title: Haider (film)

text: Principal photography began at Dal Lake in November 2013. Haider was filmed at Pahalgam, Kehribal area in Anantnag, Mattan, Aishan Sahab Zaina Kadal Bridge in old Srinagar, Nishat Bagh, Qazigund, Martand Sun Temple, Naseem Bagh (at Kashmir University Garden), Hazratbal and Sonamarg, all of which are located in Jammu and Kashmir Bhardwaj was forced to pack up after a group of Kashmir University students disrupted shooting of a sequence of a Fedayeen attack which was being canned at the University of Kashmir at Hazratbal. The students objected to the hoisting of the national flag atop a makeshift bunker. A few students objected to the shooting of a few scenes and started "pro-freedom" slogans, dismantling the stage. The youngsters also forced them out of the shooting location in Naseem Bagh (Kashmir University Garden) despite heavy security, claiming that they had no idea about the shoot happening on that location. Students of Kashmir University also raised objection to Irrfan Khan when he was spotted smoking inside the campus. The last filming schedule of "Haider" began in Kashmir in January 2014. For the song "Bismil" shot at Martand Sun Temple in Kashmir, Shahid Kapoor was quoted saying, "It is one of the best shot songs of my career. The location, the elements like face-paint to depict war-like situations, have been used in 'Bismil'. Then there are 100 feet tall puppets, which I have never seen in any song before." For the choreography of the sons, Bhardwaj was very keen that Shahid's character didn't have any dance movements that Shahid did in his previous films as it was required for the character's angst and feelings. Bhardwaj recruited a Norway-based choreographer for the choreography of this track. The shooting of the film was also halted briefly for a second time in Zainakadal in Srinagar in January 2014, when a spectator threw coal towards the actors. Filming was completed by 24 February 2014.


title: Haider (film)

text: After 41 cuts, the Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) gave the film a U/A certificate. The scenes that were censored were a truck load of corpses, wire being inserted inside a naked man, a shot of a bloody dead body and abusive words. Apart from this, a shot of a bare back during the song "Khul Kabhi To" was also considered offensive and censored. The CBFC demanded deletion of a scene where Haider (played by Shahid Kapoor) cries on seeing flames. A confusion arose when Rakesh Kumar, the CEO of CBFC along with an examining committee saw the film and prescribed the cuts. After the film was re-edited, instead of sending it to the revising committee for reviewing, Kumar himself watched the film again and gave it a U/A certificate. Nandini Sardesai, a member of the revising committee told "The Times of India" that Kumar saw "Haider" twice and passed it with a U/A certificate. She stated that director of the film Vishal Bhardwaj had apparently agreed to the cuts. Later, Bhardwaj clarified that the CBFC only demanded 7 cuts but gave his film 35 extra cuts in order to make the script look more realistic. Bhardwaj added that since the film is set in Kashmir and given the associated troubled politics of the state, he knew the film would land in controversies.


title: Haider (film)

text: The controversy over film's plot, analysts stated that India has become more open to sensitive subjects. Dr. Zakir Hussain, a senior analyst at the Indian Council of World Affairs was quoted saying, "As democratic traditions strengthen in the country, more and more such movies will be made and people will be educated. "Haider" is the first step in that direction." Director Bhardwaj faced criticism over the depiction of the armed forces in an allegedly unfair way as the film also portrayed scenes of torture in Indian army camps and abuse of human rights by Indian officials. To this portrayal, Indian Twitter users, filled with sentiments brought up hashtagging of words "#BoycottHaider" that generated estimate 75,000 tweets since the film release. In reply to this criticism, people on Twitter started trending #HaiderTrueCinema which trended for 2 days and this caused #BoycottHaider to be withdrawn from the list of trending topics on Twitter.


title: Haider (film)

text: The original songs and film score are composed by Vishal Bhardwaj. The soundtrack has nine songs whose lyrics are penned by Gulzar, except for 2 songs "Gulon Mein Rang Bhare" and "Aaj Ke Naam" that were written by Faiz Ahmed Faiz. Shahid Kapoor and Shraddha Kapoor launched the music of the film along with Vishal Bhardwaj at Radio Mirchi studios in Mumbai in mid-August 2014. The soundtrack had a digital as well as physical release on 12 September 2014. The film score was digitally released on 24 October 2014.


title: Haider (film)

text: "Haider" received widespread critical acclaim upon release for its subject matter, direction, story, screenplay, film score, cinematography, editing, and performances of the ensemble cast. , the film holds an 86% approval rating on review aggregator "Rotten Tomatoes", based on 14 reviews with an average rating of 7.62 out of 10.


title: Haider (film)

text: Writing for "The Hindu", Sudhish Kamath felt, "Lyricist Gulzar, writer-director Vishal Bhardwaj, and writer Basharat Peer have given us an instant classic, a literary epic (the screenplay is out in the stores too) with a lesson to learn from recent history. "Haider" is an incredibly brave uncompromising film made with loads of conviction with blatant disregard to market conventions, one that will make you cheer during the meta-moment in the film." Rajeev Masand of "CNN-IBN" called that film an elegant, thrilling one that casts a brave, unflinching eye on the Kashmir struggle. He noted, "In deviating from the original ending of "Hamlet", it also makes a necessary point about the cyclical nature of revenge and violence. He gave the movie 3.5 out of 5 stars" Writing for "Deccan Chronicle", Kusumita Das who compared the film to the book summarized, "Considering "Hamlet", with all its complexity, is certainly not an easy adaptation to venture into – that alone could well make this Vishal's finest film yet." Mohar Basu of "Koimoi" detailed out performances, direction, script, editing and screenplay gave the verdict, ""Haider" is an unforgettable film that never fumbles, never stumbles, and is so sure of itself that it cannot go wrong. From Shahid to Tabu to Kay Kay to the powerful extended-cameo of Irrfan, everything in the film works. It's a Guztaq film that audaciously breaks every rule in the book, everything that you could have expected from it and ends up being that edgy watch which you'll savor, while you watch it from the edge of seats. "Haider" is chutzpah and in-keeping with the same vein, I will rate this film the highest I have ever gone with a movie. This is an easy 4.5 out of 5." Critic Subhash K. Jha with immense praise felt, ""Haider" is a beast that just won't be tamed by regular cinematic definitions. There is flamboyance and subtlety, both at once in the treatment. Elegance and earthiness rub shoulders in the execution of what is regarded as one of Shakespeare's most complex tragedies. Above all, there are the performances – towering, luminous actors craning their collective creative necks into the director's vision, to give it mesmerizing magical spin. Mr. Bhardwaj's third Shakespearean sojourn is his best yet. "Haider" is like a painting viewed from the road inside an art gallery. The vision is distant yet vivid, layered life-like and yet exquisitely poetic."


title: Haider (film)

text: Critic Raja Sen of "Rediff" gave the film a maximum of 5 stars and wrote: ""Haider" is one of the most powerful political films we've ever made, a bona-fide masterpiece that throbs with intensity and purpose". Writing for "Mid-Day", Shubha Shetty-Saha said "Vishal Bharadwaj brings alive the ecstasy, pain and passion of "Hamlet" on screen, he also reminds us of the harsh truth in our own backyard, the man-made mayhem in the God-made "jannat" [heaven] that is Kashmir". Faheem Ruhani for "India Today" praised the Even the oedipal theme between characters played by Shahid Kapoor and Tabu, summarizing his review as, ""Haider" may seem a bit sluggish in the first-half and slightly long. However, it makes up for most of it in the dramatic, intense climax that you are treated to towards the end. "Haider" is definitely a film you should not miss." "Zee News"s critic Ritika Handoo reviewed positively, "William Shakespeare's "Hamlet" is a masterpiece in literature, and Vishal Bhardwaj's "Haider" will be talked about in the same vein as one such artistic product in cinematic history. "Haider" will be recognized as Shahid's career-best performance." Srijana Mitra Das of "The Times of India" called the film "one of cinema's bravest takes on identity, frightening, yet fun" and particularly praised Tabu's performance whom she considered the prime-asset of the film. Sweta Kaushal for "Hindustan Times" noted, "Vishal Bhardwaj's "Haider" is a rare Bollywood gem you must watch." Writing for "Filmfare", Rachit Gupta felt, ""Haider" doesn't have an ounce of the commercial thrills and spills that entertain the 100-crore masses. But it does have an undeniable dramatic punch. It is one of the best stories you'll every watch on celluloid. Give this edgy film a chance to entertain you. Because it will do so with aplomb. It's certainly better than the other chutzpah out there." On the contrary, critic Shubhra Gupta at "The Indian Express" felt the storytelling falters, quoting that, "It is a gorgeous but choppy film that you cannot take your eyes off for fear of losing another exquisite piece of detailing; it is also one that fails to fully keep you with it."


title: Haider (film)

text: Mike McHill of "The Guardian" wrote, "Radical Indian version of Hamlet gives the story compelling political angles and musical surprises. A palpable hit, in any language." Rachel Saltz of "The New York Times" titled her critical review as, "Shakespearean Revenge in a Violent Kashmir" emphasizing more on script and directorial aspects, noting, ""Haider" may not be the equal of Mr. Bhardwaj's other Shakespeare films, and it may be deficient in the ""Hamlet"" department, but it certainly gives good Gertrude." At "The Hollywood Reporter", Lisa Tsering was more positive on the film, summarizing, "With Haider, Bhardwaj wisely forgoes the rough-edged attitude in his other films to embrace a slicker and more sophisticated style; and some of the film's most effective moments are masterful in their visual storytelling skill." Writing for "Digital Spy", Priya Joshi praised the movie, calling it a 'masterclass in film-making and performance' and 'an exemplary cinema and a work of great artistic merit.' She added, "Shahid Kapoor is a standard-bearer for a generation." Suprateek Chatterjee of the "Firstpost" praised performances of Shahid Kapoor and Tabu, thereby calling Vishal Bharadwaj's film 'best movie so far'. Praising the key aspects of the movie, critic Manjusha Radhakrishnan for "Gulf News" writes, "Everything about "Haider" is subtle: including the undertones of the infamous sexual tension between mother and son. Tabu and Kapoor surrender themselves completely to their roles and are endearingly uninhibited. The pace is never hurried, so be a bit patient and give these superbly talented actors a chance. Just like the cinematography that captures Kashmir's rugged beauty, "Haider" will wow you with its raw appeal." On writing for "Emirates 24/7", Sneha May Francis opined, ""Haider" does appear a little over indulgent, but considering Vishal had such a Herculean task at hand, it's just a small price to pay for good cinema. Shakespearean tragedy "Hamlet" gets a sinfully delightful adaptation by master filmmaker Vishal Bhardwaj". Ryan Gilbey based at "New Statesman" claimed, "The idea of a Bollywood "Hamlet" throws up all manner of preconceptions. But "Haider" transpires to be a far less irreverent interpretation than, say, the 2000 US version in which Ethan Hawke delivered the "To be or not to be" soliloquy from the "Action" section of Blockbuster Video. Bhardwaj relocates the action to Kashmir in the mid-1990s. If the graft doesn't quite take, it's because the film is so persuasive in portraying the oppression of the Kashmiri people that the woes of Hamlet seem small beer."


