title: Double-precision floating-point format

text: Doubles are implemented in many programming languages in different ways such as the following. On processors with only dynamic precision, such as x86 without SSE2 (or when SSE2 is not used, for compatibility purpose) and with extended precision used by default, software may have difficulties to fulfill some requirements.


title: Double-precision floating-point format

text: C and C++ offer a wide variety of arithmetic types. Double precision is not required by the standards (except by the optional annex F of C99, covering IEEE 754 arithmetic), but on most systems, the codice_7 type corresponds to double precision. However, on 32-bit x86 with extended precision by default, some compilers may not conform to the C standard or the arithmetic may suffer from double rounding.


title: Double-precision floating-point format

text: Fortran provides several integer and real types, and the 64-bit type codice_8, accessible via Fortran's intrinsic module codice_9, corresponds to double precision.


title: Double-precision floating-point format

text: Common Lisp provides the types SHORT-FLOAT, SINGLE-FLOAT, DOUBLE-FLOAT and LONG-FLOAT. Most implementations provide SINGLE-FLOATs and DOUBLE-FLOATs with the other types appropriate synonyms. Common Lisp provides exceptions for catching floating-point underflows and overflows, and the inexact floating-point exception, as per IEEE 754. No infinities and NaNs are described in the ANSI standard, however, several implementations do provide these as extensions.


title: Double-precision floating-point format

text: On Java before version 1.2, every implementation had to be IEEE 754 compliant. Version 1.2 allowed implementations to bring extra precision in intermediate computations for platforms like x87. Thus a modifier strictfp was introduced to enforce strict IEEE 754 computations. Strict floating point has been restored in Java 17.


title: Double-precision floating-point format

text: As specified by the ECMAScript standard, all arithmetic in JavaScript shall be done using double-precision floating-point arithmetic.


title: Double-precision floating-point format

text: The JSON data encoding format supports numeric values, and the grammar to which numeric expressions must conform has no limits on the precision or range of the numbers so encoded. However, RFC 8259 advises that, since IEEE 754 binary64 numbers are widely implemented, good interoperability can be achieved by implementations processing JSON if they expect no more precision or range than binary64 offers.


title: Chemical engineering

text: Chemical engineering is an engineering field which deals with the study of operation and design of chemical plants as well as methods of improving production. Chemical engineers develop economical commercial processes to convert raw materials into useful products. Chemical engineering uses principles of chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology, and economics to efficiently use, produce, design, transport and transform energy and materials. The work of chemical engineers can range from the utilization of nanotechnology and nanomaterials in the laboratory to large-scale industrial processes that convert chemicals, raw materials, living cells, microorganisms, and energy into useful forms and products. Chemical engineers are involved in many aspects of plant design and operation, including safety and hazard assessments, process design and analysis, modeling, control engineering, chemical reaction engineering, nuclear engineering, biological engineering, construction specification, and operating instructions.


title: Chemical engineering

text: Chemical engineers typically hold a degree in Chemical Engineering or Process Engineering. Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be accredited members of a professional body. Such bodies include the Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) or the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE). In India the body is called as Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers (IIChE) which also conducts collaborative events with AIChE and ICheE.


title: Chemical engineering

text: A degree in chemical engineering is directly linked with all of the other engineering disciplines, to various extents.


title: Chemical engineering

text: A 1996 article cites James F. Donnelly for mentioning an 1839 reference to chemical engineering in relation to the production of sulfuric acid. In the same paper, however, George E. Davis, an English consultant, was credited with having coined the term. Davis also tried to found a Society of Chemical Engineering, but instead, it was named the Society of Chemical Industry (1881), with Davis as its first secretary. The "History of Science in United States: An Encyclopedia" puts the use of the term around 1890. "Chemical engineering", describing the use of mechanical equipment in the chemical industry, became common vocabulary in England after 1850. By 1910, the profession, "chemical engineer," was already in common use in Britain and the United States.


title: Chemical engineering

text: In 1940s, it became clear that unit operations alone were insufficient in developing chemical reactors. While the predominance of unit operations in chemical engineering courses in Britain and the United States continued until the 1960s, transport phenomena started to experience greater focus. Along with other novel concepts, such as process systems engineering (PSE), a "second paradigm" was defined. Transport phenomena gave an analytical approach to chemical engineering while PSE focused on its synthetic elements, such as control system and process design. Developments in chemical engineering before and after World War II were mainly incited by the petrochemical industry; however, advances in other fields were made as well. Advancements in biochemical engineering in the 1940s, for example, found application in the pharmaceutical industry, and allowed for the mass production of various antibiotics, including penicillin and streptomycin. Meanwhile, progress in polymer science in the 1950s paved way for the "age of plastics".


title: Chemical engineering

text: Concerns regarding the safety and environmental impact of large-scale chemical manufacturing facilities were also raised during this period. "Silent Spring", published in 1962, alerted its readers to the harmful effects of DDT, a potent insecticide. The 1974 Flixborough disaster in the United Kingdom resulted in 28 deaths, as well as damage to a chemical plant and three nearby villages. The 1984 Bhopal disaster in India resulted in almost 4,000 deaths. These incidents, along with other incidents, affected the reputation of the trade as industrial safety and environmental protection were given more focus. In response, the IChemE required safety to be part of every degree course that it accredited after 1982. By the 1970s, legislation and monitoring agencies were instituted in various countries, such as France, Germany, and the United States.


title: Chemical engineering

text: Advancements in computer science found applications designing and managing plants, simplifying calculations and drawings that previously had to be done manually. The completion of the Human Genome Project is also seen as a major development, not only advancing chemical engineering but genetic engineering and genomics as well. Chemical engineering principles were used to produce DNA sequences in large quantities.


title: Chemical engineering

text: Chemical engineering involves the application of several principles. Key concepts are presented below.


title: Chemical engineering

text: Chemical engineering design concerns the creation of plans, specifications, and economic analyses for pilot plants, new plants, or plant modifications. Design engineers often work in a consulting role, designing plants to meet clients' needs. Design is limited by several factors, including funding, government regulations, and safety standards. These constraints dictate a plant's choice of process, materials, and equipment.


title: Chemical engineering

text: Plant construction is coordinated by project engineers and project managers, depending on the size of the investment. A chemical engineer may do the job of project engineer full-time or part of the time, which requires additional training and job skills or act as a consultant to the project group. In the USA the education of chemical engineering graduates from the Baccalaureate programs accredited by ABET do not usually stress project engineering education, which can be obtained by specialized training, as electives, or from graduate programs. Project engineering jobs are some of the largest employers for chemical engineers.


title: Chemical engineering

text: A unit operation is a physical step in an individual chemical engineering process. Unit operations (such as crystallization, filtration, drying and evaporation) are used to prepare reactants, purifying and separating its products, recycling unspent reactants, and controlling energy transfer in reactors. On the other hand, a unit process is the chemical equivalent of a unit operation. Along with unit operations, unit processes constitute a process operation. Unit processes (such as nitration, hydrogenation, hydrocracking and oxidation) involve the conversion of materials by biochemical, thermochemical and other means. Chemical engineers responsible for these are called process engineers.


title: Chemical engineering

text: Process design requires the definition of equipment types and sizes as well as how they are connected and the materials of construction. Details are often printed on a Process Flow Diagram which is used to control the capacity and reliability of a new or existing chemical factory.


title: Chemical engineering

text: Education for chemical engineers in the first college degree 3 or 4 years of study stresses the principles and practices of process design. The same skills are used in existing chemical plants to evaluate the efficiency and make recommendations for improvements.


title: Chemical engineering

text: Modeling and analysis of transport phenomena is essential for many industrial applications. Transport phenomena involve fluid dynamics, heat transfer and mass transfer, which are governed mainly by momentum transfer, energy transfer and transport of chemical species, respectively. Models often involve separate considerations for macroscopic, microscopic and molecular level phenomena. Modeling of transport phenomena, therefore, requires an understanding of applied mathematics.


title: Chemical engineering

text: Chemical engineers "develop economic ways of using materials and energy". Chemical engineers use chemistry and engineering to turn raw materials into usable products, such as medicine, petrochemicals, and plastics on a large-scale, industrial setting. They are also involved in waste management and research. Both applied and research facets could make extensive use of computers.


