title: Barkley Marathons

text: The course itself, which has changed distance, route, and elevation many times since its inaugural run, currently consists of an approximate unmarked loop with no aid stations except water at two points along the route. The loop begins and ends at the yellow road gate where the runners' and supporters' parked cars stay. Runners of the 100-mile version run this loop five times, taking a counterclockwise direction for loops two and four, followed by each runner alternating direction on loop five, after the first-placed runner's choice. Depending on the start of the first loop, either the second and fourth loops are run at night, or the first, third, and fifth loops are run at night. Runners who complete three circuits of the loop (60-miles) are said to have completed a "fun run".


title: Barkley Marathons

text: With of accumulated vertical climb, the 100-mile run is considered to be one of the most challenging ultramarathons held in the United States, if not the world. As of 2018, about 55% of the races had ended with no finishers.


title: Barkley Marathons

text: The 100-mile and 60-mile distances are nominal. While a nominal distance of 20 miles, which only covers the horizontal distance, the actual length of the loop varies due to changes in the elevations on the course. Some say the loop is as long as , yielding for the full race and for the "fun run."


title: Barkley Marathons

text: The Barkley starts any time from midnight to noon on race day, with one hour till race start signaled by blowing a conch. The race officially begins when the race director lights a cigarette.


title: Barkley Marathons

text: In addition to running, competitors must find between 9 and 14 books along the course (the exact number varies each year) and remove the page corresponding to the runner's race number from each book as proof of completion. Competitors get a new race number, and thus a new page requirement, at the start of each lap.


title: Barkley Marathons

text: The cut-off time for the 100-mile race is 60 hours overall, or an average of 12 hours per loop, and the cut-off for the 60-mile version of the race is 40 hours overall, which averages out to approximately 13 hours and 20 minutes per loop. Once a competitor has started a loop they are not allowed to receive any assistance, other than from fellow runners, until they have finished that loop. Out of more than 1,000 starts, the 100-mile race has been completed within the official 60-hour cut-off 18 times by 15 runners. However, in 2006, nobody finished even the 60-mile "fun run" in under 40 hours. The best women's achievement is Sue Johnston's in 2001. More than 30 competitors failed to reach the first book (two miles).


title: Barkley Marathons

text: In 2017, Gary Robbins of North Vancouver, British Columbia, reached the finishing gate a mere six seconds after the 60-hour cut-off, almost becoming the 16th runner ever to complete the Barkley. However, he had taken a wrong turn in the final stages of the race, thus cutting two miles off the course; he would have been disqualified even if he had been faster. "The time, in that situation, is meaningless," Cantrell said of the six-second time overage.


title: Barkley Marathons

text: In 2022, the race had its second earliest start in history, with the ceremonial cigarette being lit on March 8 at 6:54 AM local time. The only earlier date was the first event, 1986, when the race started on March 1.


title: Barkley Marathons

text: Furtaw, Ed. (2010) "Tales From Out There: The Barkley Marathons, The World's Toughest Trail Race", CreateSpace.


title: Shaman King (2021 TV series)

text: The 2021 "Shaman King" anime series (stylized as SHAMAN KING) is based on the manga series of the same name written and illustrated by Hiroyuki Takei. At Otakon 2015, former Madhouse president and then MAPPA president, Masao Maruyama, expressed his desire to work on a reboot of "Shaman King". In February 2017, while answering a fan's question, Takei revealed on his official Twitter that he received an offer for an anime reboot of "Shaman King", but he turned the offer down because he was told that the new anime would not be able to use the first anime's voice actors and soundtrack music, although Takei hoped for another chance in the future. In June 2020, a new anime television series was announced that would adapt the 35 volumes of the new complete manga edition.


title: Shaman King (2021 TV series)

text: The anime is produced by Bridge and directed by Joji Furuta, with series composition by Shōji Yonemura, character designs by Satohiko Sano and music composed by Yuki Hayashi. It aired from April 1, 2021, to April 21, 2022, on TV Tokyo and various other TX Network stations. Netflix acquired global streaming rights to the series and released the first cour consisting of 13 episodes, outside Japan on August 9, 2021. The series features several returning cast members from the 2001 anime series in both the Japanese and the English dub.


title: Shaman King (2021 TV series)

text: As with the 2001 anime series, Megumi Hayashibara the voice actress for Anna, performs the opening and ending theme songs in the 2021 series. The first opening theme is "Soul salvation" and the first ending theme is , both performed by Hayashibara. soul Salvation would be used for a montage in the final episode while #Boku no Yubisaki would be used over the credits of the penultimate episode. The second opening theme is "Get up! Shout!" by Tamao's voice actress Nana Mizuki, and the second ending theme is "Adieu" by Jeannes voice actress Yui Horie. Get up! Shout! would not be used at the beginning of the final episode, instead being used over the credits while highlights of the series were shown. The third ending theme is "Hazuki" by saji. The fourth ending theme is "Courage Soul" by Yohs voice actress Yōko Hikasa. Episode 5 featured the first opening theme from the 2001 anime series, "Over Soul", performed by Hayashibara, as an insert song. The ending theme of episode 33 is "Osorezan Revoir", also performed by Hayashibara.


title: Shaman King (2021 TV series)

text: The series consists of 52 episodes released on four Blu-ray Disc boxes, each with 13 episodes: released on August 25, 2021, November 24, 2021, February 23, 2022, and May 25, 2022, respectively.


title: Plough

text: A plough or plow (US; both ) is a farm tool for loosening or turning the soil before sowing seed or planting. Ploughs were traditionally drawn by oxen and horses, but in modern farms are drawn by tractors. A plough may have a wooden, iron or steel frame, with a blade attached to cut and loosen the soil. It has been fundamental to farming for most of history. The earliest ploughs had no wheels; such a plough was known to the Romans as an "aratrum". Celtic peoples first came to use wheeled ploughs in the Roman era.


title: Plough

text: The prime purpose of ploughing is to turn over the uppermost soil, bringing fresh nutrients to the surface while burying weeds and crop remains to decay. Trenches cut by the plough are called furrows. In modern use, a ploughed field is normally left to dry and then harrowed before planting. Ploughing and cultivating soil evens the content of the upper layer of soil, where most plant-feeder roots grow.


title: Plough

text: Ploughs were initially powered by humans, but the use of farm animals was considerably more efficient. The earliest animals worked were oxen. Later, horses and mules were used in many areas. With the industrial revolution came the possibility of steam engines to pull ploughs. These in turn were superseded by internal-combustion-powered tractors in the early 20th century.


title: Plough

text: Use of the traditional plough has decreased in some areas threatened by soil damage and erosion. Used instead is shallower ploughing or other less-invasive conservation tillage.


title: Plough

text: In older English, as in other Germanic languages, the plough was traditionally known by other names, e.g. Old English (modern dialectal ""), Old High German , , , Old Norse (Swedish ), and Gothic , all presumably referring to the ard (scratch plough).


title: Plough

text: The modern word comes from the Old Norse , and is therefore Germanic, but it appears relatively late (it is not attested in Gothic), and is thought to be a loan from one of the north Italic languages. The German cognate is "Pflug", the Dutch "ploeg" and the Swedish "plog". In many Slavic languages and in Romanian the word is "plug". Words with the same root appeared with related meanings: in Raetic "wheeled heavy plough" (Pliny, "Nat. Hist." 18, 172), and in Latin "farm cart", "cart", and "cart box". The word must have originally referred to the wheeled heavy plough, common in Roman north-western Europe by the 5th century AD.


title: Plough

text: Many view "plough" as a derivative of the verb *"plehan" ~ *"plegan" 'to take responsibility' (cf. German "pflegen" 'to look after, nurse'), which would explain, for example, Old High German "pfluog" with its double meaning of 'plough' and 'livelihood'. Guus Kroonen (2013) proposes a "vṛddhi"-derivative of *"plag/kkōn" 'sod' (cf. Dutch "plag" 'sod', Old Norse "plagg" 'cloth', Middle High German 'rag, patch, stain'). Finally, Vladimir Orel (2003) tentatively attaches "plough" to a PIE stem *"", which supposedly gave Old Armenian "to dig" and Welsh "crack", though the word may not be of Indo-European origin.


title: Plough

text: On modern ploughs and some older ploughs, the mould board is separate from the share and runner, so these parts can be replaced without replacing the mould board. Abrasion eventually wears out all parts of a plough that come into contact with the soil.


title: Plough

text: When agriculture was first developed, soil was turned using simple hand-held digging sticks and hoes. These were used in highly fertile areas, such as the banks of the Nile, where the annual flood rejuvenates the soil, to create drills (furrows) in which to plant seeds. Digging sticks, hoes and mattocks were not invented in any one place, and hoe cultivation must have been common everywhere agriculture was practised. Hoe-farming is the traditional tillage method in tropical or sub-tropical regions, which are marked by stony soils, steep slope gradients, predominant root crops, and coarse grains grown at wide intervals. While hoe-agriculture is best suited to these regions, it is used in some fashion everywhere. Instead of hoeing, some cultures use pigs to trample the soil and grub the earth.


title: Plough

text: Some ancient hoes, like the Egyptian "mr", were pointed and strong enough to clear rocky soil and make seed drills, which is why they are called "hand-ards". However, domestication of oxen in Mesopotamia and the Indus valley civilization, perhaps as early as the 6th millennium BC, provided mankind with the draft power needed to develop the larger, animal-drawn true "ard" (or scratch plough). The earliest surviving evidence of ploughing has been dated to 3500–3800 BCE, on a site in Bubeneč, Czech Republic. A ploughed field, from c.2800 BCE, was also discovered at Kalibangan, India. A terracotta model of the early ards was found at Banawali, India, giving insight into the form of the tool used. The ard remained easy to replace if it became damaged and easy to replicate.


title: Plough

text: The earliest was the bow ard, which consists of a draft-pole (or beam) pierced by a thinner vertical pointed stick called the head (or body), with one end being the stilt (handle) and the other a share (cutting blade) dragged through the topsoil to cut a shallow furrow suitable for most cereal crops. The ard does not clear new land well, so hoes or mattocks had to be used to pull up grass and undergrowth, and a hand-held, coulter-like ristle could be made to cut deeper furrows ahead of the share. Because the ard left a strip of undisturbed earth between furrows, the fields were often cross-ploughed lengthwise and breadth-wise, which tended to form squarish Celtic fields. The ard is best suited to loamy or sandy soils that are naturally fertilised by annual flooding, as in the Nile Delta and Fertile Crescent, and to a lesser extent any other cereal-growing region with light or thin soil. By the late Iron Age, ards in Europe were commonly fitted with coulters.


