title: Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

text: Students from various universities like Jamia Millia Islamia, Aligarh Muslim University, Nadwa College, Jawaharlal Nehru University, IIT Kanpur, IIT Madras, Jadavpur University, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, IISc, Pondicherry University, and IIM Ahmedabad also held protest. More than 25 student associations from all over India joined protest. On 15 December, police forcefully entered the campus of Jamia Millia Islamia university, where protests were being held, and detained the students. Police used batons and tear gas on the students. More than a hundred students were injured and an equal number were detained. The police action was widely criticized, and resulted in protests across the country.


title: Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

text: Muslims all over India came out to protest the CAA–NRC package with a renewed assertion of their identity as Indians. Muslim women started protest at Shaheen Bagh on 15 December 2019 start as an ongoing 24/7 sit-in peaceful protest. The protesters at Shaheen Bagh have blocked a major highway in New Delhi using non-violent resistance for more than 51 days now as of 5 February 2020. On 24 February, violent clashes occurred during the North East Delhi riots in which seven people where killed and more than a hundred injured. The death toll rose to 42 within 36 hours, with 250 people getting injured.


title: Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

text: On 16 December, after the protests entered the fifth day, Prime Minister Narendra Modi appealed for calm in a series of tweets saying "No Indian has anything to worry regarding this act. This act is only for those who have faced years of persecution outside and have no other place to go except India". As CAA protests raised concerns on combined effects of CAA with NRC, the government has sought to downplay its narrative on NRC, with both the PM Narendra Modi and Home Minister Amit Shah stating that there has been no talk on pan-Indian NRC in their government for now, and neither the cabinet nor the legal department has discussed it.


title: Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

text: Considering Violence and damage to public properties during demonstration, on 19 December, police banned protests in several parts of India with the imposition of section 144 which prohibits the gathering of more than 4 individuals in a public space as being unlawful, namely, parts of the capital Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, and Karnataka, including Bangalore. Police in Chennai denied permission for marches, rallies or any other demonstration. Internet services were shut down in several parts of Delhi. As a result of defining the ban, thousands of protesters were detained, including several opposition leaders and activists such as Ramachandra Guha, Sitaram Yechury, Yogendra Yadav, Umar Khalid, Sandeep Dikshit, Tehseen Poonawalla and D Raja.


title: Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

text: Right-wing student groups such as those from the Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad – a student wing of the Hindu nationalist Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, held rallies in support of the amended Citizenship Act. Rallies in support of the Amendment Act were led by BJP leaders in West Bengal, who alleged that the state government blocked them. They also accused the Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee's party members of misinforming the state's residents about the new law. Similarly, some 15,000 people joined a BJP-organised rally in support of the Act in Rajasthan. On 20 December 2019, scores of people held demonstrations in Central Park, Connaught Place, New Delhi in support of the Act. Hundreds of people gathered in Pune, forming a human chain, in support of CAA, on 22 December. ABVP members held a rally in support of CAA and NRC in Kerala. Hundreds of citizens were out on the streets in support of the citizenship law in Bangalore.


title: Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

text: Jay Kholiya, ex-Member and Officer Bearer of ABVP Maharashtra had resigned from his office during these protests citing "Ideological Differences". In Assam, ABVP's National Executive Moon Talukdar also had joined Anti-CAA Protests. He also announced that around 800 members would resign in opposition to the government's move to implement the Citizenship (Amendment) Act (CAA).


title: Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

text: Hindu refugee families in Assam, living since the 1960s in a refugee camp and who had been denied Indian citizenship so far, said that the Amendment had "kindled hope" at first. They added that the recent protests against the Act and demands for its cancellation have made them fearful of the future. In New Delhi, about 600 refugees from Pakistan living in a camp consisting of tiny shanties celebrated the new law. A delegation of Sikh refugees who had arrived from Afghanistan three decades ago thanked the Indian government for amending the citizenship law. They stated the Amended law would allow them to finally gain Indian citizenship and "join the mainstream".


title: Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

text: Some Rohingya Muslim refugees in India were not optimistic about the Amendment and feared they would be deported. Other Rohingya refugees expressed gratitude at having been allowed to stay in India, but did not make any comments specific to the Act lest they provoke a backlash. They said that local police had asked them not to protest against the Act.


title: Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

text: More than 200 families have arrived in the Indian state of Punjab with all their belongings after the law was enacted.


title: Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

text: The bill was opposed by the Indian National Congress, who said it would create communal tensions and polarise India. The Chief Ministers of the Indian states of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Punjab, Kerala and Rajasthan and union territory of Puducherry – all led by non-BJP governments – said they will not implement the law. According to the Union Home Ministry, states lack the legal power to stop the implementation of CAA. The Ministry stated that "the new legislation has been enacted under the Union List of the 7th Schedule of the Constitution. The states have no power to reject it". Modi stated on 21 December that the NRC had only been implemented in Assam to follow a directive from the Supreme Court of India, and that there had been no decision taken to implement it nation-wide.


title: Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

text: The Indian Union Muslim League petitioned the Supreme Court of India to declare the bill illegal. The first hearing by the Supreme Court of India on 60 petitions challenging the Act was on 18 December 2019. During the first hearing, the court declined to stay implementation of the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019. On 22 January 2020, around 143 petitions, including several petitions filed after 18 December 2019 were heard. Court again declined the request for stay. Bench, presided over by Chief Justice of India SA Bobde indicated that the matter may be referred to a larger bench. a as the next date of hearing. The next hearing was scheduled on 21 April 2020.


title: Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

text: The foreign intelligence agency of India, R&AW, had expressed concern while deposing in front of the joint parliamentary committee, and had stated that the bill could be used by agents of the foreign intelligence agencies to infiltrate legally into India. Former National Security Advisor Shiv Shankar Menon called the incident a self inflicted goal that has isolated India from the International community.


title: Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

text: Harish Salve, former Solicitor General of India, said that the bill does not violate Article 14, Article 25 and Article 21 of the Constitution of India.


title: Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

text: A group of prominent individuals and organisations from around 12 countries representing minorities of Bangladesh released a joint statement in which they described the Act as "humanitarian" provision through which India has "partially fulfilled" its obligations towards the minorities of Bangladesh, Pakistan and Afghanistan. The National Sikh Front – a group representing the Sikhs in Jammu and Kashmir, stated that it supports the Act because it will help the Sikh refugees in India who left Afghanistan.


title: Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

text: A petition opposing the bill was signed by more 1,000 Indian scientists and scholars. The petition stated that "The use of religion as a criterion for citizenship in the proposed bill" was "inconsistent with the basic structure of the Constitution". A similar number of Indian academicians and intellectuals released a statement in support of the legislation. The petition stated that the act "fulfills the long-standing demand of providing refuge to persecuted religious minorities from Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan".


title: Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

text: Historian Neeti Nair commented that the Citizenship (Amendment) Act and the National Register of Citizens represent steps towards a "Hindu Rashtra" that should be "summarily dismissed both by the people and by the courts". Similar views were also expressed by social activists such as Harsh Mander, Indira Jaising. and media houses "National Herald" and "The Caravan". "The Japan Times" termed the Act as "Modi's project to make a Hindu India".


title: Atonement (novel)

