text: On June 19, the delegates voted on the New Jersey Plan. With the support of the slave states and Connecticut, the large states defeated the plan by a 7–3 margin. Maryland's delegation was divided, so it did not vote. This did not end the debate over representation. Rather, the delegates found themselves in a stalemate that lasted into July.


title: Constitutional Convention (United States)

text: On several occasions, the Connecticut delegation—Roger Sherman, Oliver Ellsworth and William Samuel Johnson—proposed a compromise that the House would have proportional representation and the Senate equal representation. A version of this compromise had originally been crafted and proposed by Sherman on June 11. He agreed with Madison that the Senate should be composed of the wisest and most virtuous citizens, but he also saw its role as defending the rights and interests of the states. James Madison recorded Sherman's June 11 speech as follows:


text: On June 29, Johnson made a similar point: "that in one branch, the people ought to be represented; in the other, the states." Neither side was ready yet to embrace the concept of divided sovereignty between the states and a federal government, however. The distrust between large and small state delegates had reached a high point, exemplified by comments made on June 30 by Gunning Bedford Jr. As reported by Robert Yates, Bedford stated:


text: As the convention was entering its second full month of deliberations, it was decided that further consideration of the prickly question of how to apportion representatives in the national legislature should be referred to a committee composed of one delegate from each of the eleven states present at that time at the convention. The members of this "Grand Committee," as it has come to be known, included William Paterson of New Jersey, Robert Yates of New York, Luther Martin of Maryland, Gunning Bedford Jr. of Delaware, Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut, Abraham Baldwin of Georgia, Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, George Mason of Virginia, William Davie of North Carolina, John Rutledge of South Carolina and Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania. The committee's composition heavily favored the smaller states, as even the large state delegates tended to be more moderate.


text: While the Convention took a three-day recess in observance of the Fourth of July holiday, the Grand Committee began its work. Franklin proposed and the committee adopted a compromise similar to the Connecticut plan. Membership in the House would be apportioned by population, with members elected from districts of forty thousand people. Each state would have an equal vote in the Senate. To gain large state support, however, Franklin proposed that the House of Representatives have exclusive power to originate bills concerned with raising money or government salaries (this would become the Origination Clause).


text: The committee presented its report on July 5, but the compromise was not immediately adopted by the convention. For the next eleven days, the Convention stalled as delegates attempted to gain as many votes for their states as possible. On July 6, a five-man committee was appointed to allocate specific numbers of representatives to each state. It called for a 56-member House of Representatives and used "[t]he number of blacks and whites with some regard to supposed wealth" as a basis of allocating representatives to each state. The Northern states had 30 representatives while the Southern states had 26. Delegates from non-slave states objected to counting slaves as they could not vote.


text: On July 9, a new committee was chosen to reconsider the allocation of representatives. This time there were eleven members, one from each state. It recommended a 65-member House with allocation of representatives based on the number of free inhabitants and three-fifths of slaves. Under this new scheme, Northern states had 35 representatives and the South had 30. Southern delegates protested the North's greater representation and argued that their growing populations had been underestimated. The Committee of Eleven's report was approved, but the divergent interests of the Northern and Southern states remained obstacles to reaching consensus.


text: On July 10, Edmund Randolph called for a regular census on which to base future reallocation of House seats. During the debate on the census, South Carolina delegates Pierce Butler and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney sought to replace the three-fifths ratio with a full count of the slave population. They argued that slave property contributed to the wealth of the Southern states and as such should be used in calculating representation. This irritated Northern delegates already reluctant to support the three-fifths compromise. James Wilson, one of the authors of the three-fifths compromise, asked, "Are slaves to be admitted as Citizens? Then why are they not admitted on an equality with White Citizens? Are they admitted as property? Then why is not other property admitted into the computation?"


text: After fierce debate, the delegates voted to apportion representation and direct taxation based on all free inhabitants and three-fifths of the slave population. This formula would apply to the existing states as well as any states created in the future. The first census would occur six years after the new federal government began operations and every ten years afterwards.


text: On July 14, John Rutledge and James Wilson attempted to secure proportional representation in the Senate. Charles Pinckney proposed a form of semi-proportional representation in which the smaller states would gain more representation than under a completely proportional system. This proposal was defeated.


text: In a close vote on July 16, the convention adopted the Connecticut Compromise (also known as the Great Compromise) as recommended by the Grand Committee. On July 23, the convention decided that each state should have two senators rather than three. It rejected a proposal by Luther Martin of Maryland that senators from the same state cast a single joint vote, which was the practice in the Confederation Congress. Martin believed this was necessary if the Senate was to represent the interests of the states. Instead, the convention gave senators individual voting power. This accomplished the nationalist goal of preventing state governments from having a direct say in Congress's choice to make national laws. The final document was thus a mixture of Madison's original "national" constitution and the desired "federal" Constitution that many of the delegates sought.


text: On July 17, the delegates worked to define the powers of Congress. The Virginia Plan asserted the supremacy of the national government, giving Congress authority "to legislate in all cases to which the separate States are incompetent" and stating that congressional legislation would take precedence over conflicting state laws. In a motion introduced by Gunning Bedford, the Convention approved this provision with only South Carolina and Georgia voting against. Four small states—Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland—accepted the expansion of congressional power. Later in life, Madison explained that this was a result of the Great Compromise. Once the small states were assured they would be represented in the new government, they "exceeded all others in zeal" for a strong national government.


text: The Virginia Plan also gave Congress veto power over state laws. Madison believed this provision was crucial to prevent the states from engaging in irresponsible behavior, such as had occurred under the Confederation government. Gouverneur Morris feared the congressional veto would alienate states that might otherwise support the Constitution. Luther Martin argued that it would be too impractical and time-consuming, asking "Shall the laws of the states be sent up to the general legislature before they shall be permitted to operate?"


text: The Convention rejected the congressional veto. In its place, Martin proposed language taken from the New Jersey Plan that was unanimously approved by the convention: "that the Legislative acts of the US made by virtue and pursuance of the articles of Union, and all treaties made and ratified under the authority of the US shall be the supreme law of the respective States . . . and that the . . . States shall be bound thereby in their decisions".


text: In June, the delegates voted to let Congress appoint the executive, but there remained concerns that this would make the executive branch subservient to the legislature. On July 17, the Convention returned to the topic. Direct election by the people was defeated by a nine to one vote. Luther Martin then proposed an amended version of James Wilson's idea for an electoral college, first introduced in June. Wilson had proposed that people vote for electors who would then select the president. Martin's version called for state legislatures to choose electors, but this was also defeated. Later, on July 19, Elbridge Gerry unsuccessfully proposed that governors choose electors, a policy that would have increased state influence over the presidency.


text: After reaffirming Congressional selection, the delegates voted to allow the president to serve multiple terms, a reversal of their earlier decision to limit the president to serving a single, seven–year term. James McClurg of Virginia went further and proposed that the president serve a lifelong term "during good behavior". McClurg believed this would protect the independence of the executive branch, but this was rejected for being too close to monarchy.


text: The Convention decided that the method of removing an unfit president would be legislative impeachment. At the time, impeachment was used by the British Parliament to depose the king's ministers (see Impeachment in the United Kingdom).


text: Needing a break from discussing the presidency, the delegates once again considered the judicial branch on July 18. They were still divided over the method of appointment. Half of the Convention wanted the Senate to choose judges, while the other half wanted the president to do it. Luther Martin supported Senate appointment because he thought that body's members would defend the interests of the individual states.


text: Nathaniel Gorham suggested a compromise—appointment by the president with the "advice and consent of the Senate". While the meaning of "advice and consent" was still undefined, the proposal gained some support. On July 21, Madison offered an alternative compromise—the president would appoint judges but the Senate could veto an appointment by a two-thirds majority. This proposal would have made it very hard for the Senate to block judicial appointments. Madison's proposal failed to garner support, and the delegates ended by reaffirming that the Senate would appoint judges.


text: On July 21, Wilson and Madison tried unsuccessfully to revive Madison's Council of Revision proposal. While judges had a role in reviewing the constitutionality of laws, argued Gorham, mixing the policy judgments of the president with the legal judgments of a court would violate separation of powers. John Rutledge agreed, saying "judges ought never to give their opinion on a law till it comes before them".


text: The delegates recognized that a major flaw with the Articles of Confederation was that any constitutional amendment required unanimous approval of the states. On July 23, the convention endorsed the need for a different way of amending the Constitution, but it was not prepared to vote on specifics.


text: It also discussed how the completed Constitution would become law. Oliver Ellsworth and William Paterson argued that state legislatures should ratify the Constitution to align with precedent under the Articles of Confederation and because the legislatures represented the will of the people. Nathaniel Gorham argued that state legislators would reject the Constitution to protect their own power. George Mason believed that state legislatures lacked the authority to ratify the new Constitution because they were creations of the state constitutions.


text: Mason argued that only the people acting through specially called state conventions could authorize a new government. Madison agreed with Mason. He considered the Articles of Confederation to be a mere treaty among the states, but a true constitution could only be adopted by the people themselves. By a vote of nine to one, the delegates voted to submit the Constitution to state ratifying conventions.


text: The Convention adjourned from July 26 to August 6 to await the report of the Committee of Detail, which was to produce a first draft of the Constitution. It was chaired by John Rutledge, with the other members including Edmund Randolph, Oliver Ellsworth, James Wilson, and Nathaniel Gorham.


text: Though the committee did not record minutes of its proceedings, three key surviving documents offer clues to the committee's handiwork: an outline by Randolph with edits by Rutledge, extensive notes and a second draft by Wilson, also with Rutledge's edits, and the committee's final report to the convention. From this evidence it is thought that the committee used the original Virginia Plan, the decisions of the convention on modifications to that plan, and other sources, such as the Articles of Confederation, provisions of the state constitutions, and even Charles Pinckney's plan, to produce the first full draft, which author David O. Stewart has called a "remarkable copy-and-paste job."