title: Plough

text: To grow crops regularly in less-fertile areas, it was once believed that the soil must be turned to bring nutrients to the surface. A major advance for this type of farming was the turn plough, also known as the mould-board plough (UK), moldboard plow (US), or frame-plough. A coulter (or skeith) could be added to cut vertically into the ground just ahead of the share (in front of the frog), a wedge-shaped cutting edge at the bottom front of the mould board with the landside of the frame supporting the under-share (below-ground component). The mould-board plough introduced in the 18th century was a major advance in technology.


title: Plough

text: The upper parts of the frame carry (from the front) the coupling for the motive power (horses), the coulter and the landside frame. Depending on the size of the implement, and the number of furrows it is designed to plough at one time, a fore-carriage with a wheel or wheels (known as a furrow wheel and support wheel) may be added to support the frame (wheeled plough). In the case of a single-furrow plough there is one wheel at the front and handles at the rear for the ploughman to steer and maneuver it.


title: Plough

text: When dragged through a field, the coulter cuts down into the soil and the share cuts horizontally from the previous furrow to the vertical cut. This releases a rectangular strip of sod to be lifted by the share and carried by the mould board up and over, so that the strip of sod (slice of the topsoil) that is being cut lifts and rolls over as the plough moves forward, dropping back upside down into the furrow and onto the turned soil from the previous run down the field. Each gap in the ground where the soil has been lifted and moved across (usually to the right) is called a furrow. The sod lifted from it rests at an angle of about 45 degrees in the adjacent furrow, up the back of the sod from the previous run.


title: Plough

text: A series of ploughings run down a field leaves a row of sods partly in the furrows and partly on the ground lifted earlier. Visually, across the rows, there is the land on the left, a furrow (half the width of the removed strip of soil) and the removed strip almost upside-down lying on about half of the previous strip of inverted soil, and so on across the field. Each layer of soil and the gutter it came from forms a classic furrow. The mould-board plough greatly reduced the time needed to prepare a field and so allowed a farmer to work a larger area of land. In addition, the resulting pattern of low (under the mould board) and high (beside it) ridges in the soil forms water channels, allowing the soil to drain. In areas where snow build-up causes difficulties, this lets farmers plant the soil earlier, as the snow run-off drains away more quickly.


title: Plough

text: The share, landside and mould board are bolted to the frog, which is an irregular piece of cast iron at the base of the plough body, to which the soil-wearing parts are bolted.


title: Plough

text: The share is the edge that makes the horizontal cut to separate the furrow slice from the soil below. Conventional shares are shaped to penetrate soil efficiently: the tip is pointed downward to pull the share into the ground to a regular depth. The clearance, usually referred to as suction or down suction, varies with different makes and types of plough. Share configuration is related to soil type, particularly in the down suction or concavity of its lower surface. Generally three degrees of clearance or down suction are recognised: regular for light soil, deep for ordinary dry soil, and double-deep for clay and gravelly soils.


title: Plough

text: As the share wears away, it becomes blunt and the plough will require more power to pull it through the soil. A plough body with a worn share will not have enough "suck" to ensure it delves the ground to its full working depth.


title: Plough

text: In addition, the share has horizontal suction related to the amount its point is bent out of line with the land side. Down suction causes the plough to penetrate to proper depth when pulled forward, while horizontal suction causes the plough to create the desired width of furrow. The share is a plane part with a trapezoidal shape. It cuts the soil horizontally and lifts it. Common types are regular, winged-plane, bar-point, and share with mounted or welded point. The regular share conserves a good cut but is recommended on stone-free soils. The winged-plane share is used on heavy soil with a moderate amount of stones. The bar-point share can be used in extreme conditions (hard and stony soils). The share with a mounted point is somewhere between the last two types. Makers have designed shares of various shapes (trapesium, diamond, etc.) with bolted point and wings, often separately renewable. Sometimes the share-cutting edge is placed well in advance of the mould board to reduce the pulverizing action of the soil.


title: Plough

text: The mould board is the part of the plough that receives the furrow slice from the share. It is responsible for lifting and turning the furrow slice and sometimes for shattering it, depending on the type of mould board, ploughing depth and soil conditions. The intensity of this depends on the type of mould board. To suit different soil conditions and crop requirements, mould boards have been designed in different shapes, each producing its own furrow profile and surface finish, but essentially they still conform to the original plough body classification. The various types have been traditionally classified as general purpose, digger, and semi-digger, as described below.


title: Plough

text: The land side is the flat plate which presses against and transmits the lateral thrust of the plough bottom to the furrow wall. It helps to resist the side pressure exerted by the furrow slice on the mould board. It also helps to stabilise the plough while in operation. The rear bottom end of the landslide, which rubs against the furrow sole, is known as the heel. A heel iron is bolted to the end of the rear of the land side and helps to support the back of the plough. The land side and share are arranged to give a "lead" towards the unploughed land, so helping to sustain the correct furrow width. The land side is usually made of solid medium-carbon steel and is very short, except at the rear bottom of the plough. The heel or rear end of the rear land side may be subject to excessive wear if the rear wheel is out of adjustment, and so a chilled iron heel piece is frequently used. This is inexpensive and can be easily replaced. The land side is fastened to the frog by plough bolts.


title: Plough

text: The frog (standard) is the central part of the plough bottom to which the other components of the bottom are attached. It is an irregular piece of metal, which may be made of cast iron for cast iron ploughs or welded steel for steel ploughs. The frog is the foundation of the plough bottom. It takes the shock resulting from hitting rocks, and therefore should be tough and strong. The frog is in turn fastened to the plough frame.


title: Plough

text: A runner extending from behind the share to the rear of the plough controls the direction of the plough, because it is held against the bottom land-side corner of the new furrow being formed. The holding force is the weight of the sod, as it is raised and rotated, on the curved surface of the mould board. Because of this runner, the mould board plough is harder to turn around than the scratch plough, and its introduction brought about a change in the shape of fieldsfrom mostly square fields into longer rectangular "strips" (hence the introduction of the furlong).


title: Plough

text: An advance on the basic design was the iron ploughshare, a replaceable horizontal cutting surface mounted on the tip of the share. The earliest ploughs with a detachable and replaceable share date from around 1000 BC in the Ancient Near East, and the earliest iron ploughshares from about 500 BC in China. Early mould boards were wedges that sat inside the cut formed by the coulter, turning over the soil to the side. The ploughshare spread the cut horizontally below the surface, so that when the mould board lifted it, a wider area of soil was turned over. Mould boards are known in Britain from the late 6th century onwards.


title: Plough

text: The mould-board plough type is usually set by the method with which the plough is attached to the tractor and the way it is lifted and carried. The basic types are:


title: Plough

text: When a plough hits a rock or other solid obstruction, serious damage may result unless the plough is equipped with some safety device. The damage may be bent or broken shares, bent standards, beams or braces.


title: Plough

text: The three basic types of safety devices used on mould-board ploughs are a spring release device in the plough drawbar, a trip beam construction on each bottom, and an automatic reset design on each bottom.


title: Plough

text: The spring release was used in the past almost universally on trailing-type ploughs with one to three or four bottoms. It is not practical on larger ploughs. When an obstruction is encountered, the spring release mechanism in the hitch permits the plough to uncouple from the tractor. When a hydraulic lift is used on the plough, the hydraulic hoses will also usually uncouple automatically when the plough uncouples. Most plough makers offer an automatic reset system for tough conditions or rocky soils. The re-set mechanism allows each body to move rearward and upward to pass without damage over obstacles such as rocks hidden below soil surface. A heavy leaf or coil-spring mechanism that holds the body in its working position under normal conditions resets the plough after the obstruction is passed.


title: Plough

text: Another type of auto-reset mechanism uses an oil (hydraulic) and gas accumulator. Shock loads cause the oil to compress the gas. When the gas expands again, the leg returns to its working ploughing position after passing over the obstacle. The simplest mechanism is a breaking (shear) bolt that needs replacement. Shear bolts that break when a plough body hits an obstruction are a cheaper overload protection device.


title: Plough

text: Trip-beam ploughs are constructed with a hinge point in the beam. This is usually located some distance above the top of the plough bottom. The bottom is held in normal ploughing position by a spring-operated latch. When an obstruction is encountered, the entire bottom is released and hinges back and up to pass over the obstruction. It is necessary to back up the tractor and plough to reset the bottom. This construction is used to protect the individual bottoms. The automatic reset design has only recently been introduced on US ploughs, but has been used extensively on European and Australian ploughs. Here the beam is hinged at a point almost above the point of the share. The bottom is held in the normal position by a set of springs or a hydraulic cylinder on each bottom.


title: Plough

text: When an obstruction is encountered, the plough bottom hinges back and up in such a way as to pass over the obstruction, without stopping the tractor and plough. The bottom automatically returns to normal ploughing position as soon as the obstruction is passed, without any interruption of forward motion. The automatic reset design permits higher field efficiencies since stopping for stones is practically eliminated. It also reduces costs for broken shares, beams and other parts. The fast resetting action helps produce a better job of ploughing, as large areas of unploughed land are not left, as they are when lifting a plough over a stone.


title: Plough

text: Manual loy ploughing was a form used on small farms in Ireland where farmers could not afford more, or on hilly ground that precluded horses. It was used up until the 1960s in poorer land. It suited the moist Irish climate, as the trenches formed by turning in the sods provided drainage. It allowed potatoes to be grown in bogs (peat swamps) and on otherwise unfarmed mountain slopes.


title: Plough

text: In the basic mould-board plough, the depth of cut is adjusted by lifting against the runner in the furrow, which limited the weight of the plough to what a ploughman could easily lift. This limited the construction to a small amount of wood (although metal edges were possible). These ploughs were fairly fragile and unsuitable for the heavier soils of northern Europe. The introduction of wheels to replace the runner allowed the weight of the plough to increase, and in turn the use of a larger mould-board faced in metal. These "heavy ploughs" led to greater food production and eventually a marked population increase, beginning around AD 1000.