title: Chemical engineering

text: Chemical engineers may be involved in industry or university research where they are tasked with designing and performing experiments, by scaling up theoretical chemical reactions, to create better and safer methods for production, pollution control, and resource conservation. They may be involved in designing and constructing plants as a project engineer. Chemical engineers serving as project engineers use their knowledge in selecting optimal production methods and plant equipment to minimize costs and maximize safety and profitability. After plant construction, chemical engineering project managers may be involved in equipment upgrades, troubleshooting, and daily operations in either full-time or consulting roles.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: ZIP is an archive file format that supports lossless data compression. A ZIP file may contain one or more files or directories that may have been compressed. The ZIP file format permits a number of compression algorithms, though DEFLATE is the most common. This format was originally created in 1989 and was first implemented in PKWARE, Inc.'s PKZIP utility, as a replacement for the previous ARC compression format by Thom Henderson. The ZIP format was then quickly supported by many software utilities other than PKZIP. Microsoft has included built-in ZIP support (under the name "compressed folders") in versions of Microsoft Windows since 1998 via the "Windows Plus!" addon for Windows 98. Native support was added as of the year 2000 in Windows ME. Apple has included built-in ZIP support in Mac OS X 10.3 (via BOMArchiveHelper, now Archive Utility) and later. Most have built in support for ZIP in similar manners to Windows and Mac OS X.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: ZIP files generally use the file extensions or and the MIME media type . ZIP is used as a base file format by many programs, usually under a different name. When navigating a file system via a user interface, graphical icons representing ZIP files often appear as a document or other object prominently featuring a zipper.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The file format was designed by Phil Katz of PKWARE and Gary Conway of Infinity Design Concepts. The format was created after Systems Enhancement Associates (SEA) filed a lawsuit against PKWARE claiming that the latter's archiving products, named PKARC, were derivatives of SEA's ARC archiving system. The name "zip" (meaning "move at high speed") was suggested by Katz's friend, Robert Mahoney. They wanted to imply that their product would be faster than ARC and other compression formats of the time. By distributing the zip file format within APPNOTE.TXT, compatibility with the zip file format proliferated widely on the public Internet during the 1990s.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: PKWARE and Infinity Design Concepts made a joint press release on February 14, 1989, releasing the file format into the public domain.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The .ZIP File Format Specification has its own version number, which does not necessarily correspond to the version numbers for the PKZIP tool, especially with PKZIP 6 or later. At various times, PKWARE has added preliminary features that allow PKZIP products to extract archives using advanced features, but PKZIP products that create such archives are not made available until the next major release. Other companies or organizations support the PKWARE specifications at their own pace.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The .ZIP file format specification is formally named "APPNOTE - .ZIP File Format Specification" and it is published on the PKWARE.com website since the late 1990s. Several versions of the specification were not published. Specifications of some features such as BZIP2 compression, strong encryption specification and others were published by PKWARE a few years after their creation. The URL of the online specification was changed several times on the PKWARE website.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: WinZip, starting with version 12.1, uses the extension for ZIP files that use compression methods newer than DEFLATE; specifically, methods BZip, LZMA, PPMd, Jpeg and Wavpack. The last 2 are applied to appropriate file types when "Best method" compression is selected.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: In April 2010, ISO/IEC JTC 1 initiated a ballot to determine whether a project should be initiated to create an ISO/IEC International Standard format compatible with ZIP. The proposed project, entitled "Document Packaging", envisaged a ZIP-compatible 'minimal compressed archive format' suitable for use with a number of existing standards including OpenDocument, Office Open XML and EPUB.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: In 2015, ISO/IEC 21320-1 "Document Container File — Part 1: Core" was published which states that "Document container files are conforming Zip files". It requires the following main restrictions of the ZIP file format:


title: ZIP (file format)

text: files are archives that store multiple files. ZIP allows contained files to be compressed using many different methods, as well as simply storing a file without compressing it. Each file is stored separately, allowing different files in the same archive to be compressed using different methods. Because the files in a ZIP archive are compressed individually, it is possible to extract them, or add new ones, without applying compression or decompression to the entire archive. This contrasts with the format of compressed tar files, for which such random-access processing is not easily possible.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: A directory is placed at the end of a ZIP file. This identifies what files are in the ZIP and identifies where in the ZIP that file is located. This allows ZIP readers to load the list of files without reading the entire ZIP archive. ZIP archives can also include extra data that is not related to the ZIP archive. This allows for a ZIP archive to be made into a self-extracting archive (application that decompresses its contained data), by prepending the program code to a ZIP archive and marking the file as executable. Storing the catalog at the end also makes possible hiding a zipped file by appending it to an innocuous file, such as a GIF image file.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The format uses a 32-bit CRC algorithm and includes two copies of the directory structure of the archive to provide greater protection against data loss.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: A ZIP file is correctly identified by the presence of an "end of central directory record" which is located at the end of the archive structure in order to allow the easy appending of new files. If the end of central directory record indicates a non-empty archive, the name of each file or directory within the archive should be specified in a "central directory" entry, along with other metadata about the entry, and an offset into the ZIP file, pointing to the actual entry data. This allows a file listing of the archive to be performed relatively quickly, as the entire archive does not have to be read to see the list of files. The entries within the ZIP file also include this information, for redundancy, in a "local file header". Because ZIP files may be appended to, only files specified in the central directory at the end of the file are valid. Scanning a ZIP file for local file headers is invalid (except in the case of corrupted archives), as the central directory may declare that some files have been deleted and other files have been updated.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: For example, we may start with a ZIP file that contains files A, B and C. File B is then deleted and C updated. This may be achieved by just appending a new file C to the end of the original ZIP file and adding a new central directory that only lists file A and the new file C. When ZIP was first designed, transferring files by floppy disk was common, yet writing to disks was very time-consuming. If you had a large zip file, possibly spanning multiple disks, and only needed to update a few files, rather than reading and re-writing all the files, it would be substantially faster to just read the old central directory, append the new files then append an updated central directory.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The order of the file entries in the central directory need not coincide with the order of file entries in the archive.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: Each entry stored in a ZIP archive is introduced by a "local file header" with information about the file such as the comment, file size and file name, followed by optional "extra" data fields, and then the possibly compressed, possibly encrypted file data. The "Extra" data fields are the key to the extensibility of the ZIP format. "Extra" fields are exploited to support the ZIP64 format, WinZip-compatible AES encryption, file attributes, and higher-resolution NTFS or Unix file timestamps. Other extensions are possible via the "Extra" field. ZIP tools are required by the specification to ignore Extra fields they do not recognize.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The ZIP format uses specific 4-byte "signatures" to denote the various structures in the file. Each file entry is marked by a specific signature. The end of central directory record is indicated with its specific signature, and each entry in the central directory starts with the 4-byte "central file header signature".


title: ZIP (file format)

text: There is no BOF or EOF marker in the ZIP specification. Conventionally the first thing in a ZIP file is a ZIP entry, which can be identified easily by its "local file header signature". However, this is not necessarily the case, as this not required by the ZIP specification - most notably, a self-extracting archive will begin with an executable file header.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: Tools that correctly read ZIP archives must scan for the end of central directory record signature, and then, as appropriate, the other, indicated, central directory records. They must not scan for entries from the top of the ZIP file, because (as previously mentioned in this section) only the central directory specifies where a file chunk starts and that it has not been deleted. Scanning could lead to false positives, as the format does not forbid other data to be between chunks, nor file data streams from containing such signatures. However, tools that attempt to recover data from damaged ZIP archives will most likely scan the archive for local file header signatures; this is made more difficult by the fact that the compressed size of a file chunk may be stored after the file chunk, making sequential processing difficult.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: Most of the signatures end with the short integer 0x4b50, which is stored in little-endian ordering. Viewed as an ASCII string this reads "PK", the initials of the inventor Phil Katz. Thus, when a ZIP file is viewed in a text editor the first two bytes of the file are usually "PK". (DOS, OS/2 and Windows self-extracting ZIPs have an EXE before the ZIP so start with "MZ"; self-extracting ZIPs for other operating systems may similarly be preceded by executable code for extracting the archive's content on that platform.)


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The specification also supports spreading archives across multiple file-system files. Originally intended for storage of large ZIP files across multiple floppy disks, this feature is now used for sending ZIP archives in parts over email, or over other transports or removable media.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The FAT filesystem of DOS has a timestamp resolution of only two seconds; ZIP file records mimic this. As a result, the built-in timestamp resolution of files in a ZIP archive is only two seconds, though extra fields can be used to store more precise timestamps. The ZIP format has no notion of time zone, so timestamps are only meaningful if it is known what time zone they were created in.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: In September 2006, PKWARE released a revision of the ZIP specification providing for the storage of file names using UTF-8, finally adding Unicode compatibility to ZIP.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: All multi-byte values in the header are stored in little-endian byte order. All length fields count the length in bytes.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The extra field contains a variety of optional data such as OS-specific attributes. It is divided into records, each with at minimum a 16-bit signature and a 16-bit length. A ZIP64 local file extra field record, for example, has the signature 0x0001 and a length of 16 bytes (or more) so that two 64-bit values (the uncompressed and compressed sizes) may follow. Another common local file extension is 0x5455 (or "UT") which contains 32-bit UTC UNIX timestamps.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: If the bit at offset 3 (0x08) of the general-purpose flags field is set, then the CRC-32 and file sizes are not known when the header is written. If the archive is in Zip64 format, the compressed and uncompressed size fields are 8 bytes long instead of 4 bytes long (see section 4.3.9.2). The equivalent fields in the local header (or in the Zip64 extended information extra field in the case of archives in Zip64 format) are filled with zero, and the CRC-32 and size are appended in a 12-byte structure (optionally preceded by a 4-byte signature) immediately after the compressed data:


title: ZIP (file format)

text: After all the central directory entries comes the end of central directory (EOCD) record, which marks the end of the ZIP file:


title: ZIP (file format)

text: This ordering allows a ZIP file to be created in one pass, but the central directory is also placed at the end of the file in order to facilitate easy removal of files from multiple-part "(e.g. "multiple floppy-disk")" archives, as previously discussed.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The .ZIP File Format Specification documents the following compression methods: Store (no compression), Shrink (LZW), Reduce (levels 1–4; LZ77 + probabilistic), Implode, Deflate, Deflate64, bzip2, LZMA, WavPack, PPMd, and a LZ77 variant provided by IBM z/OS CMPSC instruction. The most commonly used compression method is DEFLATE, which is described in IETF .


title: ZIP (file format)

text: Other methods mentioned, but not documented in detail in the specification include: PKWARE DCL Implode (old IBM TERSE), new IBM TERSE, IBM LZ77 z Architecture (PFS), and a JPEG variant. A "Tokenize" method was reserved for a third party, but support was never added.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The word "Implode" is overused by PKWARE: the DCL/TERSE Implode is distinct from the old PKZIP Implode, a predecessor to Deflate. The DCL Implode is undocumented partially due to its proprietary nature held by IBM, but Mark Adler has nevertheless provided a decompressor called "blast" alongside zlib.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: ZIP supports a simple password-based symmetric encryption system generally known as ZipCrypto. It is documented in the ZIP specification, and known to be seriously flawed. In particular, it is vulnerable to known-plaintext attacks, which are in some cases made worse by poor implementations of random-number generators. Computers running under native Microsoft Windows without third-party archivers can open, but not create, ZIP files encrypted with ZipCrypto, but cannot extract the contents of files using different encryption.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: New features including new compression and encryption (e.g. AES) methods have been documented in the ZIP File Format Specification since version 5.2. A WinZip-developed AES-based open standard ("AE-x" in APPNOTE) is used also by 7-Zip and Xceed, but some vendors use other formats. PKWARE SecureZIP (SES, proprietary) also supports RC2, RC4, DES, Triple DES encryption methods, Digital Certificate-based encryption and authentication (X.509), and archive header encryption. It is, however, patented (see ).