text: Randolph adopted two rules in preparing his initial outline: that the Constitution should only include essential principles, avoiding minor provisions that would change over time, and that it should be stated in simple and precise language.


text: Much of what was included in the committee's report consisted of numerous details that the convention had never discussed but which the committee correctly viewed as uncontroversial and unlikely to be challenged; and as such, much of the committee's proposal would ultimately be incorporated into the final version of the Constitution without debate. Examples of these details included the Speech and Debate Clause, which grants members of Congress immunity for comments made in their jobs, and the rules for organizing the House of Representatives and the Senate.


text: However, Rutledge, himself a former state governor, was determined that while the new national government should be stronger than the Confederation government had been, the national government's power over the states should not be limitless; and at Rutledge's urging, the committee went beyond what the convention had proposed. As Stewart describes it, the committee "hijacked" and remade the Constitution, altering critical agreements the Convention delegates had already made, enhancing the powers of the states at the expense of the national government, and adding several far-reaching provisions that the convention had never discussed.


text: The first major change, insisted on by Rutledge, was meant to sharply curtail the essentially unlimited powers to legislate "in all cases for the general interests of the Union" that the Convention only two weeks earlier had agreed to grant the Congress. Rutledge and Randolph worried that the broad powers implied in the language agreed on by the convention would have given the national government too much power at the expense of the states. In Randolph's outline the committee replaced that language with a list of 18 specific "enumerated" powers, many adopted from the Articles of Confederation, that would strictly limit the Congress' authority to measures such as imposing taxes, making treaties, going to war, and establishing post offices. Rutledge, however, was not able to convince all the members of the committee to accept the change. Over the course of a series of drafts, a catchall provision (the "Necessary and Proper Clause") was eventually added, most likely by Wilson, a nationalist little concerned with the sovereignty of individual states, giving the Congress the broad power "to make all Laws that shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof." Another revision of Wilson's draft also placed eight specific limits on the states, such as barring them from independently entering into treaties and from printing their own money, providing a certain degree of balance to the limits on the national government intended by Rutledge's list of enumerated powers. In addition, Wilson's draft modified the language of the Supremacy Clause adopted by the convention, to ensure that national law would take precedence over inconsistent state laws.


text: These changes set the final balance between the national and state governments that would be entered into the final document, as the Convention never challenged this dual-sovereignty between nation and state that had been fashioned by Rutledge and Wilson.


text: Another set of radical changes introduced by the Committee of Detail proved far more contentious when the committee's report was presented to the convention. On the day the convention had agreed to appoint the committee, Southerner Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina, had warned of dire consequences should the committee fail to include protections for slavery in the Southern states, or allow for taxing of Southern agricultural exports. In response to Pinckney and his fellow Southern delegates, the committee had included three provisions that explicitly restricted the Congress' authority in ways favorable to Southern interests. The proposed language would bar the Congress from ever interfering with the slave trade. It would also prohibit taxation of exports, and would require that any legislation concerning regulation of foreign commerce through tariffs or quotas (that is, any laws akin to England's "Navigation Acts") pass only with two-thirds majorities of both houses of Congress. While much of the rest of the committee's report would be accepted without serious challenge on the Convention floor, these last three proposals provoked outrage from Northern delegates and slavery opponents.


text: The final report of the committee, which became the first draft of the Constitution, was the first workable constitutional plan, as Madison's Virginia Plan had simply been an outline of goals and a broad structure. Even after it issued this report, the committee continued to meet off and on until early September.


text: Another month of discussion and relatively minor refinement followed, during which several attempts were made to alter the Rutledge draft, though few were successful. Some wanted to add property qualifications for people to hold office, while others wanted to prevent the national government from issuing paper money. Madison in particular wanted to push the Constitution back in the direction of his Virginia plan.


text: One important change that did make it into the final version included the agreement between northern and southern delegates to empower Congress to end the slave trade starting in 1808. Southern and northern delegates also agreed to strengthen the Fugitive Slave Clause in exchange for removing a requirement that two-thirds of Congress agree on "navigation acts" (regulations of commerce between states and foreign governments). The two-thirds requirement was favored by southern delegates, who thought Congress might pass navigation acts that would be economically harmful to slaveholders.


text: Once the convention had finished amending the first draft from the Committee of Detail, a new set of unresolved questions were sent to several different committees for resolution. The Committee of Detail was considering several questions related to "habeas corpus", freedom of the press, and an executive council to advise the president. Two committees addressed questions related to the slave trade and the assumption of war debts.


text: A new committee was created, the Committee on Postponed Parts, to address other questions that had been postponed. Its members, such as Madison, were delegates who had shown a greater desire for compromise and were chosen for this reason as most in the Convention wanted to finish their work and go home. The committee dealt with questions related to the taxes, war making, patents and copyrights, relations with indigenous tribes, and Franklin's compromise to require money bills to originate in the House. The biggest issue they addressed was the presidency, and the final compromise was written by Madison with the committee's input. They adopted Wilson's earlier plan for choosing the president by an electoral college, and settled on the method of choosing the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority, which many such as Madison thought would be "nineteen times out of twenty".


text: The committee also shortened the president's term from seven years to four years, freed the president to seek re-election after an initial term, and moved impeachment trials from the courts to the Senate. They also created the office of the vice president, whose only roles were to succeed a president unable to complete a term of office, to preside over the Senate, and to cast tie-breaking votes in the Senate. The committee transferred important powers from the Senate to the president, for example the power to make treaties and appoint ambassadors. One controversial issue throughout much of the convention had been the length of the president's term, and whether the president was to be term limited. The problem had resulted from the understanding that the president would be chosen by Congress; the decision to have the president be chosen instead by an electoral college reduced the chance of the president becoming beholden to Congress, so a shorter term with eligibility for re-election became a viable option.


text: Near the end of the convention, Gerry, Randolph, and Mason emerged as the main force of opposition. Their fears were increased as the Convention moved from Madison's vague Virginia Plan to the concrete plan of Rutledge's Committee of Detail. Some have argued that Randolph's attacks on the Constitution were motivated by political ambition, in particular his anticipation of possibly facing rival Patrick Henry in a future election. The main objection of the three was the compromise that would allow Congress to pass "navigation acts" with a simple majority in exchange for strengthened slave provisions. Among their other objections was an opposition to the office of vice president.


text: Though most of their complaints did not result in changes, a couple did. Mason succeeded in adding "high crimes and misdemeanors" to the impeachment clause. Gerry also convinced the convention to include a second method for ratification of amendments. The report out of the Committee of Detail had included only one mechanism for constitutional amendment that required two-thirds of the states to ask Congress to convene a convention for consideration of amendments. Upon Gerry's urging, the Convention added back the Virginia Plan's original method whereby Congress would propose amendments that the states would then ratify. All amendments to the Constitution, save the 21st amendment, have been made through this latter method.


text: Despite their successes, these three dissenters grew increasingly unpopular as most other delegates wanted to bring the convention's business to an end and return home. As the convention was drawing to a conclusion, and delegates prepared to refer the Constitution to the Committee on Style to pen the final version, one delegate raised an objection over civil trials. He wanted to guarantee the right to a jury trial in civil matters, and Mason saw in this a larger opportunity. Mason told the Convention that the constitution should include a bill of rights, which he thought could be prepared in a few hours. Gerry agreed, though the rest of the committee overruled them. They wanted to go home, and thought this was nothing more than another delaying tactic.


text: Few at the time realized how important the issue would become, with the absence of a bill of rights becoming the main argument of the anti-Federalists against ratification. Most of the convention's delegates thought that states already protected individual rights, and that the Constitution did not authorize the national government to take away rights, so there was no need to include protections of rights. Once the Convention moved beyond this point, the delegates addressed a couple of last-minute issues. Importantly, they modified the language that required spending bills to originate in the House of Representatives and be flatly accepted or rejected, unmodified, by the Senate. The new language empowered the Senate to modify spending bills proposed by the House.


text: Once the final modifications had been made, the Committee of Style and Arrangement was appointed "to revise the style of and arrange the articles which had been agreed to by the house." Unlike other committees, whose members were named so the committees included members from different regions, this final committee included no champions of the small states. Its members mostly supported a strong national government and were unsympathetic to calls for states' rights. They were William Samuel Johnson (Connecticut), Alexander Hamilton (New York), Gouverneur Morris (Pennsylvania), James Madison (Virginia), and Rufus King (Massachusetts). On Wednesday, September 12, the report of the "committee of style" was ordered printed for the convenience of the delegates. For three days, the Convention compared this final version with the proceedings of the convention. The Constitution was then ordered engrossed on Saturday, September 15 by Jacob Shallus, and was submitted for signing on September 17. It made at least one important change to what the convention had agreed to; King wanted to prevent states from interfering in contracts. Although the Convention never took up the matter, his language was now inserted, creating the contract clause.