title: Plough

text: Before the Han Dynasty (202 BCAD 220), Chinese ploughs were made almost wholly of wood except for the iron blade of the ploughshare. These were V-shaped iron pieces mounted on wooden blades and handles. By the Han period the entire ploughshare was made of cast iron. These are the earliest known heavy, mould-board iron ploughs. Several advancements such as the three-shared plow, the plow-and-sow implement, and the harrow were developed subsequently. By the end of the Song dynasty in 1279, Chinese ploughs had reached a state of development that would not be seen in Holland until the 17th century.


title: Plough

text: The Romans achieved a heavy-wheeled mould-board plough in the late 3rd and 4th century AD, for which archaeological evidence appears, for instance, in Roman Britain. The Greek and Roman mould-boards were usually tied to the bottom of the shaft with bits of rope, which made them more fragile than the Chinese ones, and iron mould-boards did not appear in Europe until the 10th century. The first indisputable appearance after the Roman period is in a northern Italian document of 643. Old words connected with the heavy plough and its use appear in Slavic, suggesting possible early use in that region. General adoption of the carruca heavy plough in Europe seems to have accompanied adoption of the three-field system in the later 8th and early 9th centuries, leading to improved agricultural productivity per unit of land in northern Europe. This was accompanied by larger fields, known variously as carucates, ploughlands, and plough gates.


title: Plough

text: The basic plough with coulter, ploughshare and mould board remained in use for a millennium. Major changes in design spread widely in the Age of Enlightenment, when there was rapid progress in design. Joseph Foljambe in Rotherham, England, in 1730, used new shapes based on the Rotherham plough, which covered the mould board with iron. Unlike the heavy plough, the Rotherham, or Rotherham swing plough consisted entirely of the coulter, mould board and handles. It was much lighter than earlier designs and became common in England. It may have been the first plough widely built in factories and commercially successful there.


title: Plough

text: In 1789 Robert Ransome, an iron founder in Ipswich, started casting ploughshares in a disused malting at St Margaret's Ditches. A broken mould in his foundry caused molten metal to come into contact with cold metal, making the metal surface extremely hard. This process, chilled casting, resulted in what Ransome advertised as "self-sharpening" ploughs. He received patents for his discovery.


title: Plough

text: James Small further advanced the design. Using mathematical methods, he eventually arrived at a shape cast from a single piece of iron, an improvement on the "Scots plough" of James Anderson of Hermiston. A single-piece cast-iron plough was also developed and patented by Charles Newbold in the United States. This was again improved on by Jethro Wood, a blacksmith of Scipio, New York, who made a three-part Scots plough that allowed a broken piece to be replaced. In 1833 John Lane invented a steel plough. Then in 1837 John Deere introduced a steel plough; it was much stronger than iron designs that it could work soil in US areas previously thought unsuitable for farming.


title: Plough

text: Improvements on this followed developments in metallurgy: steel coulters and shares with softer iron mould boards to prevent breakage, the chilled plough (an early example of surface-hardened steel), and eventually mould boards with faces strong enough to dispense with the coulter.


title: Plough

text: By the time of the early 1900s, the steel plough had many uses, shapes and names. The "two horse breaking plough" had a point and wing used to break the soil's surface and turn the dirt out and over. The "shovel plough" was used to lay off the rows. The "harrow plough" was used to cover the planted seed. The "scratcher" or "geewhiz" was used to deweed or cultivate the crop. The "bulltongue" and "sweeps" were used to plough the middle of the rows. All these metal plough points required being re-sharpened about every ten days, due to their use on rough and rocky ground.


title: Plough

text: The first mould-board ploughs could only turn the soil over in one direction (conventionally to the right), as dictated by the shape of the mould board; therefore, a field had to be ploughed in long strips, or "lands". The plough was usually worked clockwise around each land, ploughing the long sides and being dragged across the short sides without ploughing. The length of the strip was limited by the distance oxen (later horses) could comfortably work without rest, and their width by the distance the plough could conveniently be dragged. These distances determined the traditional size of the strips: a furlong, (or "furrow's length", ) by a chain () – an area of one acre (about 0.4 hectares); this is the origin of the acre. The one-sided action gradually moved soil from the sides to the centre line of the strip. If the strip was in the same place each year, the soil built up into a ridge, creating the ridge and furrow topography still seen in some ancient fields.


title: Plough

text: The turn-wrest plough allows ploughing to be done to either side. The mould board is removable, turning to the right for one furrow, then being moved to the other side of the plough to turn to the left. (The coulter and ploughshare are fixed.) Thus adjacent furrows can be ploughed in opposite directions, allowing ploughing to proceed continuously along the field and so avoid the ridge–furrow topography.


title: Plough

text: The reversible (or roll-over) plough has two mould-board ploughs mounted back to back, one turning right, the other left. While one works the land, the other is borne upside-down in the air. At the end of each row the paired ploughs are turned over so that the other can be used along the next furrow, again working the field in a consistent direction.


title: Plough

text: These ploughs date back to the days of the steam engine and the horse. In almost universal use on farms, they have right and left-handed mould boards, enabling them to work up and down the same furrow. Reversible ploughs may either be mounted or semi-mounted and are heavier and more expensive than right-handed models, but have the great advantage of leaving a level surface that facilitates seedbed preparation and harvesting. Very little marking out is necessary before ploughing can start; idle running on the headland is minimal compared with conventional ploughs.


title: Plough

text: Driving a tractor with furrow-side wheels in the furrow bottom provides the most efficient line of draught between tractor and plough. It is also easier to steer the tractor; driving with the front wheel against the furrow wall will keep the front furrow at the correct width. This is less satisfactory when using a tractor with wide front tyres. Although these make better use of the tractor power, the tyres may compact some of the last furrow slice turned on the previous run. The problem is overcome by using a furrow widener or longer mould board on the rear body. The latter moves the soil further towards the ploughed land, leaving more room for the tractor wheels on the next run.


title: Plough

text: Driving with all four wheels on unploughed land is another solution to the problem of wide tyres. Semi-mounted ploughs can be hitched in a way that allows the tractor to run on unbroken land and pull the plough in correct alignment without any sideways movement (crabbing).


title: Plough

text: Early steel ploughs were walking ploughs, directed by a ploughman holding handles on either side of the plough. Steel ploughs were so much easier to draw through the soil that constant adjustment of the blade to deal with roots or clods was no longer necessary, as the plough could easily cut through them. Not long after that the first riding ploughs appeared, whose wheels kept the plough at an adjustable level above the ground, while the ploughman sat on a seat instead of walking. Direction was now controlled mostly through the draught team, with levers allowing fine adjustments. This led quickly to riding ploughs with multiple mould boards, which dramatically increased ploughing performance.


title: Plough

text: A single draught horse can normally pull a single-furrow plough in clean light soil, but in heavier soils two horses are needed, one walking on the land and one in the furrow. Ploughs with two or more furrows call for more than two horses, and usually one or more have to walk on the ploughed sod, which is hard going for them and means they tread newly ploughed land down. It is usual to rest such horses every half-hour for about ten minutes.


title: Plough

text: John Deere, an Illinois blacksmith, noted that ploughing many sticky, non-sandy soils might benefit from modifications in the design of the mould board and the metals used. A polished needle would enter leather and fabric with greater ease and a polished pitchfork also require less effort. Looking for a polished, slicker surface for a plough, he experimented with portions of saw blades, and by 1837 was making polished, cast steel ploughs. The energy required was lessened, which enabled the use of larger ploughs and more effective use of horse power.


title: Plough

text: The invention of the mobile steam engine allowed steam power to be applied to ploughing from about 1850. In Europe, soil conditions were often too soft to support the weight of a traction engine. Instead, counterbalanced, wheeled ploughs, known as "balance ploughs", were drawn by cables across the fields by pairs of ploughing engines on opposite field edges, or by a single engine drawing directly towards it at one end and drawing away from it via a pulley at the other. The balance plough had two sets of facing ploughs arranged so that when one was in the ground, the other was lifted in the air. When pulled in one direction, the trailing ploughs were lowered onto the ground by the tension on the cable. When the plough reached the edge of the field, the other engine pulled the opposite cable, and the plough tilted (balanced), putting the other set of shares into the ground, and the plough worked back across the field.


title: Plough

text: One set of ploughs was right-handed and the other left-handed, allowing continuous ploughing along the field, as with the turn-wrest and reversible ploughs. The man credited with inventing the ploughing engine and associated balance plough in the mid-19th century was John Fowler, an English agricultural engineer and inventor. However the Fisken brothers demonstrated (and went on to patent) a balance plough about 4 years before Fowler. One notable producer of steam-powered ploughs was J.Kemna of Eastern Prussia, who became the "leading steam plough company on the European continent and penetrated the monopoly of English companies on the world market" at the beginning of the 20th century.


title: Plough

text: The stump-jump plough, an Australian invention of the 1870s, is designed to break up new farming land that contains tree stumps and rocks expensive to remove. It uses a moveable weight to hold the ploughshare in position. When a tree stump or rock is encountered, the ploughshare is thrown up clear of the obstacle, to avoid breaking its harness or linkage. Ploughing can continue when the weight is returned to the earth.


title: Plough

text: A simpler, later system uses a concave disc (or pair of them) set at a wide angle to the direction of progress, using a concave shape to hold the disc into the soilunless something hard strikes the circumference of the disc, causing it to roll up and over the obstruction. As this is dragged forward, the sharp edge of the disc cuts the soil, and the concave surface of the rotating disc lifts and throws the soil to the side. It does not work as well as a mould-board plough (but this is not seen as a drawback, because it helps to fight wind erosion), but it does lift and break up the soil ("see" disc harrow).


title: Plough

text: Modern ploughs are usually multiply reversible, mounted on a tractor with a three-point linkage. These commonly have from two to as many as seven mould boardsand semi-mounted ploughs (whose lifting is assisted by a wheel about halfway along their length) can have as many as 18. The tractor's hydraulics are used to lift and reverse the implement and to adjust furrow width and depth. The plougher still has to set the draughting linkage from the tractor, so that the plough keeps the proper angle in the soil. This angle and depth can be controlled automatically by modern tractors. As a complement to the rear plough a two or three mould-board plough can be mounted on the front of the tractor if it is equipped with front three-point linkage.


title: Plough

text: The "chisel plough" is a common tool for deep tillage (prepared land) with limited soil disruption. Its main function is to loosen and aerate the soils, while leaving crop residue on top. This plough can be used to reduce the effects of soil compaction and to help break up ploughpan and hardpan. Unlike many other ploughs, the chisel will not invert or turn the soil. This feature has made it a useful addition to no-till and low-till farming practices that attempt to maximise the erosion-preventing benefits of keeping organic matter and farming residues present on the soil surface throughout the year. Thus the chisel plough is considered by some to be more sustainable than other types of plough, such as the mould-board plough.