title: Haider (film)

text: The film was released in nearly 3050 screens all over India where it collected on its release date (Thursday). The collections showed 14% rise pulling up collections to on first Friday and made a cumulative business of in two days of its release at the Indian box office. It collected on first Saturday of release. In the opening three days, the film earned .


title: Haider (film)

text: Taking into account the first weekend post its release, the film earned in the US. The previews on Thursday, a day prior to release date were . Collections on subsequent two days were on Friday and on Saturday. In AGC areas, the film collected during first three days of release. The collections in UK for the same days were . The film churned a cumulative $1 million in the three days, overseas.


title: Haider (film)

text: At the 62nd National Film Awards, "Haider" won 5 awards, including Best Music Direction and Best Dialogue (both Bhardwaj). At the 60th Filmfare Awards, "Haider" received 9 nominations, including Best Film and Best Director (Bhardwaj), and won 5 awards including Best Actor (Shahid Kapoor), Best Supporting Actor (Menon) and Best Supporting Actress (Tabu).


title: Red meat

text: In gastronomy, red meat is commonly red when raw and a dark color after it is cooked, in contrast to white meat, which is pale in color before and after cooking. In culinary terms, only flesh from mammals or fowl (not fish) is classified as red or white. In nutritional science, "red meat" is defined as any meat that has more of the protein myoglobin than white meat. White meat is defined as non-dark meat from fish or chicken (excluding the leg or thigh).


title: Red meat

text: Under the culinary definition, the meat from adult or "gamey" mammals (for example, beef, horse meat, mutton, venison, boar, hare) is red meat, while that from young mammals (rabbit, veal, lamb) is white. Poultry is white. Most cuts of pork are red, others are white. Game is sometimes put in a separate category altogether. (French: "viandes noires" — "dark meats".) Some meats (lamb, pork) are classified differently by different writers.


title: Red meat

text: According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), all meats obtained from mammals (regardless of cut or age) are red meats because they contain more myoglobin than fish or white meat (but not necessarily dark meat) from chicken. Some cuts of pork are considered white under the culinary definition, but all pork is considered red meat in nutritional studies. The National Pork Board has positioned it as "the other white meat", profiting from the ambiguity to suggest that pork has the nutritional properties of white meat, which is considered more healthful.


title: Red meat

text: Red meat contains large amounts of iron, creatine, minerals such as zinc and phosphorus, and B-vitamins: (niacin, vitamin B, thiamin and riboflavin). Red meat is a source of lipoic acid.


title: Red meat

text: Red meat contains small amounts of vitamin D. Offal such as liver contains much higher quantities than other parts of the animal.


title: Red meat

text: In 2011, the USDA launched MyPlate, which did not distinguish between kinds of meat, but did recommend eating at least of fish each week. In 2011, the Harvard School of Public Health launched the Healthy Eating Plate in part because of the perceived inadequacies of the USDA's recommendations. The Healthy Eating Plate encourages consumers to avoid processed meat and limit red meat consumption to twice a week because of links to heart disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. To replace these meats it recommends consuming fish, poultry, beans, or nuts.


title: Red meat

text: Overall, diets high in red and processed meats are associated with an increased risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer (particularly colorectal cancer), and all-cause mortality. These associations are strongest for processed meat, which is meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance flavor or improve preservation, such as bacon, ham, salami, pepperoni, hot dogs, and some sausages.


title: Red meat

text: A 2013 meta-analysis found a moderate positive association between processed meat consumption and mortality, mainly due to cardiovascular diseases and cancer. A 2016 literature review found that for the each additional 50g per day of processed meat consumed, the risk increased 4% for total prostate cancer, 8% for cancer mortality, 9% for breast cancer, 18% for colorectal cancer, 19% for pancreatic cancer, 13% for stroke, 24% for cardiovascular mortality and 32% for diabetes. This is reflected by a 2021 umbrella review that sees an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8-72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat.


title: Red meat

text: The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization (WHO) classifies processed meat as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on "sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer." Unprocessed red meat is categorised as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect."


title: Red meat

text: A 2011 meta-analysis concluded that "high intake of red and processed meat is associated with significant increased risk of colorectal, colon and rectal cancers", in line with a 2007 review by the World Cancer Research Fund and the American Institute of Cancer Research. Put in perspective, in the UK, 56 out of 1000 people who eat the lowest amount of processed meat will develop colorectal cancer (5.6%) while 66 out of 1000 high processed meat eaters will develop colorectal cancer (6.6%).


title: Red meat

text: A 2012 meta-analysis found an increased risk of gastric cancer associated with higher consumption of red or processed meat. Positive associations have also been observed between red meat consumption and increased risks of pancreatic cancer and prostate cancer but the link is not as clear.


title: Red meat

text: Nitrates and nitrites found in processed meat can be converted by the human body into nitrosamines that can be carcinogenic, causing mutation in the colorectal cell line, thereby causing tumorigenesis and eventually leading to cancer. Processed meat is more carcinogenic compared to red meat because of the abundance of potent nitrosyl-heme molecules that form N-nitroso compounds.


title: Red meat

text: A 2017 literature review indicated there are numerous potential carcinogens of colorectal tissue in red meat, particularly those in processed red meat products, such as N-nitroso compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heterocyclic amines (HCAs). Cooking meat with "high-temperature methods, such as pan frying or grilling directly over an open flame", also causes formation of PAHs and HCAs.


title: Red meat

text: A 2017 systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical research on stroke outcomes associated with meat consumption showed that total meat consumption, red meat consumption, and processed red meat consumption increased the risk of stroke by 18%, 11%, and 17%, respectively, while consuming white meat (chicken) reduced the risk of stroke by 13%. Factors associated with increased stroke risk from consuming red meat include saturated fats that increase levels of blood cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and heme iron, which may precipitate atherogenesis in cerebral arteries, leading to stroke.


title: Red meat

text: As of 2020, there is substantial evidence for a link between high consumption of red meat and coronary heart disease. A 2021 review conducted by researchers at the University of Oxford of studies involving over 1.4 million people concluded that each 50g per day increase in the consumption of processed and unprocessed red meat increased the risk of coronary heart disease by 18% and 9%, respectively.


title: Red meat

text: Unprocessed red meat intake is tentatively associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes, but the link is weaker and less certain than the link between processed red meat and diabetes. Red meat consumption has been associated with higher fasting glucose and insulin concentrations, which are risk factors for type 2 diabetes. Daily consumption of 85 grams of red meat and 35 grams of processed red meat products by European and American consumers increased their risk of type 2 diabetes by 18–36%, while a diet of abstinence of red meat consuming whole grains, vegetables, fruits, and dairy was associated with an 81% reduced risk of diabetes. One study estimated that "substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type 2 diabetes".


title: Reiss Nelson

text: Reiss Luke Nelson ( ; born 10 December 1999) is an English professional footballer who plays as a winger for Premier League club Arsenal.


title: Reiss Nelson

text: Nelson was born in Elephant and Castle, London He grew up in Aylesbury Estate in Walworth and attended the London Nautical School. He became friends with fellow aspiring footballer Jadon Sancho, who lived nearby, after they played together in youth tournaments.


title: Reiss Nelson

text: Nelson joined the Arsenal academy when he was nine years old and made a great impression on youth coaches, regularly being moved up to squads above his age group. He played 35 games for the Arsenal youth teams, including nine games in the U-21 team, in the 2016–17 campaign. Following several impressive performances in the youth teams, he signed his first professional contract with Arsenal on 10 December 2016, his 17th birthday. Arsène Wenger included Nelson in the squad for 2017–18 pre-season tour.


title: Reiss Nelson

text: On 19 July 2017, Nelson made his first senior appearance against Bayern Munich in a 2017 International Champions Cup pre-season match. He made his first competitive appearance for Arsenal's first team in the Community Shield, coming on as a substitute against Chelsea – Arsenal went on to win 4–1 on penalties.


title: Reiss Nelson

text: On 14 September 2017, Nelson made his European debut as he came on as a substitute for Theo Walcott at the 82nd-minute mark in the Europa League match against FC Köln. He made his first start for the club against Doncaster Rovers in the League Cup on 20 September 2017.


title: Reiss Nelson

text: Reiss had an impressive season with the Arsenal U23 squad, scoring 9 goals, assisting 3 in 11 appearances as Arsenal won the 2017–18 PL2.


title: Reiss Nelson

text: On 20 January 2018, Nelson made his Premier League debut in a 4–1 win against Crystal Palace, coming on as a substitute in the 72nd minute. On 8 April 2018, he made his first Premier League start in a 3–2 win over Southampton, being substituted off in the 64th minute for Jack Wilshere. On 17 May 2018, Nelson was awarded the PL2 Player of the Year.


