title: Severus Alexander

text: On the whole, Alexander's reign was prosperous until the rise of the Sassanids under Ardashir I. In 231 AD, Ardashir invaded the Roman provinces of the east, overrunning Mesopotamia and penetrating possibly as far as Syria and Cappadocia, forcing from the young Alexander a vigorous response. Of the war that followed there are various accounts. According to the most detailed authority, Herodian, the Roman armies suffered a number of humiliating setbacks and defeats, while according to the Historia Augusta as well as Alexander's own dispatch to the Roman Senate, he gained great victories. Making Antioch his base, he organized in 233 a three-fold invasion of the Sassanian Empire; at the head of the main body he himself advanced to recapture northern Mesopotamia, while another army invaded Media through the mountains of Armenia, and a third advanced from the south in the direction of Babylon. The northernmost army gained some success, fighting in mountainous territory favorable to the Roman infantry, but the southern army was surrounded and destroyed by Ardashir's skilful horse-archers, and Alexander himself retreated after an indecisive campaign, his army wracked by indiscipline and disease. Further losses were incurred by the retreating northern army in the inclement cold of Armenia as it retired into winter quarters, due to a failure through incompetence to establish adequate supply lines. Still, Mesopotamia was retaken, and Ardashir was not thereafter able to extend his conquests, though his son, Shapur, would obtain some success later in the century.


title: Severus Alexander

text: Although the Sassanids were checked for the time, the conduct of the Roman army showed an extraordinary lack of discipline. In 232, there was a mutiny in the Syrian legion, which proclaimed Taurinus emperor. Alexander managed to suppress the uprising, and Taurinus drowned while attempting to flee across the Euphrates. The emperor returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph in 233.


title: Severus Alexander

text: Alexander's reign was also characterized by a significant breakdown of military discipline. In 228, the Praetorian Guard murdered their prefect, Ulpian, in Alexander's presence. Alexander could not openly punish the ringleader of the riot, and instead removed him to a nominal post of honor in Egypt and then Crete, where he was "quietly put out of the way" sometime after the excitement had abated. The soldiers then fought a three-day battle against the populace of Rome, and this battle ended after several parts of the city were set on fire.


title: Severus Alexander

text: Dio was among those who gave a highly critical account of military discipline during the time, saying that the soldiers would rather just surrender to the enemy. Different reasons are given for this issue; Campbell points to ...the decline in the prestige of the Severan dynasty, the feeble nature of Alexander himself, who appeared to be no soldier and to be completely dominated by his mother's advice, and lack of real military success at a time during which the empire was coming under increasing pressure.


title: Severus Alexander

text: Herodian, on the other hand, was convinced that "the emperor's miserliness (partly the result of his mother's greed) and slowness to bestow donatives" were instrumental in the fall of military discipline under Alexander.


title: Severus Alexander

text: After the Persian war, Alexander returned to Antioch with Origen, one of the Fathers of the Christian Church. Alexander's mother, Julia Mamaea, asked for Origen to tutor Alexander in Christianity.


title: Severus Alexander

text: While Alexander was being educated in the Christian doctrines, the northern portion of his empire was being invaded by Germanic and Sarmatian tribes. A new and menacing enemy started to emerge directly after Alexander's success in the Persian war. In 234, the barbarians crossed the Rhine and Danube in hordes that caused alarm as far as Rome. The soldiers serving under Alexander, already demoralized after their costly war against the Persians, were further discontented with their emperor when their homes were destroyed by the barbarian invaders.


title: Severus Alexander

text: As word of the invasion spread, the emperor took the front line and went to battle against the Germanic invaders. The Romans prepared heavily for the war, building a fleet to carry the entire army across. However, at this point in Alexander's career, he still knew little about being a general. Because of this, he hoped the mere threat of his armies would be sufficient to persuade the hostile tribes to surrender. Severus enforced a strict military discipline in his men that sparked a rebellion among his legions. Due to incurring heavy losses against the Persians, and on the advice of his mother, Alexander attempted to buy the Germanic tribes off, so as to gain time.


title: Severus Alexander

text: It was this decision that resulted in the legionaries looking down upon Alexander. They considered him dishonorable and feared he was unfit to be Emperor. Under these circumstances the army swiftly looked to replace Alexander.


title: Severus Alexander

text: Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus was the next best option. He was a soldier from Thrace who had a golden reputation and was working hard to increase his military status. He was also a man with superior personal strength, who rose to his present position from a peasant background. With the Thracian's hailing came the end of the Severan Dynasty, and, with the growing animosity of Severus' army towards him, the path for his assassination was paved.


title: Severus Alexander

text: Alexander was forced to face his German enemies in the early months of 235. By the time he and his mother arrived, the situation had settled, and so his mother convinced him that to avoid violence, trying to bribe the German army to surrender was the more sensible course of action. According to historians, it was this tactic combined with insubordination from his own men that destroyed his reputation and popularity. Alexander was thus assassinated together with his mother on 21 or 22 March, in a mutiny of the Legio XXII "Primigenia" at Moguntiacum (Mainz) while at a meeting with his generals. These assassinations secured the throne for Maximinus.


title: Severus Alexander

text: The Historia Augusta documents two theories that elaborate on Severus's assassination. The first claims that the disaffection of Mamaea was the main motive behind the homicide. However, Lampridius makes it clear that he is more supportive of an alternative theory, that Alexander was murdered in Sicilia (located in Britain).


title: Severus Alexander

text: This theory has it that, in an open tent after his lunch, Alexander was consulting with his insubordinate troops, who compared him to his cousin Elagabalus, the divisive and unpopular Emperor whose own assassination paved the way for Alexander's reign. A German servant entered the tent and initiated the call for Alexander's assassination, at which point many of the troops joined in the attack. Alexander's attendants fought against the other troops but could not hold off the combined might of those seeking the Emperor's assassination. Within minutes, Alexander was dead. His mother, Julia Mamaea, was in the same tent with Alexander and soon fell victim to the same group of assassins.


title: Severus Alexander

text: Alexander's body was buried together with the body of his mother, Julia Mamaea, in a mausoleum in Rome. The actual mausoleum, called , is the third largest in Rome after those of Hadrian and Augustus. It is still visible in Piazza dei Tribuni, in the Quadraro area in Rome, where it resembles a large earth mound. The large sarcophagus found inside the tomb in the 16th century, and which contained the emperor's remains, is in the Palazzo dei Conservatori Museum in Rome. According to some sources inside the same sarcophagus in 1582 a precious glass urn was found, the Portland Vase, currently on display at the British Museum in London.


title: Severus Alexander

text: Alexander's death marked the end of the Severan dynasty. He was the last of the Syrian emperors and the first emperor to be overthrown by military discontent on a wide scale. After his death his economic policies were completely discarded, and the Roman currency was devalued; this signaled the beginning of the chaotic period known as the Crisis of the Third Century, which brought the empire to the brink of collapse.


title: Severus Alexander

text: Alexander's death at the hands of his troops can also be seen as the heralding of a new role for Roman emperors. Though they were not yet expected to personally fight in battle during Alexander's time, emperors were increasingly expected to display general competence in military affairs. Thus, Alexander's taking of his mother's advice to not get involved in battle, his dishonorable and unsoldierly methods of dealing with the Germanic threat, and the relative failure of his military campaign against the Persians were all deemed highly unacceptable by the soldiers. Indeed, Maximinus was able to overthrow Alexander by "harping on his own military excellence in contrast to that feeble coward". Yet by arrogating the power to dethrone their emperor, the legions paved the way for a half-century of widespread chaos and instability.


title: Severus Alexander

text: Perhaps his most tangible legacy was the emergence in the 16th century of the "Barberini Vase". This was allegedly found at the mausoleum of the Roman Emperor Alexander Severus and his family at . The discovery of the vase is described by Pietro Santi Bartoli. Pietro Bartoli indicates that the vase contained the ashes of Severus Alexander. However, this together with the interpretations of the scenes depicted are the source of countless theories and disputed 'facts'. The vase passed through the hands of Sir William Hamilton Ambassador to the Royal Court in Naples and was later sold to the Duke and Duchess of Portland, and has subsequently been known as the Portland Vase. Following catastrophic damage in 1845, this vase has been reconstructed three times and resides in the British Museum. The Portland vase itself was borrowed and near copied by Josiah Wedgewood who appears to have added modesty drapery. The vase formed the basis of Jasperware.