text: Gouverneur Morris is credited, both now and then, as the chief draftsman of the final document, including the stirring preamble. Not all the delegates were pleased with the results; thirteen left before the ceremony, and three of those remaining refused to sign: Edmund Randolph of Virginia, George Mason of Virginia, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts. Mason demanded a Bill of Rights if he was to support the Constitution. The Bill of Rights was not included in the Constitution submitted to the states for ratification, but many states ratified the Constitution with the understanding that a bill of rights would soon follow. Shortly before the document was to be signed, Gorham proposed to lower the size of congressional districts from 40,000 to 30,000 citizens. A similar measure had been proposed earlier, and failed by one vote. George Washington spoke up here, making his only substantive contribution to the text of the Constitution in supporting this move. The Convention adopted it without further debate. Gorham would sign the document, although he had openly doubted whether the United States would remain a single, unified nation for more than 150 years. Ultimately, 39 of the 55 delegates who attended (74 had been chosen from 12 states) ended up signing, but it is likely that none were completely satisfied. Their views were summed up by Benjamin Franklin, who said, "I confess that there are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them. ... I doubt too whether any other Convention we can obtain, may be able to make a better Constitution. ... It therefore astonishes me, Sir, to find this system approaching so near to perfection as it does; and I think it will astonish our enemies ..."


text: Rhode Island never sent delegates, and two of New York's three delegates did not stay at the convention for long. Therefore, as George Washington stated, the document was executed by "eleven states, and Colonel Hamilton." Washington signed the document first, and then moving by state delegation from north to south, as had been the custom throughout the convention, the delegates filed to the front of the room to sign their names.


text: At the time the document was signed, Franklin gave a persuasive speech involving an anecdote on a sun that was painted on the back of Washington's Chippendale chair. As recounted in Madison's notes:


text: Whilst the last members were signing it Doctr. Franklin looking towards the Presidents Chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened to be painted, observed to a few members near him, that Painters had found it difficult to distinguish in their art a rising from a setting sun. I have said he, often and often in the course of the Session, and the vicissitudes of my hopes and fears as to its issue, looked at that behind the President without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting: But now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting Sun.


text: Slavery was one of the most difficult issues confronting the delegates. Slavery was widespread in the states at the time of the convention. At least a third of the convention's 55 delegates owned slaves, including all of the delegates from Virginia and South Carolina. Slaves comprised approximately one-fifth of the population of the states, and apart from northernmost New England, where slavery had largely been eliminated, slaves lived in all regions of the country. However, more than 90% of the slaves lived in the South, where approximately 1 in 3 families owned slaves (in the largest and wealthiest state, Virginia, that figure was nearly 1 in 2 families). The entire agrarian economy of the South was based on slave labor, and the Southern delegates to the convention were unwilling to accept any proposal that they believed would threaten the institution.


text: Whether slavery was to be regulated under the new Constitution was a matter of such intense conflict between the North and South that three Southern states, Georgia and the two Carolinas, refused to join the Union if slavery were not to be allowed. Delegates opposed to slavery were forced to yield in their demands that slavery be outlawed within the new nation. However, they continued to argue that the Constitution should prohibit the states from participating in the international slave trade, including in the importation of new slaves from Africa and the export of slaves to other countries. The Convention postponed making a final decision on the international slave trade until late in the deliberations because of the contentious nature of the issue. During the convention's late July recess, the Committee of Detail had inserted language that would prohibit the federal government from attempting to ban international slave trading and from imposing taxes on the purchase or sale of slaves. The convention could not agree on these provisions when the subject came up again in late August, so they referred the matter to an eleven-member committee for further discussion. This committee helped work out a compromise: Congress would have the power to ban the international slave trade, but not for another twenty years (that is, not until 1808). In exchange for this concession, the federal government's power to regulate foreign commerce would be strengthened by provisions that allowed for taxation of slave trades in the international market and that reduced the requirement for passage of navigation acts from two-thirds majorities of both houses of Congress to simple majorities.


text: Another contentious slavery-related question was whether slaves would be counted as part of the population in determining representation of the states in the Congress, or would instead be considered property and as such not be considered for purposes of representation. Delegates from states with a large population of slaves argued that slaves should be considered persons in determining representation, but as property if the new government were to levy taxes on the states on the basis of population. Delegates from states where slavery had become rare argued that slaves should be included in taxation, but not in determining representation. Finally, delegate James Wilson proposed the Three-Fifths Compromise, a measure eventually adopted by the convention.


text: Fifty-five delegates attended sessions of the Constitutional Convention, all of whom are considered the Framers of the Constitution, though only 39 delegates actually signed. The states had originally appointed 70 representatives to the convention, but a number of the appointees did not accept or could not attend, leaving 55 who would ultimately craft the document.


text: Almost all of the 55 Framers had taken part in the Revolution, with at least 29 having served in the Continental forces, most in positions of command. All but two or three had served in colonial or state government during their careers. The vast majority (about 75%) of the delegates were or had been members of the Confederation Congress, and many had been members of the Continental Congress during the Revolution. Several had been state governors. Only two delegates, Roger Sherman and Robert Morris, would sign all three of the nation's founding documents: Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, and U.S. Constitution.


text: More than half of the delegates had trained as lawyers (several had even been judges), although only about a quarter had practiced law as their principal occupation. Other delegates included merchants, manufacturers, shippers, land speculators, bankers, and financiers. Several were physicians and small farmers, and one was a minister. Of the 25 who owned slaves, 16 depended on slave labor to run the plantations or other businesses that formed the mainstay of their income. Many of the delegates were landowners with substantial holdings, and most were comfortably wealthy. George Washington and Robert Morris, for example, were among the wealthiest men in the entire country.


text: Their depth of knowledge and experience in self-government was remarkable. As Thomas Jefferson in Paris semi-seriously wrote to John Adams in London, "It really is an assembly of demigods."


text: (*) "Did not sign the final draft of the U.S. Constitution. Randolph, Mason, and Gerry were the only three present in Philadelphia at the time who refused to sign."


text: Several prominent Founders are notable for "not" participating in the Constitutional Convention. Thomas Jefferson was abroad, serving as the minister to France. John Adams was in Britain, serving as minister to that country, but he wrote home to encourage the delegates. Patrick Henry refused to participate because he "smelt a rat in Philadelphia, tending toward the monarchy." Also absent were Samuel Adams, John Hancock and John Jay. Many of the states' older and more experienced leaders may have simply been too busy with the local affairs of their states to attend the convention, which had originally been planned to strengthen the existing Articles of Confederation, not to write a constitution for a completely new national government.


title: Feeling Good

text: "Feeling Good" (also known as "Feelin' Good") is a song written by English composers Anthony Newley and Leslie Bricusse for the musical "The Roar of the Greasepaint – The Smell of the Crowd". It was first performed on stage in 1964 by Cy Grant on the UK tour and by Gilbert Price in 1965 with the original Broadway cast.


title: Feeling Good

text: Nina Simone recorded "Feeling Good" for her 1965 album "I Put a Spell on You". The song has also been covered by Sammy Davis Jr., Traffic, Michael Bublé, John Coltrane, George Michael, Victory, Eels, Joe Bonamassa, Eden, Muse, Black Cat Bones, Bassnectar, Sophie B. Hawkins, Leslie West, Avicii, Chlöe and Lauryn Hill among others. It was also performed by John Legend as part of the Celebrating America performance marking the inauguration of Joe Biden and Kamala Harris on January 20th 2021.


title: Feeling Good

text: Although Bricusse and Newley shared songwriting credits, the words of the song are usually attributed to Bricusse, with the music by Newley. The song was first performed in public by Guyanese-British singer and actor Cy Grant on the opening night of "The Roar of the Greasepaint – The Smell of the Crowd" at the Theatre Royal in Nottingham on 3 August 1964. The show, directed by Newley, toured British provincial theatres, and was then taken to the US by theatre producer David Merrick. It opened on 16 May 1965 at the Shubert Theatre in New York City, where the role of "the Negro", who sings "Feeling Good", was taken by Gilbert Price.


title: Feeling Good

text: In the show, Price's character is asked to compete against the show's hero "Cocky"; but, as "Cocky" and his master "Sir" argue over the rules of the game, "the Negro" reaches the centre of the stage and "wins", singing the song at his moment of triumph. It was described as a "booming song of emancipation", and a "Billboard" review said it was "the kind of robust number that should have strong appeal". The original cast recording of the show, featuring Price's version of the song, was released by RCA Victor in early 1965, before the show reached New York.


title: Feeling Good

text: A version by Cy Grant with pianist Bill Le Sage – much jazzier than the original stage version – appeared on their 1965 album . Anthony Newley's own recording appeared on his 1965 album ""Who Can I Turn To" and other songs from "The Roar of the Greasepaint"". One of the earliest recorded versions was a jazz treatment by saxophonist John Coltrane, which appeared on his album "The John Coltrane Quartet Plays...". Recorded on 18 February 1965, it also features Art Davis, Elvin Jones and McCoy Tyner. Versions were also released in 1965 by Nina Simone, Jean DuShon, Julie London, Chris Connor, Billy Eckstine, Andy & The Bey Sisters and Sammy Davis Jr.


title: Feeling Good

text: Nina Simone's version, arranged and produced by Hal Mooney, was recorded in New York in January 1965 and appeared on her album "I Put a Spell on You". It was not released as a single at the time. In 1994, Simone's recording was used in a British TV commercial for Volkswagen, and became popular. Released as a single, it reached No. 40 on the UK Singles Chart in July 1994.


title: Feeling Good

text: Simone's version was remixed by Joe Claussell in 2002 for the first volume of the Verve Remixed series.


title: Feeling Good

text: The vocal track by Nina Simone and the music of "Feeling Good" have been sampled in numerous songs. In 1997, it was sampled in "Feeling Good" by Huff & Herb. Other uses include "How I Feel" by Wax Tailor, from the 2005 album "Tales of the Forgotten Melodies"; "New Day" from the debut collaborative studio album "Watch the Throne" by American rappers Jay-Z and Kanye West in 2011; "How I Feel" by Flo Rida, from the 2013 album "The Perfect 10"; and, also in 2013, in the beginning of Bassnectar's "Immersive Music Mixtape Side One".


