Mary, Joseph, and so on, an additional, laughing creature known as the "Owi". The reason is to be found in the line "Gottes Sohn! O wie lacht / Lieb' aus Deinem göttlichen Mund" ("God's Son! Oh, how does love laugh out of Thy divine mouth!") from the song "Silent Night". The subject is "Lieb", a poetic contraction of "die Liebe" leaving off the final "-e" and the definite article, so that the phrase might be misunderstood as being about a person named "Owi" laughing "in a loveable manner". "Owi lacht" has been used as the title of at least one book about Christmas and Christmas songs.


title: Mondegreen

text: Ghil'ad Zuckermann mentions the example "mukhrakhím liyót saméakh" (, which means "we must be happy", with a grammatical error) as a mondegreen of the original "úru 'akhím belév saméakh" (, which means "wake up, brothers, with a happy heart"). Although this line is taken from the extremely well-known song "Háva Nagíla" ("Let’s be happy"), given the Hebrew high-register of "úru" ( "wake up!"), Israelis often mishear it.


title: Mondegreen

text: An Israeli site dedicated to Hebrew mondegreens has coined the term "avatiach" (, Hebrew for "watermelon") for "mondegreen", named for a common mishearing of Shlomo Artzi's award-winning 1970 song "Ahavtia" ("I loved her", using a form uncommon in spoken Hebrew).


title: Mondegreen

text: A paper in phonology cites memoirs of the poet Antoni Słonimski, who confessed that in the recited poem "Konrad Wallenrod" he used to hear "zwierz Alpuhary" ("a beast of Alpujarras") rather than "z wież Alpuhary" ("from the towers of Alpujarras").


title: Mondegreen

text: In 1875 Fyodor Dostoyevsky cited a line from Fyodor Glinka's song "Troika" (1825), колокольчик, дар Валдая ("the bell, gift of Valday"), stating that it is usually understood as колокольчик, дарвалдая ("the bell "darvaldaying""—supposedly an onomatopoeia of ringing sounds).


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: The Prowler is an alias used by several fictional characters appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. These characters are primarily depicted as wearing a green and purple battle suit with a cape and clawed gauntlets. The original version Hobart "Hobie" Brown was created by Stan Lee, John Buscema and Jim Mooney, and was introduced in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #78 (November 1969) as an African-American teenage prodigy who created the Prowler technology to operate as a petty thief, but was subsequently redeemed with help from Peter Parker / Spider-Man and has since been a viable ally as well as a superhero in his own right. The Ultimate Marvel equivalent Aaron Davis was created by Brian Michael Bendis and Sara Pichelli, and introduced in "" #1 (November 2011) as the career criminal uncle of Miles Morales / Spider-Man.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: Both Hobie Brown and Aaron Davis have appeared in several media adaptations outside of comics, with the former being primarily featured in animated television series and the latter in films. Davis has been portrayed by Donald Glover in the live-action Marvel Cinematic Universe film "" (2017) and voiced by Mahershala Ali in the animated film "" (2018).


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: The original and most well-known iteration of Prowler, Hobie Brown, debuted in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #78 (November 1969), and was created by writer Stan Lee and artists John Buscema and Jim Mooney. The character eventually appeared in his own solo comic titled "The Prowler". The character was inspired by Romita's 13-year-old son John Romita Jr. who sketched a villain called the Prowler. Lee liked the name but not the costume; Romita combined the name with a design that he had previously intended for a character called the Stalker that was intended for the never-published "The Spectacular Spider-Man" #3.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: Several other characters have taken up the Prowler identity as well. The second version first appeared in "Peter Parker, The Spectacular Spider-Man" #47 (October 1980), and was created by Stan Lee and artist Steve Ditko. The third version, Rick Lawson, first appeared in "The Sensational Spider-Man" #16 (May 1997), and was created by writer Todd DeZago and artist Mike Wieringo.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: The Ultimate Marvel iteration of Prowler, Aaron Davis, first appeared in "" #1 (November 2011), and was created by writer Brian Michael Bendis and artist Sara Pichelli.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: Hobie Brown is the original iteration of Prowler. Born in the Bronx, New York, he was a bright but angry African-American teenager who got fired from his window washer job. Intending to use his engineering skills for personal profit, he devised a plan to steal items while disguised as a supervillain and then return said items as Hobie. Donning his green and purple Prowler costume for the first time, Hobie set out to rob the payroll office of the "Daily Bugle", figuring that would garner him quick publicity. However, he was caught in the act by Peter Parker. While struggling with Parker, he drew editor J. Jonah Jameson's attention. Parker, with no way to defeat Prowler without giving away his own secret identity, contrived to get thrown through a window during the struggle, and used spider-powers to save himself once outside. Traumatized by the events, the shaken Hobie made his escape to the building's roof, only to be confronted by Spider-Man. Spider-Man vanquished and unmasked Hobie, but realized he was just a misunderstood kid (just like Peter once was), so instead of handing him over to the police, he advised him to rethink his life.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: Hobie took Spider-Man's advice to heart and gave up his criminal ways. He later impersonated Spider-Man at the hero's request - Spider-Man wearing a webbing mask - to convince Peter's friends that Parker was not Spider-Man after Peter 'confessed' the truth while suffering delirium due to the flu, thus creating the impression that Parker had merely been confused. Hobie was convinced that Spider-Man was involved somehow in Police Captain George Stacy's death, and unsuccessfully tried to bring Spider-Man to justice. Hobie eventually married his love Mindy S. McPherson, and settled down into a career as a construction worker.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: Hobie began to look after his 'little brother' Manuel "Manny" Lopez as a part of the Big Brother Program. When Manny was murdered, Prowler believed the White Tiger (Hector Ayala) was responsible and attempted to bring White Tiger to justice. Prowler attempted to join the super-hero group the Defenders, only to be tossed into the harbor by Valkyrie, at which point he decided to retire his identity. However, his Prowler equipment is later stolen by a cat burglar to commit crimes for fashion criminal Bella Donna. Hobie was eager to join the search for the thieves, but Spider-Man insisted that he stay home so he would not get into trouble, since the second Prowler had committed a felony murder. When the second Prowler was subsequently defeated by Spider-Man, the stolen equipment was returned to Hobie.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: Prowler later appeared in California during Peter's "Webs" book deal. He is first seen attacking the Black Fox (Raul Chalmers) for possession of a chalice in order to keep Mindy out of prison. Mindy accepted a bookkeeping job at Transcorp New York. The company was caught in some shady stock deals and Mindy was set up and blamed for the crimes. Seeing it as the only way to clear Mindy's name, Hobie re-donned his Prowler costume and found the books which Mindy had been blamed for stealing. He hid the books on an information chip and put the information chip on the chalice, where no one would look for it. Prowler and Spider-Man then teamed up to take on the Black Fox in order to regain possession of the chalice. Hobie vindicated his wife of stock fraud charges with the help of Spider-Man and the Black Fox.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: Prowler later attempted to vindicate Spider-Man of a crime and first encountered Silver Sable and the Outlaws (including rehabilitated villains like Sandman, Rocket Racer and Puma). His safety designs were stolen by Justin Hammer. Hobie proved the design flaws during an encounter with Hammer's hirelings. Hobie fought Black Tiger (a.k.a. his brother Abraham Brown of the Sons of the Tiger) as an initiation test for Silver Sable. Prowler joined with Spider-Man and the Outlaws against the Avengers and the Space Phantom. Prowler was hired along with the Outlaws to retrieve a Symkarian nuclear device in England. Prowler then formally joined the Outlaws to rescue the kidnapped daughter of a Canadian official.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: His costume and equipment were stolen by Nightcreeper and Prowler then battled him and the Vulture (Adrian Toomes). This story also revealed that his brother is Abraham.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: Later, Hobie was paralyzed during the Great Game. In follow-up appearances, he began regaining movement of his paralyzed limbs- evidence suggests that his paralysis was more a result of mental rather than physical damage, as he was feeling frustrated over the recent theft of his costume, eventually regaining full mobility. While recovering, Brown provided Spidey with a jetpack used when assuming the Hornet identity during the "Identity Crisis" storyline.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: Prowler was captured by S.H.I.E.L.D. in Ms. Marvel's Civil War tie-in. Escaping incarceration, he attended the wake for Stilt-Man (Wilbur Day), along with many other villains and former villains. Prowler narrowly escaped injury as Spider-Man and Puma escorted him from the wake shortly before it was bombed by the Punisher.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: When Peter Parker elevated Parker Industries into a global franchise with Spider-Man officially acting as a "bodyguard" as part of the "All-New, All-Different Marvel" branding, Hobie Brown is hired to act as Spider-Man in situations where the public would expect to see Peter and Spider-Man in the same place. Following the fight against Zodiac's Pisces Sect, Peter tells Hobie to change into his Prowler costume and that they'll retrieve the Webware together before Zodiac undoes his encryption.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: Before "" storyline and crossover, wanting to know more about New U Technologies, Peter sent Prowler to infiltrate. He ended up encountering Electro (Francine Frye). Prowler was chased around by Electro and was accidentally killed. In the aftermath, Doctor Rita Clarkson took Spider-Man to where some people that were subjected to the New U Technologies treatment were being held. The Prowler was among those people, as it turned out that he was not killed by Electro. Julia Carpenter later talks to the real Prowler, who just emerged from cryo-sleep, and tells him about his clone's actions. Hobie is then seen talking to Peter about his future, wondering which direction he will take. He then heads home, where he is last seen conflicted about his own identity.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: Hobie next attacks the F.E.A.S.T. Center, which was re-established by May Parker. He tells Spider-Man that he was investigating a crowdfunding group called Fairgray Pay after he funneled some money to help a sick friend, which never reached him, and broke into the center since it's almost wholly funded by the group. He and Spider-Man break into the company's head office with help from Marnie, Peter's neighbor known also as The Rumor. After an intense battle, Spider-Man, Prowler and the Rumor escape, with help from Captain America. Prowler is left in his home after being knocked out from the fight. He later wakes up to find that Spider-Man managed to defeat the head of Fairgray Pay with help from Iron Man who bought the company and turned into a division of Stark Unlimited. During their conversation, Prowler is offered a job as the new head of Fairgray Pay, which he quickly accepts.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: During the "King in Black" storyline, Hobie Brown is shown to have taken up the alias of Hornet during the Symbiote invasion.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: At one point, Bella Donna (Narda Ravanna) stole Hobie Brown's costume and equipment and hired a cat burglar that Spider-Man fought a long time ago to become the new Prowler. During one of his crimes, Prowler accidentally kills a guard. Furthermore, the witnesses see his silhouetted profile and believe Spider-Man to be implicated in the murder. Eventually, Spider-Man captures both Bella Donna and the Prowler, clears both his and the original Prowler's name, and returns Hobie's stolen equipment. This Prowler is later seen at the "Bar With No Name" attending Stilt-Man's wake, and calls himself the "Second Prowler". He has a brief fight with the original Prowler at Stilt-Man's funeral. Sometime after the original Prowler leaves, the Punisher poisons the guests' drinks and blows the place up. It is later mentioned that "they all had to get their stomachs pumped and be treated for third-degree burns".