text: Atonement is a 2001 British metafictional novel written by Ian McEwan. Set in three time periods, 1935 England, Second World War England and France, and present-day England, it covers an upper-class girl's half-innocent mistake that ruins lives, her adulthood in the shadow of that mistake, and a reflection on the nature of writing.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: Widely regarded as one of McEwan's best works, it was shortlisted for the 2001 Booker Prize for fiction. In 2010, "Time" magazine named "Atonement" in its list of the 100 greatest English-language novels since 1923.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: In 2007, the book was adapted into a BAFTA and Academy Award-winning film of the same title, starring Saoirse Ronan, James McAvoy, and Keira Knightley, and directed by Joe Wright.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: Briony Tallis, a 13-year-old English girl with a talent for writing, lives at her family's country estate with her parents Jack and Emily Tallis, who are members of the landed gentry. Her older sister Cecilia has recently graduated from the University of Cambridge with Robbie Turner, the Tallis family housekeeper's son and Cecilia's childhood friend, whose university education was funded by Jack.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: In the summer of 1935, Briony's maternal cousins, 15-year-old Lola and 9-year-old twins Jackson and Pierrot, visit the family amidst their parents' divorce. Briony and Cecilia's older brother Leon returns from London, accompanied by his friend from Oxford, the well-off manufacturer Paul Marshall. Cecilia and Robbie bicker over a vase, which breaks and falls into a pond. Cecilia strips to her underwear and dives in to retrieve the pieces, surprising Robbie. Briony, watching from a window, is confused and intrigued by Cecilia and Robbie's actions. She is inspired to begin writing psychological realism, and the reader is informed that this will eventually become a hallmark of her fiction.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: In the wake of the incident by the pond, Robbie realizes he is attracted to Cecilia, and writes several drafts of a love letter to her. He gives the letter to Briony to deliver to Cecilia; however, he inadvertently gives her a version he had meant to discard, which contains lewd references ("In my dreams I kiss your cunt"). By the time Robbie realizes his mistake, Briony has already returned to the house with his letter.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: Despite Robbie's instructions to the contrary, Briony opens the letter and reads it. She is shocked by its vulgar language, and becomes convinced that Robbie intends to harm Cecilia. An injured Lola goes to Briony for comfort, claiming that her younger brothers attacked her, although it is implied to have instead been Paul Marshall, who has a long scratch on his face. Briony relates the contents of the letter to Lola, who labels Robbie a "maniac," re-affirming Briony's feelings. Robbie arrives at the main house for a family dinner party, and is confronted by Cecilia. He confesses his feelings to her, and she responds in kind. Later the same evening, Briony walks in on Robbie and Cecilia having sex in the library. The immature Briony believes she interrupted a vicious assault on Cecilia, and stands stunned while Robbie and Cecilia quickly exit.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: At the dinner, which is generally tense, it is discovered the twins have run away. The party breaks into teams to search for them. When Cecilia goes with Leon, Robbie and Briony each set off on their own. In the darkness, while everyone is searching for the twins, Briony discovers her cousin Lola being raped by an assailant neither girl can clearly see. The attacker flees. Briony, convinced that it must have been Robbie, gets Lola to agree that she likely heard Robbie's voice, despite Lola being too shocked to recall anything. The girls return home, and Briony identifies Robbie to the police as the rapist, claiming she saw his face in the dark. Lola is sedated by the local doctor, Cecilia screams at Briony and locks herself in her room, and Paul Marshall shares cigarettes with the policemen.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: Robbie does not return, and the family and police officers stay awake waiting for him. As dawn breaks, Robbie appears in the driveway with Jackson and Pierrot, having found and rescued them. He is arrested on the spot and taken away, with only Cecilia and his mother believing his protestations of innocence. Briony is satisfied by this conclusion to her mythologized version of the events, with her as the hero and Robbie as the villain.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: By the time the Second World War has started, Robbie has spent several years in prison. He and Cecilia have passed several years exchanging letters, maintaining their love for each other. Robbie is released from prison on the condition he enlists in the army. Meanwhile, Cecilia has completed training as a nurse, and cut off all contact with her family for the parts they played in locking Robbie up. Shortly before Robbie is deployed to France, they meet once for half an hour, during Cecilia's lunch break. Their reunion starts awkwardly, but they share a kiss before leaving each other.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: In France, the war is going badly, and the army is retreating to Dunkirk. As the injured Robbie makes his way there, he thinks about his love for Cecilia and his hatred for Briony. However, he eventually concludes that Briony was too young to be blamed fully, and writes Cecilia a letter encouraging her to reconnect with her family. His condition deteriorates over the course of the section; he weakens and becomes delirious. Robbie falls asleep in Dunkirk, one day before the evacuation begins.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: A remorseful Briony, now eighteen years old, has refused her place at Cambridge and instead is a trainee nurse in London. She has realised the full extent of her mistake and decides it was Paul Marshall, Leon's friend, whom she saw raping Lola. Briony still writes fiction, mostly inspired by Robbie and Cecilia's relationship, although she has been rejected by several literary publications.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: Briony travels to attend the wedding of Paul Marshall and her cousin Lola, with the knowledge that Lola is marrying her rapist. Briony considers speaking up during the wedding, but does not. Afterwards, she visits Cecilia, who is cold but invites Briony in nonetheless. While Briony is apologizing to Cecilia, Robbie unexpectedly appears from the bedroom. He has been living with Cecilia while he is on leave from the army. Robbie expresses his fury at Briony, but with Cecilia's soothing remains civil.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: Cecilia and Robbie both refuse to forgive Briony, who nonetheless tells them she will try to put things right. She promises to begin the legal procedures needed to exonerate Robbie, even though Paul Marshall will never be held responsible for his crime because of his marriage to Lola. As Briony leaves Cecilia's, she is optimistic about her role in Robbie's exoneration, thinking that it will be "a new draft, an atonement" and that she is ready to begin.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: The final section, titled "London 1999," is narrated by Briony herself in the form of a diary entry. Now 77, she is a successful novelist who has recently been diagnosed with vascular dementia, so she is facing rapid mental decline.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: The reader learns that Briony is the author of the preceding sections of the novel. Briony attends a party in her honor at the Tallis family home, where the extended Tallis children perform "The Trials of Arabella", the play that 13-year-old Briony had written and unsuccessfully attempted to stage with her cousins in the summer of 1935. Leon and Pierrot are in attendance, Jackson is fifteen years deceased, and Lola is alive but does not attend. Finally, Briony reveals to the reader that Robbie Turner died of septicaemia on the beaches of Dunkirk, that Cecilia was killed several months later when a bomb destroyed Balham Underground station during the Blitz, and that Briony's story of seeing them together in 1940 was a fabrication. Briony did attend Lola's wedding to Paul Marshall, but confesses she was too "cowardly" to visit the recently bereaved Cecilia to make amends. The novel, which she says is factually true apart from Robbie and Cecilia being reunited, is her lifelong attempt at "atonement" for what she did to them.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: Briony justifies her invented happy ending by saying she does not see what purpose it would serve to give readers a "pitiless" story. She writes, "I like to think that it isn't weakness or evasion, but a final act of kindness, a stand against oblivion and despair, to let my lovers live and to unite them at the end."


title: Atonement (novel)

text: "Atonement" contains intertextual references to a number of other literary works, including "Gray's Anatomy", Virginia Woolf's "The Waves", Thomas Hardy's "Jude the Obscure", Henry James' "The Golden Bowl", Jane Austen's "Northanger Abbey", Samuel Richardson's "Clarissa", Vladimir Nabokov's "Lolita", Rosamond Lehmann's "Dusty Answer", and Shakespeare's "The Tempest", "Macbeth", "Hamlet", and "Twelfth Night". McEwan has also said that he was directly influenced by L.P. Hartley's "The Go-Between".


title: Atonement (novel)

text: "Atonement" was shortlisted for the 2001 Booker Prize for fiction. It was also shortlisted for the 2001 James Tait Black Memorial Prize and the 2001 Whitbread Novel Award. It won the 2002 "Los Angeles Times" Book Prize for fiction, the 2002 National Book Critics Circle Award for Fiction, the 2002 WH Smith Literary Award, the 2002 Boeke Prize and the 2004 Santiago Prize for the European Novel. In its 1000th issue, "Entertainment Weekly" named the novel #82 on its list of the 100 best books from 1983 to 2008. Additionally, "Time" named it the best fiction novel of the year and included it in its "All-Time 100 Greatest Novels". "The Observer" cites it as one of the 100 greatest novels ever written, calling it "a contemporary classic of mesmerising narrative conviction." In 2019, the novel was ranked 41st on "The Guardian" list of the 100 best books of the 21st century. In 2022, The Telegraph included it on its list of the "100 greatest novels of all time", this time with the motivation "McEwan put the 'c' word in the classic English country-house novel."


title: Atonement (novel)

text: The novel was initially named "An Atonement". Historian Tim Garton-Ash, to whom McEwan often shows his book drafts, persuaded McEwan to change the title at the last minute.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: It was first published by then publishing director Dan Franklin, Jonathan Cape, London, the UK in 2001. The first American edition was published by Nan A. Talese/Doubleday in April 2002. The first audio book is by Recorded Books, 2002 and read by Jill Tanner.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: The first edition cover image, designed by Suzanne Dean, depicts a girl wearing a summer dress sitting on the stairs of a country house. John Wilson of BBC4 describes it as having "a pensive quality, almost a weariness". This picture was taken only after the girl had been photographed for hours, getting frustrated and tapping her foot in a fury.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: In late 2006, the agent for the late romance and historical author Lucilla Andrews accused McEwan of failing to give Andrews sufficient credit for material on wartime nursing in London sourced from her 1977 autobiography "No Time for Romance". McEwan, who had faced similar accusations before, (see ) professed innocence of plagiarism while acknowledging his debt to the author. McEwan had included Andrews among the acknowledgements in the book, and several authors defended him, including John Updike, Martin Amis, Margaret Atwood, Thomas Keneally, Zadie Smith, and the reclusive Thomas Pynchon.


title: Atonement (novel)

text: A film adaptation, directed by Joe Wright from a screenplay by Christopher Hampton, was released by Working Title Films in September 2007 in the United Kingdom and in December 2007 in the United States. The film, starring James McAvoy and Keira Knightley, was a commercial and critical success, and won an Oscar for Best Original Score.


title: Smith College

text: Smith College is a private liberal arts women's college in Northampton, Massachusetts. It was chartered in 1871 by Sophia Smith and opened in 1875. It is the largest member of the historic Seven Sisters colleges, a group of elite women's colleges in the Northeastern United States. Smith is also a member of the Five College Consortium, along with four other nearby institutions in the Pioneer Valley: Mount Holyoke College, Amherst College, Hampshire College, and the University of Massachusetts Amherst; students of each college are allowed to attend classes at any other member institution. On campus are Smith's Museum of Art and Botanic Garden, the latter designed by Frederick Law Olmsted.


title: Smith College

text: Smith has 41 academic departments and programs and is structured around an open curriculum, lacking course requirements and scheduled final exams. It is known for its progressive, politically active student body, and rigorous academics. Undergraduate admissions is exclusively restricted to women, although Smith announced a trans-inclusive admissions policy in 2015. Smith offers several graduate degrees, all of which accept applicants regardless of gender, and co-administers programs leading to Ph.D.s alongside other Five College Consortium members. The college was the first historically women's college to offer an undergraduate engineering degree. Admissions is considered highly selective. It was the first women's college to join the NCAA, and its sports teams are known as the Pioneers.


title: Smith College

text: Smith alumnae include notable authors, journalists, activists, feminists, politicians, philanthropists, actresses, filmmakers, academics, businesswomen, CEOs, two First Ladies of the United States, and recipients of the Pulitzer Prize, Rhodes Scholarship, Academy Award, Emmy Award, MacArthur Grant, Peabody Award, and Tony Award.


title: Smith College

text: The college was chartered in 1871 by a bequest of Sophia Smith and opened its doors in 1875 with 14 students and 6 faculty. When she inherited a fortune from her father at age 65, Smith decided to leave her inheritance to found a women's college was the best way for her to fulfill the moral obligation she expressed in her will:


title: Smith College

text: The campus was planned and planted in the 1890s as a botanical garden and arboretum, designed by noted American landscape architect, Frederick Law Olmsted. The campus landscape now encompasses and includes more than 1,200 varieties of trees and shrubs.


title: Smith College

text: By 1915–16, the student enrollment was 1,724, and the faculty numbered 163. Today, with some 2,600 undergraduates on campus and 250 students studying elsewhere, Smith is the largest privately endowed college for women in the country.