title: ZIP (file format)

text: File name encryption is introduced in .ZIP File Format Specification 6.2, which encrypts metadata stored in Central Directory portion of an archive, but Local Header sections remain unencrypted. A compliant archiver can falsify the Local Header data when using Central Directory Encryption. As of version 6.2 of the specification, the Compression Method and Compressed Size fields within Local Header are not yet masked.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The original format had a 4 GB (2 bytes) limit on various things (uncompressed size of a file, compressed size of a file, and total size of the archive), as well as a limit of 65,535 (2-1) entries in a ZIP archive. In version 4.5 of the specification (which is not the same as v4.5 of any particular tool), PKWARE introduced the "ZIP64" format extensions to get around these limitations, increasing the limits to 16 EB (2 bytes). In essence, it uses a "normal" central directory entry for a file, followed by an optional "zip64" directory entry, which has the larger fields.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The format of the Local file header (LOC) and Central directory entry (CEN) are the same in ZIP and ZIP64. However, ZIP64 specifies an extra field that may be added to those records at the discretion of the compressor, whose purpose is to store values that do not fit in the classic LOC or CEN records. To signal that the actual values are stored in ZIP64 extra fields, they are set to 0xFFFF or 0xFFFFFFFF in the corresponding LOC or CEN record. If one entry does not fit into the classic LOC or CEN record, only that entry is required to be moved into a ZIP64 extra field. The other entries may stay in the classic record. Therefore, not all entries shown in the following table might be stored in a ZIP64 extra field. However, if they appear, their order must be as shown in the table.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: It is also not necessarily the last record in the file. A End of Central Directory Locator follows (an additional 20 bytes at the end).


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The File Explorer in Windows XP does not support ZIP64, but the Explorer in Windows Vista and later do. Likewise, some extension libraries support ZIP64, such as DotNetZip, QuaZIP and IO::Compress::Zip in Perl. Python's built-in zipfile supports it since 2.5 and defaults to it since 3.4. OpenJDK's built-in java.util.zip supports ZIP64 from version Java 7. Android Java API support ZIP64 since Android 6.0. Mac OS Sierra's Archive Utility notably does not support ZIP64, and can create corrupt archives when ZIP64 would be required. However, the ditto command shipped with Mac OS will unzip ZIP64 files. More recent versions of Mac OS ship with info-zip's zip and unzip command line tools which do support Zip64: to verify run zip -v and look for "ZIP64_SUPPORT".


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The file format allows for a comment containing up to 65,535 (2−1) bytes of data to occur at the end of the file after the central directory. Also, because the central directory specifies the offset of each file in the archive with respect to the start, it is possible for the first file entry to start at an offset other than zero, although some tools, for example gzip, will not process archive files that do not start with a file entry at offset zero.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: This allows arbitrary data to occur in the file both before and after the ZIP archive data, and for the archive to still be read by a ZIP application. A side-effect of this is that it is possible to author a file that is both a working ZIP archive and another format, provided that the other format tolerates arbitrary data at its end, beginning, or middle. Self-extracting archives (SFX), of the form supported by WinZip, take advantage of this, in that they are executable () files that conform to the PKZIP AppNote.txt specification, and can be read by compliant zip tools or libraries.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: This property of the format, and of the JAR format which is a variant of ZIP, can be exploited to hide rogue content (such as harmful Java classes) inside a seemingly harmless file, such as a GIF image uploaded to the web. This so-called GIFAR exploit has been demonstrated as an effective attack against web applications such as Facebook.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The minimum size of a file is 22 bytes. Such an "empty zip file" contains only an End of Central Directory Record (EOCD):


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The maximum size for both the archive file and the individual files inside it is 4,294,967,295 bytes (2−1 bytes, or 4 GB minus 1 byte) for standard ZIP. For ZIP64, the maximum size is 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 bytes (2−1 bytes, or 16 EB minus 1 byte).


title: ZIP (file format)

text: file format includes an extra field facility within file headers, which can be used to store extra data not defined by existing ZIP specifications, and which allow compliant archivers that do not recognize the fields to safely skip them. Header IDs 0–31 are reserved for use by PKWARE. The remaining IDs can be used by third-party vendors for proprietary usage.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: When WinZip 9.0 public beta was released in 2003, WinZip introduced its own AES-256 encryption, using a different file format, along with the documentation for the new specification. The encryption standards themselves were not proprietary, but PKWARE had not updated APPNOTE.TXT to include Strong Encryption Specification (SES) since 2001, which had been used by PKZIP versions 5.0 and 6.0. WinZip technical consultant Kevin Kearney and StuffIt product manager Mathew Covington accused PKWARE of withholding SES, but PKZIP chief technology officer Jim Peterson claimed that certificate-based encryption was still incomplete.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: In another controversial move, PKWare applied for a patent on 16 July 2003 describing a method for combining ZIP and strong encryption to create a secure file.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: In the end, PKWARE and WinZip agreed to support each other's products. On 21 January 2004, PKWARE announced the support of WinZip-based AES compression format. In a later version of WinZip beta, it was able to support SES-based ZIP files. PKWARE eventually released version 5.2 of the .ZIP File Format Specification to the public, which documented SES. The Free Software project 7-Zip also supports AES, but not SES in ZIP files (as does its POSIX port p7zip).


title: ZIP (file format)

text: When using AES encryption under WinZip, the compression method is always set to 99, with the actual compression method stored in an AES extra data field. In contrast, Strong Encryption Specification stores the compression method in the basic file header segment of Local Header and Central Directory, unless Central Directory Encryption is used to mask/encrypt metadata.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: There are numerous tools available, and numerous libraries for various programming environments; licenses used include proprietary and free software. WinZip, WinRAR, Info-ZIP, ZipGenius, 7-Zip, PeaZip and B1 Free Archiver are well-known tools, available on various platforms. Some of those tools have library or programmatic interfaces.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: Some development libraries licensed under open source agreement are libzip, libarchive, and Info-ZIP. For Java: Java Platform, Standard Edition contains the package "java.util.zip" to handle standard files; the Zip64File library specifically supports large files (larger than 4 GB) and treats files using random access; and the Apache Ant tool contains a more complete implementation released under the Apache Software License.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The Info-ZIP implementations of the format adds support for Unix filesystem features, such as user and group IDs, file permissions, and support for symbolic links. The Apache Ant implementation is aware of these to the extent that it can create files with predefined Unix permissions. The Info-ZIP implementations also know how to use the error correction capabilities built into the compression format. Some programs do not, and will fail on a file that has errors.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The Info-ZIP Windows tools also support NTFS filesystem permissions, and will make an attempt to translate from NTFS permissions to Unix permissions or vice versa when extracting files. This can result in potentially unintended combinations, e.g. .exe files being created on NTFS volumes with executable permission denied.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: Versions of Microsoft Windows have included support for compression in Explorer since the Microsoft Plus! pack was released for Windows 98. Microsoft calls this feature "Compressed Folders". Not all features are supported by the Windows Compressed Folders capability. For example, encryption is not supported in Windows 10 Home edition, although it can decrypt. Unicode entry encoding is not supported until Windows 7, while split and spanned archives are not readable or writable by the Compressed Folders feature, nor is AES Encryption supported.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: Microsoft Office started using the zip archive format in 2006 for their Office Open XML .docx, .xlsx, .pptx, etc. files, which became the default file format with Microsoft Office 2007.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: There are numerous other standards and formats using "zip" as part of their name. For example, zip is distinct from gzip, and the latter is defined in IETF . Both zip and gzip primarily use the DEFLATE algorithm for compression. Likewise, the ZLIB format (IETF ) also uses the DEFLATE compression algorithm, but specifies different headers for error and consistency checking. Other common, similarly named formats and programs with different native formats include 7-Zip, bzip2, and rzip.


title: ZIP (file format)

text: The theoretical maximum compression factor for a raw DEFLATE stream is about 1032 to one, but by exploiting the ZIP format in unintended ways, ZIP archives with compression ratios of billions to one can be constructed. These zip bombs unzip to extremely large sizes, overwhelming the capacity of the computer they are decompressed on.


title: Dacha

text: A dacha () is a seasonal or year-round second home, often located in the exurbs of post-Soviet countries, including Russia. A cottage (, "") or shack serving as a family's main or only home, or an outbuilding, is not considered a dacha, although some dachas recently have been converted to year-round residences and vice versa.


title: Dacha

text: The noun "dacha", coming from verb "davat" ("to give"), originally referred to land allotted by the tsar to his nobles; and indeed the dacha in Soviet times is similar to the allotment in some Western countries – a piece of land allotted, normally free, to citizens by the local government for gardening or growing vegetables for personal consumption. With time the name for the land was applied to the building on it. In some cases, owners occupy their dachas for part of the year and rent them to urban residents as summer retreats. People living in dachas are colloquially called "dachniki" (); the term usually refers not only to dacha dwellers but to a distinctive lifestyle. The Russian term is often said to have no exact counterpart in English.


title: Dacha

text: Dachas are common in Russia, and are also widespread in most parts of the former Soviet Union and in some countries of the former Eastern Bloc. Surveys in 1993–1994 suggest about 25% of Russian families living in large cities had dachas. Most dachas are in colonies of dachas and garden plots near large cities. These clusters have existed since the Soviet era, and consist of numerous small, typically , land plots. They were initially intended only as recreation getaways of city dwellers and for growing small gardens for food.


title: Dacha

text: Dachas originated as small country estates given as a gift by the tsar, and have been popular among the Russian upper- and middle-classes ever since. During the Soviet era, many dachas were state-owned, and were given to the people. The government of the Russian Federation continues to own State dachas ("") used by the president and other officials. They were extremely popular in the Soviet Union.