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: Rick Lawson is the third incarnation of Prowler. A medical intern, he was present when Hobie Brown was brought into the hospital where he worked due to a back injury. The costume was partly cut away to conceal Hobie's superhero identity, but his friends were unwilling to risk moving him due to the back injury, leading to Lawson finding a portion of the costume that was left unattended and deducing Hobie's identity. After finding Hobie's address from his medical files, Lawson steals a replica of the Prowler costume, using new tech to both rob patients in the ICU and get revenge on those who had "wronged" him in the past, such as a construction foreman who fired him when needing the job to complete medical school. He has an encounter with the Vulture, who seeks revenge against the original Prowler and nearly kills him, but Spider-Man interferes and defeats Vulture. Afterwards, Lawson is taken to the hospital and the Prowler costume is returned to Hobie (who is still recovering from paralysis).


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: The fourth iteration of Prowler is a clone of Hobie Brown. The Jackal cloned Hobie, with all of his memories apparently intact. After learning about the Jackal's mission, Prowler became loyal to him and started acting as a spy to find out what Parker Industries was up to. It is revealed that this Prowler is a clone that Jackal had gathered to grow clones with false memories that span all the way to their deaths.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: After stopping a bank robbery that a clone of Madame Web foresaw, Prowler returns to New U Technologies to stop a fight between clones of Jack O'Lantern, Kangaroo, Massacre, Mirage, Montana, and Tarantula. Jackal reminds Hobie that Hobie was brought back to keep the reanimated supervillains in line and that Hobie is wanted to warn when he leaves the building so his technology does not go out into the world. Knowing how annoying it is to be stuck in the same location, Jackal assigns Hobie to take care of a potential hacker in San Francisco. When Hobie goes to get more information on the hacker from Madame Web, he is told that of seeing buildings filled with agony that cannot escape. After confronting his killer, Electro, Prowler figures out Madame Web's precognition and goes to Alcatraz where he sets off a trap and gets caught in the process. Hobie wakes up in a cell in Alcatraz and discovers that the hacker is Julia Carpenter who has been using the Shroud's leftover technology to investigate New U Technologies. Hobie angers Julia by severing a connection from looking more into New U Technologies. Back at the company, the villains are getting out of control, so Jackal sends Electro to find Prowler to put under check again. Julia senses that Madame Web is alive from telepathic feedback resulting from Electro's attack. Prowler tells Julia what New U Technologies has accomplished and tries to get Julia to join them but refuses and escapes in a puff of black smoke. Prowler's body then starts failing due to not taking his New U Pills for an extended period of time as he questions what he's doing with his life. He is then confronted by Electro. Prowler tries to escape Electro's wrath in Alcatraz, which proves difficult with Electro's powers and his dying body. Using his weapons, the gift shop and his strategic thinking, Prowler manages to defeat the simple-minded Electro. When he makes it outside, he is found by Julia taking him on a boat and heads towards New U Technologies to get his New U Pills.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: When Spider-Man and Spider-Woman of Earth-65 are escaping from New U Technologies, Prowler helped the two out by diverting the cloned villains to another part of the city.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: Julia helps Prowler break into New U Technologies and takes Prowler to his room to get his pills. When the Jackal orders the villains in the "Haven" part of New U Technologies to kill Spider-Man, Prowler works with Spider-Man to fight the villains off. When the alarm goes off and all the clones start breaking down from clone degeneration, Prowler leaves Haven and tries to find the individual set off the system that has been killing the clones. Prowler accuses Julia of being the culprit. He tries to fight and Julia is left with no choice but to fight back, knocking him down as Prowler's body continues deteriorating.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: The clone assists Jean DeWolff's clone in helping Spider-Man get away from the villains. During the final battle, Prowler and DeWolff battle the villains outside. Hobie's body is rapidly decaying, but the two receive assistance from Gwen Stacy of Earth-65 and Kaine Parker. Gwen leaves Hobie in an alley when he proves too weak to continue and he's found by the murderous Electro. Julia arrives and fends Electro off as Hobie is told that Spider-Man stabilized the human and clone cells. When Electro gets the upper hand on Julia, Prowler sacrifices himself to stop Electro and dies in Julia's arms. Kaine later tells Spider-Man that the clones of Prowler and Jean died while fighting the villains.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: The Prowler's various iterations have no superhuman powers, although Hobie Brown is naturally inventive, especially in the field of pneumatics despite no formal education in that science. Each one relies on a suite of technical gimmicks. Prowler wears modified coveralls interwoven with denim and stretch fabric, equipped with gas cartridge bracelets and anklets capable of propelling projectiles at high velocity. Their arsenal of projectiles include steel darts ("flechettes"), gas pellets, small explosives, magnesium flares and cleaning fluid. Prowler has been known to use hypnotic aids and conventional hand-held weapons. Each wears steel-tipped gauntlets for scaling walls and shock absorbent foam rubber insulated boots. He also wears a cape which contains a network of pneumatic filaments which expand with air to give it a rigid structure, allowing him to glide for short distances.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: A technological genius, Hobie Brown has also designed the cybernetically-controlled wing harness used by Hornet (Peter Parker during "Identity Crisis"), although he himself was unable to use it due to the weight. He is a skilled hand-to-hand combatant, possessing a green belt in taekwondo.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: In the altered timeline of the "House of M" storyline, Hobie Brown serves as a technician in Luke Cage's resistance.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: A zombified version of Prowler (Hobie Brown) is seen during the "Ultimate Fantastic Four" story "Crossover". He is depicted in a scene standing near the side of Tigra on the two-page layout of the zombies.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: The Ultimate Marvel versions of Hobie Brown and Rick Lawson are alluded on a list of cat burglars on the "Daily Bugle" database.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: The Ultimate Marvel incarnation of Prowler is Aaron Davis, the uncle of Miles Morales and the brother of Jefferson Davis. Whereas Jefferson reformed by marrying Rio Morales, Aaron never came around and became the cat burglar "Prowler." In his first appearance, he broke into Oscorp's abandoned lab to steal a small red box and other rare items from a safe but Oscorp's genetically altered spider crawled into his duffel bag without his knowledge. Miles later visits his uncle's apartment and is bitten by Oscorp's spider. After Miles passes out and regains consciousness, Jefferson forbids Aaron to spend time with Miles on account of his criminal life.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: During a visit to Mexico City, Aaron fights off the Mexican crime boss Scorpion. When his deal with Scorpion goes bad, he is detained by Mexican authorities. Returning to New York, Prowler interrogates the Tinkerer about the Green Goblin. Realizing his nephew is Spider-Man, Prowler kills the Tinkerer to keep this a secret. He then claims Tinkerer's various tech for himself: an electric suit, a winged suit and electric gauntlets. Davis uses his winged suit in a vain attempt to kill Scorpion. The next day, Aaron confronts his nephew about being Spider-Man. Davis initially convinces Spider-Man to assist in defeating Scorpion, however, Spider-Man comes to the realization of his uncle's exploitation. When Miles decides to sever their relationship, Aaron threatens to tell Jefferson and Rio of his nephew's secret identity. Spider-Man ultimately gets into a fight with Aaron that results in Aaron's gauntlets exploding, killing him but not before accusing his nephew of being just like him. Spider-Man later discovers that Aaron was hired to break into Oscorp by Donald Roxxon, and was revealed to be Turk Barrett's criminal acquaintance when he and Jefferson used to commit various crimes in their youth.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: Sometime after the "Secret Wars" storyline, Aaron is seen on Earth-616 alive and well. Equipped with a recolored variant of "Iron Spider" armor, he forms his version of Sinister Six (consisting of Bombshell (Lori Baumgartner), Electro, the Hobgoblin, Sandman, and the Spot) and manages to have a reunion with Spider-Man trying to stop him. Despite Spider-Man's attempts, the Sinister Six carry out Aaron's heist and take off aboard a decommissioned S.H.I.E.L.D. Helicarrier.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: When the Champions interrupt a meeting with Lucia von Bardas as a buyer, Spider-Man attempts to persuade his uncle to give up his criminal ways. Although the chaos results in his apparent death, Aaron is later revealed to be alive, seemingly having followed his nephew's advice. Miles later goes to visit his reformed uncle.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: After Miles is kidnapped by the villain Assessor, Aaron obtains a new Prowler suit and tracks them down. With the help of Jefferson, who is using S.H.I.E.L.D. weaponry, Aaron rescues Miles, although Assessor escapes.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: After escaping from Ultimatum, Miles' burner clones, and Ultimatum's henchmen, Spider-Man II and Prowler run into the Green Goblin and the Goblinoids. As Spider-Man II and Prowler fight the Goblinoids, the Green Goblin states that a pulse will go off where anyone who took the Goblinoid drug will turn into the next wave of Goblinoids. As Jefferson shows up to aid Captain America in fighting the Goblinoids, Bombshell and Starling catch up to Spider-Man II and Prowler just as the Green Goblin catches up to them at Prospect Park. Ultimatum, his henchmen, and the Goblinoids attack Spider-Man II, Captain America, Jefferson Davis, Prowler, Bombshell, and Starling. The Green Goblin recovers and attacks Prowler as Ultimatum plans to send Spider-Man II back to Earth-1610. Prowler sacrifices himself to give off a reverse ionic pulse explosion by overloading his suit. This ends up sending Ultimatum and the Green Goblin back to Earth-1610 causing the Goblinoids to regress back to their human form while the remaining henchmen of Ultimatum flee the area.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: After Miles and his clone Shift free Quantum from Assessor's control, they learn that Aaron is alive somewhere in a different universe and discover Assessor's connection to the Beyond Corporation. As it turns out, Aaron is trapped in a dystopian alternate future where he is captured by an alternate version of Miles' clone Selim who killed his reality's Miles. After Miles and Shift from the prime universe acquires aid from the resistance force, led by alternate grown up Ganke and Miles' sister, Billie, Aaron, and the alternate elderly Peter Parker are freed from Selim's imprisonment. Following the alternate Ganke's sacrifice on preventing alternate Selim's suicide attempt on destroying New York along with them, Aaron, Miles and Shift stays at the reality to help Billie's resistance on rebuilding the city and restoring its freedom. After the three finally made it home to Earth-616, Aaron helps Shift to be adopted by a mother who is a herbalist, then treats both Miles and Shift bruschetta breads at a dinner, following Miles' successful scholarship achievements.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: In the pages of "Spider-Gwen" which take place on Earth-65, Hobie Brown is a member of the Yancy Street Gang. He and the Yancy Street Gang rooted for Spider-Woman (Gwen Stacy) and were graffiti-spraying a billboard attacking Spider-Woman when Officer Ben Grimm tried to catch them. However, they later witnessed Officer Grimm getting attacked and abducted by Vulture.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: The Earth-138 version of Hobie Brown operates as Spider-Man but is often called Spider-Punk as his design was inspired by punk rock.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: During the "Secret Wars" storyline in the pages of "", Prowler is part of the secret S.H.I.E.L.D. resistance against .