title: Smith College

text: The United States Naval Reserve Midshipmen's School at Smith College was training grounds for junior officers of the Women's Reserve of the U.S. Naval Reserve (WAVES) and was nicknamed "USS Northampton". On August 28, 1942, a total of 120 women reported to the school for training.


title: Smith College

text: On December 10, 2012, the Board of Trustees announced Kathleen McCartney had been selected as the 11th president of Smith College, effective July 1, 2013.


title: Smith College

text: In April 2015, the faculty adopted an open-access policy to make its scholarship publicly accessible online.


title: Smith College

text: Smith has been led by 11 presidents and two acting presidents. (Elizabeth Cutter Morrow was the first acting president of Smith College and the first female head of the college, but she did not use the title of president.) For the 1975 centennial, the college inaugurated its first woman president, Jill Ker Conway, who came to Smith from Australia by way of Harvard and the University of Toronto. Since President Conway's term, all Smith presidents have been women, with the exception of John M. Connolly's one-year term as acting president in the interim after President Simmons left to lead Brown University.


title: Smith College

text: Smith College has 285 professors in 41 academic departments and programs, for a faculty-student ratio of 1:9. It was the first women's college in the United States to grant its own undergraduate degrees in engineering. The Picker Engineering Program offers a single ABET accredited Bachelor of Science in engineering science, combining the fundamentals of multiple engineering disciplines.


title: Smith College

text: Smith runs its own junior year abroad (JYA) programs in four European cities: Paris, Hamburg, Florence, and Geneva. These programs are notable for requiring all studies to be conducted in the language of the host country (with both Paris and Geneva programs conducted in French). In some cases, students live in homestays with local families. Nearly half of Smith's juniors study overseas, either through Smith JYA programs or at more than 40 other locations around the world.


title: Smith College

text: Junior math majors from other undergraduate institutions are invited to study at Smith College for one year through the Center for Women in Mathematics. Established in the fall of 2007 by Professors Ruth Haas and Jim Henle, the program aims to allow young women to improve their mathematical abilities through classwork, research, and involvement in a department centered on women. The Center also offers a post-baccalaureate year of math study to women who did not major in mathematics as undergraduates or whose mathematics major was not strong.


title: Smith College

text: The Louise W. and Edmund J. Kahn Liberal Arts Institute supports collaborative research without regard to the traditional boundaries of academic departments and programs. Each year the institute supports long-term and short-term projects proposed, planned, and organized by members of the Smith College faculty. By becoming Kahn Fellows, students get involved in interdisciplinary research projects and work alongside faculty and visiting scholars for a year.


title: Smith College

text: Students can develop leadership skills through Smith's two-year Phoebe Reese Lewis Leadership Program. Participants train in public speaking, analytical thinking, teamwork strategies, and the philosophical aspects of leadership.


title: Smith College

text: Through Smith's internship program, "Praxis: The Liberal Arts at Work," all undergraduates are guaranteed access to one college-funded internship during their years at the college. This program enables students to access interesting self-generated internship positions in social welfare and human services, the arts, media, health, education, and other fields.


title: Smith College

text: The Ada Comstock Scholars Program is an undergraduate degree program that serves Smith students of nontraditional college age. The program accommodates approximately 100 women ranging in age from mid-twenties to over sixty. Ada Comstock Scholars attend the same classes as traditional undergraduates, either full or part-time, and participate fully in a variety of extracurricular activities. They may live on or off campus. Financial aid is available to each Ada Comstock Scholar with demonstrated need.


title: Smith College

text: Beginning in 1968, with the approval of the Committee on Educational Policy, Smith College initiated a trial program loosely titled "The Continuing Education Degree" for several women of non-traditional age who were looking to complete their unfinished degrees. Their successes inspired President Thomas C. Mendenhall and Dean Alice Dickinson to officially expand the program. In January 1975, the Ada Comstock Scholars Program has formally established under President Jill Ker Conway and in the fall of that year, forty-five women were enrolled. The students range in age, background, and geographical location. The growth of the program peaked at just over 400 students in 1988.


title: Smith College

text: The program is named for Ada Louise Comstock Notestein (1876–1973), an 1897 Smith graduate, professor of English and dean of Smith from 1912 to 1923, and president of Radcliffe College from 1923 to 1943. Ada Comstock Notestein devoted much of her life to the academic excellence of women. Considering education and personal growth to be a lifelong process, she stayed actively involved in women's higher education until her death at the age of 97.


title: Smith College

text: Smith's graduate program is open to applicants of any gender. Degrees offered are Master of Arts in teaching (elementary, middle or high school), master of fine arts, master of education of the deaf, Master of Science in biological sciences, Master of Science in exercise and sport studies and master and Ph.D. in social work. In special one-year programs, international students may qualify for a certificate of graduate studies or a diploma in American studies. Each year approximately 100 men and women pursue advanced graduate work at Smith.


title: Smith College

text: Also offered as a non-degree studies program is the Diploma in American Studies. This is a highly competitive one-year program open only to international students of advanced undergraduate or graduate standing. It is designed primarily, although not exclusively, for those who are teaching or who plan to teach some aspect of American culture and institutions.


title: Smith College

text: The Smith College School for Social Work is nationally recognized for its specialization in clinical social work and puts a heavy emphasis on direct field work practice. The program is accredited by the Council on Social Work Education. The school offers a Master of Social Work (M.S.W.) degree as well as a Ph.D. program designed to prepare MSWs for leadership positions in clinical research education and practice.


title: Smith College

text: The college has a limited number of other programs leading to Ph.D.s and is part of a cooperative doctoral program co-administered by Amherst College, Hampshire College, Mount Holyoke College and the University of Massachusetts Amherst.


title: Smith College

text: For the Class of 2022 (enrolling fall 2018), Smith received 5,780 applications, accepted 1,789 (31.0%), and enrolled 613. The middle 50% range of SAT scores was 670–750 for critical reading and 670–770 for math, while the middle 50% range for the ACT composite score was 31–34 for enrolled first-year students. The average SAT for Smith College is 1430 even though Smith is also a test-optional college.


title: Smith College

text: "U.S. News & World Report"'s 2021 rankings placed Smith tied for the 15th overall best liberal arts college in the U.S., and rated it eighth for "Best Value", tied for 17th in "Best Undergraduate Engineering Program" at schools where doctorate not offered, tied for 19th in "Best Undergraduate Teaching", and tied for 94th in "Top Performers on Social Mobility". In 2019, "Forbes" rated Smith 81st overall in its America's Top Colleges ranking of 650 military academies, national universities, and liberal arts colleges. "Kiplinger's Personal Finance" places Smith 16th in its 2019 ranking of 149 best value liberal arts colleges in the United States. For 2020, "Washington Monthly" ranked Smith 23rd among 218 liberal arts colleges in the U.S. based on its contribution to the public good, as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service. Smith College is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.


title: Smith College

text: Smith requires most undergraduate students to live in on-campus houses unless they reside locally with their families. This policy is intended to add to the camaraderie and social cohesion of its students. Unlike most institutions of its type, Smith College does not have dorms, but rather 36 separate houses, ranging in architectural style from 18th-century to contemporary. It is rumored the architecture of Chapin House was the inspiration for the Tara Plantation House in "Gone with the Wind". (Author Margaret Mitchell went to Smith for one year and lived in Chapin.) A novelty of Smith's homelike atmosphere is the continuing popularity of Sophia Smith's recipe for molasses cookies. These are often served at the traditional Friday afternoon tea held in each house, where students, faculty and staff members, and alumnae socialize.


title: Smith College

text: Two cultural spaces on campus used by students of color to build their community, include the Mwangi Cultural Center and Unity House. Mwangi originally opened as the Afro-American Cultural Center in 1968 but was later renamed in honor of the first female physician in Kenya, and Smith alum, Dr. Ng’endo Mwangi ('61). After loaning Mwangi to the other cultural organizations on campus for four years, the Black Students’ Alliance decided to reclaim Mwangi in April 1990. Leaders, members, and supporters of cultural organizations got together to form a group called UNITY, in October of the same year, to demand a space for other cultural organizations. Today, Unity House serves as a home to the 11 cultural organizations on campus.


title: Smith College

text: Two recent additions to the campus, both of which enhance its sense of community, are the architecturally dramatic Julia McWilliams Child '34 Campus Center and the state-of-the-art Olin Fitness Center.


title: Smith College

text: In 2009, construction was also completed on Ford Hall, a new science and engineering facility. According to the Smith College website, Ford Hall is a "...facility that will intentionally blur the boundaries between traditional disciplines, creating an optimum environment for students and faculty to address key scientific and technological developments of our time." The building was officially dedicated on October 16, 2009.


title: Smith College

text: The campus also boasts a botanic garden that includes a variety of specialty gardens including a rock garden and historic glass greenhouses dating back to 1895. The botanic garden formerly featured a Japanese tea hut, which was removed in October 2015 following concerns over "issues of safety and vandalism."


title: Smith College

text: Smith offers "panel discussions and seminars for lesbian, bisexual, and transgender students on subjects such as coming out as transgender at work." In 2003, Smith students voted to remove pronouns from the language of the Student Government Association constitution, in order to make that document inclusive of transgender students who don't identify with the pronouns "she" and "her."