title: Dacha

text: As regulations severely restricted the size and type of dacha buildings for ordinary people during the Soviet period, permitted features such as large attics or glazed verandas became extremely widespread and often oversized. In the period from the 1960s to 1985 legal limitations were especially strict: only single-story summer houses without permanent heating and with living areas less than were allowed as second housing (though older dachas that did not meet these requirements continued to exist). In the 1980s planners loosened the rules, and since 1990 all such limitations have been eliminated. As of 2019, about 62% of Russians own dachas.


title: Dacha

text: The first dachas in Russia began to appear during the 17th century, initially referring to small estates in the country that were given to loyal vassals by the tsar. In archaic Russian, the word "dacha" means "something given", from the verb "дать" [dat'] – "to give". During the Age of Enlightenment, Russian aristocracy used their dachas for social and cultural gatherings, which were usually accompanied by masquerade balls and firework displays. The coming of the Industrial Revolution to Russia brought about a rapid growth in the urban population, and wealthy urban residents increasingly desired to escape the heavily polluted cities, at least temporarily.


title: Dacha

text: By the end of the 19th century, the dacha became a favorite summer retreat for the upper and middle classes of Russian society. In the tsarist era, dachas tended to have pleasure gardens, but were not used much for growing food. Maxim Gorky wrote a novelette entitled "Dachniki" (1885), about newlywed city-dwellers living a 'simple' summer life of walks in the countryside.


title: Dacha

text: Following the Russian Revolution, most dachas were nationalised. Some were converted into vacation homes for factory workers, while others, usually of better quality, were distributed among the prominent functionaries of the Communist Party and the newly emerged cultural and scientific elite. All but a few dachas remained the property of the state and the right to use them was usually revoked when a dacha occupant was dismissed or fell out of favour with the rulers of the state. Building new dachas required permission from senior officials and was rarely granted during the early years of the Soviet Union. The seniormost Soviet leaders all had their own dachas, and Joseph Stalin's favourite was in Gagra, Abkhazia. New dachas started to be built in larger numbers during the 1930s, and dacha colonies for artists, or soldiers, or various classes of party functionaries, started to form.


title: Dacha

text: There were legal size restrictions for dacha houses in the Soviet era. They had to have not more than of living area and be only one story tall. For that reason, they usually had a mansard roof, which was considered by authorities as just a large garret or attic, not a second story. Often ill-equipped and without indoor plumbing, dachas were nevertheless a solution for millions of working-class families, to have their own form of summer retreat. Having a piece of land also offered an opportunity for city dwellers to indulge themselves in growing their own fruits and vegetables.


title: Dacha

text: In the years before and after World War II, cultivation of garden crops on dacha plots was substantial, because of the failure of the centrally planned Soviet agricultural programme to supply enough fresh produce. Many dacha owners grew crops for market. Since then, growing garden crops has been of lesser importance, but continues to be widespread. Many Russian dacha owners still see gardening as a key value of "dachnik" culture. Keeping historical food shortages in mind, they take great pride in growing their own food rather than buying it at a store.


title: Dacha

text: The period after World War II saw moderate growth in dacha development. Since there was no actual law banning the construction of dachas, people began occupying unused plots of land near cities and towns, growing gardens and building sheds, huts, and more prominent dwellings that served as dachas. As time passed, the number of squatters grew and the government had no choice but to officially recognise their right to amateur farming.


title: Dacha

text: The 1955 legislation introduced a new type of legal person into the Soviet juridical system, a gardeners' partnership (, "sadovodcheskoye tovarishchestvo"), similar to "community gardens" in other countries. The gardeners' partnership received the right to permanent use of land exclusively for agricultural purposes and permission to connect to public electrical and water supply networks. In 1958, yet another form of organisation was introduced, a "cooperative for dacha construction" (, "dachno-stroytelniy kooperativ"), which recognised the right of an individual to build a small house on the land leased from the government.


title: Dacha

text: The 1980s saw the peak of the dacha boom, with nearly all affluent families—over a third of families in urban areas—having a dacha of their own. Dacha houses built since the late 1980s are significantly larger than older ones because legal size restrictions were liberalized, and new dacha areas became fields of relatively big houses on tiny land plots. Tracts between lines of dacha land plots are usually unimproved or improved with crushed stone, and narrow (often about between fences) enough that two cars can hardly pass each other by.


title: Dacha

text: Dachas also started to be found in other Eastern Bloc countries, especially in East Germany (where it remains quite current even after German reunification), and in Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.


title: Dacha

text: In the nineties there was great unemployment in Russia and other post-soviet states and in factories and research institutes that still functioned the salary was sometimes not paid for many months. In these hard times potatoes grown in garden plots saved many people from hunger and fruit and berries saved from vitamin deficiency.


title: Dacha

text: Due to the rapid increase in urbanization in Russia, many village houses are currently being sold to be used as dachas. Many Russian villages now have "dachniki" as temporary residents. Some villages have been fully transformed into dacha settlements, while some older dacha settlements often look like more permanent lodgings. The advantages of purchasing a dacha in a village usually are lower costs, greater land area, and larger distances between houses. The disadvantages may include lower-quality utilities, less security, and typically a farther distance to travel.


title: Dacha

text: The means of transportation for people to get to their dachas, besides cars, are "water trams", buses, and electric trains (colloquially called "elektrichka", ). Due to the high number of people traveling to dachas during the weekends (especially during the summer), traffic typically builds up around large cities, and elektrichka and buses are filled to capacity.


title: Dacha

text: Dachas have also started appearing in regions of North America known for their high concentrations of immigrants from Russia and Ukraine. Russians and Ukrainians from New York, Long Island, and New Jersey have been retreating to their Russian-style dacha homes in the forests of Upstate New York in order to recreate the dacha experiences they had during the Soviet era.


title: Dacha

text: Dacha plots are usually not more than in area; in some cases over , but nearly never exceeding . They therefore are too small to grow any large amount of fruits and vegetables, thus sometimes they are also grown on separate dedicated plots of ground nearby. In Soviet times and sometimes now, such dedicated plots of ground were often made of the unused sections of agricultural fields owned by collective farms. Many small dacha plots, especially those that were recently purchased, are not used for large-scale fruit and vegetable farming. Instead, they are frequently used for gardening and planting exotic plants.


title: Dacha

text: Due to custom and the perceived high costs of good equipment, even relatively large plots of land are often cultivated manually using equipment such as a spade or a spading fork. In autumn the grown potatoes and other crops are gathered and transported to the city where they are stored in cellars, dugouts (usually located on unused plots of ground), or in personal automobile garages.


title: Dacha

text: Many Russians prefer to grow vegetables themselves because of the widespread belief in the excessive use of agrochemicals in the vegetables from supermarkets and grocery stores, and the higher costs of the vegetables in stores and bazaars, especially among the older part of the population. Also, growing one's own food supplies is a long-lived Russian tradition practised even by many affluent Russians. It is seen as a way to have a connection to the land, to be self-sufficient, and for many, to find some escape from a capitalist economy.


title: Dacha

text: While a large portion of urban Russians grow some vegetables in their dacha gardens, the perception in some parts of society that urban Russians are becoming increasingly self-sufficient is a myth, and only some 15 percent of vegetables are grown by urban dwellers.


title: Dacha

text: The most common dacha fruits in cool temperate regions of Russia are apple, blackcurrant, redcurrant, gooseberry, raspberry and strawberry (sometimes also sour cherry, downy cherry, rose hips, plum, bird cherry, pear, sea-buckthorn, "Actinidia kolomikta", black chokeberry, serviceberry, barberry, sweetberry honeysuckle, blackberry and grape, but many of them are either rare or not hardy enough and require winter protection). Popular vegetables and herbs are potato, cucumber, zucchini, pumpkin, tomato, carrot, red bell peppers (capsicum), beetroot, cabbage, cauliflower, radish, turnip, onion, garlic, dill, parsley, rhubarb, sorrel, papaver, earth apple, horseradish and others.


title: Dacha

text: The state-owned vacation houses allotted for government officials, academicians, military personnel, and other VIPs are called ""gosdachas"" (, short for "gosudarstvennaya dacha"— "state dacha"). In modern Russia, the Federal Property Agency of Russia continues to own numerous estates throughout the country that are leased, often on non-market terms, to government officials. The President of Russia has official dacha residences in Novo-Ogaryovo and Zavidovo. Gosdachas in Komarovo and Peredelkino, Zhukovka, Barvikha, and Usovo and Rublyovka in Moscow are populated by many Soviet-era intellectuals and artists. Russian President Vladimir Putin has a dacha in the Karelian Isthmus, as part of a cooperative society called Ozero, and one in Sochi.


title: Dacha

text: In modern times, the rise of a new class in the Russian society (the 'new Russians') has added a new dimension to the concept of dacha. (Some wealthy Russians prefer the term 'cottage' for their country homes.)


title: Dacha

text: With construction costs often reaching into the millions of U.S. dollars, the dachas of the country's elite bear no resemblance to the small dachas of the Soviet era. Comparable in size and décor to mansions and palaces, they become an elaborate display of social status, wealth and power. Most dachas of the elite are constructed with brick and concrete, unlike the middle-class dachas that are mostly constructed with wood.


title: Dacha

text: These new symbols of prosperity are designed by professional architects, usually in eclectic style—that older "dachniks" look down upon as reflecting the nouveau-riche tastes of their owners—and feature ostentatious items such as marble statues, fountains and exotic plants. Some have state-of-the-art sporting facilities such as an indoor swimming pool, multiple tennis courts and stables for race horses. A few privately owned estates even have small forests and lakes.


title: Dacha

text: Wealthy Russians have also bought up many of the tsarist-era dachas of the aristocracy, and Soviet-era dachas of artists and intellectuals.


title: Dacha

text: Theft is not an unusual happening for dachas. Usually, the dachas are either not under surveillance at all or there is only one single guard taking care of the entire property. Trying to prevent these thefts, dacha owners take everything valuable back to their apartments in the city at the end of summer. Most of all, dishes, tools and clothes are stolen. It often occurs that homeless people and criminals use the dachas in autumn and winter in the absence of the respective owners.


