title: Final Fantasy Tactics

text: Under Matsuno's direction, the game's design strayed significantly from Sakaguchi's original concept, particularly in its narrative tone. Matsuno at the time described his wish for the narrative to emulate "a sense of swashbuckling heroism". His aim was to create a "Final Fantasy"-themed morality tale. Matsuno stated that the game's thematic use of class-based society was derived from his experiences within game production companies, observing their hierarchy and how senior designers were treated as royalty. The story premise of a long-suppressed account of ancient history was inspired by the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the story of "The Name of the Rose". For "Tactics", Matsuno created an entire new world dubbed Ivalice, which he would use in multiple later projects. Ivalice was designed as a complex setting with a deep historical background. He described it as a blank canvas on which he and later others could create narratives. While some aspects of the ending were left ambiguous, Matsuno considered the narrative complete on its own.


title: Final Fantasy Tactics

text: During its preplanning phase, the music was going to be in an upbeat style in line with the mainline "Final Fantasy" series. Due to its portrayal of people fighting each other rather than fighting monsters, Matsuno felt upbeat music was wrong. The original score was written by Hitoshi Sakimoto and Masaharu Iwata, both veterans of the "Ogre Battle" series. Sakimoto, who was brought on board the project by Matsuno, was advised by both Matsuno and established "Final Fantasy" composer Nobuo Uematsu not to worry about keeping to the style of the main "Final Fantasy" series. Iwata described the game as a "giant project" to work on, and he received a lot of help from other staff members at Square. Several tracks were inspired by the game's storyline and concept art, with some track names being chosen by Sakimoto based on first impressions of relevant characters. Sakimoto described his music for the game as "bright and cheerful tunes", carrying themes of hope and love. Sakimoto and Iwata worked separately on their own tracks. The album was first released on two Compact Discs by DigiCube on June 21, 1997, and was re-released by Square Enix on March 24, 2006.


title: Final Fantasy Tactics

text: "Tactics" was first released in Japan on June 20, 1997. It came bundled with a demo disc for "SaGa Frontier". The English localization was partly outsourced, with the other part of translation and localization being handled by Square USA's Michael Baskett. Baskett started writing the script in a style close to Old English, but this was beginning to impact the game's understandability and make characters sound alike, so it was toned down in the final script. It was released in North America on January 28, 1998, by Sony, which then acted as Square's Western publisher for the platform. It was re-released as part of the Square's Millennium Collection. This series of games was released only in Japan, and each title is bought with a set of related merchandise. "Final Fantasy Tactics" was sold on June 29, 2000, along with titles such as "Saga Frontier", "Saga Frontier 2", "Brave Fencer Musashi", "Front Mission 3", "Ehrgeiz" and "Legend of Mana".


title: Final Fantasy Tactics

text: Four years after its release in 1997 "Final Fantasy Tactics" was selected as part of the Sony Greatest Hits line of re-releases. "Final Fantasy Tactics" also became part of Ultimate Hits, Square Enix's main budget range available in Japan.


title: Final Fantasy Tactics

text: A PlayStation Portable version of "Final Fantasy Tactics", entitled "" was released on May 10, 2007, in Japan, and later across all regions. It is the second game announced as part of the Ivalice Alliance. The game features an updated version of "Final Fantasy Tactics", along with new features including in-game cutscenes, new characters, and multiplayer capability. The updated mechanics contain a 16:9 widescreen support, new items, new jobs, and cel-shaded full motion videos. The English version contains full voice acting during the cinematic cut scenes, whereas the Japanese version does not.


title: Final Fantasy Tactics

text: "Final Fantasy Tactics" sold nearly 825,000 copies in Japan in the first half of 1997, and ended the year at almost 1.24million copies sold. By 2007 the game had sold approximately 1.35million copies in Japan. As of August 2011, the game had sold over 2.4million copies worldwide.


title: Final Fantasy Tactics

text: "Final Fantasy Tactics" received critical acclaim upon its release. Some reviews lauded the battle sequences as challenging, requiring more strategic planning than ordinary RPGs and that utilising many gameplay mechanics in later battle sequences. The visuals were also lauded, particularly the spell effects, 3D battlegrounds, and camera that can be rotated and zoomed. Other reviewers disagreed and considered these elements a problem because it necessitated that the battles consist of fewer characters. John Ricciardi, in his review for "Electronic Gaming Monthly", argued that the game should have been done in 2D style so that the PlayStation's processors could handle larger battlefields. Nob Ogasawara, when writing for "GamePro", was also concerned with the small scale of the battles, saying that as a result the game "isn't so much "Tactics Ogre" with a Final Fantasy flavor as it is FF with a TO flavor". A reviewer at "RPGFan" criticized the game's difficulty as inconsistent, in part due to abilities unique to certain characters which unfairly sway the tide of battle either in favor of or against the player.


title: Final Fantasy Tactics

text: Critics praised the story's depth and plot twists but some remarked that the large number of similar-looking characters made it hard to distinguish between characters to develop an emotional attachment. "RPGFan" criticized the English localization as rife with grammatical mistakes. The game's soundtrack was also praised.


title: Final Fantasy Tactics

text: IGN awarded the game the Editor's Choice Award in 1998, praising the in-game graphics as "amazing" and the battle environments with its extra details as being "extremely well designed". GameSpot named "Final Fantasy Tactics" as one of "the greatest games of all time" in 2007. The game placed 84th in the "Top 100 Favorite Games of All Time" poll by Japanese magazine "Famitsu" in March 2006, 45th in "Game Informer" list of top 100 games, 43rd in "Electronic Gaming Monthly" list, and 38th in IGN's rankings of greatest games.


title: Final Fantasy Tactics

text: The world of "Final Fantasy Tactics" has been featured in several other Square video games. After the game's release, the development staff developed "Vagrant Story", which featured several subtle references to "Final Fantasy Tactics". In an interview, Matsuno said both titles are set in the same fictional world of Ivalice. During the development of "Vagrant Story", Matsuno and Sakaguchi initiated a sequel to "Tactics", which would have used 2D graphics due to issues with 3D development at the time. The project was outsourced to an unspecified developer because of the team's commitment to "Vagrant Story" and was later cancelled for unspecified reasons. In 2006, "Final Fantasy XII" was released, also set in the world of Ivalice. Square Enix announced at the end of the same year the "Ivalice Alliance", a new series of games set in the world of Ivalice, during a Tokyo press conference. The first title released was "".


title: Final Fantasy Tactics

text: Square released "Final Fantasy Tactics Advance" for the Nintendo Game Boy Advance in 2003. The game setting and engine are similar to the ones of its predecessor, but the cast of characters is considerably smaller and the plot is considerably simpler. An indirect sequel to "Final Fantasy Tactics Advance", titled "", was released in Japan in 2007 and in the rest of the world in 2008. It is also one of the titles released under the Ivalice Alliance game series, and takes place in the Ivalice universe.


title: Final Fantasy Tactics

text: Ramza and Agrias appeared in online trading card game "Lord of Vermilion III" in 2014. Ramza also appears as a playable character in the fighting game "Dissidia Final Fantasy NT". In 2017, the MMORPG "" portrayed an alternate version of "Final Fantasy Tactics" in which Ramza and his companions died at the end of "Tactics". Matsuno stated that the inspiration to depict this plot came from the number of players that misunderstood the ending of "Tactics". "Final Fantasy Tactics" is featured in the Final Fantasy Trading Card Game, with Ramza, Delita, Agrias, and other characters appearing in Opus I (Roman Numeral). "Tactics" has made additional appearances in Opus III, IV, V, VII, X, and XIII.


title: Final Fantasy Tactics

text: A remixed version of the song "Ovelia & Delita" was nominated for "Best Game Music Cover/Remix" at the 16th Annual Game Audio Network Guild Awards.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Marie-Georges-Jean Méliès (; ; 8 December 1861 – 21 January 1938) was a French illusionist, actor, and film director. He led many technical and narrative developments in the earliest days of cinema.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Méliès was well known for the use of special effects, popularizing such techniques as substitution splices, multiple exposures, time-lapse photography, dissolves, and hand-painted colour. He was also one of the first filmmakers to use storyboards. His films include "A Trip to the Moon" (1902) and "The Impossible Voyage" (1904), both involving strange, surreal journeys somewhat in the style of Jules Verne, and are considered among the most important early science fiction films, though their approach is closer to fantasy.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Marie-Georges-Jean Méliès was born 8 December 1861 in Paris, son of Jean-Louis Méliès and his Dutch wife, Johannah-Catherine Schuering. His father had moved to Paris in 1843 as a journeyman shoemaker and began working at a boot factory, where he met Méliès' mother. Johannah-Catherine's father had been the official bootmaker of the Dutch court before a fire ruined his business. Eventually the two married, founded a high-quality boot factory on the Boulevard Saint-Martin, and had sons Henri and Gaston; by the time their third son Georges, had been born, the family had become wealthy.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Georges Méliès attended the Lycée Michelet from age seven until it was bombed during the Franco-Prussian War; he was then sent to the prestigious Lycée Louis-le-Grand. In his memoirs, Méliès emphasised his formal, classical education, in contrast to accusations early in his career that most filmmakers had been "illiterates incapable of producing anything artistic." However, he acknowledged that his creative instincts usually outweighed intellectual ones: "The artistic passion was too strong for him, and while he would ponder a French composition or Latin verse, his pen mechanically sketched portraits or caricatures of his professors or classmates, if not some fantasy palace or an original landscape that already had the look of a theatre set." Often disciplined by teachers for covering his notebooks and textbooks with drawings, young Georges began building cardboard puppet theatres at age ten and moved on to craft even more sophisticated marionettes as a teenager. Méliès graduated from the Lycée with a baccalauréat in 1880.


title: Georges Méliès

text: After completing his education, Méliès joined his brothers in the family shoe business, where he learned how to sew. After three years of mandatory military service, his father sent him to London to work as a clerk for a family friend and to improve his English. While in London, he began to visit the Egyptian Hall, run by the London illusionist John Nevil Maskelyne, and he developed a lifelong passion for stage magic. Méliès returned to Paris in 1885 with a new desire: to study painting at the École des Beaux-Arts. His father, however, refused to support him financially as an artist, so Georges settled with supervising the machinery at the family factory. That same year, he avoided his family's desire for him to marry his brother's sister-in-law and instead married Eugénie Génin, a family friend's daughter whose guardians had left her a sizable dowry. Together they had two children: Georgette, born in 1888, and André, born in 1901.