title: Severus Alexander

text: Alexander's only known wife was Sallustia Orbiana, "Augusta", whom he married in 225 when she was 16 years old. Their marriage was arranged by Alexander's mother, Mamaea. According to historian Herodian, however, as soon as Orbiana received the title of "Augusta", Mamaea became increasingly jealous and resentful of Alexander's wife due to Mamaea's excessive desire of all regal female titles. Alexander divorced and exiled Orbiana in 227, after her father, Seius Sallustius, was executed after being accused of treason.


title: Severus Alexander

text: According to "Historia Augusta", a late Roman work containing biographies of emperors and others, and considered by scholars to be a work of dubious historical reliability, Alexander was also at some point married to Sulpicia Memmia, a member of one of the most ancient Patrician families in Rome and a daughter to a man of consular rank; her grandfather's name was "Catulus". She is mentioned as his wife only in this later text, thus the marriage has been questioned.


title: Severus Alexander

text: The ancient historian Zosimus claimed that Alexander was married three times. A man named Varius Macrinus may have been Alexander's father-in-law, but it is uncertain if he was the same man as Seius Sallustius, the father of Memmia or the father of an entirely unknown third wife.


title: Severus Alexander

text: Also, according to the "Historia Augusta", Alexander's "chief amusement consisted in having young dogs play with little pigs." Herodian portrays him as a mother's boy.


title: Severus Alexander

text: The "Historia Augusta" claims that Alexander prayed every morning in his private chapel. He was extremely tolerant of Jews and Christians alike. He continued all privileges towards Jews during his reign, and the Augustan History relates that Alexander placed images of Abraham and Jesus in his oratory, along with other Roman deities and classical figures.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa () is a 2010 Indian Tamil-language romantic drama film written and directed by Gautham Vasudev Menon, starring Silambarasan and Trisha. Jointly produced Elred Kumar, Jayaraman, VTV Ganesh and P. Madan under the banner Escape Artists Motion Pictures and RS Infotainment, the film was distributed by Udhayanidhi Stalin's Red Giant Movies. The story was simultaneously shot in Telugu as "Ye Maaya Chesave", starring Naga Chaitanya and Samantha, however, with a different cast.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: Launched after a wave of publicity posters with no details about the cast and crew, "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa" began its first schedule of filming in February 2009. Shooting continued through 2009, with the film garnering significant media interest, through schedules in Malta and the United States. Before release, it became the first Tamil project to have a music soundtrack premiere outside of India, with a successful launch at the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTAs) in London. The film features soundtrack composed by A. R. Rahman, cinematography by Manoj Paramahamsa and editing by Anthony Gonsalves.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa" explores the complicated relationship between a Hindu Tamil boy, Karthik Sivakumar, and a Malayali Christian girl, Jessie Thekekuttu from Alappuzha, Kerala. Karthik falls in love with Jessie only to be met by her indifference and reluctance as they belong to different religions and her strict conservative family will never consent to their union. The film released on 26 February 2010, along with the Telugu version to advance bookings worldwide. It was later remade in Hindi as "Ekk Deewana Tha". A short film/sequel titled "Karthik Dial Seytha Yenn", again directed by Menon with Silambarasan and Trisha reprising their roles, was released in May 2020.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: Karthik is a Mechanical Engineering graduate in Chennai with poor results who aspires to become a filmmaker instead of an engineer. His friend introduces him to cinematographer Ganesh. With Ganesh's help Karthik becomes an assistant to director. Karthik's family, who are Tamil Hindus, rent Jessie's house. Jessie is from a conservative Malayali Nasrani Christian/Syrian Catholic family from Alappuzha, that lives upstairs.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: Karthik falls in love with Jessie the moment he meets her under her house, He tries to interact with Jessie, who is afraid of speaking to men around her strict father, and ends up angering her. Unable to hide his feelings any longer, Karthik confesses his love for her but she does not accept. A few days later, Karthik learns from his sister that Jessie has gone to Kerala to visit her grandmother. He and Ganesh end up in Kerala to look for her. After several days, he finds her and apologises. She introduces him to her family in Kerala as her "classmate". Jessie denies she has any feelings for him but agrees to only be his friend. However, on the train journey back home, Karthik purposely sits closely next to her and kisses her a few times but she eventually gently slaps him to make him stop. Karthik is convinced Jessie loves him and repeatedly expresses his love towards her and she continues to reject him by stating that her parents would not allow as both of them are from different religion and ethnic backgrounds as well she is a year older than him. The two meet several times and Jessie begins to realise that she also likes Karthik, but wants to refrain from any problems because she knows her father wouldn't accept the union. Consequently, due to various misunderstandings between Jessie's brother and Karthik, her parents learn of their supposed affair. They fix a match and scheduled her wedding. The day arrives and midway through the ceremony, Jessie refuses to marry the groom, displeasing everyone in her family. Karthik, who had, without anyone's knowledge, come to Kerala to witness the wedding is ecstatic and secretly visits Jessie at her home. It is then that Jessie admits she has indeed fallen in love with him. Karthik and Jessie continue to love each other without the knowledge of their parents.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: At this point of time, Karthik goes to Goa on a 45-day shoot, where he gets rather busy. Meanwhile, the topic of Jessie's marriage comes up again at her home when the guy whom she refused to marry earlier pays them a visit. Panicking, Jessie calls Karthik and tells him that she wants to elope with him. Karthik, since he is traveling through less than ideal places, tells Jessie to stay in Chennai for now, and that soon he would be back and they can discuss. Jessie stops taking Karthik's calls and so he goes back one night to check on Jessie. He learns that Jessie has decided to break up, as the relationship is not peaceful due to her parents' disapproval. She says she has agreed to marry a boy of their choice. When Karthik pleads her not to do it, she tells him that a time had come when she was willing to elope, but the moment was gone. She doesn't want Karthik to wait for her too long, as he has his dreams to fulfill. Karthik later learns that she is married and has settled in the UK.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: Two years later, Karthik meets Nandini. She falls in love with him, but is rejected by Karthik by saying that he hasn't yet gotten over Jessie. He then comes up with a script for his first film, which happens to be his very own love story and is shot in Tamil. He calls upon Naga Chaitanya as the film's protagonist, Samantha as the female lead and Ganesh as the film's cinematographer, and the film is eventually titled Jessie. While shooting for the film in New York, he sees Jessie and she comes to speak with him. Out of her anger, his parents leave in New York. She admits that she is not married and is still in love with him, and he too says she is still in his heart. Karthik and Jessie see around New York City. Karthik proposes yet again and they get married the same day. This is actually revealed to be the end scene in Karthik's film – which Karthik and Jessie in real life are watching together in the theatre. After it gets over, it is revealed to the audience that Jessie had in fact seen Karthik in New York but had not come forward to meet him. She is married now and hence asks Karthik to move on. She tells Karthik that they cannot lead a life which is full of obstacles as well as without parents approval and hence they depart separately, to lead different lives and different destinies.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: After making a series of action films, Gautham Menon actively chose to make an "out and out love story" at the insistence of his close associates, and marked a return to genre for the first time since "Minnale" (2001). Initially titled "Vennilavae Vennillavae", inspired by the song title from Minsara Kanavu, he started writing the film as a simple love story which slowly became an intense love story, as the scripting phase progressed. Stating that the film would narrate the romantic tale of two people called Karthik and Jessie over a period of almost three years, he revealed that the film would be "conversation driven" and hoped "everybody will identify with the lead pair". Menon took the script to producer Manjula Ghattamaneni, who asked him to narrate the film to her brother Mahesh Babu and the movie was a Tamil and Telugu bilingual. Menon initially felt that the film would not suit the actor, but later agreed preliminary terms to make it in Telugu titled "Jessie" with the actor and have A. R. Rahman as the music composer, as he was impressed with the story.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: Continuing from the earlier proposed theme of "Vennilavae Vennillavae", Menon later chose to use the second line of the song to title his film as "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa", after it was suggested by the cinematographer Manoj Paramahamsa. Menon discussed a Tamil and Telugu version of the script with several actors including Dhanush, Jai and Allu Arjun who had wanted changes to be made to the climax, and described being "one week away" from starting the project with a debutant actor. But In late January 2009, Menon confirmed that he was in discussions with Silambarasan and Trisha to portray the lead roles from the script. After finding out that Silambarasan had dates available as a result of the delay in the shoot of Vignesh Shivan's "Podaa Podi" (2012), Menon chose to halt the production of his ongoing "Chennaiyil Oru Mazhaikaalam" and finalise pre-production work on "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa".