title: Dacha

text: Sometimes, minors light the unsupervised dachas on fire as an entertainment. Thieves break into dachas with the intention of stealing non-ferrous metal. The leader of the LDPR (Liberal Democratic Party of Russia) at the time, Igor Lebedev, has suffered from such doings in 2000. Two men broke into his dacha situated in Odintsovo District who were then stopped by police officers. The press of the GUBD, which stands for Moscow city police, claims that the collectors of non-ferrous metal are a big problem for Moscow region and that they come there from several different nearby regions.


title: Dacha

text: In connection to the spread of drug abuse, poppies are now increasingly being stolen from dachas. That is the reason why growing more than two poppy plants is now considered a crime.


title: Dacha

text: In 2008, unknown men robbed 10 dachas, including the famous "Zelyonaya budka" (Зелёнaя будка, Russian for "green booth") belonging to the famous Russian poet Anna Akhmatova in the settlement Litfonda in Komarovo (Leningrad region).


title: Dacha

text: In 2002, in the protected gardening association "Yagodka" (Ягодка, Russian for "berry") in Opalikha in Krasnogorsk region of Moscow, the United States citizen Yakov Tilipman who was representing the interests of the "Kremlyovskaya group" was shot. In 2008, robbers in a camouflage uniform climbed over a fence and made their way into the dacha of the TV host Aleksandr Tsekalo in Krasnogorsk, Moscow region where his relatives were tied up and robbed.


title: Sphygmomanometer

text: A sphygmomanometer ( ), a blood pressure monitor, or blood pressure gauge, is a device used to measure blood pressure, composed of an inflatable cuff to collapse and then release the artery under the cuff in a controlled manner, and a mercury or aneroid manometer to measure the pressure. Manual sphygmomanometers are used with a stethoscope when using the auscultatory technique.


title: Sphygmomanometer

text: A sphygmomanometer consists of an inflatable cuff, a measuring unit (the mercury manometer, or aneroid gauge), and a mechanism for inflation which may be a manually operated bulb and valve or a pump operated electrically.


title: Sphygmomanometer

text: Both manual and digital meters are currently employed, with different trade-offs in accuracy versus convenience.


title: Sphygmomanometer

text: A stethoscope is required for auscultation (see below). Manual meters are best used by trained practitioners, and, while it is possible to obtain a basic reading through palpation alone, this yields only the systolic pressure.


title: Sphygmomanometer

text: Digital meters employ oscillometric measurements and electronic calculations rather than auscultation. They may use manual or automatic inflation, but both types are electronic, easy to operate without training, and can be used in noisy environments. They measure systolic and diastolic pressures by oscillometric detection, employing either deformable membranes that are measured using differential capacitance, or differential piezoresistance, and they include a microprocessor. They measure mean blood pressure and pulse rate, while systolic and diastolic pressures are obtained less accurately than with manual meters, and calibration is also a concern. Digital oscillometric monitors may not be advisable for some patients, such as those with arteriosclerosis, arrhythmia, preeclampsia, "pulsus alternans", and "pulsus paradoxus", as their calculations may not correct for these conditions, and in these cases, an analog sphygmomanometer is preferable when used by a trained person.


title: Sphygmomanometer

text: Digital instruments may use a cuff placed, in order of accuracy and inverse order of portability and convenience, around the upper arm, the wrist, or a finger. Recently, a group of researchers at Michigan State University developed a smartphone based device that uses oscillometry to estimate blood pressure. The oscillometric method of detection used gives blood pressure readings that differ from those determined by auscultation, and vary according to many factors, such as pulse pressure, heart rate and arterial stiffness, although some instruments are claimed also to measure arterial stiffness, and some can detect irregular heartbeats.


title: Sphygmomanometer

text: In humans, the cuff is normally placed smoothly and snugly around an upper arm, at roughly the same vertical height as the heart while the subject is seated with the arm supported. Other sites of placement depend on species and may include the flipper or tail. It is essential that the correct size of cuff is selected for the patient. Too small a cuff results in too high a pressure, while too large a cuff results in too low a pressure. For clinical measurements it is usual to measure and record both arms in the initial consultation to determine if the pressure is significantly higher in one arm than the other. A difference of 10 mmHg may be a sign of coarctation of the aorta. If the arms read differently, the higher reading arm would be used for later readings. The cuff is inflated until the artery is completely occluded.


title: Sphygmomanometer

text: With a manual instrument, listening with a stethoscope to the brachial artery, the examiner slowly releases the pressure in the cuff at a rate of approximately 2 mmHg per heart beat. As the pressure in the cuffs falls, a "whooshing" or pounding sound is heard (see Korotkoff sounds) when blood flow first starts again in the artery. The pressure at which this sound began is noted and recorded as the systolic blood pressure. The cuff pressure is further released until the sound can no longer be heard. This is recorded as the diastolic blood pressure. In noisy environments where auscultation is impossible (such as the scenes often encountered in emergency medicine), systolic blood pressure alone may be read by releasing the pressure until a radial pulse is palpated (felt). In veterinary medicine, auscultation is rarely of use, and palpation or visualization of pulse distal to the sphygmomanometer is used to detect systolic pressure.


title: Sphygmomanometer

text: Digital instruments use a cuff which may be placed, according to the instrument, around the upper arm, wrist, or a finger, in all cases elevated to the same height as the heart. They inflate the cuff and gradually reduce the pressure in the same way as a manual meter, and measure blood pressures by the oscillometric method.


title: Sphygmomanometer

text: By observing the mercury in the column, or the aneroid gauge pointer, while releasing the air pressure with a control valve, the operator notes the values of the blood pressure in mmHg. The peak pressure in the arteries during the cardiac cycle is the systolic pressure, and the lowest pressure (at the resting phase of the cardiac cycle) is the diastolic pressure. A stethoscope, applied lightly over the artery being measured, is used in the auscultatory method. Systolic pressure (first phase) is identified with the first of the continuous Korotkoff sounds. Diastolic pressure is identified at the moment the Korotkoff sounds disappear (fifth phase).


title: Sphygmomanometer

text: Measurement of the blood pressure is carried out in the diagnosis and treatment of hypertension (high blood pressure), and in many other healthcare scenarios.


title: Sphygmomanometer

text: The sphygmomanometer was invented by Samuel Siegfried Karl Ritter von Basch in the year 1881. Scipione Riva-Rocci introduced a more easily used version in 1896. In 1901, pioneering neurosurgeon Dr. Harvey Cushing brought an example of Riva-Rocci's device to the US, modernized it and popularized it within the medical community. Further improvement came in 1905 when Russian physician Nikolai Korotkov included diastolic blood pressure measurement following his discovery of "Korotkoff sounds." William A. Baum invented the Baumanometer brand in 1916, while working for The Life Extension Institute which performed insurance and employment physicals. In 1981 the first fully automated oscillometric blood pressure cuff was invented by Donald Nunn.


title: Sphygmomanometer

text: The word "sphygmomanometer" uses the combining form of "sphygmo-" + "manometer". The roots involved are as follows: Greek "sphygmos" "pulse", plus the scientific term "manometer" (from French "manomètre"), i.e. "pressure meter", itself coined from "manos" "thin, sparse", and "metron" "measure".


title: Sphygmomanometer

text: Most sphygmomanometers were mechanical gauges with dial faces, or mercury columns, during most of the 20th century. Since the advent of electronic medical devices, names such as "meter" and "monitor" can also apply, as devices can automatically monitor blood pressure on an ongoing basis.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Alexandra Caroline Grey, M.D. is a fictional character from ABC's medical drama television series "Grey's Anatomy", portrayed by actress Chyler Leigh. Created by series producer Shonda Rhimes, the character is first mentioned in season 2 by her younger sister, Molly. She is then introduced in season 3 as the titular protagonist's younger paternal half-sister. She transfers to Seattle Grace Hospital as a new surgical intern after her mother's sudden death, and is eventually named a surgical resident in season 6 episode 2. Leigh was originally contracted to appear for a multi-episode story-arc but ultimately received star-billing from seasons 4 to 8. She has also reprised her role as Lexie on the spin-off show "Private Practice".


title: Lexie Grey

text: Characterized by Rhimes as a dork with issues expressing her feelings, Lexie's focal storyline in the series involved her on-again, off-again relationship with plastics attending Mark Sloan (Eric Dane). The pair sustained fatal injuries during an aviation accident in the eighth-season finale, and Seattle Grace Mercy West is subsequently renamed Grey-Sloan Memorial Hospital in their memory. Following their deaths, Rhimes mused regarding the couple's romance: '...he [Mark] and Lexie get to be together in a way. Their love remains true." The reason given for Lexie's departure after over five years on the show was Leigh's desire to spend more time with her family.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Both the character and Leigh's performance received positive feedback and acclaim. Leigh was among the cast to receive a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2007.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Alexandra Caroline "Lexie" Grey (born 1984) was the daughter of Thatcher (Jeff Perry) and his second wife, Susan Grey (Mare Winningham). She was also the elder sister of Molly Grey (Mandy Siegfried) and the sister-in-law of Eric Thompson (unseen). Prior to her internship, Lexie's younger sister had already gotten married and was pregnant with Lexie's niece, Laura.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Throughout her childhood, Lexie remained unaware that she also had an older half-sister, Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), born to Thatcher and his first wife Ellis (Kate Burton), a world-famous general surgeon in 1978. Lexie was extremely intelligent as a child, having skipped third grade and "aced" her psych clerkship. When she turned 7, her parents threw her a surprise party that she always remembered as one of her best birthdays. She was very popular and had a great group of friends in her high school years, during which she was crowned prom queen and class valedictorian.