title: Georges Méliès

text: While working at the family factory, Méliès continued to cultivate his interest in stage magic, attending performances at the Théâtre Robert-Houdin, which had been founded by the magician Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin. He also began taking magic lessons from Emile Voisin, who gave him the opportunity to perform his first public shows, at the Cabinet Fantastique of the Grévin Wax Museum and, later, at the Galerie Vivienne.


title: Georges Méliès

text: In 1888, Méliès' father retired, and Georges Méliès sold his share of the family shoe business to his two brothers. With the money from the sale and from his wife's dowry, he purchased the Théâtre Robert-Houdin. Although the theatre was "superb" and equipped with lights, levers, trap doors, and several automata, many of the available illusions and tricks were out of date, and attendance to the theatre was low even after Méliès' initial renovations.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Over the next nine years, Méliès personally created over 30 new illusions that brought more comedy and melodramatic pageantry to performances, much like those Méliès had seen in London, and attendance greatly improved. One of his best-known illusions was the "Recalcitrant Decapitated Man", in which a professor's head is cut off in the middle of a speech and continues talking until it is returned to his body. When he purchased the Théâtre Robert-Houdin, Méliès also inherited its chief mechanic Eugène Calmels and such performers as Jehanne D'Alcy, who would become his mistress and, later, his second wife. While running the theatre, Méliès also worked as a political cartoonist for the liberal newspaper "La Griffe", which was edited by his cousin Adolphe Méliès.


title: Georges Méliès

text: On 28 December 1895, Méliès attended a special private demonstration of the Lumière brothers' cinematograph, given for owners of Parisian houses of spectacle. Méliès immediately offered the Lumières 10,000 francs for one of their machines; the Lumières refused, anxious to keep a close control on their invention and to emphasize the scientific nature of the device. (For the same reasons, they refused the Musée Grévin's 20,000 francs bid and the Folies Bergère's 50,000 francs bid the same night.) Méliès, intent on finding a film projector for the Théâtre Robert-Houdin, turned elsewhere; numerous other inventors in Europe and America were experimenting with machines similar to the Lumières' invention, albeit at a less technically sophisticated level. Possibly acting on a tip from Jehanne d'Alcy, who may have seen Robert W. Paul's Animatograph film projector while on tour in England, Méliès traveled to London. He bought an Animatograph from Paul, as well as several short films sold by Paul and by the Edison Manufacturing Company. By April 1896, the Théâtre Robert-Houdin was showing films as part of its daily performances.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Méliès, after studying the design of the Animatograph, modified the machine so that it would serve as a film camera. As raw film stock and film processing labs were not yet available in Paris, Méliès purchased unperforated film in London, and personally developed and printed his films through trial and error.


title: Georges Méliès

text: In September 1896, Méliès, Lucien Korsten, and Lucien Reulos patented the Kinétographe Robert-Houdin, a cast iron camera-projector, which Méliès referred to as his "coffee grinder" and "machine gun" because of the noise that it made. By 1897 technology had caught up and better cameras were put on sale in Paris, leading Méliès to discard his own camera and purchase several better cameras made by Gaumont, the Lumières, and Pathé.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Méliès directed over 500 films between 1896 and 1913, ranging in length from one to forty minutes. In subject matter, these films are often similar to the magic theatre shows that Méliès had been doing, containing "tricks" and impossible events, such as objects disappearing or changing size. These early special effects films were essentially devoid of plot. The special effects were used only to show what was possible, rather than enhance the overall narrative. Méliès' early films were mostly composed of single in-camera effects, used for the entirety of the film. For example, after experimenting with multiple exposure, Méliès created his film "The One-Man Band" in which he played seven different characters simultaneously.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Méliès began shooting his first films in May 1896, and screening them at the Théâtre Robert-Houdin by that August. At the end of 1896 he and Reulos founded the Star Film Company, with Korsten acting as his primary camera operator. Many of his earliest films were copies and remakes of the Lumière brothers' films, made to compete with the 2000 daily customers of the Grand Café. This included his first film "Playing Cards", which is similar to an early Lumière film. However, many of his other early films reflected Méliès' knack for theatricality and spectacle, such as "A Terrible Night", in which a hotel guest is attacked by a giant bedbug. But more importantly, the Lumière brothers had dispatched camera operators across the world to document it as ethnographic documentarians, intending their invention to be highly important in scientific and historical study. Méliès' Star Film Company, on the other hand, was geared more towards the "fairground clientele" who wanted his specific brand of magic and illusion: art.


title: Georges Méliès

text: In these earliest films, Méliès began to experiment with (and often invent) special effects that were unique to filmmaking. This began, according to Méliès' memoirs, by accident when his camera jammed in the middle of a take and "a Madeleine-Bastille bus changed into a hearse and women changed into men. The substitution trick, called the stop trick, had been discovered." This same stop trick effect had already been used by Thomas Edison when depicting a decapitation in "The Execution of Mary Stuart"; however, Méliès' film effects and unique style of film magic were his own. He first used these effects in "The Vanishing Lady", in which the by then cliché magic trick of a person vanishing from the stage by means of a trap door is enhanced by the person turning into a skeleton until finally reappearing on the stage.


title: Georges Méliès

text: In September 1896, Méliès began to build a film studio on his property in Montreuil, just outside Paris. The main stage building was made entirely of glass walls and ceilings so as to allow in sunlight for film exposure and its dimensions were identical to the Théâtre Robert-Houdin. The property also included a shed for dressing rooms and a hangar for set construction. Because colours would often photograph in unexpected ways on black-and-white film, all sets, costumes and actors' makeup were coloured in different tones of gray. Méliès described the studio as "the union of the photography workshop (in its gigantic proportions) and the theatre stage." Actors performed in front of a painted set as inspired by the conventions of magic and musical theatre. For the remainder of his film career, he would divide his time between Montreuil and the Théâtre Robert-Houdin, where he "arrived at the studio at seven a.m. to put in a ten-hour day building sets and props. At five, he would change his clothes and set out for Paris in order to be at the theatre office by six to receive callers. After a quick dinner, he was back to the theatre for the eight o'clock show, during which he sketched his set designs, and then returned to Montreuil to sleep. On Fridays and Saturdays, he shot scenes prepared during the week, while Sundays and holidays were taken up with a theatre matinee, three film screenings, and an evening presentation that lasted until eleven-thirty."


title: Georges Méliès

text: In total, Méliès made 78 films in 1896 and 52 in 1897. By this time he had covered every genre of film that he would continue to film for the rest of his career. These included the Lumière-like documentaries, comedies, historical reconstructions, dramas, magic tricks, and "féeries" (fairy stories), which would become his most well-known genre. In 1897, Méliès was commissioned by the popular singer Paulus to make films of his performances. Because Paulus refused to perform outdoor, some thirty arc and mercury lamps had to be used in Méliès studio, one of the first times artificial light was used for cinematography. The films were projected as "Paulus Chantant" at the "Ba-Ta-Clan". There, Paulus sat behind the cinema screen and sang the songs – thus giving the illusion of cinema with sound.


title: Georges Méliès

text: That same year, Georges Brunel wrote that "MM. Méliès and Reulos have, above all, made a speciality of fantastic or artistic scenes, reproductions of theatre scenes, etc., so as to create a special genre, entirely distinct from the ordinary cinematographic views consisting of street scenes or genre subjects." Like the Lumière brothers and Pathé, Star Films also made "stag films" such as "Peeping Tom at the Seaside", "A Hypnotist at Work" and "After the Ball", which is the only one of these films that has survived, and stars Jeanne d'Alcy stripping down to a flesh-coloured leotard and being bathed by her maid. Between 1896 and 1900, Méliès also made ten advertisements for such products as whiskey, chocolate, and baby cereal. In September 1897, Méliès attempted to turn the Théâtre Robert-Houdin into a movie theatre with fewer magic shows and film screenings every night. But by late December 1897, film screenings were limited to Sunday nights only.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Méliès made only 27 films in 1898, but his work was becoming more ambitious and elaborate. His films included a historical reconstruction of the sinking of the USS "Maine" titled "Divers at Work on the Wreck of the "Maine"", the magic trick film "The Famous Box Trick", and the "féerie" "The Astronomer's Dream". In this film, Méliès plays an astronomer who has the Moon cause his laboratory to transform and demons and angels to visit him. He also made one of his first of many religious satires with "The Temptation of Saint Anthony", in which a statue of Jesus Christ on the cross is transformed into a seductive woman.


title: Georges Méliès

text: He continued to experiment with his in-camera special effects, such as a reverse shot in "A Dinner Under Difficulties", where he hand cranked a strip of film backwards through his camera to achieve the effect. He also experimented with superimposition, where he would film actors in a black background, then rewind the film through the camera and expose the footage again to create a double exposure. These films included "The Cave of the Demons", in which transparent ghosts haunt a cave, and "The Four Troublesome Heads", in which Méliès removes his own head three times and creates a musical chorus. Achieving these effects was extremely difficult, requiring considerable skill. In a 1907 article, Méliès noted: "Every second the actor playing different scenes ten times has to remember, while the film is rolling, exactly what he did at the same point in the preceding scenes and the exact place where he was on the stage."


title: Georges Méliès

text: Méliès made 48 films in 1899 as he continued to experiment with special effects, for example in the early horror film "Robbing Cleopatra's Tomb". The film is not a historical reconstruction of the Egyptian Queen, and instead depicts her mummy being resurrected in modern times. "Robbing Cleopatra's Tomb" was believed to be a lost film until a copy was discovered in 2005 in Paris. That year, Méliès also made two of his most ambitious and well-known films. In the summer he made the historical reconstruction "The Dreyfus Affair", a film based on the then-ongoing and controversial political scandal, in which the Jewish French Army Captain Alfred Dreyfus was falsely accused and framed for treason by his commanders. Méliès was pro-Dreyfus and the film depicts Dreyfus sympathetically as falsely accused and unjustly incarcerated on Devil's Island prison. At screenings of the film, fights broke out between people on different sides of the debate and the police eventually banned the final part of the film where Dreyfus returns to prison.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Later that year, Méliès made the "féerie" "Cinderella", based on Charles Perrault's fairy tale. The film was six minutes long and had a cast of over 35 people, including Bleuette Bernon in the title role. It was also Méliès' first film with multiple scenes, known as "tableaux". The film was very successful across Europe and in the United States, playing mostly in fairgrounds and music halls. American film distributors such as Siegmund Lubin were especially in need of new material both to attract their audience with new films and to counter Edison's growing monopoly. Méliès' films were particularly popular, and "Cinderella" was often screened as a featured attraction even years after its U.S. release in December 1899. Such U.S. filmmakers as Thomas Edison were resentful of the competition from foreign companies and after the success of "Cinderella", attempted to block Méliès from screening most films in the U.S.; but they soon discovered the process of creating film "dupes" (duplicate negatives). Méliès and others then established in 1900 the trade union Chambre Syndicale des Editeurs Cinématographiques as a way to defend themselves in foreign markets. Méliès was made the first president of the union, serving until 1912, and the Théâtre Robert-Houdin was the group's headquarters.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Around the same time, Méliès used the financial success of his films to expand the Montreuil studio, which allowed him to create even more elaborate sets and additional storage space for his growing archive of props, costumes and other memorabilia.