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: On Battleworld, an alternate version of Hobie Brown was part of Ho Yinsen's Defenders. Originally known as the Prowler, Hobie attempted to take on the Spider-Man identity after his world's Peter Parker was killed by the Inheritors. However, the public quickly realized Hobie wasn't the real Spider-Man, leading the Daily Bugle to dub him "Spider Hero" instead.


title: Prowler (Marvel Comics)

text: The Hobie Brown incarnation of the Prowler appeared in self-titled comic strip in "The Amazing Spider-Man". This version's gauntlets are restricted to using compressed air blasts.


title: Maine Pyar Kiya

text: Maine Pyar Kiya () is a 1989 Indian Hindi-language romantic musical film written and directed by Sooraj Barjatya. Produced by Rajshri Productions, the film stars Salman Khan and Bhagyashree. It marked the debuts of Barjatya and Bhagyashree. Principal photography took place in Mumbai and Ooty. The film score and soundtrack was composed by Raamlaxman while Asad Bhopali wrote the lyrics.


title: Maine Pyar Kiya

text: "Maine Pyar Kiya" is considered one of the most iconic romantic films ever made and became a cult favorite from its songs, dialogues and chemistry of Khan and Bhagyashree. It was released on 29 December 1989 to positive reviews and emerged as an all time Blockbuster with a worldwide gross of , becoming the highest-grossing Bollywood film of 1989 and the highest-grossing Indian film of the 1980s. It also won six Filmfare Awards.


title: Maine Pyar Kiya

text: Karan is a poor mechanic who lives in the countryside with his only daughter, Suman. He decides to try his luck in business and travel to Dubai so he can earn enough to get his daughter married. Thus, he decides to leave her with his old friend Kishan. Kishan, a wealthy businessman, allows Suman to stay at his house while her father is away as he cannot turn down his old friend's request. Suman is befriended by Kishan's young son Prem, who assures her that a boy and a girl can be platonic friends.


title: Maine Pyar Kiya

text: Prem takes Suman to a party organised by Seema, who is the only daughter of Kishan's business partner, Ranjeet. Jeevan, nephew of Ranjeet, is proud and arrogant and humiliates Suman and Prem, accusing them of falsely claiming to be "just friends". Suman leaves the party in tears and distances herself from Prem. At that point, Prem and Suman both realise that they have fallen in love with each other.


title: Maine Pyar Kiya

text: Prem's mother Kaushalya probes deeper into Prem and Suman's relationship and approves of Suman as her daughter-in-law. Kishan, however, is unhappy with the relationship and asks her to leave his house. He feels that she has taken advantage of his hospitality. Karan returns from abroad and is enraged at Kishan's behaviour and Kishan accuses him of plotting to set up Prem and Suman. Karan and Kishan quarrel, and eventually Karan and Suman return to their village, deeply humiliated.


title: Maine Pyar Kiya

text: Prem refuses to accept the separation, so he goes to Suman's village and begs to be allowed to marry her. Karan, angered by Kishan's accusations, says he will allow the marriage on one condition: Prem must prove that he can support his wife through his own effort and live separately. Prem begins to work as a truck driver and labourer in the nearby quarry. At the end of the month, Prem has earned the required money. On the way to Karan's house, he is ambushed by Jeevan and a group of ruffians who attempt to kill him. He survives, but his wages are ruined in the fight.


title: Maine Pyar Kiya

text: Karan harshly dismisses Prem's effort and cannot believe Prem's story about the ruffians' attack. Prem begs for another chance to prove himself. His sincere determination melts Karan's heart and he agrees to allow his daughter to marry Prem. Meanwhile, Ranjeet goes to Prem's father and tells him that Karan has killed his son. Unable to believe this, Kishan travels to Karan's village, only to find Prem alive. When Prem confronts Jeevan, Ranjeet and his supporters beat up both Kishan and Karan, while Jeevan abducts Suman. In the end, Prem, Karan, and Kishan join hands to defeat a common enemy — Ranjeet, his nephew Jeevan and Ranjeet's supporters, and then save Suman. Rangeet's leg is broken in the fight and he and his supporters are arrested. Jeevan is chased to a cliff by Prem, where Suman falls and hangs off a branch. After a fight with Jeeven, Prem attempts to lower himself down with a rope to save her, and Jeeven is attacked by a bird (the same one that he tried to kill earlier but Suman stopped him from), till he falls off the cliff. Suman and Prem climb up the cliff to safety. Jeeven, who is hanging on the branch, attemps to intervene, but instead is put into greater risk, and, finally, is pecked in the face by the bird and falls to his death just as a mining bomb explodes. Karan and Kishan's estrangement comes to an end and Prem and Suman marry.


title: Maine Pyar Kiya

text: The casting of the lead actor was complex. Several newcomers were auditioned for the role of 'Prem', including Vindu Dara Singh, Deepak Tijori, and Faraaz Khan. While Faraaz Khan, son


title: Maine Pyar Kiya

text: of the actor Yusuf Khan who played the villainous Zabisco in "Amar Akbar Anthony" (1977), was almost finalised for the role, but he was replaced at the last minute due to health issues. Barjatya tested Shabina Dutt for the lead actress role. Dutt failed the screen test and Barjatya asked if she could suggest an actor for the lead. She suggested Salman Khan, with whom she had done an ad film. Salman Khan was not particularly interested because of the soft nature of the film and Barjatya was not very happy with the Khan's first audition. Sooraj wasn't convinced with Salman's acting prowess and started looking for another actor to play the role. Khan too, started suggesting names for who could be Prem in the film, after he was told that he didn't fit the bill. Barjatya eventually convinced him to do it, and Khan has since then expressed his gratitude to Barjatya for making him a star. Barjatya loved Tom Cruise's "Top Gun" jacket so much that he designed a one on the similar lines for Khan in "Maine Pyar Kiya". Like Tom Cruise's jacket, which had patches of logos and emblems of the American Army, Navy and Air Force insignia, and other badges from the defence forces, Khan's jacket too had similar insignias pasted on it. Barjatya then cast Bhagyashree to star opposite Salman Khan. Bhagyashree, who had a lead role in Amol Palekar's TV show "Kachchi Dhoop", had refused to do the film as she wanted to pursue higher studies. Barjatya made several changes to the script; Bhagyashree eventually agreed to do the film. Though Salman recommended Bahl for villain's role, veteran actress and Mohnish Bahl's mother Nutan was not happy with her son playing villain's role in the film. Nutan, who shared a good rapport with the Barjatyas, had reportedly also asked if Mohnish could fit in other roles. Makers assured her that Bahl's character would be remembered for a long time to come. Barjatya picked Perveen from the English stage to play the negative role. The film also marked the debut of Laxmikant Berde.