title: Reiss Nelson

text: On 31 August 2018, Nelson signed a long-term contract with Arsenal, then went on season-long loan at German club 1899 Hoffenheim for a loan fee of €500,000. On 15 September 2018, he made his debut as a 72nd-minute substitute away to Fortuna Düsseldorf, and within 14 minutes of entering the field of play, Nelson scored for Hoffenheim, scoring a consolation goal for the club in a 2–1 loss. Reiss had an impressive season for Hoffenheim, scoring 7 goals in just 587 minutes of action at such a young age.


title: Reiss Nelson

text: Hoffenheim's coach Julian Nagelsmann orchestrated the move for Nelson, calling him "...an incredible player in one-on-one situations". He also hailed Nelson's talent, claiming "he had the abilities to reach the levels of elite players in football such as Lionel Messi, Cristiano Ronaldo [and] Arjen Robben [if] he maintained his consistency and mentality".


title: Reiss Nelson

text: After a successful season on loan, Nelson returned to Arsenal ahead of the 2019–20 Premier League season. He was promoted to the first team by manager Unai Emery and given the number 24. Nelson was handed his first two starts of the season in Arsenal's opening games against Newcastle United and Burnley. On 24 September 2019, Nelson started and played the full 90-minute of Arsenal's 5–0 EFL Cup victory against Nottingham Forest. He scored his debut goal for the first team, adding a fourth for Arsenal in the 84th minute. He was out with a knee injury during the months of October and November. He made his return on 9 December, coming off the bench for a short cameo in a 3–1 win over Southampton.


title: Reiss Nelson

text: Nelson scored his second goal of the season on 6 January, in Arsenal's 1–0 home win over Leeds United in the FA Cup. Nelson suffered a hamstring strain in mid-January, making his return off the bench on 7 March, in a 1–0 win over West Ham United.


title: Reiss Nelson

text: After the three-month suspension of the Premier League due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Nelson often was Mikel Arteta's favoured attacking substitute. On 15 July 2020, Nelson scored his first Premier League goal, starting in a 2–1 win against Liverpool. Nelson was in the squad as Arsenal won their 14th FA Cup against Chelsea on 1 August 2020. On 29 August 2020, Nelson came on as a substitute, taking and scoring the first penalty in a shootout win against Liverpool in the Community Shield after the game ended 1–1.


title: Reiss Nelson

text: On 31 August 2021, Nelson moved on loan to the Netherlands to join Eredivisie side Feyenoord for the 2021–22 season. Nelson got his first assist during injury time for the club on 7 November 2021 against AZ Alkmaar after coming on as a substitute.


title: Reiss Nelson

text: On 30 October 2022, he scored a brace in his first Premier League match of the season in a 5–0 win over Nottingham Forest.


title: Reiss Nelson

text: In May 2016, Nelson was part of the England national under-17 football team that reached the quarter-finals of the 2016 UEFA European Under-17 Championship, playing four games and scoring three goals. His performances during the competition led to his inclusion in the team of the tournament.


title: Reiss Nelson

text: In March 2018, Nelson scored twice for England under-19 against Hungary in a qualifier for the 2018 UEFA European Under-19 Championship. He was one of a number of players withdrawn from selection for the tournament by their club.


title: Reiss Nelson

text: On 11 October 2018, Nelson made his U21 debut against Andorra, coming on as a second-half substitute; he scored the "Young Lions"' sixth goal with a backheel in stoppage time in a 7–0 victory that secured qualification for the 2019 UEFA European Under-21 Championship.


title: Reiss Nelson

text: Although also eligible for Zimbabwe, Nelson specified in 2018 that he aimed to play for England in the long term, saying that playing for England would be "a dream come true".