title: Smith College

text: Until 2013, transgender women were not allowed to attend Smith unless all their legal documentation consistently stated they were female. This policy came to public attention in March 2013 when Smith rejected the application of a trans woman named Calliope Wong. In the rejection letter, Smith's Dean of Admission Debra Shaver wrote "Your FAFSA indicates your gender as male. Therefore, Smith cannot process your application." This policy was changed in 2013 to only require all nonlegal application materials to indicate a female identity, including references. Not satisfied with the change, students as well as various alumni formed the group Q&A ("Queers and Allies") to advocate for more trans-inclusive policies. Q&A subsequently protested the policy on Facebook and other social media websites, as well as staging protests on campus that garnered significant media attention. In 2014, Smith formed an Admissions Policy Study Group, co-chaired by Daphne Lamothe and Audrey Smith, who at the time were an associate professor of Afro-American studies and vice president for enrollment, respectively. The group recommended that to be considered for admission to Smith, applicants live and/or identify as a woman, check the "female" box when applying and that the President establish a working group to support all trans and non-binary students at Smith. These recommendations went to the faculty and the Board of Trustees and in 2015, Smith announced a new policy that only required female identification on the common application. Under the policy, transgender men and non-binary or genderqueer applicants are not eligible for admission. This new policy also affirms that any student who, once admitted, transitions to another identity other than "female" and, who completes the college's graduation requirements, will be awarded a Smith degree. The Resource Center for Sexuality and Gender; The Office for Equity and Inclusion and its Trans/Non-binary Working Group; Transcending Gender, a student group focused on support and education; and the Transgender Support Group run by Counseling Services work to support trans and non-binary students at Smith across the gender identity spectrum.


title: Smith College

text: In the fall of 2018, students at Smith protested after a Smith employee called the police on a black student working at Smith over the summer when the employee saw her in a common space. Organized by the Black Students’ Alliance and the Smith African & Caribbean Students Association, students protested and walked out of the annual Smith convocation. While the incident received national attention and news coverage, Smith conducted an independent investigation and investigators found that there was no bias in the incident. In response to the incident, Smith hosted an Inclusion and Diversity Conference on April 10, 2019, featuring workshops and presenters run by various members of the Smith community. However, during that time another controversy arose: the hiring of Mount Holyoke College and Smith's joint police chief, Daniel Hect. Students from both campuses brought to their administrators' attention the fact that Hect had "liked" right-wing tweets on Twitter, such as Donald Trump tweeting "Build that Wall!" and a tweet from the National Rifle Association, before deleting his account once the conflict with students began. At the conference, students protested a presentation from the campus police, including Hect, about policing in a diverse community. Protests continued the next day when hundreds of students participated in a sit-in organized by the group Students for Social Justice and Institutional Change outside of John M. Greene Hall. The coalition presented a broad list of demands to the administration, proposing reform to many sectors of campus life, including curriculum, health and counseling services, accessibility, policing, admissions policies, and affinity housing. In response to the demands, Smith launched a working group charged with identifying key themes in response to the day of inclusion and ensuing protests and revamped the Office of Equity and Inclusion, adding programmatic changes, new or modified positions, training and development opportunities and new events to promote inclusion and equity.


title: Smith College

text: In October 2020, Smith alumna Jodi Shaw, then Student Support Coordinator in the Department of Residence Life, began posting videos commenting on mandated diversity training for staff at Smith College on her YouTube channel. Shaw characterized the training as contributing to a climate of "harassment, discrimination, and hostility" at the college, especially for staff. On February 19, 2021, columnist Bari Weiss published Shaw's resignation letter on Weiss's Substack blog. In it, Shaw described the implementation of the training as "psychologically abusive" and the culture as "deeply hostile and fearful." She alleged that the college had "offered a settlement in exchange for my silence, but I turned it down". On February 22, Smith College published a letter from President Kathleen McCartney alleging that an unnamed former employee had accused the college of "creating a racially hostile environment for white people, a baseless claim that the college flatly denies," and that "it was the employee herself who demanded payment of an exceptionally large sum in exchange for dropping a threatened legal claim and agreeing to standard confidentiality provisions." McCartney affirmed that the college's "commitment to, and strategies for, advancing equity and inclusion are grounded in evidence."


title: Smith College

text: On February 24, 2021, the "New York Times" reported on worsening tensions between students, staff, and administrators around issues of racial justice and the college's diversity training. President McCartney stated that "Good training is never about making people too uncomfortable or to feel ashamed or anything. I think our staff is content and are embracing it." A former janitor told the paper that he had gone through numerous training sessions in race and intersectionality at Smith and that they had left staff workers cynical.


title: Smith College

text: Smith College has many different houses serving as dormitories. Each house is self-governing. While many students remain in the same house for the entirety of their four years at Smith, they are not obligated to do so and may move to different houses on campus as space allows. While houses previously collected dues, in the 2019–2020 school year they were eradicated to avoid placing financial pressure on low-income students or students who were otherwise unable to pay without sacrificing funding for the House.


title: Smith College

text: Houses are found in four main regions of campus: Upper and Lower Elm Street, Green Street, Center Campus, and the Quadrangle. Each part can, in turn, be divided into smaller areas to more precisely provide the location of the house in question. In 2019, the college shifted from officially recognizing the four main areas of campus to instead categorizing houses in four neighborhoods: Ivy, Paradise, Mountain, and Garden. This change was largely internal and categorizes houses by size rather than location.


title: Smith College

text: Smith has numerous folk tales and ghost stories emerging from the histories of some of its historic buildings. It was named the most haunted college in America by College Consensus. One such tale holds Sessions House is inhabited by the ghost of Lucy Hunt, who died of a broken heart after being separated from her lover, General Burgoyne. Reports of a ghost in Sessions House predate its history as a campus house. Built in 1751 by the Hunt family, the house has a secret staircase where, according to legend, the Hunt's eldest daughter Lucy would rendezvous with her lover, General Burgoyne. The two were ultimately driven apart, and in the 1880s it was believed the ghost of a heartbroken Burgoyne haunted the staircase. Since Sessions House became part of college housing in the 20th century, the specter has taken on a decidedly feminine identity, and some former residents of Sessions claim to have seen Lucy's ghost in the stairwell.


title: Smith College

text: In addition to its 11 varsity sports, there are currently more than 120 clubs and organizations that cater to Smith students’ variety of interests. There are options that can be found based on academic, political, cultural, and athletic interests. If a student doesn't find an organization that fits their specific interest or need, they can create their own.


title: Smith College

text: Smith's athletic teams have been known as the Pioneers since 1986. The name expresses the spirit of Smith's students and the college's leading role in women's athletics (the first women's basketball game was played at Smith in 1893).


title: Smith College

text: A new spirit mark was unveiled to the Smith community in December 2008. The new visual identity for Smith's sports teams marks the culmination of a yearlong project to promote visibility and enthusiasm for Smith's intercollegiate and club teams—and to generate school spirit broadly. The spirit mark is used for athletics uniforms, casual apparel, and promotional items for clubs and organizations. As Smith was the first women's college to join the NCAA, the new mark is seen as linking the college's pioneering alumnae athletes to their equally determined and competitive counterparts today. Smith athletes won some of the early national intercollegiate women's tennis championships in singles (Louise Raymond, 1938 and 1939) and doubles (1933, 1935, 1938 and 1948).


title: Smith College

text: Smith College does not have college colors in the usual sense. Its official color is white, trimmed with gold, but the official college logo is blue and yellow (a previous logo was burgundy and white). NCAA athletic teams have competed in blue and white (or blue and yellow, in the case of the soccer, crew, swimming, and squash teams) uniforms since the 1970s and selected Pioneers as the official name and mascot in 1986. Popular club sports are free to choose their own colors and mascot; both Rugby and Fencing have chosen red and black.


title: Smith College

text: Smith has a rotating system of class colors dating back to the 1880s when intramural athletics and other campus competitions were usually held by class. Today, class colors are yellow, red, blue, and green, with incoming first-year classes assigned the color of the previous year's graduating class; their color then "follows" them through to graduation. Alumnae classes, particularly at reunions, continue to identify with and use their class color thereafter.


title: Smith College

text: There are 11 chartered cultural organizations that fall under the UNITY title: the Asian Students’ Association (ASA), Black Students’ Alliance (BSA), Chinese Interregional Student Cultural Org (CISCO), South Asian Student Association of Smith (EKTA), Indigenous Smith Students and Allies (ISSA), International Students Organization (ISO), Korean Students Association (KSA), the Latin American Students Organization (LASO), Multiethnic Interracial Smith College (MISC), Smithies of Caribbean Ancestry (SOCA), and the Vietnamese Students Association (VSA). Smith College Website Multicultural Affairs The Black Students’ Alliance is the oldest of all Unity organizations. In the Fall of 2012, as an effort to document the history of students of color on the Smith campus, the Weaving Voices Archives Project was created.


title: Smith College

text: Convocation signals the start of the fall semester. For new students, it is the first chance to experience Smith College's tradition and spirit. Likewise, for some returning students, the annual event is like a big, welcome-home party as well as an occasion for celebration and an opportunity for creative attire. House communities develop imaginative themes for group fashion, and Smith seniors put special touches on favorite hats to create their own unique "senior hats," to be worn for the first time at Convocation.


title: Smith College

text: Mountain Day is observed early in the fall semester. The president of the college selects a crisp, sunny, beautiful autumn day when the leaves are in full color, and announces the cancellation of classes by having bells rung on campus at 7:15 AM on the chosen day. The eager anticipation of Mountain Day leads to intense speculation about meteorology by students in the weeks leading up to the surprise announcement. Traditional observance of Mountain Day by students might involve New England road trips or outdoor pursuits, and college dining services provides box lunches to be taken off-campus. Many of the Houses go apple picking together.


title: Smith College

text: Cromwell Day, named for Smith's first African-American student, Otelia Cromwell, and her niece Adelaide Cromwell, began in 1989 to provide students with an in-depth program specifically addressing issues of racism and diversity. Afternoon classes are canceled, and students are invited to participate in lectures, workshops, symposia, and cultural events focused on a different theme each year. In 2020, Otelia Cromwell Day was renamed "Cromwell Day" to simultaneously honor Otelia Cromwell's niece Adelaide Cromwell, Smith College's first African-American faculty member.


title: Smith College

text: Rally Day In February 1876, the college began an annual observance of George Washington's birthday. In 1894, a rally became part of the day's events, and the focus of the celebration became primarily patriotic rather than exclusively social—though always with a women's college twist. Students that year staged a mock debate on the subject, "Does Higher Education Unfit a Man for Domestic Life?" In 1906 the celebration was first referred to as Rally Day (although the name was not used officially by the college until 1992). In 1944, seniors made Rally Day the first public wearing of their graduation caps and gowns; since then, mortarboards have been replaced by wacky, often homemade hats. Today, the Rally Day Convocation is centered on a historical theme and features a distinguished keynote speaker and the awarding of Smith College Medals to accomplished alumnae.


