title: Military service

text: Voluntary service in the Boer War (1899-1902) was initially from a number of the separate colonies before federation in 1901 and later volunteers were deployed as an Australian force. Two conscription referendums were defeated during World War I. Military service during WW1 was voluntary (First Australian Imperial Force) as was service in WW2 (Second Australian Imperial Force). Volunteer militia units (part-time civilian soldiers) were to be used only within the Commonwealth of Australia (such as in the Great Emu War in 1932) but in 1942 some militia units were deployed to Papua New Guinea, as it was considered part of Australia at that time, to fight the advancing and later withdrawing Japanese invasion army. Various levels of conscription (National Service) were in force during the 1950s but only for service in Australia during times of conflicts but the (Vietnam War) saw NS deployed to war with over 500 killed in action and thousands wounded in action with about half of the casualties being NS. The Vietnam War was lost on 1 May 1975 over three years after the Australian Defence Force withdrew in late 1971. All forms of conscription were abolished by the Whitlam Government in later 1972. Conscription can be reactivated at any time on the context of war breaking out, whence a mere declaration by the Governor General is required, thence final approval 90 days later as a retrospective action by parliament. The defense act of 1903 clearly states this.


title: Military service

text: Barbados has no conscription. The country has set the minimum age for voluntary recruitment into the Barbados Defence Force at 18. Younger recruits may be conscripted with parental consent.


title: Military service

text: Belgium suspended conscription on 31 December 1992 by amending the 1962 Law on Conscription, which became applicable only to conscripts drafted in 1993 and earlier. In practice this meant that the law no longer applied to those born in 1975 and later. Since 1 March 1995 the Belgian armed forces consist of professional volunteers only.


title: Military service

text: Belize has set minimum age for voluntary recruitment into the Armed Forces at 18. (According to the Section 16 of the Defense Act of the Defence Ordinance of 1977.) Conscription has never been prescribed in the Defense Act, but is at the Governor General's discretion.


title: Military service

text: Bulgaria abolished compulsory military service. The last conscripts were sent home on 25 November 2007.


title: Military service

text: Previously there was mandatory military service for male citizens from 18 to 27 years of age. Duration of the service depended on the degree of education. For citizens studying for or holding a bachelor's degree or higher the service was six months, and for citizens with no higher education it was nine months.


title: Military service

text: The duration of service was two years in 1992, and was dropping steadily, until it was finally abolished.


title: Military service

text: In Canada, conscription has never taken place in peacetime. Conscription became a very controversial issue during both World War I and World War II, especially in the province of Quebec.


title: Military service

text: All Chilean men between 17 and 24 years are eligible for military service. Since 1992, military service is voluntary and then mandatory if quotas necessary for the armed forces are not completed. The General Directorate of National Mobilization (In Spanish: Dirección General de Movilización Nacional, or DGMN) is responsible for the recruitment of volunteers and conscripts.


title: Military service

text: At present, military conscription only exists in theory and has done so since the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. Universal military conscription has never been enforced.


title: Military service

text: Every Chinese citizen, who attend further education are required to train by military instructor for a fixed amount of time (around 2 weeks).


title: Military service

text: Conscription is enshrined in Article 55 of the Constitution, which states: "It is a sacred duty of every citizen of the People's Republic of China to defend his or her motherland and resist invasion. It is an honored Obligation of the citizens of the People's Republic of China to perform military service and to join the militia forces".


title: Military service

text: As of 1998, the legal basis of conscription was stated to be the 1984 Military Service Law, which describes military service as a duty for "all citizens without distinction of race (...) and religious creed". This law has not been amended since it came into effect. Military service is normally performed in the regular armed forces but the 1984 law does allow for conscription into the reserve forces in times of national emergency.


title: Military service

text: Citizens of the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau, as of 1997 and 1999, respectively, are not permitted to join the Chinese military; however, the defence of these two regions are protected by the Chinese military.


title: Military service

text: On 3 October 2007, the government proposed to the parliament of the Republic of Croatia a decision to suspend all compulsory military service. This was supported by President Stjepan Mesić, and after a vote in the parliament on 5 October 2007, the decision became official. As of 1 January 2008, obligatory military (or civil) service is replaced with voluntary military service. Earlier partial and temporary 3 years long suspension of obligatory military service was introduced in 1997 in the aftermath of the United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium when members of Serbs of Croatia community from the region were exempt from conscription, although they were permitted to volunteer.


title: Military service

text: Ecuador's Constitutional Tribunal ruled in June 2007 that compulsory military service was unconstitutional. Military service has been voluntary since 2009.


title: Military service

text: From 2003, unit-based training for conscripts was introduced and conscripts began to be called into service in 2 parts: pre-service and main occupation.


title: Military service

text: The length of military service is often determined by the manner in which the professional is recruited. Those who entered the service in January and July by pre-conscription generally earn 11 months, those who arrived in October 8 months. The final length of service shall be determined by the post to which the soldier is assigned. A member of the Defense Forces shall be appointed to the position after completing a basic course for a soldier or sailor. The recruitment recruits professionals whose posts require 11 months of military service (drivers, specialists, non-commissioned officers and reserve commanders).


title: Military service

text: Modern conscription was invented during the French Revolution, when the Republic wanted a stronger defense and to expand its radical ideas throughout Europe. The 1798 Jourdan Act stated: "Any Frenchman is a soldier and owes himself to the defense of the nation". Thus Napoleon Bonaparte could create afterward the "Grande Armée" with which he set out on the first large intra-European war.


title: Military service

text: France suspended peacetime military conscription in 1996, while those born before 1979 had to complete their service; since the Algerian War (1954–62), conscripts had not been deployed abroad or in war zones, except those volunteering for such deployments.


title: Military service

text: In 2018, the French Parliament adopted a government plan, reinstating compulsory military service for both genders starting 2024.


title: Military service

text: On 15 November 2010, the German government voted in favour of suspending universal conscription with the aim of establishing a professional army by 1 July 2011. The last conscripts were drafted on 1 January 2011.


title: Military service

text: Hungary abolished mandatory military service by November 2004, after the parliament had modified the constitution, ending a long-standing political dispute. To restore drafting, a two-thirds vote in parliament is needed, which is unlikely in the short term. , the country is developing a professional army, with strong emphasis on "contract soldiers" who voluntarily serve 4+4 years for a wage.


title: Military service

text: In December 2011, the National Assembly re-established the possibility of mandatory military service for every male citizen - with Hungarian address - between the age of 18 and the age of 40. Even though drafting is still banned in peacetime, the listing of citizens fit for military service starts in January 2012. According to the legislation, the conscripts can only be drafted in "state of emergency" or as defensive measure, the National Assembly can authorise drafting.


title: Military service

text: India has never had mandatory military service, either under British rule or since independence in 1947. In WWII the Indian Army became the largest all-volunteer force in history, rising to over 2.5 million men in size. It has since maintained the world's second largest army after China and the world's largest all-volunteer army.


title: Military service

text: Saddam Hussein's large Iraqi army was largely composed of conscripts, except for the elite Republican Guard. About 20,000-35,000 conscripts died during the First Persian Gulf War, also known as Operation Desert Storm. In the intervening years, Iraq's military suffered from decay and poor leadership, but there was still compulsory service. Note: One of voluntary program was "Ashbal Saddam" known as "Saddam's Cubs" where children were trained to defend Iraq through "toughening" exercises such as firearms training and dismembering live chickens with their teeth. Following the Iraq War where the original military was disbanded, the Iraqi Army was recreated as a volunteer force with training overseen at first by the Coalition Provisional Authority and later by the American presence.


title: Military service

text: The whole island of Ireland was exempted from UK First World War conscription in 1916, but in April 1918 new legislation empowered the UK government to extend it to Ireland. Although the government never implemented this legislation, it led to a Conscription Crisis in Ireland and politically pushed the country further to seek its independence from the UK. Since independence in 1922, the Irish Defence Forces have always been fully voluntary, and the state's foreign policy includes "military neutrality".


title: Military service

text: Italy had mandatory military service, for men only, until 31 December 2004. The right to conscientious objection was legally recognized in 1972 so that a "non-armed military service", or a community service, could be authorised as an alternative to those who required it.


title: Military service

text: The Italian Parliament approved the suspension of the mandatory military service in August 2004, with effect starting from 1 January 2005, and the Italian armed forces will now be entirely composed of professional volunteer troops, both male and female, except in case of war or serious international military crisis, when conscription can be implemented.


title: Military service

text: In Jamaica the military service is voluntary from 18 years of age up. Younger recruits may be conscripted with parental consent.


title: Military service

text: Conscription was enforced during the Japanese Militarism in Second World War. Japan's Self Defense Forces have been a volunteer force since their establishment in the 1950s, following the end of the Allied occupation.


title: Military service

text: Lebanon previously had mandatory military service of one year for men. On 4 May 2005, a new conscription system was adopted, making for a six-month service, and pledging to end conscription within two years. By 10 February 2007 it did.


title: Military service

text: Luxembourg has a military ground force (army) composed of career officers and volunteers. Compulsory military service (conscription) existed between 1944 and 1967.


title: Military service

text: Mauritius does not have a standing army but operates a paramilitary service manned by volunteering police officers known as the Special Mobile Force.


title: Military service

text: President of Montenegro Filip Vujanović has, as of 30 August 2006, abolished conscription for the military.