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: Menon added that Silambarasan was "apt for this kind of a film" and was "ready to experiment and try something different" from his usual film roles, prompting him to agree to star in the film. As Menon was working with Trisha on "Chennaiyil Oru Mazhaikaalam", he chose to use her dates for "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa" instead. To pique interest before the official announcement, the makers released a series of film posters featuring Silambarasan and Trisha inspired from previous classic Tamil films. The team used posters inspired from "Geethanjali" (1989), "Minsara Kanavu" (1997), "Dil Se" (1998), "Alaipayuthey" (2000) and "Kaakha Kaakha" (2003). Other members of the technical crew included Menon's regular collaborators editor Anthony, art director Rajeevan, costume designer Nalini Sriram and lyricist Thamarai. The project was jointly produced by Escape Artists Motion Pictures and RS Infotainment, with Elred Kumar, Ganesh, Madhan as producers.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: For the role of a mentor to Karthik's character, Menon first approached Vivek, but he turned down the opportunity. Later, one of the film's producers, Ganesh, was cast in the role, in what later became his breakthrough film as an actor. Chennai-based model Janani Iyer was recruited to portray the role of an assistant director who falls in love with Karthik, but the role was later reshot with Samantha, who worked as the lead actress of the film's Telugu version. Janani Iyer was subsequently seen in the background of several scenes where Karthik is shown to be a part of a film production team. Ashwin Kakumanu also auditioned for the role of Jessy's brother in the film and was selected, but eventually did not feature after having a clash of dates.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: Scenes were shot in the lakes of Alappuzha during April 2009 for a month, with the houseboats doubling up as caravans.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: In May, the team moved to Malta to film the song sequences for "Hosanna" and "Omana Penne", choreographed by Flexy Stu. For the particular song sequences in the film, Menon wanted "churches, water and caves" and convinced the producers to finance a trip to Malta, and in the process, the team became the first South Indian film to shoot in the country. Scenes were shot in places including Valletta, Mdina, Gozo and Comino, as well as in lanes, alleys, eight churches and during the time of a village feast. The makers brought along a crew of twenty-six people to Malta, with ten local workers also helping on the production. The shoot lasted ten days and cost approximately €90,000.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: In October 2009, the team flew to the United States to complete the final filming schedule. Scenes were shot throughout locations in Manhattan and New Jersey, with particular shots filmed at Brooklyn Bridge, Central Park and Times Square.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: The soundtrack was composed by A. R. Rahman. "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa" marked the beginning of a collaboration between Rahman, Silambarasan and Gautham Vasudev Menon.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: The world premiere was held at BAFTA in London on 25 December 2009 and later it was relaunched in Chennai on 6 January 2010. The album consists of seven tracks. The audio received good pre-release response and was marked as No. 1 in Asia, in advance bookings. The album was ranked among the best musicals of 2010. It retained the same tunes of the simultaneously Telugu film, Ye Maaya Chesave and the Hindi remake, Ekk Deewana Tha.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: The film was given a U/A certificate by the Indian Film Certification Board because, according to Menon, they believed "the love in the film was too intense for a child to understand".


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: "Oneindia.in" said "The slow phase of the second half and frequent use of profane words (Chennai Tamil) are major minuses in Gautham's narration. But these are all not preventing one to enjoy the content of true and painful love of the film!"


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: "Sify" said that it was "Very good" further citing "The film is a must watch for those who cares for cinema of sense and substance. It stresses the fact that Tamil cinema has to break the mould if it aims to grab eyeballs. Gautham Menon has crafted a movie that will stay in our hearts for a long, long time." "Indiaglitz" stated "If and only if, you have all the time in the world, and you like the slow romantic genre, you'll enjoy this one."


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: Pavithra Srinivasan of "Rediff.com" called the film a "Must watch" further citing "The best part about VTV is that it revolves around people, rather than events. It's like putting a camera into the intimate, everyday life of two people and following them on their adventures. The characters go through a whirlwind of emotions, laugh and cry, and take you along with them." However, the reviewer points out certain drawbacks in the film citing "On the minus side, VTV suffers from the same defect as Vaaranam Aayiram: the second half lags in pace. The dialogues and confrontations are repetitive. There's a would-be love-track that seems unnecessary before the story takes off again."


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: Malathi Rangarajan from "The Hindu" said "Twenty two-year old Karthik's true-to-life overtures, reactions and recklessness are just as you would expect from a director of Menon's calibre. It is his authentic depiction of Jessie's confusion that's all the more amazing – Menon's complete understanding of a woman's psyche bowls you over! So do the young lovers!" Aravindan D. I. of "nowrunning.com" gave the film three stars out of five and said "Gautam Vasudev Menon's "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaaya" is a clean romantic story without any deviation or sub-plots."


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: "Chennai Online" said, "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa" (VTV) is an excellent effort on the part of Gautam Vasudev Menon in narrating a clean romantic story without any deviation from the plot" and further cited "As is Menon’s forte, the dialogues and the execution of scenes are top-notch. The joys of falling of love and the pangs of separation have been portrayed well. The way Simbu nurtures his love for Jesse and the positive but ambiguous reactions from Trisha to his overtures are very nice indeed."


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: Raman Nalluswamy Thevar, an Indian author wrote an E-book titled "One Awesome Girl" which narrates the dialogue "One-way ticket to Heart-break city" delivered by Simbu. Raman stated that his debut contains his auto-biography and semi-biography which received positive reviews.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa" took a grand opening, grossing around in its first three days in Chennai. The film grossed at the Chennai box office in the 12th weekend. It totally grossed and was officially declared a blockbuster.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: In February 2018, Gautham Vasudev Menon announced a sequel to the film, titled "Ondraga". This film will be a road movie – hyperlink film which will focus on Karthik and his best friends from college travelling to the United States to attend a wedding ten years after the events of the first film. Initially, Menon had stated R. Madhavan would be playing the role of an older Karthik. After Madhavan dropped out of the project, Silambarasan agreed to reprise the role he originally played. Trisha and Samantha Ruth Prabhu will also be reprising their roles from the first film. Tovino Thomas and Puneeth Rajkumar will be playing the roles as Karthik's Malayalam and Kannada friends respectively. Telugu actors Allu Arjun, Nani, Sai Dharam Tej, Varun Tej and Vijay Deverakonda have been approached to play the role of Karthik's Telugu friend. Actresses Tamannaah and Anushka Shetty are being considered as a third female lead.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: The short film referring the characters Karthik and Jessie, titled "Karthik Dial Seytha Yenn" starring Silambarasan and Trisha was released on 21 May 2020.


title: Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa

text: The dialogue "Inga Enna Solludhu" spoken by VTV Ganesh inspired a 2014 film of same name which was produced and acted by Ganesh. The sequence when Karthik (Silambarasan) leans on the gate when he is in love with Jessie in the song "Hosanna" is pariodied by Santhanam in "Neethaane En Ponvasantham" (2012). The scene where Karthik proposes to Jessie is spoofed in "Kannum Kannum Kollaiyadithaal" (2020). In the film, Pratap (played by Gautham Vasudev Menon) gifts Jessie (played by Ritu Varma) a necklace. The scenes and dialogues were parodied in "Tamizh Padam 2" (2018). The song "Omana Penne" inspired a film of the same name, but being titled as "Oh Manapenne" ().