title: Georges Méliès

text: In 1900, Méliès made numerous films, including the 13-minute-long "Joan of Arc". He also made "The One-Man Band", in which Méliès continued to fine-tune his special effects by multiplying himself on camera to play seven instruments simultaneously. Another notable film was "The Christmas Dream", which merged cinematic effects with traditional Christmas pantomime scenes.


title: Georges Méliès

text: In 1901, Méliès continued producing successful films and was at the peak of his popularity. His films that year included "The Brahmin and the Butterfly", in which Méliès portrays a Brahmin who transforms a caterpillar into a beautiful woman with wings, but is himself turned into a caterpillar. He also made the "féerie" "Red Riding Hood" and "Bluebeard", both based on stories from Charles Perrault. In "Bluebeard", Méliès plays the eponymous wife-murderer and co-stars with Jeanne d'Alcy and Bleuette Bernon. The film is an early example of parallel cross-cutting and match cuts of characters moving from one room to the next. The Edison Company's 1902 film "Jack and the Beanstalk", directed by Edwin S. Porter, was considered a less successful American version of several Méliès films, particularly "Bluebeard". That year, he also made "Off to Bloomingdale Asylum", a blackface burlesque that includes four white bus passengers transforming into one large black passenger who is then shot by the bus driver.


title: Georges Méliès

text: In 1902, Méliès began to experiment with camera movement to create the illusion of a character changing size. He achieved this effect by "advancing the camera forward" on a pulley-drawn chair system, which was perfected to allow the camera operator to accurately adjust focus and for the actor to adjust his or her position in the frame as needed. This effect began with "The Devil and the Statue", in which Méliès plays Satan and grows to the size of a giant to terrorize William Shakespeare's Juliet, but then shrinks when the Virgin Mary comes to the rescue. This effect was used again in "The Man with the Rubber Head", in which Méliès plays a scientist who expands his own head to enormous proportions. This new experiment, along with the others that he had perfected over the years, would be used in his most well-known and beloved film later that year.


title: Georges Méliès

text: In May 1902, Méliès made the film "A Trip to the Moon" which was loosely based on Jules Verne's 1865 novel "From the Earth to the Moon", its 1870 sequel "Around the Moon", and H. G. Wells' 1901 novel "The First Men in the Moon". In the film, Méliès stars as Professor Barbenfouillis, a character similar to the astronomer he played in "The Astronomer's Dream" in 1898. Professor Barbenfouillis is the President of the Astronomer's Club and proposes an expedition to the Moon. A space vehicle in the form of a large artillery shell is built in his laboratory, and he uses it to launch six men (including himself) on a voyage to the Moon. The vehicle is shot out of a large cannon into space and hits the Man in the Moon in the eye. The group explores the Moon's surface before going to sleep. As they dream, they are observed by the Moon goddess Phoebe, played by Bleuette Bernon, who causes it to snow. Later, while underground, they are attacked and captured by a group of Moon aliens, played by acrobats from the Folies Bergère. Taken before the alien king, they manage to escape and are chased back to their spaceship. Then, with the aid of a rope attached to the spaceship, the men, along with an alien, fall from the Moon back to Earth, landing in the ocean (where a superimposed fish tank creates the illusion of the deep ocean). Eventually the spaceship is towed ashore and the returning adventurers are celebrated by the townspeople. At 14 minutes, it was Méliès' longest film up to that date and cost 10,000 francs to produce.


title: Georges Méliès

text: The film was an enormous success in France and around the world, and Méliès sold both black-and-white and hand-coloured versions to exhibitors. The film made Méliès famous in the United States, where such producers as Thomas Edison, Siegmund Lubin and William Selig had produced illegal copies and made large amounts of money from them. This copyright violation caused Méliès to open a Star Films office in New York City, with his brother Gaston Méliès in charge. Gaston had been unsuccessful in the shoe business and agreed to join his more successful brother in the film industry. He travelled to New York in November 1902 and discovered the extent of the infringement in the U.S., such as Biograph having paid royalties on Méliès' film to film promoter Charles Urban. When Gaston opened the branch office in New York, it included a charter that partly read "In opening a factory and office in New York we are prepared and determined energetically to pursue all counterfeiters and pirates. We will not speak twice, we will act!" Gaston was assisted in the U.S. by Lucien Reulos, who was the husband of Gaston's sister-in-law, Louise de Mirmont.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Méliès' great success in 1902 continued with his three other major productions of that year. In "The Coronation of Edward VII", Méliès reenacts the crowning of the new British King Edward VII. The film was shot prior to the actual event (since he was denied access to the coronation) and was commissioned by Charles Urban, head of the Warwick Trading Company and the Star Films representative in London. The film was ready to be released on the day of the coronation; however, the event was postponed for six weeks due to Edward's health. This allowed Méliès to add actual footage of the carriage procession in the film. The film was financially successful and King Edward VII was said to have enjoyed it. Next, Méliès made the "féeries" "Gulliver's Travels Among the Lilliputians and the Giants", based on the novel by Jonathan Swift, and "Robinson Crusoe", based on the novel by Daniel Defoe.


title: Georges Méliès

text: In 1903 Méliès made "The Kingdom of the Fairies", which film critic Jean Mitry has called "undoubtedly Méliès's best film, and in any case the most intensely poetic". The "Los Angeles Times" called the film "an interesting exhibit of the limits to which moving picture making can be carried in the hands of experts equipped with time and money to carry out their devices". Prints of the film survive in the film archives of the British Film Institute and the U.S. Library of Congress.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Méliès continued the year by perfecting many of his camera effects, such as more fast-paced transformations in "Ten Ladies in One Umbrella" and the seven superimpositions that he used in "The Melomaniac". He finished the year with a film based on the Faust legend, "The Damnation of Faust". The film is loosely based on an opera by Hector Berlioz, but it pays less attention to the story and more to the special effects that represent a tour of hell. These include underground gardens, walls of fire and walls of water. In 1904, he made a sequel, "Faust and Marguerite". This time, the film was based on an opera by Charles Gounod. Méliès also created a combined version of the two films that would sync up with the main arias of the operas. He continued making "high art" films later in 1904 such as "The Barber of Seville". These films were popular with both audiences and critics at the time of their release, and helped Méliès establish more prestige.


title: Georges Méliès

text: His major production of 1904 was "The Impossible Voyage", a film similar to "A Trip to the Moon" about an expedition around the world, into the oceans and even to the sun. In the film, Méliès plays Engineer Mabouloff of the Institute of Incoherent Geography, who is similar to the previous Professor Barbenfouillis. Mabouloff leads a group on the trip on the many Automobouloffs, the vehicles that they use of their travels. As the men are traveling up to the highest peaks of the Alps, their vehicle continues moving upwards and takes them unexpectedly to the sun, which has a face much like the man in the moon and swallows the vehicle. Eventually the men use a submarine to launch back to earth and into the ocean, and are greeted back home by adoring admirers. The film was 24 minutes long and was a success. Film critic Lewis Jacobs has said that "the film expressed all of Méliès talents ... The complexity of his tricks, his resourcefulness with mechanical contrivances, the imaginativeness of the settings and the sumptuous tableaux made the film a masterpiece for its day."


title: Georges Méliès

text: Later in 1904, Folies Bergère director Victor de Cottens invited Méliès to create a special effects film to be included in his theatre's revue. The result was "An Adventurous Automobile Trip", a satire of Leopold II of Belgium. The film was screened at the Folies Bergère before Méliès began to sell it as a Star Films production. In late 1904, Thomas Edison sued the American production company Paley & Steiner over copyright infringement for films that had stories, characters and even shot set-ups exactly like films that Edison had made. Edison also included Pathé Frères, Eberhard Schneider and Star Films in this lawsuit for unspecified reasons. Paley & Steiner settled with Edison out of court (and were later bought out by Edison) and the case never went to trial.


title: Georges Méliès

text: In 1905, Victor de Cottens asked Méliès to collaborate with him on "The Merry Deeds of Satan", a theatrical revue for the Théâtre du Châtelet. Méliès contributed two short films for the performances, "Le Voyage dans l'espace" (The Space Trip) and "Le Cyclone" (The Cyclone), and co-wrote the scenario with de Cottons for the entire revue. 1905 was also the 100th birthday of Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin, and the Théâtre Robert-Houdin created a special celebration performance, including Méliès' first new stage trick in several years, "Les Phénomènes du Spiritisme". At the same time, he was again remodeling and expanding his studio at Montreuil by installing electric lights, adding a second stage and buying costumes from other sources. Méliès's films for 1905 include the adventure "The Palace of the Arabian Nights" and the "féerie" "Rip's Dream", based on the Rip Van Winkle legend and the opera by Robert Planquette. In 1906, his output included an updated, comedic adaptation of the Faust legend "The Merry Frolics of Satan" and "The Witch". But the "féerie" style that Méliès was best known for was beginning to lose popularity and he began to make films in other genres, such as crime and family films. In the U.S., Gaston Méliès had to reduce the sale prices of three of Méliès' earlier popular "féeries", "Cinderella", "Bluebeard" and "Robinson Crusoe". By the end of 1905 Gaston had cut the prices of all films on the Star Films catalog by 20%, which did improve sales.


title: Georges Méliès

text: In 1907, Méliès created three new illusions for the stage and performed them at the Théâtre Robert-Houdin, while he continued producing a steady stream of films, including "Under the Seas", and a short version of Shakespeare's "Hamlet". Yet such film critics as Jean Mitry, Georges Sadoul, and others have declared that Méliès' work began to decline and, in the film scholar Miriam Rosen's words, to "lapse into the repetition of old formulas on the one hand and an uneasy imitation of new trends on the other."


