title: Mark Levin

text: In March 2017, Levin alleged that the Obama administration had used "police state" surveillance tactics against the Donald Trump campaign during the 2016 presidential election. The Associated Press said that Levin "voiced without evidence the idea that Obama had wiretapped Trump Tower". Levin protested the AP report vigorously, demanding a retraction and an apology on the grounds that his sources for the statement included "The New York Times" and other newspapers. His statement was reprinted by "Breitbart News" and reportedly became the basis of President Trump's unfounded Trump Tower wiretapping allegations. In September 2017, reports emerged of a court-ordered Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) wiretap on Trump campaign chairman Paul Manafort; while certain Trump supporters alleged that this surveillance vindicated Levin and Trump's unsupported assertions, "The Atlantic" commented: "This is not true – Trump claimed he had been the subject of Obama-ordered, politically motivated surveillance, for which there remains no evidence."


title: Mark Levin

text: Levin has said that there is a "coup" occurring against the presidency of Donald Trump waged by Obama loyalists. Levin's coup claim was referring to investigations of the Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections and of alleged obstruction of justice by Trump. He has suggested that former FBI Director James Comey used the Trump-Russia dossier "to blackmail the president." He has claimed that Special Counsel Robert Mueller engaged in a "Deep State" coup against Trump.


title: Mark Levin

text: In February 2018, Levin said the Nunes Memo shows "Hillary Clinton paid for a warrant" and "Hillary Clinton colluded with the Russians...it appears the FBI at the senior-most levels colluded with the Russians too".


title: Mark Levin

text: In August 2018, Levin stated that Mueller is a "greater threat to this Republic and Constitution than anything Vladimir Putin did during the [2016] campaign". When the Attorney General Bill Barr issued his summary of Mueller's Special Counsel report considering Russian interference in the 2016 election, Levin called the second volume of the report "crap". Of the prosecutor he suggested: "Who gives a damn what the prosecutor said?" He insisted the special counsel was "not God. He is not a judge. He is not a jury!"


title: Mark Levin

text: After President Trump pressed the President of Ukraine to start an investigation into Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden and his son, Levin strongly defended Trump's actions. Asked on "Fox & Friends" whether Levin was "okay" with Trump asking a foreign leader for "dirt" on Biden, Levin lashed out at the "Fox & Friends" host and repeatedly shouted there was "no problem" with what Trump did. Shortly thereafter, Trump praised Levin and retweeted more than 20 tweets by viewers praising Levin. Levin also accused Joe Biden of being the one who "did something illegal", though he did not provide evidence or any elaboration.


title: Mark Levin

text: In October 2019, while Trump was the subject of the impeachment inquiry, Levin said that on his Blaze TV show: "While he's been president there hasn't even been a hint of scandal. Not a hint!" He was highly critical of Mitt Romney who increased his criticisms of President Trump during this period.<ref name="Baragona_10/22/2019"></ref>


title: Mark Levin

text: Following the 2020 presidential election, as all significant media organizations reported Joe Biden had won, Levin told his radio audience that the Democrats were "stealing the election". He insisted on Twitter to his 2.4 million followers: "there's lots of evidence of voter fraud and election screw-ups." On the same platform, on November 5, Levin called on Republican-controlled state legislatures to disregard the results of the 2020 election and send electors to the Electoral College who would vote for Trump. The suggestion was retweeted by Donald Trump Jr.


title: Mark Levin

text: He praised Sidney Powell, a member of Trump's legal team, for what he considered to be her patriotism after she promoted conspiracy theories about the 2020 election and sought to overturn election results. He frequently had guests on his show who led the audience to think Joe Biden's win in the presidential election could be overturned.


title: Mark Levin

text: On January 5, 2021, Levin insisted Congress's imminent counting of the Electoral College votes was an act of "tyranny" because of the supposed fraud. He told his listeners, "If we don't fight on Jan. 6 on the floor of the Senate and the House... then we are done." Following the next day's storming of the Capitol in Washington, he continued in the same vein. "It appears nothing has changed in 24 hours... Not a damn thing. The never-Trumpers, the RINOs, the media — same damn thing," although he was critical of the rioters. Meanwhile, on the same day as the riot, Cumulus Media circulated a memo instructing its presenters, a roster which includes Levin, to cease implying the 2020 presidential election was stolen or face the end of the right to broadcast via Cumulus.


title: Mark Levin

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Levin downplayed the threat of the virus, arguing that the media was overreacting and that the death toll from the flu was higher than the coronavirus.


title: Mark Levin

text: Levin suffered a heart attack in 2000 and had open heart surgery. On the June 13, 2021, episode of "Life, Liberty and Levin", he mentioned he has heart disease.


title: Mark Levin

text: He was married to Kendall Levin; they subsequently divorced. He is currently married to Julie Prince.


title: Bambi Woods

text: Bambi Woods (born July 12, 1955) is an American former pornographic actress and exotic dancer best known for her appearance as the title character in the 1978 film "Debbie Does Dallas". Her meteoric success in the Golden Age of Porn and later disappearance intrigued adult industry writers and caused interest in her whereabouts, and a myth about her having met a sordid fate several years after her heyday began to be accepted as fact.


title: Bambi Woods

text: Woods was known for her first role as the eponymous character of "Debbie" in the 1978 feature adult film "Debbie Does Dallas". She received top billing and a photo of her in a bogus uniform was prominently advertised on theater marquees where she was billed as a "former Dallas Cowgirl." Woods had previously tried out for the real Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders but never made the squad; in the trailer for "Debbie Does Dallas", Woods insists that none of her experiences were used for the completely fictional storyline, though she surmised that they could have happened. The partners with whom she had unsimulated sexual intercourse in the film included Robert Kerman and others drawn from the small group of veteran performers who appeared in most hard-core films made in the U.S. during that era.


title: Bambi Woods

text: Woods said her involvement in adult films was arranged by a female friend to whom she owed money. The producer/director of "Debbie Does Dallas", Jim Clark, said he created the stage name "Bambi Woods" in an allusion to the Disney character: "I named her Bambi Woods. There wasn't any real reason behind it. Bambi ... a deer. In the woods. Do you want to get deeper?" One reviewer in a TV documentary about the film expressed the opinion that Woods' demeanor during sex scenes was in keeping with her pseudonym, being reminiscent of a deer caught in car headlights.


title: Bambi Woods

text: Woods' adult-entertainment career occurred towards the end of the Golden Age of Porn, when the filmmakers operated in a legal gray area, making them vulnerable to extortion by organized criminals who controlled distribution. At the time, there were no laws requiring mandatory verification and record keeping of participants’ true identities and ages, and the real names of even the most prolific actors remained unknown outside their profession until decades later, when the identities of almost all famous performers were circulated on the Internet. Despite the huge profits being made, female performers’ fees rarely exceeded the low hundreds of dollars. Although Woods ostensibly performed in "Debbie Does Dallas" as a one-off to clear a debt, she spent all her earnings, so the still-owed friend arranged for her to become an exotic dancer. An interviewer, told about the background to Woods' career, remarked of the creditor that she had "a heart of gold".


title: Bambi Woods

text: The film became a huge success. According to one account, and interviews she gave, Woods was feted in New York City clubs, including Studio 54 and Plato's Retreat, and mixed with celebrities. However, she was distraught when a level of publicity she had not anticipated led to her family's discovery of her career in pornography. She also became increasingly disillusioned with approbation as a porn star and disconcerted by being sought by those bringing a civil suit.


title: Bambi Woods

text: Two years after her pornographic debut, she had not made another film. She did not have sex on camera for any production she is credited with subsequent to 1981; these may have used clips years after they were filmed. Woods disappeared completely from the public eye by the mid-1980s.