title: Plough

text: Chisel ploughs are becoming more popular as a primary tillage tool in row-crop farming areas. Basically the chisel plough is a heavy-duty field cultivator intended to operate at depths from to as much as . However some models may run much deeper. Each individual plough or shank is typically set from to apart. Such a plough can meet significant soil drag: a tractor of sufficient power and traction is required. When ploughing with a chisel plough, per shank is required, depending on depth.


title: Plough

text: Pull-type chisel ploughs are made in working widths from about up to . They are tractor-mounted, and working depth is hydraulically controlled. Those more than about wide may be equipped with folding wings to reduce transport width. Wider machines may have the wings supported by individual wheels and hinge joints to allow flexing of the machine over uneven ground. The wider models usually have a wheel each side to control working depth. Three-point hitch-mounted units are made in widths from about .


title: Plough

text: Cultivators are often similar in form to chisel ploughs, but their goals are different. Cultivator teeth work near the surface, usually for weed control, whereas chisel plough shanks work deep under the surface; therefore, cultivation takes much less power per shank than does chisel ploughing.


title: Plough

text: The country plough is a slanted plough. The most common plough in India, it is recommended for crops like groundnut after the use of a tractor.


title: Plough

text: A ridging plough is used for crops such as potatoes or scallions grown buried in ridges of soil, using a technique called "ridging" or "hilling". A ridging plough has two back-to-back mould boards cutting a deep furrow on each pass with high ridges either side. The same plough may be used to split the ridges to harvest the crop.


title: Plough

text: This variety of ridge plough is notable for having a blade pointing towards the operator. It is used solely by human effort rather than with animal or machine assistance and pulled backwards by the operator, requiring great physical effort. It is particularly used for second breaking of ground and for potato planting. It is found in Shetland, some western crofts, and more rarely Central Scotland, typically on holdings too small or poor to merit the use of animals.


title: Plough

text: The mole plough allows under-drainage to be installed without trenches, or breaks up the deep impermeable soil layers that impede it. It is a deep plough with a torpedo or wedge-shaped tip and a narrow blade connecting it to the body. When dragged over ground, it leaves a channel deep under it that acts as a drain. Modern mole ploughs may also bury a flexible perforated plastic drain pipe as they go, making a more permanent drainor may be used to lay pipes for water supply or other purposes. Similar machines, so-called pipe-and-cable-laying ploughs, are even used under the sea for laying cables or for preparing the earth for side-scan sonar in a process used in oil exploration.


title: Plough

text: Compacting a tennis ball-sized sample from moling depth by hand, then pushing a pencil through is a simple check to find if the subsoil is in the right condition for mole ploughing. If the hole stays intact without splitting the ball, the soil is in ideal condition for the mole plough.


title: Plough

text: Heavy land requires draining to reduce its water content to a level efficient for plant growth. Heavy soils usually have a system of permanent drains, using perforated plastic or clay pipes that discharge into a ditch. The small tunnels (mole drains) that mole ploughs form lie at a depth of up to at an angle to the pipe drains. Water from the mole drains seeps into the pipes and runs along them into a ditch.


title: Plough

text: Mole ploughs are usually trailed and pulled by a crawler tractor, but lighter models for use on the three-point linkage of powerful four-wheel drive tractors are also made. A mole plough has a strong frame that slides along the ground when the machine is at work. A heavy leg, similar to a sub-soiler leg, is attached to the frame and a circular section with a larger diameter expander on a flexible link is bolted to the leg. The bullet-shaped share forms a tunnel in the soil about diameter and the expander presses the soil outwards to form a long-lasting drainage channel.


title: Plough

text: The para-plough, or paraplow, loosens compacted soil layers 3 to 4 dm (12 to 16 inches) deep while maintaining high surface residue levels. It is primary tillage implement for deep ploughing without inversion.


title: Plough

text: The spade plough is designed to cut the soil and turn it on its side, minimising damage to earthworms, soil microorganism and fungi. This increases the sustainability and long-term fertility of the soil.


title: Plough

text: Using a bar with square shares mounted perpendicularly and a pivot point to change the bar's angle, the switch plough allows ploughing in either direction. It is best in previously-worked soils, as the ploughshares are designed more to turn the soil over than for deep tillage. At the headland, the operator pivots the bar (and so the ploughshares) to turn the soil to the opposite side of the direction of travel. Switch ploughs are usually lighter than roll-over ploughs, requiring less horsepower to operate.


title: Plough

text: Mould-board ploughing in cold and temperate climates, down to , aerates the soil by loosening it. It incorporates crop residues, solid manures, limestone and commercial fertilisers alongside oxygen, so reducing nitrogen losses by denitrification, accelerating mineralisation and raising short-term nitrogen availability for turning organic matter into humus. It erases wheel tracks and ruts from harvesting equipment. It controls many perennial weeds and delays the growth of others until spring. It accelerates spring soil warming and water evaporation due to lower residues on the soil surface. It facilitates seeding with a lighter seed, controls many crop enemies (slugs, crane flies, seedcorn maggots-bean seed flies, borers), and raises the number of "soil-eating" earthworms (endogic), but deters vertical-dwelling earthworms (anecic).


title: Plough

text: Ploughing leaves little crop residue on the surface that might otherwise reduce both wind and water erosion. Over-ploughing can lead to the formation of hardpan. Typically, farmers break that up with a subsoiler, which acts as a long, sharp knife slicing through the hardened layer of soil deep below the surface. Soil erosion due to improper land and plough utilisation is possible. Contour ploughing mitigates soil erosion by ploughing across a slope, along elevation lines. Alternatives to ploughing, such as a no-till method, have the potential to build soil levels and humus. These may be suitable for smaller, intensively cultivated plots and for farming on poor, shallow or degraded soils that ploughing would further degrade.


title: Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle

text: A multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV) is an exoatmospheric ballistic missile payload containing several warheads, each capable of being aimed to hit a different target. The concept is almost invariably associated with intercontinental ballistic missiles carrying thermonuclear warheads, even if not strictly being limited to them. By contrast, a unitary warhead is a single warhead on a single missile. An intermediate case is the multiple reentry vehicle (MRV) missile which carries several warheads which are dispersed but not individually aimed. Only the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Russia, China and India are currently confirmed to have deployed MIRV missile systems. Pakistan is developing MIRV missile systems. Israel is suspected to possess or be in the process of developing MIRVs.


text: The first true MIRV design was the Minuteman III, first successfully tested in 1968 and introduced into actual use in 1970. The Minuteman III held three smaller W62 warheads of about each in place of the single W56 used in the earlier versions of this missile. From 1970 to 1975, the United States would remove approximately 550 earlier versions of the Minuteman ICBM in the Strategic Air Command's (SAC) arsenal and replace them with the new Minuteman IIIs outfitted with a MIRV payload, increasing their overall effectiveness. The smaller power of the warhead was offset by increasing the accuracy of the system, allowing it to attack the same hard targets as the larger, less accurate, W56. The MMIII was introduced specifically to address the Soviet construction of an anti-ballistic missile (ABM) system around Moscow; MIRV allowed the US to overwhelm any conceivable ABM system without increasing the size of their own missile fleet. The Soviets responded by adding MIRV to their R-36 design, first with three warheads in 1975, and eventually up to ten in later versions. While the United States phased out the use of MIRVs in 2014 to comply with New START, Russia continues to develop new missile designs using the technology.


text: The introduction of MIRV led to a major change in the strategic balance. Previously, with one warhead per missile, it was conceivable that one could build a defence that used missiles to attack individual warheads. Any increase in missile fleet by the enemy could be countered by a similar increase in interceptors. With MIRV, a single new enemy missile meant that multiple interceptors would have to be built, meaning that it was much less expensive to increase the attack than the defence. This cost-exchange ratio was so heavily biased towards the attacker that the concept of mutual assured destruction became the leading concept in strategic planning and ABM systems were severely limited in the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty in order to avoid a massive arms race.


text: MIRV land-based ICBMs were considered destabilizing because they tended to put a premium on striking first. The world's first MIRV—US Minuteman III missile of 1970—threatened to rapidly increase the US's deployable nuclear arsenal and thus the possibility that it would have enough bombs to destroy virtually all of the Soviet Union's nuclear weapons and negate any significant retaliation. Later on the US feared the Soviet's MIRVs because Soviet missiles had a greater throw-weight and could thus put more warheads on each missile than the US could. For example, the US MIRVs might have increased their warhead per missile count by a factor of 6 while the Soviets increased theirs by a factor of 10. Furthermore, the US had a much smaller proportion of its nuclear arsenal in ICBMs than the Soviets. Bombers could not be outfitted with MIRVs so their capacity would not be multiplied. Thus the US did not seem to have as much potential for MIRV usage as the Soviets. However, the US had a larger number of submarine-launched ballistic missiles, which could be outfitted with MIRVs, and helped offset the ICBM disadvantage. It is because of their first-strike capability that land-based MIRVs were banned under the START II agreement. START II was ratified by the Russian Duma on 14 April 2000, but Russia withdrew from the treaty in 2002 after the US withdrew from the ABM treaty.


text: In a MIRV, the main rocket motor (or booster) pushes a "bus" (see illustration) into a free-flight suborbital ballistic flight path. After the boost phase, the bus manoeuvres using small on-board rocket motors and a computerised inertial guidance system. It takes up a ballistic trajectory that will deliver a re-entry vehicle containing a warhead to a target and then releases a warhead on that trajectory. It then manoeuvres to a different trajectory, releasing another warhead, and repeats the process for all warheads.


text: The precise technical details are closely guarded military secrets, to hinder any development of enemy counter-measures. The bus's on-board propellant limits the distances between targets of individual warheads to perhaps a few hundred kilometres. Some warheads may use small hypersonic airfoils during the descent to gain additional cross-range distance. Additionally, some buses (e.g. the British Chevaline system) can release decoys to confuse interception devices and radars, such as aluminized balloons or electronic noisemakers.