title: Military service

text: The Netherlands established conscription for a territorial militia in 1814, simultaneously establishing a standing army which was to be manned by volunteers only. However, lack of sufficient volunteers caused the two components to be merged in 1819 into a "cadre-militia" army, in which the bulk of troops were conscripts, led by professional officers and NCOs. This system remained in use until the end of the Cold War. Between 1991 and 1996, the Dutch armed forces phased out their conscript personnel and converted to an all-volunteer force. The last conscript troops were inducted in 1995 and demobilized in 1996. Formally, the Netherlands has not abolished conscription; that is to say, the laws and systems which provide for the conscription of armed forces personnel remain in place, and Dutch citizens can still, theoretically, be mobilized in the event of a national emergency. From 2017, the obligation has been extended to women as well as men.


title: Military service

text: Conscription of men into the armed forces of New Zealand came into effect in two periods, from 1912 to 1930 and from 1940 until it was abolished in 1972.


title: Military service

text: Like India, Pakistan has always maintained a purely volunteer military. However, in the immediate aftermath of independence, and the 1948 war; at a time when the army was just reorganising from a colonial force to a new national army; militias raised for service from, the Frontier, Punjab and Kashmir were often raised from locals tribe; each tribe was given a quota and many of the individuals sent did not "volunteer" in the strictest sense (though many did).


title: Military service

text: Conscription in the Philippines has been implemented at several points in the country's history. , no mandatory conscription is in effect in the Philippines and military service is entirely voluntary. It was introduced prior to World War II during the Philippine Commonwealth in 1935 with a term of enlistment of 5 and a half months. However, mandatory military service remains a possibility in the Philippines as Section 4, Article II of the Constitution of the Philippines states:


title: Military service

text: Poland suspended compulsory military service on 5 December 2008 by the order of the Minister of Defence. Compulsory military service was formally abolished when the Polish parliament amended the conscription law on 9 January 2009; the law came into effect on 11 February 2009.


title: Military service

text: Portugal abolished compulsory military service on 19 November 2004. Before that, military service was mandatory for all men. From 2004, all 18-year-old Portuguese citizens are, however, required to participate in a national defence day (""Dia da Defesa Nacional""). This applied solely to Portuguese men until 2010 at which point the duty was extended to women as well. Said citizens may request to have their duties waived under one of three main exemptions:


title: Military service

text: Such requests are not automatic, and must be made to the Director-General of Resources of National Defence (""Diretor-Geral de Recursos da Defesa Nacional"") at whose discretion a waiver may be granted.


title: Military service

text: Romania suspended compulsory military service on 23 October 2006. This came about due to a 2003 constitutional amendment which allowed the parliament to make military service optional. The Romanian Parliament voted to abolish conscription in October 2005, with the vote formalising one of many military modernisation and reform programmes that Romania agreed to when it joined NATO.


title: Military service

text: Serbia abolished compulsory military service on 1 January 2011. Before that, Serbia had compulsory national service for all men aged between 19 and 35. In practice, men over 27 were seldom called up. Service was usually performed after university studies had been completed. The length of service was 12 months, then reduced to 9 months but was reduced to 6 months in 2006. There was also an alternative for conscientious objectors which lasted 9 months. Serbian nationals living outside of the country were still expected to complete national service; however, they could defer it if it would have seriously affected their career in the country where they then resided. This could be done by contacting the embassy in the country of residence (if under 27), or done by contacting the army directly (if over 27).


title: Military service

text: Slovenia's Government of Prime Minister Anton Rop abolished mandatory military service on 9 September 2003.


title: Military service

text: South Africa under the apartheid system had two years of compulsory military service for white men, followed by camps at intervals. This was abolished in 1994. See End Conscription Campaign.


title: Military service

text: Spain abolished compulsory military service in 2001. Military and alternative service was nine months long and in recent years the majority of conscripts chose to perform alternative, rather than military, service. One of the main reasons for its abolition was the "insubordinate movement".


title: Military service

text: Sri Lanka has never had mandatory military service, either under British rule or since independence in 1948. It maintains an all-volunteer military.


title: Military service

text: Military Service was mandatory in Sweden from 1901 until 1 July 2010, when conscription was officially suspended. Until 2010, all Swedish men aged between 18 and 47 years old were eligible to serve with the armed forces over a period ranging from 80 to 450 days. The right to Conscientious Objection was legally recognised in 1920. An alternative community service for Conscientious Objectors was easily available instead of military service. The number of those seeking conscientious objector status declined as actual conscript recruitment continued to decline. In the years running up to 2010 roughly 6000 - 8000 people out of an annual cohort of 100,000 - 120,000 potential recruits actually completed military service. In 2010 Sweden abolished male-only conscription and replaced it with a gender neutral conscription system which was taken into force in 2018.


title: Military service

text: The United Kingdom historically was the only European state with a volunteer army, and remained so through the first half of World War I. As the war dragged on into deadlocked trench warfare, the number of volunteers dried up, which led the government to introduce conscription under the Military Service Act. The Act exempted the whole of Ireland from conscription, and although an amending Act in 1918 empowered the government to extend conscription to Ireland, the extension was never implemented. Conscientious objectors were formally recognised under the Military Service Act, with the possibilities of absolute exemption from military service, exemption conditional upon performing civilian "work of national importance", or non-combatant service within the Army; some of those who refused the latter alternatives, or engaged in anti-war protests, went to jail. Conscription was ended in 1920.


title: Military service

text: Military conscription was reintroduced in Britain (Northern Ireland being exempted) in May 1939 in anticipation of World War II. A form of "industrial conscription" was also used to increase output in coal mining (see the "Bevin Boys") and other dimensions of the war effort. Later in the war both forms of conscription were extended in a limited way to women, such as the Women's Land Army to help with agricultural production. Conscientious objectors were treated more leniently than in WWI, but could still go to prison if they refused war-related work. For example, the scientist Kathleen Lonsdale was sentenced to a month in Holloway prison in 1943 for refusing to register for war duties and refusing to pay a resulting fine of two pounds.


title: Military service

text: Conscription of men into the Armed Forces continued "ad hoc" from 1945 until the National Service Act 1948 established a system from 1 January 1949 of calling up men in Britain reaching the age of 18 for eighteen months full-time service followed by four years reserve service. In 1950, as a result of the Korean War, full-time service was increased to two years, and reserve service reduced to three and a half years. In 1957, phasing-out of the system was announced, the last men being called up in 1960, and the last conscript being discharged in May 1963, after allowance for deferment of service.


title: Military service

text: The United States first introduced conscription during the American Civil War. With insufficient volunteers coming in by 1863, the Lincoln Administration was forced to begin drafting despite widespread complaints that it was unconstitutional and undermined states' rights (some states had conscripted men up to this point, but not the federal government). In July 1863, New York City erupted in the draft riots over the draft. However, anyone could get out by paying a $300 fee or hiring a substitute. Many conscripts and substitutes were criminals or men with debilitating health problems, and thus largely useless. The Confederate government had begun drafting men in early 1862.


title: Military service

text: Conscription was next used after the United States entered World War I in 1917. The first peacetime conscription came with the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940. When World War II ended, so did the draft. It was quickly reinstated with the Korean War and retained for the next 20 years, especially in the Vietnam War. Active conscription ("the draft") ended in 1973.


title: Military service

text: In 1979, President Jimmy Carter, a Democrat, brought back draft registration. All males up to the age of 26 are required to register with the Selective Service System, whose mission is "to provide manpower to the armed forces in an emergency" including a "Health Care Personnel Delivery System" and "to run an Alternative Service Program for men classified as conscientious objectors during a draft." No one has been prosecuted for violating the conscription law in the USA since 1986, but registration is required for certain benefits such as federal college aid, or in certain states, state college aid, or even driver's license. Women do not currently register for Selective Service in the United States; however they may still enlist for voluntary service. United States federal law also provides for the compulsory conscription of men between the ages of 17 and 45 and certain women for militia service pursuant to Article I, Section 8 of the United States Constitution and 10 U.S. Code § 246, however the federal governments utility of such militia conscripts is limited by the Constitution to repelling invasions and other service within the territory of the United States.


title: Military service

text: Austria has mandatory military service for all able bodied male citizens up to 35 years of age. Since 2006, the period of service has been six months. Conscientious objectors can join the civilian service (called Zivildienst) for nine months. A 10-month participation in the Austrian Holocaust Memorial Service, the Austrian Social Service, or the Austrian Peace Service is regarded as an equivalent to the civilian service.


title: Military service

text: Since 1 January 1998, females can join the military service voluntarily. The Austrian conscription referendum, 2013 resulted in the rejection of a proposal that would have ended conscription. Although the referendum was non-binding, both parties in government pledged to honour the results.


title: Military service

text: Azerbaijan has mandatory military service for all fit men, who are at least at the age of 18. Military service lasts for eighteen months for those without higher education, and for twelve months for those with higher education.


title: Military service

text: Belarus has mandatory military service for all fit men from eighteen to twenty-seven years of age. Military service lasts for eighteen months for those without higher education, and for twelve months for those with higher education.