title: Feeling Good

text: The track "About You" on Mary J. Blige's 2005 album "The Breakthrough" features an unusual take on the song. The bulk of the recording consists of new lyrics, composed by Mary J. Blige, will.i.am and Keith Harris; however, the chorus samples several lines from "Feeling Good" as performed by Nina Simone. Simone's original vocals are distorted so much that her voice is almost unrecognisable; for this reason, Simone receives a credit as a featured artist, and Newley and Bricusse receive credit as co-writers. "About You" is produced by will.i.am. The original instrumental track to Nina Simone's "Feeling Good" was also used in the Swedish musician Avicii's song of the same name, used by Volvo.


title: Feeling Good

text: Simone's recording was used in the film "Point of No Return" and appears on soundtracks for the movies "Repo Men" (2010), "Last Holiday" (2006), "Professor Marston and the Wonder Women" (2017),


title: Feeling Good

text: Cruella (2021), the TV soundtrack "" and the 2009 video game The Saboteur. The Bassnectar/Simone cover was used in "Chapter 6", a first-season episode of the television series "Legion".


title: Feeling Good

text: An official music video for Simone's version was released on YouTube 56 years after the release of her recording in June 2021.


title: Feeling Good

text: The English rock band Muse recorded a version for their 2001 album "Origin of Symmetry". It was released as a single also featuring the song "Hyper Music".


title: Feeling Good

text: In a poll by "Total Guitar" about best cover songs, Muse's version came fifth. In September 2010, "NME" readers voted it the greatest cover song of all time, over "Twist and Shout" by the Beatles and "Hurt" by Johnny Cash. A BBC poll in 2014 placed it ninth.


title: Feeling Good

text: Muse's version reached No. 137 on the singles chart in France, and No. 24 on the singles chart in the UK.


title: Feeling Good

text: "Feeling Good" was covered by Canadian singer Michael Bublé as the lead single from his album "It's Time". The single was released on 4 April 2005. The song was the opening track on his live album "Caught in the Act" and has appeared in television advertisements, ESPN's 2005 "World Series of Poker" tournament, and the 2010 NBA draft broadcast.


title: Feeling Good

text: The single peaked at No. 162 in the United Kingdom, No. 70 in Australia, No. 36 in Germany, No. 66 in Austria, and No. 14 in Poland. The song has become one of his most popular singles and became a hit in May 2010, when it reached No. 69 on the UK Singles Chart after it was featured in British advertisements.


title: Feeling Good

text: American girl group the Pussycat Dolls recorded "Feeling Good" for their debut studio album, "PCD" (2005). The song was sung entirely by the Dolls' lead singer, Nicole Scherzinger.


title: Feeling Good

text: The Pussycat Dolls' version of "Feelin’ Good" received mixed reviews from critics. Nick Butler of Sputnikmusic wrote that the song's inclusion on the album serves as "a pretty pointless vocal workout for Nicole". John Murphy from musicOMH gave a negative review, writing: "All the emotion and melodrama of the original is ripped out of the heart of the song and we're left with a pointless, faux-jazz version. They may as well have strutted over to [Nina] Simone's grave and performed a stiletto clad dance upon it." Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine commented that the "rendition of 'Feelin' Good' [...] is misguided at best". In contrast, Spence D. of IGN praised the song for returning to the "retro vibe with wondrous results". On the "Billboard" Smooth Jazz Songs chart, the song peaked at number 23, becoming The Pussycat Dolls' only song to appear on that chart.


title: Feeling Good

text: The song is included on their 2006 "Live from London" as the fourth track of the DVD. The song is performed solely by Scherzinger. The song was also included on their first headlining tour, PCD World Tour. While delivering an a cappella version of the song, Scherzinger wore a "virginal hoodie-cum-headscarf", reported Helen Pidd of "The Guardian".


title: Feeling Good

text: George Michael performed "Feeling Good" during his 2011–12 Symphonica Tour and included it on the "Symphonica" album (2014). The music video was released on 6 May 2014, and "Feeling Good" was sent to radio on 11 August 2014. The release of "Feeling Good" coincided with the issue of "Symphonica" on the vinyl format. It became his final single before his death in 2016.


title: Feeling Good

text: The studio version of "Feeling Good" was recorded by Michael in 2008 (with actress Loretta Devine featured prominently on backing vocals) and included on the US edition of his "Twenty Five" compilation. He also performed it during the 2008 legs of his 25 Live tour and the 2010 George Michael Live in Australia concerts.


title: Fetus

text: A fetus or foetus (; plural fetuses, feti, foetuses, or foeti) is the unborn offspring that develops from an animal embryo. Following embryonic development the fetal stage of development takes place. In human prenatal development, fetal development begins from the ninth week after fertilization (or eleventh week gestational age) and continues until birth. Prenatal development is a continuum, with no clear defining feature distinguishing an embryo from a fetus. However, a fetus is characterized by the presence of all the major body organs, though they will not yet be fully developed and functional and some not yet situated in their final anatomical location.


title: Fetus

text: The word "fetus" (plural "fetuses" or "feti") is related to the Latin "fētus" ("offspring", "bringing forth", "hatching of young") and the Greek "φυτώ" to plant. The word "fetus" was used by Ovid in Metamorphoses, book 1, line 104.


title: Fetus

text: The predominant British, Irish, and Commonwealth spelling is "foetus", which has been in use since at least 1594. The spelling with "-oe-" arose in Late Latin, in which the distinction between the vowel sounds "-oe-" and "-e-" had been lost. This spelling is the most common in most Commonwealth nations, except in the medical literature, where "fetus" is used. The more classical spelling "fetus" is used in Canada and the United States. In addition, "fetus" is now the standard English spelling throughout the world in medical journals. The spelling "faetus" was also used historically.


title: Fetus

text: In humans, the fetal stage starts nine weeks after fertilization. At the start of the fetal stage, the fetus is typically about in length from crown-rump, and weighs about 8 grams. The head makes up nearly half of the size of the fetus. Breathing-like movements of the fetus are necessary for the stimulation of lung development, rather than for obtaining oxygen. The heart, hands, feet, brain and other organs are present, but are only at the beginning of development and have minimal operation.


title: Fetus

text: At this point in development, uncontrolled movements and twitches occur as muscles, the brain, and pathways begin to develop.


title: Fetus

text: A woman pregnant for the first time (nulliparous) typically feels fetal movements at about 21 weeks, whereas a woman who has given birth before will typically feel movements by 20 weeks. By the end of the fifth month, the fetus is about long.


title: Fetus

text: The amount of body fat rapidly increases. Lungs are not fully mature. Neural connections between the sensory cortex and thalamus develop as early as 24 weeks' gestational age, but the first evidence of their function does not occur until around 30 weeks, when minimal consciousness, dreaming, and the ability to feel pain emerges. Bones are fully developed, but are still soft and pliable. Iron, calcium, and phosphorus become more abundant. Fingernails reach the end of the fingertips. The lanugo, or fine hair, begins to disappear, until it is gone except on the upper arms and shoulders. Small breast buds are present on both sexes. Head hair becomes coarse and thicker. Birth is imminent and occurs around the 38th week after fertilization. The fetus is considered full-term between weeks 37 and 40, when it is sufficiently developed for life outside the uterus. It may be in length, when born. Control of movement is limited at birth, and purposeful voluntary movements continue to develop until puberty.


title: Fetus

text: There is much variation in the growth of the human fetus. When fetal size is less than expected, the condition is known as intrauterine growth restriction also called fetal growth restriction; factors affecting fetal growth can be "maternal", "placental", or "fetal".


title: Fetus

text: Maternal factors include maternal weight, body mass index, nutritional state, emotional stress, toxin exposure (including tobacco, alcohol, heroin, and other drugs which can also harm the fetus in other ways), and uterine blood flow.


title: Fetus

text: Placental factors include size, microstructure (densities and architecture), umbilical blood flow, transporters and binding proteins, nutrient utilization and nutrient production.


title: Fetus

text: Fetal factors include the fetal genome, nutrient production, and hormone output. Also, female fetuses tend to weigh less than males, at full term.


title: Fetus

text: Fetal growth is often classified as follows: small for gestational age (SGA), appropriate for gestational age (AGA), and large for gestational age (LGA). SGA can result in low birth weight, although premature birth can also result in low birth weight. Low birth weight increases risk for perinatal mortality (death shortly after birth), asphyxia, hypothermia, polycythemia, hypocalcemia, immune dysfunction, neurologic abnormalities, and other long-term health problems. SGA may be associated with growth delay, or it may instead be associated with absolute stunting of growth.


title: Fetus

text: Fetal viability refers to a point in fetal development at which the fetus may survive outside the womb. The lower limit of viability is approximately months gestational age and is usually later.


title: Fetus

text: There is no sharp limit of development, age, or weight at which a fetus automatically becomes viable. According to data from 2003 to 2005, survival rates are 20–35% for babies born at 23 weeks of gestation ( months); 50–70% at 24–25 weeks (6 – months); and >90% at 26–27 weeks ( – months) and over. It is rare for a baby weighing less than to survive.


title: Fetus

text: When such premature babies are born, the main causes of mortality are that the respiratory system and the central nervous system are not completely differentiated. If given expert postnatal care, some preterm babies weighing less than may survive, and are referred to as "extremely low birth weight" or "immature infants".


title: Fetus

text: Preterm birth is the most common cause of infant mortality, causing almost 30 percent of neonatal deaths. At an occurrence rate of 5% to 18% of all deliveries, it is also more common than postmature birth, which occurs in 3% to 12% of pregnancies.