title: Georges Méliès

text: In 1908, Thomas Edison created the Motion Picture Patents Company as a way to control the film industry in the United States and Europe. The companies that joined the conglomerate were Edison, Biograph, Vitagraph, Essanay, Selig, Lubin, Kalem, American Pathé and Méliès' Star Film Company, with Edison acting as president of the collective. Star Films was obligated to supply the MPPC with one thousand feet of film per week, and Méliès made 58 films that year in fulfillment of the obligation. Gaston Méliès established his own studio in Chicago, the Méliès Manufacturing Company, which helped his brother fulfill the obligation to Edison, although Gaston produced no films in 1908. That year, Méliès made one of his most ambitious films: "Humanity Through the Ages". This pessimistic film retells the history of humans from Cain and Abel to the Hague Peace Conference of 1907. The film was unsuccessful, yet Méliès was proud of it throughout his life.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Under Méliès’ chairmanship, the European congress took place from 2 to 4 February 1909. In his "mémoires", Méliès says that this congress was the second one, following the 1908 congress. In 1909, the congress made important decisions regarding film leasing, and adoption of a single type of film perforation, in order to thwart Edison and the MPPC. Like others, Méliès was unhappy with the monopoly that Edison had created and wanted to fight back. The members of the congress agreed to no longer sell films, but to lease them for four-month periods only to members of their own organization, and to adopt a standardized film perforation count on all films. Méliès was unhappy about the second of the three conditions, because his principal clients were owners of fairgrounds and music halls. A fairground trade journal quoted Méliès as saying, "I am not a corporation; I am an independent producer."


title: Georges Méliès

text: Méliès resumed filmmaking in the autumn of 1909 and produced nine films, including "Whimsical Illusions", in which he presents a magical effect on stage. At the same time, Gaston Méliès had moved the Méliès Manufacturing Company to Fort Lee, New Jersey. In 1910, Gaston established the Star Film Ranch, a studio in San Antonio, Texas, where he began to produce Westerns. By 1911, Gaston had renamed his branch of Star Films "American Wildwest Productions", and opened a studio in southern California. He produced over one hundred thirty films between 1910 and 1912, and he was the primary source for fulfilling Star Films' obligation to Thomas Edison's company. Between 1910 and 1912, Georges Méliès produced very few films.


title: Georges Méliès

text: he preferred to create a big magic show "Les Fantômes du Nil", and go on a very expansive tour in Europe and North Africa. Later that year, Star Films signed an agreement with the Gaumont Film Company to distribute all of its films. But in the autumn of 1910, Méliès made a deal with Charles Pathé that would eventually destroy his own film career. Méliès accepted a large amount of money to produce films and in exchange Pathé Frères would distribute and reserve the right to edit these films. Pathé also held the deed to both Méliès' home and his Montreuil studio as part of the deal. Méliès immediately began production on more elaborate films and the two that he produced in 1911 were "Baron Munchausen's Dream" and "The Diabolical Church Window". Despite the extravagance of these "féeries" that had been extremely popular just a decade before, both films failed financially.


title: Georges Méliès

text: In 1912, Méliès continued making ambitious films, most notably with the "féerie" "The Conquest of the Pole". Although inspired by such contemporary events as Robert Peary's expedition to the North Pole in 1909 and Roald Amundsen's expedition to the South Pole in 1911, the film also included such fantastic elements as a griffith-headed aerobus and a snow giant that was operated by twelve stage hands, as well as elements reminiscent of Jules Verne and some of the same "fantastic voyage" themes as "A Trip to the Moon" and "The Impossible Voyage". Unfortunately, "Conquest of the Pole" was not profitable, and Pathé decided to exercise its right to edit Méliès's films from then on.


title: Georges Méliès

text: One of Méliès' last "féeries" was "Cinderella or the Glass Slipper", a fifty-four-minute retelling of the Cinderella legend, shot with new deep focus lenses, outdoors instead of against theatrical backdrops. Pathé hired Méliès's longtime rival Ferdinand Zecca to trim the film to thirty three minutes, and it too was unprofitable. After similar experiences with "The Knight of the Snows" and "The Voyage of the Bourrichon Family" in late 1912, Méliès broke his contract with Pathé.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Meanwhile, Gaston Méliès had taken his family and a film crew of over twenty people to Tahiti in the summer of 1912. For the rest of that year and well into 1913, he traveled throughout the South Pacific and Asia, and sent film footage back to his son in New York. The footage was often damaged or otherwise unusable, and Gaston was no longer able to fulfill Star Films' obligation to Thomas Edison's company. By the end of his travels, Gaston Méliès had lost $50,000 and had to sell the American branch of Star Films to Vitagraph Studios. Gaston eventually returned to Europe and died in 1915. He and Georges Méliès never spoke to one another again.


title: Georges Méliès

text: When Méliès broke his contract with Pathé in 1913, he had nothing with which to cover his indebtedness to that company. Although a moratorium declared at the onset of war in 1914 prevented Pathé from taking possession of his home and Montreuil studio, Méliès was bankrupt and unable to continue making films. In his memoirs, he attributes what Miriam Rosen describes as "his own inability to adapt to the rental system" with Pathé and other companies, his brother Gaston's poor financial decisions, and the horrors of World War I as the main reasons that he stopped making movies. The final crisis was the death of Méliès' first wife, Eugénie Génin, in May 1913, leaving him alone to raise their twelve-year-old son, André. The war shut the Théâtre Robert-Houdin for a year, and Méliès left Paris with his two children for several years.


title: Georges Méliès

text: In 1917, the French army turned the main studio building at his Montreuil property into a hospital for wounded soldiers. Méliès and his family then turned the second studio set into a theatrical stage and performed over 24 revues there until 1923. During the war, the French army confiscated over four hundred of Star Films' original prints and melted them down to recover silver and celluloid, the latter of which the army used to make heels for shoes.


title: Georges Méliès

text: In 1923, the Théâtre Robert-Houdin was torn down to rebuild the Boulevard Haussmann. That same year Pathé was finally able to take over Star Films and the Montreuil studio. In a rage, Méliès burned all of the negatives of his films that he had stored at the Montreuil studio, as well as most of the sets and costumes. As a result, many of his films do not exist today. Nonetheless, just over two hundred Méliès films have been preserved, and have been available on DVD since December 2011.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Méliès was largely forgotten and financially ruined by December 1925, when he married his long-time mistress, the actress Jehanne d'Alcy. The couple scraped together a living by working at a small candy and toy stand d'Alcy owned in the main hall of the Gare Montparnasse.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Around the same time, the gradual rediscovery of Méliès's career began. In 1924, the journalist Georges-Michel Coissac managed to track him down and interview him for a book on cinema history. Coissac, who hoped to underline the importance of French pioneers to early film, was the first film historian to demonstrate Méliès's importance to the industry. In 1926, spurred on by Coissac's book, the magazine "Ciné-Journal" located Méliès, now working at the Gare Montparnasse, and commissioned a memoir from him. By the late 1920s, several journalists had begun to research Méliès and his life's work, creating new interest in him. As his prestige began to grow in the film world, he was given more recognition and in December 1929, a gala retrospective of his work was held at the Salle Pleyel. In his memoirs, Méliès said that at the event he "experienced one of the most brilliant moments of his life."


title: Georges Méliès

text: Eventually Georges Méliès was made a Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur, the medal of which was presented to him in October 1931 by Louis Lumière. Lumière himself said that Méliès was the "creator of the cinematic spectacle." However, the enormous amount of praise that he was receiving did not help his livelihood or decrease his poverty. In a letter written to French filmmaker Eugène Lauste, Méliès wrote that "luckily enough, I am strong and in good health. But it is hard to work 14 hours a day without getting my Sundays or holidays, in an icebox in winter and a furnace in summer."


title: Georges Méliès

text: In 1932, the Cinema Society arranged a place for Méliès, his granddaughter Madeleine and Jeanne d'Alcy at La Maison de Retraite du Cinéma, the film industry's retirement home in Orly. Méliès was greatly relieved to be admitted to the home and wrote to an American journalist: "My best satisfaction in all is to be sure not to be one day "without bread and home"!" In Orly, Méliès worked with several younger directors on scripts for films that never came to be made. These included a new version of Baron Munchausen with Hans Richter and a film that was to be titled "Le Fantôme du métro" ("Phantom of the Metro") with Henri Langlois, Georges Franju, Marcel Carné and Jacques Prévert. He also acted in a few advertisements with Prévert in his later years.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Langlois and Franju had met Méliès in 1935 with René Clair, and in 1936, rented an abandoned building on the property of the Orly retirement home to store their collection of film prints. They then entrusted the key to the building to Méliès and he became the first conservator of what would eventually become the Cinémathèque Française. Although he was never able to make another film after 1912 or stage another theatrical performance after 1923, he continued to draw, write to and advise younger film and theatrical admirers until the end of his life.


title: Georges Méliès

text: By late 1937, Méliès had become very ill and Langlois arranged for him to be admitted to the Léopold Bellan Hospital in Paris. Langlois had become close to him, and he and Franju visited him shortly before his death. When they arrived, Méliès showed them one of his last drawings of a champagne bottle with the cork popped and bubbling over. He then told them: "Laugh, my friends. Laugh with me, laugh for me, because I dream your dreams." Georges Méliès died of cancer on 21 January 1938 at the age of 76—just hours after the passing of Émile Cohl, another great French film pioneer—and was buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Walt Disney, on being presented with the Legion of Honour in 1936, expressed gratitude to Méliès and his fellow pioneer Émile Cohl, saying they "discovered the means of placing poetry within the reach of the man in the street."


title: Georges Méliès

text: The music videos for Queen's 1995 single "Heaven for Everyone" and The Smashing Pumpkins 1996 single "Tonight, Tonight" were highly inspired by Georges Méliès's films "A Trip to the Moon" (1902) and "The Impossible Voyage" (1904).


title: Georges Méliès

text: Terry Gilliam has called Méliès "the first great film magician," adding: "His joyous sense of fun and ability to astound were a big influence on both my early animations and then my live-action films… Of course, Méliès still has a tight creative grip on me."