title: Military service

text: Bermuda, although an overseas territory of the United Kingdom, still maintains conscription for its local force. Males between the ages of eighteen and thirty-two are drawn by lottery to serve in the Royal Bermuda Regiment for a period of thirty-eight months. The commitment is only on a part-time basis, however. Anyone who objects to this has the right to have his case heard by an exemption tribunal. The rights that applied for conscientious objection during National Service in the United Kingdom apply in Bermuda. the local government has committed to ending conscription, although it is likely to be phased out gradually in order to prevent the manpower of the battalion (which had already seen its numbers fall below strength, from four to three companies, as a delayed result of birth rates decreasing following the Baby boom generation) plummeting. Currently, three-quarters of the strength of the Bermuda Regiment is made up of conscripts, although many soldiers, whether they initially volunteered or were conscripted, elect to re-engage annually after their initial three years and two months term of service has been completed, with some serving for decades.


title: Military service

text: Males in Brazil are required to serve 12 months of military service upon their 18th birthday. While "de jure" all males are required to serve, numerous exceptions mean military service is "de facto" limited mostly to volunteers, with an average of between 5 and 10% of those reporting for duty actually being inducted. Most often, the service is performed in military bases as close as possible to the person's home. The government does not usually require those planning to attend college or holding a permanent job to serve. There are also several other exceptions, including health reasons, for which one may not have to serve. Recruits accepted at a university may also choose to train under a program similar to the American ROTC, and satisfy their military requirement this way. Direct entrance to one of the military academies will also substitute for this requirement.


title: Military service

text: De jure the Burmese junta requires able-bodied persons aged 18 and over to register with local authorities. In 2011, civil servants, students, those serving prison terms, and those caring for an elderly parent were excluded from the draft, but they could be later called to serve. Totally exempt are members of religious orders, disabled persons, and married or divorced women with children. Those who fail to report for military service could be imprisoned for three years, and face fines. Those who deliberately inflict injury upon themselves to avoid conscription could be imprisoned for up to five years, as well as fined.


title: Military service

text: However, the conscription has never been activated under the military junta which ruled the country from 1988 to 2010. Myanmar's constitution states that male citizens over 18 could be called to serve in military, but it has not been activated either. As of 2013, Myanmar citizens are not required to serve in military.


title: Military service

text: Cyprus has compulsory military service for all Greek Cypriot men between the ages of seventeen and fifty. Additionally, from 2008 onwards, all men belonging to the religious groups of Armenians, Latins and Maronites, are no longer exempt, and also serve military service. Before 2016 military service lasted for twenty-four months. After that, former-soldiers are considered reservists and participate in military exercises and training for a few days every year. Conscientious objectors can either do thirty-three months' unarmed service in the army or thirty-eight months' community work In 2016, however, the Cypriot parliament had voted to reduce its mandatory service to 14 months and make up for lost manpower by hiring professional soldiers.


title: Military service

text: As described in the Constitution of Denmark, § 81, Denmark has mandatory service for all able men. Normal service is four months, and is normally served by men in the age of eighteen to twenty-seven. Some special services will take longer. Danish men will typically receive a letter around the time of their 18th birthday, asking when their current education (if any) ends, and some time later, depending on when, they will receive a notice on when to attend to the draft office to be tested physically and psychologically. However, some may be deemed unfit for service and not be required to show up.


title: Military service

text: Even if a person is deemed fit, or partially fit for service, he may avoid having to serve if he draws a high enough number randomly. Persons who are deemed partly fit for service will however be placed lower than those who are deemed fit for service, and therefore have a very low chance of being drafted. Men deemed fit can be called upon for service until their 50th birthday in case of national crisis, regardless of whether normal conscription has been served. This right is very rarely exercised by Danish authorities.


title: Military service

text: Conscientious objectors can choose to instead serve six months in a non-military position, for example in Beredskabsstyrelsen (dealing with non-military disasters like fires, flood, pollution, etc.) or foreign aid work in a third world country.


title: Military service

text: Egypt has a mandatory military service program for males between the ages of eighteen and thirty. Conscription is regularly postponed for students until the end of their studies, as long as they apply before they turn twenty-eight years of age. By the age of thirty, a male is considered unfit to join the army and pays a fine. Males with no brothers, or those supporting parents are exempted from the service. Former President Sadat added that any Egyptian who has dual nationality is exempted from military service and this is still in effect. Males serve for a period ranging from fourteen months to thirty-six months, depending on their education; high school drop-outs serve for thirty-six months. College graduates serve for lesser periods of time, depending on their education; college graduates with special skills are still conscripted yet at a different rank and at a different pay scale with the option of remaining with the service as a career. Some Egyptians evade conscription and travel overseas until they reach the age of thirty, at which point they are tried, pay a $580 fine (as of 2004), and are dishonorably discharged. Such an offense, legally considered an offense of "bad moral character", prevents the "unpatriotic" citizen from ever holding public office.


title: Military service

text: Finland has mandatory military service for men of a minimum duration of five and half months (165 days); depending on the assigned position: those trained as officers or NCOs serve for eleven and half months (347 days), specialist troops serve for eight and half (255 days) or eleven and half months, while rank and file serve for the minimum period. Unarmed service is also possible, and lasts eight and half months (270 days) or eleven and half (347 days). All males are required to participate in the drafting event () in their municipality of domicile in the year that they turn 18. The fitness for service and the actual induction to the service then takes place at the time and place decided individually for each conscript during the drafting event. The induction takes place usually at the age of 19 but the allowed age range is 18–29. The delayed induction is permissible for serious personal reasons, such as studies, but induction cannot be delayed beyond 29. The military strives to accommodate the wishes of the future conscript when determining the time of induction and the duty location, but these are ultimately determined by the needs of service.


title: Military service

text: Since 1995, women have been able to volunteer for military service. During the first 45 days, women have an option to quit at will. Having served for 45 days, they fall under the same obligation to serve as men except for medical reasons. A pregnancy during service would interrupt the service but not automatically cause a medical discharge.


title: Military service

text: Belonging in a sexual minority does not result in an exemption. Transgender individuals usually get their service postponed until they have undergone sex reassignment surgery.


title: Military service

text: Non-military service of twelve months is available for men whose conscience prevents them from serving in the military. Men who refuse to serve at all are sent to prison for six months or half the time of their remaining non-military service at the time of refusal. In theory, male citizens from the demilitarized Åland region are to serve in customs offices or lighthouses, but since this service has not been arranged, they are always exempted in practice. Jehovah's Witnesses' service is deferred for three years, if they present a written testimony, not older than two months, from the congregation of their status as baptized and active members of the congregation. Jehovah's Witnesses will be exempted from peacetime duty at the beginning of the age 29. Military service has been mandatory for men throughout the history of independent Finland since 1917. Soldiers and civilian servicemen receive a daily allowance of €5 (days 1 – 165), €8.35 (days 165 – 255), or €11.70 (onward from day 255).


title: Military service

text: Approximately 20% are trained as NCOs (corporals, sergeants), and 10% are trained as officers-in-reserve (second lieutenant). In wartime, it is expected that the officers-in-reserve fulfill most platoon leader and company commander positions. At the beginning of the service, all men go through same basic training of eight weeks. After this eight-week period it is decided who will be trained as NCOs or officers.


title: Military service

text: Having completed the initial part of the service as a conscript, the soldier is placed in the reserve. Reservists may be called for mandatory refresher exercises. Rank and file serve a maximum of 40 days, specialists 75 days and officers and NCOs 100 days. Per refresher course day, the reservists receive a taxable salary of about fifty euros. The salary depends slightly on the military rank: officers receive €56, NCOs €53 and rank-and file €51 per day. The service is mandatory; it is not possible to refuse an order to attend the refresher exercise, only to apply for a postponement of the service if personal or employer's urgent and non-avoidable needs require this. The postponement is not always granted. If the reservist experiences a crisis of conscience that prevents him or her from further execution of military service, the reservist can apply for civilian service. The civilian service for reservists takes a form of a five-day course at Lapinjärvi Civilian Service Institution. After the course, the reservist is permanently freed of military service during peace and war.


title: Military service

text: There are no general exemptions for the conscription. The law requires employers, landlords etc. to continue any pre-existing contracts after the service. For medical reasons, exemption or postponing is given by the military authority after an examination by a military or military-appointed doctor. If the disability is expected to be cured, the exemption is temporary, and the service is postponed. If the disability continues until the male turns 25, he is exempted. The basic doctrine is that the great majority of each age cohort serve, and the size of the active army can be adjusted by changing the maximum age of reservists to be called up, instead of using selective service.


title: Military service

text: The option to military service is civilian service (available to females after completing 45 days of military service), where an individual subject to conscript finds a job at some public institution, where they serve for 11 and half months, the same as the longest rank-and-file service (drivers). Before 2008, the law required 13 months, which was criticized for being punitive internationally by the Human Rights Committee of the United Nations, The European Committee of Social Rights, The Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe and Amnesty International.


title: Military service

text: The national security policy of Finland is based on a credible independent defence of all Finnish territory. The maximum number of military personnel abroad is limited to 2,000 (out of the 900,000 available reserve). Contributions to the UN troops comprise only professional soldiers and trained, paid reservists who have specifically applied to such operations. Therefore, no "expeditionary wars" argument can be made against conscription.


title: Military service

text: Draft dodging is nearly non-existent, as failure to show up to a drafting event immediately leads to an arrest warrant, and the delinquent is brought by the police to either to the drafting event (if still in progress) or to the regional military office for a physical examination and subsequent determination of induction time. Disobeying the induction order also causes the arrest warrant to be issued and is prosecuted as absence without leave, or after five days of absence, as desertion. Proof of military or civil service is generally required to obtain a 5-year passport (some exceptions can apply). Without proof, the passport is valid, at the longest, until the applicant's 28th birthday.