title: Smith College

text: The Alumnae Association of Smith College hosts official class reunions every five years. All alumnae from all classes are welcome to return in any year; "off-year" alumnae attend campus-wide events as the "Class of 1776."


title: Smith College

text: Traditional reunion and Commencement events are linked, and celebrate the close ties between Smith's alumnae and its graduating seniors and their families. At the conclusion of final exams, most underclassmen leave the campus, while seniors remain in their houses for a week to celebrate and prepare for Commencement. Alumnae arrive for reunions later in the week, and many alumnae arrange for official accommodations in the campus houses, right alongside senior residents.


title: Smith College

text: Ivy Day, the day before Commencement, is the high point of reunion and a significant event for seniors as well. Junior ushers lead a parade through campus, carrying vines of ivy to be planted by the departing seniors as a symbol of their lifelong connection to the college. Alumnae (and, often, their children), dressed in white and wearing sashes in their class color, line up in reverse order by class along both sides of the route. Seniors line up nearest the end of the parade route, wearing traditional white outfits and each carrying a single red rose. All cheer each alumnae class as it marches past, then fall in to join the end of the parade. Many alumnae classes carry signs with humorous poems or slogans, or hold balloons or wear hats in their class color. Ivy Day festivities conclude in the Quad, where the seniors plant their ivy and speakers address alumnae on the progress of fundraising and the state of the college.


title: Smith College

text: Illumination Night, beginning at dusk on the Saturday evening before Commencement, is a celebration of the campus and a send-off of sorts for graduating seniors. Throughout the central campus, electric street lights are replaced for one night by multicolored Japanese-style paper lanterns, lit with real candles. These hang on both sides of every walking path and cast a soft glow over the buildings and lawns. Student a cappella singing groups and improv comedy troupes roam the campus, stopping occasionally to entertain the crowds. A jazz band, hired by the college, turns the science building's courtyard into a dance floor. Seniors, alumnae, faculty, and their families spend the evening on walking tours of the illuminated campus and Botanic Gardens. The major official event of the night is the Senior Step Sing: seniors gather on the steps of Neilson Library, where they are serenaded by members of the Sophomore Push committee and then are physically pushed off the stairs and "into the real world."


title: Smith College

text: Until the early 1990s, all alumnae reunions were held during Commencement weekend. However, as the number of returning alumnae grew beyond the capacity of the campus, reunions were split into Reunion I/Commencement Weekend and Reunion II, held the following weekend. "Significant" reunions (50-, 25- and 10- year, but also 2-year) and the earliest reunion classes (65-year and prior) are assigned to Reunion I; other reunions (5-, 15-, 20-, 30-year, and so on) are assigned to Reunion II.


title: Smith College

text: There have been several controversies surrounding commencement over the years. See Smith College commencement controversies to learn more.


title: Smith College

text: Smith has taken numerous steps toward environmental sustainability, including a 30% reduction in energy use. Also, through a contract with Zipcar, the college has reduced the need for individually owned-cars on campus. Complementing this effort, the college has also promoted sustainability through academics and through the arts.


title: Smith College

text: In keeping with its sustainability efforts, all Smith dining locations have discontinued the use of "to-go" supplies which included paper cups and plates, as well as plastic utensils. They now encourage students to bring their own, reusable containers and utensils if they wish to bring food back to their rooms. Smith College provides all students with a reusable drink container at the beginning of each academic year. In past years, these containers have been variations on travel mugs, Sigg bottles, and Nalgene. Those dining halls that still offer "To-Go" options no longer provide paper bags and instead use wax paper bags, biodegradable plastic, and recyclable utensils made of vegetable cellulose. In the fall of 2017, Smith dining halls began to offer plastic Tupperware containers students may borrow and return to the dining halls to be washed.


title: Smith College

text: For Smith's efforts regarding sustainability, the institution earned a grade of "A−" on the "College Sustainability Report Card 2010" administered by the Sustainable Endowments Institute. Smith was lauded for many of the indicator categories, including student involvement, green building, and transportation, but was marked down for endowment transparency.


title: Smith College

text: In 1960, three Smith professors, one who had been there for 38 years, were fired or "allowed to retire" for being gay. This was chronicled in a book ("The Scarlet Professor—Newton Arvin: A Literary Life Shattered by Scandal" (Doubleday, 2001), by Barry Werth), and the PBS Independent Lens film, "The Great Pink Scare". It was also depicted in an opera based on Werth's book in 2017 at Amherst College. In 2002, Smith, the nation's largest liberal arts college for women, acknowledged a wrong from four decades earlier by creating a lecture series and a small scholarship—the $100,000 Dorius/Spofford Fund for the Study of Civil Liberties and Freedom of Expression, and the Newton Arvin Prize in American Studies, a $500 annual stipend. But despite faculty appeals, there was no apology.


title: Richard Allen Davis

text: Richard Allen Davis (born June 2, 1954) is an American convicted murderer whose criminal record fueled support for the passage of California's "three-strikes law" for repeat offenders and the involuntary civil commitment act for sex offenders and predators. He was convicted in 1996 of first-degree murder with special circumstances (burglary, robbery, kidnapping, and an attempted lewd act upon a child under the age of 14) of a 12-year-old Polly Klaas. Davis abducted Polly on October 1, 1993, from her home in Petaluma, California and murdered her a few hours later; he led investigators to her mummified and skeletonized remains on December 4 of the same year, the day before searches for her body were to recommence.


title: Richard Allen Davis

text: A Santa Clara County jury rendered a death verdict on August 5, 1996. After the verdict was read, Davis stood and made an obscene finger gesture at the courtroom camera with both hands. Later, at his formal sentencing, he read a statement during which he claimed that Polly had said to him, "Just don't do me like my dad," right before he killed her. However, no evidence supports that Polly had ever been sexually abused by her father, Marc. Marc attempted to lunge at Davis but was restrained by the bailiffs, leaving the courtroom to avoid causing further commotion. Judge Thomas C. Hastings proceeded to formally sentence Davis to death, saying, "Mr. Davis, this is always a traumatic and emotional decision for a judge. You made it very easy today by your conduct." As of March 2022, he remains on California's death row in the Adjustment Center at San Quentin State Prison.


title: Richard Allen Davis

text: Davis was born to Robert Davis and Evelyn Smith in San Francisco, the third of their five children. He has two older brothers named Donald and Ronald and two younger sisters named Darlene and Patricia (deceased). He is of partial Northern Paiute heritage through his maternal grandmother, Norma Wasson Johnny, with whom he and his family lived for a time before his father moved them into a house in La Honda.


title: Richard Allen Davis

text: His early life was disadvantageous; his parents were both alcoholics and his mother had once punished him and his brothers for smoking by burning their hands on a hot stove. His mother had also held his hands to a hot stove for playing with matches when he was three. He witnessed many violent domestic disputes between his parents, who separated when he was 9, leading his mother to take him and his siblings back to their maternal grandmother. The couple divorced when Davis was 11, and the children were given the choice of whom they would like to live with; Davis and his sisters chose their father while his brothers chose their mother, although Donald would later join his father. Robert, a longshoreman, was frequently unable or unwilling to care for his children, so he had them shuttled among family members, hired caretakers, and women he was romantically involved with. Robert was mentally unstable and suffered from hallucinations; he was reported to have taken a gun outside the home and shot at mirages. He would also beat Richard, breaking his jaw on one occasion and pushing him through an interior wall on another, and was known to be harsh with the others. Robert remarried twice, and Richard resented both of his stepmothers.


title: Richard Allen Davis

text: When he was 14, Richard's 10-year-old sister Patricia died of an illness. By the time he entered his teens, Davis was already involved in criminal actions. When he was 12, he was placed on probation for burglary and forgery, and burglary again when he was 15. He dropped out of school in his sophomore year of high school. He told a psychiatrist that stealing relieved whatever "tensions" were building up inside him. At 17, when Davis was in court for a motorcycle theft, a judge told him that he could either go to the California Youth Authority or join the United States Army. He chose the latter and received a general discharge after 13 months of service.


title: Richard Allen Davis

text: On October 12, 1973, Davis went to a party at the home of 18-year-old Marlene Voris. That night, Voris was found dead of a gunshot wound. There were seven suicide notes at the scene. The police concluded that she committed suicide, although friends of Voris believe Davis murdered her. In 1977, he told a psychiatrist that her death had deeply affected him. He had heard her voice in his head and that, at times, another woman's voice would appear, telling him that she wanted to be assaulted, robbed, or raped. A few weeks after Voris' death, Davis was arrested for attempting to pawn property he had stolen. He confessed to a string of burglaries in La Honda and served six months in the county jail. Five weeks after his release, on May 13, 1974, he was arrested for another burglary. He was sentenced to 6 months to 15 years in prison; however, he was released on parole after serving a year of his sentence.


title: Richard Allen Davis

text: Davis has been diagnosed with avoidant personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and schizoid personality disorder.


title: Richard Allen Davis

text: In July 2006, Davis was found unconscious in his cell following an opiate overdose, but was resuscitated.


title: Richard Allen Davis

text: On June 1, 2009, the California Supreme Court upheld Davis' death sentence. Davis had argued that his jailhouse confession was inadmissible because it was given without an attorney present. The court ruled this was justified by the public safety exception to "Miranda v. Arizona". His lawyer, Phillip Cherney, told reporters he intended to ask for a rehearing and that he would be lodging a habeas corpus appeal with state and federal courts.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Borosilicate glass is a type of glass with silica and boron trioxide as the main glass-forming constituents. Borosilicate glasses are known for having very low coefficients of thermal expansion (≈3 × 10 K at 20 °C), making them more resistant to thermal shock than any other common glass. Such glass is subjected to less thermal stress and can withstand temperature differentials without fracturing of about . It is commonly used for the construction of reagent bottles and flasks as well as lighting, electronics, and cookware.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Borosilicate glass is sold under various trade names, including Borosil, Duran, Pyrex, Glassco, Supertek, Suprax, Simax, Bellco, Marinex (Brazil), BSA 60, BSC 51 (by NIPRO), Heatex, Endural, Schott, Refmex, Kimax, Gemstone Well, and MG (India).