title: Reiss Nelson

text: On 27 May 2019, Nelson was included in England's 23-man squad for the 2019 UEFA European Under-21 Championship and scored from the penalty spot in his only appearance; a 3–3 draw with Croatia at the San Marino Stadium on 24 June 2019.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: The Bombardier Challenger 600 series is a family of business jets developed by Canadair after a Bill Lear concept, and then produced from 1986 by its new owner, Bombardier Aerospace.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: At the end of 1975, Canadair began funding the development of LearStar 600, and then bought the design for a wide-cabin business jet in April 1976.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: On 29 October, the programme was launched, backed by the Canadian federal government, and designed to comply with new FAR part 25 standards.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: In March 1977, it was renamed the Challenger 600 after Bill Lear was phased out, and the original conventional tail was changed for a T-tail among other developments.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: The flight test program saw a deadly crash on 3 April 1980, but Transport Canada approved the CL-600 type certification on 10 August 1980.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: The jet was later stretched into the Bombardier CRJ regional airliner, introduced on 19 October 1992, and the longer range Global Express, introduced in July 1999.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: The 500th Challenger was rolled out in May 2000, and the 1000th was delivered to NetJets in December 2015.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: The Challenger is a low-wing jet powered by two turbofans mounted in aft fuselage pods, with a supercritical wing and a stand-up cabin with two seating sections.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: The original Lycoming ALF 502 turbofans were replaced by a pair of General Electric CF34s on the CL-601, which also gained winglets, and first flew on 10 April 1982.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: Around 1974, American aviation inventor Bill Lear conceptualised the LearStar 600, a low-wing, long-distance business jet, which was powered by a pair of Garrett TFE731-1 geared turbofan engines and equipped with a supercritical wing. Lear lacked the capabilities to launch such an aircraft, thus sought out other agencies to collaborate with to both produce and sell it, including the Canadian aerospace manufacturer Canadair. According to authors Ron Picklet and Larry Milberry, Canadair's top management were of the opinion that Lear's concept was sketchy at best. Lear did not have an expert grasp of aeronautical engineering; so far, he had only been able to pay an American aeronautical consultant to undertake very preliminary design explorations.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: Following a study, contrasting the proposed Learstar against rivals such as the Lockheed Jetstar, Dassault Falcon 50, and Grumman Gulfstream II, Canadair decided to give its backing to the idea near the end of 1975. According to aerospace industry publication "Flight International", the programme was viewed by many Canadians as a step towards developing a privately driven high-technology aviation industry that would compete at a global level. Perhaps more importantly, the Canadian government had issued a demand that Canadair become self-sufficient, thus the company wanted to depend less upon subcontracting arrangements with other firms, such as France's Dassault Aviation and America's Boeing, or providing support packages for existing aircraft for which they had already ended production, such as the CF-5 fighter. Canadair felt a need to prove its ability to independently develop original high-tech projects at this time.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: Canadair planned to use Lear's name and skills at self-promotion to secure extensive financial guarantees for a business-jet project from the Canadian federal government. This proved an effective choice: Future Prime Minister Jean Chrétien specifically refers to the effect of personal contact with Lear on his decision to direct financial support to Canadair's program. At the time of these events, Chrétien was successively president of the Treasury Board, minister of Industry, Trade, and Commerce, and minister of Finance, in the Canadian government. Due to the use of letters of comfort, the extent of the ministry's financial commitments for Canadair could be kept from parliament and the public for several years. These financial guarantees were later used as an academic example of insufficient monitoring and lax controls in government support of industry.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: In April 1976, Canadair acquired the LearStar 600 concept. By then it was a long by wide aircraft capable of a maximum speed of Mach 0.85 and a range of ; as an executive jet, it had sufficient capacity for 14 passengers; in a freighter configuration, it had a 3,400 kg (7,500 lb) payload capacity, loaded and unloaded through a forward door, or as commuter airliner, it could seat up to 30 passengers in a 2–1 seating configuration. Canadair developed the design into a large airframe furnished with a new supercritical wing design, new avionics and engines, as well as for compliance with new FAR part 25 standards. The configuration was frozen in August and a 1/25 model was tested in the National Aeronautical Establishment transonic wind tunnel. Reportedly, in excess of 1,800 hours of wind tunnel testing were performed upon the supercritical wing alone.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: Backed by the federal government, the programme was launched on 29 October 1976 with firm orders and deposits for 53 aircraft. Within the next two years, roughly 2,500 employees would be involved in designing the aircraft. Various changes to the original Learstar configuration had been made on the run up to launch, such as the conventional tailplane being substituted for a T-tail counterpart after the former was found to be in the path of the engine's exhaust flow, the relocation of fuel storage to the wings, and multiple increases of the aircraft's gross weight. Following disagreements over the direction of the programme, Bill Lear was phased out of involvement; accordingly, in March 1977, the aircraft was renamed the Challenger 600. Reportedly, following his disassociation with the venture, Lear referred to Canadair's revised design as "Fat Albert". Following Lear's death in May 1978, Canadair paid an estimated $25 million to his estate for his contribution to the programme.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: Due to the expansion of the design, the original powerplant configuration became untenable; thus, engine manufacturer Lycoming proposed developing a new model, the Lycoming ALF 502L, which Canadair's design team accepted for the enlarged Challenger, and around which drew up its general arrangement. The type's wide cargo door had been designed in response to the needs of FedEx, the type's original launch customer, having placed an order for 25 aircraft. Additionally, FedEx had experienced problems with the General Electric CF34 engines, and favoured the Lycoming ALF 502D, instead; those later had delivery troubles and lacked performance. Reportedly, FedEx converted most of its orders into the Challenger's stretched version, intending to carry up to 12,500 lb of freight at a time using them. However, FedEx ultimately opted to cancel its orders due to the US Airline Deregulation Act, and the specific aircraft that were already in production were sold to other customers, instead.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: By the spring of 1977, Canadair had received over 70 firm orders and had begun constructing three prototypes. Furthermore, a $70 million loan was borrowed from European sources to help finance the programme, which lessened the financial burden on the Canadian government. A full-scale fuselage mockup was displayed at the 1977 Paris Air Show before a European and North American tour, and 106 had been sold by 1977 end. During late 1977, in the face of criticism that the project would not be capable of producing an aircraft fulfilling the performance guarantees made, Canadair officials had commented that they expected the first flight to occur in the following year and that initial deliveries had been scheduled to commence during September 1979. "Flight International" noted that even prior to the prototype's first flight, the type had already made a noticeable impact upon the competition, including the launch of the Cessna Citation III and Grumman Gulfstream III.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: By early March 1978, the first prototype was almost finished and the assembly of the two other had debuted; destined to control handling qualities and test flight performance, it was formally rolled out on 25 May 1978, while 116 orders had been confirmed 19 months after go-ahead. By this point, production jigs allowing for a production rate of up to seven Challengers per month had been established, ready for quantity production to proceed. Airframe structural testing began in February 1979. and operational test cycling started in December 1979, simulating 72,638 flight hours by February 1985, while its predicted lifetime was 30,000 hours.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: On 8 November 1978, the prototype aircraft took off for its maiden flight from Montreal, Quebec. The flight test and certification program were conducted at Mojave Kern County Airport instead of Canada due to better weather. The second and third prototypes first flew during 1979. A test flight on 3 April 1980 in the Mojave Desert resulted in disaster; the aircraft crashed due to the failure of the release mechanism to detach the recovery chute after a deep stall, killing one of the test pilots; the other test pilot and the flight test engineer parachuted to safety.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: The CL-600-1A11 type certification was approved by Transport Canada on 10 August 1980, and by the US Federal Aviation Administration on 7 November.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: During 1980, the first production model of the Challenger series, the CL-600, entered service with end customers. Early marketing of the type by Canadair typically contrasted the more spacious cabin offered by the Challenger against its competitors, which typically had more narrow fuselages, and therefore cramped conditions, as well as the type's fuel economy. By 1982, while only 10 aircraft had entered service, the company had begun publicising a new model of the aircraft, the CL-601, which was to be powered by a pair of General Electric CF34 turbofan engines in place of the original models’ Lycoming units. On 10 April 1982, the CL-601 performed its maiden flight. According to Flight International, the decision to adopt the CF34 engine for the new model was responsible for generating a substantial boom in Challenger sales.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: According to "Flight International", the slow initial sales of the Challenger heavily contributed to the near-bankruptcy of Canadair, which was only avoided by the purchase of the company by Bombardier in 1986. Bombardier elected not only to continue production of the type, but also to finance the development of new models and derivatives. This choice was aided by Canadair's design decision to enable the Challenger to be readily stretched from the onset. As of October 2018, the best-selling variant of the Challenger series has been the CL-604, which was launched in 1995. The 500th aircraft was rolled out in May 2000. The 1000th, a 650, was delivered to NetJets in December 2015.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: According to "Flight International", the Challenger 600 has been a foothold in the market for Bombardier, allowing them to more easily develop further business jets, such as the Bombardier Global Express; another direct derivative of the Challenger series has been the Bombardier CRJ100 series, a larger regional airliner. The publication also commented that the Challenger family "appears to have a solid future", observing a production rate of two aircraft per month throughout 2018.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: The Challenger is a twin-engined business jet, described by "Flight International" as being a "miniaturised twinjet airliner in every respect". While the Challenger is generally similar in configuration to previous aircraft of its type, some of its features stand out; for example, a widened fuselage allows a "walk-about cabin". The Challenger was also one of the first business jets to be designed with a supercritical wing. The wing was referred to by Canadair as being one of the aircraft's most advanced features. It is also capable of performing short takeoffs while maintaining the speed and comfort levels normally associated with larger jetliners.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: The Challenger's wing has been referred to as being a modified NACA symmetrical aerofoil. Akin to other supercritical wings, it features a rounded leading edge, an inverted camber, a blunt trailing edge and scalloping of the underside. The twin-spar wing box structure spans the entire length of the wing and is compartmentalised to form five internal fuel tanks; these tanks can accommodate up to 14,661 lb of fuel, nearly half the aircraft's empty weight. The skins of the wings are produced using large milling machines, which in 1978 were claimed to be superior to anything else in North America. Many elements, such as the flaps, ailerons, and leading edge, feature conventional construction, but several parts, including the wing/fuselage fairing, flap shrouds, and wingtips, are moulded out of Kevlar, as are other elements of the aircraft.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: The original CL-600 Challenger was powered by two Lycoming ALF 502L turbofan engines, which were developed specifically for the Challenger. Subsequent models adopted other powerplants, including the General Electric CF34 engine. The engines are mounted on the rear fuselage close to the aircraft's tail, providing smooth airflow to the engines even when flown at high angles of attack, although this was in a lower position than the original LearStar concept had placed them to mitigate unfavourable pitch control characteristics. The engines are fitted with thrust reversers to decrease landing distances. An auxiliary power unit is also present for starting the engines and providing air conditioning within the cabin while on the ground.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: The fuselage comprises three sections — the nose, centre, and tail — which are manufactured separately in their own jigs and joined late on in the production process. It has been designed to be pressurised at a maximum differential of 9.3 lb/sq in. Various cutouts are present across the fuselage to accommodate various features, such as a large main door on the port side of the aircraft forward of the wing, multiple regulation-compliant emergency exits, a baggage hatch on the port-side aft of the wing, and numerous windows. The fuselage diameter was designed to accommodate an unobstructed cabin floor, a cabin height of 6 ft 1 in in the centre section, and space for the wing box, underfloor integral fuel tanks, air ducts, and various control cabling. It was also designed to easily accommodate Canadair's early plans to stretch the fuselage, for which equal-length plugs are installed fore and aft of the centre section to greatly increase the Challenger's capacity.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: Various avionics are present in the Challenger. As standard, the CL-600 is furnished with a dual-channel Sperry SPZ-600 automatic flight control system, incorporating a flight director and air data computers; more typical to larger commercial aircraft, this system is certifiable for conducting Category 3A automatic landings. The flight control system features significant redundancy, including three individual hydraulic systems; even with complete failure and the loss of one actuator, a viable level of assisted control over the key flight surfaces remains present. Weather radar and Marconi-built solid-state instrument displays are supplied as standard, as well as a Collins-built radio set; optional long-range, radio-based equipment, such as a HF radio set and VHF navigational aids can be installed.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: In a standard executive aircraft configuration, the cabin is divided between the forward galley, and two seating sections, which are typically fitted with a four-chair club section followed by either a conference grouping area or divans, along with a lavatory at the aft end. The chairs are fully reclining and can swivel, while the divans can serve as sleeping accommodation. Early examples feature luxuries such as telephones, lighting controls, and stereo systems; foldaway tables attached to the cabin walls were also installed, along with a pair of wardrobes, one fore and one aft, for storing hand luggage and other small items.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: Built from 1996 through 2006, over 360 were delivered; early ones were selling for $4.0–$4.5 million and late models for less than $8 million in 2016.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: With operating empty weights, it carries six or seven passengers and full fuel with the increased MTOW, is able to cruise 7.5–8.0 hr at Mach 0.80 and to fly five passengers 4,000 nm at Mach 0.74 up to FL 410.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: Thrust lapse as altitude increases, hefty power, and wing loadings affects hot-and-high performance; it takes off in for under missions, in at MTOW and sea level, but in at ISA+20C and altitudes, TOW is reduced to to meet climb requirements.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: Scheduled maintenance is done every 200 h or six months, and major inspections are made every 96 months, and includes $110,000 landing-gear overhauls, the CF34-3B turbofans cost $375 per engine per hour.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: The 605 and 650 improve the avionics and cabin, but their performance figures are similar to the 604.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: Including the Challenger 300 and Challenger 850, the 1,600 Bombardier Challengers in-service had logged 7.3 million hours and over 4.3 million flights by early 2017.


title: Bombardier Challenger 600 series

text: By October 2018, the global Challenger fleet amounted to 997: of these, 611 were based in North America, 151 in Europe, 93 in Latin America, 78 in Asia-Pacific, 37 in Africa and 23 in Middle East.


title: Molecular biology

text: Molecular biology is the branch of biology that seeks to understand the molecular basis of biological activity in and between cells, including biomolecular synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions. The study of chemical and physical structure of biological macromolecules is known as molecular biology.


title: Molecular biology

text: Molecular biology was first described as an approach focused on the underpinnings of biological phenomena - uncovering the structures of biological molecules as well as their interactions, and how these interactions explain observations of classical biology.


title: Molecular biology

text: In 1945 the term molecular biology was used by physicist William Astbury. In 1953 Francis Crick, James Watson, Rosalind Franklin, and colleagues, working at Medical Research Council unit, Cavendish laboratory, Cambridge (now the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology), made a double helix model of DNA which changed the entire research scenario. They proposed the DNA structure based on previous research done by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins. This research then lead to finding DNA material in other microorganisms, plants and animals.


title: Molecular biology

text: Molecular biology is not simply the study of biological molecules and their interactions; rather, it is also a collection of techniques developed since the field's genesis which have enabled scientists to learn about molecular processes. In this way it has both complemented and improved biochemistry and genetics as methods (of understanding nature) that began before its advent. One notable technique which has revolutionized the field is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which was developed in 1983. PCR is a reaction which amplifies small quantities of DNA, and it is used in many applications across scientific disciplines.


title: Molecular biology

text: The central dogma of molecular biology describes the process in which DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into protein.


title: Molecular biology

text: Molecular biology also plays a critical role in the understanding of structures, functions, and internal controls within individual cells, all of which can be used to efficiently target new drugs, diagnose disease, and better understand cell physiology. Some clinical research and medical therapies arising from molecular biology are covered under gene therapy whereas the use of molecular biology or molecular cell biology in medicine is now referred to as molecular medicine.


title: Molecular biology

text: Molecular biology sits at the intersection of biochemistry and genetics; as these scientific disciplines emerged and evolved in the 20th century, it became clear that they both sought to determine the molecular mechanisms which underlie vital cellular functions. Advances in molecular biology have been closely related to the development of new technologies and their optimization. Molecular biology has been elucidated by the work of many scientists, and thus the history of the field depends on an understanding of these scientists and their experiments.


title: Molecular biology

text: The field of genetics arose as an attempt to understand the molecular mechanisms of genetic inheritance and the structure of a gene. Gregor Mendel pioneered this work in 1866, when he first wrote the laws of genetic inheritance based on his studies of mating crosses in pea plants. One such law of genetic inheritance is the law of segregation, which states that diploid individuals with two alleles for a particular gene will pass one of these alleles to their offspring. Because of his critical work, the study of genetic inheritance is commonly referred to as Mendelian genetics.