title: Maine Pyar Kiya

text: Prior to the film's production, Rajshri Productions was struggling financially, and was on the verge of closing down. Director/writer Sooraj Barjatya's father Rajkumar Barjatya suggested the story of "Maine Pyar Kiya" and His Father's Friend was Legendary filmmaker Tarun Majumdar suggested the script of "Maine Pyar Kiya". Barjatya spent ten months writing the screenplay for "Maine Pyar Kiya". The film had a production budget of . Bhagyashree got paid while Salman Khan was paid for the film. In addition to the production budget, another was spent on the soundtrack's radio publicity. The first sequence filmed was the office scene where Rajiv Verma tells Salman that he has to go. Barjatya had large sets in Film City, Mumbai, where filming took place continuously over 5 to 6 months. The outdoor scenes were filmed in Ooty. Additional production credits include dance choreographer — Jay Borade, art—Bijon Das Gupta, action—Shamim Azim and editor—Mukhtar Ahmed.


title: Maine Pyar Kiya

text: The soundtrack album and musical score were composed by Raamlaxman, while the lyrics were written by Dev Kohli and Asad Bhopali. It was produced under the Saregama label and featured singers such as Lata Mangeshkar, S. P. Balasubrahmanyam and Sharda Sinha. The soundtrack consists of 11 songs including the "Antakshari" (excerpts from different Bollywood songs), which was used when the characters play a game. The soundtrack was very successful upon release, becoming the best-selling Bollywood soundtrack of the decade. The film's soundtrack album sold over 10million units, and became the best-selling soundtrack of the year and the decade (an accolade that it shares with the soundtrack of the 1989 film "Chandni"). It gave a thrust to the career of Raamlaxman, who, although existed since the 1970s and was composing for mainstream movies, was yet to find popularity. Planet Bollywood ranked the album in the fifth position on their list of "100 Greatest Bollywood Soundtracks of Hindi cinema".


title: Maine Pyar Kiya

text: Several songs of the film were heavily influenced by western hits. "Aate Jaate Hanste Gaate" was a total note-by-note lift from Stevie Wonder's "I Just Called to Say I Love You". "Aaya Mausam Dosti Ka" features a guitar riff used as a prelude and interlude that is lifted from the millennial whoop (Oh Oh Oh Oh Oh Oh Ho portion) from the song "Tarzan Boy" by Baltimora from the album "Living in the Background". Another song from the movie that was inspired from a western hit was "Mere Rang Mein Rangne Wali". The keyboard riff that plays at the initiation of the song (peculiarly picturised on a saxophone) is ripped from the keyboard riff of "The Final Countdown" by the Swedish band Europe. The first few lines of the song, "Mere Rang Mein" to the peak at "Mere Sawalon ka Jawab Do", were also partly inspired from the initial portions of Francis Lai’s "Theme from Love Story".


title: Maine Pyar Kiya

text: "Maine Pyar Kiya" premiered on 29 December 1989 across India. The film initially saw a very limited release, with only 29 prints, before later going on to add a thousand more as the film picked up. "Maine Pyar Kiya" was dubbed in English as "When Love Calls". A 125-minute version was the biggest hit in the Caribbean market in Guyana and also dominated the box-office collections in Trinidad and Tobago. The Telugu version "Prema Paavuraalu" ran for more than 200 days; 25 weeks at Visakhapatnam and had 100 plus day run at six centres in Andhra Pradesh. It was dubbed in Tamil-language as "Kaadhal Oru Kavithai" and in Malayalam as "Ina Praavukal". "Maine Pyar Kiya" had also been dubbed in Spanish as "Te Amo".


title: Maine Pyar Kiya

text: The film was the biggest grosser of 1989 and one of India's highest-grossing films. Made on a budget of around 2crore, it went on to earn a profit of over by 1990, saving Rajshri from closing down. "Maine Pyar Kiya" grossed 28crore (), equivalent to () adjusted for inflation in 2017. It became the highest-grossing Indian film of the 1980s. In terms of ticket sales, the film is estimated to have sold at least more than 30million tickets in India. The film was a huge hit in the Caribbean and dominated the box-office that year in Guyana, and Trinidad and Tobago. The film saw a 10-week run in Lima and Peru. Box Office India described it as an "all-time blockbuster". The film's success drew comparisons to "Sholay", with Manmohan Desai even calling "Maine Pyar Kiya" "the biggest hit since "Alam Ara"" (1931).


title: Maine Pyar Kiya

text: "Maine Pyar Kiya" received favorable reviews. "Trade Guide" lists it as one of the eight greatest hits ever. "India Today" summarized, "Music is one of the key ingredients of its success. The songs have melody; the feelings come through – a throwback to the '60s. Moreover Sooraj uses the songs to take his story further. It is also that touch of innocence". Sukanya Verma called, "Dil deewana appears first to celebrate Salman Khan and Bhagyashree’s happily-ever-after aspirations in Maine Pyar Kiya and once again when standard rich versus poor conflicts threaten its realisation." "The Times of News" wrote, "Sooraj Barjatiya’s Maine Pyar Kiya is one such classic film of the 90s that made Salman Khan an overnight star". "Stardust" said, "In the hands of a sincere director, the most hackneyed of commercial film plots can be made to look fresh and new. Unlike other young directors of his generation, Sooraj also knows the value of a good script and spends more time writing his script than in actual production."


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: Clouds is a 2020 American biographical romantic musical drama teen film directed and produced by Justin Baldoni and written by Kara Holden from a story by Holden, Patrick Kopka, and Casey La Scala. It is based upon the memoir "Fly a Little Higher: How God Answered a Mom's Small Prayer in a Big Way" by Laura Sobiech. The film stars Fin Argus, Sabrina Carpenter, Madison Iseman, Neve Campbell, Tom Everett Scott, and Lil Rel Howery. The film tells the life of Zach Sobiech, a teenager from Minnesota who had osteosarcoma and decided to follow his dream of becoming a musician, after finding out he is dying.


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: Originally scheduled to be theatrically released by Warner Bros. Pictures, Disney took over the distribution rights and released the film on their streaming service Disney+ on October 16, 2020.


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: In the fall of 2012, Zach Sobiech performs an acoustic rendition of "Sexy and I Know It" to an amused crowd at his school's talent show. Zach has been struggling with osteosarcoma and has been receiving regular treatments for it. His best friend, Sammy Brown, conspires with him by helping him to write music ("Blueberries"). Zach manages to ask out fellow student Amy Adamle for a picnic, but before he is able to do so, he begins to have a coughing fit that concerns his mother, Laura, who rushes him to the hospital. He has a collapsed lung and emergency surgery is performed on him. While they fix his lung, they learn that the treatments are no longer effective and his cancer is now terminal, giving him six to ten months to live. Zach tells Sammy and Amy about his diagnosis while he is inspired by his teacher, Milton Weaver, about what he is to do with the rest of his life.


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: In the winter of 2012, Zach and his family go to Lourdes, France, in Laura's desperate attempt to summon some kind of miracle for Zach. Zach returns home to hang out with Sammy ("Coffee Cup") and learns that she has bought tickets to a Jason Mraz concert. Zach decides to use the opportunity to ask Amy to go to the prom with him, and she accepts ("I'm Yours"). After having convulsions, Zach goes to Sammy's house in the middle of the night demanding that they form a band. Both realize that they have romantic feelings for each other, but that they are incapable of having a full relationship. They continue to bond over songwriting ("Fix Me Up") and Sammy posts their music on YouTube which earns them some fame. Despite this, Zach is certain that he will fail to achieve anything beyond the video. He is later given encouragement by Mr. Weaver.


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: Zach's father, Rob, borrows a Nissan GT-R for him to drive and impress Amy with. While at her house, the two proceed to make out ("My Little Dancer"), but when Amy comments on his scars, Zach becomes despondent, tells her that he will never offer the things she wants from him, and leaves. Laura confronts Rob over the decision to get a car for Zach and he breaks down admitting that he did it to make his son happy as he is unable to do anything about his eventual death.


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: In the spring of 2013, Weaver reveals to Zach and Sammy that he showed their video to BMI who want to sign them. They head to New York City to sign their contracts, calling their band A Firm Handshake ("Ames"). On the flight back home, Zach suddenly has a moment of creative energy and writes the song "Clouds". He records the song shortly afterwards, which becomes a hit.


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: Zach finally makes the time to apologize to Amy about his behavior and the two of them get back together. Zach speaks privately to his mother about how to handle his remains and his funeral, suggesting bagpipes be played. Sammy and the Sobiechs learn that Zach might not make it to the prom. With Zach having been given the opportunity to play at the Metro Theatre, they decide to combine the concert with their prom, a graduation, and a fundraiser for osteosarcoma. The day arrives and despite Zach's worsening condition, he decides to perform. Sammy begins the show by performing "How to Go to Confession" before Zach heads out to perform "Clouds". Zach has trouble breathing, but he is moved when the entire audience sings the song for him.


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: Zach dies on May 20, 2013. Before dying, he has written a college essay about his views on life and death. Sammy, Amy and other friends come together for a group photo in remembrance of Zach, noticing that a cloud in the sky resembles a "Z". Photos of the real Zach and Sammy are shown during the end credits.


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: Justin Baldoni's wife Emily Baldoni appears as a CNN reporter. Many of Zach Sobiech's real life acquaintances make cameos in the film. Seventy of Zach's friends and family members cameo during the crowd shots during the Jason Mraz concert and the concert at the end of the film. Zach's real life friend Mitchell Kluesner, essentially playing himself, appears in the classroom scene sitting behind Zach. The real Grace Sobiech appears as a high school student early on in the film while the real Amy Adamle appears along with Madison Iseman at the dance studio.


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: In February 2016, it was announced Warner Bros. had acquired rights to the memoir "Fly a Little Higher: How God Answered a Mom's Small Prayer in a Big Way" by Laura Sobiech, with Justin Baldoni set to direct the film. In September 2019, Fin Argus, Madison Iseman and Sabrina Carpenter joined the cast of the film. In October 2019, Neve Campbell, Tom Everett Scott and Lil Rel Howery joined the cast of the film.