title: Military service

text: Military rank, either as NCO or reserve officer, is highly valued as a merit in Finland by employers when recruiting a male employee. In general, serving as an NCO or, especially, as a reserve officer, has a clear positive impact on future earnings and achievement of a high career position of the individual.


title: Military service

text: , mandatory military service at the Hellenic Army was once again raised to 12 months for all males aged 18–45, unless serving in units in Evros or the North Aegean islands where duration was kept at 9 months.


title: Military service

text: Some are entitled to reduced service due to serious family reasons (single parent families, parent serving in the army etc.). Although Greece is developing a professional army system, the effort has been postponed significantly.


title: Military service

text: The length of alternative civilian service for conscientious objectors to military service is 15 months. Amnesty International was also concerned that the determination of conscientious objector status fell under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Defence, which breaches international standards that stipulate that the entire institution of alternative service should have a civilian character. A similar framework was later on developed by the Cyprus National Guard to deal with conscientious objectors.


title: Military service

text: Iran has mandatory military service for men which starts at the age of 18. Exceptions are made for those who cannot serve because of physical or mental health problems and disabilities, and students can delay service while enrolled at a university. The duration of military service is normally 24 months, but is reduced to 22 months for service in destitute areas and to 20 months for border regions. All servicemen receive two months of military training as part of their service. The initial rank conscripts receive in the military corresponds with their level of educational attainment.


title: Military service

text: Since 2008 and the formation of Iran's National Elites Foundation (Bonyade Mellie Nokhbegan), students or university graduates who have excelled in their studies or research may be accepted as members of this organization. Members have the option to carry out their military service in the form of a research project lasting no less than 14 months. A 45-day mandatory military training is applicable even for those who are members of Iran's National Elites Foundation.


title: Military service

text: The Iranian Parliament's National Security Commission is currently debating a plan to abolish conscription and to introduce an alternative plan that would make the army professional.


title: Military service

text: Prisoners may be excused of their sentence to serve in the military at a time of war or to complete military service in exchange for a reduced sentence dependent on the nature of the crime committed.


title: Military service

text: Men reaching 19 years old who are not granted exemption from the military service are not able to apply for a passport, any form of employment, leave the country or collect any completed academic certificate.


title: Military service

text: Israel drafts both men and women. All Israeli citizens are conscripted at age 18, with the following exceptions:


title: Military service

text: Typically, men are required to serve for 2 years and 8 months, while women for 2 years. Officers and other soldiers in certain voluntary units such as Nahal and Hesder are required to sign on for additional service. Those studying in a "Mechina" (pre-induction preparatory course) defer service until the conclusion of the program, typically one academic year. An additional program (called ""Atuda'i"") for qualified applicants allows post-secondary academic studies prior to induction.


title: Military service

text: There is a very limited amount of conscientious objection to conscription into the IDF. More common is refusal by reserve soldiers to serve in the West Bank and Gaza. Some of these conscientious objectors may be assigned to serve elsewhere, or are sentenced to brief prison terms lasting a few months to a year and may subsequently receive dishonourable discharges.


title: Military service

text: After a year their period of regular army service, men are liable for up to 30 days (much less on average) per year of reserve duty (""miluim"") until they are in their early forties. Women in certain positions of responsibility are liable for reserve duty under the same terms as men, but are exempt once they are pregnant or with children.


title: Military service

text: As of 2020, Jordan has reinstated a compulsory year of military service for those that meet the criteria. Unemployed men aged 25 to 29 are the target group of the conscription program.


title: Military service

text: , all males reaching eighteen years of age must register for military service (Servicio Militar Nacional, or SMN) for one year, though selection is made by a lottery system using the following color scheme: whoever draws a black ball must serve as an available reserve, that is, he must not follow any activities whatsoever and get his discharge card at the end of the year. The ones who get a white ball serve Saturdays in a Batallón del Servicio Militar Nacional (National Military Service Battalion) composed entirely of one-year SMN conscripts. Those with a community service interest may participate in Literacy Campaigns as teachers or as physical education instructors. Military service is also (voluntarily) open to women. In certain cities, such as Mexico City and Veracruz, there is a third option: a red ball (Mexico City) and a Blue ball (Veracruz), which entails serving a full year as a recruit in a Paratrooper Battalion in the case of Mexico City residents, or an Infantería de Marina unit (Navy Marines) in Veracruz. In other cities which have a Navy HQ (such as Ciudad Madero), it is the Navy which takes charge of the conscripts, instead of the Army.


title: Military service

text: A "liberated" military ID is a requirement to join the Mexican local, state, and federal police forces, also to apply for some government jobs,


title: Military service

text: Draft dodging was an uncommon occurrence in Mexico until 2002, since a "liberated" military ID card was needed for a Mexican male to obtain a passport, but since this requirement was dropped by the Mexican government, absenteeism from military service has become more common.


title: Military service

text: Morocco eliminated compulsory military service as of 31 August 2006, however, this law has been revised, and at 7 February 2019 officially restored compulsory military service. The service takes as long as 12 months in the new law project with a draft targeting Moroccan males and females alike in the age range of 19–25 with an exception for people with a medical or psychological condition, college students can delay the date of their enlistment thus being able to serve at the end of their university course.


title: Military service

text: Conscription occurs in North Korea despite ambiguity concerning its legal status. Men are universally conscripted while women undergo selective conscription. Conscription takes place at age 17 and service ends at 30. Children of the political elites are exempt from conscription, as are people with bad "songbun" (ascribed social status in North Korea). Recruitment is done on the basis of annual targets drawn up by the Central Military Commission of the Workers' Party of Korea and implemented locally by schools.


title: Military service

text: Conscription first began before the Korean War. Initially, under the rule of Kim Il-sung, forced conscription was largely not necessary because the level of voluntary enlistment was high due to financial rewards. Under Kim Jong-il and Kim Jong-un these rewards have diminished.


title: Military service

text: Norway has mandatory military service of nineteen months for men and women between the ages of 19 (18 in war time) and 44 (55 in case of officers and NCOs). The actual draft time is six months for the home guard, and twelve months for the regular army, air force and navy. In October 2014, Norway extended compulsory military service to women.


title: Military service

text: The remaining months are supposed to be served in annual exercises, but very few conscripts do this because of lack of funding for the Norwegian Armed Forces. As a result of this decreased funding and greater reliance on high technology, the Armed Forces are aiming towards drafting only 10,000 conscripts a year. , an average of 27% of conscripts actually complete military service each year. The remainder, for the most part, either are formally dismissed after medical tests or obtain deferral from the service because of studies or stays abroad.


title: Military service

text: The Norwegian Armed Forces will normally not draft a person who has reached the age of 28. In Norway, certain voluntary specialist training programs and courses entail extended conscription of one to eight years. Pacifists and conscientious objectors can apply for non-military service, which lasts 12 months.


title: Military service

text: The conscription system was introduced into Imperial Russia by Dmitry Milyutin on 1 January 1874. As of 2008, the Russian Federation has a mandatory 12 months draft. Some examples of how people avoid being drafted are:


title: Military service

text: In Russia, all males are liable for one year of compulsory military service up to the age of 27. In 2006, the Russian government and State Duma gradually reduced the term of service to 18 months from 24 for those who will be conscripted in 2007 and to 12 months from 2008 and dropped some legal excuses for non-conscription from the law (such as non-conscription of rural doctors and teachers, of men who have a child younger than 3 years, etc.) from 1 January 2008. Also full-time students graduated from civil university with military education will be free from conscription from 1 January 2008. Allegedly, the amendment on the length of military service was introduced following the case of Andrey Sychyov.


title: Military service

text: According to the Russian federal law, the Armed Forces, the National Guard, the Federal Protective Service (FSO), the Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR), and civil defence of the Ministry of Emergency Situations (EMERCOM) are considered as military service.


title: Military service

text: After Singapore gained its sovereign independence as an island-city nation, the NS (Amendment) Act was passed on 14 March 1967, under which all able-bodied male citizens of at least 18 years of age were obliged by law to serve 22–24 months of mandatory national service in the Singapore Armed Forces, the Singapore Police Force, or the Singapore Civil Defence Force to defend and protect the country as a sacred, honorable national duty above one's self. Upon completion of the mandatory active full-time NS, they will later also have reservist in-camp training cycles of up to 40 days annually over a 10-years period upon deployment to operationally-ready reservist units.


title: Military service

text: The majority of conscripts serve in the SAF due to its larger manpower requirement. In practice, all conscripts undergo basic military training before being deployed to the various military units of the SAF, the Police Force (SPF), or Civil Defence (SCDF). During Basic Military Training, conscripts, known as National Servicemen, are assessed on their leadership capabilities (over and above basic military skills). All capable conscripts will undergo further vocational trainings to their trained roles and appointments for them to gain experience to move up the NS ranks.


title: Military service

text: Initially, conscripts could not pick and choose their desired or preferred vocations due to manpower constraints and quotas. Since 2016, however, this was changed as, when enlisting, individuals can indicate their preferred vocations. Since 2004, Singapore cut its mandatory military service period of 30 months to between 22 and 24 months, depending on medical health and physical fitness. NSmen make up >80% of its military defense system and form the backbone of the SAF. NSmen represent the collective will of Singapore to stand up for itself and to ensure the security of the nation.