title: Molecular biology

text: A major milestone in molecular biology was the discovery of the structure of DNA. This work began in 1869 by Friedrich Miescher, a Swiss biochemist who first proposed a structure called "nuclein", which we now know to be (deoxyribonucleic acid), or DNA. He discovered this unique substance by studying the components of pus-filled bandages, and noting the unique properties of the "phosphorus-containing substances". Another notable contributor to the DNA model was Phoebus Levene, who proposed the "polynucleotide model" of DNA in 1919 as a result of his biochemical experiments on yeast. In 1950, Erwin Chargaff expanded on the work of Levene and elucidated a few critical properties of nucleic acids: first, the sequence of nucleic acids varies across species. Second, the total concentration of purines (adenine and guanine) is always equal to the total concentration of pyrimidines (cysteine and thymine). This is now known as Chargaff's rule. In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick published the double helical structure of DNA, using the X-ray crystallography work done by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins. Watson and Crick described the structure of DNA and conjectured about the implications of this unique structure for possible mechanisms of DNA replication.


title: Molecular biology

text: J. D. Watson and F. H. C. Crick were awarded Nobel prize in 1962, along with Maurice Wilkens, for proposing a model of the structure of DNA.


title: Molecular biology

text: In 1961, it was demonstrated that when a gene encodes a protein, three sequential bases of a gene's DNA specify each successive amino acid of the protein. Thus the genetic code is a triplet code, where each triplet (called a codon) specifies a particular amino acid. Furthermore, it was shown that the codons do not overlap with each other in the DNA sequence encoding a protein, and that each sequence is read from a fixed starting point.


title: Molecular biology

text: During 1962–1964, through the use of conditional lethal mutants of a bacterial virus, fundamental advances were made in our understanding of the functions and interactions of the proteins employed in the machinery of DNA replication, DNA repair, DNA recombination, and in the assembly of molecular structures.


title: Molecular biology

text: In 1928, Fredrick Griffith, encountered a virulence property in pneumococcus bacteria, which was killing lab rats. According to Mendel, prevalent at that time, gene transfer could occur only from parent to daughter cells only. Griffith advanced another theory, stating that gene transfer occurring in member of same generation is known as horizontal gene transfer (HGT). This phenomenon is now referred to as genetic transformation.


title: Molecular biology

text: Griffith addressed the "Streptococcus pneumoniae" bacteria, which had two different strains, one virulent and smooth and one avirulent and rough. The smooth strain had glistering appearance owing to the presence of a type of specific polysaccharide – a polymer of glucose and glucuronic acid capsule. Due to this polysaccharide layer of bacteria, a host's immune system cannot recognize the bacteria and it kills the host. The other, avirulent, rough strain lacks this polysaccharide capsule and has a dull, rough appearance.


title: Molecular biology

text: Presence or absence of capsule in the  strain, is known to be genetically determined. Smooth and rough strains occur in several different type such as S-I, S-II, S-III, etc. and R-I, R-II, R-III, etc. respectively. All this subtypes of S and R bacteria differ with each other in antigen type they produce.


title: Molecular biology

text: Confirmation that DNA is the genetic material which is cause of infection came from Hershey and Chase experiment. They used "E.coli" and bacteriophage for the experiment. This experiment is also known as blender experiment, as kitchen blender was used as a major piece of apparatus. "Alfred Hershey" and "Martha Chase" demonstrated that the DNA injected by a phage particle into a bacterium contains all information required to synthesize progeny phage particles. They used radioactivity to tag the bacteriophage's protein coat with radioactive sulphur and DNA with radioactive phosphorus, into two different test tubes respectively. After mixing bacteriophage and "E.coli" into the test tube, the incubation period starts in which phage transforms the genetic material in the "E.coli" cells. Then the mixture is blended or agitated, which separates the phage from "E.coli" cells. The whole mixture is centrifuged and the pellet which contains "E.coli" cells was checked and the supernatant was discarded. The "E.coli" cells showed radioactive phosphorus, which indicated that the transformed material was DNA not the protein coat.


title: Molecular biology

text: The transformed DNA gets attached to the DNA of "E.coli" and radioactivity is only seen onto the bacteriophage's DNA. This mutated DNA can be passed to the next generation and the theory of Transduction came into existence. Transduction is a process in which the bacterial DNA carry the fragment of bacteriophages and pass it on the next generation. This is also a type of horizontal gene transfer.


title: Molecular biology

text: In the early 2020s, molecular biology entered a golden age defined by both vertical and horizontal technical development. Vertically, novel technologies are allowing for real-time monitoring of biological processes at the atomic level. Molecular biologists today have access to increasingly affordable sequencing data at increasingly higher depths, facilitating the development of novel genetic manipulation methods in new non-model organisms. Likewise, synthetic molecular biologists will drive the industrial production of small and macro molecules through the introduction of exogenous metabolic pathways in various prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell lines.


title: Molecular biology

text: Horizontally, sequencing data is becoming more affordable and used in many different scientific fields. This will drive the development of industries in developing nations and increase accessibility to individual researchers. Likewise, CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing experiments can now be conceived and implemented by individuals for under $10,000 in novel organisms, which will drive the development of industrial and medical applications


title: Molecular biology

text: The following list describes a viewpoint on the interdisciplinary relationships between molecular biology and other related fields.


title: Molecular biology

text: While researchers practice techniques specific to molecular biology, it is common to combine these with methods from genetics and biochemistry. Much of molecular biology is quantitative, and recently a significant amount of work has been done using computer science techniques such as bioinformatics and computational biology. Molecular genetics, the study of gene structure and function, has been among the most prominent sub-fields of molecular biology since the early 2000s. Other branches of biology are informed by molecular biology, by either directly studying the interactions of molecules in their own right such as in cell biology and developmental biology, or indirectly, where molecular techniques are used to infer historical attributes of populations or species, as in fields in evolutionary biology such as population genetics and phylogenetics. There is also a long tradition of studying biomolecules "from the ground up", or molecularly, in biophysics.


title: Molecular biology

text: Molecular cloning is used to isolate and then transfer a DNA sequence of interest into a plasmid vector. This recombinant DNA technology was first developed in the 1960s. In this technique, a DNA sequence coding for a protein of interest is cloned using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and/or restriction enzymes, into a plasmid (expression vector). The plasmid vector usually has at least 3 distinctive features: an origin of replication, a multiple cloning site (MCS), and a selective marker (usually antibiotic resistance). Additionally, upstream of the MCS are the promoter regions and the transcription start site, which regulate the expression of cloned gene.


title: Molecular biology

text: This plasmid can be inserted into either bacterial or animal cells. Introducing DNA into bacterial cells can be done by transformation via uptake of naked DNA, conjugation via cell-cell contact or by transduction via viral vector. Introducing DNA into eukaryotic cells, such as animal cells, by physical or chemical means is called transfection. Several different transfection techniques are available, such as calcium phosphate transfection, electroporation, microinjection and liposome transfection. The plasmid may be integrated into the genome, resulting in a stable transfection, or may remain independent of the genome and expressed temporarily, called a transient transfection.


title: Molecular biology

text: DNA coding for a protein of interest is now inside a cell, and the protein can now be expressed. A variety of systems, such as inducible promoters and specific cell-signaling factors, are available to help express the protein of interest at high levels. Large quantities of a protein can then be extracted from the bacterial or eukaryotic cell. The protein can be tested for enzymatic activity under a variety of situations, the protein may be crystallized so its tertiary structure can be studied, or, in the pharmaceutical industry, the activity of new drugs against the protein can be studied.


title: Molecular biology

text: Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an extremely versatile technique for copying DNA. In brief, PCR allows a specific DNA sequence to be copied or modified in predetermined ways. The reaction is extremely powerful and under perfect conditions could amplify one DNA molecule to become 1.07 billion molecules in less than two hours. PCR has many applications, including the study of gene expression, the detection of pathogenic microorganisms, the detection of genetic mutations, and the introduction of mutations to DNA. The PCR technique can be used to introduce restriction enzyme sites to ends of DNA molecules, or to mutate particular bases of DNA, the latter is a method referred to as site-directed mutagenesis. PCR can also be used to determine whether a particular DNA fragment is found in a cDNA library. PCR has many variations, like reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) for amplification of RNA, and, more recently, quantitative PCR which allow for quantitative measurement of DNA or RNA molecules.


title: Molecular biology

text: Gel electrophoresis is a technique which separates molecules by their size using an agarose or polyacrylamide gel. This technique is one of the principal tools of molecular biology. The basic principle is that DNA fragments can be separated by applying an electric current across the gel - because the DNA backbone contains negatively charged phosphate groups, the DNA will migrate through the agarose gel towards the positive end of the current. Proteins can also be separated on the basis of size using an SDS-PAGE gel, or on the basis of size and their electric charge by using what is known as a 2D gel electrophoresis.


title: Molecular biology

text: The Bradford Assay is a molecular biology technique which enables the fast, accurate quantitation of protein molecules utilizing the unique properties of a dye called Coomassie Brilliant Blue G-250. Coomassie Blue undergoes a visible color shift from reddish-brown to bright blue upon binding to protein. In its unstable, cationic state, Coomassie Blue has a background wavelength of 465 nm and gives off a reddish-brown color. When Coomassie Blue binds to protein in an acidic solution, the background wavelength shifts to 595 nm and the dye gives off a bright blue color. Proteins in the assay bind Coomassie blue in about 2 minutes, and the protein-dye complex is stable for about an hour, although it's recommended that absorbance readings are taken within 5 to 20 minutes of reaction initiation. The concentration of protein in the Bradford assay can then be measured using a visible light spectrophotometer, and therefore does not require extensive equipment.