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: Principal photography began on October 19, 2019. Most of it was filmed in Baie-D'Urfé, Quebec, Canada and in Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada. Part of it was filmed at Heritage Regional High School and neighbouring school École secondaire André-Laurendeau. Filming wrapped on November 27, 2019.


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: On May 14, 2020, it was announced Disney+ had taken over distribution rights to the film from Warner Bros., in light of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the film industry. "Clouds" was released on October 16, 2020. A making-of documentary series entitled "Beyond the Clouds" was released from December 4, 2020 to January 29, 2021.


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: According to ScreenEngine/ASI, "Clouds" was the 28th-most-watched straight-to-streaming title of 2020, as of November 2020.


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads, "Although its emotional swings occasionally miss, "Clouds" soars higher than most young adult films -- and proves director Justin Baldoni's mastery behind the camera." Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 55 out of 100, based on 7 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews."


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: Guy Lodge of "Variety" claimed that the film manages to be sentimental across Justin Baldoni's direction and Ben Kutchins' cinematography, found the scenes where Zach Sobiech's family is horrified and saddened by his illness to be among the best, and praised the performances of the cast members. Amy Nicholson of "The New York Times" complimented how Justin Baldoni approached the impact of Sobiech's death on his relatives, found the documentary to be emotional, and praised the performances of Fin Argus and Sabrina Carpenter. John Serba of "Decider" found the movie sincere through its direction, saying it manages to provide an emotional weigh on the audience by not sugarcoating Sobiech's life, while praising the performances of the actors, especially Lil Rel Howery's.


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: Jennifer Green of "Common Sense Media" rated the movie 4 out of 5 stars, stating: ""Clouds" is the true, often sad story of Zach Sobiech (Fin Argus), a teenager diagnosed with terminal cancer who became known to many via his hit song "Clouds," which was recorded in the final months of his life. But the movie has a generally positive tone, thanks to Zach's natural good nature. In an opening scene, he sings "Sexy and I Know It" in front of a high school audience, dancing suggestively and conveying both popularity and a self deprecating sense of humor. Scenes show him struggling with illness, undergoing chemotherapy, being rushed in for emergency surgery, and facing his own terminal diagnosis. He occasionally reacts with anger and deception to his fate, including a scene in which he almost crashes a car. He's also painfully aware of the grief he's bringing to his loved ones, including his tight-knight family, a girlfriend, and his best friend, who all exhibit courage and compassion in their handling of Zach's illness." Nell Minow of "RogerEbert.com" rated the film 3 out of 4 stars and found the movie emotional, claiming it depicts the sad and joyful moments of Sobiech's life and the impact of his death on his environment, while complimenting the performances of the cast.


title: Clouds (2020 film)

text: After the release of the movie, the song "Clouds" (written and recorded by Zach Sobiech) hit the iTunes song chart at the number #1 spot a second time, seven years after Sobiech's death. A virtual concert titled "Clouds: A Musical Celebration" was held as a musical tribute on October 24, 2020, with OneRepublic, Fin Argus, Sabrina Carpenter, and several cast members of "Clouds" participating.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: A brain–computer interface (BCI), sometimes called a brain–machine interface (BMI), is a direct communication pathway between the brain's electrical activity and an external device, most commonly a computer or robotic limb. BCIs are often directed at researching, mapping, assisting, augmenting, or repairing human cognitive or sensory-motor functions. Implementations of BCIs range from non-invasive (EEG, MEG, EOG, MRI) and partially invasive (ECoG and endovascular) to invasive (microelectrode array), based on how close electrodes get to brain tissue.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Research on BCIs began in the 1970s by Jacques Vidal at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) under a grant from the National Science Foundation, followed by a contract from DARPA. The Vidal's 1973 paper marks the first appearance of the expression "brain–computer interface" in scientific literature.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Due to the cortical plasticity of the brain, signals from implanted prostheses can, after adaptation, be handled by the brain like natural sensor or effector channels. Following years of animal experimentation, the first neuroprosthetic devices implanted in humans appeared in the mid-1990s.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Recently, studies in human-computer interaction via the application of machine learning to statistical temporal features extracted from the frontal lobe (EEG brainwave) data has had high levels of success in autonomous recognition of fall detection as a medical alarm, mental state (Relaxed, Neutral, Concentrating), mental emotional state (Negative, Neutral, Positive), and thalamocortical dysrhythmia.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: The history of brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) starts with Hans Berger's discovery of the electrical activity of the human brain and the development of electroencephalography (EEG). In 1924 Berger was the first to record human brain activity by means of EEG. Berger was able to identify oscillatory activity, such as Berger's wave or the alpha wave (8–13 Hz), by analyzing EEG traces.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Berger's first recording device was very rudimentary. He inserted silver wires under the scalps of his patients. These were later replaced by silver foils attached to the patient's head by rubber bandages. Berger connected these sensors to a Lippmann capillary electrometer, with disappointing results. However, more sophisticated measuring devices, such as the Siemens double-coil recording galvanometer, which displayed electric voltages as small as one ten thousandth of a volt, led to success.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Berger analyzed the interrelation of alternations in his EEG wave diagrams with brain diseases. EEGs permitted completely new possibilities for the research of human brain activities.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Although the term had not yet been coined, one of the earliest examples of a working brain-machine interface was the piece "Music for Solo Performer" (1965) by the American composer Alvin Lucier. The piece makes use of EEG and analog signal processing hardware (filters, amplifiers, and a mixing board) to stimulate acoustic percussion instruments. To perform the piece one must produce alpha waves and thereby "play" the various percussion instruments via loudspeakers which are placed near or directly on the instruments themselves.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: UCLA Professor Jacques Vidal coined the term "BCI" and produced the first peer-reviewed publications on this topic. Vidal is widely recognized as the inventor of BCIs in the BCI community, as reflected in numerous peer-reviewed articles reviewing and discussing the field (e.g.,). A review pointed out that Vidal's 1973 paper stated the "BCI challenge" of controlling external objects using EEG signals, and especially use of Contingent Negative Variation (CNV) potential as a challenge for BCI control. The 1977 experiment Vidal described was the first application of BCI after his 1973 BCI challenge. It was a noninvasive EEG (actually Visual Evoked Potentials (VEP)) control of a cursor-like graphical object on a computer screen. The demonstration was movement in a maze.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: After his early contributions, Vidal was not active in BCI research, nor BCI events such as conferences, for many years. In 2011, however, he gave a lecture in Graz, Austria, supported by the Future BNCI project, presenting the first BCI, which earned a standing ovation. Vidal was joined by his wife, Laryce Vidal, who previously worked with him at UCLA on his first BCI project.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In 1988, a report was given on noninvasive EEG control of a physical object, a robot. The experiment described was EEG control of multiple start-stop-restart of the robot movement, along an arbitrary trajectory defined by a line drawn on a floor. The line-following behavior was the default robot behavior, utilizing autonomous intelligence and autonomous source of energy. This 1988 report written by Stevo Bozinovski, Mihail Sestakov, and Liljana Bozinovska was the first one about a robot control using EEG.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In 1990, a report was given on a closed loop, bidirectional adaptive BCI controlling computer buzzer by an anticipatory brain potential, the Contingent Negative Variation (CNV) potential. The experiment described how an expectation state of the brain, manifested by CNV, controls in a feedback loop the S2 buzzer in the S1-S2-CNV paradigm. The obtained cognitive wave representing the expectation learning in the brain is named Electroexpectogram (EXG). The CNV brain potential was part of the BCI challenge presented by Vidal in his 1973 paper.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Studies in 2010s suggested the potential ability of neural stimulation to restore functional connectively and associated behaviors through modulation of molecular mechanisms of synaptic efficacy. This opened the door for the concept that BCI technologies may be able to restore function in addition to enabling functionality.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Since 2013, DARPA has funded BCI technology through the BRAIN initiative, which has supported work out of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Paradromics, Brown, and Synchron, among others.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Neuroprosthetics is an area of neuroscience concerned with neural prostheses, that is, using artificial devices to replace the function of impaired nervous systems and brain-related problems, or of sensory organs or organs itself (bladder, diaphragm, etc.). As of December 2010, cochlear implants had been implanted as neuroprosthetic device in approximately 220,000 people worldwide. There are also several neuroprosthetic devices that aim to restore vision, including retinal implants. The first neuroprosthetic device, however, was the pacemaker.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: The terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Neuroprosthetics and BCIs seek to achieve the same aims, such as restoring sight, hearing, movement, ability to communicate, and even cognitive function. Both use similar experimental methods and surgical techniques.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Several laboratories have managed to record signals from monkey and rat cerebral cortices to operate BCIs to produce movement. Monkeys have navigated computer cursors on screen and commanded robotic arms to perform simple tasks simply by thinking about the task and seeing the visual feedback, but without any motor output. In May 2008 photographs that showed a monkey at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center operating a robotic arm by thinking were published in a number of well-known science journals and magazines. Sheep too have been used to evaluate BCI technology including Synchron's Stentrode.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In 2020, Elon Musk's Neuralink was successfully implanted in a pig, announced in a widely viewed webcast. In 2021 Elon Musk announced that he had successfully enabled a monkey to play video games using Neuralink's device.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: at the Regional Primate Research Center and Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington School of Medicine in Seattle, showed for the first time that monkeys could learn to control the deflection of a biofeedback meter arm with neural activity. Similar work in the 1970s established that monkeys could quickly learn to voluntarily control the firing rates of individual and multiple neurons in the primary motor cortex if they were rewarded for generating appropriate patterns of neural activity.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Studies that developed algorithms to reconstruct movements from motor cortex neurons, which control movement, date back to the 1970s. In the 1980s, Apostolos Georgopoulos at Johns Hopkins University found a mathematical relationship between the electrical responses of single motor cortex neurons in rhesus macaque monkeys and the direction in which they moved their arms (based on a cosine function). He also found that dispersed groups of neurons, in different areas of the monkey's brains, collectively controlled motor commands, but was able to record the firings of neurons in only one area at a time, because of the technical limitations imposed by his equipment.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: There has been rapid development in BCIs since the mid-1990s. Several groups have been able to capture complex brain motor cortex signals by recording from neural ensembles (groups of neurons) and using these to control external devices.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Phillip Kennedy (who later founded Neural Signals in 1987) and colleagues built the first intracortical brain–computer interface by implanting neurotrophic-cone electrodes into monkeys.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Miguel Nicolelis, a professor at Duke University, in Durham, North Carolina, has been a prominent proponent of using multiple electrodes spread over a greater area of the brain to obtain neuronal signals to drive a BCI.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: After conducting initial studies in rats during the 1990s, Nicolelis and his colleagues developed BCIs that decoded brain activity in owl monkeys and used the devices to reproduce monkey movements in robotic arms. Monkeys have advanced reaching and grasping abilities and good hand manipulation skills, making them ideal test subjects for this kind of work.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: By 2000, the group succeeded in building a BCI that reproduced owl monkey movements while the monkey operated a joystick or reached for food. The BCI operated in real time and could also control a separate robot remotely over internet protocol. But the monkeys could not see the arm moving and did not receive any feedback, a so-called open-loop BCI.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Later experiments by Nicolelis using rhesus monkeys succeeded in closing the feedback loop and reproduced monkey reaching and grasping movements in a robot arm. With their deeply cleft and furrowed brains, rhesus monkeys are considered to be better models for human neurophysiology than owl monkeys. The monkeys were trained to reach and grasp objects on a computer screen by manipulating a joystick while corresponding movements by a robot arm were hidden. The monkeys were later shown the robot directly and learned to control it by viewing its movements. The BCI used velocity predictions to control reaching movements and simultaneously predicted handgripping force. In 2011 O'Doherty and colleagues showed a BCI with sensory feedback with rhesus monkeys. The monkey was brain controlling the position of an avatar arm while receiving sensory feedback through direct intracortical stimulation (ICMS) in the arm representation area of the sensory cortex.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Other laboratories which have developed BCIs and algorithms that decode neuron signals include the Carney Institute for Brain Science at Brown University and the labs of Andrew Schwartz at the University of Pittsburgh and Richard Andersen at Caltech. These researchers have been able to produce working BCIs, even using recorded signals from far fewer neurons than did Nicolelis (15–30 neurons versus 50–200 neurons).