title: Fetus

text: The heart and blood vessels of the circulatory system, form relatively early during embryonic development, but continue to grow and develop in complexity in the growing fetus. A functional circulatory system is a biological necessity, since mammalian tissues can not grow more than a few cell layers thick without an active blood supply. The prenatal circulation of blood is different from postnatal circulation, mainly because the lungs are not in use. The fetus obtains oxygen and nutrients from the mother through the placenta and the umbilical cord.


title: Fetus

text: Blood from the placenta is carried to the fetus by the umbilical vein. About half of this enters the fetal "ductus venosus" and is carried to the inferior vena cava, while the other half enters the liver proper from the inferior border of the liver. The branch of the umbilical vein that supplies the right lobe of the liver first joins with the portal vein. The blood then moves to the right atrium of the heart. In the fetus, there is an opening between the right and left atrium (the "foramen ovale"), and most of the blood flows from the right into the left atrium, thus bypassing pulmonary circulation. The majority of blood flow is into the left ventricle from where it is pumped through the aorta into the body. Some of the blood moves from the aorta through the internal iliac arteries to the umbilical arteries, and re-enters the placenta, where carbon dioxide and other waste products from the fetus are taken up and enter the mother's circulation.


title: Fetus

text: Some of the blood from the right atrium does not enter the left atrium, but enters the right ventricle and is pumped into the pulmonary artery. In the fetus, there is a special connection between the pulmonary artery and the aorta, called the "ductus arteriosus", which directs most of this blood away from the lungs (which are not being used for respiration at this point as the fetus is suspended in amniotic fluid).


title: Fetus

text: With the first breath after birth, the system changes suddenly. Pulmonary resistance is reduced dramatically, prompting more blood to move into the pulmonary arteries from the right atrium and ventricle of the heart and less to flow through the "foramen ovale" into the left atrium. The blood from the lungs travels through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium, producing an increase in pressure that pushes the "septum primum" against the "septum secundum", closing the "foramen ovale" and completing the separation of the newborn's circulatory system into the standard left and right sides. Thereafter, the "foramen ovale" is known as the "fossa ovalis".


title: Fetus

text: The "ductus arteriosus" normally closes within one or two days of birth, leaving the "ligamentum arteriosum", while the umbilical vein and "ductus venosus" usually closes within two to five days after birth, leaving, respectively, the liver's "ligamentum teres" and "ligamentum venosus".


title: Fetus

text: The placenta functions as a maternal-fetal barrier against the transmission of microbes. When this is insufficient, mother-to-child transmission of infectious diseases can occur.


title: Fetus

text: Maternal IgG antibodies cross the placenta, giving the fetus passive immunity against those diseases for which the mother has antibodies. This transfer of antibodies in humans begins as early as the fifth month (gestational age) and certainly by the sixth month.


title: Fetus

text: A developing fetus is highly susceptible to anomalies in its growth and metabolism, increasing the risk of birth defects. One area of concern is the lifestyle choices made during pregnancy. Diet is especially important in the early stages of development. Studies show that supplementation of the person's diet with folic acid reduces the risk of spina bifida and other neural tube defects. Another dietary concern is whether breakfast is eaten. Skipping breakfast could lead to extended periods of lower than normal nutrients in the maternal blood, leading to a higher risk of prematurity, or birth defects.


title: Fetus

text: Alcohol consumption may increase the risk of the development of fetal alcohol syndrome, a condition leading to intellectual disability in some infants. Smoking during pregnancy may also lead to miscarriages and low birth weight (. Low birth weight is a concern for medical providers due to the tendency of these infants, described as ""premature" by weight", to have a higher risk of secondary medical problems.


title: Fetus

text: X-rays are known to have possible adverse effects on the development of the fetus, and the risks need to be weighed against the benefits.


title: Fetus

text: Congenital disorders are acquired before birth. Infants with certain congenital heart defects can survive only as long as the ductus remains open: in such cases the closure of the ductus can be delayed by the administration of prostaglandins to permit sufficient time for the surgical correction of the anomalies. Conversely, in cases of patent ductus arteriosus, where the ductus does not properly close, drugs that inhibit prostaglandin synthesis can be used to encourage its closure, so that surgery can be avoided.


title: Fetus

text: Other heart birth defects include ventricular septal defect, pulmonary atresia, and tetralogy of Fallot.


title: Fetus

text: An abdominal pregnancy can result in the death of the fetus and where this is rarely not resolved it can lead to its formation into a lithopedion.


title: Fetus

text: Fetal pain, its existence and its implications are debated politically and academically. According to the conclusions of a review published in 2005, "Evidence regarding the capacity for fetal pain is limited but indicates that fetal perception of pain is unlikely before the third trimester." However, developmental neurobiologists argue that the establishment of thalamocortical connections (at about months) is an essential event with regard to fetal perception of pain. Nevertheless, the perception of pain involves sensory, emotional and cognitive factors and it is "impossible to know" when pain is experienced, even if it is known when thalamocortical connections are established. Some authors argue that fetal pain is possible from the second half of pregnancy. Evidence suggests that the perception of pain in the fetus occurs well before late gestation


title: Fetus

text: Whether a fetus has the ability to feel pain and suffering is part of the abortion debate. In the United States, for example, anti-abortion advocates have proposed legislation that would require providers of abortions to inform pregnant women that their fetuses may feel pain during the procedure and that would require each person to accept or decline anesthesia for the fetus.


title: Fetus

text: Abortion of a human pregnancy is legal and/or tolerated in most countries, although with gestational time limits that normally prohibit late-term abortions.


title: Fetus

text: A fetus is a stage in the prenatal development of viviparous organisms. This stage lies between embryogenesis and birth. Many vertebrates have fetal stages, ranging from most mammals to many fish. In addition, some invertebrates bear live young, including some species of onychophora and many arthropods.


title: Fetus

text: The fetuses of most mammals are situated similarly to the human fetus within their mothers. However, the anatomy of the area surrounding a fetus is different in litter-bearing animals compared to humans: each fetus of a litter-bearing animal is surrounded by placental tissue and is lodged along one of two long uteri instead of the single uterus found in a human female.


title: Fetus

text: Development at birth varies considerably among animals, and even among mammals. Altricial species are relatively helpless at birth and require considerable parental care and protection. In contrast, precocial animals are born with open eyes, have hair or down, have large brains, and are immediately mobile and somewhat able to flee from, or defend themselves against, predators. Primates are precocial at birth, with the exception of humans.


title: Fetus

text: The duration of gestation in placental mammals varies from 18 days in jumping mice to 23 months in elephants. Generally speaking, fetuses of larger land mammals require longer gestation periods.


title: Fetus

text: The benefits of a fetal stage means that young are more developed when they are born. Therefore, they may need less parental care and may be better able to fend for themselves. However, carrying fetuses exerts costs on the mother, who must take on extra food to fuel the growth of her offspring, and whose mobility and comfort may be affected (especially toward the end of the fetal stage).


title: Fetus

text: In some instances, the presence of a fetal stage may allow organisms to time the birth of their offspring to a favorable season.


title: Nernst equation

text: In electrochemistry, the Nernst equation is a chemical thermodynamical relationship that permits the calculation of the reduction potential of a reaction (half-cell or full cell reaction) from the standard electrode potential, absolute temperature, the number of electrons involved in the redox reaction, and activities (often approximated by concentrations) of the chemical species undergoing reduction and oxidation respectively. It was named after Walther Nernst, a German physical chemist who formulated the equation.


title: Nernst equation

text: When an oxidizer () accepts a number "z" of electrons () to be converted in its reduced form (), the half-reaction is expressed as:


title: Nernst equation

text: The reaction quotient (""), also often called the ion activity product ("IAP"), is the ratio between the chemical activities ("a") of the reduced form (the reductant, ) and the oxidized form (the oxidant, ). The chemical activity of a dissolved species corresponds to its true thermodynamic concentration taking into account the electrical interactions between all ions present in solution at elevated concentrations. For a given dissolved species, its chemical activity (a) is the product of its activity coefficient (γ) by its molar (mol/L solution), or molal (mol/kg water), concentration (C): a = γ C. So, if the concentration ("C", also denoted here below with square brackets [ ]) of all the dissolved species of interest are sufficiently low and that their activity coefficients are close to unity, their chemical activities can be approximated by their concentrations as commonly done when simplifying, or idealizing, a reaction for didactic purposes:


title: Nernst equation

text: At chemical equilibrium, the ratio ' of the activity of the reaction product ("a") by the reagent activity ("a") is equal to the equilibrium constant ' of the half-reaction:


title: Nernst equation

text: The standard thermodynamics also says that the actual Gibbs free energy is related to the free energy change under standard state by the relationship:


title: Nernst equation

text: The cell potential associated with the electrochemical reaction is defined as the decrease in Gibbs free energy per coulomb of charge transferred, which leads to the relationship formula_4 The constant (the Faraday constant) is a unit conversion factor , where is the Avogadro constant and is the fundamental electron charge. This immediately leads to the Nernst equation, which for an electrochemical half-cell is


title: Nernst equation

text: At room temperature (25 °C), the thermal voltage formula_7 is approximately 25.693 mV. The Nernst equation is frequently expressed in terms of base-10 logarithms ("i.e.", common logarithms) rather than natural logarithms, in which case it is written:


title: Nernst equation

text: Similarly to equilibrium constants, activities are always measured with respect to the standard state (1 mol/L for solutes, 1 atm for gases, and T = 298.15 K, "i.e.", 25 °C or 77 °F). The chemical activity of a species , , is related to the measured concentration via the relationship , where is the activity coefficient of the species . Because activity coefficients tend to unity at low concentrations, or are unknown or difficult to determine at medium and high concentrations, activities in the Nernst equation are frequently replaced by simple concentrations and then, formal standard reduction potentials formula_9 used.