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Single ended self-starting lamps are insulated with a mica disc and contained in a borosilicate glass gas discharge tube (arc tube) and a metal cap. They include the sodium-vapor lamp that is commonly used in street lighting.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Borosilicate glass was first developed by German glassmaker Otto Schott in the late 19th century in Jena. This early borosilicate glass thus came to be known as Jena glass. After Corning Glass Works introduced Pyrex in 1915, the name became synonymous for borosilicate glass in the English-speaking world (since the 1940s, a sizable portion of glass produced under the Pyrex brand has also been made of soda-lime glass ). Borosilicate glass is the name of a glass family with various members tailored to completely different purposes. Most common today is borosilicate 3.3 or 5.0x glass such as Duran, Corning33, Corning51-V (clear), Corning51-L (amber), International Cookware's NIPRO BSA 60, and BSC 51.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Borosilicate glass is created by combining and melting boric oxide, silica sand, soda ash, and alumina. Since borosilicate glass melts at a higher temperature than ordinary silicate glass, some new techniques were required for industrial production.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: In addition to quartz, sodium carbonate, and aluminium oxide traditionally used in glassmaking, boron is used in the manufacture of borosilicate glass. The composition of low-expansion borosilicate glass, such as those laboratory glasses mentioned above, is approximately 80% silica, 13% boric oxide, 4% sodium oxide or potassium oxide and 2–3% aluminium oxide. Though more difficult to make than traditional glass due to its high melting temperature, it is economical to produce. Its superior durability, chemical and heat resistance finds use in chemical laboratory equipment, cookware, lighting, and in certain kinds of windows.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: The manufacturing process depends on the product geometry and can be differentiated between different methods like floating, tube drawing, or molding.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: The common type of borosilicate glass used for laboratory glassware has a very low thermal expansion coefficient (3.3 × 10 K), about one-third that of ordinary soda-lime glass. This reduces material stresses caused by temperature gradients, which makes borosilicate a more suitable type of glass for certain applications (see below). Fused quartzware is even better in this respect (having one-fifteenth the thermal expansion of soda-lime glass); however, the difficulty of working with fused quartz makes quartzware much more expensive, and borosilicate glass is a low-cost compromise. While more resistant to thermal shock than other types of glass, borosilicate glass can still crack or shatter when subjected to rapid or uneven temperature variations.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: The softening point (temperature at which viscosity is approximately 10 poise) of type 7740 Pyrex is .


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Borosilicate glass is less dense (about 2.23 g/cm) than typical soda-lime glass due to the low atomic mass of boron. Its mean specific heat capacity at constant pressure (20–100 °C) is 0.83 J/(g⋅K), roughly one fifth of water's.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: The temperature differential that borosilicate glass can withstand before fracturing is about , whereas soda-lime glass can withstand only about a change in temperature. This is why typical kitchenware made from traditional soda-lime glass will shatter if a vessel containing boiling water is placed on ice, but Pyrex or other borosilicate laboratory glass will not.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Optically, borosilicate glasses are crown glasses with low dispersion (Abbe numbers around 65) and relatively low refractive indices (1.51–1.54 across the visible range).


title: Borosilicate glass

text: For the purposes of classification, borosilicate glass can be roughly arranged in the following groups, according to their oxide composition (in mass fractions). Characteristic of borosilicate glasses is the presence of substantial amounts of silica (SiO) and boric oxide (BO, >8%) as glass network formers. The amount of boric oxide affects the glass properties in a particular way. Apart from the highly resistant varieties (BO up to a maximum of 13%), there are others that – due to the different way in which the boric oxide is incorporated into the structural network – have only low chemical resistance (BO content over 15%). Hence we differentiate between the following subtypes.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: The BO content for borosilicate glass is typically 12–13% and the SiO content over 80%. High chemical durability and low thermal expansion (3.3 × 10 K) – the lowest of all commercial glasses for large-scale technical applications – make this a versatile glass material. High-grade borosilicate flat glasses are used in a wide variety of industries, mainly for technical applications that require either good thermal resistance, excellent chemical durability, or high light transmission in combination with a pristine surface quality. Other typical applications for different forms of borosilicate glass include glass tubing, glass piping, glass containers, etc. especially for the chemical industry.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: In addition to about 75% SiO and 8–12% BO, these glasses contain up to 5% alkaline earths and alumina (AlO). This is a subtype of slightly softer glasses, which have thermal expansions in the range (4.0–5.0) × 10 K.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Glasses containing 15–25% BO, 65–70% SiO, and smaller amounts of alkalis and AlO as additional components have low softening points and low thermal expansion. Sealability to metals in the expansion range of tungsten and molybdenum and high electrical insulation are their most important features. The increased BO content reduces the chemical resistance; in this respect, high-borate borosilicate glasses differentiate widely from non-alkaline-earth and alkaline-earth borosilicate glasses. Among these are also borosilicate glasses that transmit UV light down to 180 nm, which combine the best of the borosilicate glass and the quartz world.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Borosilicate glass has a wide variety of uses ranging from cookware to lab equipment, as well as a component of high-quality products such as implantable medical devices and devices used in space exploration.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Virtually all modern laboratory glassware is made of borosilicate glass. It is widely used in this application due to its chemical and thermal resistance and good optical clarity, but the glass can react with sodium hydride upon heating to produce sodium borohydride, a common laboratory reducing agent. Fused quartz is also found in some laboratory equipment when its higher melting point and transmission of UV are required (e.g. for tube furnace liners and UV cuvettes), but the cost and manufacturing difficulties associated with fused quartz make it an impractical investment for the majority of laboratory equipment.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Additionally, borosilicate tubing is used as the feedstock for the production of parenteral drug packaging, such as vials and pre-filled syringes, as well as ampoules and dental cartridges. The chemical resistance of borosilicate glass minimizes the migration of sodium ions from the glass matrix, thus making it well suited for injectable-drug applications. This type of glass is typically referred to as USP / EP JP Type I.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Borosilicate is widely used in implantable medical devices such as prosthetic eyes, artificial hip joints, bone cements, dental composite materials (white fillings) and even in breast implants.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Many implantable devices benefit from the unique advantages of borosilicate glass encapsulation. Applications include veterinary tracking devices, neurostimulators for the treatment of epilepsy, implantable drug pumps, cochlear implants, and physiological sensors.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: During the mid-20th century, borosilicate glass tubing was used to pipe coolants (often distilled water) through high-power vacuum-tube–based electronic equipment, such as commercial broadcast transmitters. It was also used for the envelope material for glass transmitting tubes which operated at high temperatures.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Borosilicate glasses also have an application in the semiconductor industry in the development of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), as part of stacks of etched silicon wafers bonded to the etched borosilicate glass.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Cookware is another common usage for borosilicate glass, including bakeware. It is used for some measuring cups, featuring screen printed markings providing graduated measurements. Borosilicate glass is sometimes used for high-quality beverage glassware, particularly in pieces designed for hot drinks. Items made of borosilicate glass can be thin yet durable, or thicker for extra strength, and are microwave- and dishwasher-safe.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Many high-quality flashlights use borosilicate glass for the lens. This increases light transmittance through the lens compared to plastics and lower-quality glass.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Several types of high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps, such as mercury-vapor and metal-halide lamps, use borosilicate glass as the outer envelope material.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: New lampworking techniques led to artistic applications such as contemporary glass marbles. The modern studio glass movement has responded to color. Borosilicate is commonly used in the glassblowing form of lampworking and the artists create a range of products such as jewelry, kitchenware, sculpture, as well as for artistic glass smoking pipes.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Organic light-emitting diodes (OLED) (for display and lighting purposes) also use borosilicate glass (BK7). The thicknesses of the BK7 glass substrates are usually less than 1 millimeter for OLED fabrication. Due to its optical and mechanical characteristics in relation with cost, BK7 is a common substrate in OLEDs. However, depending on the application, soda-lime glass substrates of similar thicknesses are also used in OLED fabrication.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Many astronomical reflecting telescopes use glass mirror components made of borosilicate glass because of its low coefficient of thermal expansion. This makes very precise optical surfaces possible that change very little with temperature, and matched glass mirror components that "track" across temperature changes and retain the optical system's characteristics.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: The optical glass most often used for making instrument lenses is Schott BK-7 (or the equivalent from other makers, such as the Chinese crown glass K9), a very finely made borosilicate crown glass.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: It is also designated as 517642 glass after its 1.517 refractive index and 64.2 Abbe number. Other less costly borosilicate glasses, such as Schott B270 or the equivalent, are used to make "crown-glass" eyeglass lenses. Ordinary lower-cost borosilicate glass, like that used to make kitchenware and even reflecting telescope mirrors, cannot be used for high-quality lenses because of the striations and inclusions common to lower grades of this type of glass. The maximal working temperature is . While it transitions to a liquid starting at (just before it turns red-hot), it is not workable until it reaches over . That means that in order to industrially produce this glass, oxygen/fuel torches must be used. Glassblowers borrowed technology and techniques from welders.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Borosilicate glass has become the material of choice for fused deposition modeling (FDM), or fused filament fabrication (FFF), build plates. Its low coefficient of expansion makes borosilicate glass, when used in combination with resistance-heating plates and pads, an ideal material for the heated build platform onto which plastic materials are extruded one layer at a time. The initial layer of build must be placed onto a substantially flat, heated surface to minimize shrinkage of some build materials (ABS, polycarbonate, polyamide, etc.) due to cooling after deposition. Depending on the material used, the build plate will cycle from room temperature to between 50 °C and 130 °C for each prototype that is built. The temperature, along with various coatings (Kapton tape, painter's tape, hair spray, glue stick, ABS+acetone slurry, etc.), ensure that the first layer may be adhered to and remain adhered to the plate, without warping, as the first and subsequent layers cool following extrusion. Subsequently, following the build, the heating elements and plate are allowed to cool. The resulting residual stress formed when the plastic contracts as it cools, while the glass remains relatively dimensionally unchanged due to the low coefficient of thermal expansion, provides a convenient aid in removing the otherwise mechanically bonded plastic from the build plate. In some cases the parts self-separate as the developed stresses overcome the adhesive bond of the build material to the coating material and underlying plate.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Aquarium heaters are sometimes made of borosilicate glass. Due to its high heat resistance, it can tolerate the significant temperature difference between the water and the nichrome heating element.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Specialty glass smoking pipes for cannabis and tobacco can be made from borosilicate glass. The high heat resistance makes the pipes more durable. Some harm reduction organizations also give out borosilicate pipes intended for smoking crack cocaine, as the heat resistance prevents the glass from cracking, causing cuts and burns that can spread hepatitis C.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Borosilicate is also a material of choice for evacuated-tube solar thermal technology because of its high strength and heat resistance.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Borosilicate glasses are used for immobilisation and disposal of radioactive wastes. In most countries high-level radioactive waste has been incorporated into alkali borosilicate or phosphate vitreous waste forms for many years; vitrification is an established technology. Vitrification is a particularly attractive immobilization route because of the high chemical durability of the vitrified glass product. The chemical resistance of glass can allow it to remain in a corrosive environment for many thousands or even millions of years.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Borosilicate glass tubing is used in specialty TIG welding torch nozzles in place of standard alumina nozzles. This allows a clear view of the arc in situations where visibility is limited.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: It was initially thought that borosilicate glass could not be formed into nanoparticles, since an unstable boron oxide precursor prevented successful forming of these shapes. However, in 2008 a team of researchers from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology at Lausanne were successful in forming borosilicate nanoparticles of 100 to 500 nanometers in diameter. The researchers formed a gel of tetraethylorthosilicate and trimethoxyboroxine. When this gel is exposed to water under proper conditions, a dynamic reaction ensues which results in the nanoparticles.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: Borosilicate (or "boro", as it is often called) is used extensively in the glassblowing process lampworking; the glassworker uses a burner torch to melt and form glass, using a variety of metal and graphite tools to shape it. Borosilicate is referred to as "hard glass" and has a higher melting point (approximately 3,000 °F / 1648 °C) than "soft glass", which is preferred for glassblowing by beadmakers. Raw glass used in lampworking comes in glass rods for solid work and glass tubes for hollow work tubes and vessels/containers. Lampworking is used to make complex and custom scientific apparatus; most major universities have a lampworking shop to manufacture and repair their glassware. For this kind of "scientific glassblowing", the specifications must be exact and the glassblower must be highly skilled and able to work with precision. Lampworking is also done as art, and common items made include goblets, paper weights, pipes, pendants, compositions and figurines.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: In 1968, English metallurgist John Burton brought his hobby of hand-mixing metallic oxides into borosilicate glass to Los Angeles. Burton began a glass workshop at Pepperdine College, with instructor Margaret Youd. A few of the students in the classes, including Suellen Fowler, discovered that a specific combination of oxides made a glass that would shift from amber to purples and blues, depending on the heat and flame atmosphere. Fowler shared this combination with Paul Trautman, who formulated the first small-batch colored borosilicate recipes. He then founded Northstar Glassworks in the mid-1980s, the first factory devoted solely to producing colored borosilicate glass rods and tubes for use by artists in the flame. Trautman also developed the techniques and technology to make the small-batch colored boro that is used by a number of similar companies.