text: Accuracy is crucial because doubling the accuracy decreases the needed warhead energy by a factor of four for radiation damage and by a factor of eight for blast damage. Navigation system accuracy and the available geophysical information limits the warhead target accuracy. Some writers believe that government-supported geophysical mapping initiatives and ocean satellite altitude systems such as Seasat may have a covert purpose to map mass concentrations and determine local gravity anomalies, in order to improve accuracies of ballistic missiles. Accuracy is expressed as circular error probable (CEP). This is the radius of the circle that the warhead has a 50 percent chance of falling into when aimed at the center. CEP is about 90–100 m for the Trident II and Peacekeeper missiles.


text: A multiple re-entry vehicle (MRV) system for a ballistic missile deploys multiple warheads above a single aimpoint which then drift apart, producing a cluster bomb-like effect. These warheads are not individually targetable. The advantage of an MRV over a single warhead is the increased effectiveness due to the greater coverage; this increases the overall damage produced within the centre of the pattern, making it far greater than the damage possible from any single warhead in the MRV cluster; this makes for an efficient area-attack weapon and makes interception by anti-ballistic missiles more challenging due to the number of warheads being deployed at once.


text: Improved warhead designs allow smaller warheads for a given yield, while better electronics and guidance systems allow greater accuracy. As a result, MIRV technology has proven more attractive than MRV for advanced nations. Multiple-warhead missiles require both a miniaturised physics package and a lower mass re-entry vehicle, both of which are highly advanced technologies. As a result, single-warhead missiles are more attractive for nations with less advanced or less productive nuclear technology. The United States first deployed MRV warheads on the Polaris A-3 SLBM in 1964 on the USS Daniel Webster. The Polaris A-3 missile carried three warheads each having an approximate yield of . This system was also used by the Royal Navy who also retained MRV with the Chevaline upgrade, though the number of warheads in Chevaline was reduced to two due to the ABM counter-measures carried. The Soviet Union deployed 3 MRVs on the R-27U SLBM and 3 MRVs on the R-36P ICBM. Refer to atmospheric re-entry for more details.


title: Mandaeans

text: Mandaeans ( ), also known as Mandaean Sabians ( ) or simply as Sabians ( ), are an ethnoreligious group who are followers of Mandaeism, presently forming an ethnic minority in southern Iraq. They may have been among the earliest religious groups to practice baptism, as well as among the earliest adherents of Gnosticism, a belief system of which they are the last surviving representatives today. The Mandaeans were originally native speakers of Mandaic, an Eastern Aramaic language, before a significant majority switched to Modern Persian and colloquial Iraqi Arabic.


title: Mandaeans

text: After the invasion of Iraq by the United States and its allies in 2003, the Mandaean community of Iraq, which numbered 60,000–70,000 persons, collapsed due to the rise of Islamic extremism; with most of the community relocating to nearby Iran, Syria and Jordan, or formed diaspora communities beyond the Middle East. The remaining community of Iranian Mandaeans has also been dwindling as a result of religious persecution over those two decades. By 2007, the population of Mandaeans in Iraq had fallen to approximately 5,000.


title: Mandaeans

text: There are estimated to be 60,000–100,000 Mandaeans worldwide. About 10,000 Mandaeans live in Australia and between 10,000–20,000 in Sweden, making them the countries with the most Mandaeans. There are about 2,500 Mandaeans in Jordan, the largest Mandaean community in the Middle East outside of Iraq and Iran.


title: Mandaeans

text: In Muslim countries, Mandaeans are sometimes also called Sabians ( ), a Quranic epithet historically claimed by several religious groups (see also below). The etymology of the Arabic word is disputed. According to one interpretation, it is the active participle of the Arabic root -- ('to turn to'), meaning 'converts'. Another widely cited hypothesis is that it is derived from an Aramaic root meaning 'to baptize'.


title: Mandaeans

text: According to a theory first proposed by Ignatius of Jesus in the 17th century, the Mandaeans originated in the Palestine region and later migrated east to the Mesopotamian marshlands. This theory was gradually abandoned, but was revived in the early 20th century through the first translation of Mandaean texts, which Biblical scholars like Rudolf Bultmann believed capable of shedding new light on the development of early Christianity. However, most New Testament scholars rejected the Palestinian origin thesis, which by World War II was again largely deserted by scholars. It was revived in the 1960s by Rudolf Macúch, and despite the opposition of scholars like Edwin M. Yamauchi and many scholars from other fields (for the most part still Biblical scholars), it is now accepted by Mandaean scholars such as Jorunn J. Buckley and . According to Macúch, the eastward migration from Palestine to southern Iraq took place in the first century CE, while other scholars such as Kurt Rudolph think it probably took place in the third century.


title: Mandaeans

text: There are also other theories. Kevin van Bladel has argued that the Mandaeans originated in Sasanian Mesopotamia in the fifth century CE. According to Carlos Gelbert, Mandaeans formed a vibrant community in Edessa during the Late Antique period. Brikha Nasoraia, a Mandaean priest and scholar, accepts a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both a line of Mandaeans who had originated from the Jordan valley of Palestine, as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) who were indigenous to southern Mesopotamia. Thus, the historical merging of the two groups gave rise to the Mandaeans of today.


title: Mandaeans

text: There are several indications of the ultimate origin of the Mandaeans. Early religious concepts and terminologies recur in the Dead Sea Scrolls, and "Yardena" (Jordan) has been the name of every baptismal water in Mandaeism. One of the names for the Mandaean God "Hayyi Rabbi", "Mara d-Rabuta" (Lord of Greatness) is found in the Genesis Apocryphon (1Q20) II, 4. They formally refer to themselves as "Naṣuraiia" () meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge. Another early self-appellation is "bhiri zidqa" meaning 'elect of righteousness' or 'the chosen righteous', a term found in the Book of Enoch and Genesis Apocryphon II, 4. As Nasoraeans, Mandaeans believe that they constitute the true congregation of "bnai nhura" meaning 'Sons of Light', a term used by the Essenes. The "beit manda" (beth manda) is described as "biniana rab ḏ-srara" ("the Great building of Truth") and "bit tuslima" ("house of Perfection") in Mandaean texts such as the "Qolasta", "Ginza Rabba", and the "Mandaean Book of John". The only known literary parallels are in Essene texts from Qumran such as the "Community Rule", which has similar phrases such as the "house of Perfection and Truth in Israel" ("Community Rule" 1QS VIII 9) and "house of Truth in Israel."


title: Mandaeans

text: The Mandaic language is a dialect of southeastern Aramaic with Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, Samaritan Aramaic, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, as well as Akkadian and Parthian influences and is closely related to Syriac and especially Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. Mandaic is mainly preserved as a liturgical language.


title: Mandaeans

text: A priest holds the title of Rabbi and a place of worship is called a "Mashkhanna". According to Mandaean sources such as the Haran Gawaita, the "Nasuraiia" inhabited the areas around Jerusalem and the River Jordan in the 1st century CE. There is archaeological evidence that attests to the Mandaean presence in pre-Islamic Iraq. Scholars, including Kurt Rudolph, connect the early Mandaeans with the Jewish sect of the Nasoraeans. However, Mandaeans themselves believe that their religion predates Judaism. According to Mandaean scripture, the Mandaeans descend directly from Shem, Noah's son, in Mesopotamia and also from John the Baptist's original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem. According to the Mandaean Society in America, Mani (the founder of Manichaeism) was influenced by the Mandaeans, and a pre-Manichaean presence of the Mandaean religion is more than likely.


title: Mandaeans

text: Gerard Russell quotes Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilo, "Ours is the oldest religion in the world. It dates back to Adam." Russell adds, "He [Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilo] traced its history back to Babylon, though he said it might have some connection to the Jews of Jerusalem." The Mandaean Synod of Australia lead by Rishama Salah Choheili states:


title: Mandaeans

text: A number of ancient Aramaic inscriptions dating back to the 2nd century CE were uncovered in Elymais. Although the letters appear quite similar to the Mandaean ones, it is impossible to know whether the inhabitants of Elymais were Mandaeans. Rudolf Macúch believes Mandaean letters predate Elymaic ones. Under Parthian and early Sasanian rule, foreign religions were tolerated and Mandaeans appear to have enjoyed royal protection. The situation changed by the ascension of Bahram I in 273, who under the influence of the zealous Zoroastrian high priest Kartir persecuted all non-Zoroastrian religions. It is thought that this persecution encouraged the consolidation of Mandaean religious literature.


title: Mandaeans

text: The persecutions instigated by Kartir seems to temporarily erase Mandaeans from recorded history. Their presence, however can still be found in Mandaean magical bowls and lead strips which were produced from the 3rd to the 7th centuries.


title: Mandaeans

text: The Mandaeans re-emerged at the beginning of the Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia in , when their leader, Anush Bar-Danqa, is said to have appeared before the Muslim authorities, showing them a copy of the "Ginza Rabba", the Mandaean holy book, and proclaiming the chief Mandaean prophet to be John the Baptist, who is also mentioned in the Quran by the name Yahya ibn Zakariya. Consequently, the Muslim caliph provided them acknowledgement as People of the Book (, people who followed a legal minority religion). However, this account is likely apocryphal: since it mentions that Anush Bar Danqa traveled to Baghdad, it must have occurred after the founding of Baghdad in 762, if it took place at all.


title: Mandaeans

text: Mandaeans appeared to have flourished during the early Islamic period, as attested by the voluminous expansion of Mandaic literature and canons. Tib near Wasit is particularly noted as an important scribal center. Yaqut al-Hamawi describes Tib as a town inhabited by 'Nabatean' (i.e. Aramaic speaking) 'Sabians' (see below) who consider themselves to be descendants of Seth.


title: Mandaeans

text: The status of the Mandaeans was questioned by the Abbasid caliph al-Qahir Billah (899–950 CE), even though they had received recognition as People of the Book. To avoid further investigation by the authorities, the Mandaeans paid a bribe of 50,000 dinars and were left alone. It appeared that the Mandaeans were even exempt from paying the Jizya, otherwise imposed upon non-Muslims.


title: Mandaeans

text: It has been suggested by some scholars that Harranian intellectuals who worked at the Abbasid court such as Thābit ibn Qurra may have been Mandaeans, though most scholars believe they were adherents of the pagan astral religion of Harran.


title: Mandaeans

text: Early contact with Europeans came about in the mid-16th century, when Portuguese missionaries encountered Mandaeans in Southern Iraq and controversially designated them "Christians of St. John". In the next centuries Europeans became more acquainted with the Mandaeans and their religion.