title: Molecular biology

text: This method was developed in 1975 by Marion M. Bradford, and has enabled significantly faster, more accurate protein quantitation compared to previous methods: the Lowry procedure and the biuret assay. Unlike the previous methods, the Bradford assay is not susceptible to interference by several non-protein molecules, including ethanol, sodium chloride, and magnesium chloride.  However, it is susceptible to influence by strong alkaline buffering agents, such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS).


title: Molecular biology

text: The terms "northern", "western" and "eastern" blotting are derived from what initially was a molecular biology joke that played on the term "Southern blotting", after the technique described by Edwin Southern for the hybridisation of blotted DNA. Patricia Thomas, developer of the RNA blot which then became known as the "northern blot", actually didn't use the term.


title: Molecular biology

text: Named after its inventor, biologist Edwin Southern, the Southern blot is a method for probing for the presence of a specific DNA sequence within a DNA sample. DNA samples before or after restriction enzyme (restriction endonuclease) digestion are separated by gel electrophoresis and then transferred to a membrane by blotting via capillary action. The membrane is then exposed to a labeled DNA probe that has a complement base sequence to the sequence on the DNA of interest. Southern blotting is less commonly used in laboratory science due to the capacity of other techniques, such as PCR, to detect specific DNA sequences from DNA samples. These blots are still used for some applications, however, such as measuring transgene copy number in transgenic mice or in the engineering of gene knockout embryonic stem cell lines.


title: Molecular biology

text: The northern blot is used to study the presence of specific RNA molecules as relative comparison among a set of different samples of RNA. It is essentially a combination of denaturing RNA gel electrophoresis, and a blot. In this process RNA is separated based on size and is then transferred to a membrane that is then probed with a labeled complement of a sequence of interest. The results may be visualized through a variety of ways depending on the label used; however, most result in the revelation of bands representing the sizes of the RNA detected in sample. The intensity of these bands is related to the amount of the target RNA in the samples analyzed. The procedure is commonly used to study when and how much gene expression is occurring by measuring how much of that RNA is present in different samples, assuming that no post-transcriptional regulation occurs and that the levels of mRNA reflect proportional levels of the corresponding protein being produced. It is one of the most basic tools for determining at what time, and under what conditions, certain genes are expressed in living tissues.


title: Molecular biology

text: A western blot is a technique by which specific proteins can be detected from a mixture of proteins. Western blots can be used to determine the size of isolated proteins, as well as to quantify their expression. In western blotting, proteins are first separated by size, in a thin gel sandwiched between two glass plates in a technique known as SDS-PAGE. The proteins in the gel are then transferred to a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), nitrocellulose, nylon, or other support membrane. This membrane can then be probed with solutions of antibodies. Antibodies that specifically bind to the protein of interest can then be visualized by a variety of techniques, including colored products, chemiluminescence, or autoradiography. Often, the antibodies are labeled with enzymes. When a chemiluminescent substrate is exposed to the enzyme it allows detection. Using western blotting techniques allows not only detection but also quantitative analysis. Analogous methods to western blotting can be used to directly stain specific proteins in live cells or tissue sections.


title: Molecular biology

text: The eastern blotting technique is used to detect post-translational modification of proteins. Proteins blotted on to the PVDF or nitrocellulose membrane are probed for modifications using specific substrates.


title: Molecular biology

text: A DNA microarray is a collection of spots attached to a solid support such as a microscope slide where each spot contains one or more single-stranded DNA oligonucleotide fragments. Arrays make it possible to put down large quantities of very small (100 micrometre diameter) spots on a single slide. Each spot has a DNA fragment molecule that is complementary to a single DNA sequence. A variation of this technique allows the gene expression of an organism at a particular stage in development to be qualified (expression profiling). In this technique the RNA in a tissue is isolated and converted to labeled complementary DNA (cDNA). This cDNA is then hybridized to the fragments on the array and visualization of the hybridization can be done. Since multiple arrays can be made with exactly the same position of fragments, they are particularly useful for comparing the gene expression of two different tissues, such as a healthy and cancerous tissue. Also, one can measure what genes are expressed and how that expression changes with time or with other factors.


title: Molecular biology

text: There are many different ways to fabricate microarrays; the most common are silicon chips, microscope slides with spots of ~100 micrometre diameter, custom arrays, and arrays with larger spots on porous membranes (macroarrays). There can be anywhere from 100 spots to more than 10,000 on a given array. Arrays can also be made with molecules other than DNA.


title: Molecular biology

text: Allele-specific oligonucleotide (ASO) is a technique that allows detection of single base mutations without the need for PCR or gel electrophoresis. Short (20–25 nucleotides in length), labeled probes are exposed to the non-fragmented target DNA, hybridization occurs with high specificity due to the short length of the probes and even a single base change will hinder hybridization. The target DNA is then washed and the labeled probes that didn't hybridize are removed. The target DNA is then analyzed for the presence of the probe via radioactivity or fluorescence. In this experiment, as in most molecular biology techniques, a control must be used to ensure successful experimentation.


title: Molecular biology

text: In molecular biology, procedures and technologies are continually being developed and older technologies abandoned. For example, before the advent of DNA gel electrophoresis (agarose or polyacrylamide), the size of DNA molecules was typically determined by rate sedimentation in sucrose gradients, a slow and labor-intensive technique requiring expensive instrumentation; prior to sucrose gradients, viscometry was used. Aside from their historical interest, it is often worth knowing about older technology, as it is occasionally useful to solve another new problem for which the newer technique is inappropriate.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam () is a 2018 Indian Tamil-language crime drama film directed by Mani Ratnam, co-written with Siva Ananth. Produced by Mani Ratnam under the banner Madras Talkies, along with Lyca Productions, the film features an ensemble cast including Arvind Swami,