title: Bambi Woods

text: A 2005 article in the Australian newspaper "The Age" stated that Woods had died in 1986 of a drug overdose under lurid circumstances. In a 2005 Channel 4 documentary, "Debbie Does Dallas Uncovered", Clark said the real name of Woods, which he declined to specify on camera, was used to trace her family in the mid-1990s and a private investigator had been informed through indirect communications that she was living an ordinary life in the Des Moines, Iowa area and wished to have no further involvement with, nor publicity concerning, her former career. A woman who claimed to be Woods came forward in 2007, disputing most of the claims in "Debbie Does Dallas Uncovered" in an interview she conducted solely by e-mail. The only thing that her account and "Uncovered" agreed upon was that she was living an ordinary life and wanted nothing to do with her pornographic past. The interviewer could not verify whether it was the real Woods.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Calcium channel blockers (CCB), calcium channel antagonists or calcium antagonists are a group of medications that disrupt the movement of calcium () through calcium channels. Calcium channel blockers are used as antihypertensive drugs, i.e., as medications to decrease blood pressure in patients with hypertension. CCBs are particularly effective against large vessel stiffness, one of the common causes of elevated systolic blood pressure in elderly patients. Calcium channel blockers are also frequently used to alter heart rate (especially from atrial fibrillation), to prevent peripheral and cerebral vasospasm, and to reduce chest pain caused by angina pectoris.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: N-type, L-type, and T-type voltage-dependent calcium channels are present in the zona glomerulosa of the human adrenal gland, and CCBs can directly influence the biosynthesis of aldosterone in adrenocortical cells, with consequent impact on the clinical treatment of hypertension with these agents.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: CCBs have been shown to be slightly more effective than beta blockers at lowering cardiovascular mortality, but they are associated with more side effects. Potential major risks however were mainly found to be associated with short-acting CCBs.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Dihydropyridine (DHP) calcium channel blockers are derived from the molecule dihydropyridine and often used to reduce systemic vascular resistance and arterial pressure. Sometimes when they are used to treat angina, the vasodilation and hypotension can lead to reflex tachycardia, which can be detrimental for patients with ischemic symptoms because of the resulting increase in myocardial oxygen demand. Dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers can worsen proteinuria in patients with nephropathy.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Phenylalkylamine calcium channel blockers are relatively selective for myocardium, reduce myocardial oxygen demand and reverse coronary vasospasm, and are often used to treat angina. They have minimal vasodilatory effects compared with dihydropyridines and therefore cause less reflex tachycardia, making it appealing for treatment of angina, where tachycardia can be the most significant contributor to the heart's need for oxygen. Therefore, as vasodilation is minimal with the phenylalkylamines, the major mechanism of action is causing negative inotropy. Phenylalkylamines are thought to access calcium channels from the intracellular side, although the evidence is somewhat mixed.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Benzothiazepine calcium channel blockers belong to the benzothiazepine class of compounds and are an intermediate class between phenylalkylamine and dihydropyridines in their selectivity for vascular calcium channels. By having both cardiac depressant and vasodilator actions, benzothiazepines are able to reduce arterial pressure without producing the same degree of reflex cardiac stimulation caused by dihydropyridines.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: While most of the agents listed above are relatively selective, there are additional agents that are considered nonselective. These include mibefradil, bepridil, flunarizine (BBB crossing), fluspirilene (BBB crossing), and fendiline.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Gabapentinoids, such as gabapentin and pregabalin, are selective blockers of α2δ subunit-containing voltage-gated calcium channels. They are used primarily to treat epilepsy and neuropathic pain.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Ziconotide, a peptide compound derived from the omega-conotoxin, is a selective N-type calcium channel blocker that has potent analgesic properties that are equivalent to approximate 1,000 times that of morphine. It must be delivered via the intrathecal (directly into the cerebrospinal fluid) route via an intrathecal infusion pump.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Naturally occurring compounds and elements such as magnesium have also been shown to act as calcium channel blockers when administered orally.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Mild CCB toxicity is treated with supportive care. Nondihydropyridine CCBs may produce profound toxicity, and early decontamination, especially for slow-release agents, is essential. For severe overdoses, treatment usually includes close monitoring of vital signs and the addition of vasopressive agents and intravenous fluids for blood pressure support. Intravenous calcium gluconate (or calcium chloride if a central line is available) and atropine are first-line therapies. If the time of the overdose is known and presentation is within two hours of ingestion, activated charcoal, gastric lavage, and polyethylene glycol may be used to decontaminate the gut. Efforts for gut decontamination may be extended to within 8 hours of ingestion with extended-release preparations.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Hyperinsulinemia-euglycemia therapy has emerged as a viable form of treatment. Although the mechanism is unclear, increased insulin may mobilize glucose from peripheral tissues to serve as an alternative fuel source for the heart (the heart mainly relies on oxidation of fatty acids). Theoretical treatment with lipid emulsion therapy has been considered in severe cases, but is not yet standard of care.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Caution should be taken when using verapamil with a beta blocker due to the risk of severe bradycardia. If unsuccessful, ventricular pacing should be used.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Research indicates ethanol is involved in the inhibition of L-type calcium channels. One study showed the nature of ethanol binding to L-type calcium channels is according to first-order kinetics with a Hill coefficient around 1. This indicates ethanol binds independently to the channel, expressing noncooperative binding. Early studies showed a link between calcium and the release of vasopressin by the secondary messenger system. Vasopressin levels are reduced after the ingestion of alcohol. The lower levels of vasopressin from the consumption of alcohol have been linked to ethanol acting as an antagonist to voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs). Studies conducted by Treistman et al. in the aplysia confirm inhibition of VGCC by ethanol. Voltage clamp recordings have been done on the aplysia neuron. VGCCs were isolated and calcium current was recorded using patch clamp technique having ethanol as a treatment. Recordings were replicated at varying concentrations (0, 10, 25, 50, and 100 mM) at a voltage clamp of +30 mV. Results showed calcium current decreased as concentration of ethanol increased. Similar results have shown to be true in single-channel recordings from isolated nerve terminal of rats that ethanol does in fact block VGCCs.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Studies done by Katsura et al. in 2006 on mouse cerebral cortical neurons, show the effects of prolonged ethanol exposure. Neurons were exposed to sustained ethanol concentrations of 50 mM for 3 days "in vitro". Western blot and protein analysis were conducted to determine the relative amounts of VGCC subunit expression. α1C, α1D, and α2/δ1 subunits showed an increase of expression after sustained ethanol exposure. However, the β4 subunit showed a decrease. Furthermore, α1A, α1B, and α1F subunits did not alter in their relative expression. Thus, sustained ethanol exposure may participate in the development of ethanol dependence in neurons.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Other experiments done by Malysz et al. have looked into ethanol effects on voltage-gated calcium channels on detrusor smooth muscle cells in guinea pigs. Perforated patch clamp technique was used having intracellular fluid inside the pipette and extracellular fluid in the bath with added 0.3% vol/vol (about 50-mM) ethanol. Ethanol decreased the current in DSM cells and induced muscle relaxation. Ethanol inhibits VGCCs and is involved in alcohol-induced relaxation of the urinary bladder.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Research on the desert grass spider, "Agelenopsis aperta," has shown that agatoxins IVA and IVB found in their venom selectively block calcium channels. These agatoxins are found in other spider species as well. Desert grass spider bites to insects result in rapid paralysis, but bites to humans are not considered medically significant.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: In the body's tissues, the concentration of calcium ions () outside cells is normally about 10,000-fold higher than the concentration inside cells. Embedded in the membrane of some cells are calcium channels. When these cells receive a certain signal, the channels open, letting calcium rush into the cell. The resulting increase in intracellular calcium has different effects in different types of cells. Calcium channel blockers prevent or reduce the opening of these channels and thereby reduce these effects.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Several types of calcium channels occur, with a number of classes of blockers, but almost all of them preferentially or exclusively block the L-type voltage-gated calcium channel.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Voltage-dependent calcium channels are responsible for excitation-contraction coupling of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle and for regulating aldosterone and cortisol secretion in endocrine cells of the adrenal cortex. In the heart, they are also involved in the conduction of the pacemaker signals. CCBs used as medications primarily have four effects:


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Since blood pressure is in intimate feedback with cardiac output and peripheral resistance, with relatively low blood pressure, the afterload on the heart decreases; this decreases how hard the heart must work to eject blood into the aorta, so the amount of oxygen required by the heart decreases accordingly. This can help ameliorate symptoms of ischaemic heart disease such as angina pectoris.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Reducing the force of contraction of the myocardium is known as the negative inotropic effect of calcium channel blockers.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Slowing down the conduction of electrical activity within the heart, by blocking the calcium channel during the plateau phase of the action potential of the heart (see: cardiac action potential), results in a negative chronotropic effect, or a lowering of heart rate. This can increase the potential for heart block. The negative chronotropic effects of CCBs make them a commonly used class of agents in individuals with atrial fibrillation or flutter in whom control of the heart rate is generally a goal. Negative chronotropy can be beneficial when treating a variety of disease processes because lower heart rates represent lower cardiac oxygen requirements. Elevated heart rate can result in significantly higher "cardiac work", which can result in symptoms of angina.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: The class of CCBs known as dihydropyridines mainly affect arterial vascular smooth muscle and lower blood pressure by causing vasodilation. The phenylalkylamine class of CCBs mainly affect the cells of the heart and have negative inotropic and negative chronotropic effects. The benzothiazepine class of CCBs combine effects of the other two classes.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Because of the negative inotropic effects, the nondihydropyridine calcium channel blockers should be avoided (or used with caution) in individuals with cardiomyopathy.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Unlike beta blockers, calcium channel blockers do not decrease the responsiveness of the heart to input from the sympathetic nervous system. Since moment-to-moment blood pressure regulation is carried out by the sympathetic nervous system (via the baroreceptor reflex), calcium channel blockers allow blood pressure to be maintained more effectively than do beta blockers. However, because dihydropyridine CCBs result in a decrease in blood pressure, the baroreceptor reflex often initiates a reflexive increase in sympathetic activity leading to increased heart rate and contractility.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Ionic calcium is antagonized by magnesium ions in the nervous system. Because of this, bioavailable supplements of magnesium, possibly including magnesium chloride, magnesium lactate, and magnesium aspartate, may increase or enhance the effects of calcium channel blockade.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: N-type calcium channels are found in neurons and are involved in the release of neurotransmitter at synapses. Ziconotide is a selective blocker of these calcium channels and acts as an analgesic.


title: Calcium channel blocker

text: Calcium channel blockers came into wide use in the 1960s, having been first identified in the lab of German pharmacologist Albrecht Fleckenstein in 1964.


title: Nancy Grace

text: Nancy Ann Grace (born October 23, 1959) is an American legal commentator and television journalist. She hosted "Nancy Grace", a nightly celebrity news and current affairs show on HLN, from 2005 to 2016, and Court TV's "Closing Arguments" from 1996 to 2007. She also co-wrote the book "Objection!: How High-Priced Defense Attorneys, Celebrity Defendants, and a 24/7 Media Have Hijacked Our Criminal Justice System." Grace was also the arbiter of "Swift Justice with Nancy Grace" in the syndicated courtroom reality show's first season.


title: Nancy Grace

text: Grace was formerly a prosecutor in a local district attorney's office in Atlanta, Georgia. She frequently discusses issues from what she describes as a victims' rights standpoint, with an outspoken style that has brought her both praise and criticism.


title: Nancy Grace

text: Nancy Grace was born in Macon, Georgia, the youngest of three children, to factory worker Elizabeth Grace and Mac Grace, a freight agent for Southern Railway. Her older siblings are brother Mac Jr. and sister Ginny. The Graces are longtime members of Macon's Liberty United Methodist Church, where Elizabeth plays the organ and Mac Sr. was once a Sunday School teacher.


title: Nancy Grace

text: Grace graduated from Macon's Windsor Academy in 1977. She attended Valdosta State University, and later received a B.A. from Mercer University. As a student, Grace was a fan of Shakespearean literature, and intended to become an English professor after graduating from college. But after the murder of her fiancé Keith Griffin in a workplace shooting when she was 19, Grace decided to enroll in law school and went on to become a felony prosecutor and a supporter of victims' rights.