title: Mandaeans

text: The Mandaeans suffered persecution under the Qajar rule in the 1780s. The dwindling community was threatened with complete annihilation, when a cholera epidemic broke out in Shushtar and half of its inhabitants died. The entire Mandaean priesthood perished and Mandaeism was restored due to the efforts of few learned men such as Yahya Bihram. Another danger threatened the community in 1870, when the local governor of Shushtar massacred the Mandaeans against the will of the Shah.


title: Mandaeans

text: Following the First World War, the Mandaeans were still largely living in rural areas in the lower parts of British protected Iraq and Iran. Owing to the rise of Arab nationalism, Iraqi Mandaeans were Arabised at an accelerated rate, especially during the 1950s and '60s. The Mandaeans were also forced to abandon their stands on the cutting of hair and forced military service, which are strictly prohibited in Mandaeaism.


title: Mandaeans

text: The 2003 Iraq War brought more troubles to the Mandaeans, as the security situation deteriorated. Many members of the Mandaean community, who were known as goldsmiths, were targeted by criminal gangs for ransoms. The rise of Islamic extremism forced thousands to flee the country, after they were given the choice of conversion or death. It is estimated that around 90% of Iraqi Mandaeans were either killed or have fled after the U.S. led invasion.


title: Mandaeans

text: The Mandaeans of Iran lived chiefly in Ahvaz, Iranian Khuzestan, but have moved as a result of the Iran–Iraq War to other cities such as Tehran, Karaj and Shiraz. The Mandaeans, who were traditionally considered as People of the Book (members of a protected religion under Islamic rule), lost this status after the Iranian Revolution. However, despite this, Iranian Mandaeans still maintain successful businesses and factories in areas such as Ahwaz. In April 1996, the cause of the Mandaeans' religious status in the Islamic Republic was raised. The parliament came to the conclusion that Mandaeans were included in the protected status of People of the Book alongside Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians and specified that, from a legal viewpoint, there is no prohibition against Muslims associating with Mandaeans, whom the parliament identified as being the Sabians mentioned explicitly in the Quran. That same year, Ayatollah Sajjadi of Al-Zahra University in Qom posed three questions regarding the Mandaeans' beliefs and seemed satisfied with the answers. These rulings, however did not lead to Mandaeans regaining their more officially recognized status as People of the Book. In 2009, Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei issued a fatwā recognizing the Mandaeans as the People of the Book ("ahl-il-kitāb").


title: Mandaeans

text: Prior to the Iraq War, the Iraqi Mandaean community was centered in southern Iraq in cities such as Nasiriyah, Amarah, Qal'at Saleh, Wasit, and Basra, as well as in Baghdad (particularly the district of Dora). Historically, Mandaean quarters had also existed in southern Iraqi towns such as Qurna and Suq al-Shuyukh. Many also live across the border in Southwestern Iran in the cities of Ahvaz and Khorramshahr. Mandaean emigration from Iraq began during Saddam Hussein's rule, but accelerated greatly after the American-led invasion and subsequent occupation. Since the invasion Mandaeans, like other Iraqi ethno-religious minorities (such as Assyrians, Armenians, Yazidi, Roma and Shabaks), have been subjected to violence, including murders, kidnappings, rapes, evictions, and forced conversions. Mandaeans, like many other Iraqis, have also been targeted for kidnapping since many worked as goldsmiths. Mandaeism is pacifistic and forbids its adherents from carrying weapons. During the 20th century in Iraq, most Mandaeans lived in large towns and cities, although a minority also lived in rural villages in the marshlands of southern Iraq.


title: Mandaeans

text: Many Iraqi Mandaeans have fled the country in the face of this violence, and the Mandaean community in Iraq faces extinction. Out of the over 60,000 Mandaeans in Iraq in the early 1990s, fewer than 5,000 to 10,000 remain there as of 2007. In early 2007, more than 80% of Iraqi Mandaeans were refugees in Syria and Jordan as a result of the Iraq War. In 2019, an Al-Monitor study estimated the Iraqi Mandaean population to be 3,000, 400 of which lived in the Erbil Governorate, which is 5% or less than the pre-Iraq war Mandaean population.


title: Mandaeans

text: Mandaeans in the past were renowned silver and gold smiths, blacksmiths and boatbuilders, even before the Abbasid Caliphate when they gained fame as intellectuals in the cultural and scientific fields. In modern Iraq, Mandaeans have gained prominence as academics, writers, artists, poets, physicians, engineers and jewelers.


title: Mandaeans

text: The number of Iranian Mandaeans is a matter of dispute. In 2009, there were an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 Mandaeans in Iran, according to the Associated Press. Alarabiya has put the number of Iranian Mandaeans as high as 60,000 in 2011.


title: Mandaeans

text: Until the Iranian Revolution, Mandaeans were mainly concentrated in the Khuzestan Province, where the community used to coexist with the local Arab population. Other than the main cities of Ahvaz and Khorramshahr, Mandaean communities also existed in towns such as Chogha Zanbil in Shush County, Shushtar, and Abadan, as well as Mahshahr, Shadegan, Behbahan, and Susangerd (Khafajiyeh). Mandaean communities had also formerly existed in Dezful, Hamidiyeh, Hoveyzeh, Karun, and Abadan. They were mainly employed as goldsmiths, passing their skills from generation to generation. After the fall of the shah, its members faced increased religious discrimination, and many emigrated to Europe and the Americas.


title: Mandaeans

text: In Iran, the "Gozinesh" Law (passed in 1985) has the effect of prohibiting Mandaeans from fully participating in civil life. This law and other "gozinesh" provisions make access to employment, education, and a range of other areas conditional upon a rigorous ideological screening, the principal prerequisite for which is devotion to the tenets of Islam. These laws are regularly applied to discriminate against religious and ethnic groups that are not officially recognized, such as the Mandaeans, Yarsanis and Baháʼís.


title: Mandaeans

text: In 2002, the US State Department granted Iranian Mandaeans protective refugee status. Since then, roughly 1,000 have emigrated to the US, now residing in cities such as San Antonio, Texas. On the other hand, the Mandaean community in Iran has increased over the last decade because of the exodus from Iraq of the main Mandaean community, which used to be 50,000–70,000 strong.


title: Mandaeans

text: Following the Iraq War, the Mandaean community dispersed mostly throughout Jordan, Syria, and Iran. Mandaeans in Jordan number about 2,500 (2018) and in Syria there are about 1,000 remaining (2015).


title: Mandaeans

text: There are Mandaean diaspora populations in Sweden (c. 10,000-20,000), Australia (c. 10,000), the US (c. 4,000-7,000), the UK (c. 2,500), New Zealand and Canada. There are also Mandaeans living in Germany, the Netherlands (in Nijmegen, The Hague, etc.), Denmark, Finland, France, and smaller communities in Norway and Italy.


title: Mandaeans

text: The Sydney metropolitan area in Australia has one of the largest Mandaean diaspora communities in the world. The community is centered in Greater Western Sydney suburbs such as Penrith and Liverpool. In Liverpool, the main mandi (Beth Manda) is Ganzibra Dakhil Mandi. The Sabian Mandaean Association of Australia has purchased land by the banks of the Nepean River at Wallacia, New South Wales in order to build a new mandi.


title: Mandaeans

text: Sweden became a popular destination because a Mandaean community existed there before the war and the Swedish government has a liberal asylum policy toward Iraqis. There are between 10,000-20,000 Mandaeans in Sweden (2019). The scattered nature of the Mandaean diaspora has raised fears among Mandaeans for the religion's survival. Mandaeism does not allow conversion, and the religious status of Mandaeans who marry outside the faith and their children is disputed.


title: Mandaeans

text: In the United States, Mandaean communities are centered in San Antonio (c. 2,500), New York City, San Diego, Winnetka, California, Austin, Texas, Worcester, Massachusetts (c. 2,500), Warren, Michigan, Chicago, and other major metropolitan areas. There is a mandi in Detroit.


title: Mandaeans

text: The status of the Mandaeans has prompted a number of American intellectuals and civil rights activists to call upon the US government to extend refugee status to the community. In 2007, "The New York Times" ran an op-ed piece in which Swarthmore professor Nathaniel Deutsch called for the Bush administration to take immediate action to preserve the community. Iraqi Mandaeans were given refugee status by the US State Department in 2007. Since then, more than 2500 have entered the US, many settling in Worcester, Massachusetts. The community in Worcester is believed to be the largest in the United States and the second largest community outside the Middle East. About 2,600 Mandaeans from Iran have been settled in Texas since the Iraq War.


title: Mandaeans

text: Mandaeans are a closed ethno-religious community, practicing Mandaeism, which is a monotheistic, Gnostic, and ethnic religion (Aramaic "manda" means "knowledge," and is conceptually related to the Greek term "gnosis".) Its adherents revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enosh, Noah, Shem, Aram, and especially John the Baptist. Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem and John the Baptist to be prophets with Adam the founder of the religion and John being the greatest and final prophet.


title: Mandaeans

text: The Mandaeans group existence into two main categories: light and darkness. They have a dualistic view of life, that encompasses both good and evil; all good is thought to have come from the World of Light (i.e. lightworld) and all evil from the World of Darkness. In relation to the body–mind dualism coined by Descartes, Mandaeans consider the body, and all material, worldly things, to have come from the dark, while the soul (sometimes referred to as the mind) is a product of the lightworld.


title: Mandaeans

text: Mandaeans believe that there is a constant battle or conflict between the forces of good and evil. The forces of good are represented by "Nhura" (Light) and "Maia Hayyi" (Living Water) and those of evil are represented by "Hshuka" (darkness) and "Maia Tahmi" (dead or rancid water). The two waters are mixed in all things in order to achieve a balance. Mandaeans also believe in an afterlife or heaven called "Alma d-Nhura" (World of Light).


title: Mandaeans

text: In Mandaeism, the World of Light is ruled by a Supreme God, known as Hayyi Rabbi ('The Great Life' or 'The Great Living God'). Other names used are ('Lord of Greatness'), ('The Great Mind'), ('King of Light') and ('The First Life'). God is so great, vast, and incomprehensible that no words can fully depict how awesome God is. It is believed that an innumerable number of uthras (angels or guardians), manifested from the light, surround and perform acts of worship to praise and honor God. They inhabit worlds separate from the lightworld and some are commonly referred to as emanations and are subservient beings to 'The First Life'; their names include Second, Third, and Fourth Life (i.e. Yōšamin, Abathur, and Ptahil).