title: Republic of Formosa

text: The Republic of Formosa was a short-lived republic that existed on the island of Taiwan in 1895 between the formal cession of Taiwan by the Qing dynasty of China to the Empire of Japan by the Treaty of Shimonoseki and its being taken over by Japanese troops. The Republic was proclaimed on 23 May 1895 and extinguished on 21 October, when the Republican capital Tainan was taken over by the Japanese. Though sometimes claimed as the first Asian republic to have been proclaimed, it was predated by the Lanfang Republic in Borneo, established in 1777, as well as by the Republic of Ezo in Japan, established in 1869.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: The name Formosa dates from 1542 when Portuguese sailors sighted an uncharted island and noted it on their maps as "Ilha Formosa" ("beautiful island"). The name "Formosa" eventually "replaced all others in European literature" and remained in common use among English speakers into the 20th century.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: In 1894, China and Japan went to war. In a few months, the Japanese defeated China's Beiyang fleet, routed the Chinese armies in Manchuria, and captured Port Arthur and Weihaiwei. Although nearly all the fighting took place in northern China, Japan had important territorial ambitions in southern China. As the war approached its end, the Japanese took steps to ensure that Taiwan would be ceded to Japan under the eventual peace treaty and that they were well placed militarily to occupy the island. In March 1895 peace negotiations between Japan and China opened in the Japanese city of Shimonoseki. Although hostilities in northern China were suspended during these negotiations, Taiwan and the Pescadores were specifically excluded from the scope of the armistice. This exclusion allowed the Japanese to mount a military operation against the Pescadores Islands in March 1895 without imperilling the negotiations. The Pescadores, lying midway between mainland China and Taiwan, were the key to a successful occupation of Taiwan. In a swift campaign in the last week of March the Japanese captured the islands, preventing further Chinese reinforcements from being sent across the Taiwan Strait to Taiwan. This brisk "fait accompli" influenced the peace negotiations, and the ensuing Treaty of Shimonoseki, concluded on 17 April 1895, duly provided for the cession by China of Taiwan to Japan. On 10 May, Admiral Kabayama Sukenori was appointed the first Japanese governor-general of Taiwan.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: When the news of the treaty's contents reached Taiwan, a number of notables from central Taiwan led by Qiu Fengjia decided to resist the transfer of Taiwan to Japanese rule. On 23 May, in Taipei, these men declared independence, proclaiming the establishment of a free and democratic Republic of Formosa. Tang Jingsong, the Qing governor-general of Taiwan, was prevailed upon to become the republic's first President, and his old friend Liu Yongfu, the retired Black Flag Army commander who had become a national hero in China for his victories against the French in northern Vietnam a decade earlier, was invited to serve as Grand General of the Army. Chiu was appointed Grand Commander of Militia, with the power to raise local militia units throughout the island to resist the Japanese. On the Chinese mainland Zhang Zhidong, the powerful governor-general of Liangkiang, tacitly supported the Formosan resistance movement, and the Republicans also appointed Chen Jitong, a disgraced Chinese diplomat who understood European ways of thinking, as the Republic's foreign minister. His job would be to sell the Republic abroad.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: The declaration has not been preserved in its original Chinese version, although an English version of it was recorded by the American war correspondent James Wheeler Davidson, who was in Taipei when it was issued. Davidson's version reads as follows:


title: Republic of Formosa

text: The Japanese have affronted China by annexing our territory of Formosa, and the supplications of us, the People of Formosa, at the portals of the Throne have been made in vain. We now learn that the Japanese slaves are about to arrive.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: If we suffer this, the land of our hearths and homes will become the land of savages and barbarians, but if we do not suffer it, our condition of comparative weakness will certainly not endure long. Frequent conferences have been held with the Foreign Powers, who all aver that the People of Formosa must establish their independence before the Powers will assist them.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: Now, therefore, we, the People of Formosa, are irrevocably resolved to die before we will serve the enemy. And we have in Council determined to convert the whole island of Formosa into a Republican state, and that the administration of all our State affairs shall be organized and carried on by the deliberations and decisions of Officers publicly elected by us the People. But as in this new enterprise there is needed, as well for the resistance of Japanese aggression as for the organization of the new administration, a man to have chief control, in whom authority shall centre, and by whom the peace of our homesteads shall be assured—therefore, in view of the respect and admiration in which we have long held the Governor and Commander-in-Chief, Tang Ching Sung, we have in Council determined to raise him to the position of President of the Republic.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: An official seal has been cut, and on the second day of fifth moon, at the "ssu" hour [9 a.m. 25 May], it will be publicly presented with all respect by the notables and people of the whole of Formosa. At early dawn on that day, all of us, notables and people, farmers and merchants, artizans and tradesmen, must assemble at the Tuan Fang Meeting House, that we may in grave and solemn manner inaugurate this undertaking


title: Republic of Formosa

text: Since the island had already been ceded to Japan in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, Western powers were not in a position to recognize the Republic of Formosa as a legitimate government. Acting under the authority of the new Republic, Chinese troops would be able to resist the Japanese in Taiwan without technically breaching the terms of the treaty, and if they were successful Taiwan could return to Chinese rule at some future date. (In this respect, it was significant that the nominally independent Republic acknowledged the suzerainty of China.) There was therefore little sympathy in Europe for the Republic, despite its impeccably 'Parisian' manifesto.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: Although there was considerable unofficial support for the Formosan resistance movement in Peking, the Qing government's official stance was one of punctilious adherence to the terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, as considerable diplomatic efforts were then underway to persuade Japan to relinquish the Liaotung Peninsula, which had also been ceded to Japan under the treaty. Japan's rapacity had aroused concern in Europe, and in a diplomatic demarche known as the Triple Intervention, Russia, France and Germany put pressure on the Japanese government in late April 1895 to restore the peninsula to China. On 5 May the Japanese agreed to retrocede the Liaotung Peninsula to China in return for an increased indemnity, but it took until December 1895 to negotiate the necessary treaty amendments, and while the negotiations were in progress Japanese troops remained in place. During this period the empress dowager and her officials were anxious not to offend Japan, and the Qing court therefore formally disavowed the Republican resistance movement in Taiwan. Shortly before the proclamation of the Republic of Formosa, the Qing court ordered Li Ching-fang (), the nephew and adopted son of China's elder statesman Li Hongzhang, to proceed to Taiwan and transfer sovereignty over the island from China to Japan. It also cabled an imperial edict to Taipei on 20 May, directing Tang Jingsong to order all Qing civil officials and all officers and soldiers to leave Taiwan. Tang himself was ordered to return to Peking.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: Spurned by European public opinion and officially disavowed by China, the Republic of Formosa enjoyed only one week of uninterrupted existence. During this time it decked itself out with the conventional trappings of sovereignty. The Republicans adopted a national flag with a yellow tiger on a blue background, ordered a large silver state seal to be made, and began to issue paper money and postage stamps in the name of the Republic. The foreign minister Ch'en Chi-t'ung, who had lived in France for many years, was responsible for crafting much of this republican symbolism.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: Premises were found for the republican parliament and the republican ministries in the yamens of the former Qing administration in Taipei. Tang Jingsong, the president of the republic, remained in the palatial Government House he had previously occupied as the Qing governor-general of Formosa. T'ang's cabinet included the heads of the four great ministries of state (war, the navy, home affairs and foreign affairs), who ran their ministries from the large yamens that had previously been the premises of the provincial treasury. The yamens previously used as the headquarters of the Defence Board became Parliament House. The navy department was housed in the old military secretariat.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: Knowing that a Japanese landing was imminent, the Republican leaders did what little they could in the short time given to them to prepare the island's defences against invasion. Taiwan in May 1895 was not short of soldiers. Tang Jingsong, in order to hearten the people, exaggerated their numbers considerably, claiming that he had under his command 150,000 soldiers, regulars and volunteers. Judicious observers believed that this figure should be halved. In all, they calculated, there were 75,000 soldiers scattered throughout the island, of whom 50,000 were in the northern half and 25,000 in the southern half. These troops included the regular soldiers of the Qing garrison, local volunteers, and Hakka militia units hastily raised on the orders of Ch'iu Feng-chia.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: The Qing garrison of Formosa amounted to around 50,000 soldiers, armed for the most part with modern repeating rifles. Liu Yung-fu commanded around 20,000 men down in the south, around Tainan, while Ch'iu Feng-chia commanded the central garrisons, perhaps another 10,000 men. The 30,000 men of the northern garrisons were under the command of a Chinese admiral named Yang. Local volunteer and Hakka militia units seem to have accounted for a further 25,000 men.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: The Republic of Formosa survived for only five months. The Japanese landed near Keelung on the northern coast of Taiwan on 29 May 1895, and in a five-month campaign swept southwards to Tainan. During the night of 4 June, on the news that the Japanese had captured Keelung, President T'ang and General Chiu fled to Tamsui, and from there sailed for the mainland on the evening of 6 June. The Japanese entered Taipei shortly afterwards.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: Following T'ang's flight, Liu Yung-fu assumed the mantle of leadership of the Republic in Tainan. He refused to serve as president, however, and stressed instead his role as commander-in-chief of the resistance against the Japanese. The capture of Tainan now became both a political and a military imperative for the Japanese. During the next three months, although their advance was slowed by guerilla activity, the Japanese defeated the Formosan forces whenever they attempted to make a stand. The Japanese victory at Baguashan on 27 August, the largest battle ever fought on Taiwanese soil, doomed the Formosan resistance to an early defeat. The fall of Tainan on 21 October ended organised resistance to Japanese occupation, and inaugurated five decades of Japanese rule in Taiwan.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: One of the republic's resistance fighters was Lin Sen, future President of the Republic of China. During World War II, Lin urged the return of Taiwan be included in the Allies' war aims which was accomplished shortly after his death with the Cairo Declaration. There are roads named after him throughout the island.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: In spite of the similarities between their names, modern supporters of Taiwan independence who call for the establishment of a Republic of Taiwan are wary of claiming that their own movement owes anything to the example of the 1895 Republic. The reason for this is that Tang Jingsong and his adherents continued to recognise Chinese suzerainty, while modern advocates of a Republic of Taiwan seek complete independence.