title: Nernst equation

text: Where the first term including the activity coefficients (formula_10) is denoted formula_15 and called the formal standard reduction potential, so that formula_16 can be directly expressed as a function of formula_15 and the concentrations in the simplest form of the Nernst equation:


title: Nernst equation

text: When wishing to use simple concentrations in place of activities, but that the activity coefficients are far from unity and can no longer be neglected and are unknown or too difficult to determine, it can be convenient to introduce the notion of the "so-called" standard formal reduction potential (formula_15) which is related to the standard reduction potential as follows:


title: Nernst equation

text: So that the Nernst equation for the half-cell reaction can be correctly formally written in terms of concentrations as:


title: Nernst equation

text: According to Wenzel (2020), a formal reduction potential formula_15 is the reduction potential that applies to a half reaction under a set of specified conditions such as, e.g., pH, ionic strength, or the concentration of complexing agents.


title: Nernst equation

text: The formal reduction potential formula_15 is often a more convenient, but conditional, form of the standard reduction potential, taking into account activity coefficients and specific conditions characteristics of the reaction medium. Therefore, its value is a conditional value, "i.e.", that it depends on the experimental conditions and because the ionic strength affects the activity coefficients, formula_15 will vary from medium to medium. Several definitions of the formal reduction potential can be found in the literature, depending on the pursued objective and the experimental constraints imposed by the studied system. The general definition of formula_15 refers to its value determined when formula_26. A more particular case is when formula_15 is also determined at pH 7, as e.g. for redox reactions important in biochemistry or biological systems.


title: Nernst equation

text: The formal standard reduction potential formula_15 can be defined as the measured reduction potential formula_16 of the half-reaction at unity concentration ratio of the oxidized and reduced species ("i.e.", when 1) under given conditions.


title: Nernst equation

text: The formal reduction potential makes possible to more simply work with molar (mol/L, M) or molal (mol/kg , m) concentrations in place of activities. Because molar and molal concentrations were once referred as formal concentrations, it could explain the origin of the adjective "formal" in the expression "formal" potential.


title: Nernst equation

text: The formal potential is thus the reversible potential of an electrode at equilibrium immersed in a solution where reactants and products are at unit concentration. If any small incremental change of potential causes a change in the direction of the reaction, "i.e." from reduction to oxidation or "vice versa", the system is close to equilibrium, reversible and is at its formal potential. When the formal potential is measured under standard conditions ("i.e." the activity of each dissolved species is 1 mol/L, T = 298.15 K = 25 °C = 77 °F, = 1 bar) it becomes "de facto" a standard potential. According to Brown and Swift (1949):


title: Nernst equation

text: "A formal potential is defined as the potential of a half-cell, measured against the standard hydrogen electrode, when the total concentration of each oxidation state is one formal".


title: Nernst equation

text: In this case, as for the standard reduction potentials, the concentrations of dissolved species remain equal to one molar (M) or one molal (m), and so are said to be one formal (F). So, expressing the concentration in molarity (1 mol/L):


title: Nernst equation

text: The term formal concentration (F) is now largely ignored in the current literature and can be commonly assimilated to molar concentration (M), or molality (m) in case of thermodynamic calculations.


title: Nernst equation

text: The formal potential is also found half way between the two peaks in a cyclic voltammogram, where at this point the concentration of Ox (the oxidized species) and Red (the reduced species) at the electrode surface are equal.


title: Nernst equation

text: The activity coefficients formula_38 and formula_39 are included in the formal potential formula_15, and because they depend on experimental conditions such as temperature, ionic strength, and pH, formula_15 cannot be referred as an immutable standard potential but needs to be systematically determined for each specific set of experimental conditions.


title: Nernst equation

text: Formal reduction potentials are applied to simplify calculations of a considered system under given conditions and measurements interpretation. The experimental conditions in which they are determined and their relationship to the standard reduction potentials must be clearly described to avoid to confuse them with standard reduction potentials.


title: Nernst equation

text: Formal standard reduction potentials (formula_15) are also commonly used in biochemistry and cell biology for referring to standard reduction potentials measured at pH 7, a value closer to the pH of most physiological and intracellular fluids than the standard state pH of 0. The advantage is to defining a more appropriate redox scale better corresponding to real conditions than the standard state. Formal standard reduction potentials (formula_15) allow to more easily estimate if a redox reaction supposed to occur in a metabolic process or to fuel microbial activity under some conditions is feasible or not.


title: Nernst equation

text: While, standard reduction potentials always refer to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), with [] = 1 M corresponding to a pH 0, and formula_44 fixed arbitrarily to zero by convention, it is no longer the case at a pH of 7. Then, the reduction potential formula_16 of a hydrogen electrode operating at pH 7 is -0.413 V with respect to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE).


title: Nernst equation

text: The formula_46 and pH of a solution are related by the Nernst equation as commonly represented by a Pourbaix diagram . formula_46 explicitly denotes formula_16 expressed versus the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE). For a half cell equation, conventionally written as a reduction reaction ("i.e.", electrons accepted by an oxidant on the left side):


title: Nernst equation

text: where formula_52 is the standard Gibbs free energy change, is the number of electrons involved, and is the Faraday's constant. The Nernst equation relates pH and formula_46 as follows:


title: Nernst equation

text: where curly brackets indicate activities, and exponents are shown in the conventional manner. This equation is the equation of a straight line for formula_16 as a function of pH with a slope of formula_56 volt (pH has no units).


title: Nernst equation

text: This equation predicts lower formula_16 at higher pH values. This is observed for the reduction of O into HO, or OH, and for the reduction of H into H. formula_16 is then often noted as formula_46 to indicate that it refers to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) whose formula_16 = 0 by convention under standard conditions (T = 298.15 K = 25 °C = 77 F, P = 1 atm (1.013 bar), concentrations = 1 M and thus pH = 0).


title: Nernst equation

text: The main factor affecting the formal reduction potentials in biochemical or biological processes is most often the pH. To determine approximate values of formal reduction potentials, neglecting in a first approach changes in activity coefficients due to ionic strength, the Nernst equation has to be applied taking care to first express the relationship as a function of pH. The second factor to be considered are the values of the concentrations taken into account in the Nernst equation. To define a formal reduction potential for a biochemical reaction, the pH value, the concentrations values and the hypotheses made on the activity coefficients must always be explicitly indicated. When using, or comparing, several formal reduction potentials they must also be internally consistent.


title: Nernst equation

text: Problems may occur when mixing different sources of data using different conventions or approximations ("i.e.", with different underlying hypotheses). When working at the frontier between inorganic and biological processes (e.g., when comparing abiotic and biotic processes in geochemistry when microbial activity could also be at work in the system), care must be taken not to inadvertently directly mix standard reduction potentials versus SHE (pH = 0) with formal reduction potentials (pH = 7). Definitions must be clearly expressed and carefully controlled, especially if the sources of data are different and arise from different fields (e.g., picking and mixing data from classical electrochemistry and microbiology textbooks without paying attention to the different conventions on which they are based).


title: Nernst equation

text: To illustrate the dependency of the reduction potential on pH, one can simply consider the two oxido-reduction equilibria determining the water stability domain in a Pourbaix diagram . When water is submitted to electrolysis by applying a sufficient difference of electrical potential between two electrodes immersed in water, hydrogen is produced at the cathode (reduction of water protons) while oxygen is formed at the anode (oxidation of water oxygen atoms). The same may occur if a reductant stronger than hydrogen (e.g., metallic Na) or an oxidant stronger than oxygen (e.g., F) enters in contact with water and reacts with it. In the here beside (the simplest possible version of a Pourbaix diagram), the water stability domain (grey surface) is delimited in term of redox potential by two inclined red dashed lines:


title: Nernst equation

text: When solving the Nernst equation for each corresponding reduction reaction (need to revert the water oxidation reaction producing oxygen), both equations have a similar form because the number of protons and the number of electrons involved within a reaction are the same and their ratio is one (2/2 for H and 4/4 with respectively), so it simplifies when solving the Nernst equation expressed as a function of pH.


title: Nernst equation

text: Note that the slopes of the two water stability domain upper and lower lines are the same (-59.16 mV/pH unit), so they are parallel on a Pourbaix diagram. As the slopes are negative, at high pH, both hydrogen and oxygen evolution requires a much lower reduction potential than at low pH.


title: Nernst equation

text: The offset of -414 mV in formula_16 is the same for both reduction reactions because they share the same linear relationship as a function of pH and the slopes of their lines are the same. This can be directly verified on a Pourbaix diagram. For other reduction reactions, the value of the formal reduction potential at a pH of 7, commonly referred for biochemical reactions, also depends on the slope of the corresponding line in a Pourbaix diagram "i.e." on the ratio ' of the number of to the number of involved in the reduction reaction, and thus on the stoichiometry of the half-reaction. The determination of the formal reduction potential at pH = 7 for a given biochemical half-reaction requires thus to calculate it with the corresponding Nernst equation as a function of pH. One cannot simply apply an offset of -414 mV to the E value (SHE) when the ratio ' differs from 1.


title: Nernst equation

text: Beside important redox reactions in biochemistry and microbiology, the Nernst equation is also used in physiology for calculating the electric potential of a cell membrane with respect to one type of ion. It can be linked to the acid dissociation constant.


title: Nernst equation

text: The Nernst equation has a physiological application when used to calculate the potential of an ion of charge across a membrane. This potential is determined using the concentration of the ion both inside and outside the cell:


title: Nernst equation

text: When the membrane is in thermodynamic equilibrium (i.e., no net flux of ions), and if the cell is permeable to only one ion, then the membrane potential must be equal to the Nernst potential for that ion.