title: Military service

text: South Korea has mandatory military service of 18 (army, marines), 20 (navy), 21 (air force and civil service), 36 (special civil service) months. There is 3 years alternative for conscientious objectors from 2020 (civil service in prison). In general, with very few exceptions, most South Korean males serve in the military.


title: Military service

text: Exemptions are granted to Korean male citizens with physical disabilities or whose mental status is unstable or questionable. When a Korean man becomes of legal age, he is required to take a physical check-up to determine whether he is suitable for military service. Any Korean male athlete who has won a medal in the Olympic Games or a gold in the Asian Games is also spared from the obligation.


title: Military service

text: There are some controversies portrayed in Korean media concerning special treatment given to celebrities. In 2002 Yoo Seung-jun, a Korean pop singer, became a naturalized American citizen to avoid his military duty in Korea. For this reason, Korea has banned Yoo from the country and actually deported him. Another recent example is MC Mong, a popular singer/rapper accused of avoiding his military service by having his molar teeth removed. On 11 April 2011, MC Mong was sentenced to a suspended jail term of 6 months, probation for one year, and 120 hours of community service.


title: Military service

text: The following data is from 'Regulation on Public Servant Compensation', implemented on 1 January 2020. Exchange rate as of 2 January 2017 (₩1210 to $1.00USD)


title: Military service

text: Military service for Swiss men is obligatory according to the Federal Constitution, and includes 18 or 23 weeks of basic training (depending on troop category) as well as annual 3-week-refresher courses until a number of service days which increases with rank (245 days for privates) is reached. (It is also possible to serve the whole requirement at one piece, meaning no refresher courses are required.) Service for women is voluntary, but identical in all respects. Conscientious objectors can choose 390 days of community service instead of military service. Medical deferments and dismissals from basic training lead to about 60% to 65% of Swiss men actually complete basic training. In 2013, the socialists wanted to replace the mandatory conscription for men, by a voluntary based service. By referendum, the Swiss population refused the project with more than 73% and decided to keep the centuries-old militia tradition.


title: Military service

text: The Republic of China has had mandatory military service for all males since 1949. Females from the outlying islands of Fuchien were also required to serve in a civil defense role, although this requirement has been dropped since the lifting of martial law. In October 1999, the mandatory service was shortened from twenty-four months to twenty-two months; from January 2004 it was shortened further to eighteen months, and from 1 January 2006 the duration has decreased to sixteen months. The ROC Defense Ministry had announced that should voluntary enlistment reach sufficient numbers, the compulsory service period for draftees will be shortened to fourteen months in 2007, and further to twelve months in 2009.


title: Military service

text: ROC nationals with Overseas Chinese status are exempt from service. Draftees may also request alternative service, usually in community service areas, although the required service period would be longer than military service. Qualified draftees with graduate degrees in the sciences or engineering who pass officer candidate exams may also apply to fulfil their obligations in a national defense service option which involves three months of military training, followed by an officer commission in the reserves and four years working in technical jobs in the defense industry or government research institutions.


title: Military service

text: On 1 August 2008, the Defence Minister announced that from 2014 on, Taiwan would have a purely volunteer professional force. However, males who opt not to volunteer will be subjected to three to four-month military training. Those who do not have a tertiary education will have a three-month training when reaching military age, whereas those who are receiving tertiary education will have to complete the training in summer vacations.


title: Military service

text: Should this policy remain unchanged, although Taiwan will have a purely volunteer professional force, every male will still be conscripted to receive a three- to four-month military training. Thus, after 2014, compulsory military service will still remain in practice in Taiwan.


title: Military service

text: The Military Service Act B.E. 2497 (1954) states that all male citizens of Thailand are obliged to serve in the military upon reaching 21 years of age. High school students have the option of enrolling in the three-year Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) during Matthayom 4–6 (i.e., Grade 10–12). ROTC students drill at a local military installation once per week during the school year for a total of 80 hours, with field training exercise at the end of the second year (over the duration 3 days) and third year (over the duration of 5 days). The ROTC program is operated nearly exclusively by the Royal Thai Army, with recent introductions by the Royal Thai Navy and Royal Thai Air Force, but both with more restrictions on entry (e.g. students of schools near a naval or air force base used for training only). Those who complete the three-year program are exempted from conscription and receive the rank of acting sergeant (E-6) upon graduation from high school. Students who do not complete the program or wish to enroll in the commissioned officer phase of the program can do so at their post-secondary institution. Those who do not complete the ROTC program will be required to report for conscription in early-April of the year in which they reach 21 years of age.


title: Military service

text: Military service selection is done at a designated date and time at a local school or assembly hall. Each selection station has a quota for recruitment. The process begins with a call for volunteers. Those who volunteer will have the option to choose the branch of service and their date of induction. If the number of volunteers is fewer than the quota for the selection station, the remaining men will be asked to draw a card from an opaque box. The box contains red cards and black cards. Drawing a black card results in exemption from military service. Drawing a red card results in conscription in the branch of service and induction date on the card.


title: Military service

text: Those who volunteer for military service are free to choose from the three branches of the armed forces (Royal Thai Army, Royal Thai Navy, Royal Thai Air Force). Service obligation varies by educational qualification. Those with a high school diploma or the equivalent and those who have one year of military service education are required to serve for two years if they draw the red card, but if these same individuals volunteer, the service obligation is reduced by half, i.e., reduced to only one year. Those with an associate degree (or equivalent) or higher are required to serve for one year if drafted, but the requirement is reduced to only six months if they volunteered. University students can defer their service as long as they maintain the student status until reaching the age of 27 or obtaining a master's degree or the equivalent, whichever comes first. Undergraduate and graduate students who decide to volunteer are allowed by their institution to put their studies on suspension until the end of term of service. All conscripts, regardless of educational qualification, undergo the same training and receive the same grade and rank upon completion of basic training: private, seaman, or airman (E-1).


title: Military service

text: In recent years the government has issued new guidelines for better treatment of transgender recruits.


title: Military service

text: In Tunisia compulsory military service applies to all citizens from 20 to 35. Those who are engaged in higher education or vocational training programs prior to their military drafting are allowed to delay service until they have completed the programs. The duration of the military service is 1 year. And Conscripts Benefit a monthly allowance of 200 dinars for holders of a higher school diploma or have completed at least two years of graduate successfully and holders of a higher technician certificate of vocational training and 100 dinars for other recruits.


title: Military service

text: In Turkey, compulsory military service applies to all male citizens from twenty to forty-one years of age (with some exceptions). Those who are engaged in higher education or vocational training programs prior to their military drafting are allowed to delay service until they have completed the programs, or reach a certain age, depending on the program (e.g. 29 years of age for undergraduate degrees). The duration of the basic military service varies. As of July 2013, the reduced durations are as follows: twelve months for privates (previously fifteen months), twelve months for reserve officers (previously sixteen months) and six months for short-term privates, which denotes those who have earned a university degree and have not been enlisted as reserve officers (previously eight months).


title: Military service

text: Turkish citizens who have lived or worked abroad for at least three years can be exempt from military service in exchange for a certain fee in foreign currencies. Also, when the General Staff assesses that the military reserve exceeds the required amount, paid military service of one-month's basic training is established by law as a stopgap measure, but has only been practiced in reality once so far, and only applied to men of a certain age (born in or prior to 1973). This was done in order to generate funds to recover from the aftermath of the 1999 İzmit earthquake, which took place in the highly industrialized Marmara region of the country, and had a considerable negative impact on the Turkish economy due to the severe damage it caused to a significant number of residential and industrial structures.


title: Military service

text: Although women in principle are not obliged to serve in the military, they are allowed to become military officers.


title: Military service

text: Conscientious objection of military service is illegal in Turkey and punishable with imprisonment by law. Many conscientious objectors flee abroad mainly to neighbouring countries or the European Union (as asylum seekers or guest workers).


title: Military service

text: The options are either reserve officer training for two years (offered in universities as a part of a program which means not having to join the army), or one-year regular service. In Ukraine, a person could not be conscripted after he turned 27 years of age. The Ukrainian army had similar problems with "dedovshchina" as the Russian army did until very recently, but in Ukraine the problem is getting less severe compared to Russia, due to cuts in the conscript terms (from 24 to 18 months in the early 2000s and then to 12 months in 2004) and cuts in total conscription numbers (due to the switching of the army into a full-time professional army) since the last conscripts are being drafted at the end of 2013. However, due to the war with Russia, conscription was reinstated and remains in power to this day.


title: Military service

text: The United Arab Emirates started its national service requirement in September 2014. This is the first time the UAE has required mandatory national service. It is compulsory for all male citizens over 18 and under 30 years of age to report for military service. Foreign male residents are not required to serve in the military service. It is optional for females to register for military service, and which they serve for 9 months. Males who hold a high school diploma must complete 16-months of military service, whilst males who have not completed high school must complete three years. All males must register for compulsory military service after graduating high school. However, males who obtain a high school graduation grade over 90% are able to postpone their military service until after graduation from a college. Males whose high school graduation grade is under 90% must register for military service and cannot go to college until it has been completed.