title: Brain–computer interface

text: John Donoghue's lab at the Carney Institute reported training rhesus monkeys to use a BCI to track visual targets on a computer screen (closed-loop BCI) with or without assistance of a joystick. Schwartz's group created a BCI for three-dimensional tracking in virtual reality and also reproduced BCI control in a robotic arm. The same group also created headlines when they demonstrated that a monkey could feed itself pieces of fruit and marshmallows using a robotic arm controlled by the animal's own brain signals.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Andersen's group used recordings of premovement activity from the posterior parietal cortex in their BCI, including signals created when experimental animals anticipated receiving a reward.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In addition to predicting kinematic and kinetic parameters of limb movements, BCIs that predict electromyographic or electrical activity of the muscles of primates are being developed. Such BCIs could be used to restore mobility in paralyzed limbs by electrically stimulating muscles.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Miguel Nicolelis and colleagues demonstrated that the activity of large neural ensembles can predict arm position. This work made possible creation of BCIs that read arm movement intentions and translate them into movements of artificial actuators. Carmena and colleagues programmed the neural coding in a BCI that allowed a monkey to control reaching and grasping movements by a robotic arm. Lebedev and colleagues argued that brain networks reorganize to create a new representation of the robotic appendage in addition to the representation of the animal's own limbs.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In 2019, researchers from UCSF published a study where they demonstrated a BCI that had the potential to help patients with speech impairment caused by neurological disorders. Their BCI used high-density electrocorticography to tap neural activity from a patient's brain and used deep learning methods to synthesize speech. In 2021, researchers from the same group published a study showing the potential of a BCI to decode words and sentences in an anarthric patient who had been unable to speak for over 15 years.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: The biggest impediment to BCI technology at present is the lack of a sensor modality that provides safe, accurate and robust access to brain signals. It is conceivable or even likely, however, that such a sensor will be developed within the next twenty years. The use of such a sensor should greatly expand the range of communication functions that can be provided using a BCI.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Development and implementation of a BCI system is complex and time-consuming. In response to this problem, Gerwin Schalk has been developing a general-purpose system for BCI research, called BCI2000. BCI2000 has been in development since 2000 in a project led by the Brain–Computer Interface R&D Program at the Wadsworth Center of the New York State Department of Health in Albany, New York, United States.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: A new 'wireless' approach uses light-gated ion channels such as Channelrhodopsin to control the activity of genetically defined subsets of neurons in vivo. In the context of a simple learning task, illumination of transfected cells in the somatosensory cortex influenced the decision-making process of freely moving mice.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: The use of BMIs has also led to a deeper understanding of neural networks and the central nervous system. Research has shown that despite the inclination of neuroscientists to believe that neurons have the most effect when working together, single neurons can be conditioned through the use of BMIs to fire at a pattern that allows primates to control motor outputs. The use of BMIs has led to development of the single neuron insufficiency principle which states that even with a well tuned firing rate single neurons can only carry a narrow amount of information and therefore the highest level of accuracy is achieved by recording firings of the collective ensemble. Other principles discovered with the use of BMIs include the neuronal multitasking principle, the neuronal mass principle, the neural degeneracy principle, and the plasticity principle.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: BCIs are also proposed to be applied by users without disabilities. A user-centered categorization of BCI approaches by Thorsten O. Zander and Christian Kothe introduces the term passive BCI. Next to active and reactive BCI that are used for directed control, passive BCIs allow for assessing and interpreting changes in the user state during Human-Computer Interaction (HCI). In a secondary, implicit control loop the computer system adapts to its user improving its usability in general.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Beyond BCI systems that decode neural activity to drive external effectors, BCI systems may be used to encode signals from the periphery. These sensory BCI devices enable real-time, behaviorally-relevant decisions based upon closed-loop neural stimulation.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: The Annual BCI Research Award is awarded in recognition of outstanding and innovative research in the field of Brain-Computer Interfaces. Each year, a renowned research laboratory is asked to judge the submitted projects. The jury consists of world-leading BCI experts recruited by the awarding laboratory. The jury selects twelve nominees, then chooses a first, second, and third-place winner, who receive awards of $3,000, $2,000, and $1,000, respectively.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Invasive BCI requires surgery to implant electrodes under scalp for communicating brain signals. The main advantage is to provide more accurate reading; however, its downside includes side effects from the surgery. After the surgery, scar tissues may form which can make brain signals weaker. In addition, according to the research of Abdulkader et al., (2015), the body may not accept the implanted electrodes and this can cause a medical condition.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Invasive BCI research has targeted repairing damaged sight and providing new functionality for people with paralysis. Invasive BCIs are implanted directly into the grey matter of the brain during neurosurgery. Because they lie in the grey matter, invasive devices produce the highest quality signals of BCI devices but are prone to scar-tissue build-up, causing the signal to become weaker, or even non-existent, as the body reacts to a foreign object in the brain.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In "vision science", direct brain implants have been used to treat non-congenital (acquired) blindness. One of the first scientists to produce a working brain interface to restore sight was private researcher William Dobelle.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Dobelle's first prototype was implanted into "Jerry", a man blinded in adulthood, in 1978. A single-array BCI containing 68 electrodes was implanted onto Jerry's visual cortex and succeeded in producing phosphenes, the sensation of seeing light. The system included cameras mounted on glasses to send signals to the implant. Initially, the implant allowed Jerry to see shades of grey in a limited field of vision at a low frame-rate. This also required him to be hooked up to a mainframe computer, but shrinking electronics and faster computers made his artificial eye more portable and now enable him to perform simple tasks unassisted.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In 2002, Jens Naumann, also blinded in adulthood, became the first in a series of 16 paying patients to receive Dobelle's second generation implant, marking one of the earliest commercial uses of BCIs. The second generation device used a more sophisticated implant enabling better mapping of phosphenes into coherent vision. Phosphenes are spread out across the visual field in what researchers call "the starry-night effect". Immediately after his implant, Jens was able to use his imperfectly restored vision to drive an automobile slowly around the parking area of the research institute. Unfortunately, Dobelle died in 2004 before his processes and developments were documented. Subsequently, when Mr. Naumann and the other patients in the program began having problems with their vision, there was no relief and they eventually lost their "sight" again. Naumann wrote about his experience with Dobelle's work in "Search for Paradise: A Patient's Account of the Artificial Vision Experiment" and has returned to his farm in Southeast Ontario, Canada, to resume his normal activities.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: BCIs focusing on "motor neuroprosthetics" aim to either restore movement in individuals with paralysis or provide devices to assist them, such as interfaces with computers or robot arms.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Researchers at Emory University in Atlanta, led by Philip Kennedy and Roy Bakay, were first to install a brain implant in a human that produced signals of high enough quality to simulate movement. Their patient, Johnny Ray (1944–2002), developed 'locked-in syndrome' after having a brain-stem stroke in 1997. Ray's implant was installed in 1998 and he lived long enough to start working with the implant, eventually learning to control a computer cursor; he died in 2002 of a brain aneurysm.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Tetraplegic Matt Nagle became the first person to control an artificial hand using a BCI in 2005 as part of the first nine-month human trial of Cyberkinetics's BrainGate chip-implant. Implanted in Nagle's right precentral gyrus (area of the motor cortex for arm movement), the 96-electrode BrainGate implant allowed Nagle to control a robotic arm by thinking about moving his hand as well as a computer cursor, lights and TV. One year later, professor Jonathan Wolpaw received the prize of the Altran Foundation for Innovation to develop a Brain Computer Interface with electrodes located on the surface of the skull, instead of directly in the brain.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: More recently, research teams led by the BrainGate group at Brown University and a group led by University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, both in collaborations with the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, have demonstrated further success in direct control of robotic prosthetic limbs with many degrees of freedom using direct connections to arrays of neurons in the motor cortex of patients with tetraplegia.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In May 2021, a Stanford University team reported a successful proof-of-concept test that enabled a quadraplegic participant to input English sentences at about 86 characters per minute and 18 words per minute. The participant imagined moving his hand to write letters, and the system performed handwriting recognition on electrical signals detected in the motor cortex, utilizing hidden Markov models and recurrent neural networks for decoding.