title: Nancy Grace

text: Grace received her Juris Doctor from the Walter F. George School of Law at Mercer, where she was a member of the law review. She went on to earn a Master of Laws in constitutional and criminal law from New York University. She has written articles and opinion pieces for legal periodicals, including the "American Bar Association Journal". She worked as a clerk for a federal court judge and practiced antitrust and consumer protection law with the Federal Trade Commission. She taught litigation at the Georgia State University College of Law and business law at GSU's School of Business. As of 2006, she is part of Mercer University's board of trustees and adopted a section of the street surrounding the law school.


title: Nancy Grace

text: Grace worked for nearly a decade in the Atlanta-Fulton County, Georgia District Attorney's office as Special Prosecutor. Her work focused on felony cases involving serial murder, serial rape, serial child molestation, and serial arson. She left the prosecutors' office after the District Attorney she had been working under decided not to run for reelection.


title: Nancy Grace

text: While a prosecutor, Grace was reprimanded by the Supreme Court of Georgia for withholding evidence and for making improper statements in a 1997 arson and murder case. The court overturned the conviction in that case and found that Grace's behavior "demonstrated her disregard of the notions of due process and fairness and was inexcusable."


title: Nancy Grace

text: A 2005 federal appeals opinion by Judge William H. Pryor Jr. found that Grace "played fast and loose" with core ethical rules in a 1990 triple murder case, including the withholding of evidence and allowing a police detective to testify falsely under oath. The 1990 murder conviction was, nonetheless, upheld.


title: Nancy Grace

text: After leaving the Fulton County prosecutors' office, Grace was approached by and accepted an offer from Court TV founder Steven Brill to do a legal commentary show alongside Johnnie Cochran. When Cochran left the show, Grace was moved to a solo trial coverage show on Court TV, she hosted "Trial Heat" from 1996-2004, then "Closing Arguments" from 2004-2007, replacing Lisa Bloom and James Curtis, both of whom were hosting "Trial Heat" at that point.


title: Nancy Grace

text: In February 2005, she began hosting a regular primetime legal analysis show called "Nancy Grace" on CNN Headline News (now HLN) in addition to her Court TV show. On May 9, 2007, Grace announced that she would be leaving Court TV to focus more on her CNN Headline News Program and charity work. She did her last show on Court TV on June 19, 2007.


title: Nancy Grace

text: Grace has a distinctive interviewing style mixing vocal questions with multimedia stats displays. The Foundation of American Women in Radio & Television has presented Nancy Grace with two Gracie Awards for her Court TV show.


title: Nancy Grace

text: While still hosting "Nancy Grace", she also hosted "Swift Justice with Nancy Grace" which premiered September 13, 2010, and ran until May 2011. Grace left the show due to productions moving from Atlanta to Los Angeles. In September 2011, Judge Jackie Glass, who is known for presiding over the O. J. Simpson robbery case, took over Grace's place. The show continued for one more season and ceased production in 2012.


title: Nancy Grace

text: Grace had been covering the Casey Anthony story for years. After the controversial verdict finding Casey Anthony not guilty, her "Nancy Grace" show on HLN had its highest ratings ever in the 8 p.m. and 9 p.m. hour slots on Tuesday, July 5, 2011.


title: Nancy Grace

text: On July 13, 2019, an Oxygen TV channel true crime series began, hosted by Grace and titled "Injustice with Nancy Grace" with criminal cases being the subject of episodes that seek to bring to light unjust accusations, bungled investigations, arcane evidence, new motives, and shocking sentences.


title: Nancy Grace

text: In a 2011 "New York Times" article, David Carr wrote, "Since her show began in 2005, the presumption of innocence has found a willful enemy in the former prosecutor turned broadcast judge-and-jury". He criticized her handling of the kidnapping of Elizabeth Smart, the Duke lacrosse case, the Melinda Duckett interview and suicide, and the Caylee Anthony case. George Washington University law professor Jonathan Turley told Carr that Grace, as an attorney and reporter, "has managed to demean both professions with her hype, rabid persona, and sensational analysis. Some part of the public takes her seriously, and her show erodes the respect for basic rights."


title: Nancy Grace

text: In January 2014, she again ignited controversy for her wildly negative depiction of recreational marijuana users. Grace made statements such as users were "fat and lazy" and that anyone who disagreed with her was "lethargic, sitting on the sofa, eating chips" to CNN's news correspondent Brooke Baldwin during a segment covering legalization in Colorado on January 6, 2014.


title: Nancy Grace

text: On October 11, 2016, "The Jim Norton and Sam Roberts Show" had Grace as a guest, at which time they accused her of capitalizing on others' tragedies, for her personal gain. They also addressed her handling of The Ultimate Warrior's death, and the Duke lacrosse case. Norton said during the interview that he has disliked her for some time, and noted she had previously blocked him on Twitter. Grace, in defending herself, stated that she was a crime victim herself, and that they didn't ask her one decent question. The next day on "The View", Grace addressed the interview, calling Norton and Roberts "Beavis and Butt-Head". Grace said she had to hold back tears during the interview and stated, "I don't really know what it was, but it was hell for me."


title: Nancy Grace

text: During the 2002 Elizabeth Smart kidnapping case, when suspect Richard Ricci was arrested by police on the basis that he had a criminal record and had worked on the Smarts' home, Grace immediately and repeatedly proclaimed on Court TV and CNN's "Larry King Live" that Ricci was guilty, although there was little evidence to support this claim. She also suggested publicly that Ricci's girlfriend was involved in the cover-up of his alleged crime. Grace continued to accuse Ricci, who had died while in custody. It was later revealed that Smart was kidnapped by Brian David Mitchell and Wanda Barzee, two individuals with whom Ricci had no connection.


title: Nancy Grace

text: When Court TV confronted Grace seven months later to ask whether she was incorrect in her assertion that Ricci was guilty, and whether or not she felt bad about it in any way, she stated that Ricci was "a known ex-con, a known felon, and brought suspicion on himself, so who could blame anyone for claiming he was the perpetrator?" When Larry King asked her about the matter, she equated criticism of herself with criticism of the police in the case. She said, "I'm not letting you take the police with me on a guilt trip."


title: Nancy Grace

text: In July 2006, Grace interviewed Smart, who was promoting a legislative bill. Grace repeatedly asked her for information regarding her abduction. Smart told her she didn't feel comfortable discussing it, despite Grace's persistence in the matter. Finally, Grace stopped when Smart said she "didn't appreciate [Grace] bringing all this up."


title: Nancy Grace

text: During the trial of David Westerfield in 2002 for the kidnap and murder of Danielle van Dam, Grace made it clear on "Larry King Live" that she thought he was guilty, but she got some facts wrong. For example, she said he had steam-cleaned his RV, but no evidence was introduced that he had. Dr. Henry Lee pointed out that if he had done so, they wouldn't have found the fingerprints and the bloodstain on the carpet. David Westerfield was convicted of kidnapping and murdering Danielle van Dam.


title: Nancy Grace

text: Grace also dismissed the defense's proposal that hair and fibers found on Westerfield's black jacket had been transferred from van Dam to Westerfield when the two were dancing at a bar on Friday night. Grace contended that the jacket was leather and a transfer would not have been possible.


title: Nancy Grace

text: She also made some statements pointing to Westerfield's possible innocence. The strongest evidence against Westerfield was found in his RV, particularly a drop of van Dam's blood and her hand print. That evidence could be innocently explained if, at some previous time while it was parked unlocked in the streets outside her home, van Dam had entered that vehicle, perhaps to explore it out of curiosity. There was no testimony she had done so, but Grace said she "can imagine a little girl wandering into a RV and playing in it, much as if they saw a swimming pool, they might jump in, or a playground, they might play on it".


title: Nancy Grace

text: Grace took a vehemently pro-prosecution position throughout the 2006 Duke University lacrosse case, in which Crystal Mangum, a stripper and North Carolina Central University student, falsely accused three members of Duke University's men's lacrosse team of raping her at a party. Prior to Duke suspending its men's lacrosse team's season, she sarcastically noted on the air, "I'm so glad they didn't miss a lacrosse game over a little thing like gang rape!" and "Why would you go to a cop in an alleged gang rape case, say, and lie and give misleading information?" After the disbarment of District Attorney Mike Nifong, Attorney General Roy Cooper pronounced all three players innocent of the rape charges made by Mangum and Nifong. On the following broadcast of her show, Grace did not appear and a substitute reporter, Jane Velez-Mitchell, announced the removal of all charges.


title: Nancy Grace

text: In September 2006, 22-year-old Melinda Duckett committed suicide following an interview conducted by Grace concerning the disappearance of Duckett's 2-year-old son, Trenton. Grace interviewed Duckett less than two weeks after the child went missing, questioning her for her alleged lack of openness regarding her son's disappearance, asking Duckett "Where were you? Why aren't you telling us where you were that day?" Duckett appeared confused and was unable to answer whether or not she had taken a polygraph test. When Grace asked her why she could not account for specific details, Duckett began to reply, "Because I was told not to", to which Grace responded, "Ms. Duckett, you are not telling us for a reason. What is the reason? You refuse to give even the simplest facts of where you were with your son before he went missing. It is day twelve." According to the CNN transcript, Duckett replied, "(INAUDIBLE) with all media. It's not just there, just all media. Period." Grace then moved on to a psychologist who asserted that Duckett was "skirting around the issue."


title: Nancy Grace

text: The next day, before the airing of the show, Duckett shot herself, a death that relatives claim was influenced by media scrutiny, particularly from Grace. Speaking to "The Orlando Sentinel", Duckett's grandfather Bill Eubank said, "Nancy Grace and the others, they just bashed her to the end. She was not one anyone ever would have thought of to do something like this." CNN has also been criticized for allowing the show to air in the wake of Duckett's suicide. Police investigating the case had not named Melinda Duckett as a suspect in the case at the time, but after her suicide the police did say that, as nearly all parents are in missing-child cases, she was a suspect from the beginning.