title: Republic of Formosa

text: Nitobe Inazō, a former Director of the Bureau of Industries in the Government of Formosa, wrote, "Mr. Tang was elected president and the Republic of Formosa lasted three or four months, leaving behind nothing but some post-stamps valuable for collectors."


title: Michael Beach

text: Michael Anthony Beach (born October 30, 1963) is an American actor. He has appeared in films "Lean on Me" (1989), "One False Move" (1992), "Short Cuts" (1993), "Waiting to Exhale" (1995), "A Family Thing" (1996), "Soul Food" (1997), and "Aquaman" (2018). On television, he played Al Boulet on the NBC medical drama "ER" from 1995 to 1997. From 1999 to 2005, Beach was a regular cast member in another NBC drama series, "Third Watch", as Monte Parker, and as T.O. Cross in FX's "Sons of Anarchy".


title: Michael Beach

text: Beach was born in Roxbury, Massachusetts on October 30, 1963. He graduated from Juilliard School with a degree for the Bachelor of Fine Arts.


title: Michael Beach

text: Beach's big screen debut was in "End of the Line" in 1987, and he went on to appear opposite Morgan Freeman and Beverly Todd in "Lean on Me" (1989). Beach also co-starred in films including "Internal Affairs", "Cadence" (both 1990), "One False Move" (1992) with Cynda Williams, "Short Cuts" and "True Romance" (both 1993).


title: Michael Beach

text: Beach's big break came in 1995, playing Angela Bassett's unfaithful husband in the comedy-drama film "Waiting to Exhale". In 1997, he played Vanessa L. Williams's unfaithful husband in the comedy-drama film "Soul Food". On television, he played a recurring role as Al Boulet, the ex-husband of physician assistant Jeanie Boulet (Gloria Reuben) in the NBC medical drama "ER" from 1995 to 1997. From 1999 to 2005, Beach was a regular cast member in the NBC drama series "Third Watch", playing FDNY paramedic Monte 'Doc' Parker.


title: Michael Beach

text: Beach has had guest-starring roles on "Law & Order", "", "Brothers & Sisters", "Criminal Minds", "Grey's Anatomy", "The Closer", and "The Blacklist". He was also a regular on the short-lived NBC series "Crisis" in 2014, and had recurring roles on "Stargate Atlantis", "Sons of Anarchy", "The Client List", "The Game", "Secrets and Lies", "S.W.A.T." and "The 100". Most recently he has had a guest-starring role in seasons 6 and 7 of "Chicago P.D." as Darius Walker, a drug dealer and community philanthropist turned confidential informant. In December 2022, Beach was confirmed by "Deadline Hollywood" to have signed on to appear in "Saw X", the upcoming tenth installment of the "Saw" film series, set for release in October 2023.


title: Michael Beach

text: Beach married Tracey Beach in 1998, and their marriage lasted for eight years until their divorce in 2006. The following year, he was married to Elisha Wilson.


title: Ezra Klein

text: Ezra Klein (born May 10, 1984) is an American journalist, political analyst, "New York Times" columnist, and the host of "The Ezra Klein Show" podcast. He is a co-founder of "Vox" and formerly served as the website's editor-at-large. He has held editorial positions at "The Washington Post" and "The American Prospect", and was a regular contributor to Bloomberg News and MSNBC. His first book, "Why We're Polarized", was published by Simon & Schuster in January 2020.


title: Ezra Klein

text: Klein rose to prominence as a blogger, who became well known for his in-depth analysis on a range of policy issues. By 2007, Klein's blog had gained a substantial following and was acquired by "The American Prospect", where he served as an associate editor. At "The Washington Post", Klein managed Wonkblog, a branded blog that featured his and other reporters’ writing on domestic policy.


title: Ezra Klein

text: In 2014, alongside fellow journalists Matt Yglesias and Melissa Bell, Klein co-founded Vox"," a website for explanatory news owned by Vox Media. He served as the editor-in-chief, and later as editor-at-large. Klein also contributed articles to the website, hosted an associated podcast ("The Ezra Klein Show"), and worked as an executive producer for Vox's Netflix series "Explained." In November 2020, Klein announced he would be leaving "Vox" to join "The New York Times" as a columnist and podcast host.


title: Ezra Klein

text: Klein was raised in a Jewish family in Irvine, California. His father, Abel Klein, originally from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, is a professor of mathematics at the University of California, Irvine; his mother is an artist. Klein attended University High School, where he was a poor student and graduated in 2002 with a 2.2 GPA. Klein attended the University of California, Santa Cruz for two years before transferring to the University of California, Los Angeles, from which he graduated in 2005 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science. While at UCSC, he applied to write for "City on a Hill Press" but was rejected. He said school was never a great fit for him academically or socially.


title: Ezra Klein

text: Klein worked on Howard Dean's primary campaign in Vermont in 2003 and interned for the "Washington Monthly" in Washington, D.C., in 2004. "The media is as effective and important an agent for change as the legislative bodies, and I think it's where I'm happiest and most effective," Klein said. In 2003, he and Markos Moulitsas were two of the earliest bloggers to report from a political convention, that of the California State Democratic Party. In 2006, Klein was one of several writers pseudonymously flamed by "The New Republic" writer Lee Siegel (posting as a sock puppet called "sprezzatura").


title: Ezra Klein

text: Klein's prolific blogging caught the attention of Steve Pearlstein, "The Washington Post" veteran business columnist. "I was blown away by how good he was—how much the kid wrote—on so many subjects," Pearlstein said. Pearlstein sent samples of Klein's work to managing editor Raju Narisetti. A few weeks after he heard from Pearlstein, "Washington Post" foreign correspondent John Pomfret asked Klein to have lunch with him and financial editor Sandy Sugawara. Narisetti hired Klein to be the Post's first pure blogger on politics and economics. On May 18, 2009, he began writing at the newspaper.


title: Ezra Klein

text: In May 2011, when Bloomberg View launched, Klein became a columnist there in addition to his work at "The Washington Post" and MSNBC.


title: Ezra Klein

text: Klein announced he would be leaving "The Washington Post" in January 2014, with the intent to start a new media venture with several other veteran journalists.


title: Ezra Klein

text: Klein had previously "proposed the creation of an independent, explanatory journalism website—with more than three dozen staffers" and an annual budget of more than to remain at "The Washington Post". During negotiations, Post publisher Katharine Weymouth and new owner Jeff Bezos did not make a counteroffer.


title: Ezra Klein

text: Klein was editor-in-chief at "Vox", later editor-at-large, and formerly wrote for and edited Wonkblog at "The Washington Post". He frequently provides political commentary on MSNBC's "The Rachel Maddow Show", "Hardball with Chris Matthews", and "The Last Word with Lawrence O'Donnell". He is a former contributor to "Countdown with Keith Olbermann". On March 14, 2013, "The Week" magazine reported that Klein was among those being considered to host MSNBC's yet-unnamed 8 p.m. weekday prime-time show that would replace "The Ed Show". Ultimately, the time slot was filled with "All In with Chris Hayes".