title: Lexie Grey

text: In contrast to Meredith, Lexie came from a loving home with a happy and idealistic upbringing. Meredith once said of Lexie, "She was raised right. With parents and rules and smiley face posters on her wall." Despite this, the Grey sisters ultimately form a strong familial bond after Lexie moves into Meredith's house.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Lexie possessed an eidetic memory, which was often used as a valuable resource and earned her the nickname "Lexipedia". She demonstrated a high aptitude for both plastics and neurosurgery and was viewed as one of the better young surgeons at the hospital, often being asked to assist on many high-profile surgeries; she was considered the best of the interns in her year.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Near the end of Meredith's intern year, Thatcher and Molly mention that Lexie is a student at Harvard Medical School. After she graduates, Lexie is accepted by Massachusetts General Hospital to pursue her residency. Following her mother's sudden death of complications stemming from the hiccups, Lexie decides to move back to Seattle to care for her father and takes up a surgical internship at Seattle Grace Hospital instead, 1 year behind Meredith who is due to begin her first year of residency. On the day of her mother's funeral, Lexie waits in the car when Thatcher, accompanied by Molly, goes to tell Meredith that she isn't welcome at the ceremony, thus missing the opportunity to meet her older half-sister. Later that night, before her internship at Seattle Grace begins, Lexie meets Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) at Joe's bar, mirroring Derek's initial meeting with Meredith. The pair flirt and Lexie forwardly offers to buy Derek a drink, but Derek says that he is there with some friends and declines. Upon arriving at the hospital's intern locker room the next day, Lexie meets George O'Malley (T. R. Knight) during the end of his first year as an intern. After Lexie introduces herself, George immediately realizes her identity as Meredith's half-sister.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Lexie quickly befriends George and promises not to tell anyone that he is repeating his internship after failing his intern exam. Lexie's assigned supervising resident is Meredith's best friend Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), who doesn't take the time to learn her interns' names and thus, designates Lexie as "Three". Although Cristina is initially rude and strict with her, Lexie eventually stands up for herself and manages to earn her mentor's respect, with Yang going so far as to acknowledge Lexie as her best student. Lexie is eager to get to know Meredith but receives a hostile response when she first introduces herself, and her later attempts to bond with her half-sister are similarly rebuffed.<ref name="Love/Addiction">"Love/Addiction" (4.02), October 4, 2007.</ref> She begins sleeping with resident Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), who discovers that Thatcher has descended into alcoholism following his wife's death and often unreasonably lashes out at Lexie. When Lexie is lectured by Meredith for not looking after Thatcher, she finally retaliates and decides to stop pursuing a relationship with her half-sister. After ending the emotionless sex with Alex, Lexie bonds with patient Nick Hanscom (Seth Green) and is present when his exposed artery blows, causing him to suffer massive blood loss. She manages to stop the bleeding but is distraught when Nick later dies anyway. Feeling sympathy, Cristina invites Lexie to join her and Meredith in drinking and dancing, thawing the sisters' relationship to a certain extent. The following morning, Meredith goes out of her way to make Lexie breakfast, which Lexie politely eats despite being allergic to eggs, resulting in her having to be treated at the hospital. Lexie and George later agree to rent a place together but are only able to afford a dilapidated apartment that Lexie attempts to improve by stealing decorations and furniture from the hospital. Lexie begins to develop romantic feelings for George and secretly steals his personnel files from Chief Richard Webber's (James Pickens Jr.) office, discovering that George had only failed his intern exam by one point. She encourages George to try and convince the Chief that he deserves a second chance, to which the Chief agrees. An ecstatic George then casually plants a kiss on Lexie, completely unaware of her feelings for him.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Lexie continues to harbor romantic feelings for an oblivious George; their relationship is a reflection of George's previous infatuation with an oblivious Meredith. She prioritizes helping George study over taking part in a rare surgery offered to her by plastics attending Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), but feels betrayed when George fails to even request that she become one of his interns after he passes his exam. Finally realizing that George doesn't feel the same way about her, Lexie gives up on her feelings for him and the pair's friendship begins to fizzle out. She soon discovers that some of her fellow interns have secretly been practicing simple medical procedures on each other, and begins taking part in these unauthorized operations to prove that she's "hardcore". Seeking a more daring procedure, Sadie Harris (Melissa George) suggests that they remove her appendix. Although Lexie agrees, she quickly finds herself out of her depth and is forced to seek Meredith and Cristina's aid to save Sadie's life, after which all of the interns in the "cabal" are put on probation. Derek finds Lexie exhausted and distraught at the day's events and allows her to move into the attic at his and Meredith's house. Lexie then begins a flirtation with Mark and is highly impressed after watching him successfully perform a cutting-edge surgery. Later that night, she shows up at Mark's hotel room and undresses herself while repeating to him, "Teach me". The pair grow close very quickly and begin a romantic relationship, though they are forced to keep it a secret when Derek warns Mark away from Lexie due to their large age gap and the latter being Meredith's younger sister (earning Lexie the nickname "Little Grey").


title: Lexie Grey

text: When Derek's mother (Tyne Daly) visits Seattle, Mark is initially fearful that she will disapprove of his relationship with Lexie. After meeting Lexie, however, Mrs. Shepherd tells Mark that she is exactly the kind of youthful person he should be with. When Lexie and Mark are making out in an on-call room, she accidentally gives him a penile fracture and has to seek the help of Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) and Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) to treat him. Sadie then publicly takes the blame for Mark's injury to spare Lexie the burden of suffering further humiliation and guilt. Lexie later wins an intern competition organized by Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl) and is congratulated by Mark. Wanting to date Mark in public, Lexie convinces him to come clean to Derek about their relationship, to which Mark agrees. But during his confession, Mark does not realize that Derek has just been devastated by the loss of a patient, and they then get into a fistfight. The two men continue to feud, resulting in Lexie beginning to stress-eat until they eventually reconcile. Lexie is chosen by Mark to assist him with an extremely rare facial transplant surgery only to be judged and mocked by her peers; they believe that Mark is taking advantage of her and that she is using him. Lexie then kisses Mark in front of the other interns before stating, "They think that we're ugly but I know that we're beautiful, and we can adapt to a hostile environment." Lexie is delighted when Meredith asks her to be a bridesmaid at her and Derek's wedding, though they ultimately give the ceremony to Alex and a cancer-stricken Izzie, which Lexie attends with Mark. Lexie later asks Mark to meet her newly-sober father, which Mark initially refuses as he states that fathers have never liked him. However, Mark realizes how much he wants to build a future with Lexie so he ends up going for dinner with her and Thatcher. Soon after, Mark decides to purchase a house and invites Lexie to move in with him only for her to decline, concerned about how fast their relationship is progressing.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Lexie feels immense guilt following George's death, having abandoned their friendship after he failed to reciprocate her romantic feelings towards him. She is consoled by Mark and, after becoming a surgical resident, agrees to move into his new apartment with him. Lexie and the other residents grow increasingly stressed in the wake of Chief Webber's announcement that there will be an administrative merger with Mercy West Hospital, meaning that Seattle Grace will have to lay off a large portion of its staff members. Mark encourages Lexie to relax and just try her best during this period, advising her not to worry as she deserves her job. Lexie soon finds that while she is safe from the layoffs, many of her friends have been cut from the program. To take everyone's minds off the merger, Owen takes Lexie, Mark, Derek, Meredith, and Cristina to play baseball together. Thatcher is later admitted into the hospital with liver failure stemming from his former alcoholism. When Lexie discovers that she is not a suitable transplant candidate, Meredith steps in and donates part of her liver to Thatcher to spare Lexie the grief of losing her father. Following the merger, Lexie develops a rivalry with Mercy West resident April Kepner (Sarah Drew), who desperately attempts to undermine Lexie while they are both on Derek's service. Lexie retaliates by stealing April's notebook and using its personal contents to humiliate her, though Lexie later apologizes. When a patient dies from a medical negligence mistake committed by one of the many surgeons who treated her, Webber starts a witch hunt to trace back the culprit and identify the cause of death, and Lexie is among the doctors who are questioned; it is ultimately discovered that April was the one at fault.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Derek later recruits Lexie for his unauthorized "rogue surgery" on hospital technician Isaac's (Faran Tahir) "inoperable" tumor, with Lexie acting as Derek's own caregiver during the long and exhausting procedure. Lexie is supported by Mark and, to avoid having to leave the operating room, resorts to using a diaper so that she can sufficiently hydrate herself before and during the surgery. Near the year's end, Mark and Lexie receive a shock when a pregnant teenage girl named Sloan Riley (Leven Rambin) shows up claiming to be Mark's daughter, and her parentage is soon confirmed. Mark quickly agrees to let Sloan and the baby move in permanently without consulting Lexie, resulting in her ending their relationship as she feels she is still too young to be a grandmother. An upset and drunk Lexie then engages in a one-night stand with Alex but feels guilty and confesses to Mark, who becomes furious with her despite also admitting that he had a one-night stand with Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh). Although she secretly suppresses her feelings for Mark, Lexie and Alex assume a casual relationship that Lexie flaunts to make Mark jealous. Lexie later breaks down in front of Meredith when Alex tells her that Mark has started dating Teddy Altman (Kim Raver). After Sloan gives her baby up for adoption and leaves Seattle, however, Mark approaches Lexie and confesses his love to her. A stunned Lexie hesitantly states that Alex is now her boyfriend, to which Mark replies, "I know. I'm just saying you could have a husband."


title: Lexie Grey

text: Lexie takes part in a surgery on Alison Clark (Caroline Williams) and informs her husband Gary (Michael O'Neill) that it was a success, only for Alison to suffer a stroke and fall into a coma that Derek and Webber state she is unlikely to wake from. As Alison had signed a DNR form, Lexie is forced to turn off the machines keeping her alive despite Gary's pleas for her to stop. After failing in an attempt to sue Seattle Grace Mercy West, a grief-stricken Gary Clark later returns to the hospital with a gun, seeking revenge on Derek, Webber, and Lexie. Mark shields Lexie during the shooting and the pair attempt to save a critically wounded Alex. Lexie heads out into the evacuated hospital to search for supplies and comes face-to-face with Clark. Before Clark can shoot her, however, a SWAT team member wounds him and Lexie manages to escape. Lexie and Mark proceed to save Alex's life, during which Lexie realizes that Alex is still in love with his ex-wife Izzie, as he calls for her while delirious and on the verge of death. After having a conversation with Webber, Gary Clark eventually commits suicide, having killed 11 people and wounded another 7 as well as causing Meredith to suffer a miscarriage.