title: Nernst equation

text: When the membrane is permeable to more than one ion, as is inevitably the case, the resting potential can be determined from the Goldman equation, which is a solution of G-H-K influx equation under the constraints that total current density driven by electrochemical force is zero:


title: Nernst equation

text: The potential across the cell membrane that exactly opposes net diffusion of a particular ion through the membrane is called the Nernst potential for that ion. As seen above, the magnitude of the Nernst potential is determined by the ratio of the concentrations of that specific ion on the two sides of the membrane. The greater this ratio the greater the tendency for the ion to diffuse in one direction, and therefore the greater the Nernst potential required to prevent the diffusion. A similar expression exists that includes (the absolute value of the transport ratio). This takes transporters with unequal exchanges into account. See: sodium-potassium pump where the transport ratio would be 2/3, so r equals 1.5 in the formula below. The reason why we insert a factor r = 1.5 here is that current density "by electrochemical force" J(Na) + J(K) is no longer zero, but rather J(Na) + 1.5J(K) = 0 (as for both ions flux by electrochemical force is compensated by that by the pump, i.e. J = −J), altering the constraints for applying GHK equation. The other variables are the same as above. The following example includes two ions: potassium (K) and sodium (Na). Chloride is assumed to be in equilibrium.


title: Nernst equation

text: For simplicity, we will consider a solution of redox-active molecules that undergo a one-electron reversible reaction


title: Nernst equation

text: and that have a standard potential of zero, and in which the activities are well represented by the concentrations (i.e. unit activity coefficient). The chemical potential of this solution is the difference between the energy barriers for taking electrons from and for giving electrons to the working electrode that is setting the solution's electrochemical potential. The ratio of oxidized to reduced molecules, , is equivalent to the probability of being oxidized (giving electrons) over the probability of being reduced (taking electrons), which we can write in terms of the Boltzmann factor for these processes:


title: Nernst equation

text: Dividing the equation by to convert from chemical potentials to electrode potentials, and remembering that , we obtain the Nernst equation for the one-electron process :


title: Nernst equation

text: Quantities here are given per molecule, not per mole, and so Boltzmann constant and the electron charge are used instead of the gas constant and Faraday's constant . To convert to the molar quantities given in most chemistry textbooks, it is simply necessary to multiply by the Avogadro constant: and . The entropy of a molecule is defined as


title: Nernst equation

text: where is the number of states available to the molecule. The number of states must vary linearly with the volume of the system (here an idealized system is considered for better understanding, so that activities are posited very close to the true concentrations. Fundamental statistical proof of the mentioned linearity goes beyond the scope of this section, but to see this is true it is simpler to consider usual isothermal process for an ideal gas where the change of entropy takes place. It follows from the definition of entropy and from the condition of constant temperature and quantity of gas that the change in the number of states must be proportional to the relative change in volume . In this sense there is no difference in statistical properties of ideal gas atoms compared with the dissolved species of a solution with activity coefficients equaling one: particles freely "hang around" filling the provided volume), which is inversely proportional to the concentration , so we can also write the entropy as


title: Nernst equation

text: If state 1 is at standard conditions, in which is unity (e.g., 1 atm or 1 M), it will merely cancel the units of . We can, therefore, write the entropy of an arbitrary molecule A as


title: Nernst equation

text: where formula_82 is the entropy at standard conditions and [A] denotes the concentration of A. The change in entropy for a reaction


title: Nernst equation

text: where the numerator is a product of reaction product activities, , each raised to the power of a stoichiometric coefficient, , and the denominator is a similar product of reactant activities. All activities refer to a time . Under certain circumstances (see chemical equilibrium) each activity term such as may be replaced by a concentration term, [A].In an electrochemical cell, the cell potential is the chemical potential available from redox reactions (). is related to the Gibbs free energy change only by a constant:


title: Nernst equation

text: , where is the number of electrons transferred and is the Faraday constant. There is a negative sign because a spontaneous reaction has a negative Gibbs free energy and a positive potential . The Gibbs free energy is related to the entropy by , where is the enthalpy and is the temperature of the system. Using these relations, we can now write the change in Gibbs free energy,


title: Nernst equation

text: The cell potential at standard temperature and pressure (STP) formula_89 is often replaced by the formal potential formula_90, which includes the activity coefficients of the dissolved species under given experimental conditions (T, P, ionic strength, pH, and complexing agents) and is the potential that is actually measured in an electrochemical cell.


title: Nernst equation

text: At the same time, formula_52 is also equal to the product of the total charge () transferred during the reaction and the cell potential (formula_94):


title: Nernst equation

text: Starting from the Nernst equation, one can also demonstrate the same relationship in the reverse way.


title: Nernst equation

text: At chemical equilibrium, or thermodynamic equilibrium, the electrochemical potential and therefore the reaction quotient () attains the special value known as the equilibrium constant ():


title: Nernst equation

text: We have thus related the standard electrode potential and the equilibrium constant of a redox reaction.


title: Nernst equation

text: In dilute solutions, the Nernst equation can be expressed directly in the terms of concentrations (since activity coefficients are close to unity). But at higher concentrations, the true activities of the ions must be used. This complicates the use of the Nernst equation, since estimation of non-ideal activities of ions generally requires experimental measurements. The Nernst equation also only applies when there is no net current flow through the electrode. The activity of ions at the electrode surface changes when there is current flow, and there are additional overpotential and resistive loss terms which contribute to the measured potential.


title: Nernst equation

text: At very low concentrations of the potential-determining ions, the potential predicted by Nernst equation approaches toward . This is physically meaningless because, under such conditions, the exchange current density becomes very low, and there may be no thermodynamic equilibrium necessary for Nernst equation to hold. The electrode is called unpoised in such case. Other effects tend to take control of the electrochemical behavior of the system, like the involvement of the solvated electron in electricity transfer and electrode equilibria, as analyzed by Alexander Frumkin and B. Damaskin, Sergio Trasatti, etc.


title: Nernst equation

text: The Nernst equation has been involved in the scientific controversy about cold fusion. Fleischmann and Pons, claiming that cold fusion could exist, calculated that a palladium cathode immersed in a heavy water electrolysis cell could achieve up to 10 atmospheres of pressure inside the crystal lattice of the metal of the cathode, enough pressure to cause spontaneous nuclear fusion. In reality, only 10,000–20,000 atmospheres were achieved. The American physicist John R. Huizenga claimed their original calculation was affected by a misinterpretation of the Nernst equation. He cited a paper about Pd–Zr alloys.


title: Nernst equation

text: The Nernst equation allows the calculation of the extent of reaction between two redox systems and can be used, for example, to assess whether a particular reaction will go to completion or not. At chemical equilibrium, the electromotive forces (emf) of the two half cells are equal. This allows the equilibrium constant of the reaction to be calculated and hence the extent of the reaction.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: Neurosyphilis refers to infection of the central nervous system in a patient with syphilis. In the era of modern antibiotics the majority of neurosyphilis cases have been reported in HIV-infected patients. Meningitis is the most common neurological presentation in early syphilis. Tertiary syphilis symptoms are exclusively neurosyphilis, though neurosyphilis may occur at any stage of infection.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: To diagnose neurosyphilis, patients undergo a lumbar puncture to obtain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for analysis. The CSF is tested for antibodies for specific "Treponema pallidum" antigens. The preferred test is the VDRL test, which is sometimes supplemented by fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption test (FTA-ABS).


title: Neurosyphilis

text: Historically, the disease was studied under the Tuskegee study, a notable example of unethical human experimentation. The study was done on approximately 400 African-American men with untreated syphilis who were followed from 1932 to 1972 and compared to approximately 200 men without syphilis. The study began without informed consent of the subjects and was continued by the United States Public Health Service until 1972. The researchers failed to notify and withheld treatment for patients despite knowing penicillin was found as an effective cure for neurosyphilis. After four years of follow up, neurosyphilis was identified in 26.1% of patients vs. 2.5% of controls. After 20 years of followup, 14% showed signs of neurosyphilis and 40% had died from other causes.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: The signs and symptoms of neurosyphilis vary with the disease stage of syphilis. The stages of syphilis are categorized as primary, secondary, latent, and tertiary. It is important to note that neurosyphilis may occur at any stage of infection.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: Meningitis is the most common neurological presentation in early syphilis. It typically occurs in the secondary stage, arising within one year of initial infection. The symptoms are similar to other forms of meningitis. The most common associated with neurosyphilitic meningitis is cranial nerve palsy, especially of the facial nerve.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: Nearly any part of the eye may be involved. The most common form of ocular syphilis is uveitis. Other forms include episcleritis, vitritis, retinitis, papillitis, retinal detachment, and interstitial keratitis.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: Meningovascular syphilis usually occurs in late syphilis but may affect those with early disease. It is due to inflammation of the vasculature supplying the central nervous system, that results in ischemia. It typically occurs about 6–7 years after initial infection and it may affect those with early disease. It may present as stroke or spinal cord infarct. Signs and symptoms vary with vascular territory involved. The middle cerebral artery is most often affected.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: Parenchymal syphilis occurs years to decades after initial infection. It presents with the constellation of symptoms known as tabes dorsalis, because of a degenerative process of the posterior columns of the spinal cord. The constellation includes Argyll Robertson pupil, ataxic wide-based gait, paresthesias, bowel or bladder incontinence, loss of position and vibratory sense, loss of deep pain and temperature sensation, acute episodic gastrointestinal pain, Charcot joints, and general paresis.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: Gummatous disease may also present with destructive inflammation and space-occupying lesions. It is caused by granulomatous destruction of visceral organs. They most often involve the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: Movement disorders can be found in a small percentage of individuals with neurosyphilis. The abnormal movements already reported were tremor, chorea, parkinsonism, ataxia, myoclonus, dystonia, athetosis, and ballism.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: Although neurosyphilis is a neurological disease, neuropsychiatric symptoms might appear due to overall damage to the brain. These symptoms can make the diagnosis more difficult and can include symptoms of dementia, mania, psychosis, depression, and delirium:


title: Neurosyphilis

text: These symptoms are not always present, and when they are, they usually appear in more advanced stages of the disease.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: The Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction is an immune-mediated response to syphilis therapy occurring within 2–24 hours. The exact mechanisms of reaction are unclear, however most likely caused by proinflammatory treponemal lipoproteins that are released from dead and dying organisms following antibiotic treatment. It is typically characterized by fever, headache, myalgia and possibly intensification of skin rash. It most often occurs in early-stage syphilis (up to 50%–75% of patients with primary and secondary syphilis). It is usually self-limiting and managed with antipyretics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: There are several risk factors: high-risk sexual behavior from unprotected sex and multiple sexual partners. The HIV infection antiretroviral therapy (ART) suppresses HIV transmission, but not syphilis transmission. It may also be associated with recreational drug use.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: The pathogenesis is not fully known, in part due to fact that the organism is not easily cultured. Within days to weeks after initial infection, "Treponema pallidum" disseminates via blood and lymphatics. The organism may accumulate in perivascular spaces of nearly any organ, including the central nervous system (CNS). It is unclear why some patients develop CNS infection and others do not. Rarely, organisms may invade any structures of the eye (such as cornea, anterior chamber, vitreous and choroid, and optic nerve) and cause local inflammation and edema. In primary or secondary syphilis, invasion of the meninges may result in lymphocytic and plasma cell infiltration of perivascular spaces (Virchow-Robin spaces). The extension of cellular immune response to the brainstem and spinal cord causes inflammation and necrosis of small meningeal vessels.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: In tertiary syphilis, reactivation of chronic latent infection may result in meningovascular syphilis, arising from endarteritis obliterans of small, medium, or large arteries supplying the CNS. The parenchymal syphilis, presents as tabes dorsalis and general paresis. Tabes dorsalis thought to be due to irreversible degeneration of nerve fibers in posterior columns of the spinal cord involving the lumbosacral and lower thoracic levels. The general paresis is caused by meningeal vascular inflammation and ependymal granulomatous infiltration may lead to neuronal loss, along with astrocytic and microglial proliferation and damage may preferentially occur in the cerebral cortex, striatum, hypothalamus, and meninges.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: Concurrent infection of "T. pallidum" with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has been found to affect the course of syphilis. Syphilis can lie dormant for 10 to 20 years before progressing to neurosyphilis, but HIV may accelerate the rate of the progress. Also, infection with HIV has been found to cause penicillin therapy to fail more often. Therefore, neurosyphilis has once again been prevalent in societies with high HIV rates and limited access to penicillin.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: To diagnose neurosyphilis, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis is required. Lumbar puncture ("spinal tap") is used to acquire CSF. The Venereal Disease Research Laboratory test of the CSF is the preferred test for making a diagnosis of neurosyphilis. A positive test confirms neurosyphilis but a negative result does not rule out neurosyphilis. Due to the low sensitivity of the CSF VDRL, fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption test (FTA-ABS) can be used to supplement VDRL. Reported sensitivity is variable. False-negative antibody test result occurring when antibody concentration is so high that agglutination reaction cannot occur, which is typically seen during secondary stage and can be overcome by diluting test sample 1:10. CSF white blood cell count is often elevated in the early stages of neurosyphilis, ranging from about 50 to 100 white blood cells/mcL with a lymphocyte predominance. Cell counts are typically lower in late syphilis. Regardless of syphilis disease stage, the absence of CSF white blood cells rules out neurosyphilis.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: Follow-up blood tests are generally performed at 3, 6, 12, 24, and 36 months to make sure the infection is gone. Lumbar punctures for CSF fluid analysis are generally performed every 6 months until cell counts normalize. All patients with syphilis should be tested for HIV infection. All cases of syphilis should be reported to public health authorities and public health departments can aid in partner notification, testing, and determining need for treatment.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: The treatment success is measured with a 4-fold drop in the nontreponemal antibody test. In early-stage syphilis drop should occur in 6–12 months. in late syphilis drop can take 12–24 months. Titers may decline more slowly in persons who have previously had syphilis.


title: Neurosyphilis

text: In people who cannot take penicillin it is uncertain if other antibiotic therapy is effective for treating neurosyphilis.


title: One Piece (upcoming TV series)

text: One Piece is an upcoming streaming television series, serving as a live action adaptation of the ongoing 1997 Japanese manga series of the same name by Eiichiro Oda. It is produced by Netflix, Tomorrow Studios and Shueisha (who also publish the manga), and is set to premiere on Netflix. Matt Owens and Steven Maeda are set to be the showrunners, with an ensemble cast starring Iñaki Godoy, Mackenyu, Emily Rudd, Jacob Romero Gibson and Taz Skylar.


title: One Piece (upcoming TV series)

text: Our journey follows the adventures of the fugitive Straw Hat Pirates, as they explore the dangerous oceans, lands and beyond in search of the "One Piece", a fabled treasure that will make their captain The King of the Pirates. But, the Navy is on their ship's tail and they're not the only crew searching for the One Piece. Armed with skills and unbreakable friendship, the Straw Hats are ready for the journey and even more ready to fight for their dreams together.


title: One Piece (upcoming TV series)

text: In July, 2017, "Weekly Shōnen Jump" editor-in-chief Hiroyuki Nakano announced that Tomorrow Studios (a partnership between Marty Adelstein and ITV Studios) and Shueisha would commence production of an American live-action television adaptation of Eiichiro Oda's "One Piece" manga series as part of the series' 20th anniversary celebrations. Oda will serve as executive producer for the series alongside Tomorrow Studios CEO Adelstein and Becky Clements. The series will reportedly begin with the East Blue saga. Adelstein also said the production cost could set new records.


title: One Piece (upcoming TV series)

text: In January 2020, Oda revealed that Netflix ordered a first season consisting of ten episodes. On May 2020, producer Marty Adelstein revealed during an interview with Syfy Wire, that the series was originally set to begin filming in Cape Town at Cape Town Film Studios sometime around August, but has since been delayed to around September due to COVID-19. He also revealed that, during the same interview, all ten scripts had been written for the series and they were set to begin casting sometime in June. However, executive producer and writer Matt Owens stated in September 2020 that casting had not yet commenced.


title: One Piece (upcoming TV series)

text: In March 2021, production started up again with showrunner Steven Maeda revealing that the series codename is "Project Roger". In September 2021, the series revealed its first look at the logo for the series. That same month, it was reported that Marc Jobst will direct the pilot episode of the series. In February 2022, it was announced that Arisu Kashiwagi will be the creative director and designer for the show's brand identity, where she will be creating and designing logo and title sequence etc. In March 2022, alongside the release of additional casting announcements, it was said that head writer and executive producer Matt Owens would serve as co-showrunner alongside Maeda. In June 2022, Emma Sullivan was revealed to have directed episodes of the series.


title: One Piece (upcoming TV series)

text: In November 2021, the main cast portraying the Straw Hat Pirates was revealed via a series of wanted posters: Iñaki Godoy as Monkey D. Luffy, Mackenyu as Roronoa Zoro, Emily Rudd as Nami, Jacob Romero Gibson as Usopp, and Taz Skylar as Sanji.


title: One Piece (upcoming TV series)

text: In March 2022, Netflix added Morgan Davies as Koby, Ilia Isorelýs Paulino as Alvida, Aidan Scott as Helmeppo, Jeff Ward as Buggy, McKinley Belcher III as Arlong, Vincent Regan as Garp and Peter Gadiot as Shanks to the cast in recurring roles.


title: One Piece (upcoming TV series)

text: June 2022 saw the addition of Langley Kirkwood as Captain Morgan, Celeste Loots as Kaya, Alexander Maniatis as Klahadore, Craig Fairbrass as Zeff, Steven Ward as Dracule Mihawk, and Chioma Umeala as Nojiko. In August 2022, Bianca Oosthuizen, Chanté Grainger, and Grant Ross joined the cast of the series, playing Sham, Banchina, and Genzo respectively.


title: One Piece (upcoming TV series)

text: Maeda officially announced that principal photography had begun on January 31 and finished filming on August 22, 2022. In May 2022, director Marc Jobst updated that he had finished filming the first two episodes of the show. Part of the filming took place in Cape Town, South Africa at Cape Town Film Studios. Nicole Hirsch Whitaker, the show's cinematographer said that she had her crew six weeks before the production began.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Borat Margaret Sagdiyev () is a satirical fictional character created and performed by Sacha Baron Cohen. He is supposedly a Kazakh television journalist and is the main protagonist of the mockumentary "Borat! Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan" (2006), its sequel "Borat Subsequent Moviefilm: Delivery of Prodigious Bribe to American Regime for Make Benefit Once Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan" (2020), and a main character of Da Ali G Show.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Borat's humour arises from his espousal of outrageous sociocultural viewpoints, his violation of social taboos, and his use of vulgar language and behaviour in inappropriate settings. Most often the comedy relies on Borat's obliviousness to First World natives not sharing his regressive worldview, but occasionally Borat's innocent and collegial demeanor will provoke his targets to reveal biases they would otherwise be reluctant to share publicly. "Entertainment Weekly" put the 2006 film on its end-of-the-decade, "best-of" list, saying, "The Kazakhstani journalist gave us some of the most incisive cultural commentary ever filmed. That, and a wrestling match between butt-naked men. Something for everyone."