title: Dicky Eklund

text: Richard Eklund Jr. (born May 3, 1957) is an American former professional boxer who competed from 1975 to 1985. Known as "The Pride of Lowell", he held the USA New England welterweight title twice between 1979 and 1983. He is the half-brother and former trainer of former WBU champion Micky Ward. The 2010 biopic "The Fighter" is based on the two brothers' fall and rise to the boxing title.


title: Dicky Eklund

text: After an amateur boxing career of 200 bouts, winning 194, Eklund turned professional on August 26, 1975. After losing his debut by 6-round decision to Joe DeFayette, Eklund won 10 straight fights; defeating such opponents as Doug Romano, Terry Rondeau, Carlos Garcia, Randy Milton, and Mike Michaud.


title: Dicky Eklund

text: He fought professionally as Dick Eklund; "Dicky" was a nickname used by his family and friends. Before his 1978 match with future world boxing champion Sugar Ray Leonard, Eklund's most impressive victory was over undefeated Rufus Miller (6–0–1) in 1976.


title: Dicky Eklund

text: Eklund's most notable fight was on July 18, 1978, against Sugar Ray Leonard at the Hynes Memorial Auditorium in Boston, Massachusetts. He went the distance against Leonard, who eventually won the fight by unanimous decision. During the fight, Eklund was knocked down twice. In the ninth round, the fighters got wrapped up and Leonard tripped, which was counted as a trip by the referee. In the film "The Fighter", Eklund claims to have knocked down Leonard in their match. While the film acknowledges the slip, a video of the fight shows a punch/push and Leonard falling to the canvas on his back. The official verdict by the referee Tommy Rawson was a slip. In an interview regarding the knockdown, Leonard said, "I slipped."


title: Dicky Eklund

text: Eklund's fastest victory was a first-round knockout over C.J. Faison in Montreal, Canada on February 10, 1981. According to the 1983 "Ring Record Book", Eklund knocked out Canada's Allan Clarke in 9 rounds on August 25, 1981. Clarke's record was listed by the Ring as 21–4–1. On October 25, 1983, Eklund defeated James Lucas to win the USA New England Welterweight Title. Following a rematch victory over Lucas in 1985, Eklund never fought again.


title: Dicky Eklund

text: Eklund's fighting career spanned 10 years from 1975 to 1985, during which he compiled a professional career record of 19 wins, including four by knockout, and 10 losses.


title: Dicky Eklund

text: After Eklund's fighting career ended, he became the trainer of his half-brother, noted former boxer Micky Ward. Eklund was Ward's full-time trainer for 26 fights, from Ward's professional debut in 1985 until his first retirement in 1991. Three of Ward's post-retirement fights were voted fight of the year by "The Ring". Eklund served as Ward's trainer until his second retirement, after his third fight with Arturo Gatti on June 7, 2003. Ward's biography, written by Bob Halloran and titled "Irish Thunder: The Hard Life and Times of Micky Ward", discusses much of Eklund's life and career.


title: Dicky Eklund

text: Eklund now works as a personal trainer and boxing coach in New England. He also travels the United States with Micky Ward, giving motivational speeches to college students.


title: Dicky Eklund

text: Paramount Pictures' 2010 drama "The Fighter" chronicles the rise of Eklund's younger half-brother Micky Ward. Directed by David O. Russell, the film stars Christian Bale as Eklund and Mark Wahlberg as Ward. At the 2011 Screen Actors Guild Awards, Eklund made a surprise appearance on stage with Christian Bale as the latter accepted the award for Outstanding Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Eklund. Bale also won a Golden Globe and an Academy Award for his performance. During his Academy Award acceptance speech, he thanked Eklund and Ward, who were in the audience.


title: Dicky Eklund

text: Eklund was also featured on the HBO documentary "" which showed his fall from boxing grace because of his addiction to crack cocaine. In the documentary, Eklund was sentenced to a long prison term for crimes he committed to feed his crack addiction.


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: Indira Gandhi National Open University, known as IGNOU, is a Central University located at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi, India. Named after former Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi, the university was established in 1985 with a budget of 20 million, after the Parliament of India passed the "Indira Gandhi National Open University Act, 1985" (IGNOU Act 1985). IGNOU is run by the central government of India, and with total active enrollment of over 4 million students, it is the largest university in the world.


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: IGNOU was founded to serve the Indian population by means of distance and open education, providing quality higher education opportunities to all segments of society. It also aims to encourage, coordinate and set standards for distance and open education in India, and to strengthen the human resources of India through education. Apart from teaching and research, extension and training form the mainstay of its academic activities. It also acts as a national resource center, and serves to promote and maintain standards of distance education in India. IGNOU hosts the Secretariats of the SAARC Consortium on Open and Distance Learning (SACODiL) and the Global Mega Universities Network (GMUNET), initially supported by UNESCO.


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: IGNOU has started a decentralisation process by setting up five zones: north, south, east, west and north-east. The first of the regional headquarters, catering to four southern states, Pondicherry, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep, is being set up in the outskirts of Thiruvananthapuram in Kerala. The Ministry of Education


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: has entrusted the responsibility of developing Draft Policy on Open and Distance Learning and Online Courses to IGNOU. IGNOU also partners up with other organizations to launch courses. IGNOU offers a BBA in Retail distance learning course in association with Retailers Association of India (RAI).


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: Recently, the university has implemented the CBCS method to the various bachelor's degree courses including BA, BAVTM, BCOM, BSC, and others. As per the new CBCS system, the examination will be conducted through the semester system that was earlier conducted on an annual mode.


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: Dipanshu Sharma, the Ministry of Education and Social Welfare organized a seminar on 'Open University' in collaboration with the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, the UGC, and the Indian National Commission for Cooperation with UNESCO. After the seminar recommendation, an open university in India has established on an experimental basis. Starting in 1974, the government of India appointed an eight-member working group on the open university, the leading role was given to G. Parthasarathi, the then Vice-Chancellor of the Jawaharlal Nehru University.


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: The working group recommended establishing an open university by an act of parliament as early as possible. They recommended that the university should have jurisdiction over the entire country so that, once it is fully developed, any student even in the remotest corner of the country can have access to its instruction and degrees (Working Group Report, 1974).


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: The working group suggested several measures to be followed in instructional and management processes of the open university which included: admission procedure, age relaxation, preparation of reading materials, setting up of core group scholars in different fields, setting up of study centers, the vehicle of curricular programs, live contact with teachers and so on. On the basis of the recommendations of the working group, the Union Government prepared a draft bill for the establishment of a National Open University, but due to some reasons, the progress was delayed.


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: In 1985, the Union Government made a policy statement for the establishment of a national open university. A Committee was constituted by the Ministry of Education to chalk out the plan of action for the National Open University. On the basis of the report of the Committee, the Union Government introduced a bill in Parliament. In August 1985, both the Houses of Parliament passed the bill. Subsequently, the Indira Gandhi National Open University came into existence on 20 September 1985, named after the late prime minister.


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: In 1989, the first Convocation was held and more than 1,000 students graduated and were awarded their diplomas. IGNOU audio-video courses were the first broadcast by radio and television in 1990 and IGNOU awarded degrees received full recognition by the University Grants Commission in 1992 as being equivalent to those of other universities in the country.


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: In 1999, IGNOU launched the first virtual campus in India, beginning with the delivery of Computer and Information Sciences courses via the Internet.


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: IGNOU has 21 schools and a network of 56 regional centres, 1843 study centres, and 21 overseas centres (in 15 countries). Approximately 20% of all students enrolled in higher education in India are enrolled with IGNOU. IGNOU offers 226 academic programs comprising courses at certificate, diploma and degree levels.


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: The Research Unit has been established at the Indira Gandhi National Open University vide notification dated 6 October 2008. Prior to that, research-related activities were looked after by the Academic Coordination Division. The Unit has been established with the following objectives:


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: (IGNOU) has been granted the authority to confer degrees by Clause 5(1)(iii) of the IGNOU Act 1985. IGNOU is also recognised as a Central University by the University Grants Commission of India (UGC). The Association of Indian Universities (AIU) recognises IGNOU conferred degrees as on par with the degrees conferred by its members and the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) recognises the "Master of Computer Applications" and "Master of Business Administration" program of IGNOU.


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: In 1993, IGNOU was designated by the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) as its first Centre of Excellence for Distance Education empowered "to actively participate in Commonwealth co-operative endeavors to identify, nurture, and strengthen open learning institutions throughout the Commonwealth, particularly in the Third World ..".