title: Lexie Grey

text: After openly acknowledging the shooting as a mass murder during a therapy session with trauma counselor Andrew Perkins (James Tupper) and the other residents, Lexie experiences a psychotic breakdown stemming from PTSD and sleep deprivation while she is treating a patient. She is admitted to the hospital's psychiatric ward, where she is sedated for over 50 hours with Meredith remaining by her side. Alex breaks off his relationship with Lexie because he cannot handle having to care for a person going through PTSD and he enjoys sleeping with women that find having been shot to be attractive. Lexie, after recovering and being cleared for surgery, confronts Alex at Cristina and Owen's wedding and knocks him down a peg by telling him that the reason he is alive is because of her. Lexie becomes irritated when others at the hospital view her as fragile and incompetent due to her breakdown and works hard to repair her image; she saves a woman from being paralyzed when no one else caught the issue. She continues to gain her confidence throughout the season and helps Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) discover a cure for hospital fistula. Lexie's rivalry with April intensifies when the latter begins growing closer to Meredith, but Meredith later assures Lexie that she will always be her sister.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Meanwhile, Lexie and Mark continue to work together but never seem to get their timing right, with Lexie acting hostile towards Mark when he wishes to reconcile, and Mark being caught sleeping with a flavor-of-the-day when Lexie wants to rekindle their romance. When Lexie and Mark both realize that they continue to harbor feelings for each other, however, they resume their relationship. Lexie nearly suffers another breakdown when the victims of a school shooting are sent to Seattle Grace Mercy West for treatment, which reminds her of her near-death experience during the shooting at the hospital. Mark comforts Lexie and the doctors ultimately manage to save all the victims of the shooting, after which Lexie tells Mark that she loves him. Lexie and Mark's happiness once again comes to a halt when she discovers that during their break-up, Mark had unintentionally impregnated Callie, and she ends their relationship once more because she is not ready for children.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Thatcher is admitted to the hospital with kidney stones and Lexie is shocked to discover that he is dating a 20-year-old girl. Concerned about Lexie's well-being and eager to win her back, Mark recruits his protégé Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) to find out what is upsetting her. She reveals to Jackson that she is frustrated with the people she cares about, specifically Mark and her father, making major life-changing decisions without considering her feelings. When Lexie overhears Mark saying that he will take care of his and Callie's child regardless of what sickness it is born with, she expresses regret for neglecting to even let Mark explain the situation before she walked away from him. However, Jackson manages to convince Lexie that nobody simply has one soulmate and the two subsequently begin dating. Mark is furious and distraught when he discovers that Jackson has entered into a relationship with Lexie and desperately attempts to win her back, but shortly after, Callie is involved in a severe car accident and Lexie consoles Mark. After Mark and Callie's baby is born, Mark tells Lexie that she is the only thing missing to make his life perfect. Lexie explains that she will always love Mark and will go back to him if he continues to pursue her, but she believes that they aren't suited because they have different desires. Mark then agrees to let her go, giving her and Jackson his blessing.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Although initially happy in her relationship with Jackson, Lexie grows increasingly distraught and frustrated when she discovers that Mark has started dating an ophthalmologist named Julia. When she sees Mark and Julia flirting during a charity softball match, Lexie's jealousy gets the better of her and she throws a ball at Julia, injuring the latter's chest. Jackson senses that Lexie is still in love with Mark and ends their relationship. Lexie begins working under Derek's service and becomes increasingly proficient in neurosurgery, helping Derek with a set of "hopeless cases" – high risk surgeries for patients who had otherwise run out of options. During a surgery, Derek is called away on an emergency, leaving Lexie and Meredith to carry out the procedure on their own. Though Derek had instructed them to merely reduce the patient's brain tumor, Meredith allows Lexie to remove it completely, despite not being authorized by either the patient or Derek to do so. The sisters celebrate the successful surgery but Lexie is devastated when she discovers that the patient suffered severe brain damage, thus losing the ability to speak.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Alex, Jackson and April move out of Meredith's house without inviting Lexie to join them, and with Derek and Meredith settling down with baby Zola, Lexie begins to feel lonely and isolated. Lexie is left babysitting Zola on Valentine's Day and contemplates confessing her true feelings to Mark. But after plucking up the courage to visit his apartment, she finds Mark studying with Jackson and loses her nerve, instead claiming that she wanted to set up a playdate for the kids. When Mark confides in Derek that he and Julia have been discussing moving in together, Derek warns Lexie not to miss her chance again, resulting in her professing her love to a shell-shocked Mark, who merely thanks her for her candor. Mark later confesses to Derek that he feels the same way about Lexie, but is unsure of how to go about things.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Days later, Lexie is named as part of a team of surgeons that will be sent to Boise to separate conjoined twins, along with Mark, Meredith, Derek, Cristina and Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw). While flying to their destination, the doctors' plane crashes in the wilderness and Lexie is crushed under debris from the aircraft but manages to alert Mark and Cristina to help her. The pair try in vain to free Lexie, who realizes that she is suffering from a hemothorax and is unlikely to survive. While Cristina tries to find an oxygen tank and water to save Lexie, Mark holds Lexie's hand and professes his love for her, telling her that they will get married, have kids, and live the best life together as they are "meant to be". While fantasizing about the future that she and Mark could have had together, Lexie succumbs to her injuries and dies moments before Meredith arrives. The remaining doctors are left stranded in the woods waiting for rescue, with a devastated Meredith crying profusely and Mark refusing to let go of Lexie's hand.


title: Lexie Grey

text: In season 9, the remaining surgeons are rescued from the wilderness days later and Lexie's body is returned to Seattle. Still devastated by Lexie's passing, Mark advises his protégé Jackson, 'when you love someone, tell them', which Mark felt he did not tell Lexie enough when she was alive. Mark subsequently makes a clean break with Julia, stating that he had always only truly loved Lexie. Mark is soon placed on life support due to the extensive internal injuries he sustained during the plane crash and, as determined by his will, the machines keeping him alive are turned off as he showed no signs of waking after 30 days. Following Mark's death, flashbacks of several moments in his life showed him being videotaped at Callie and Arizona's wedding; at the end of his congratulations speech, Mark declares that Lexie was the one, true partner he wanted to grow old and dance with at their granddaughter's wedding. When the remaining survivors of the plane crash pool their compensation money to purchase Seattle Grace Mercy West, they agree to rename it "Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital" in tribute to Lexie and Mark.


title: Lexie Grey

text: In season 15, Lexie's spirit appears alongside the ghosts of Mark, Derek, George, Doc and Ellis as they watch Meredith leave the hospital after treating a patient whose family celebrates the Day of the Dead.


title: Lexie Grey

text: In season 17, Lexie is one of the people that visits Meredith in her dreams while she is on a ventilator.


title: Lexie Grey

text: When Lexie first told Meredith she was her half-sister, Meredith was initially hostile, ignoring her in the corridors and refusing to teach her. However, after a patient dies, leaving Lexie distraught, Cristina invites her to go drinking with her and Meredith which was when Meredith starts to warm up to Lexie and the idea of having a sister. The next day, Meredith specially made eggs for Lexie, who, despite being allergic, still ate them. The sisters' relationship continues to grow throughout the series until she died in a plane accident. Lexie is said to have been Meredith’s favorite sister.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Yang, who was her resident, nicknamed her Three and acted similar towards Lexie as how Meredith did in the beginning. After Lexie lost a patient, Cristina helped her by inviting her to drinks with Meredith. As the series progressed, Lexie became equally close with Cristina.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Leigh first appeared on the show during the last two episodes of the third season as Meredith's half-sister, Lexie Grey. Following Isaiah Washington's departure who portrayed Preston Burke, it was reported that show's executives were planning on adding new cast members, such as Lexie. She was officially upgraded to a series' regular on July 11, 2007, for the fourth season. On casting Chyler Leigh as Lexie, "Grey's Anatomy" creator Shonda Rhimes said: "We met with a lot of young actresses, but Chyler stood out—she had a quality that felt right and real to me. It felt like she could be Meredith's sister, but she had a depth that was very interesting."


title: Lexie Grey

text: In September 2011, Leigh requested an extended summer hiatus to spend more time with her family. This was granted by Rhimes, and the actress returned full-time in mid-October. Leigh's character died in the eighth-season finale. In May 2012, Rhimes revealed why she decided to have Lexie die: "I love Chyler and I love the character of Lexie Grey. She was an important member of my Grey's family. This was not an easy decision. But it was a decision that Chyler and I came to together. We had a lot of thoughtful discussion about it and ultimately we both decided this was the right time for her character's journey to end. As far as I'm concerned, Chyler will always remain a part of the Shondaland family and I can't wait to work with her again in the future." Following the death of her character, Leigh released a statement saying:


title: Lexie Grey

text: Leigh's character has been called "reliable, trustworthy, timid, and apprehensive" by "Grey's Anatomy" executives. In her early appearances, it was revealed that Lexie has a photographic memory, which she applied to her surgical career. This led her to being nicknamed "Lexipedia" by Alex Karev. The character has also been described as an "innocent young intern" by Alex Keen of "The Trades".


title: Lexie Grey

text: Of the character, Leigh said: "She's a very vulnerable person from a very healthy background—she knows how to make good relationships but at this point [season four], she's coming into so much opposition she's trying to adjust to it." Debbie Chang of "BuddyTV" commented on Lexie's early characterization, including her sexual relationship with Karev:


title: Lexie Grey

text: Similarities have been established between Lexie and Meredith. Series writer, Stacy McKee, commented on this:


title: Lexie Grey

text: Lexie entertained several relationships throughout her time on "Grey's Anatomy". In her early appearances, she maintained a strong friendship with George O'Malley until she began developing romantic feelings for him. Rhimes offered the insight: "I love them as friends. They make good friends. We all have that friend we met in school or the gym or somewhere – we just hit it off right away. And right away there was no pretense or airs. Just pure honesty. That's Lexie and George. They're really good friends and I can see the friendship evolving into something even greater. At least, that's what Lexie is hoping. She is my kind of girl. The girl who likes the guy because he is a GOOD guy and that's what George is. He is a good guy and that's something that Lexie could use now. She's going through her own challenges what with Meredith and losing her own mother and trying to keep things afloat. I'm rooting for Lexie. She's my kind of girl and I hope that she gets what she deserves: love. And more kisses. There should always be that."