title: Mandaeans

text: The Lord of Darkness (Krun) is the ruler of the World of Darkness formed from dark waters representing chaos. A main defender of the darkworld is a giant monster, or dragon, with the name Ur, and an evil, female ruler also inhabits the darkworld, known as Ruha. The Mandaeans believe these malevolent rulers created demonic offspring who consider themselves the owners of the seven planets and twelve zodiac constellations.


title: Mandaeans

text: According to Mandaean beliefs, the material world is a mixture of light and dark created by Ptahil, who fills the role of the demiurge, with help from dark powers, such as Ruha, the Seven, and the Twelve. Adam's body (believed to be the first human created by God in Abrahamic tradition) was fashioned by these dark beings, however his soul (or mind) was a direct creation from the Light. Therefore, many Mandaeans believe the human soul is capable of salvation because it originates from the lightworld. The soul, sometimes referred to as the 'inner Adam' or "Adam kasia", is in dire need of being rescued from the dark, so it may ascend into the heavenly realm of the lightworld. Baptisms are a central theme in Mandaeism, believed to be necessary for the redemption of the soul. Mandaeans do not perform a single baptism, as in religions such as Christianity; rather, they view baptisms as a ritual act capable of bringing the soul closer to salvation. Therefore, Mandaeans are baptized repeatedly during their lives. John the Baptist is a key figure for the Mandaeans; they consider him to have been a Nasoraean Mandaean. John is referred to as their greatest and final teacher.


title: Mandaeans

text: Lupieri believes Mandaeism is a post-Christian southern Mesopotamian Gnostic off-shoot and claims that Zazai d-Gawazta to be the founder of Mandaeism in the 2nd Century. Jorunn J. Buckley refutes this by confirming scribes that predate Zazai who copied the Ginza Rabba. In addition to Edmondo Lupieri, Christa Müller-Kessler argues against the Palestinian origin theory of the Mandaeans claiming that the Mandaeans are Mesopotamian. Edwin Yamauchi believes Mandaeism's origin lies in the Transjordan where a group of 'non-Jews' migrated to Mesopotamia and combined their Gnostic beliefs with indigenous Mesopotamian beliefs at the end of the 2nd Century CE. Kevin van Bladel claims that Mandaeism originated no earlier than 5th century Sassanid Mesopotamia, a thesis which has been criticized by James F. McGrath. Al-Zuhairy (1998) believes that the roots of Mandaeism lies in Mesopotamia, inherited from the Sumerians, and the present form of Mandaeism likely emerged in Mesopotamia in the 3rd Century BCE.


title: Mandaeans

text: The Mandaean author Aziz Sbahi in his book, "The Origins of Sabians and their Religious Beliefs", traced the Mandaeans to the Babylonian Era. Sbahi, who is known more as a secretary of the Iraqi Communist Party, acknowledges that Mandaeism may have been affected by religions in Mesopotamia and the Dead Sea region. Sbahi believes that Mandaeism originated in surroundings that had Hellenic, Babylonian, Gnostic and Judaic influence. However, due to Sbahi's lack of knowledge of the Mandaic language, he read only secondary sources on the Mandaeans. Brikha Nasoraia, a Mandaean priest and scholar, believes in a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both proto-Mandaeans originating in the Jordan valley of Palestine, as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) indigenous to southern Mesopotamia.


title: Mandaeans

text: Scholars specializing in Mandaeism such as Kurt Rudolph, Mark Lidzbarski, Rudolf Macúch, Ethel S. Drower, Eric Segelberg, James F. McGrath, Charles G. Häberl, Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley, and argue for a Palestinian origin. The majority of these scholars believe that the Mandaeans likely have a historical connection with John the Baptist's inner circle of disciples. Charles Häberl, who is also a linguist specializing in Mandaic, finds Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, Samaritan Aramaic, Hebrew, Greek and Latin influence on Mandaic and accepts Mandaeans having a "shared Palestinian history with Jews". In addition, scholars such as Richard August Reitzenstein, Rudolf Bultmann, G. R. S. Mead, Samuel Zinner, Richard Thomas, J. C. Reeves, G. Quispel and K. Beyer also argue for a Judea/Palestine or Jordan Valley origin for the Mandaeans. James McGrath and Richard Thomas believe there is a direct connection between Mandaeism and pre-exilic traditional Israelite religion. Lady Ethel S. Drower "sees early Christianity as a Mandaean heresy" and adds "heterodox Judaism in Galilee and Samaria appears to have taken shape in the form we now call gnostic, and it may well have existed some time before the Christian era." Barbara Thiering questions the dating of the Dead Sea Scrolls and suggests that the Teacher of Righteousness (leader of the Essenes) was John the Baptist. Jorunn J. Buckley accepts Mandaeism's Israelite or Judean origins and adds:


title: Mandaeans

text: During the 9th and 10th centuries several religious groups came to be identified with the mysterious Sabians (sometimes also spelled 'Sabaeans' or 'Sabeans', but not to be confused with the Sabaeans of South Arabia) mentioned in the Quran alongside the Jews, the Christians, and the Zoroastrians as a 'people of the book' (). These religious groups, which included the Mandaeans but also various pagan groups in Harran (Upper Mesopotamia) and the marshlands of southern Iraq, claimed the name in order to be recognized by the Muslim authorities as a people of the book deserving of legal protection ().. The earliest source to unambiguously apply the term 'Sabian' to the Mandaeans was al-Hasan ibn Bahlul () citing the Abbasid vizier Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Muqla (–940). However, it is not clear whether the Mandaeans of this period already identified themselves as Sabians or whether the claim originated with Ibn Muqla.


title: Mandaeans

text: Some modern scholars have identified the Sabians mentioned in the Quran as Mandaeans, although many other possible identifications have been proposed. Some scholars believe it is impossible to establish their original identity with any degree of certainty. Mandaeans continue to be called Sabians to this day.


title: Mandaeans

text: The Haran Gawaita uses the name Nasoraeans for the Mandaeans arriving from Jerusalem meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge. Scholars such as Kurt Rudolph, Rudolf Macúch, Mark Lidzbarski and Ethel S. Drower connect the Mandaeans with the Nasaraeans described by Epiphanius, a group within the Essenes according to Joseph Lightfoot. Epiphanius says (29:6) that they existed before Christ. That is questioned by some, but others accept the pre-Christian origin of the Nasaraeans.


title: Mandaeans

text: Neo-Mandaic is the contemporary language spoken by some Mandaeans, while Classical Mandaic is the liturgical language of Mandaeism. However, most Mandaeans currently do not speak conversational Neo-Mandaic in everyday life, but rather the languages of their host countries, such as Arabic, Farsi, or English.


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: Wrong Turn is a 2003 slasher film directed by Rob Schmidt and written by Alan B. McElroy. The film stars Desmond Harrington, Eliza Dushku, Emmanuelle Chriqui, Jeremy Sisto, Kevin Zegers, and Lindy Booth. The film follows a group of six individuals being stalked by a cannibalist family in the woods.


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: Development for the film began in 2001 when it was announced Summit Entertainment and Newmarket Group teamed to produce "Wrong Turn", a 1970s-style horror pic to be directed by Schmidt, while McElroy wrote the script. The film was a co-production between Summit and Constantin Film, with Stan Winston designing the creature effects and serving as a producer.


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: "Wrong Turn" was theatrically released in the United States on May 30, 2003, by 20th Century Fox. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised its premise, but criticized its script, underdeveloped characters and horror clichés. It grossed over $28 million worldwide against a $12 million budget.


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: College students Rich Stoker and Halley Smith are rock climbing in a remote forest of West Virginia. When Rich reaches the top of a cliff they are climbing, he is suddenly murdered before he can help Halley up. Someone begins to yank Halley up the cliff, forcing her to cut the rope and fall to the ground. She attempts to escape but is caught in a line of barbed wire and pulled back into the woods, screaming. She is killed off-screen.


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: Sometime later, medical student Chris Flynn drives through the mountains of West Virginia on his way to a business meeting. He stops at a gas station to ask directions, and an elderly man named Maynard tells Chris to go down Bear Mountain Road. He collides with a stopped car whose tires have been punctured. The car belongs to a group of college students on a camping trip: Jessie, Carly, Scott, Evan and Francine. They soon discover their tire puncture was no accident and find barbed wire wrapped around it and realize someone did this intentionally.


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: Evan and Francine stay to watch the cars while the others go to find help. Evan disappears after he hears something from the woods, and Francine finds his ear on the ground. As she backs away in horror, barbed wire is forced into her mouth by a mysterious figure, who garrotes her with it. The remaining group find an isolated cabin and go inside to use the phone, horrified to find human body parts in the house. They are forced to hide inside when the occupants return home. Three cannibalistic inbred mountain men Three Finger, Saw Tooth and One Eye enter the cabin with Francine's corpse and the hiding group watch as her body is dismembered and eaten.


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: After the cannibals fall asleep, the group attempts to escape but their captors awaken and chase them in the forest. The group find cars left from previous victims and try to make up an escape plan. Chris gets shot in the leg while trying to distract the cannibals, and the girls take him to a truck, where Evan's body spills out. Scott attempts another diversion for the other three to escape but gets killed with arrows instead. Jessie, Carly, and Chris stumble upon an old watchtower with an old radio and try to call for help. The cannibals arrive and are alerted when the radio starts responding to the group's call. Unable to get inside, the attackers set the tower on fire. The protagonists escape by jumping out and into the trees, triggering a chase in which Carly is decapitated by Three Finger.


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: Chris pulls a branch while Jessie lures the attacker for the former to release it, knocking him down. Jessie and Chris flee and hide in a cave until morning. The cannibals find them, pushing Chris down the hill, then kidnapping Jessie and taking her back to their cabin. Chris survives the fall and meets a police officer, but the officer is killed by Saw Tooth, who shoots him in the eye with an arrow. Chris hitches a ride by holding onto the underside of the truck as Saw Tooth drives it back to the cabin, where Jessie has been tied down to a bed in preparation to be eaten and watches fearfully as the cannibals chop up the dead policeman.


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: Before they can move on to Jessie, Chris sets the building on fire and drives the truck through the wall. He fights off the cannibals and frees Jessie and they escape as Chris kills the cannibals by blowing up the cabin. The pair then drive out of the forest in the cannibals' pickup truck and stumble upon Meynard's gas station nearby; Chris takes the map before he and Jessie leave.