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: IGNOU also operates as an accreditor for open university and distance education systems in India through the Distance Education Council (DEC). Authority to do so is granted under Clause 16 and Statute 28 of the IGNOU Act 1985.


title: Indira Gandhi National Open University

text: IGNOU is accredited by National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) with the highest grade of A++.


title: Main Ground Combat System

text: The Main Ground Combat System (MGCS) is a project by France and Germany started in 2012 and aiming to replace their currently deployed Leclerc and Leopard 2 main battle tanks (MBTs). In 2016, the programme was in the concept phase which was projected to be completed by 2017.


title: Main Ground Combat System

text: At the 2016 Eurosatory, Rheinmetall presented the MBT Advanced Technology Demonstrator on the basis of a Leopard 2A4 Evolution concept. At the 2018 Eurosatory, KMW+Nexter Defense Systems (KNDS) unveiled the "European Main Battle Tank" (E-MBT), a hybrid combining the hull of a Leopard 2A7 with the lighter, two-man turret of a Leclerc. The previously independent companies KMW and Nexter intended to demonstrate that both could cooperate and jointly develop a next generation tank.


title: Main Ground Combat System

text: The contract for the first part of the System Architecture Definition Study was signed in May 2020 by the German armed forces' procurement office on behalf of both nations to a consortium consisting of Rheinmetall, Nexter and KMW (KNDS), with the aim of assessing different aspects of the programme such as interoperability with national systems, harmonising requirements and defining a multi-platform architecture for the future MGCS. The study is to be conducted over 18 months. The workshare during this phase is split between French and German companies.


title: Main Ground Combat System

text: The System Architecture Definition Study is part of the Technology Demonstration Phase (TDP), which is to be completed by 2024 and is to be followed by the overall system demonstrator phase (GSDP) until 2028, after which initial production and testing is to occur.


title: Main Ground Combat System

text: Deployment of the new vehicles and systems is scheduled for 2035, with full operational capability to be achieved by 2040.


title: Main Ground Combat System

text: According to the French-German state research Institute of Saint-Louis (ISL), MGCS is to result in a future land warfare system which may include unmanned, including autonomous ground and aerial vehicles, and manned assets in the light, medium or heavy weight class as well as associated weaponry. As such, the aim of the MGCS development is to produce a means to deliver a set of capabilities currently provided by main battle tanks – yet not necessarily a typical "single platform" MBT; and requires the development of new tactics and collaborative combat capabilities in addition to new vehicles.


title: Main Ground Combat System

text: One precondition for a new tank may be the development of a new main cannon with better performance. German defence company Rheinmetall showcased a new 130 mm tank cannon at the Eurosatory military trade fair in 2016, the Rh-130 L/51. It is designed to offer better performance than the current Rh-120 L/55 introduced with the Leopard 2A6.


title: Main Ground Combat System

text: For KNDS' exhibition at Eurosatory, the hull, engine and entire chassis of a Leopard 2A7 which can carry 68 tons were modified to host the lighter, more compact, autoloader-equipped turret of the Leclerc.


title: Main Ground Combat System

text: According to Nexter's head of tracked and armour programmes, Francois Groshany, the benefit of the tank is the combination of the "very high capability" Leopard 2 chassis with the lighter Leclerc turret. The 2-man Leclerc turret is approximately 6 tons lighter than the 3-man Leopard 2 turret. The lower weight of the vehicle enables it to traverse bridges that might not be able to support heavier tanks. Full-scale development of the tank could be launched if export customers are found.


title: Main Ground Combat System

text: The French media has reported Italian and Polish ministries of defence have voiced their interest in joining the project and hoped to see its inclusion in the EU's PESCO programme and other forms of EU defence funding.


title: Main Ground Combat System

text: On 4 January 2020 Poland was reported to have been excluded from the project, while a month later French President Emmanuel Macron was reported to "appear open" towards a Polish participation in MGCS during a state visit. Korean manufacturer Hyundai Rotem is interested in producing a version of the K2 Black Panther tank in Poland under licence for the "Wilk" (Wolf) Program, replacing T-72s and PT-91s.


title: Main Ground Combat System

text: The Spanish Army expressed interest in replacing its fleet of Leopard 2E MBTs with the MGCS once available.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: Oxford United Football Club is a professional football club in the city of Oxford, England. The team plays in League One, the third tier of the English football league system. The chairman is Grant Ferguson, the manager is Karl Robinson and the team captain is Elliott Moore.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: The club was founded on 27 October 1893 as Headington Football Club. Headington merged with local rivals Headington Quarry on 25 July 1911 and was renamed Headington United. Oxford United adopted its current name in 1960. It joined the Football League in 1962 after winning the Southern Football League, reaching the Second Division in 1968. After relegation in 1976, between 1984 and 1986 the club earned successive promotions into the First Division, and won the League Cup in 1986. However, Oxford was unable thereby to enter the 1987 UEFA Cup because of the UEFA ban on English clubs in European competitions. Relegation from the top flight in 1988 began an 18-year decline which saw the club relegated to the Conference in 2006, becoming the first winners of a major trophy to be relegated from the Football League. After four seasons, Oxford returned to League Two in 2010 via the playoffs, and six seasons later achieved promotion to League One, after finishing second in League Two in 2016.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: Ron Atkinson holds the club record for the most overall appearances with 560, John Shuker holds the record for the most appearances in the Football League with 478 and Ron's late brother Graham Atkinson holds the record for the most goals scored with 107. In total, nineteen players have made international appearances while playing for the club. United's home ground is the Kassam Stadium in Oxford and has a capacity of 12,500. United moved to the stadium in 2001 after leaving the Manor Ground, their home for 76 years. Swindon Town and Reading are the club's main rivals.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: Oxford United were formed as Headington in 1893, adding the suffix United in 1911 after merging with Headington Quarry. The club was founded by Rev. John Scott-Tucker, the vicar at Saint Andrew's Church in Headington, and a local doctor named Robert Hitchings. A football team was a way for the cricketers of Headington Cricket Club to maintain their fitness during the winter break. The club's first football match played was against Cowley Barracks. Headington had no regular home until 1913, when they were able to purchase Wootten's Field on London Road, but this was redeveloped in 1920, forcing the club to move. A permanent home was found in 1925, when they purchased the Manor Ground site on London Road. The facility was used as a cricket pitch in the summer, and a football pitch in the winter. In 1899, six years after their formation, Headington United joined the Oxfordshire District League Second Division, where they competed until the outbreak of the First World War; the Second Division was renamed the Oxfordshire Junior League after the resumption of football in 1919. In 1921, the club was admitted into the Oxon Senior League. The first season included a 9–0 victory, with eight of those goals coming from P. Drewitt. This remains a record for the highest number of goals scored by an Oxford player in a first-team match. At this time a small rivalry existed with Cowley F.C., who were based a few miles south of Headington. During a league game on May Day, the referee gave two penalties to Cowley; supporters broke past security and players, resulting in the referee being "freely baited". The first FA Cup tie played was in 1931, against Hounslow F.C. in the Preliminary Round, ending in an 8–2 defeat for Headington. United spent two seasons in the Spartan League in 1947 and 1948, finishing fifth and fourth respectively. It was around this time that the cricket team left the Manor and moved to new premises near Cowley Barracks.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: A move into professional football was first considered during the 1948–49 season. Vic Couling, the president at the time, had applied for Headington to become a member of a new Second Division in the Southern League. Other teams that applied included Weymouth, Kettering Town and future league side Cambridge United. Although the plans were postponed, the First Division was going to be expanded by two clubs; Weymouth and Headington were elected. It was later discovered that Llanelli had just one vote fewer than Headington. Oxford played its first season in the Southern League in 1949, the same year they turned professional. Former First Division forward Harry Thompson was hired as manager. In 1950, Headington United became the first professional club in Britain to install floodlights, and used them on 18 December against Banbury Spencer. They initially played in orange and blue shirts, but changed to yellow home shirts for the 1957–58 season. The reason for the change is unknown. In 1960, Headington United was renamed Oxford United, to give the club a higher profile.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: Two years later, in 1962, the club won the Southern League title for the second successive season and was elected to the Football League Fourth Division,<ref name="61/62"></ref> occupying the vacant place left by bankrupt Accrington Stanley. Two successive eighteenth-place finishes followed, before promotion to the Third Division was achieved in 1965. A year before the promotion, Oxford became the first Fourth Division club to reach the sixth round of the FA Cup, but have not progressed that far in the competition since. Oxford won the Third Division title in 1967–68, their sixth season as a league club, but after eight years of relative stability the club was relegated from the Second Division in 1975–76.<ref name="75/76"></ref>