title: Borosilicate glass

text: In recent years, with the resurgence of lampworking as a technique to make handmade glass beads, borosilicate has become a popular material in many glass artists' studios. Borosilicate for beadmaking comes in thin, pencil-like rods. Glass Alchemy, Trautman Art Glass, and Northstar are popular manufacturers, although there are other brands available. The metals used to color borosilicate glass, particularly silver, often create strikingly beautiful and unpredictable results when melted in an oxygen-gas torch flame. Because it is more shock-resistant and stronger than soft glass, borosilicate is particularly suited for pipe making, as well as sculpting figures and creating large beads. The tools used for making glass beads from borosilicate glass are the same as those used for making glass beads from soft glass.


title: Gavin Leatherwood

text: Gavin Thomas Leatherwood (born June 7, 1994) is an American actor and singer. He is best known for portraying Nicholas Scratch on Netflix's "Chilling Adventures of Sabrina" (2018–2020). He also plays the role of a university student, Nico, in the series "The Sex Lives of College Girls" available on HBO Max. He released his debut single "Just For Tonight" on February 19, 2021. Also the singles “Be My Lover” and “Driftwood Mermaid” are available on all platforms.


title: Gavin Leatherwood

text: Leatherwood was born on June 7, 1994 in Maui, Hawaii. He spent his youth in California and moved to Oregon when he was 18. He is mostly of Irish descent, and also has English, Spanish, Welsh, other European and Native American ancestry.


title: Gavin Leatherwood

text: In the beginning of his acting career, Leatherwood performed in various theatrical plays such as "All My Sons" and "Peter Pan". In 2017, he made a cameo appearance in an episode for "NCIS" and "Grown-ish".


title: Gavin Leatherwood

text: In 2018, Leatherwood was cast in the lead male role as Nicholas Scratch in Netflix's supernatural horror series "Chilling Adventures of Sabrina". He also made a cameo appearance as Sabrina Carpenter's love interest in the music video for her single "Skin". Leatherwood appears in the main cast in season 1 of the HBO Max teen comedy-drama streaming television series "The Sex Lives of College Girls", created by Mindy Kaling in late 2021.


title: Gavin Leatherwood

text: Apart from acting, Leatherwood released his debut single "Just For Tonight" on February 19, 2021. He has worked with "Boom Forest Music", "Thomas Dutton" and "Gavin McDonald" to help produce different aspects of this song. He released the single “Driftwood Mermaid” on October 22 2021. Leatherwood then released "Be My Lover" on April 8, 2022, before releasing his debut EP "Moonlighting" on October 21, 2022.


title: Gavin Leatherwood

text: In addition to acting, Leatherwood plays a variety of instruments including the guitar, ukulele, and piano.


title: Amy Landecker

text: Amy Lauren Landecker (born September 30, 1969) is an American actress. She is known for her role as Sarah Pfefferman on the Amazon comedy-drama series "Transparent" (2014–2019), as well as her supporting roles in films "Dan in Real Life" (2007), "A Serious Man" (2009), "All Is Bright" (2013), "Project Almanac" (2015) and "Beatriz at Dinner" (2017).


title: Amy Landecker

text: Landecker was born September 30, 1969, in Chicago, Illinois. She is the daughter of John Records Landecker, a Chicago radio personality. One of her maternal great-grandfathers was lawyer Joseph N. Welch. She attended the University of Wisconsin at Madison, studying theater. Her paternal grandfather was a German Jewish refugee.


title: Amy Landecker

text: Landecker earned her Screen Actors Guild card doing a voiceover for a Tampax commercial. In the commercial, Landecker echoes the voice of the on-camera actress, saying only the word "ballet", but made $10,000 in residuals from the commercial. Landecker recalls, "I never saw money like that in my life, and it didn't even matter what I looked like! I was hooked on [voiceover] from then on!"


title: Amy Landecker

text: Early in her career, Landecker primarily focused on stage work, including but not limited to Rajiv Joseph's "All This Intimacy" in 2006, and did not move to Los Angeles until she was 38. Since then, she has appeared in numerous films and television shows, including a supporting role as Mrs. Samsky in the Academy Award for Best Picture-nominated film "A Serious Man", directed by the Coen brothers. That performance received praise from many film critics, including Roger Ebert, who wrote, "Amy Landecker, too, is perfect as Mrs. Samsky. She makes the character sexy in a strictly logical sense, but any prudent man would know on first sight to stay clear".


title: Amy Landecker

text: In 2011, Landecker was a regular cast member of "The Paul Reiser Show" on NBC, playing Paul Reiser's wife, Claire. On television, she has guest starred on "", "", "NCIS", "Curb Your Enthusiasm" (where she met and started to date Larry David), "Revenge", and many more series. She has also appeared in a number of Off-Broadway theatrical productions, including "Bug". In 2013, Landecker co-starred in films "All Is Bright", "Clear History" and "Enough Said". In 2014, she was cast alongside Jeffrey Tambor and Judith Light in the Amazon Studios comedy-drama series, "Transparent". She co-starred in the Michael Bay-produced time travel thriller "Project Almanac", which was released in January 2015.


title: Amy Landecker

text: Landecker divorced Jackson Lynch, with whom she has a daughter, in 2011. She began dating actor Bradley Whitford, whom she met on the set of "Transparent," in 2015. They announced their engagement in March 2018 and married on July 17, 2019.


title: Rory Cochrane

text: Rory Cochrane (born February 28, 1972) is an American actor. He is known for playing Ron Slater in "Dazed and Confused", Lucas in "Empire Records", Lee Schatz in "Argo", Freck in "A Scanner Darkly", and Tim Speedle in "".


title: Rory Cochrane

text: Cochrane's first roles included a part in a docudrama about drugs on "Saturday Night with Connie Chung" (1989) and an appearance in an episode of "H.E.L.P." (1990). He then made his film debut (with about fifteen seconds' screen time) in "A Kiss Before Dying", followed by his first substantial role as Jeff Goldblum's son in "Fathers & Sons".