title: Georges Méliès

text: The 2007 novel "The Invention of Hugo Cabret" by Brian Selznick, and the 2011 film "Hugo" by Martin Scorsese, centre on the later life of Méliès, who is played by Sir Ben Kingsley. The film includes reconstructions of some of the fantastical stage sets which appeared in Melies's early films.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Méliès was inducted into the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame in 2015. He was inducted into the Visual Effects Society Hall of Fame in 2017. On 3 May 2018, Google honoured Méliès with its first ever virtual reality doodle, which contains themes of his many films.


title: Georges Méliès

text: Due to a variety of factors, only roughly 200 out of over 500 Méliès' films remain in existence today. These factors include Méliès' destruction of his original negatives, the French army's confiscation of his prints and the typical deterioration of the majority of films made before 1950. Occasionally a lost Méliès film will be discovered, but the majority that were preserved come from the U.S. Library of Congress, due to Gaston Méliès submitting paper prints of each frame of all new Star Films in order to preserve copyright when he set up the American branch of Star Films in 1902.


title: Jennifer Robertson

text: Jennifer Robertson (born November 24, 1971) is a Canadian actress, writer, and comedian. She is known for her starring role as Jocelyn Schitt in the CBC Emmy Award-winning sitcom "Schitt's Creek" (2015–2020), for which she was nominated for two Screen Actors Guild Awards (winning one) and four Canadian Screen Awards.


title: Jennifer Robertson

text: She has appeared in numerous other shows, including the CBC comedy series "This Hour Has 22 Minutes" (2003–2004), the CTV sketch comedy series "Comedy Inc." (2003–2010), the Disney Channel fantasy film "Twitches" (2005), the Family Channel teen sitcom "Wingin' It" (2010–2012), and the Netflix series "Ginny & Georgia" (2021–present).


title: Jennifer Robertson

text: Robertson was born in Canada, the daughter of Bob Robertson who was one half of comedy duo "Double Exposure". Raised in Vancouver, British Columbia, she has a brother, Patrick.


title: Jennifer Robertson

text: Robertson made her acting debut in a 1998 episode of the sketch comedy series "SketchCom". She went on to appear in various other television series, including "Twice in a Lifetime" (2001), "Point Blank" (2002), "The Gavin Crawford Show" (2002), and "The Seán Cullen Show" (2003).


title: Jennifer Robertson

text: She received further recognition for writing and starring in the comedy series "This Hour Has 22 Minutes" (2003–2004) and "Comedy Inc." (2003–2010).


title: Jennifer Robertson

text: In 2004, Robertson wrote and starred in the lead role of the television film "To Die 4". In 2005, she starred in the Disney Channel made-for-television film "Twitches". She went on to appear in other American made-for-television film, including "Knights of the South Bronx" (2005) and "Relative Chaos" (2006). She also co-starred as anchorwoman Jennifer Lange in the short-lived Fox News Channel satire comedy series "The 1/2 Hour News Hour" (2007).


title: Jennifer Robertson

text: Robertson guest starred as an annoyed flight attendant in the Disney Channel sitcom "Hannah Montana" (2007), and voiced Tricia in the animated teen comedy series "6teen". She starred as Angela Montclaire in the Family Channel teen sitcom "Wingin' It", which aired from April 2010 to May 2012. She portrayed Cece Goldsworthy in the tenth season of the long-running teen drama series "" (2010–2011). From 2013 to 2014, she hosted the HGTV reality competition series "Canada's Handyman Challenge".


title: Jennifer Robertson

text: Robertson gained further acclaim for her starring role of Jocelyn Schitt, the mayor's wife, in the CBC sitcom "Schitt's Creek" (2015–2020). For her performance in the series, she earned a nomination for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series and four Canadian Screen Awards for Best Supporting or Guest Actress in a Comedy.


title: Jennifer Robertson

text: In 2020, Robertson was cast in one of the lead roles in the Netflix drama series "Ginny & Georgia". Robertson stars as Ellen Baker in all ten episodes of the series, which premiered on Netflix on February 24, 2021, and attracted more than 52 million subscribers on the platform. It was subsequently renewed for a second season. Robertson had to learn sign language for her role on the series.


title: Jennifer Robertson

text: Robertson has one child, a daughter born in 2010, from a previous marriage. In October 2019 she announced her engagement on Instagram, though she later deleted the post.


title: Nougat

text: Nougat ( , ; ; ; ) is a family of confections made with sugar or honey, roasted nuts (almonds, walnuts, pistachios, hazelnuts, and macadamia nuts are common), whipped egg whites, and sometimes chopped candied fruit. The consistency of nougat is chewy, and it is used in a variety of candy bars and chocolates. The word "nougat" comes from Occitan (), seemingly from Latin 'nut bread' (the late colloquial Latin adjective means 'nutted' or 'nutty').


title: Nougat

text: Two basic kinds of nougat exist. The first, and most common, is white nougat or Persian nougat ( in Iran; in Spain), made with beaten egg whites and honey; it appeared in the early 7th century in Spain with Arabs. In Alicante, Spain there are several published recipes in the 16th century, for instance ”La Generosa Paliza” by Lope de Rueda and other novels written by Cervantes and in Montélimar, France, in the 18th century (Nougat of Montélimar). The second is brown nougat ( in French, literally 'black nougat'; in Italian, meaning 'crunchy'), which is made without egg whites and has a firmer, often crunchy texture.


title: Nougat

text: Many legends exist around nougat's origins. Early recipes of white nougat, probably borrowed from Central Asia or Persia (Iran, Esfahan), were found in a Middle Eastern book in Baghdad the 10th century. That nougat was called '. One of these recipes indicates that the ' comes from Harran, a city located between Urfa (now in southeast Turkey) and Aleppo, Syria. Mention of ' was found in a triangle between Urfa, Aleppo, and Baghdad. At the end of the 10th century, the traveler and geographer Ibn Hawqal wrote that he ate some ' in Manbij (in modern Syria) and Bukhara (in modern Uzbekistan).


title: Nougat

text: ' is produced in Spain; "nougat" in southern France; ', ', ', and "cubbaita" in Cremona, Taurianova, and Sicily in Italy; ' or ' in Greece; and ' in Malta (where it is sold in village festivals). In Romania, it is known as ' and is sold in local festivals and fairgrounds, mainly on the Sunday of Forgiveness preceding the Easter Lent); in a local variant form, it is made in Tabriz, Iran, where it is known as "Luka".


title: Nougat

text: The nougat that appears in many candy bars in the United States and United Kingdom differs from traditional recipes and consists of sucrose and corn syrup aerated with a whipping agent (such as egg white, hydrolyzed soya protein or gelatine); it may also include vegetable fats and milk powder. Typically, it is combined with nuts, caramel, or chocolate. Some American confections feature this type of nougat as the primary component, rather than combined with other elements. Varieties of nougat are found in Milky Way, Reese's Fast Break, Snickers, Double Decker, ZERO bars, and Baby Ruth bars. "Fluffy nougat" is the featured ingredient in the 3 Musketeers bar.


title: Nougat

text: In Britain, nougat is traditionally made in the style of the southern European varieties, and is commonly found at fairgrounds and seaside resorts. The most common industrially produced type is coloured pink and white, the pink often fruit flavoured, and sometimes wrapped in edible rice paper with almonds and cherries.


title: Nougat

text: When nougat spread to Taiwan, preparers there began to add milk powder as the main raw material, plus sugar, cream, protein (some companies use whey protein refined from fresh milk instead of protein and protein powder), nuts (such as peanuts, almonds, walnuts, pistachios or hazelnuts), dried fruit and petals (such as cranberry, golden pomelo, mango, orange, longan, and osmanthus). These secondary raw materials have become unique features of Taiwanese nougat.


title: Nougat

text: Compared to table-top nougat, French European nougat does not have any milk or milk powder ingredients. It is made by adding sugar or honey to egg whites and sprinkling in almonds or nuts. In addition, some manufacturers use edible rice paper to prevent the nougat from being deformed, but the amount used affects the taste, so preferences vary from person to person.


title: Nougat

text: Spanish nougat known as "" follows the traditional recipes with toasted nuts (commonly almonds), sugar, honey, and egg whites.


title: Nougat

text: ' from Italy includes these same basic ingredients as well as vanilla or citrus flavoring, and is often sandwiched between two very thin sheets of rice paper. The Venetian town of Cologna Veneta is well known for its nougat production, especially the type called ' (' in Italian); this type is also based on honey, sugar, egg whites, and almonds but has a different flavor and is harder to bite than '.