title: Ezra Klein

text: In October 2015, Klein, along with Sarah Kliff and Matt Yglesias, launched "The Weeds", a "Vox" podcast of detailed discussions on public policy. Klein also hosts the podcast "The Ezra Klein Show". Klein is an executive producer of "Vox" Netflix series "Explained", which debuted in 2018.


title: Ezra Klein

text: In October 2019, Klein, along with other reporters from Vox Media, started the podcast "Impeachment, Explained". Klein joined the "New York Times" in 2020 and became one of their opinion columnists in 2021. According to an analysis by British digital strategist Rob Blackie, Klein was one of the most commonly followed political writers among Biden administration staff on Twitter.


title: Ezra Klein

text: In December 2009, Klein wrote an article in "The Washington Post", stating that U.S. Senator Joe Lieberman was "willing to cause the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people in order to settle an old electoral score", because Lieberman "was motivated to oppose health care legislation in part out of resentment at liberals for being defeated in the 2006 Connecticut Democratic Primary". Klein based his estimate on an Urban Institute report that estimated that 22,000 people died in 2006 because they lacked health insurance. This article was criticized by Jonah Goldberg of the "National Review", who called it a "silly claim". Charles Lane, also of "The Washington Post", described Klein's article as an "outrageous smear". But E. J. Dionne, also of "The Washington Post", agreed with Klein's claim, saying that "Klein is right that there is not a shred of principle in Lieberman's opposition." Klein later said he regretted the phrasing and his position is that despite universal coverage, the social determinants of health are still powerful predictors that, on average, ensure the lower socioeconomic classes die sooner than those with more income and education.


title: Ezra Klein

text: In February 2007, Klein created a Google Groups forum called "JournoList" for discussing politics and the news media. The forum's membership was controlled by Klein and limited to "several hundred left-leaning bloggers, political reporters, magazine writers, policy wonks and academics".


title: Ezra Klein

text: Posts within JournoList were intended only to be made and read by its members. Klein defended the forum saying that it "[ensures] that folks feel safe giving off-the-cuff analysis and instant reactions". JournoList member and "Time" magazine columnist Joe Klein (no relation to Ezra Klein) added that the off-the-record nature of the forum was necessary because "candor is essential and can only be guaranteed by keeping these conversations private".


title: Ezra Klein

text: The existence of JournoList was first publicly revealed in a July 27, 2007, blog post by blogger Mickey Kaus. However, the forum did not attract serious attention until March 17, 2009, when an article published on "Politico" detailed the nature of the forum and the extent of its membership. The Politico article set off debate within the blogosphere over the ethics of participating in JournoList and raised questions about its purpose. The first public excerpt of a discussion within JournoList was posted by Mickey Kaus on his blog on March 26, 2009.


title: Ezra Klein

text: In addition to Ezra Klein, membership of JournoList included Jeffrey Toobin, Eric Alterman, Paul Krugman, Joe Klein, Matthew Yglesias, and Jonathan Chait.


title: Ezra Klein

text: On June 25, 2010, Ezra Klein announced in his "Washington Post" blog that he would be terminating the JournoList group. This decision was instigated by fellow blogger Dave Weigel's resignation from the "Post" following the public exposure of several of his JournoList emails about conservative media figures.


title: Ezra Klein

text: Klein had justified excluding conservative Republicans from participation as "not about fostering ideology but preventing a collapse into flame war. The emphasis is on empiricism, not ideology."


title: Ezra Klein

text: In 2010, he was named Blogger of the Year by "The Week" magazine and The Sidney Hillman Foundation. In 2011, he was named one of the 50 most powerful people in Washington, D.C., by "GQ". His blog was also named one of the 25 best financial blogs by "Time" magazine in 2011. In 2013, Klein won the Online News Association Award for Best Online Commentary. He also won the American Political Science Association's Carey McWilliams Award, for "a major journalistic contribution to our understanding of politics". He appeared as one of 80 men featured in "Esquire" 80th anniversary issue and in a feature in "T" magazine.


title: Ezra Klein

text: Klein is married to Annie Lowrey, an economic policy reporter at "The Atlantic". They have two children, the first born in February 2019 and the second in fall 2021. Klein is vegan.


title: 2021–22 snooker season

text: The 2021–22 snooker season was a series of snooker tournaments played from July 2021 to May 2022, including the professional World Snooker Tour but also featuring events for female, senior, and Q School players. The season saw a record five players claim their first professional ranking titles: David Gilbert, Zhao Xintong, Hossein Vafaei, Fan Zhengyi, and Robert Milkins. Nutcharut Wongharuthai won her first World Women's Snooker Championship, becoming the only player besides Reanne Evans and Ng On-yee to win the women's world title in 19 years. Ronnie O'Sullivan won the World Snooker Championship, equalling Stephen Hendry's modern era record of seven world titles and becoming the oldest world champion in snooker history at the age of 46 years and 148 days. Lee Walker won his first World Seniors Championship.


title: 2021–22 snooker season

text: Neil Robertson, who won four tournaments during the season, was named Player of the Year at the World Snooker Tour Awards. O'Sullivan was named the Snooker Journalists' Player of the Year, while Zhao was the Fans' Player of the Year. O'Sullivan won Performance of the Year for capturing his seventh world title, while Robertson won Magic Moment of the Year for making a maximum break at the Crucible. Evans and Allison Fisher were entered into the Snooker Hall of Fame for outstanding contributions to the growth of snooker.


title: 2021–22 snooker season

text: The World Snooker Tour in the 2021–22 season consists of a field of 122 professional players. The top 64 players from the prize money rankings after the 2021 World Championship, and 27 of the players who earned a two-year tour card the previous year automatically qualified for the season. Next, eight places were allocated to the top eight on the One Year Ranking List who had not already qualified for the Main Tour. Another four players came from the CBSA China Tour, and a further 14 places were eligible through the Q School (four Event 1 winners, four Event 2 winners, four Event 3 winners, and two from the Order of Merit). Two players from the World Women's Snooker Tour were given tour cards. Andrew Pagett, who won the 2020 EBSA European Championship, had his tour card deferred to this season and was subsequently given a tour card. The last two tour cards were invitational tour cards, given to Marco Fu and Jimmy White.


title: 2021–22 snooker season

text: As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic restricting the number of amateur qualification tournaments that could be run and thus the total size of the Main Tour for this season, World Snooker Tour announced that the following six players are guaranteed an invite to all eligible snooker events this season, alongside amateurs appointed by local governing bodies for the Home Nations Series. This was due to their ranking on the Q School Order of Merit:


title: 2021–22 snooker season

text: The following tables outline the dates and results for all the events of the World Snooker Tour, World Women's Snooker, the World Seniors Tour and the Q Tour.


title: 2021–22 snooker season

text: The 2021–22 snooker season will feature the following points distribution for World Snooker Tour ranking events:


title: Niger River

text: The Niger River ( ; ) is the main river of West Africa, extending about . Its drainage basin is in area. Its source is in the Guinea Highlands in south-eastern Guinea near the Sierra Leone border. It runs in a crescent shape through Mali, Niger, on the border with Benin and then through Nigeria, discharging through a massive delta, known as the Niger Delta (or the Oil Rivers), into the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean. The Niger is the third-longest river in Africa, exceeded by the Nile and the Congo River. Its main tributary is the Benue River.


title: Niger River

text: The earliest use of the name "Niger" for the river is by Leo Africanus in his "Della descrittione dell’Africa et delle cose notabili che ivi sono" published in Italian in 1550. The name may come from a Berber phrase "ger-n-ger" meaning "river of rivers". As Timbuktu was the southern end of the principal Trans-Saharan trade route to the western Mediterranean, it was the source of most European knowledge of the region.


title: Niger River

text: Medieval European maps applied the name "Niger" to the middle reaches of the river, in modern Mali, but "Quorra" ("Kworra") to the lower reaches in modern Nigeria, as these were not recognized at the time as being the same river. When European colonial powers began to send ships along the west coast of Africa in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Senegal River was often postulated to be the seaward end of the Niger. The Niger Delta, pouring into the Atlantic through mangrove swamps and thousands of distributaries along more than , was thought to be coastal wetlands. It was only with the 18th-century visits of Mungo Park, who travelled down the Niger River and visited the great Sahelian empires of his day, that Europeans correctly identified the course of the Niger and extended the name to its entire course.