title: Nancy Grace

text: In an interview on "Good Morning America", Nancy Grace said in reaction to events that "If anything, I would suggest that guilt made her commit suicide. To suggest that a 15- or 20-minute interview can cause someone to commit suicide is focusing on the wrong thing." She then said that, while she sympathized with the family, she knew from her own experience as a victim of crime that such people look for somebody else to blame.


title: Nancy Grace

text: While describing it as an "extremely sad development", Janine Iamunno, a spokeswoman for Grace, said that her program would continue to follow the case as they had a "responsibility to bring attention to this case in the hopes of helping find Trenton Duckett." Grace commented that "I do not feel that our show is to blame for what happened to Melinda Duckett. The truth is not always nice or polite or easy to go down. Sometimes it's harsh, and it hurts."


title: Nancy Grace

text: On November 21, 2006, The Smoking Gun exposed pending litigation on behalf of the estate of Melinda Duckett, asserting a wrongful death claim against CNN and Grace. The attorney for the estate alleges that, even if Duckett did kill her own son, Grace's aggressive questioning traumatized Duckett so much that she committed suicide. She also argues that CNN's decision to air the interview after Duckett's suicide traumatized her family. Trenton has never been found.


title: Nancy Grace

text: On November 8, 2010, Grace reached a settlement with the estate of Melinda Duckett to create a $200,000 trust fund dedicated to locating Trenton. This settlement was reached a month before a jury trial was scheduled to start. According to the agreement, if the young boy is found alive before he turns 13, the remaining proceeds in the trust will be administered by a trustee – Trenton's great-aunt Kathleen Calvert – until he turns 18 and the funds are transferred for his use. If Trenton is not found by his 13th birthday, or if he is found but is not alive, the funds will be transferred immediately to the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children. "We are pleased the lawsuit has been dismissed. The statement speaks for itself," a spokeswoman for CNN said.


title: Nancy Grace

text: From 2008 to 2011, the Caylee Anthony disappearance and the prosecution, trial, and acquittal of her mother Casey Anthony on charges of murder of the child were a regular feature of the "Nancy Grace" show. She would reveal every new detail of the story. Her program is cited as having "almost single-handedly inflated the Anthony case from a routine local murder into a national obsession".


title: Nancy Grace

text: The "Nancy Grace" audience more than doubled in the weeks after the start of the Casey Anthony trial. David Carr wrote that Grace took her show to the trial scene in Orlando, Florida in order to "hurl invective from a close, intimate distance." Grace expressed rage at Anthony's acquittal right after announcement of the verdict, saying: "Tot Mom's lies seem to have worked." In a press conference after the verdicts were read, Cheney Mason, one of Anthony's defense attorneys, blamed the media for a "media assassination" which led to public hatred toward Anthony. He also said,


title: Nancy Grace

text: Grace took it personally and responded, "What does he care about what pundits are saying?". She also stated that she had as much legal experience as Mason and criticized the defense attorneys for taking on the media before mentioning Caylee Anthony's name in their news conference and stated that "[T]here is no way that this is a verdict that speaks the truth."


title: Nancy Grace

text: Michelle Zierler, director of the Project in Law and Journalism at New York Law School, said Grace "is always certain that the defendant is guilty and needs instant punishment" and this had affected her analysis of the case. Howard Finkelstein, the Broward County, Florida public defender said,


title: Nancy Grace

text: On the day Anthony was sentenced on misdemeanor counts of lying to investigators, a supporter held a sign reading: "Nancy Grace, stop trying to ruin innocent lives. The jury has spoken. P.S. Our legal system still works!"


title: Nancy Grace

text: In a televised appearance with media expert Dan Abrams, Grace stated about Anthony's being freed from jail, Abrams commented,


title: Nancy Grace

text: Mainstream media have suggested that Grace made "wildly speculative" allegations on her program that the investigation into Whitney Houston's death should include the possibility that someone may have been responsible for drowning Houston. Some reporters have pointed out that Grace should have waited for the coroner's report before making this allegation.


title: Nancy Grace

text: On November 22, 2011, Toni Annette Medrano accidentally killed her 3-week-old son, Adrian Alexander Medrano, while she was sleeping on the couch with him. According to the criminal complaint, Medrano told police she had consumed almost an entire fifth of vodka the night before her son died and fell asleep with him on a couch. The following morning, she woke up and found her infant son unresponsive and cold to the touch. While Grace was covering the case, she infamously dubbed Medrano "Vodka Mom". During one of her shows, Grace brought a bottle of vodka onto her set and poured shots to demonstrate how much Medrano had drunk the night of her son's death. In June 2012, Medrano was charged with two counts of second-degree manslaughter.


title: Nancy Grace

text: "The baby is dead because of vodka mommy", Grace said during her June 11 show on HLN. "I don't care if she was driving a car, holding a pistol or holding a fifth of vodka. [It] doesn't matter to me. The baby is dead at the hands of the mommy." During the show, Grace said the charges filed against Medrano weren't harsh enough. "I don't see how this whole thing was an accident and I want murder charges", Grace said.


title: Nancy Grace

text: On July 2, Medrano doused herself in flammable liquid and set herself on fire. She died of her injuries on July 7. After her death, Medrano's husband and the father of her son said he felt the segment Grace did was cruel and added "The things people said were horrible. It shows that cyberbullying happens to adults, too." Following Melinda Duckett's suicide, this was the second suicide to which Grace has been linked. On January 4, 2012, a lawsuit against CNN brought by Medrano's family was settled, "I can tell you the case was settled in principle two weeks ago", said personal injury attorney Michael Padden. A lawsuit was never formally served but "we resolved the case just by negotiation", he said.


title: Nancy Grace

text: Grace commented on the Amanda Knox case: "I was very disturbed, because I think it is a huge miscarriage of justice. I believe that while Amanda Knox did not wield the knife herself, I think that she was there, with her boyfriend, and that he did the deed, and that she egged him on. That's what I think happened... I just happen to know the facts... I'm not trying to get Amanda Knox's first interview because… my show does not pay for interviews... Second, I don't think she's going to tell the truth anyway, so what's the point?"


title: Nancy Grace

text: Following WWE Hall of Famer The Ultimate Warrior's death on April 8, 2014, Nancy Grace invited retired wrestler Diamond Dallas Page on her show to discuss Warrior. Unbeknownst to Page, the subject of the episode was deaths in the professional wrestling industry caused by steroids. Grace claimed that "rumors of steroid and drug use are swirling" in the case of Ultimate Warrior's death, although an autopsy had concluded that Warrior had died of natural causes with neither drugs nor alcohol in his system at his time of death. During the segment, Grace made several mentions to a list of wrestlers who had died young, linking their deaths to drug abuse. The list included wrestlers whose deaths were unrelated to drug abuse.


title: Nancy Grace

text: After the segment aired, a petition on Change.org requesting that CNN remove Nancy Grace from television received over 10,000 signatures within twenty four hours. #CancelNancyGrace became a trending topic on Twitter following the episode's airing. Page released a statement after the episode aired, stating that he was under the assumption that he would be sharing stories in Warrior's memory and did not know that steroids would be the only topic discussed. WWE subsequently asked past and present WWE talent to not appear on Grace's HLN show. Nancy Grace responded to criticism by telling Radar Online that she would welcome any WWE personalities to come onto her show to "correct all of my misconceptions".


title: Nancy Grace

text: During one of her newscasts, Grace interviewed Charles Bothuell IV, informing him, to his surprise, that his son, Charles Bothuell V, was found in his basement by members of law enforcement.


title: Nancy Grace

text: Grace has been awarded several American Women in Radio & Television Gracie Awards, has been awarded the "Individual Achievement/Best Program Host" honor by that organization, and has been recognized by many other organizations (including, without limitation, the Carole Sund-Carrington Foundation, Crime Victims United of California and The Retreat) for her advocacy work on behalf of victims’ rights.


title: Nancy Grace

text: Grace was a contestant on the thirteenth season of "Dancing with the Stars," which began airing on September 19, 2011. She was partnered with pro-dancer Tristan MacManus. The couple lasted for 8 weeks and placed 5th overall in the competition before being eliminated on November 8, 2011, one week shy of the semi-finals.


title: Nancy Grace

text: In early April 2012, Grace appeared on the last two episodes of the second season of the TV show "Raising Hope" playing herself.


title: Nancy Grace

text: On May 22, 2007, Grace appeared in the "" episode "Screwed" the season 8 finale, playing herself opposite Star Jones.


title: Nancy Grace

text: In June 2017, Grace sat for a reading by purported psychic medium Tyler Henry on his E! TV show, "Hollywood Medium with Tyler Henry". Grace believed Henry was communicating with her dead father, as well as murdered fiance, and said she had received closure. After the reading Grace said "there were many things [Henry] said were impossible for him to have gleaned on the internet or even a computer search, speeches I've given, of things that have happened, I find it difficult to believe … I find many of the things he said to be absolutely amazing." In April 2018, Susan Gerbic analyzed the reading, and detailed in "Nancy Grace Should be Ashamed of Herself!" exactly how Grace had unfortunately been fooled by the usual fraudulent techniques of cold reading and hot reading used by "grief vampires" like Henry to convince people that they have paranormal powers.


title: Nancy Grace

text: Grace’s first book, "Objection!: How High-Priced Defense Attorneys, Celebrity Defendants, and a 24/7 Media Have Hijacked Our Criminal Justice System", was published in 2005 by Hyperion and became a "New York Times" bestseller. Her first work of fiction, "The Eleventh Victim", also published by Hyperion, was released on August 11, 2009. The mystery thriller follows a young psychology student, Hailey Dean, whose fiancé is murdered just weeks before their wedding. She goes on to prosecute violent crime and is forced to reckon with what she left behind. "Publishers Weekly" described it as "less than compelling"; however, it was also a "New York Times" bestseller and became the foundation for the "Hailey Dean Mysteries" series of, thus far, nine movies on the Hallmark Movies & Mysteries channel. A third "New York Times" bestselling novel, "Death on the D-List", was published by Hyperion on August 10, 2010, and followed by "Murder in the Courthouse", published by BenBella Books in 2016.