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: In a mid-credits scene, a deputy sheriff who had received the radio call earlier investigates the remains of the destroyed cabin. Laughing insanely, Three Finger, who survived the explosion, rises and kills the deputy.


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: Development for the film began in 2001 when it was announced Summit Entertainment and Newmarket Group teamed to produce "Wrong Turn", a 1970s-style horror pic to be directed by Rob Schmidt. Alan McElroy ("Spawn") wrote the script. The movie was a co-production, Summit Entertainment and Constantin Films, with Stan Winston designing the creature effects and serving as a producer. Inking a deal with Fox-based Regency Enterprises, the co-financiers of Wrong Turn secured domestic distribution through Fox. Fox reportedly had trouble securing an R-rating from the MPAA due to the film's intense violence with many of the TV spots for the film also refused approval, this is possibly one of the reasons why subsequent Wrong Turn movies were released straight to video.


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: Two soundtracks were released; one contains the original film score, and the other contains popular music.


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 40% of 83 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating was 4.22/10. The consensus is: "An unremarkable slasher flick that fails to distinguish itself from others of its ilk". On Metacritic, "Wrong Turn" have a score of 32 out of a 100 based on 17 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: Barbara Ellen of "The Times" wrote "This could have been a half decent cross between a Romero zombie movie and "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre" but in the end the gore is so ridiculously overdone and the script so lame, that it undermines all sense of suspense". William Thomas of "Empire" said "It's better than any of the official "Texas Chainsaw Massacre" sequels. Which is probably a good thing". Scott Foundas of "Variety" criticized the "Wrong Turn" for being "A negative pickup by Fox", adding that "[it was] dumped into theaters on Friday without benefit of press previews", resulting in "frightless torpor".


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: A one out of four stars was awarded to the film by Marc Savlov of "The Austin Chronicle" who wrote "This was already tired stuff when cult fave Sleepaway Camp came out in 1983, and it's downright comatose by now". BBC's Nev Pierce gave the film two out of five, while Anita Gates of "The New York Times" called it "[a] lazy would-be horror film".


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: "Wrong Turn" was followed by several films including two sequels, "" (2007) and "" (2009), two prequels leading to the events of the original film, "" (2011) and "" (2012), and a reboot, "" (2014).


title: Wrong Turn (2003 film)

text: In October 2018, another reboot simply titled "Wrong Turn" (2021) was announced. The film was written by original film's writer Alan B. McElroy and directed by Mike P. Nelson. Principal photography for the movie began on September 9, 2019. Though initially planned for a 2020 release, the film was held until 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. After an announcement on December 16, 2020, the film was domestically released theatrically for a one night run on January 26, 2021.


title: Both Sides, Now

text: "Both Sides, Now" is a song by Canadian singer-songwriter Joni Mitchell. First recorded by Judy Collins, it appeared on the US singles chart during the fall of 1968. The next year it was included on Mitchell's album "Clouds", and became one of her best-known songs. It has since been recorded by dozens of artists, including Dion in 1968, Clannad with Paul Young in 1991, and Mitchell herself who re-recorded the song with an orchestral arrangement on her 2000 album "Both Sides Now".


title: Both Sides, Now

text: In 2004, "Rolling Stone" ranked "Both Sides, Now" at number 170 on its list of the 500 Greatest Songs.


title: Both Sides, Now

text: Mitchell has said that "Both Sides, Now" was inspired by a passage in "Henderson the Rain King", a 1959 novel by Saul Bellow.I was reading ... "Henderson the Rain King" on a plane and early in the book Henderson ... is also up in a plane. He's on his way to Africa and he looks down and sees these clouds. I put down the book, looked out the window and saw clouds too, and I immediately started writing the song. I had no idea that the song would become as popular as it did.


title: Both Sides, Now

text: "Both Sides, Now" is written in F-sharp major. Mitchell used a guitar tuning of D-A-D-F#-A-D with a capo at the fourth fret. The song uses a modified I–IV–V chord progression.


title: Both Sides, Now

text: Mitchell re-recorded the song in a lush, orchestrated fashion for her 2000 album "Both Sides Now". The recording won arranger Vince Mendoza a Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist(s).


title: Both Sides, Now

text: In April 2000, two months after the album's release, Mitchell sang the song with a 70-piece orchestra at the end of an all-star celebration for her at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York City.


title: Both Sides, Now

text: The 2000 version is played during an emotional scene featuring Emma Thompson in the 2003 film "Love Actually". It was also played during the 2010 Winter Olympics opening ceremony.


title: Both Sides, Now

text: On July 24, 2022, Mitchell performed the song live on stage at the Newport Folk Festivalas part of a set billed as Brandi Carlile and Friends. This historic live performance capped her surprise appearance at the festival, where she first performed in 1969. It was video recorded professionally by SöPa Productions.


title: Both Sides, Now

text: Shortly after Mitchell wrote the song, Judy Collins recorded the first commercially released version for her 1967 "Wildflowers" album. In October 1968 the same version was released as a single, reaching number 8 on the U.S pop singles charts by December. It reached number 6 in Canada. In early 1969 it won a Grammy Award for Best Folk Performance. The record peaked at number 3 on "Billboard"s Easy Listening survey and "Both Sides, Now" has become one of Collins' signature songs. Mitchell disliked Collins' recording of the song, despite the publicity that its success generated for Mitchell's own career. The Collins version is featured as the opening title music of the 2014 romantic comedy "And So It Goes", and as the end title music of the 2018 supernatural horror film "Hereditary". It also features in the first teaser trailer for "Toy Story 4". The song features prominently in the season 6 finale of TV show "Mad Men", and signals a moment of anagnorisis between Don Draper and his daughter Sally.


title: Both Sides, Now

text: Mitchell's song has been recorded by many other artists over the decades. Among the best-known versions are:


title: AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo

text: The AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-Kuo (), commonly known as the Indigenous Defense Fighter (IDF), is a multirole combat aircraft named after Chiang Ching-kuo, the late President of the Republic of China. The aircraft made its first flight in 1989. It entered service with Republic of China Air Force (Taiwan) in 1992. All 130 production aircraft were manufactured by 1999.


title: AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo

text: Taiwan initiated the IDF program when the United States refused to sell them F-20 Tigershark and F-16 Fighting Falcon jet fighters following diplomatic pressure from China. Taiwan therefore decided to develop an advanced indigenous jet fighter. The Aerospace Industrial Development Corporation (AIDC), based in Taichung, Taiwan, designed and built the IDF jet fighter.


title: AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo

text: The preliminary search for a replacement for the ROCAF's F-5s and F-104s began with the XF-6 indigenous fighter project, later renamed "Ying Yang", in the late 1970s. After the US established formal relations with China and ended the Mutual Defense Treaty with Taiwan, President Chiang Ching-Kuo decided to expand the indigenous defense industry and on August 28, 1980, ordered AIDC to design an indigenous interceptor. Originally, the ROCAF listed the priority of the XF-6 behind the XA-3 "Lei Ming" single seat attack aircraft, due to the believed high risks of the XF-6 project.


title: AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo

text: The signing of the 1982 US-China Joint Communiqué limited arms sales to Taiwan. The United States refused to sell the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon and the Northrop F-20 Tigershark (which had been developed largely to meet Taiwanese national defense needs for an advanced jet fighter to replace their older F-5 jet fighters) thereby ensuring the continuation of the indigenous fighter project. Although US President Ronald Reagan reluctantly accepted his advisers' suggestion of building relations with China to counter the USSR, Reagan decided to balance the 1982 US-PRC Communiqué with the "Six Assurances" to Taiwan. This opened the door for US technology transfer and assistance to Taiwan's defense industry, including the IDF project.


title: AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo

text: The AIDC officially began the IDF development project in May 1982 following the ROCAF's failure to purchase new fighters from the United States as a result of Chinese diplomatic pressure. The project, led by Hsi-Chun Mike Hua, later known as "the father of the Indigenous Defense Fighter", was named "An Hsiang" (安翔):Safe Flight) and divided into four sections in 1983:


title: AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo

text: In April 1997 American company Litton's Applied Technology division was awarded a production contract and options totaling $116.2 million by the Aerospace Industrial Development Corporation for Improved Radar Warning Receivers (IRWR) to be installed aboard.


title: AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo

text: Exports of advanced engines such as the General Electric F404 or the Pratt & Whitney F100 were not available to Taiwan and both the General Electric J85 and General Electric J79 were considered unsuitable in their performance, and most European and American engine companies declined to cooperate with the project. Joint investment with Garrett became the only practical solution.


title: AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo

text: In 1978, following the success of the TFE731 engine, U.S. engine company Garrett announced joint research of the TFE1042 afterburner with the Swedish company Volvo Flygmotor. The TFE731 Model 1042 was touted as a low bypass ratio "military derivative of the proven commercial TFE731 engine" and that it would provide "efficient, reliable, cost effective propulsion for the next generation of light strike and advanced trainer aircraft", with a thrust of 4260 lbf (18.9 kN) dry and 6790 lbf (30.2 kN) with afterburner. After the initial negotiation, the investment was going to be divided between Garrett, Volvo, AIDC, and the Italian company Piaggio. The development would consist of the non-afterburning TFE1042-6 for light attack aircraft and advanced trainers, and the TFE1042-7 for the AMX or the F-5 upgrade. AIDC also suggested upgrading the TFE1042-7 to thrust in a twin-engine installation, in order to compete with the GE F404. However, the JAS 39 Gripen project decided to continue with a single F404, and Piaggio asked to participate at a later date due to financial concerns.


title: AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo

text: ITEC completely redesigned the TFE1042-7 into the TFE1042-70 – for example, the bypass ratio was changed from 0.84 to 0.4, and the investment had increased from US$180 million to about US$320 million. However, to avoid pressures from China, the US government had asked all American companies cooperating with the Taiwan on the IDF project to remain low-key. Therefore, the perception that "the TFE1042 is merely the civilian engine TFE731 with an afterburner" was never completely dispelled.


title: AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo

text: In 1985, the preliminary review of the IDF's design revealed some performance requirement shortfalls, and it was determined that an upgrade of engine thrust by 10% was the simplest solution. Due to American export license restrictions, ITEC used FADEC to artificially limit the thrust below a certain altitude (the restriction was not removed until 1990). Although the upgrade essentially used the TFE1088-11 configuration, to reduce political interference ITEC renamed the original, lower-thrust version as the TFE1042-X70 and retained the TFE1042-70 designation for the upgraded version.