title: Niger River

text: The modern nations of Nigeria and Niger take their names from the river, marking contesting national claims by colonial powers of the "upper", "lower" and "middle" Niger river basin during the Scramble for Africa at the end of the 19th century.


title: Niger River

text: The Niger River is a relatively clear river, carrying only a tenth as much sediment as the Nile because the Niger's headwaters lie in ancient rocks that provide little silt. Like the Nile, the Niger floods yearly; this begins in September, peaks in November, and finishes by May. An unusual feature of the river is the Inner Niger Delta, which forms where its gradient suddenly decreases. The result is a region of braided streams, marshes, and large lakes; the seasonal floods make the Delta extremely productive for both fishing and agriculture.


title: Niger River

text: The river loses nearly two-thirds of its potential flow in the Inner Delta between Ségou and Timbuktu to seepage and evaporation. The water from the Bani River, which flows into the Delta at Mopti, does not compensate for the losses. The average loss is estimated at 31 km/year but varies considerably between years. The river is then joined by various tributaries but also loses more water to evaporation. The quantity of water entering Nigeria was estimated at 25 km/year before the 1980s and at 13.5 km/year during the 1980s.


title: Niger River

text: The most important tributary is the Benue River which merges with the Niger at Lokoja in Nigeria. The total volume of tributaries in Nigeria is six times higher than the inflow into Nigeria, with a flow near the mouth of the river standing at 177.0 km/year before the 1980s and 147.3 km/year during the 1980s.


title: Niger River

text: The Niger takes one of the most unusual routes of any major river, a boomerang shape that baffled geographers for two centuries. Its source (Tembakounda) is 240 km (150 mi) inland from the Atlantic Ocean, but the river runs directly away from the sea into the Sahara Desert, then takes a sharp right turn near the ancient city of Timbuktu and heads southeast to the Gulf of Guinea. This strange geography apparently came about because the Niger River is two ancient rivers joined together. The upper Niger, from the source west of Timbuktu to the bend in the current river near Timbuktu, once emptied into a now dry lake to the east northeast of Timbuktu, while the lower Niger started to the south of Timbuktu and flowed south into the Gulf of Guinea. Over time upstream erosion by the lower Niger resulted in stream capture of the upper Niger by the lower Niger.


title: Niger River

text: The northern part of the river, known as the "Niger bend", is an important area because it is the major river and source of water in that part of the Sahara. This made it the focal point of trade across the western Sahara and the centre of the Sahelian kingdoms of Mali and Gao. The surrounding Niger River Basin is one of the distinct physiographic sections of the Sudan province, which in turn is part of the larger African massive physiographic division.


title: Niger River

text: At the end of the African humid period around 5,500 years before present, the modern Sahara Desert, once a savanna, underwent desertification. As plant species sharply declined, humans migrated to the fertile Niger River bend region, with abundant resources including plants for grazing and fish. Like in the Fertile Crescent, many food crops were domesticated in the Niger River region, including yams, African rice (Oryza glaberrima), and pearl millet. The Sahara aridification may have triggered, or at least accelerated, these domestications. Agriculture, as well as fishing and animal husbandry, led to the rise of settlements like Djenné-Djenno in the Inner Delta, now a World Heritage Site.


title: Niger River

text: The region of the Niger bend, in the Sahel, was a key origin and destination for trans-Saharan trade, fueling the wealth of great empires such as the Ghana, Mali, and Songhai Empires. Major trading ports along the river, including Timbuktu and Gao, became centers of learning and culture. Trade to the Niger bend region also brought Islam to the region in approximately the 14th century CE. Much of the northern Niger basin remains Muslim today, although the southern reaches of the river tend to be Christian.


title: Niger River

text: Classical writings on the interior of the Sahara begin with Ptolemy, who mentions two rivers in the desert: the "Gir" (Γειρ) and farther south, the "Nigir" (Νιγειρ). The first has been since identified as the Wadi Ghir on the north-western edge of the Tuat, along the borders of modern Morocco and Algeria. This would likely have been as far as Ptolemy would have had consistent records. The Ni-Ger was likely speculation, although the name stuck as that of a river south of the Mediterranean's "known world". Suetonius reports Romans traveling to the "Ger", although in reporting any river's name derived from a Berber language, in which "gher" means "watercourse", confusion could easily arise. Pliny connected these two rivers as one long watercourse which flowed (via lakes and underground sections) into the Nile, a notion which persisted in the Arab and European worlds – and further added the Senegal River as the "Ger" – until the 19th century.


title: Niger River

text: While the true course of the Niger was presumably known to locals, it was a mystery to the outside world until the late 18th century. The connection to the Nile River was made not simply because this was then known as the great river of "Aethiopia" (by which all lands south of the desert were called by Classical writers), but because the Nile like the Niger flooded every summer. Through the descriptions of Leo Africanus and even Ibn Battuta – despite his visit to the river – the myth connecting the Niger to the Nile persisted.


title: Niger River

text: Many European expeditions to plot the river were unsuccessful. In 1788 the African Association was formed in England to promote the exploration of Africa in the hopes of locating the Niger, and in June 1796 the Scottish explorer Mungo Park was the first European to lay eyes on the middle portion of the river since antiquity (and perhaps ever). He wrote an account in 1799, "Travels in the Interior of Africa". Park proposed a theory that the Niger and Congo were the same river. Although the Niger Delta would seem like an obvious candidate, it was a maze of streams and swamps that did not look like the head of a great river. He died in 1806 on a second expedition attempting to prove the Niger-Congo connection. The theory became the leading one in Europe. Several failed expeditions followed; however the mystery of the Niger would not be solved for another 25 years, in 1830, when Richard Lander and his brother became the first Europeans to follow the course of the Niger to the ocean.


title: Niger River

text: In 1946, three Frenchmen, Jean Sauvy, Pierre Ponty and movie maker Jean Rouch, former civil servants in the African French colonies, set out to travel the entire length of the river, as no one else seemed to have done previously. They travelled from the beginning of the river near Kissidougou in Guinea, walking at first till a raft could be used, then changing to various local crafts as the river broadened and changed. Two of them reached the ocean on March 25, 1947, with Ponty having left the expedition at Niamey, somewhat past the halfway mark. They carried a 16mm movie camera, the resulting footage giving Rouch his first two ethnographic documentaries: "Au pays des mages noirs", and "La chasse à l’hippopotame". A camera was used to illustrate Rouch's subsequent book "Le Niger En Pirogue" (Fernand Nathan, 1954), as well as Sauvy's “Descente du Niger” (L'Harmattan, 2001). A typewriter was brought as well, on which Ponty produced newspaper articles he mailed out whenever possible.


title: Niger River

text: The water in the Niger River basin is partially regulated through dams. In Mali the Sélingué Dam on the Sankarani River is mainly used for hydropower but also permits irrigation. Two diversion dams, one at Sotuba just downstream of Bamako, and one at Markala, just downstream of Ségou, are used to irrigate about 54,000 hectares. In Nigeria the Kainji Dam, Shiroro Dam, Zungeru Dam, and Jebba Dam are used to generate hydropower.