title: Rory Cochrane

text: Cochrane's breakout role came when he was cast as stoner Ron Slater in 1993's "Dazed and Confused", a film that "Entertainment Weekly" ranked #3 in their "50 Best High School Movies" of all-time. Cochrane followed up with a powerful performance as the psychotic Billy Mack in the Renée Zellweger action/comedy "Love and a .45" in 1994. Cochrane again found success with a major role in the poorly-received "Empire Records" and appeared in "Hart's War" starring Bruce Willis and Colin Farrell. He also appeared in the Richard Linklater film "A Scanner Darkly" (2006).


title: Rory Cochrane

text: Cochrane played the role of CSI Tim Speedle in "" seasons 1–3. Cochrane reprised his role as Tim Speedle on "CSI: Miami" in the episode "Bang, Bang, Your Debt", as a hallucination to Detective Eric Delko in season 6.


title: Rory Cochrane

text: In 2015, Cochrane had a supporting role as Boston mobster Stephen Flemmi in the true-crime film "Black Mass", which starred Johnny Depp.


title: Adil El Arbi and Bilall Fallah

text: Adil El Arbi (born June 30, 1988) and Bilall Fallah (born January 4, 1986) are Belgian film and television directors of Moroccan descent. The duo, collectively billed as Adil & Bilall, are known for writing and directing the feature films "Image" (2014), "Black" (2015), and "Gangsta" (2018), as well as directing "Bad Boys for Life" (2020), the third installment of the "Bad Boys" franchise starring Will Smith and Martin Lawrence.


title: Adil El Arbi and Bilall Fallah

text: Adil El Arbi and Bilall Fallah met during their film studies at the "Hogeschool voor Wetenschap en Kunsten" in Schaerbeek, Brussels, Belgium. During their studies, the first project that they directed was a short film named "Broeders" (2011), which was appreciated by critics; their later films, "Black" (2015) and "Patser" (2018), also received positive reception. They directed the first two episodes in the TV series "Snowfall", which aired on July 5 and 12 in 2017, as well as Dimitri Vegas & Like Mike's music video "When I Grow Up", which features American rapper Wiz Khalifa. Besides directing "Bad Boys for Life", the duo were also attached to direct "", the fourth installment of the "Beverly Hills Cop" film series, in which Eddie Murphy is set to reprise his role. The duo also directed and executive produced "Ms. Marvel" for Disney+. In May 2021, it was announced that the duo would direct a film based on "Batgirl" for HBO Max. In April 2022, it was announced that the duo will no longer direct "". In August 2022, after Warner Bros. Discovery made the decision to write the film off for tax purposes, it was announced that the movie "Batgirl" would not be released. With a reported $90 million budget, "Batgirl" is one of the highest budget movies in history to be produced, but not released.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: Olympia is the capital of the U.S. state of Washington and the county seat and largest city of Thurston County. It is southwest of the state's most populous city, Seattle, and is a cultural center of the southern Puget Sound region.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: European settlers claimed the area in 1846, with the Treaty of Medicine Creek initiated in 1854, followed by the Treaty of Olympia in 1856. Olympia was incorporated as a town on January 28, 1859, and as a city in 1882. It had a population of 55,605 at the time of the 2020 census, making it the state's 23rd-largest city. Olympia borders Lacey to the east and Tumwater to the south.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: The site of Olympia had been home to Lushootseed-speaking peoples known as the Steh-Chass (or Stehchass, later part of the post-treaty Squaxin Island Tribe) for thousands of years. Other Native Americans regularly visited the head of Budd Inlet and the Steh-Chass, including the other ancestor tribes of the Squaxin, as well as the Nisqually, Puyallup, Chehalis, Suquamish, and Duwamish. The first recorded Europeans came to Olympia in 1792. Peter Puget and a crew from the British Vancouver Expedition are said to have explored the site, but neither recorded any encounters with the resident Indigenous population. In 1846, Edmund Sylvester and Levi Lathrop Smith jointly claimed the land that is now downtown Olympia. In 1851, the U.S. Congress established the Customs District of Puget Sound for Washington Territory and Olympia became the home of the customs house. Its population steadily expanded from Oregon Trail immigrants. In 1850, the town settled on the name Olympia, at local resident Colonel Isaac N. Ebey's suggestion, because of its view of the Olympic Mountains to the northwest. The area began to be served by a small fleet of steamboats known as the Puget Sound Mosquito Fleet.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: Over two days, December 24–26, 1854, Governor Isaac I. Stevens negotiated the Treaty of Medicine Creek with the representatives of the Nisqually, Puyallup, Squawksin, Steh'Chass, Noo-Seh-Chatl, Squi-Aitl, T'Peeksin, Sah-Heh-Wa-Mish, and S'Hotl-Ma-Mish tribes. Stevens's treaty included the preservation of Indigenous fishing, hunting, gathering and other rights. It also included a section which, at least as interpreted by United States officials, required the Native American signatories to move to one of three reservations. Doing so would effectively force the Nisqually people to cede their prime farming and living space. One of the leaders of the Nisqually, Chief Leschi, outraged, refused to give up ownership of this land and instead fought for his people's right to their territory, sparking the beginning of the Puget Sound War. The war ended with Leschi's execution.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: In 1896, Olympia became the home of the Olympia Brewing Company, which brewed Olympia Beer until 2003.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: The 1949 Olympia earthquake damaged many historic buildings beyond repair, and they were demolished. Parts of the city also suffered damage from earthquakes in 1965 and 2001.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of , of which is land and is water.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: Olympia is at the southern end of Puget Sound on Budd Inlet. The Deschutes River estuary was dammed in 1951 to create Capitol Lake. Much of the lower area of downtown Olympia sits on reclaimed land. The cities of Lacey and Tumwater border Olympia.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: The region surrounding Olympia has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csb"), whereas the local microclimate has dry summers and cool July and August overnight lows. It is part of USDA Hardiness zone 8a, with isolated pockets around Puget Sound in zone 8b. Most of western Washington's weather is brought in by weather systems that form near the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. It contains cold moist air, which brings western Washington cold rain, cloudiness, and fog. November through January are Olympia's rainiest months. City streets, creeks, and rivers can flood from November to February. The monthly mean temperature ranges from in December to in August. Seasonal snowfall for 1981–2010 averaged but has historically ranged from trace amounts in 1991–92 to in 1968–69.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: Olympia averages of precipitation annually and has a year-round average of 75% cloud cover. Annual precipitation has ranged from in 1952 to in 1950; for water year (October 1 – September 30) precipitation, the range is in 2000–01 to in 1998–99. With a period of record dating back to 1948, extreme temperatures have ranged from on January 1, 1979, up to , on June 28, 2021; the record cold daily maximum is on January 31, 1950, while, conversely, the record warm daily minimum is on July 22, 2006. Between 1991 and 2020 the mean coldest daily maximum was right on the freezing point at and the warmest night of the year averaged a very mild .


title: Olympia, Washington

text: On average, 6.3 days annually reach , 1.8 days stay at or below freezing all day, and 78 nights reach the freezing mark. The average window for freezing temperatures is October 8 through May 3, allowing a growing season of 157 days, nearly 100 days shorter than in Seattle.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: Olympia has a wide array of public parks and nature conservation areas. The Woodard Bay Natural Resources Conservation Area is a parcel that preserves more than of Puget Sound waterfront along the Woodard and Chapman Bays of the Henderson Inlet. Percival Landing Park includes of boardwalk along Budd Inlet, as well as a playground, picnic areas, and a large open space. The boardwalk leads north to an open-air amphitheater, a viewing tower beside the Port of Olympia, as well as the Olympia Farmers' Market. Percival Landing closed in 2010 for an extensive remodel after saltwater degradation and reopened in summer 2011. Watershed Park is the site of the former waterworks for the city and today has a loop trail with a large second-growth forest. Other parks include Priest Point Park, Burfoot Park, Woodruff Park, Sunrise Park, Yauger Park (home to one of Olympia's public skate parks), Friendly Grove (nestled in a small Eastside Community), and Trillium Park, which was created by the efforts of adjoining neighborhood associations with the easement of private property. The Nisqually National Wildlife Refuge is just outside Olympia, as is the Capitol State Forest.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: Olympia was historically dependent on artesian waters. Early settlers in Swantown and Tumwater used artesian springs for their main water supply. The artesian spring at Fourth Avenue and Main Street (now called Capitol Way) was the main community well where settlers, as well as the local Steh-Chass and visiting Native Americans, gathered to socialize. Settler accounts recall paying Native Americans to collect water here. The artesian well at Artesian Commons park, a former parking lot, is active. Another still flows at the corner of Olympia Avenue and Washington Street. A small park was constructed around another spring in the Bigelow Neighborhood. The northeast end of Capitol Lake was the location of an artesian well until the construction of a new park that included changes to the shoreline. McAllister Springs, Olympia's main water source, is fed by artesian wells, and the former Olympia Brewery is supplied by 26 artesian wells.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: Efforts to protect and preserve the free-flowing artesian well on 4th Ave in downtown Olympia began in 1991 when Jim Ingersoll, a local psychologist, called on the city council to acquire the well and develop it as a community park. Ingersoll's interest in the well started in a conversation with Dick Batdorf, co-founder of Batdorf & Bronson coffee roasting. Batdorf told Ingersoll that the secret to great coffee was great water – specifically artesian water. Ingersoll then met with Herb Legg and John Robinson, both of whom had worked in the 1950s and '60s to protect Watershed Park's artesian wells. Legg and Robinson worked behind the scenes to get an article published in the "Olympian" on February 24, 1992, calling for community support of the well. Ingersoll was then flooded with phone calls offering time, talent, resources and money. Legg and friends sponsored a public meeting at the Library, where more than 50 people each donated $50, and a single $3,000 donation followed the next day.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: With hundreds of people using the well every day, community support grew to become "The Friends of Artesians", an informal organization of advocates who over 20 years mapped and researched the history of artesian wells in Olympia, raised money to test water quality and make improvements to the site and kept the vision of a free-flowing community well alive. In the fall of 2008, The Friends announced they would stop testing the water quality after February 2009. These actions renewed interest in protecting the well and led to the creation the nonprofit organization H2Olympia.