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: A report published in July 2021 reported a paralyzed patient was able to communicate 15 words per minute using a brain implant that analyzed motor neurons that previously controlled the vocal tract.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In a recent review article, researchers raised an open question of whether human information transfer rates can surpass that of language with BCIs. Given that recent language research has demonstrated that human information transfer rates are relatively constant across many languages, there may exist a limit at the level of information processing in the brain. On the contrary, this "upper limit" of information transfer rate may be intrinsic to language itself, as a modality for information transfer.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: There exist a number of technical challenges to recording brain activity with invasive BCIs. Advances in CMOS technology are pushing and enabling integrated, invasive BCI designs with smaller size, lower power requirements, and higher signal acquisition capabilities. Invasive BCIs involve electrodes that penetrate brain tissue in an attempt to record action potential signals (also known as spikes) from individual, or small groups of, neurons near the electrode. The interface between a recording electrode and the electrolytic solution surrounding neurons has been modelled using the Hodgkin-Huxley model.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Electronic limitations to invasive BCIs have been an active area of research in recent decades. While intracellular recordings of neurons reveal action potential voltages on the scale of hundreds of millivolts, chronic invasive BCIs rely on recording extracellular voltages which typically are three orders of magnitude smaller, existing at hundreds of microvolts. Further adding to the challenge of detecting signals on the scale of microvolts is the fact that the electrode-tissue interface has a high capacitance at small voltages. Due to the nature of these small signals, for BCI systems that incorporate functionality onto an integrated circuit, each electrode requires its own amplifier and ADC, which convert analog extracellular voltages into digital signals. Because a typical neuron action potential lasts for one millisecond, BCIs measuring spikes must have sampling rates ranging from 300 Hz to 5 kHz. Yet another concern is that invasive BCIs must be low-power, so as to dissipate less heat to surrounding tissue; at the most basic level more power is traditionally needed to optimize signal-to-noise ratio. Optimal battery design is an active area of research in BCIs.Challenges existing in the area of material science are central to the design of invasive BCIs. Variations in signal quality over time have been commonly observed with implantable microelectrodes. Optimal material and mechanical characteristics for long term signal stability in invasive BCIs has been an active area of research. It has been proposed that the formation of glial scarring, secondary to damage at the electrode-tissue interface, is likely responsible for electrode failure and reduced recording performance. Research has suggested that blood-brain barrier leakage, either at the time of insertion or over time, may be responsible for the inflammatory and glial reaction to chronic microelectrodes implanted in the brain. As a result, flexible and tissue-like designs have been researched and developed to minimize foreign-body reaction by means of matching the Young's modulus of the electrode closer to that of brain tissue.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Partially invasive BCI devices are implanted inside the skull but rest outside the brain rather than within the grey matter. They produce better resolution signals than non-invasive BCIs where the bone tissue of the cranium deflects and deforms signals and have a lower risk of forming scar-tissue in the brain than fully invasive BCIs. There has been preclinical demonstration of intracortical BCIs from the stroke perilesional cortex.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: A systematic review published in 2020 detailed multiple studies, both clinical and non-clinical, dating back decades investigating the feasibility of endovascular BCIs.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In recent years, the biggest advance in partially invasive BCIs has emerged in the area of interventional neurology. In 2010, researchers affiliated with University of Melbourne had begun developing a BCI that could be inserted via the vascular system. The Australian neurologist Thomas Oxley (Mount Sinai Hospital) conceived the idea for this BCI, called Stentrode, which has received funding from DARPA. Preclinical studies evaluated the technology in sheep.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: The Stentrode, a monolithic stent electrode array, is designed to be delivered via an intravenous catheter under image-guidance to the superior sagittal sinus, in the region which lies adjacent to motor cortex. This proximity to motor cortex underlies the Stentrode's ability to measure neural activity. The procedure is most similar to how venous sinus stents are placed for the treatment of idiopathic intracranial hypertension. The Stentrode communicates neural activity to a battery-less telemetry unit implanted in the chest, which communicates wirelessly with an external telemetry unit capable of power and data transfer. While an endovascular BCI benefits from avoiding craniotomy for insertion, risks such as clotting and venous thrombosis are possible. In pre-clinical animal studies implanted with Stentrode, twenty animals showed no evidence of thrombus formation after 190 days, possibly due to endothelial incorporation of the Stentrode into the vessel wall.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: First-in-human trials with the Stentrode are underway. In November 2020, two participants with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis were able to wirelessly control an operating system to text, email, shop, and bank using direct thought through the Stentrode brain-computer interface, marking the first time a brain-computer interface was implanted via the patient's blood vessels, eliminating the need for open brain surgery.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: "Electrocorticography" (ECoG) measures the electrical activity of the brain taken from beneath the skull in a similar way to non-invasive electroencephalography, but the electrodes are embedded in a thin plastic pad that is placed above the cortex, beneath the dura mater. ECoG technologies were first trialled in humans in 2004 by Eric Leuthardt and Daniel Moran from Washington University in St Louis. In a later trial, the researchers enabled a teenage boy to play Space Invaders using his ECoG implant. This research indicates that control is rapid, requires minimal training, and may be an ideal tradeoff with regards to signal fidelity and level of invasiveness.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Signals can be either subdural or epidural, but are not taken from within the brain parenchyma itself. It has not been studied extensively until recently due to the limited access of subjects. Currently, the only manner to acquire the signal for study is through the use of patients requiring invasive monitoring for localization and resection of an epileptogenic focus.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: ECoG is a very promising intermediate BCI modality because it has higher spatial resolution, better signal-to-noise ratio, wider frequency range, and less training requirements than scalp-recorded EEG, and at the same time has lower technical difficulty, lower clinical risk, and may have superior long-term stability than intracortical single-neuron recording. This feature profile and recent evidence of the high level of control with minimal training requirements shows potential for real world application for people with motor disabilities. Light reactive imaging BCI devices are still in the realm of theory.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Recent work published by Edward Chang and Joseph Makin from UCSF revealed that ECoG signals could be used to decode speech from epilepsy patients implanted with high-density ECoG arrays over the peri-Sylvian cortices. Their study achieved word error rates of 3% (a marked improvement from prior publications) utilizing an encoder-decoder neural network, which translated ECoG data into one of fifty sentences composed of 250 unique words.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: There have also been experiments in humans using non-invasive neuroimaging technologies as interfaces. The substantial majority of published BCI work involves noninvasive EEG-based BCIs. Noninvasive EEG-based technologies and interfaces have been used for a much broader variety of applications. Although EEG-based interfaces are easy to wear and do not require surgery, they have relatively poor spatial resolution and cannot effectively use higher-frequency signals because the skull dampens signals, dispersing and blurring the electromagnetic waves created by the neurons. EEG-based interfaces also require some time and effort prior to each usage session, whereas non-EEG-based ones, as well as invasive ones require no prior-usage training. Overall, the best BCI for each user depends on numerous factors.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In 1989, a report was given on control of a mobile robot by eye movement using electrooculography (EOG) signals. A mobile robot was driven from a start to a goal point using five EOG commands, interpreted as forward, backward, left, right, and stop. The EOG as a challenge of controlling external objects was presented by Vidal in his 1973 paper.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: A 2016 article described an entirely new communication device and non-EEG-based human-computer interface, which requires no visual fixation, or ability to move the eyes at all. The interface is based on covert interest; directing one's attention to a chosen letter on a virtual keyboard, without the need to move one's eyes to look directly at the letter. Each letter has its own (background) circle which micro-oscillates in brightness differently from all of the other letters. The letter selection is based on best fit between unintentional pupil-size oscillation and the background circle's brightness oscillation pattern. Accuracy is additionally improved by the user's mental rehearsing of the words 'bright' and 'dark' in synchrony with the brightness transitions of the letter's circle.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In 2014 and 2017, a BCI using functional near-infrared spectroscopy for "locked-in" patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) was able to restore some basic ability of the patients to communicate with other people.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: After the BCI challenge was stated by Vidal in 1973, the initial reports on non-invasive approach included control of a cursor in 2D using VEP (Vidal 1977), control of a buzzer using CNV (Bozinovska et al. 1988, 1990), control of a physical object, a robot, using a brain rhythm (alpha) (Bozinovski et al. 1988), control of a text written on a screen using P300 (Farwell and Donchin, 1988).