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: In 1982, as a Third Division side, Oxford United faced closure because of the club's inability to service the debts owed to Barclays Bank, but were rescued when businessman Robert Maxwell took over the club. In April 1983, Maxwell proposed merging United with neighbours Reading, to form a new club called the Thames Valley Royals, to play at Didcot. Jim Smith would have managed the club and been assisted by Reading boss Maurice Evans. The merger was called off as a result of fans of both clubs protesting against the decision. Furthermore, the Reading chairman stepped down and was replaced by an opponent of the merger. Maxwell also threatened to fold the club if the merger did not go through. Oxford won the Third Division title after the 1983–84 season under the management of Jim Smith, who also guided them to the Second Division title the following year. This meant that Oxford United would be playing First Division football in the 1985–86 season, 23 years after joining the Football League. Smith moved to Queens Park Rangers shortly after the promotion success, and made way for chief scout Maurice Evans, who, several seasons earlier, had won the Fourth Division title with Reading.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: Oxford United finished eighteenth in the 1985–86 First Division, avoiding relegation on the last day of the season after defeating Arsenal 3–0. They also won the Football League Cup, known at the time as the Milk Cup under a sponsorship deal. As winners, Oxford would have qualified for the following season's UEFA Cup, had it not been for the ban on English teams that had resulted from the previous year's Heysel Stadium disaster. After beating fellow First Division side Aston Villa in the semi-final 4–3 on aggregate, Oxford faced Queens Park Rangers in the final, which was held at Wembley Stadium on 20 April 1986. The game finished 3–0 with goals from Trevor Hebberd, Ray Houghton and Jeremy Charles. After the match long-serving physiotherapist, 72-year-old Ken Fish, collected one of the winner's medals, instead of manager Maurice Evans. Evans felt that Fish deserved the medal for his service to the club, and so gave him his, in what was seen as an "unprecedented gesture". It was the last time the League Cup was played under the name "Milk Cup", sponsors Littlewoods taking over the following season. The 1986–87 season saw Oxford United narrowly avoid relegation and stay in the First Division. Robert Maxwell resigned as chairman in May 1987, to take over at Derby County, handing the club to his son Kevin. Maurice Evans was sacked in March 1988 with Oxford bottom of the First Division.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: Former Liverpool defender Mark Lawrenson was named as Oxford's new manager, but was unable to prevent relegation to the Second Division. He was sacked three months into the 1988–89 Second Division campaign after a dispute with the chairman over the £1 million sale of striker Dean Saunders to Derby County; Derby were owned by Robert Maxwell, father of the then Oxford United chairman, Kevin Maxwell. Following Robert Maxwell's death in 1991, his personal estate, including the club, became insolvent. After a long search for a new owner, during which BioMass Recycling Ltd took over the club, Brian Horton was named as Oxford's new manager. He remained in charge until September 1993, when he moved to Manchester City in the recently formed FA Premier League. Horton led United to mid-table finishes during his management spell, apart from a 21st-place finish at the end of the 1991–92 season. A 2–1 win over Tranmere Rovers, and a win for Blackburn Rovers over Plymouth Argyle, meant United survived relegation by two points. Oxford, now in the renamed Football League Division One, briefly restored Maurice Evans as manager, before turning to Bristol City manager Denis Smith. Despite Smith's efforts, Oxford was relegated to Division Two at the end of the 1993–94 season, with just four wins in the last eleven games.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: Denis Smith brought in two strikers who were experienced in the top division: Southampton's Paul Moody and Nottingham Forest's Nigel Jemson. Oxford finished seventh in 1994–95 season, and in the following season gained promotion by finishing runners-up to rivals Swindon Town, despite not winning an away game till the end of January. Robin Herd, co-owner of the March Racing Team, took control of the club in 1995. In June of that year, the board of directors unveiled plans for a new 16,000-seat stadium at Minchery Farm, to replace the dilapidated Manor Ground. The club had hoped to move into the new stadium near the Blackbird Leys housing estate by the start of the 1998–99 season, but construction was suspended during the preceding season, because construction company Taylor Woodrow had not been paid for the work already undertaken.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: The 1996–97 season saw Oxford finish seventeenth, and included the sale of Scottish international defender Matt Elliott to Leicester City. Despite Smith's departure to West Bromwich Albion in December 1997, United finished twelfth the following season under his successor, and former captain, Malcolm Shotton. Shotton was previously the assistant manager of the Barnsley side that gained promotion to the Premier League. During October 1998, the backroom staff at the club went unpaid, due to United's financial situation with the new stadium, and the threat of administration caused a group of fans to set up a pressure group called Fighting for Oxford United's Life (FOUL). The group began to publicise the club's plight through a series of meetings and events, including a 'Scarf of Unity', which was a collection of scarves from various clubs which was long enough to stretch around the perimeter of the pitch. Chairman Robin Herd stepped down to concentrate on his engineering projects, and in April 1999 Firoz Kassam bought Herd's 89.9% controlling interest in Oxford United for £1, with which he also inherited the club's estimated £15 million debt. Kassam reduced £9 million of the debt to just £900,000, by virtue of a Company Voluntary Arrangement, by which unsecured creditors who were owed over £1,000 were reimbursed with 10p for every pound they were owed. Secured creditors were paid off when Kassam sold the Manor to another of his companies, for £6 million. Kassam set about completing the unfinished stadium, gaining planning permission for a bowling alley, multiplex cinema and hotel next to the stadium, following a series of legal battles which were eventually all settled. The season ended with relegation back to the Second Division.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: Oxford's poor form continued into the 1999–2000 season and, with the team in the relegation zone, Shotton resigned in late October. After a few months with Mickey Lewis as player-manager, former manager Denis Smith returned to the club, managing a twentieth-place finish, one place clear of relegation. Smith's second spell didn't last long, and he was replaced by David Kemp a few weeks into the following campaign. At the end of the 2000–01 season, Oxford were relegated back to the Third Division after a 35-year absence, with 100 goals conceded. They suffered 33 league defeats, the second-highest number of league defeats ever endured by a league club in a single season.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: Oxford began the next season with a new manager and a new stadium, with the relocation to the Kassam Stadium completed after six years of speculation. Former Liverpool and England defender Mark Wright was given the manager's job, but resigned in late November, after being accused of making racist remarks to referee Joe Ross. Wright's successor, Ian Atkins, was unable to make an immediate impact and Oxford finished in 21st position in the league, at the time their lowest-ever league position. United missed out on the play-off places in the following season by one place and one point. Fifteen wins at the start of the 2003–04 season saw Oxford top of the table at the end of January. However, Ian Atkins was sacked in March 2004 after allegedly agreeing to take charge at rivals Bristol Rovers.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: Atkins's replacement, Graham Rix, could only manage a ninth-place finish at the end of the season, and was sacked the following November. Oxford replaced him with Argentine Ramón Díaz, who managed the team to a mid-table finish. Diaz and his team of assistants left the club at the beginning of May 2005, after being banned from the ground by the chairman following failed negotiations. During his time at the club, Diaz brought in a number of South American players including his own sons, and Juan Pablo Raponi. Ex-England midfielder and former West Bromwich Albion manager Brian Talbot signed a two-year contract to replace Rix. Talbot found little success and was sacked in March 2006, with the club in 22nd place. He was replaced by youth team coach Darren Patterson.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: On 21 March 2006, Firoz Kassam sold the club, including its debts, for approximately £2 million to Florida-based businessman Nick Merry, who had played for United's youth team in the mid-1970s. Merry immediately made changes to the club, including the hiring of former manager Jim Smith in his second spell. Despite signing five new players on his first day in charge, Smith was unable to prevent relegation at the end of the 2005–06 season. After 44 years in English league football, Oxford were relegated to the Conference National after finishing in 23rd place, becoming the first former winners of a major trophy to be relegated from the league. Coincidentally, Accrington Stanley, the club whose bankruptcy in 1962 allowed United to be elected into the League, was one of the two clubs promoted to replace them.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: Jim Smith was retained as manager for the following season, and it started positively for Oxford, with 14 wins and 8 draws from the opening 25 games. A run of eleven league games without a win followed, and saw United drop to second, where they remained until the end of the season. On Boxing Day 2006, a crowd of 11,065 watched United draw 0–0 with Woking at the Kassam Stadium, the largest-ever attendance for a Conference match (excluding play-offs). Oxford qualified for the play-offs by finishing second, but lost on penalties in the semi-final to Exeter City.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: On 9 November 2007, Jim Smith resigned as manager and first-team coach Darren Patterson returned as manager. In a lacklustre season which included defeats to Droylsden and Tonbridge Angels, camouflaged by a belated run of eight wins in the last eleven games, Oxford finished ninth in the Conference National in 2007–08, 10 points off the last play-off place.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: On 2 October 2008, Nick Merry stepped down as chairman to be replaced by Kelvin Thomas, who had been part of the management team at the time of Merry's takeover. Just under two months later, Patterson was sacked after a poor run of form, and was replaced by former Halifax Town manager Chris Wilder. Following Wilder's arrival, the team won 15 of the remaining 21 league matches that season. A 5-point deduction for fielding an unregistered player resulted in a seventh-place finish, four points and two places short of the play-offs.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: Oxford led the table for most of the first half of the 2009–10 season, but dropped into the play-off places after a poor run, finishing third. They beat Rushden & Diamonds over two legs to advance to the play-off final against York City on 16 May 2010. Oxford won the final 3–1, to return to the Football League for the 2010–11 season. The attendance was 42,669, a new record for the final, with around 33,000 being United fans.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: Oxford's first game back in the Football League was away to Burton, which finished in a 0–0 draw; their first League win was on 4 September against Morecambe at the Kassam Stadium, with James Constable scoring a hat-trick in a 4–0 victory. They finished the season in 12th place.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: The team spent much of the 2011–12 season in or around the playoff places, and achieved the double over rivals (and eventual champions) Swindon Town for the first time since the 1973–74 season. However, they failed to win any of their last seven matches and finished the season in ninth place, two places and four points outside the play-offs.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: Chairman Kelvin Thomas stepped down during the 2012 close season, to be replaced by owner Ian Lenagan. The 2012–13 season was blighted by injuries and patchy form: after opening the season with three wins and briefly heading the table, United lost their next six games, a pattern of inconsistency that was to continue throughout the season. United finished outside the play-offs for the third consecutive season, but manager Chris Wilder was given a further one-year contract in April 2013. Some Oxford fans were unhappy about the decision to renew Wilder's contract, having pressed for his sacking during the second half of the 2012–13 season.


title: Oxford United F.C.

text: After another bright start, Oxford led the table several times in the first half of the 2013–14 season. On 25 January 2014, with the club faltering though still in the play-off places, Wilder resigned as manager to take up the reins at relegation-threatened Northampton. Mickey Lewis subsequently became the caretaker manager for a second time for the club. On 22 March 2014, Gary Waddock was appointed the head coach of the club after a lengthy interview process, leaving his job as Head of Coaching at MK Dons. Under Lewis and Waddock, Oxford slipped out of the play-off places in the final few weeks of the season, finishing a disappointing eighth in the table, nine points off the last playoff place.