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: Jyothika, Arun Vijay, Silambarasan,Vijay Sethupathi, Thiagarajan, Prakash Raj, Jayasudha, Aditi Rao Hydari, Aishwarya Rajesh, Dayana Erappa, and Mansoor Ali Khan.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: "Chekka Chivantha Vaanam" tells the story of three brothers who engage in a power struggle for control over their deceased father's criminal empire. The project was kick-started with A. R. Rahman and Santhosh Sivan as the music composer and the cinematographer, respectively. The team spent nearly six months for choosing the cast and crew, respectively, with subsequent changes. Principal photography of the film commenced in February 2018 and filming continuously took place on Chennai, Abu Dhabi, Dubai and Serbia until that June. The soundtrack and background score was composed by A. R. Rahman, while Santosh Sivan handled the cinematography and Sreekar Prasad edited the film.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: "Chekka Chivantha Vaanam" was released on 27 September 2018 to positive reception from critics and audiences, praising the direction and performances of the cast, but criticising it for lacking strong women characters. "Chekka Chivantha Vaanam" won two awards at the Ananda Vikatan Cinema Awards, and one award each at the Behindwoods Gold Medal Film Festival, and Norway Tamil Film Festival Awards, while it was nominated for the 8th South Indian International Movie Awards.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: Senapathi is a 60 year-old billionaire in Chennai, god-fearing boss of a powerful crime family, and benami of multiple politicians. While on the way back from a temple with his wife, Lakshmi, to celebrate their wedding anniversary, assassins disguised as policemen, attempt to kill Senapathi and Lakshmi, despite being escorted by heavily armed men. However, they escape the assault with minor injuries. Senapathi's children – a daughter and three sons – are notified of this.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: The eldest son, Varadharajan, runs the bigger part of his crime empire, based in Chennai. He is married to Chitra and has 3 children. The second, Thyagarajan aka Thyagu, operates his hawala business in Dubai with Arabs, laundering his father's income. He is married to Renu and has 2 children. The third, Ethirajan aka Ethi, runs the independent Serbian section of Senapathi's weapons empire. He is engaged to Chaaya. Senapathi's daughter, Priya, is married to an industrialist, based in Coimbatore. Thyagu, Ethi and a heavily pregnant Priya, return home, after hearing about the attack on their parents.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: Meanwhile, Varadan tries contacting his childhood friend, Inspector Rasool Ibrahim, for information behind the ambush on Senapathi. Rasool has been recently suspended on a human rights violation, by beating a young boy during an investigation, for a case. Soon, after his arrival and meeting up with Varadan, they discuss the attack and about the potential mastermind behind it, with Chinnappadasan, a longtime rival of Senapathi, being the most probable. Although Chinnappadasan denies being the one behind the attack, Varadan kills Chinnappa's son-in-law, creating a gang war by sending a person to shoot Thyagu in the lawn, men to shoot Ethi and Rasool, during a casual football match with his friends, on the beach, and some of his henchmen to shoot Varadhan, which they all miss.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: At the same time, Senapathi regains health, and Priya delivers a boy. During their meetup with Chinnappadasan at the new baby's naming function, Senapathi tells him that he is aware of who the culprit is, and makes peace. Senapathi reveals to Lakshmi that one of their sons is behind this. Thyagu and his family leave for Dubai, while Ethi returns to Serbia, for his wedding with Chaaya. Soon after, Senapathi dies from a sudden stroke, and the brothers start a power struggle over who will be the next "king to the throne". A feud begins between them, after Varadan takes control of his father's domestic empire. Further, he conspires against his brothers, by harming their wives and hiring men to kill them. Chaaya is killed by a sniper while honeymooning with Ethi. Renuka is arrested on false charges and imprisoned for life in Dubai.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: Ethi and Thyagu join hands to seek vengeance against Varadan, on the condition that, Thyagu will be the sole king over the whole empire. They try to get back to India, via Nepal, but are captured by Varadan's men at the airport. Ethi and Thyagu thrash the men and inform Varadan, before escaping and reaching Chennai. They overpower Varadan, by manipulating his henchmen, promising them higher wages and a better life, overall. They kill their maternal uncle Chezhiyan, who is Varadan's father-in-law (Chitra's father), and capture Varadan's lover, Parvathi. Ethi manages to bribe Rasool into working for them. Fearing that his brothers may harm his family, Varadan sends his family away to Coimbatore and flees from Chennai, with Chitra.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: During a night shootout in Andhra Pradesh, Chitra is shot. In the hospital, before she dies, Varadan reveals to her that he hired the assassins to kill Senapathi, so that he could succeed in getting his father's place and take over the empire. Ethi and Thyagu catch Varadan with Rasool's help. In the midst of the confrontation, Thyagu kills Varadan, for framing and incarcerating Renuka. Subsequently, Ethi kills Thyagu, for hiring an assassin to kill Chaaya, after Thyagu revealed that he only did that to create a "spark". Ethi tries to lure Rasool at gunpoint, by offering to either "bite the dust or join him". Rasool stalls Ethi, by narrating how his father, a gangster, was gunned and killed at the Chennai airport, before him and his mother.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: Fearing for his life, Rasool's mother sent him to live with his uncle and aunt, before committing suicide. These events filled him with hatred of all gangsters and criminals, and became a cop, as a result. He also reveals to Ethi, that he is actually working undercover, to eliminate Senapathi's empire, and the rift between the brothers created a chance for him to bring down their empire of crime, once and for all. Rasool then proceeds to shoot and kill Ethi, before reporting to his superiors, that "Operation Red Sky" has been accomplished.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: Following a brief break after the release of "Kaatru Veliyidai" (2017), Mani Ratnam chose to begin pre-production on his next film by June 2017 and brought in composer A. R. Rahman and cinematographer Santosh Sivan for the project.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: In an interview given to Sudhir Srinivasan, Mani Ratnam revealed that Mughal emperor Aurangzeb's battle for the throne was the inspiration for the film.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: In July 2017, reports in the media suggested that Mani Ratnam's next film would feature four male characters, and actors Vijay Sethupathi, Arvind Swami, Fahadh Faasil and Dulquer Salmaan were in negotiations to play various roles. While the first three actors eventually accepted to work on the film, discussions with Dulquer fell through. Silambarasan later signed the film in early September 2017, and an official announcement from the production studio confirmed the four lead actors were attached to the project. Telugu actor Nani had also held discussions with Mani Ratnam for a role in the film, but was later not included in the final cast. Prior to the beginning of the shoot, Silambarasan undertook a weight loss regime to get into shape for his character. In the months leading up to the start of the shoot, there was speculation in the media that Silambarasan would be banned from the project after allegations were made by producer Michael Rayappan about the actor's deliberate lack of co-operation during the making of "Anbanavan Asaradhavan Adangadhavan" (2017). Despite protests from other film producers, Mani Ratnam chose to retain Silambarasan in the film. In a media interaction during January 2018, Vijay Sethupathi confirmed that he would portray a full-length role, denying reports which suggested that he had a cameo appearance. Fahadh later opted out due to scheduling conflicts with other projects, and was later replaced by Arun Vijay.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: Jyothika agreed to portray a leading female role in early September 2017, and confirmed her participation to the media while promoting "Magalir Mattum" (2017). She had earlier appeared in Mani Ratnam's production venture "Dumm Dumm Dumm" (2001), but stated her excitement at being selected in a film to be directed by him. Likewise, Aishwarya Rajesh also revealed her presence in the project during early September 2017, and expressed her delight working with Mani Ratnam. In late January 2018, Aditi Rao Hydari, who had appeared as the lead actress of Mani Ratnam's previous project "Kaatru Veliyidai" (2017), was also confirmed to be a part of the cast. Model Dayana Erappa also later joined the cast to play the fourth leading actress, marking her first acting assignment. She was cast after two rounds of auditions and then prepared for her role by attending workshops led by theater actors in Mumbai.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: For a supporting role, actress Jayasudha agreed to work on the film in November 2017, while Prakash Raj joined the cast during the following month to portray her husband. The production house revealed that actors Thiagarajan and Mansoor Ali Khan were also added to the cast before filming started. Furthermore, other supporting actors including Cheenu Mohan and Malayalam actor Antony Varghese were reported to have signed to play characters in the film, though Varghese was later replaced by Appani Sarath. Chennai-based radio jockey Sindhu also debuted as an actress, during the first schedule. Siva Ananth was credited as the co-writer, while Bejoy Nambiar worked as one of the creative producers. Dhilip Subbarayan was signed to choreograph the stunt sequences, while Sharmishta Roy and Eka Lakhani were signed as the production designer and costume designer, respectively.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: In late January 2018, prior to the start of the shoot, Lyca Productions agreed to purchase the rights of the film on a "first copy" basis and release it worldwide. Three days prior to the start of the shoot in February 2018, the film's title was announced as "Chekka Chivantha Vaanam" in Tamil, and as "Nawab" for the dubbed Telugu version. Principal photography began on 12 February 2018 on the outskirts of Chennai, with scenes shot on the East Coast Road and at the Apollo Hospital in Vanagaram during the first schedule. A second schedule began on 26 February 2018, with all members of the cast intermittently featuring in the shoot. As the second schedule progressed, cinematographer Santosh Sivan released images of the various actors on the sets of the film. The shoot continued in Chennai until mid-March, with a wedding scene, also shot, before being halted as a result of a film industry-wide production strike announced by the Tamil Film Producers Council, who were campaigning against extortionate rates employed by digital service providers.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: Following the strike, production resumed in Chennai on 25 April 2018, with scenes involving Vijay Sethupathi being shot near Kovalam Beach in Chennai. Media reports emerged suggesting that the production team had carelessly littered areas of the beach during the making of the film, making it dangerous for public use, but Executive Producer Siva Ananth refuted the allegations. In May 2018, the team travelled to Abu Dhabi and Dubai to shoot scenes involving Arun Vijay and Aishwarya Rajesh, as a part of three week schedule. The final schedule featuring Silambarasan and Dayana Erappa was completed over a week in Serbia and principal photography was subsequently wrapped up on 2 June 2018.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: A. R. Rahman began composing on the film on a recce to Goa on early February 2018, with Mani Ratnam and lyricist Vairamuthu. The album was released on 5 September 2018 by Sony Music, and Rahman gave a live performance of the songs.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: The official first look poster of the film was released on 9 February 2018, revealing the title and main cast of this project. Mani Ratnam launched the first look in Tamil and dubbed Telugu, on his official Twitter handle. On 3 August 2018, a poster was released on the Twitter handle of Lyca Productions, revealing that the film will release on 28 September 2018. On 12–15 August 2018, The team launched a set of 4 posters, revealing the four main characters of the film, before another poster which released on 17 August 2018. The team released another set of 4 posters, featuring the female characters on 20–23 August 2018.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: The official theatrical trailer of the movie was released on 25 August 2018, on the YouTube channel of Lyca Productions, receiving rave reviews upon release. On 12 September 2018, the makers announced that the film along with its dubbed Telugu version "Nawab", will release on 27 September 2018, as the release date was advanced by one day. Following this, the second trailer of the movie was released on 21 September 2018, which also received positive reviews.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: The satellite rights of the movie were acquired by STAR Vijay, and its television premiere took place on 13 January 2019.


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: "Behindwoods" gave the film a rating of 3 out of 5 stars, saying that, "CCV is a worthy family gangster drama in true Mani Ratnam style with massy fan moments." Indiaglitz referred the movie as a mesmerising gangster saga, and rated the film 3.5 out of 5. "The Times of India" gave the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and summarized that, "The single-mindedness of the script, which doesn't stray away from its two major concerns is actually the film’s strength." Scroll.in called it a subtle yet clever tribute to Akira Kurosawa's "Ran" . A critic from India Today rated 4 out of 5 stars, summarising that "Throughout, the film pretends to be a hunt for that one bad guy among the heroes. But in the end, you realise how wrong you were." Deccan Chronicle, rated the film 3 out of 5 stars and noted, "CCV is a revenge drama that would leave you captivated and spellbound." The Indian Express, rated 3 out of 5 stars for the film and summarised that "Chekka Chivantha Vaanam feels like the work of a fresh director with an impressive understanding about the craft of filmmaking. It could be because auteur Mani Ratnam has made a violent film after a very long time. It could also be because it is a straightforward movie, in which he has highly favored words to images." Sreedhar Pillai from Firstpost rated 3.5 out of 5, and commented that "Mani Ratnam's direction triumphs in a story-driven crime thriller". News18 rated the film with 4 out 5 stars, and summarised that "Ratnam's Chekka Chivantha Vaanam, which is undeniably his best work of this decade, is a slow-burning, highly rewarding story of a crime-ridden family that gets torn apart by power, greed and deceit." S. Shivakumar of "The Hindu" noted the similarities with the 2013 South Korean movie "New World" and called it "the closest Mani Ratnam has come to plagiarism".


title: Chekka Chivantha Vaanam

text: During the first four days of the film's release, it grossed ₹300 million (US$4 million) gross in Tamil Nadu alone, taking one of the largest openings recorded in the region. The film did well in international markets, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and the New Zealand. Within two days of release, the film had made A$170,682 (US$121,512) in Australia, £63,895 (US$82,690) in the UK, NZ$54,411 (US$35.530) in New Zealand and $592,319 in the US. Chekka Chivantha Vaanam has grossed over at the worldwide box office by the end of its second weekend.


title: Beck Bennett

text: Christopher Beck Bennett (born October 1, 1984) is an American actor, comedian, and writer, who was a cast member on "Saturday Night Live" for eight seasons (2013–2021). Before then, he performed in AT&T "It's Not Complicated" commercials in which he interviewed children, and produced sketch videos with the comedy group Good Neighbor and for his YouTube show "Theatre of Life".


title: Beck Bennett

text: Bennett was born in Wilmette, Illinois (a suburb of Chicago), the son of Sarah and Andy Bennett. He performed in multiple shows at Children's Theatre of Winnetka. He graduated from New Trier High School in 2003 where he played Jean Valjean in his school's production of "Les Misérables". Bennett attended the USC School of Dramatic Arts in the B.F.A. Acting program.