title: Nougat

text: "Wiener (Viennese) Nougat" is a variant that contains only sugar, cocoa butter, nuts, and cocoa mass and has a mellow consistency. The nuts used for Viennese nougat are usually hazelnuts. In Germany and the Nordic countries, Viennese nougat is traditionally labelled as nougat, while in Sweden and Denmark, the original nougat is referred to as "French nougat". In Germany, gianduja is traditionally called nougat.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The Bell OH-58 Kiowa is a family of single-engine single-rotor military helicopters used for observation, utility, and direct fire support. It was produced by the American manufacturer Bell Helicopter and is closely related to the Model 206A JetRanger civilian helicopter.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The OH-58 was originally developed during the early 1960s as the "D-250" for the Light Observation Helicopter (LOH). While the rival Hughes OH-6 Cayuse was picked over Bell's submission in May 1965, the company refined its design to create the Model 206A, a variant of which it successfully submitted to the reopened LOH competition two years later. The initial model, designated by the service as the "OH-58A", was introduced in May 1969. Successive models would follow, often with uprated engines, enhanced protection systems, and other improvements, cumulating in the "OH-58F". Additional improvements, such as the "OH-58X", were proposed but ultimately not pursued.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: During the 1970s, the US Army became interested in pursuing an advanced scout helicopter, for which the OH-58 would be further developed, evaluated, and ultimately procured as the "OH-58D Kiowa Warrior". The OH-58D is equipped to perform armed reconnaissance missions and to provide fire support to friendly ground forces; it is equipped with a distinctive Mast Mounted Sight (MMS) containing various sensors for target acquisition and laser designation. Another visible feature present on most OH-58s are knife-like extensions above and below the cockpit that form part of the passive wire strike protection system. While early-build OH-58s were equipped with a two-bladed main rotor, from the OH-58D onwards, a four-bladed counterpart was used instead.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The OH-58 was primarily produced for the United States Army. Only two months after the type's entry to service, it was first deployed into the Vietnam War. The US Army would make extensive use of various OH-58 models across numerous warzones over the decades, seeing active combat during the Gulf War, the Invasion of Panama, and the War in Afghanistan amongst others. During 2017, the US Army opted to withdraw its remaining OH-58s and replace them with newer rotorcraft, such as the Boeing AH-64 Apache and Eurocopter UH-72 Lakota, as well as increasing use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Furthermore, the OH-58 has been exported to Austria, Canada, Croatia, the Dominican Republic, Taiwan, Saudi Arabia, and Greece. It has also been produced under license in Australia.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: On 14 October 1960, the United States Navy approached 25 helicopter manufacturers to request on behalf of the Army the submission of proposals for a Light Observation Helicopter (LOH). Bell Helicopter was one of the manufacturers approached, and chose to enter the competition along with 12 other manufacturers, including Hiller Aircraft and Hughes Tool Co., Aircraft Division. Bell's design was internally referred to as the "D-250", and would be officially designated as the "YHO-4". On 19 May 1961, Bell and Hiller were announced as winners of the design competition.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: Bell developed the D-250 design into the "Model 206", while the HO-4 designation was changed to "YOH-4A" in 1962, and produced five prototype aircraft for the Army's test and evaluation phase. On 8 December 1962, the first prototype performed its maiden flight. The YOH-4A was also called the "Ugly Duckling" in comparison to other contending aircraft. After a flyoff of the Bell, Hughes and Fairchild-Hiller prototypes, the Hughes OH-6 Cayuse was selected in May 1965.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: When the YOH-4A was rejected by the Army, Bell went about solving the problem of marketing the aircraft. In addition to the image problem, the helicopter lacked cargo space and only provided cramped quarters for the planned three passengers in the back. The solution was a fuselage redesigned to be more sleek and aesthetic, adding of cargo space in the process. The redesigned aircraft was designated as the "Model 206A", and Bell President Edwin J. Ducayet named it the "JetRanger" denoting an evolution from the popular Model 47J "Ranger".


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: In 1967, the Army reopened the LOH competition for bids because Hughes Tool Co. Aircraft Division could not meet the contractual production demands. Bell resubmitted for the program using the Bell 206A. Fairchild-Hiller failed to resubmit their bid with the YOH-5A, which they had successfully marketed as the FH-1100. In the end, Bell underbid Hughes to win the contract and the Bell 206A was designated as the OH-58A. Following the U.S. Army's naming convention for helicopters, the OH-58A was named "Kiowa" in honor of the Native American tribe.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: In the 1970s, the U.S. Army began evaluating the need to improve the capabilities of their scout aircraft. Anticipating the AH-64A's replacement of the venerable AH-1, the Army began shopping the idea of an Aerial Scout Program to stimulate the development of advanced technological capabilities for night vision and precision navigation equipment. The stated goals of the program included prototypes that would: ...possess an extended target acquisition range capability by means of a long-range stabilized optical subsystem for the observer, improved position location through use of a computerized navigation system, improved survivability by reducing aural, visual, radar, and infrared signatures, and an improved flight performance capability derived from a larger engine to provide compatibility with attack helicopters.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: During March 1974, the Army created a special task force at Fort Knox to develop the system requirements; by the following year, the task force had devised the requirements for an Advanced Scout Helicopter (ASH) program. The requirements were formulated around an rotorcraft capable of performing in day, night, and adverse weather, and compatible with all advanced weapons systems planned for development and fielding into the 1980s. The program was approved by the System Acquisition Review Council and the Army prepared for competitive development to begin the next year. However, as the Army tried to get the program off the ground, Congress declined to provide funding in the fiscal year 1977 budget and the ASH Project Manager's Office (PM-ASH) was closed on 30 September 1976.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: While no development occurred for some years, the program survived as a requirement without funding. On 30 November 1979, the decision was made to defer development of an advanced scout helicopter in favor of modifying existing airframes in inventory as a near term scout helicopter (NTSH) option. The development of a mast-mounted sight would be the primary focus to improve the ability to perform reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition missions while remaining hidden behind trees and terrain. Both the UH-1 and the OH-58 were evaluated as NTSH candidates, but the UH-1 was dropped from consideration due to its larger size and ease of detection. The OH-58, on the other hand demonstrated a dramatic reduction in detectability with a Mast-Mounted Sight (MMS).