title: Nancy Grace

text: Grace has also helped staff a hotline at an Atlanta battered women's center for 10 years. Since January 10, 2017, Grace hosted a daily Podcast on Crime Online called "Crime Stories with Nancy Grace".


title: Nancy Grace

text: In April 2007, Grace married David Linch, an Atlanta investment banker, in a small private ceremony. The two had met while she was studying at Mercer University in the 1970s. Grace, who had given up on marriage after the death of her fiancé, said, "We've been in touch all these years, and a lot of time, we were separated by geography and time. It was a spur-of-the-moment decision to get married. I told my family only two days before the wedding."


title: Nancy Grace

text: On June 26, 2007, an emotional Grace announced on her HLN talk show that her life had "taken a U-turn" in that she was pregnant and expecting twins due in January 2008. Lucy Elizabeth and John David were born in November 2007.


title: Nancy Grace

text: In March 2006, an article in the "New York Observer" suggested that in her book "Objection!", Grace had embellished the story of her college fiancé's 1979 murder and the ensuing trial to make it better support her image. Grace has described the tragedy as the impetus for her career as a prosecutor and victims' rights advocate, and has often publicly referred to the incident. The "Observer" researched the murder and found what it submitted to be contradictions between the events and Grace's subsequent statements, including the following:


title: Nancy Grace

text: Grace told the "Observer" she had not looked into the case in many years and "tried not to think about it." She said she made her previous statements about the case "with the knowledge I had."


title: Nancy Grace

text: In response to Keith Olbermann's claims in a March 2007 "Rolling Stone" interview in which he was quoted as saying, "Anybody who would embellish the story of their own fiancé's murder should spend that hour a day not on television but in a psychiatrist's chair," Grace stated, "I did not put myself through law school and fight for all those years for victims of crime to waste one minute of my time, my energy, and my education in a war of words with Keith Olbermann, whom I've never met nor had any disagreement. I feel we have X amount of time on Earth, and that when we give in to our detractors or spend needless time on silly fights, I think that's abusing the chance we have to do something good."


title: Nancy Grace

text: Griffin's murderer, Tommy McCoy, received ten years for aggravated assault and life imprisonment for murder, but was released on parole from the Georgia Department of Corrections on December 5, 2006.


title: Nancy Grace

text: The "Law & Order" programs often base their fictional stories on real-life events and have featured stories based on Grace on several occasions.


title: Nancy Grace

text: In the episode "Haystack" of , an overzealous reporter named Cindy Marino (played by Kali Rocha) causes the mother of a kidnapped son to commit suicide. Grace herself appeared in the "SVU" episode "Screwed".


title: Nancy Grace

text: On "", Grace has also been compared to a character named Faith Yancy (Geneva Carr) who hosts a similar talk show ("Inside American Justice") that sensationalizes whatever case the main characters are working on and makes it difficult for them to gain access to key witnesses. However, the character could be based on any number of individuals with this type of show. The character has appeared on the episodes "" (original air date November 6, 2005), "" (original air date October 31, 2006), "" (original air date February 6, 2007), "" (original air date August 10, 2008), and "" (original air date June 28, 2009).


title: Nancy Grace

text: Episode eight of "The Newsroom", "The Blackout Part I: Tragedy Porn", features a scene in which the newsroom staff dismantle Grace's coverage of the Caylee Anthony case.


title: Nancy Grace

text: Sketch comedy show "Saturday Night Live" has parodied Grace, both in and out of the context of her show, a number of times since her rise to prominence. Originally Grace was portrayed by "SNL" cast member Amy Poehler. Her impression featured in a parody of the Nancy Grace show during "Saturday Night Live"s 32nd season (in episode 7.). The sketch parodied Grace's reactions to Michael Richards' infamous Laugh Factory appearance, the O. J. Simpson trial and her own parking fines. During the sketch, host Matthew Fox portrays a parking attendant whom Grace's staff have brought off the street, where he was giving Grace a parking ticket. Poehler also voiced Grace, on May 21, 2005, as part of the show's "Saturday TV Funhouse" segment in a Divertor sketch. During this appearance, Grace says little more than "[Name of celebrity in question] should fry."


title: Nancy Grace

text: Grace would later be impersonated by "Saturday Night Live" cast member Abby Elliott in the sketch 'So You've Committed A Crime... And You Think You Can Dance?', in which Grace features as a judge of the dance contest. In the sketch, Grace calls the show 'Disgusting'.


title: Nancy Grace

text: Most recently, Grace was portrayed by featured player Noel Wells in Season 39, Episode 11. The sketch parodies Grace's reaction to the legalization of Marijuana in Colorado and features host/musical guest Drake doing an impression of comedian Katt Williams. Much of Grace's dialogue from the sketch was lifted directly from an interview she conducted on January 6, 2013, with Brooke Baldwin on CNN's News Room, in particular the phrase 'I've got a sneaking suspicion that you are pro-pot. And I don't like it.'


title: Nancy Grace

text: A recurring sketch on the CBC prime-time sketch comedy series "This Hour Has 22 Minutes" features Cathy Jones as Betty Hope, an obvious send-up of Grace.


title: Nancy Grace

text: During the episode 'Disaster Show' of series "Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip", Grace is impersonated by Sarah Paulson as part of a sketch on the titular show within a show. In the episode, Paulson's character, Harriet Hayes, is performing a parody of the Nancy Grace show.


title: Nancy Grace

text: It is widely acknowledged, by the media and by Grace herself, that the character of Ellen Abbot in the 2014 film "Gone Girl" is based on Grace. In an interview with actress Missi Pyle, who played Abbot in the film, Grace told pundits she was "very flattered" and that she "laugh[ed] out loud at it," calling "Gone Girl" her new favorite portrayal.


title: Legoland

text: Legoland (, trademark in uppercase as LEGOLAND) is a chain of family theme parks focusing on the construction toy system Lego. They are not fully owned by The Lego Group itself; rather, they are owned and operated by the British theme park company Merlin Entertainments (which shares a common owner (Kirkbi A/S) with The Lego Group).


title: Legoland

text: The Legoland Billund Resort opened in Billund, Denmark in 1968, followed by the Legoland Windsor Resort in Windsor, England in 1996. Further parks opened in Germany, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, the United Arab Emirates (Dubai), the United States (California, Florida, and New York), and a Legoland Water Park at Gardaland in Castelnuovo del Garda, Italy in 2021. Parks in Belgium, Beijing, Shanghai, Sichuan and Shenzhen are currently under construction.


title: Legoland

text: The parks are marketed to families with younger children (15 and under), and although the attractions include a number of roller coasters, the roller coasters are not as numerous or as extreme as those in other parks, and there is a greater emphasis on rides suitable for younger children.


title: Legoland

text: Legoland parks are split into various areas, which are consistent among the chain's parks. For example, all six of the parks include a Lego miniland, a model village which includes models of landmarks and scenes from around the world, made from millions of genuine Lego bricks.


title: Legoland

text: The parks' rides are all Lego themed; many are made to appear as if they are built out of Lego bricks. They tend to be based on one particular line of Lego: for example, a popular ride at all six parks is the Dragon Coaster, which is loosely based on the Knights' Kingdom Lego sets. Another popular ride is the Driving school, in which children can drive small electric cars made to look like Lego cars around a small road network, after which they gain a mock driver's license.


title: Legoland

text: Despite the commonality of the above-mentioned attractions, the exact set of rides varies between parks, although as with the Disney parks there is some overlap.


title: Yasmin Finney

text: Yasmin Finney (born 30 August 2003) is an English actress and internet personality. She appeared on GLAAD's second annual 20 Under 20 list. She is known for her role as Elle Argent in the Netflix series "Heartstopper" (2022), for which she was nominated for a Children's and Family Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Performance. She is set to join the cast of "Doctor Who" in 2023.


title: Yasmin Finney

text: Finney was born in 2003 and grew up in Manchester. She was brought up alongside her half-sister by her Jamaican single mother. She is of Italian and Irish descent on her paternal side. Finney participated in a number of local theatre productions growing up, including in the University of Manchester's Sackville Theatre, The Royal Exchange Theater and The Aylesbury Waterside Theater. She went to college to study performing arts.


title: Yasmin Finney

text: Finney initially gained prominence through her videos on TikTok about her experiences as a Black British transgender teenager. At the age of 17 in April 2021, Finney was cast as Kelsa in the Billy Porter film "Anything's Possible" and Elle Argent in the Netflix series "Heartstopper", the latter of which premiered in 2022. She had to pull out of "Anything's Possible" due to COVID-19 travel restrictions impacting her ability to get a United States work visa, leading her to be replaced by Eva Reign.


title: Yasmin Finney

text: On 16 May 2022, it was announced that Finney would join the cast of "Doctor Who" for the 60th anniversary in 2023. Her character, Rose, who is planned to be transgender, is set to be the Doctor's latest companion.


title: Yasmin Finney

text: In August 2022, it was announced that Finney would star in the upcoming short film "Mars" as the character Charlie Acaster. The film will premiere in October at the London Film Festival.


title: Yasmin Finney

text: Finney is a trans woman. From a young age, she would search questions like "Why do I feel like a girl?" and "Why do I have a penis?".


title: Mercosur

text: The Southern Common Market, commonly known by Spanish abbreviation Mercosur, and Portuguese Mercosul, is a South American trade bloc established by the Treaty of Asunción in 1991 and Protocol of Ouro Preto in 1994. Its full members are Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Venezuela is a full member but has been suspended since 1 December 2016. Associate countries are Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, and Suriname.