title: Beck Bennett

text: In 2003, Bennett joined the improv/sketch group Commedus Interruptus along with fellow future "SNL" cast member Kyle Mooney and Nick Rutherford. In 2007, after graduation, Mooney, Rutherford, and Bennett joined with editor/director Dave McCary to form the sketch group Good Neighbor. The group received praise from comedian Louis C.K. and director Steven Spielberg, who sent Mooney, Bennett, Rutherford, and McCary a personal acknowledgement after being impressed with the "Hook" parody, "Unbelievable Dinner". He complimented the sketch and encouraged the group to continue making funny movies.


title: Beck Bennett

text: In 2011, Bennett created the satirical political talk show "Fresh Perspectives", which helped him land his AT&T commercials interviewing children.


title: Beck Bennett

text: In 2012, he appeared in the film "Kill Me Now", a film starring multiple Internet sketch-comedy groups, and filmed "Beside Still Waters" by writer/director Chris Lowell.


title: Beck Bennett

text: In March 2013, he appeared in an episode of "Last Man Standing", and that August voiced a character for "Axe Cop" for Fox's Animation Domination High-Def programming block. That year, Good Neighbor produced a pilot for Comedy Central with Adam McKay's Gary Sanchez production company, though it was not picked up as a series, due to the move of three of the troupe's four members to New York City to star on "Saturday Night Live". That same year, Bennett completed work on the independent film "Balls Out" and appeared in season 4 of "Arrested Development".


title: Beck Bennett

text: Bennett voiced Launchpad McQuack in the "DuckTales" reboot which ran from 2017 to 2021, and Eric the robot in the Sony Pictures Animation film "The Mitchells vs. the Machines". He is currently the voice of Hamster in another Disney animated series, "Hamster & Gretel".


title: Beck Bennett

text: Bennett debuted as a featured player on "Saturday Night Live" in its 39th season on September 28, 2013. He was promoted to repertory status for "Saturday Night Live's" 41st season on October 2, 2015. He left the show following the finale of the 46th season on May 22, 2021. In an interview with "Time" magazine, Bennett stated he chose to leave the show so he could be with his wife in Los Angeles instead of remaining in New York City and maintaining a long-distance relationship.


title: Beck Bennett

text: On May 13, 2016, Bennett posted a photograph of himself with his girlfriend Jessy Hodges, with a caption that stated that the couple were celebrating five years together. The couple married on August 25, 2018. Bennett has been friends with fellow "SNL" cast member Kyle Mooney since they were students at the University of Southern California.


title: Lady with an Ermine

text: The Lady with an Ermine is a portrait painting widely attributed to the Italian Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci. Dated to , the work is painted in oils on a panel of walnut wood. Its subject is Cecilia Gallerani, a mistress of Ludovico Sforza ("Il Moro"), Duke of Milan; Leonardo was painter to the Sforza court in Milan at the time of its execution. It is the second of only four surviving portraits of women painted by Leonardo, the others being "Ginevra de' Benci", "La Belle Ferronnière" and the "Mona Lisa".


title: Lady with an Ermine

text: "Lady with an Ermine" is now housed at the Czartoryski Museum in Kraków, and is one of Poland's national treasures. It is part of the Princes Czartoryski Collection, which was sold for €100 million (5% of the estimated market value of the entire collection) on 29 December 2016 to the Polish government by Princes Czartoryski Foundation, represented by Adam Karol Czartoryski, the last direct descendant of Izabela Czartoryska Flemming and Adam George Czartoryski, who brought the painting to Poland from Italy in 1798.


title: Lady with an Ermine

text: The painting was executed in oils on a somewhat small, 54 × 39 cm (21 × 15 in) walnut wood panel. It depicts a half-height woman turned toward her right at a three-quarter angle, but with her face turned toward her left. The animal in her arms twists in a similar manner, resulting in considerable "contrapposto" with the lady, a technique Leonardo explored earlier with the angel in the "Virgin of the Rocks". The work is prepared with a layer of white gesso and a layer of brownish underpaint. In general, the paint is evenly applied akin to the "Mona Lisa", though certain areas of the lady's skin are more layered. Also present are the subtle remains of "spolvero" (in the outline of the face and head), underdrawing (in the right arm, right hand, left hand, top of nose and edge of the hair), and fingerprints (the face and animal's head), the latter of which are particularly common in Leonardo's paintings. It is made from a single piece of walnut wood; Leonardo recommended, and favored walnut wood, though it was not commonly used by other artists in Lombardy. The wood is thin (about ) and is most likely from the same tree as the wood for his later portrait, "La Belle Ferronnière". The "Lady with an Ermine" is also connected to "La Belle Ferronnière", as well as Leonardo's earlier "Portrait of a Musician", due to the three paintings including black backgrounds.


title: Lady with an Ermine

text: Though there are a few areas of minor damage, art historian Frank Zöllner insists the work is in "very good condition... similar to the equally well preserved "Mona Lisa"". Such evaluation is relatively recent, however, as the work was previously considered to be considerably damaged and repainted. Promotion of such analysis largely began with the art historian Kenneth Clark, who asserted in 1961 that the entire left side of the figure, as well as the background had been repainted. Scholars such as Adolfo Venturi, Angela Ottino della Chiesa and Jack Wasserman advanced the idea; however, 1992 technical analysis at the National Gallery of Art led by David Bull has confirmed that the damaged was limited to the background. Specifically, the background was likely originally a bluish-grey, overpainted with black during the mid 18th century. The signature in the top left corner was probably also added at this time. There is also slight overpainting in the mouth and nose; some art historians suggest Eugène Delacroix was responsible for the overpaint in the background and elsewhere. The background was also subject to the misconception that it originally included a window. It was proposed by , who led 1955 X-ray testing at Warsaw Laboratories, and explained certain spots in the right background as being remnants of a window. Such a conclusion has been disproven by Bull, Pietro C. Marani and others. In light of this revision—with the primary damage being overpaint in the background—the art historian Martin Kemp noted that "the picture is in much better condition than the standard accounts suggest, and gives the clearest indication of the freshly brilliant quality of Leonardo's painting during his period at the Sforza court in Milan".


title: Lady with an Ermine

text: The subject has been identified with reasonable certainty as Cecilia Gallerani, the mistress of Leonardo's Milanese employer, Ludovico Sforza. She looks to her left at something out of frame, toward the light, where the biographer Walter Isaacson suggests Ludovico is. Following the marriage of Isabella of Aragon, Duchess of Milan and Gian Galeazzo Sforza, her 'Spanish style' dress would have been particularly fashionable. She has a silk "sbernia" on over her left shoulder, though Leonardo has simplified the traditional manner of wearing—where it would be draped over both shoulders—potentially to avoid too much complication in the focus points of the painting. Her right shoulder shows a ornately embroidered gold band over a velvet dress. Again, Leonardo has simplified the design, by having the left shoulder band covered by the "sbernia", so as to not take away from the animal's detailed head. Her coiffure, known as a "coazone", confines her hair smoothly to her head with two bands of it bound on either side of her face and a long plait at the back. Her hair is held in place by a fine gauze veil with a woven border of gold-wound threads, a black band, and a sheath over the plait.


title: Lady with an Ermine

text: As in many of Leonardo's paintings, the composition comprises a pyramidic spiral and the sitter is caught in the motion of turning to her left, reflecting Leonardo's lifelong preoccupation with the dynamics of movement. The three-quarter profile portrait was one of his many innovations. Il Moro's court poet, Bernardo Bellincioni, was the first to propose that Cecilia was poised as if listening to an unseen speaker. This work in particular shows Leonardo's expertise in painting the human form. Cecilia's outstretched hand was painted in great detail, with every contour of each fingernail, each wrinkle around her knuckles, and even the flexing of the tendon in her bent finger.


title: Lady with an Ermine

text: The animal resting in Cecilia's arms is usually known as an ermine. Commentators have noted that it is too large to be an actual ermine, but its size is explained by its being of a largely symbolic nature. The art historian Luke Syson notes that "Naturalism is not the point here; Leonardo has created a mythical beast, the composite of several animals he drew at this time". There are several interpretations of the ermine's significance and they are often used in combination with each other. In its winter coat, the ermine was a traditional symbol of purity and moderation, as it was believed it would face death rather than soil its white coat.


title: Lady with an Ermine

text: In his old age, Leonardo compiled a bestiary in which he recorded: "The ermine out of moderation never eats but once a day, and it would rather let itself be captured by hunters than take refuge in a dirty lair, in order not to stain its purity." He repeats this idea in another note, "Moderation curbs all the vices. The ermine prefers to die rather than soil itself." A drawing by Leonardo in pen and ink of c. 1490, housed at the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, depicts an ermine representing these ideals by surrendering to a hunter. The ermine has also been noted to have a personal significance to Ludovico Sforza, as he would use it as a personal emblem, having been appointed by Ferdinand I as a member of the Order of the Ermine in 1488. Alternatively, the ermine could be a pun on Cecilia's surname: The Ancient Greek term for ermine, or other weasel-like species of animals, is "galê" () or "galéē" (). Such allusions were particularly popular in Renaissance culture; Leonardo himself had done something similar in his earlier work, "Ginevra de' Benci", when he surrounded Ginevra with a juniper tree, or "ginepro" in Italian. Krystyna Moczulska suggests that the ermine follows the meaning of an ermine or weasel in classical literature, where it relates to pregnancy, sometimes as an animal that protected pregnant women. Around the time of the painting's creation, Cecilia was known to be pregnant with Ludovico's illegitimate son.


title: Lady with an Ermine

text: It was not until the 20th century that the "Lady with an Ermine" was widely accepted by scholars to be a work of Leonardo. The attribution is due to the style of chiaroscuro, intricate detail and "contemplative tone" typical of Leonardo.


title: Lady with an Ermine

text: The "Lady with an Ermine" can securely be dated to Leonardo's first Milanese period(). Specifically, scholars date the painting to 1489–1491.


title: Lady with an Ermine

text: To some extent the painting includes traditional characteristics of Italian portraiture from the 1430s and 1440s; the coloring, for example, is particularly reminiscent of the Florentine quattrocento tradition.


title: Lady with an Ermine

text: The sitter has been identified with reasonable certainty as Cecilia Gallerani, the mistress of Leonardo's employer, Ludovico Sforza.