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: On 10 July 1980, the Army decided that the NTSH would be a competitive modification program based on developments in the commercial helicopter sector, particularly Hughes Helicopters' Hughes 500D, which had made major improvements over the OH-6.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The Army's decision to acquire the NTSH resulted in the "Army Helicopter Improvement Program (AHIP)". Both Bell Helicopter and Hughes Helicopters redesigned their scout aircraft to compete for the contract. Bell offered a more robust version of the OH-58 in their "Model 406", and Hughes offered an upgraded version of the OH-6. On 21 September 1981, Bell Helicopter Textron was awarded a development contract. On 6 October 1983, the first prototype performed its maiden flight, and the aircraft entered service two years later as the OH-58D.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: Initially intended for attack, cavalry, and artillery roles, the Army only approved a low initial production level and confined the OH-58D's role to field artillery observation. The Army also directed that a follow-on test be conducted to further evaluate it due to perceived deficiencies. On 1 April 1986, the Army formed a task force at Fort Rucker, Alabama, to remedy deficiencies in the AHIP. During 1988, the Army had planned to discontinue the OH-58D and focus on the LHX; however, Congress approved $138 million to expand the program, calling for the AHIP to operate with the Apache as a hunter/killer team; the AHIP would locate targets and the Apache would destroy them in a throwback to the traditional OH-58/AH-1 relationship.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The Secretary of the Army directed instead that the aircraft's armament systems be upgraded, based on experience with Task Force 118's performance operating armed OH-58Ds in the Persian Gulf in support of Operation Prime Chance, and that the type be used primarily for scouting and armed reconnaissance. The armed aircraft would be known as the OH-58D Kiowa Warrior, denoting its new armed configuration. Beginning with the 202nd aircraft (s/n 89-0112) in May 1991, all remaining OH-58Ds were produced in the Kiowa Warrior configuration. During January 1992, Bell received its first retrofit contract to convert all remaining OH-58Ds to the Kiowa Warrior configuration.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The Bell OH-58 Kiowa is a family of single-engine single-rotor military helicopters principally used for observation, utility, and direct fire support. The primary role of the original OH-58A was to identify targets for other platforms, such as the Bell AH-1 Cobra attack helicopter and ground artillery; it lacked any armaments and weighed 1,451kg (3,200lb) when fully loaded, being able to carry a small amount of cargo or up to two passengers. While initial examples were reliant on the crew to conduct observations, later models were furnished with sophisticated sensors to precisely determine a target's location. Payload capacity was also increased considerably on later-build rotorcraft, the OH-58D Kiowa was designed to carry a maximum load of 2,495kg, 72% more capacity than the original version.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: Early Kiowas were fitted with a flexible twin-bladed main rotor; starting with the OH-58D, a four-bladed rigid main rotor was used. This was entirely composed of composite materials, the OH-58D was the first US Army rotorcraft to incorporate an all-composite main rotor hub. Later models were outfitted as light gunships, being equipped with various armaments, such as Stinger air-to-air missiles, a .50-calibre machine gun, podded 70mm Hydra rockets and AGM-114 Hellfire air to ground missiles. Other areas of improvement were the avionics and the cockpit; new navigation and communication systems were installed along with new and larger flight instrumentation, while all light sources were redesigned for compatibility with Night Vision Goggles (NVG). Later versions were outfitted with a glass cockpit, which retained conventional instrumentation as a fallback measure.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The OH-58D introduced perhaps the most distinctive feature of the Kiowa family — the Mast Mounted Sight (MMS), which resembles a beach ball perched above the rotor system. The MMS by Ball Aerospace & Technologies has a gyro-stabilized platform containing a television system (TVS), a thermal imaging system (TIS), and a laser range finder/designator (LRF/D). These features gave the OH-58D the additional mission capability of target acquisition and laser designation in day or night, limited-visibility and adverse weather. In combination with the 1553 databus, the OH-58D being first US Army helicopter to be fielded with such equipment, target data from the sensors could be directly passed to precision-guided weapons.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The MMS was developed by the McDonnell Douglas Corp. in Huntington Beach, CA. Production took place primarily at facilities in Monrovia, CA. As a result of a merger with Boeing, and a later sale of the business unit, the program is currently owned and managed by DRS Technologies, with engineering support based in Cypress, CA, and production support taking place in Melbourne, FL. On the OH-58F, the MMS was removed, its functions having been replaced by the AAS-53 Common Sensor Payload, which is mounted on the chin.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: One distinctive feature of operational OH-58s are the knife-like extensions above and below the cockpit which are part of the passive wire strike protection system; it protects 90% of the frontal area of the helicopter from wire strikes that can be encountered at low altitudes by directing wires to the upper or lower blades before they can entangle the rotor blade or landing skids. The OH-58 was the first helicopter to test this system, after which the system was adopted by the US Army for the OH-58 and most of their other helicopters. Various other defensive and survivability measures were incorporated, such as ballistic floor armor, a missile warning system, crashworthy seats, and infrared suppression systems for the engine exhaust.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: During May 1969, the first OH-58A Kiowa was officially received at a ceremony held at Bell Helicopter's Fort Worth plant, officiated by Major General John Norton, commanding general of the Army Aviation Materiel Command (AMCOM). Two months later, on 17 August 1969, production OH-58A helicopters arrived in South Vietnam for the first time; their deployment was accompanied by a New Equipment Training Team (NETT) comprising personnel from both the US Army and Bell Helicopters. Although the Kiowa production contract had replaced the LOH contract with Hughes, the OH-58A did not automatically replace the OH-6A in operations; subsequently, the Kiowa and the Cayuse would continue operating in the same theater until the end of the conflict.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: On 27 March 1970, an OH-58A Kiowa (s/n 68-16785) was shot down over South Vietnam, one of the first OH-58A losses of the war. The pilot, Warrant Officer Ralph Quick, Jr., was flying Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Benoski, Jr. as an artillery spotter. After completing a battle damage assessment for a previous fire mission, the aircraft was damaged by .51 inch (13 mm) machine gun fire and crashed, killing both crew members. Approximately 45 OH-58A helicopters were destroyed during the Vietnam War due to combat losses and accidents. One of the last combat losses in the theatre was of an OH-58A (s/n 68-16888) from A Troop, 3-17th Cavalry, flown by First Lieutenant Thomas Knuckey. On 27 May 1971, Lieutenant Knuckey was also flying a battle damage assessment mission when his aircraft came under machine gun fire and exploded. Knuckey and his observer, Sergeant Philip Taylor, both died in the explosion.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: During early 1988, it was decided that armed OH-58D (AHIP) helicopters from the 118th Aviation Task Force would be phased in to replace the SEABAT (AH-6/MH-6) teams of Task Force 160th to carry out Operation Prime Chance, the escort of oil tankers during the Iran–Iraq War. On 24 February 1988, two AHIP helicopters reported to the Mobile Sea Base Wimbrown VII, and the helicopter team ("SEABAT" team after their callsign) stationed on the barge returned to the United States. For the next few months, the AHIP helicopters on the Wimbrown VII shared patrol duties with the SEABAT team on the Hercules. Coordination proved difficult, despite frequent requests from TF-160, the SEABAT team on the Hercules was not replaced by an AHIP detachment until June 1988. The OH-58D helicopter crews involved in the operation received deck landing and underwater survival training from the Navy.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: In November 1988, the number of OH-58D helicopters that supported Task Force 118 was reduced. However, the rotorcraft continued to operate from the Navy's Mobile Sea Base "Hercules", the frigate "Underwood", and the destroyer "Conolly". OH-58D operations primarily entailed reconnaissance flights at night, and depending on maintenance requirements and ship scheduling, Army helicopters usually rotated from the mobile sea base and other combatant ships to a land base every seven to fourteen days. On 18 September 1989, an OH-58D crashed during night gunnery practice and sank, but with no loss of personnel. When the Mobile Sea Base Hercules was deactivated in September 1989, all but five OH-58D helicopters redeployed to the continental United States.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: During Operation Desert Storm, 115 deployed OH-58D helicopters participated in a wide variety of critical combat missions and were vital to the success of the ground forces mission. During Desert Shield and Desert Storm, the Kiowas collectively flew nearly 9,000 hours with a 92 percent fully mission capable rate. The Kiowa Warrior had the lowest ratio of maintenance hours to flight hours of any combat helicopter in the war.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: In 1989, Congress mandated that the Army National Guard would take part in the country's "War on Drugs", enabling them to aid federal, state and local law enforcement agencies with "special congressional entitlements". In response, the Army National Guard Bureau created the Reconnaissance and Aerial Interdiction Detachments (RAID) in 1992, consisting of aviation units in 31 states with 76 specially modified OH-58A helicopters to assume the reconnaissance/interdiction role in the fight against illegal drugs. During 1994, 24 states conducted more than 1,200 aerial counterdrug reconnaissance and interdiction missions, conducting many of these missions at night. Eventually, the program was expanded to cover 32 states and consisting of 116 aircraft, including dedicated training aircraft at the Western Army Aviation Training Site (WAATS) in Marana, Arizona.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The RAID program's mission has now been expanded to include the war against terrorism and supporting U.S. Border Patrol activities in support of homeland defense. The National Guard RAID units' Area of Operation (AO) is the only one in the Department of Defense that is wholly contained within the borders of the United States.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: During Operation Just Cause in 1989, a team consisting of an OH-58 and an AH-1 were part of the Aviation Task Force during the securing of Fort Amador in Panama. The OH-58 was fired upon by Panama Defense Force soldiers and crashed away, in the Bay of Panama. The pilot was rescued, but the co-pilot died.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: On 17 December 1994, Army Chief Warrant Officers (CWO) David Hilemon and Bobby Hall left Camp Page, South Korea on a routine training mission along the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). Their flight was intended to be to a point known as Checkpoint 84, south of the DMZ "no-fly zone", but the OH-58C Kiowa strayed nearly into the Kangwon Province, inside North Korean airspace, due to errors in navigating the snow-covered, rugged terrain. The helicopter was shot down by North Korean troops and CWO Hilemon was killed. CWO Hall was held captive and the North Korean government insisted that the crew had been spying. Five days of negotiations resulted in the North Koreans turning over Hilemon's body to U.S. authorities. The negotiations failed to secure Hall's immediate release. After 13 days in captivity, Hall was freed on 30 December, uninjured.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The U.S. Army employed the OH-58D during Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq and Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan. Between a combination of combat and accidents, over 35 airframes have been lost, resulting in the deaths of 35 pilots. Their presence was also anecdotally credited with saving lives, having been used to rescue wounded despite their small size. In Iraq, OH-58Ds reportedly flew 72 hours per month, while in Afghanistan, the type flew 80 hours per month. During April 2013, Bell stated that the OH-58 collectively accumulated 820,000 combat hours, and had achieved a 90% mission capable rate.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The U.S. Army's first attempt to replace the OH-58 was the RAH-66 Comanche of the Light Helicopter Experimental program, which was canceled in 2004. Airframe age and losses led to the Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter program and the Bell ARH-70, which was canceled in 2008 due to cost overruns. The third replacement effort was the Armed Aerial Scout program. Due to uncertainty in the AAS program and fiscal restraints, the OH-58F's planned retirement was extended from 2025 to 2036. The Kiowa's scout role was supplemented by tactical unmanned aerial vehicles, the two platforms often acting in conjunction to provide reconnaissance to expose crews to less risk. The OH-58F had the ability to control UAVs directly to safely perform scout missions. In 2011, the Kiowa was scheduled to be replaced by the light version of the Future Vertical Lift aircraft in the 2030s.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: In December 2013, the U.S. Army had 338 Kiowas in its active-duty force and 30 in the Army National Guard. The Army considered retiring the Kiowa as part of a wider restructuring to cut costs and reduce the variety of helicopters operated. The Analysis of Alternatives for the AAS program found that operating the Kiowa alongside RQ-7 Shadow UAVs was the most affordable and capable solution, while the AH-64E Apache Guardian was the most capable immediate solution. One proposal was to transfer all Army National Guard and Army Reserve AH-64s to the active Army for use as scouts to divest the OH-58. The Apache costs 50 percent more than the Kiowa to operate and maintain; studies note that had it been used in place of the Kiowa in Iraq and Afghanistan, total operating costs would have risen by $4 billion, but also saved $1 billion per year in operating and sustainment costs. UH-60 Black Hawks would transfer from the active Army to reserve and Guard units. The aim was to retire older helicopters and retain those with the best capabilities to save money. Retiring the Kiowa would fund Apache upgrades.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The Army placed 26 out of 335 OH-58Ds in non-flyable storage during 2014. In anticipation of divestment, the Army looked to see if other military branches, government agencies, and foreign customers had interest in buying the type. The Kiowas were considered to be well priced for foreign countries with limited resources; Bell had not yet agreed to support them if sold overseas. Media expected OH-58s to go to foreign militaries rather than civil operators due to high operating cost. By 2015, the Army had divested 33 OH-58Ds. By January 2016, the Army had divested all but two OH-58D squadrons. In June 2016, members of 1st Squadron, 17th Cavalry Regiment, 82nd Combat Aviation Brigade, arrived in South Korea as part of the Kiowa's last deployment in U.S. Army service. In January 2017, the last Kiowa Warrior performed their last live fire maneuver before retirement.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: Ex-U.S. Army OH-58Ds were made available through Excess Defense Article and foreign military sales (FMS) programs. In November 2014, Croatia sent a letter of intent for the acquisition of 16 OH-58Ds. In 2016, Croatia and Tunisia became the first nations to request the helicopters, ordering 16 and 24, respectively. Croatia received the first batch of 5 OH-58Ds at the Zadar-Zemunik air base on 30 June 2016. In early 2018, Greece was granted 70 OH-58Ds via an FMS arrangement, the type has been initially stationed at Hellenic Army Aviation air base at Stefanovikio.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: In March 2020, the U.S. Army selected the Bell 360 Invictus and Sikorsky Raider X as part of the Future Attack Reconnaissance Aircraft (FARA) program to fill the capability gap left by the retirement of the OH-58. On 9 July 2020, the US Army retired its last OH-58Cs from active service at Fort Polk.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The "OH-58A Kiowa" is a four-place observation helicopter. It has two-place pilot seating, although the controls in the left seat are designed to be removed to carry a passenger up front. During its Vietnam development, it was fitted with the M134 Minigun, a 7.62 mm electrically operated machine gun.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The Australian Army leased eight OH-58As in 1971 in Vietnam for eight months. The Australian Government procured the OH-58A for the Australian Army and Royal Australian Navy as the "CAC CA-32". Licensed produced in Australia by Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation, the CA-32 was the equivalent of the 206B-1 (upgraded engine and longer rotor blades). The first twelve of 56 were built in the U.S. then partially disassembled and shipped to Australia, where they were reassembled. Helicopters in the naval fleet were retired in 2000.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: A total of 74 OH-58As were delivered to the Canadian Armed Forces as "COH-58A" and later redesignated "CH-136 Kiowa". As many as 12 surplus Kiowas were sold to the Dominican Republic Air Force, and others sold privately in Australia.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: In 1978, OH-58As began to be converted to the same engine and dynamic components as the OH-58C. In 1992, 76 OH-58A were modified with another engine upgrade, a thermal imaging system, a communications package for law enforcement, enhanced navigational equipment and high skid gear as part of the Army National Guard's (ARNG) Counter-Drug RAID program. The U.S. Army retired its last OH-58A in November 2017.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: Equipped with a more robust engine, the "OH-58C" was supposed to solve issues regarding the Kiowa's power. In addition to the upgraded engine, it had unique IR suppression systems mounted on its exhaust. Early OH-58Cs had flat-panel windscreens as an attempt to reduce glint from the sun, which could reveal its location to enemies. The windscreens had a negative effect of limiting the crew's forward view, a previous strength of the original design.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The aircraft was also equipped with a larger instrument panel, roughly a third bigger than the OH-58A panel, which held larger flight instruments. The panel was also equipped with Night Vision Goggle (NVG) compatible cockpit lighting. The OH-58C were also the first U.S. Army scout helicopter to be equipped with the AN/APR-39 radar detector, which alerted the crew to active anti-aircraft radar systems nearby. Some OH-58Cs were armed with two AIM-92 Stingers and are sometimes referred to as OH-58C/S, the "S" referring to the Stinger addition. Called Air-To-Air Stinger (ATAS), the weapon system was intended to provide an air defense capability.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The OH-58C was the final variant of the Kiowa in active service with the US Army, its final use with the service being as a training aircraft. On 9 July 2020, the US Army retired the last OH-58Cs from service.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The "OH-58D" (Bell Model 406) was the result of the Army Helicopter Improvement Program (AHIP). An upgraded transmission and engine gave extra power, needed for nap-of-the-earth flight profiles, and a four-bladed main rotor made it quieter than the two-bladed OH-58C. The OH-58D introduced the distinctive Mast-Mounted Sight (MMS) above the main rotor, and a mixed glass cockpit with traditional instruments as "standby" for emergencies.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The "Bell 406CS" "Combat Scout" was based on the OH-58D (sometimes referred to as the "MH-58D"). Fifteen aircraft were sold to Saudi Arabia. A roof-mounted Saab HeliTOW sight system was opted for in place of the MMS. The 406CS also had detachable weapon hardpoints on each side.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The "AH-58D" was an OH-58D version operated by Task Force 118 (4th Squadron, 17th Cavalry) and modified with armament in support of Operation Prime Chance. The weapons and fire control systems would become the basis for the Kiowa Warrior. AH-58D is not an official DOD aircraft designation, but is used by the Army in reference to these aircraft.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The "Kiowa Warrior", sometimes referred to by its acronym "KW", is the armed version of the OH-58D. A key difference between the Kiowa Warrior and original AHIP aircraft is a universal weapons pylon found mounted on both sides of the fuselage, capable of carrying combinations of AGM-114 Hellfire missiles, air-to-air Stinger (ATAS) missiles, 7-shot Hydra-70 rocket pods, and an M296 0.50 in (12.7 mm) caliber machine gun. The performance standard of aerial gunnery from an OH-58D is to achieve at least one hit out of 70 shots fired at a wheeled vehicle away. The Kiowa Warrior also includes improvements in available power, navigation, communication, survivability, and deployability.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The "OH-58F" is an OH-58D upgrade. The Cockpit and Sensor Upgrade Program (CASUP) adds a nose-mounted targeting and surveillance system alongside the MMS. The AAS-53 Common Sensor Payload has an infrared camera, color Electro-Optical camera, and image intensifier; via weight and drag reductions, flight performance increased by 1–2%. Cockpit upgrades include the Control and Display Subsystem version 5, with more storage and processing power, three color multi-function displays, and dual-independent advanced moving maps. It has Level 2 Manned-Unmanned (L2MUM) teaming, the Force Battle Command Brigade and Below (FBCB2) display screen, and can be updated to Blue Force Tracker 2. Survivability enhancements include ballistic floor armor and the Common Missile Warning System. It has greater situational awareness, digital inter-cockpit communications, HELLFIRE future upgrades, redesigned wiring harness, Health and Usage Monitoring (HUMS), and enhanced weapons functionality via 1760 digital interface. The OH-58F is powered by a Rolls-Royce 250-C30R3 engine rated at ; it has a dual-channel, full-authority digital engine-controller that operates at required power levels in all environments. Rolls-Royce proposed engine tweaks to raise output by 12%.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: In October 2012, the first OH-58F was finished. Unlike most military projects, the Army designed and built the new variant itself, which lowered development costs. It weighed , below the target weight and about lighter than the OH-58D. The weight savings are attributed to more efficient wiring and a lighter sensor. The first production aircraft started being built in January 2013 and was handed over to the Army by year end. Low rate production was to start in March 2015, with the first operational squadron being fully equipped by 2016. The Army was to buy 368 OH-58Fs, with older OH-58 variants to be remanufactured. Due to battle damage and combat attrition, total OH-58F numbers would be about 321 aircraft. The OH-58F's first flight occurred on 26 April 2013.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The Army chose to retire the Kiowa and end the CASUP upgrades. CASUP and SLEP upgrades was costed at $3 billion and $7 billion respectively. The OH-58D could do 20 percent of armed aerial scout mission requirements, the OH-58F upgrade raised that to 50 percent. Replacing the Kiowa with Apaches and UAVs in scout roles met 80 percent of requirements. In early 2014, Bell received a stop-work order for the Kiowa CASUP program.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: On 14 April 2011, Bell performed the successful first flight of the OH-58F Block II variant. It was Bell's entry in the Armed Aerial Scout (AAS) program. It built on the improvements of the F-model, adding features such as the Honeywell HTS900 turboshaft engine, the transmission and main rotors of the Bell 407, and the tail and tail rotor of the Bell 427. Bell started flight demonstrations in October 2012. Bell hoped for the Army to go with their service life extension models instead of the AAS program. The OH-58F is an "obsolescence upgrade", while the Block II was seen as the performance upgrade. This gave the Army financial flexibility via the option of upgrading the Kiowa to the OH-58F and later continuing to the Block II when there were sufficient funds. In late 2012, the Army recommended that the AAS program proceed. The Army ended the AAS program in late 2013. In light of sequestration budget cuts in 2013, it was decided that the $16 billion cost to buy new armed scout helicopters was too great.