title: Mercosur

text: Mercosur's origins are linked to the discussions for the constitution of a regional economic market for Latin America, which go back to the treaty that established the Latin American Free Trade Association in 1960, which was succeeded by the Latin American Integration Association in the 1980s. At the time, Argentina and Brazil made progress in the matter, signing the Iguaçu Declaration (1985), which established a bilateral commission, which was followed by a series of trade agreements the following year. The Integration, Cooperation and Development Treaty, signed between both countries in 1988, set the goal of establishing a common market, to which other Latin American countries could join. Paraguay and Uruguay joined the process and the four countries became signatories to the Treaty of Asunción (1991), which established the Southern Common Market, a trade alliance aimed at boosting the regional economy, moving goods, people among themselves, workforce and capital. Initially a free trade zone was established, in which the signatory countries would not tax or restrict each other's imports. As of 1 January 1995, this area became a customs union, in which all signatories could charge the same quotas on imports from other countries (common external tariff). The following year, Bolivia and Chile acquired membership status. Other Latin American nations have expressed interest in joining the group.


title: Mercosur

text: Mercosur's purpose is to promote free trade and the fluid movement of goods, people, and currency. Since its foundation, Mercosur's functions have been updated and amended many times; it currently confines itself to a customs union, in which there is free intra-zone trade and a common trade policy between member countries. In 2022, the Mercosur had generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of around 5.1 trillion US dollars, placing the bloc as the 6th largest economy in the world. The bloc places high on the human development index. It has signed free trade agreements with Israel, Egypt, Japan and the European Union, among others.


title: Mercosur

text: For five centuries South America has been the scene of some of the most violent battles in the Americas. Since the arrival of the Spanish and Portuguese to the continent, the La Plata Basin has been the scene of Luso-Spanish disputes over territory (the territory that today is Uruguay, was once Spanish, then Portuguese, again Spanish and Brazilian). However, at the same time, in this region there are fundamental chapters of the political and economic emancipation of future Mercosur members.


title: Mercosur

text: During the 16th and 17th centuries, Spain organized the commercial system of its colonies around the "fleets and galleons" scheme, authorizing only certain ports the right to send or receive goods originating from these colonies. For cities like Buenos Aires, founded in 1580, this system threatened the region's economic development. To face this economic confinement, the population of Buenos Aires saw the only possible way out: the commercial exchange (albeit illegally) with Brazil. This was the beginning of a relationship destined to grow.


title: Mercosur

text: In the 19th century, the process of political emancipation in South America accentuated the contrasts between the countries of the region. During this period, important chapters in the history of Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay occurred. It is enough to mention the Cisplatine War, the independence of the Republic of Uruguay, the Uruguayan Great War, the Ragamuffin War, the dispute between unitaries and federalists in Argentina and the Paraguayan War: alliances, interventions and conflicts that forged the historical context of formation of the La Plata nation-states.


title: Mercosur

text: In 1941, in the middle of the Second World War, Brazil and Argentina for the first time tried to create a Customs Union between their economies. However, this did not happen due to the countries' diplomatic differences in relation to Axis policies, after the attack on Pearl Harbor. With the end of the war, the need for interaction between nations became imminent and, consequently, economic blocs formed. In Latin America, however, there was no union that obtained satisfactory results.


title: Mercosur

text: In December 1985, Brazilian President José Sarney and Argentine President Raúl Alfonsín signed the Iguaçu Declaration, the basis for economic integration of the so-called Southern Cone. Both countries had just come out of a dictatorial period and were facing the need to redirect their economies to the outside and globalized world.


title: Mercosur

text: Both countries had contracted a large external debt during the period of the military governments and did not enjoy credit abroad. There was a great need for investment in the countries, but no money. This common situation made them both realize the mutual need. Shortly after the signing of the Iguaçu Declaration in February 1986, Argentina declared its intention of a "preferential association" with Brazil. In a private home in Don Torcuato, there was a meeting to discuss the matter. The discussion, lasting two days, took place in an atmosphere of exchanging ideas and stating positions regarding the status of the area's economy.


title: Mercosur

text: After a few weeks, Brazil invited Argentina to a similar meeting, in Itaipava, also in a private residence. This signaled acceptance of the Argentine initiative and the formation of an agreement, with the objective of promoting the economic development of both countries and integrating them into the world. Out of this meeting came the "Argentina-Brazil Integration and Economics Cooperation Program" or PICE (Portuguese: Programa de Integração e Cooperação Econômica Argentina-Brasil, Spanish: Programa de Integración y Cooperación Económica Argentina-Brasil). Protocol Number 20 of the program proposed the Gaucho as a currency for regional trade. For many, the idea of integration in South America seemed more like an abstraction, owing to various unsuccessful experiences in the past. However, this was perceived as different.


title: Mercosur

text: On 6 July 1990, the President of Brazil, Fernando Collor, and the President of Argentina, Carlos Menem, signed the Buenos Aires Act aimed at total customs integration between the two countries. It was decided that all measures for the construction of the customs union should be completed by 31 December 1994. To ensure compliance with the deadlines, the Binational Working Group was created, the body whose responsibility was to define methods for creating the common market between the two nations. In September, the governments of Paraguay and Uruguay showed a strong interest in the regional integration process, leading to the full perception by the signatories that a more comprehensive treaty was needed.


title: Mercosur

text: Mercosur was finally established in 1991 by the Treaty of Asunción, based on the Buenos Aires Act, the Treaty of Asunción defined rules and conditions for the creation of a free trade zone among its four signatories. Likewise, it was decided that all measures for the construction of the common market should be completed by 31 December 1994 with the amendment of the Treaty of Ouro Preto. In 2001, celebrating the 10th anniversary of the bloc's creation, the Mercosur flag was hoisted for the first time at Mercosur's headquarters in Montevideo.


title: Mercosur

text: It was defined that during the transition period, the signatory countries would adopt a general regime of origin, a system for resolving disputes and safeguard clauses. To ensure order and compliance with deadlines, two institutional bodies were created:


title: Mercosur

text: The Treaty of Asunción also decided that the accession of a new member, in order to be effective, must be approved by legislative decree in all signatory countries. Otherwise, the membership process will be invalid.


title: Mercosur

text: The founding of the Mercosur Parliament was agreed upon at the December 2004 presidential summit. Up to 2010 it was planned to have 18 representatives from each country, regardless of population.


title: Mercosur

text: Venezuela's history in Mercosur began on 16 December 2003, during a Mercosur summit held in Montevideo, when the "Mercosur Economic Complementation Agreement" with Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela was signed. This agreement established a timetable for the creation of a free trade zone among the signatory states and the full members of Mercosur, with a gradual reduction in tariffs. In this way, these countries were successful in negotiations for the formation of a free trade zone with Mercosur, since an economic complementation agreement, with full compliance with its schedule, is the item required for the rise of a new associate. However, on 8 July 2004, Venezuela was elevated to associate member status, without even completing the schedule agreed with the Common Market Council. The following year, the bloc recognized it as an associated nation in the process of accession, which in practice meant that the state had a voice, but not a vote.


title: Mercosur

text: The Caribbean country's Accession Protocol was signed in 2006 by all presidents of countries in the bloc. Subsequently, the Uruguayan and Argentine congresses approved the entry of the new member. The Brazilian congress did so only in December 2009. However, the Paraguayan congress did not approve it and, therefore, made it impossible for the Caribbean nation to fully join. Subsequently, on 29 June 2012, in response to Fernando Lugo's summary dismissal of the presidency, the Mercosur presidents decreed the Paraguayan suspension until the next presidential election, in April 2013. A month later, the bloc presidents acknowledged their adhesion of Venezuela and several trade agreements have been signed. It was suggested that the decision could be reversed with the Paraguayan return by exercising its veto power, which was not the case. The decision was the subject of controversy. For some economists, Venezuela's acceptance as a full member of Mercosur expands the bloc's economic importance and opens up new business and investment opportunities. However, for others, the decision was seen as hasty, imposed by the governments of Brazil and Argentina and motivated purely by political interests.


title: Mercosur

text: On 7 December 2012, Bolivian President Evo Morales signed a protocol aimed at accession to full membership in the bloc. Such a proposal requires review and possible legislative approval. On 7 July 2015, the heads of Mercosur having decided to accept Bolivia's request to become a full member country, Bolivian president Evo Morales signed the Brasilia protocol. This allowed Bolivia full membership in Mercosur.


title: Mercosur

text: In August 2016, the presidents of Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay, while present in Rio de Janeiro for the Olympic Games, met to discuss suspending Venezuela from Mercosur. The three countries were in doubt about whether Venezuela was complying with the union's requirements for full membership, citing human rights violations among other issues. In fact, Venezuela was rejected from assuming the presidency of Mercosur by those three countries, prompting a dispute that continued to the end of the year.


title: Mercosur

text: On 21 November 2016, Paraguayan Foreign Minister Eladio Loizaga announced that Venezuela would be suspended in December 2016 after the nation was given a three-month period to reform its laws to abide to Mercosur requirements, with Mercosur noting that "rules governing trade, politics, democracy and human rights" needed to be overhauled in Venezuela. On 1 December 2016, Venezuela was suspended from Mercosur.


title: Mercosur

text: On 5 August 2017, the foreign ministers of Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and Brazil affirmed that Venezuela's membership in Mercosur is suspended indefinitely in response to the "rupture of the democratic order" in that country following the 30 July 2017 Constituent Assembly elections. The bloc by-laws have no provision for expulsion. However, trade and migration policies stay without changes to avoid aggravating the social crisis. Brazilian Foreign Minister Aloysio Nunes said that Venezuela will remain suspended until the country "re-establishes democracy."