title: Lexie Grey

text: Lexie's most significant relationship on the show was with Mark Sloan. Following the character's death, Rhimes said:


title: Lexie Grey

text: While reception to Lexie Grey was initially mixed, both the character and Chyler Leigh's performance garnered positive feedback and acclaim as her role on the series progressed, and Lexie soon became a favorite of critics and fans of the show. Eileen Lulevitch, an entertainment reviewer for "TV Guide", praised Lexie's introduction in season four. Former "The Star-Ledger" columnist Alan Sepinwall was also favorable of Lexie's arrival at Seattle Grace, feeling that "she's still being written as Meredith circa season one in an attempt to make us like her, but I didn't mind the manipulation, if only because there are so few characters left on this show to like. The "Buzzsugar" television reviewer also praised Lexie's introduction in the "Buzzsugar" review. On the other hand, "People" was initially less than impressed with Lexie and criticized the way Leigh's character first approached her sister, calling it "rude". Laura Burrows from "IGN" wrote: "Everything she says and does is obnoxious and does harm to someone. Lexie is an idiot and should be shot or drowned or exploded." Jennifer Armstrong of "Entertainment Weekly" was also critical of Leigh's early appearances, referring to her as "awkward". However, Armstrong later noted that the "sparkling" friendship development between Lexie and O'Malley "won her over".


title: Lexie Grey

text: The character's transition from seasons four to five was positively reviewed, with Alex Keen of "The Trades" writing: "Her presence and confidence have increased quite a bit since last season, and actress, Chyler Leigh, does a fantastic job of making this progression feel seamless. Since the series has defused the tension between Little Grey and Big Grey (aka Meredith), Lexie has clear sailing through the season and steals the show as one of the best current characters on the series." The character's romantic relationship with Eric Dane's Mark Sloan has been acclaimed, with Chris Monfette of "IGN" writing: "Sloan's honest relationship with Lexie helped to make both characters infinitely more interesting and mature." "BuddyTV" lauded the development and progression of Lexie and Mark's relationship throughout season five, saying, "They are beautiful, and they can adapt to a hostile environment." "The Huffington Post" Michael Pascua praised Leigh's performance and Lexie's evolution in season six. Pascua wrote that he enjoyed Lexie's "humorous" and "emotionally connective" role as a "genuine character" during the merger and layoffs, commenting: "She still maintained that book-smart ability to repeat facts (like the merger cases) and shows a command of medical situations... She shouldn't be worried about the merger because she's a good doctor." "TV Guide" Adam Bryant praised Leigh's "powerful performance" in season six, writing: "The bond that is growing between Lexie and Meredith is nice to see. From Meredith finally saying out loud how she feels about Lexie, to Lexie being at Mer's side when she wakes up, I am really glad to see these sisters' happy." Lexie's storyline in season six was also praised by "PopSugar". Leigh served as a primary vocalist in season seven's musical episode, "Song Beneath the Song", and received rave reviews from television critics, including the "Boston Herald"s Mark Perigard. Leigh's performance in the season eight finale, which was also her character's final appearance, was deemed as "phenomenal" by "Digital Spy" Ben Lee.


title: Lexie Grey

text: Lexie Grey was listed in Wetpaint's "10 Hottest Female Doctors on TV". In 2007, at the 14th Screen Actors Guild Awards, Leigh and the rest of the cast of "Grey's Anatomy" received a nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series.


title: Sangeeta Bijlani

text: Sangeeta Bijlani (born 9 July 1960) is an Indian former Bollywood actress and Miss India winner in 1980. She started her Bollywood career with a lead role in "Qatil" in 1988 and was one of the three female leads in the film "Tridev" (1989).


title: Sangeeta Bijlani

text: Bijlani began modelling at the age of 16. She went on to do many commercials including ads of Nirma and Pond's soap. Sangeeta received her popular name ""Bijli"" from her modelling days.


title: Sangeeta Bijlani

text: Bijlani was crowned Miss India Universe Title in 1980. She represented India at the Miss Universe pageant in Seoul, South Korea where she won Best National Costume award designed by her mother Poonam Bijlani.


title: Sangeeta Bijlani

text: Bijlani made her Bollywood debut in 1987 with "Qatil", opposite Aditya Pancholi and then went on to act in "Tridev", "Hathyar", "Jurm", "Yodha", "Yugandhar", "Izzat" and "Lakshman Rekha". She did a bilingual in Hindi and Kannada opposite Vishnu Vardhan. She was nominated by the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress category for Jurm opposite Vinod Khanna and was directed by Mahesh Bhatt and scripted by Salim Khan. She has also worked with Mahesh Bhatt, Mukul Anand, J.P. Dutta, Rahul Rawail and N. Chandra.


title: Sangeeta Bijlani

text: Bijlani made her small-screen debut with "Chandni" - "a tale of power, revenge and love" in early 1996 opposite actor Shahbaz Khan. She also went on to produce "Hasna Mat", with Kader Khan on Star Plus and "Kinarey Milte Nahi" on Zee TV.


title: Sangeeta Bijlani

text: Bijlani and Salman Khan started dating each other in 1986 when they were still modelling and their relationship lasted 10 years.


title: Sangeeta Bijlani

text: On 14 November 1996, Bijlani married cricketer Mohammed Azharuddin at a reception at the Taj Mahal Hotel in Mumbai. The marriage ended in a divorce in 2010, reportedly due to Azhar's alleged affair with badminton player Jwala Gutta, which was denied by the player.


title: Sangeeta Bijlani

text: A 2016 Bollywood film "Azhar", directed by Tony D'Souza, was based on her life and depicts her relationship with her ex-husband and Indian cricketer Mohammad Azharuddin. Bijlani's character was played by Nargis Fakhri in the film. According to media reports, Bijlani was not happy with her portrayal in the film as she was called the "house breaker" and further planned to sue the filmmakers. However, Emran Hashmi the lead actor in the film slammed the media reports that Bijlani is unhappy with her character.


title: Nivetha Thomas

text: Nivetha Thomas (born 2 November 1995) is an Indian actress who appears in Telugu, Malayalam and Tamil language films. She made her film debut as a child artist in the 2008 Malayalam film "Veruthe Oru Bharya", for which she won the Kerala State Film Award for Best Child Artist.


title: Nivetha Thomas

text: She went on to star as a lead in films like "Chaappa Kurishu" (2011), "Romans" (2013), "Jilla" (2014), "Papanasam" (2015), "Gentleman" (2016), "Ninnu Kori" (2017), "Jai Lava Kusa" (2017), "118" (2019), "Brochevarevarura" (2019), "V" (2020) and "Vakeel Saab" (2021).


title: Nivetha Thomas

text: Nivetha Thomas was born on 2 November 1995 in Madras (now Chennai), India. Her roots are in Edoor village of Iritty taluk, Kerala. She was schooled at Holy Angels and Montfort Matriculation School, Chennai. She pursued Bachelor of Architecture from SRM University. She can speak Malayalam, Tamil, French, Hindi, Telugu, and English.


title: Nivetha Thomas

text: She started her career as a child actress, acting in the popular Sun TV serial "My Dear Bootham". After that, she played the role of Jayaram's daughter in "Veruthe Oru Bharya", where her performance was well appreciated. She then signed a few Tamil and Malayalam films in which she mostly played supporting roles. Among her Malayalam projects were "Chaappa Kurish" and "Thattathin Marayathu", the latter of which according to Sify was going to be "the biggest box-office hit in the history of Malayalam cinema". The 2011 Tamil film "Poraali" directed by Samuthirakani, featured her as Tamizhselvi, a petrol bunk employee. She had previously collaborated with Samuthirakani in the drama series "Arasi".


title: Nivetha Thomas

text: In 2013, Thomas acted in "Romans" which was very successful and named a "blockbuster" by Sify.com. In the Tamil contemporary fantasy comedy "Naveena Saraswathi Sabatham" she played the female lead role of Jaishree, an aspiring singer. In "Jilla" she played the role of Mahalakshmi, who is very attached to her father (Mohanlal) and two brothers, played by Vijay and Mahath. About her role, she stated that it was not "just another sister role" but that of "a strong willed girl who influences her brother in a positive way". She signed her first Telugu film, "Juliet Lover of Idiot" directed by Ajay Vodhirala. She acted as Kamal Haasan's eldest daughter in the Tamil remake of "Drishyam", titled "Papanasam", and her performance earned praise from viewers.


title: Nivetha Thomas

text: In 2016, Thomas debuted in Telugu cinema in the action-thriller "Gentleman" opposite "Nani" which opened to rave reviews and was critically applauded for her performance both by critics and audience alike and garnered her several awards including SIIMA Award for Best Female Debut (Telugu) at 6th South Indian International Movie Awards and a Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Telugu Nomination at 64th Filmfare Awards South Later on, she acquired popularity among Telugu cinema.


title: Nivetha Thomas

text: Her first release in 2017 was another Telugu film, opposite Nani again, the romantic entertainer "Ninnu Kori" which opened to positive reviews and highly praised her performance as "pallavi" which eventually landed her second Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Telugu Nomination at 65th Filmfare Awards South. Her next release was Jai Lava Kusa opposite Jr. NTR was one of the top-grossing movies in 2017 at boxoffice. Her last release was "Juliet Lover of Idiot" opposite Naveen Chandra which was delayed and released later to become a commercial failure at the boxoffice. In October 2018, Thomas signed romantic drama "Swaasa," co-starring Nikhil Siddharth.