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In the early days of BCI research, another substantial barrier to using electroencephalography (EEG) as a brain–computer interface was the extensive training required before users can work the technology. For example, in experiments beginning in the mid-1990s, Niels Birbaumer at the University of Tübingen in Germany trained severely paralysed people to self-regulate the "slow cortical potentials" in their EEG to such an extent that these signals could be used as a binary signal to control a computer cursor. (Birbaumer had earlier trained epileptics to prevent impending fits by controlling this low voltage wave.) The experiment saw ten patients trained to move a computer cursor by controlling their brainwaves. The process was slow, requiring more than an hour for patients to write 100 characters with the cursor, while training often took many months. However, the slow cortical potential approach to BCIs has not been used in several years, since other approaches require little or no training, are faster and more accurate, and work for a greater proportion of users.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Another research parameter is the type of oscillatory activity that is measured. Gert Pfurtscheller founded the BCI Lab 1991 and fed his research results on motor imagery in the first online BCI based on oscillatory features and classifiers. Together with Birbaumer and Jonathan Wolpaw at New York State University they focused on developing technology that would allow users to choose the brain signals they found easiest to operate a BCI, including "mu" and "beta" rhythms.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: A further parameter is the method of feedback used and this is shown in studies of P300 signals. Patterns of P300 waves are generated involuntarily (stimulus-feedback) when people see something they recognize and may allow BCIs to decode categories of thoughts without training patients first. By contrast, the biofeedback methods described above require learning to control brainwaves so the resulting brain activity can be detected.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In 2005 it was reported research on EEG emulation of digital control circuits for BCI, with example of a CNV flip-flop. In 2009 it was reported noninvasive EEG control of a robotic arm using a CNV flip-flop. In 2011 it was reported control of two robotic arms solving Tower of Hanoi task with three disks using a CNV flip-flop. In 2015 it was described EEG-emulation of a Schmitt trigger, flip-flop, demultiplexer, and modem.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: While an EEG based brain-computer interface has been pursued extensively by a number of research labs, recent advancements made by Bin He and his team at the University of Minnesota suggest the potential of an EEG based brain-computer interface to accomplish tasks close to invasive brain-computer interface. Using advanced functional neuroimaging including BOLD functional MRI and EEG source imaging, Bin He and co-workers identified the co-variation and co-localization of electrophysiological and hemodynamic signals induced by motor imagination.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Refined by a neuroimaging approach and by a training protocol, Bin He and co-workers demonstrated the ability of a non-invasive EEG based brain-computer interface to control the flight of a virtual helicopter in 3-dimensional space, based upon motor imagination. In June 2013 it was announced that Bin He had developed the technique to enable a remote-control helicopter to be guided through an obstacle course.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In addition to a brain-computer interface based on brain waves, as recorded from scalp EEG electrodes, Bin He and co-workers explored a virtual EEG signal-based brain-computer interface by first solving the EEG inverse problem and then used the resulting virtual EEG for brain-computer interface tasks. Well-controlled studies suggested the merits of such a source analysis based brain-computer interface.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: A 2014 study found that severely motor-impaired patients could communicate faster and more reliably with non-invasive EEG BCI, than with any muscle-based communication channel.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: A 2016 study found that the Emotiv EPOC device may be more suitable for control tasks using the attention/meditation level or eye blinking than the Neurosky MindWave device.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: A 2019 study found that the application of evolutionary algorithms could improve EEG mental state classification with a non-invasive Muse device, enabling high quality classification of data acquired by a cheap consumer-grade EEG sensing device.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In a 2021 systematic review of randomized controlled trials using BCI for upper-limb rehabilitation after stroke, EEG-based BCI was found to have significant efficacy in improving upper-limb motor function compared to control therapies. More specifically, BCI studies that utilized band power features, motor imagery, and functional electrical stimulation in their design were found to be more efficacious than alternatives. Another 2021 systematic review focused on robotic-assisted EEG-based BCI for hand rehabilitation after stroke. Improvement in motor assessment scores was observed in three of eleven studies included in the systematic review.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In the early 1990s Babak Taheri, at University of California, Davis demonstrated the first single and also multichannel dry active electrode arrays using micro-machining. The single channel dry EEG electrode construction and results were published in 1994. The arrayed electrode was also demonstrated to perform well compared to silver/silver chloride electrodes. The device consisted of four sites of sensors with integrated electronics to reduce noise by impedance matching. The advantages of such electrodes are: (1) no electrolyte used, (2) no skin preparation, (3) significantly reduced sensor size, and (4) compatibility with EEG monitoring systems. The active electrode array is an integrated system made of an array of capacitive sensors with local integrated circuitry housed in a package with batteries to power the circuitry. This level of integration was required to achieve the functional performance obtained by the electrode.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: The electrode was tested on an electrical test bench and on human subjects in four modalities of EEG activity, namely: (1) spontaneous EEG, (2) sensory event-related potentials, (3) brain stem potentials, and (4) cognitive event-related potentials. The performance of the dry electrode compared favorably with that of the standard wet electrodes in terms of skin preparation, no gel requirements (dry), and higher signal-to-noise ratio.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In 1999 researchers at Case Western Reserve University, in Cleveland, Ohio, led by Hunter Peckham, used 64-electrode EEG skullcap to return limited hand movements to quadriplegic Jim Jatich. As Jatich concentrated on simple but opposite concepts like up and down, his beta-rhythm EEG output was analysed using software to identify patterns in the noise. A basic pattern was identified and used to control a switch: Above average activity was set to on, below average off. As well as enabling Jatich to control a computer cursor the signals were also used to drive the nerve controllers embedded in his hands, restoring some movement.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In 2009, the NCTU Brain-Computer-Interface-headband was reported. The researchers who developed this BCI-headband also engineered silicon-based microelectro-mechanical system (MEMS) dry electrodes designed for application in non-hairy sites of the body. These electrodes were secured to the DAQ board in the headband with snap-on electrode holders. The signal processing module measured alpha activity and the Bluetooth enabled phone assessed the patients' alertness and capacity for cognitive performance. When the subject became drowsy, the phone sent arousing feedback to the operator to rouse them. This research was supported by the National Science Council, Taiwan, R.O.C., NSC, National Chiao-Tung University, Taiwan's Ministry of Education, and the U.S. Army Research Laboratory.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In 2011, researchers reported a cellular based BCI with the capability of taking EEG data and converting it into a command to cause the phone to ring. This research was supported in part by Abraxis Bioscience LLP, the U.S. Army Research Laboratory, and the Army Research Office. The developed technology was a wearable system composed of a four channel bio-signal acquisition/amplification module, a wireless transmission module, and a Bluetooth enabled cell phone.  The electrodes were placed so that they pick up steady state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs). SSVEPs are electrical responses to flickering visual stimuli with repetition rates over 6 Hz that are best found in the parietal and occipital scalp regions of the visual cortex. It was reported that with this BCI setup, all study participants were able to initiate the phone call with minimal practice in natural environments.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: The scientists claim that their studies using a single channel fast Fourier transform (FFT) and multiple channel system canonical correlation analysis (CCA) algorithm support the capacity of mobile BCIs. The CCA algorithm has been applied in other experiments investigating BCIs with claimed high performance in accuracy as well as speed. While the cellular based BCI technology was developed to initiate a phone call from SSVEPs, the researchers said that it can be translated for other applications, such as picking up sensorimotor mu/beta rhythms to function as a motor-imagery based BCI.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In 2013, comparative tests were performed on android cell phone, tablet, and computer based BCIs, analyzing the power spectrum density of resultant EEG SSVEPs. The stated goals of this study, which involved scientists supported in part by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory, were to "increase the practicability, portability, and ubiquity of an SSVEP-based BCI, for daily use". Citation It was reported that the stimulation frequency on all mediums was accurate, although the cell phone's signal demonstrated some instability. The amplitudes of the SSVEPs for the laptop and tablet were also reported to be larger than those of the cell phone. These two qualitative characterizations were suggested as indicators of the feasibility of using a mobile stimulus BCI.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In 2011, researchers stated that continued work should address ease of use, performance robustness, reducing hardware and software costs.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: One of the difficulties with EEG readings is the large susceptibility to motion artifacts. In most of the previously described research projects, the participants were asked to sit still, reducing head and eye movements as much as possible, and measurements were taken in a laboratory setting. However, since the emphasized application of these initiatives had been in creating a mobile device for daily use, the technology had to be tested in motion.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In 2013, researchers tested mobile EEG-based BCI technology, measuring SSVEPs from participants as they walked on a treadmill at varying speeds. This research was supported by the Office of Naval Research, Army Research Office, and the U.S. Army Research Laboratory. Stated results were that as speed increased the SSVEP detectability using CCA decreased. As independent component analysis (ICA) had been shown to be efficient in separating EEG signals from noise, the scientists applied ICA to CCA extracted EEG data. They stated that the CCA data with and without ICA processing were similar. Thus, they concluded that CCA independently demonstrated a robustness to motion artifacts that indicates it may be a beneficial algorithm to apply to BCIs used in real world conditions.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Non-invasive BCIs have also been applied to enable brain-control of prosthetic upper and lower extremity devices in people with paralysis. For example, Gert Pfurtscheller of Graz University of Technology and colleagues demonstrated a BCI-controlled functional electrical stimulation system to restore upper extremity movements in a person with tetraplegia due to spinal cord injury. Between 2012 and 2013, researchers at the University of California, Irvine demonstrated for the first time that it is possible to use BCI technology to restore brain-controlled walking after spinal cord injury. In their spinal cord injury research study, a person with paraplegia was able to operate a BCI-robotic gait orthosis to regain basic brain-controlled ambulation.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: In 2009 Alex Blainey, an independent researcher based in the UK, successfully used the Emotiv EPOC to control a 5 axis robot arm. He then went on to make several demonstration mind controlled wheelchairs and home automation that could be operated by people with limited or no motor control such as those with paraplegia and cerebral palsy.


title: Brain–computer interface

text: Research into military use of BCIs funded by DARPA has been ongoing since the 1970s. The current focus of research is user-to-user communication through analysis of neural signals.