title: Bell OH-58 Kiowa

text: The OH-58X was a modification of the fourth development OH-58D (s/n 69-16322) with partial stealth features and a chin-mounted McDonnell-Douglas Electronics Systems turret as a night piloting system; including a Kodak FLIR system with a 30-degree field of view. Avionics systems were consolidated and moved to the nose, making room for a passenger seat in the rear. No aircraft were produced.


title: Flux

text: Flux describes any effect that appears to pass or travel (whether it actually moves or not) through a surface or substance. Flux is a concept in applied mathematics and vector calculus which has many applications to physics. For transport phenomena, flux is a vector quantity, describing the magnitude and direction of the flow of a substance or property. In vector calculus flux is a scalar quantity, defined as the surface integral of the perpendicular component of a vector field over a surface.


title: Flux

text: The word "flux" comes from Latin: "fluxus" means "flow", and "fluere" is "to flow". As "fluxion", this term was introduced into differential calculus by Isaac Newton.


title: Flux

text: The concept of heat flux was a key contribution of Joseph Fourier, in the analysis of heat transfer phenomena. His seminal treatise "Théorie analytique de la chaleur" ("The Analytical Theory of Heat"), defines "fluxion" as a central quantity and proceeds to derive the now well-known expressions of flux in terms of temperature differences across a slab, and then more generally in terms of temperature gradients or differentials of temperature, across other geometries. One could argue, based on the work of James Clerk Maxwell, that the transport definition precedes the definition of flux used in electromagnetism. The specific quote from Maxwell is:


title: Flux

text: According to the transport definition, flux may be a single vector, or it may be a vector field / function of position. In the latter case flux can readily be integrated over a surface. By contrast, according to the electromagnetism definition, flux "is" the integral over a surface; it makes no sense to integrate a second-definition flux for one would be integrating over a surface twice. Thus, Maxwell's quote only makes sense if "flux" is being used according to the transport definition (and furthermore is a vector field rather than single vector). This is ironic because Maxwell was one of the major developers of what we now call "electric flux" and "magnetic flux" according to the electromagnetism definition. Their names in accordance with the quote (and transport definition) would be "surface integral of electric flux" and "surface integral of magnetic flux", in which case "electric flux" would instead be defined as "electric field" and "magnetic flux" defined as "magnetic field". This implies that Maxwell conceived of these fields as flows/fluxes of some sort.


title: Flux

text: Given a flux according to the electromagnetism definition, the corresponding flux density, if that term is used, refers to its derivative along the surface that was integrated. By the Fundamental theorem of calculus, the corresponding flux density is a flux according to the transport definition. Given a current such as electric current—charge per time, current density would also be a flux according to the transport definition—charge per time per area. Due to the conflicting definitions of "flux", and the interchangeability of "flux", "flow", and "current" in nontechnical English, all of the terms used in this paragraph are sometimes used interchangeably and ambiguously. Concrete fluxes in the rest of this article will be used in accordance to their broad acceptance in the literature, regardless of which definition of flux the term corresponds to.


title: Flux

text: In transport phenomena (heat transfer, mass transfer and fluid dynamics), flux is defined as the "rate of flow of a property per unit area," which has the dimensions [quantity]·[time]·[area]. The area is of the surface the property is flowing "through" or "across". For example, the amount of water that flows through a cross section of a river each second divided by the area of that cross section, or the amount of sunlight energy that lands on a patch of ground each second divided by the area of the patch, are kinds of flux.


title: Flux

text: Here are 3 definitions in increasing order of complexity. Each is a special case of the following. In all cases the frequent symbol "j", (or "J") is used for flux, "q" for the physical quantity that flows, "t" for time, and "A" for area. These identifiers will be written in bold when and only when they are vectors.


title: Flux

text: In this case the surface in which flux is being measured is fixed, and has area "A". The surface is assumed to be flat, and the flow is assumed to be everywhere constant with respect to position, and perpendicular to the surface.


title: Flux

text: As before, the surface is assumed to be flat, and the flow is assumed to be everywhere perpendicular to it. However the flow need not be constant. "q" is now a function of p, a point on the surface, and "A", an area. Rather than measure the total flow through the surface, q measures the flow through the disk with area "A" centered at "p" along the surface.


title: Flux

text: In this case, there is no fixed surface we are measuring over. "q" is a function of a point, an area, and a direction (given by a unit vector, formula_7), and measures the flow through the disk of area A perpendicular to that unit vector. "I" is defined picking the unit vector that maximizes the flow around the point, because the true flow is maximized across the disk that is perpendicular to it. The unit vector thus uniquely maximizes the function when it points in the "true direction" of the flow. [Strictly speaking, this is an abuse of notation because the "arg max" cannot directly compare vectors; we take the vector with the biggest norm instead.]


title: Flux

text: These direct definitions, especially the last, are rather unwieldy. For example, the argmax construction is artificial from the perspective of empirical measurements, when with a Weathervane or similar one can easily deduce the direction of flux at a point. Rather than defining the vector flux directly, it is often more intuitive to state some properties about it. Furthermore, from these properties the flux can uniquely be determined anyway.


title: Flux

text: where · is the dot product of the unit vectors. That is, the component of flux passing through the surface (i.e. normal to it) is "j" cos "θ", while the component of flux passing tangential to the area is "j" sin "θ", but there is "no" flux actually passing "through" the area in the tangential direction. The "only" component of flux passing normal to the area is the cosine component.


title: Flux

text: For vector flux, the surface integral of j over a surface "S", gives the proper flowing per unit of time through the surface.