title: Mercosur

text: In January 2019, the opposition-majority National Assembly declared incumbent Nicolás Maduro's 2018 reelection invalid, entering a presidential crisis. During a July 2019 summit in Santa Fe, Argentina, the bloc called for "free, fair and transparent presidential elections, as soon as possible" in Venezuela. The presidents of the four member countries signed a statement expressing concern "for the grave crisis that Venezuela is going through, which is seriously affecting the humanitarian situation and human rights."


title: Mercosur

text: The territory of Mercosur consists of the combined territories of six of the 12 countries of South America and their population. Including the overseas territories of member states, Mercosur experiences most types of climate from Antarctic to tropical, rendering meteorological averages for Mercosur as a whole meaningless. The majority of the population lives in areas with a subtropical climate (Uruguay, Southern Paraguay, Northeastern and Center Argentina and Southern and Southeastern Brazil), or a tropical climate (Venezuela and Northeastern Brazil). The Mercosur member states are home to the world's highest uninterrupted waterfall, Angel Falls in Venezuela; the largest river by volume, the Amazon River in Brazil; the longest mountain range, the Andes (whose highest mountain is Aconcagua at in Argentina); the largest rainforest, the Amazon Rainforest in Brazil; and much more if we take the associated members into account, such as the highest capital city, La Paz, Bolivia; the highest commercially navigable lake in the world, Lake Titicaca in Peru; the driest non-polar place on earth, the Atacama Desert; and, excluding research stations in Antarctica, the world's southernmost permanently inhabited community, Puerto Toro, Chile.


title: Mercosur

text: One Mercosur full member, Argentina, has a claim to Antarctica called Argentine Antarctica, part of the province of Tierra del Fuego, which overlap partially the claim of a Mercosur associated state which is Chile and its Chilean Antarctica. Brazil does not claim any part of Antarctican territory but it does has a zone of interest called Brazilian Antarctica which overlap Argentina's claim.


title: Mercosur

text: Mercosur is composed of 5 sovereign member states: Argentina; Brazil; Paraguay; Uruguay and Venezuela (suspended since December 2016); and 7 associated states: Suriname, Guyana, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Chile and Bolivia, this latter in process of incorporation (since 17 July 2015); Plus two observer states: Mexico and New Zealand.


title: Mercosur

text: Following the impeachment of President Fernando Lugo by the Paraguayan Senate, this country was suspended from Mercosur, and the admittance of Venezuela as a full member became effective on 31 July 2012. Venezuela had four years to fully adapt to the trade bloc regulations and failed to do so, with the nation being suspended from Mercosur on 1 December 2016.


title: Mercosur

text: Directly subordinated to the Common Market Group, the work subgroups draw up the minutes of the decisions to submit for the consideration of the council, and study specific Mercosur concerns. The work subgroups are:


title: Mercosur

text: Work subgroups are held quarterly, alternating in every member state, in alphabetical order, or at the Common Market Group Administrative Office. Activities are carried out by the Work Subgroups in two stages: preparatory and conclusive. In the preparatory stage, members of the Work Subgroups may request the participation of representatives from the private sector of each member state. The decision-making stage is reserved exclusively for official representatives of the member states. The delegations of representatives from the private sector in the preparatory stage of the Work Subgroup activities will have a maximum of three representatives for each member state directly involved in any of the stages of the production, distribution or consumption process for the products that fall within the scope of the subgroup's activities.,


title: Mercosur

text: Mercosur has a population of 284 million among its full member states. The region has several areas of sparse demographics such as tropical forests and deserts, but it is also highly urbanized with the presence of two alpha cities – São Paulo and Buenos Aires – and several beta cities such as Montevideo, Rio de Janeiro, Brasilia, etc. The population is diverse, comprising people of European, Africans and Indigenous descent. People of Afro-Latin American descent tend to be concentrated in Brazil and Uruguay, with a smaller, but historic Afro-Argentine community in Argentina and an emerging population in Chile, the latter largely of Haitian origin. There is a high percentage of mestizos that vary greatly in composition by place. There is also a smaller population of Asians, notably in Brazil. The white population forms a majority in Argentina and Uruguay and represents about 45 percent in Brazil. Mestizos form the majority population in Paraguay, making it distinct from its immediate neighbors. Almost all Mercosur nations have significant indigenous American populations, especially in Paraguay (Guaraní is a national language in the country along with Spanish, and almost all Paraguayans have Guaraní genetic ancestry), Argentina (especially in the Northwest and Southwest of The country), Brazil (in the Northern and Northwest Amazonian states of the nation, where Native American tribes have vast reservation lands).


title: Mercosur

text: Portuguese, Spanish and Guarani are the three official languages of the Mercosur, as they are the official languages of the five full members – Portuguese is the official language of Brazil, Spanish is the official language of all other full member countries, while Paraguay also have Guarani as a co-official language. Along with Paraguay (where it is one of two official languages), parts of Argentina (notably Corrientes) speak Guaraní. However, the Mercosur does not provide all, or even most, services in Guaraní. The official website and almost all official summits are only held in Spanish and Portuguese. Important documents, such as legislation, are translated into Portuguese and Spanish.


title: Mercosur

text: Currently, among the full members, Portuguese is the most spoken language, with over 210 million native speakers as of 2019, while Spanish accounts for 83 million speakers approximately. Even though language policy is the responsibility of member states, Mercosur institutions promote multilingualism among its citizens, and while Brazil has enforced Spanish as a foreign language to be taught at school, Argentina and Venezuela have done so with Portuguese. Although Portuguese is the most spoken language by the bloc's population, Spanish is the more used language on internal affairs, as it is an official language to most members.


title: Mercosur

text: Intra-Mercosur merchandise trade (excluding Venezuela) grew from US$10 billion at the inception of the trade bloc in 1991, to US$88 billion in 2010; Brazil and Argentina each accounted for 43% of this total. The trade balance within the bloc has historically been tilted toward Brazil, which recorded an intra-Mercosur balance of over US$5 billion in 2010. Trade within Mercosur amounted to only 16% of the four countries' total merchandise trade in 2010, however; trade with the European Union (20%), China (14%), and the United States (11%) was of comparable importance. Exports from the bloc are highly diversified, and include a variety of agricultural, industrial, and energy goods. Merchandise trade with the rest of the world in 2010 resulted in a surplus for Mercosur of nearly US$7 billion; trade in services, however, was in deficit by over US$28 billion. The EU and China maintained a nearly balanced merchandise trade with Mercosur in 2010, while the United States reaped a surplus of over US$14 billion; Mercosur, in turn, earned significant surpluses (over US$4 billion each in 2010) in its trade with Chile and Venezuela. The latter became a full member in 2012.


title: Mercosur

text: The Asunción Treaty and Ouro Preto Protocol established the basis for the institutional Mercosur structure, creating the Common Market Council and the Common Market Group, both of which function at the outset of the transition phase. As provided for in this Treaty, before establishing the common market the member nations must call a special meeting to determine the definitive institutional structure for the public agencies managing Mercosur, as well as define the specific functions of each agency and the decision making process.


title: Mercosur

text: The council is the highest-level agency of Mercosur with the authority to conduct its policy, and responsibility for compliance with the objects and time frames set forth in the Asuncion Treaty. The council is composed of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs and the Economy (or the equivalent) of all five countries. Member states preside over the Council in rotating alphabetical order, for six-month periods. Meetings: Council members shall meet whenever necessary, but at least once a year. The presidents of the member nations shall partake of the annual Common Market Council meeting whenever possible. Decision Making: Council decisions shall be made by consensus, with representation of all member states.


title: Mercosur

text: The Group is the executive body of Mercosur, and is coordinated by the Ministries of Foreign Affairs of the member states. Its basic duties are to cause compliance with the Asuncion Treaty and to take resolutions required for implementation of the decisions made by the council. Furthermore, it can initiate practical measures for trade opening, coordination of macroeconomic policies, and negotiation of agreements with nonmember states and international agencies, participating when need be in resolution of controversies under Mercosur. It has the authority to organize, coordinate and supervise Work Subgroups and to call special meetings to deal with issues of interest. Composition: The Common Market Group shall be made up of four permanent members and four alternates from each member state, representing the following public agencies: (i) the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; (ii) the Ministry of Economy, or the equivalent (from industry, foreign affairs and/or economic coordination); and (iii) the Central Bank. The members of the Common Market Group appointed by a given member state will constitute the National Section of the Common Market Group for that particular nation. Meetings: The Common Market Group will meet ordinarily at least once every quarter in the member states, in rotating alphabetical order. Special meetings may be freely called at any time, at any previously scheduled place. The meetings will be coordinated by the Head of the Delegation of the host member state. Decision Making: Common Market Group decisions shall be made by consensus, with the representation of all member states. The official Mercosur languages will be Portuguese and Spanish, and the official version of all work papers will be prepared in the language of the country hosting the meeting.


title: Mercosur

text: The Administrative Office will keep documents and issue the Mercosur official bulletin in both Portuguese and Spanish, and will also be charged with communicating the activities of the Common Market Group so as to allow for the maximum disclosure of decisions and the relevant documentation. The Socioeconomic Advisory Forum is consultative by nature, and represents the various socioeconomic sectors of the member nations.


title: Mercosur

text: Directly subordinated to the Common Market Group, the Work Subgroups draw up the minutes of the decisions to submit for the consideration of the council, and conduct studies on specific Mercosur concerns. The work subgroups are the following: commercial matters; customs matters; technical standards; tax and monetary policies relating to trade; land transport; sea transport; industrial and technology policies; agricultural policy; energy policy; coordination of macroeconomic policies; and labor, employment and social security matters. meetings. The meetings of the Work subgroups will be held quarterly, alternating in every member state, in alphabetical order, or at the Common Market Group Administrative Office. Activities will be carried out by the Work Subgroups in two stages: preparatory and conclusive. In the preparatory stage, the members of the Work Subgroups may request the participation of representatives from the private sector of each member state. The decision-making stage is reserved exclusively for official representatives of the member states. The delegations of representatives from the private sector in the preparatory stage of the Work Subgroup activities will have a maximum of three representatives for each member state directly involved in any of the stages of the production, distribution or consumption process for the products that fall within the scope of the subgroup's activities.


title: Mercosur

text: The Committee will have both an advisory and decision-making nature; with powers to submit proposals as well. It will be competent, inter alia, to: follow up on the integration process and keep the respective Congresses informed; Take the necessary steps for the future instatement of a Mercosur Parliament; Organize subcommittees to examine matters relating to the integration process; Submit its recommendations to the Common Market Council and Group as to how the integration process should be conducted and Southern Common Market formed; Make the adjustments necessary to harmonize the laws of the different member states and submit them to the respective Congresses; Establish relationships with private entities in each of the member states, as well as international agencies and bureaus so as to obtain information and specialized assistance with matters of interest: Establish relationships targeting cooperation with Congresses of the nonmember nations and entities involved in regional integration schemes; Subscribe to cooperation and technical assistance accords with public and/or private entities whether domestic, supranational or international. The committee will be composed of a maximum of 64 acting parliamentary members, 16 per member state, and an equal number of alternates, appointed by the Congress to which they pertain, and with a term of office of at least two years. The meetings shall be conducted by a directors' board consisting of four presidents (one for each member state). The committee will ordinarily meet twice a year, and extraordinarily whenever summoned by any of its five presidents. Meetings are held in the territory of each member state on a successive and alternating basis. Decision Making: Meetings of the Joint Parliamentary Committee will only be valid when attended by parliamentary delegations from all member states. Decisions by the Joint Parliamentary Committee will be made by consensus vote of the majority of the members accredited by the respective Congresses of each member state. Portuguese and Spanish are the official languages of the Joint Parliamentary Committee.


title: Mercosur

text: The Trade Commission will assist the Mercosur executive body, always striving to apply the instruments of common trade policy agreed to by the member states for operation of the customs unification. The commission should also follow up on the development of issues and matters related to common trade policies, the intra-Mercosur trade and trade with other countries. The commission will have five actual members and four alternates, with each member nation's indicating a member. The Trade Commission shall exert every effort to apply common trade policy instruments such as: trade agreements with other countries or international entities; administrative/commercial product lists; final adaptation system for Mercosur customs unification; origin system; free-trade zone system, special customs areas and export processing zones; system to discourage unfair trade practices; elimination and harmonization of tariff restrictions; nonmember country safeguard systems; customs coordination and harmonization; consumer protection systems; and export incentive harmonization.


title: Mercosur

text: Furthermore, the trade commission should speak out regarding the issues raised by the member states regarding application and compliance with common offshore tariffs and other common trade policy instruments. The commission shall meet at least once a month, as well as whenever asked to by the Mercosur executive agency or by a member state. The commission can take decisions entailing administration and application of trade policies adopted under Southern Common Market, and whenever necessary submit proposals to the executive body regarding regulation of the areas under its authority; additionally, it can propose new guidelines or modify those in existence in Mercosur trade and customs matters. In this respect, the trade commission can propose a change in the import duty on specific items under common external tariffs, including cases referring to development of new Mercosur production activities. To better achieve its objectives, the trade commission can create technical committees targeting direction and supervision of the work it engages in. It can also adopt internal operating regulations. Proposals and decisions of the trade commission will be taken by a consensus of the representatives indicated by each member nation. Any disputes ensuing from the application, interpretation or compliance with the acts issued by the trade commission are referred to the Mercosur executive body, and should be resolved using the directives set forth in the Dispute Resolution System adopted under Southern Common Market.


title: Mercosur

text: The rules on litigation jurisdiction over contractual matters will apply to disputes arising from civil or commercial international contracts between private-law legal entities or individuals provided that: They are domiciled or headquartered in different member states: At least one of the parties to the contract is domiciled or headquartered in any member state and, additionally, has made a choice of jurisdiction in favor of a court in one of the member states. In this case, there must be a reasonable connection between the jurisdiction chosen and the controversy. The scope of the application of the international jurisdiction guidelines over contractual matters excludes the following: legal relationships between bankrupt entities/individuals and their creditors and any other analogous proceedings (especially concordatas composition with creditors); matters under agreements involving family and succession law; social security contracts; administrative contracts; employment contracts; consumer sales contracts; transport contracts; insurance policies; and rights in rem.


title: Mercosur

text: Courts in member nations to whose jurisdiction the contracted parties have agreed to submit the matter in writing will have jurisdiction to settle controversies stemming from civil or commercial international contracts.


title: Mercosur

text: The jurisdiction can be agreed on at the time the contract is signed, during the life of the contract, or even when the dispute actually arises. The validity and effects of the choice of venue will be governed by the law of the member nations that normally have jurisdiction to hear the case, always resorting to the law most favorable to the validity of the contract. Whether or not jurisdiction is chosen, such jurisdiction will be prorogated in favor of the courts of the member state where the proceedings are in fact filed, provided the respondent voluntarily allows this in an affirmative and unfeigned way.


title: Mercosur

text: Should the contracted parties not agree on courts competent to settle disputes, the member state chosen by the plaintiff of the case has jurisdiction—the court of the place where the contract is to be performed, the court of the domicile of the respondent, or the court of the domicile, or headquarters of the claimant when the latter can show that it has done its part. For purposes of item (i) above the place of performance of the contract is the member state where the obligations on which the claim is based have been or should be performed, taking into consideration the following: For contracts involving certain specific items, the place where they existed at the time of contract signing; For contracts involving specific items according to their type, the place of domicile of the debtor at the time of contract signing; For contracts involving fungible items, the place of domicile of the debtor at the time of conclusion of the contract; and For service rendering contracts:


title: Mercosur

text: In the event of there being a counterclaim based on any act or fact that served as the basis for the main proceeding, the courts hearing the main proceeding will be competent to hear any counterclaims that may arise.


title: Mercosur

text: Based on the premise that education is a fundamental factor in the regional integration process, educational courses at the primary or junior high level, provided that they do not entail technical studies, will be recognized by member states as being on the same level for all member nations. Likewise, to facilitate continuing education, course certificates issued by an institution accredited in one of the member states is valid in all other member states. Nontechnical primary and junior high level studies that have not been completed are accredited by any member state, thereby allowing course conclusion in another member nation. Studies are completed using an equivalency table to determine the level achieved.


title: Mercosur

text: A regional technical commission harmonizes mechanisms for accreditation across member nations, and resolves any situation not be covered by the equivalency table. This commission includes delegations from the ministries of education of each member nation, and meets whenever at least two member states think it necessary. Meeting sites are established on a rotating basis. Any disputes among member states as a result of application, construction, or noncompliance regarding provisions related to education are initially resolved by direct diplomatic negotiations. Should the countries not reach an accord or only partially resolve the dispute, they resort to procedures set out in the dispute resolution system. Should the member nations enter into a bilateral convention or accord with provisions more favorable to their students, the member states in question can apply whichever provisions they consider most advantageous.


title: Mercosur

text: The member nations can have commercial free-trade zones, industrial free-trade zones, export processing zones, and special customs areas, all of which target providing merchandise marketed or produced in these areas with treatment different from that afforded in their respective customs territories. Uruguay's Vice-President Danilo Astori said the issue of a free trade agreement with the United States must be dealt and that "opportunities must be built". He also said that "each Mercosur country should have a multiplicity of memberships. Mercosur must have joint international policies, an agreement on moderate protection from third parties and above all must have agreements with other trade blocks".


title: Mercosur

text: The member states can assess merchandise from these areas with the common external tariff used for Mercosur merchandise, or, in the case of certain special products, the domestic tariff prevailing in each individual state. In this way, the products from the free-trade zones can have the more favorable tax treatment established under Southern Common Market, given to the merchandise produced in the normal customs zones of each member state or, in the case of certain special products, can have the normal customs treatment prevailing in each nation. Products coming from outside of Mercosur are highly taxed so that local companies do not feel the need to compete with large international companies.


title: Mercosur

text: Products produced or marketed in the free-trade zones of each member nation will be eligible for the safeguard system whenever this entails an increase not provided for in imports, but capable of causing damages or threatened damages to the importer country.


title: Mercosur

text: In the event of the producing nation's granting special incentives for production from the free-trade zones that are not compatible with the corresponding guidelines established under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the member nation can make any adjustments needed to return the situation to equilibrium.


title: Mercosur

text: The member nations agreed that any free-trade zones that in August 1994 were already in operation could operate normally under Mercosur, along with any that are set up in light of legal guidelines prevailing or in course in congress during this same time period. This means that a member nation can no longer create new free-trade zones that are more privileged.


title: Mercosur

text: The actual implementation of Mercosur will not affect the special Manaus, Brazil, and Tierra del Fuego, Argentina, free-trade zones organized in light of their special geographic situations. These two free-trade zones may continue normal operations until 2013.


title: Mercosur

text: The nations subscribing to the Asunción Treaty consider that the creation and maintenance of conditions favorable to individual or corporate investment for the jurisdiction of one of the member states in the territory of another state is essential to intensify the economic cooperation targeted so as to accelerate the integration process among all four member states. In this context, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Brazil signed on 1 January 1994 in the city of Colonia del Sacramento, Uruguay, the Colonia Protocol for the Reciprocal Promotion and Protection of Mercosur Investments (Colonia Protocol). It was established in this protocol that investments under Mercosur by investors resident or domiciled in the territory of any member state will be entitled to treatment no less favorable than that accorded by the other member state to national investors or nonmember states.


title: Mercosur

text: For the purposes of constructing the Colonia Protocol, investors are considered to be: Individuals who are citizens of any of the member nations or that reside there on a permanent basis or are domiciled there, with due regard for legislation prevailing in such territory; Legal entities organized pursuant to the legislation of one of the member nations that are headquartered there; and Legal entities organized in the territory where the investment is made, actually and directly or indirectly controlled by the legal entities or individuals mentioned above.