title: Niger River

text: The water resources of the Niger River are under pressure because of increased water abstraction for irrigation. The construction of dams for hydropower generation is underway or envisaged in order to alleviate chronic power shortages in the countries of the Niger basin. The FAO estimates the irrigation potential of all countries in the Niger river basin at 2.8 million hectares. Only 0.93m hectares (ha) were under irrigation in the late 1980s. The irrigation potential was estimated at 1.68m ha in Nigeria 0.56m ha in Mali, and the actual irrigated area was 0.67m ha and 0.19m ha.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: The Indonesian Air Force ( (TNI-AU), literally ""Indonesian National Military-Air Force"") sometimes shortened as IDAF / IdAF, is the aerial branch of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. The Indonesian Air Force is headquartered in Jakarta, Indonesia and is headed by the Chief of Staff of the Air Force ( – KSAU or KASAU). Its order of battle is split into three Air Operations Commands (). Most of its airbases are located on the island of Java. The Indonesian Air Force also has its ground force unit, called Air Force Quick Reaction Force Command (Kopasgat). The corps is also known as the "Orange Berets" () due to the distinctive color of their service headgear.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: The Indonesian Air Force has 37,850 personnel and equipped with 110 combat aircraft. The inventory includes five Su-27 and eleven Su-30 as the main fighters (from Russia) supplemented by 33 F-16 Fighting Falcons (from the United States), Hawk 200, KAI T-50 and Embraer EMB314. The Indonesian Air Force intends to purchase 50 KF-X as a replacement for the already-aging US Northrop F-5 Tiger light fighters in its inventory In February 2021, Indonesian Air Force intends to purchase 36 Rafale and 8 F-15EX, along with C-130J and Medium-altitude long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicle. By February 2022, Indonesian Air Force orders for 42 Rafale has been signed and a possible Foreign Military Sales of 36 F-15ID has been published by the DSCA.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: After the Japanese announced their surrender at the end of WWII, Indonesian nationalist leader Sukarno declared Indonesian Independence on 17 August 1945. Several days later, the Indonesian People's Security Bureau (Badan Keamanan Rakyat) was formed to undertake security duties. The Air Division of this force was also formed, using ex-Japanese planes scattered everywhere, especially in the island of Java, including Bugis Air Base in Malang (Established on 18 September 1945). The most numerous of these aeroplanes were the Yokosuka K5Y1 Willow (Cureng) trainers, which were hastily used to train newly recruited cadets. At the time of the founding, there was only one Indonesian holding a multi-engine pilot license from the pre-war Dutch Flying School, Flying Officer Agustinus Adisucipto (but did not have an opportunity to fly during the 3.5-year Japanese occupation). He was assisted by a few Japanese pilots who decided to stay in the newly born country. The new roundel was created simply by painting white on the lower part of the Japanese Hinomaru, reflecting the red and white of the Indonesian flag. The People's Security Bureau was then, in October, re-organized to form the nascent formal armed forces. This marked the birth of the Indonesian Air Force on 9 April 1946. However, tensions rose as the Dutch tried to re-claim their former colony and launched an assault on 21 July 1947, destroying most of the planes on the ground. Some planes survived though and were hidden in remote bases.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: 29 July 1947 was date of the first air operation by the newborn air force as three surviving aircraft, comprising two Yokosuka K5Y1 Willow (Cureng) and a Mitsubishi Ki-51 Sonia (the fourth aircraft, a Nakajima Ki-43 Oscar (Hayabusa) flown by Air Cadet Bambang Saptoadji, should also have been involved in the raid as an escort, but as of when it was launched, the aircraft was not airworthy due to engine troubles) conducted air raids at dawn on the Dutch Army barracks in Semarang, Salatiga and Ambarawa, dropping incendiary bombs. Tactically, these raids did not have any effect on the Dutch positions, but psychologically, it was a great success as it proved that the Indonesian Air Force still existed. The Dutch had previously claimed the destruction of Indonesian Air Force in their assault before and they never expected any attack from the sky. Dutch Curtiss P-40E Warhawks tried to find all the guerrillas' planes, but they were too late to find those "ghost" aircraft which landed quickly in Maguwo Air Base, near Yogyakarta (now, Adisucipto International Airport). Indonesian pro-independence guerrillas tried to save captured aircraft in a number of remote areas, including examples of the Mitsubishi A6M Zero-Sen "Zeke", Aichi D3A "Val", and Mitsubishi G4M "Betty".


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: Under pressure from the United Nations, the Dutch finally agreed to acknowledge Indonesian independence. Following the 1949 Round Table Conference, sovereignty was officially transferred to the United States of Indonesia. The Dutch armed forces left (but remained in West Papua until 1963) and the aeroplanes were handed over to the Indonesians. These comprised, among others, North American P-51 Mustang, North American B-25 Mitchell, North American T-6 Texan, Douglas A-26 Invader, Douglas C-47 Dakota and Consolidated PBY-5A Catalina, which served as the main forces of the Indonesian Air Force for the following decade. During this era, Indonesia received its first jet aircraft; De Havilland DH-115 "Vampire". It was also during this era that the national roundels were changed to the red and white pentagon (which was supposed to signify Indonesia's national ideology of "Panca Sila", or the "Five Principles", created by Sukarno in 1945).


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: Political instability meant that the Indonesian Air Force saw action against several regional rebellions in Indonesia such as PRRI, Permesta, Darul Islam-Tentara Islam Indonesia (DI/TII) and the Republic of South Maluku separatists.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: Several Indonesian pilots scored their first kills, including with his North American P-51 Mustang, who in 1958 shot down a Permesta Douglas B-26 Invader over Ambon. Its pilot, Allen Pope, an American CIA agent, was captured and tried in Jakarta, thus revealing the significant involvement of the CIA's "Operation Haik" in the rebellion.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: The most famous Indonesian fighter pilot in this era was , who became Chief of Staff of the Air Force from 1966 to 1969. Nurjadin commanded MiG-21 squadrons in 1962–65 and founded an acrobatic team in 1962 that flew the MiG-17F/PF "Fresco" over some cities in Indonesia. Small numbers of Indonesian Air Force pilots gained their reputation as aces in this era.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: The need to prop up to what became Operation Trikora in Netherlands New Guinea and the rise of the Communist Party of Indonesia drew Indonesia closer to the Eastern Bloc. Several Soviet-built aircraft began to arrive in the early 1960s including the MiG-15UTI from Czechoslovakia, MiG-17F/PF, MiG-19S and MiG-21F-13, in addition to Ilyushin Il-28, Mil Mi-4, Mil Mi-6, Antonov An-12 and Avia 14 also from Czechoslovakia. Indonesia also received Lavochkin La-11, as well as Tupolev Tu-2 from China, intended to replace the B-25, but they never reached operational status. These aircraft served along with the remaining American aircraft such as North American B-25 Mitchell, Douglas A-26 Invader, Douglas C-47 Dakota and North American P-51 Mustang. It was during this period that the Indonesian Air Force became the first Air Force in Southeast Asia which acquired the capability of strategic bombing by acquiring the new Tupolev Tu-16 in 1961, before the acquisition of Ilyushin Il-28 by Vietnam People's Air Force. Around 25 Tu-16KS were delivered complete with AS-1 air-surface missiles. One crashed at the end of 1962. To add with all these purchases was the first ever surface to air air defense missile operated by Southeast Asians, the S-75 Dvina, which were acquired in 1961.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: This era also marked the last confrontation with the Dutch in Papua, before the Dutch, again under pressure of the United Nations, left in 1963. Several missions of Taiwan-based Lockheed U-2s from 35th Squadron flew over Maluku (Moluccas) and reported to Dutch military that there was a strong possibility that the Dutch would lose their air superiority over Papua if they continued the war. During "Operation Trikora", the air force was deployed as follows:


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: Indonesian MiG pilots received training to fly their fighter aircraft in Egypt before the infiltration campaign. During the infiltration of the airlift campaign, the air forces' special forces, (PGT) (now known as Kopasgat) landed in Klamono-Sorong, Papua.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: Also during this period, the Indonesian Air Force also took part in the confrontation against Malaysia (which was backed by the United Kingdom) along the border of Kalimantan, the Malacca Strait and near the Singapore maritime border, wherein Air Force aircraft faced their counterparts in the Royal Air Force and the young Royal Malaysian Air Force.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: The coup attempt led by the 30 September Movement in 1965 changed everything and a new anti-communist regime from the Army, led by Major General Suharto, took power. The Chief of Staff of the Air Force, Air Marshall Omar Dani was removed from his position and court-martialed for his purported involvement in the coup. Ties with the Eastern bloc countries were cut, and thus support and spare parts for the planes became short. By August 1968 the situation was critical, and in early 1970, the Chief of Staff of the Air Force, Suwoto Sukandar, said that the spare parts situation meant that only 15–20 percent of aircraft were airworthy. The MiG force made its farewell flight with a flypast of Jakarta in 1970. The relatively new MiG-19s were sold to Pakistan. By October 1970, only one Tu-16 was still flying, but after an in-flight engine failure, it too was grounded. But despite the problems, the Air Force still served with distinction in fighting militant remnants of the CPI in Java's provinces, particularly in Central and East Java.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: With Suharto's assumption of the presidency and the office of Commander in Chief in 1967, the focus shifted to fighting the communist PGRS/Paraku insurgency. The Air Force launched Operation Lightning Strike () to support ground troops eradicate Sarawak communists that were present in West Kalimantan and along Indonesia-Malaysia border by dropping troops to the target area, dropping logistical assistance, VIP transportation, medical evacuation and recon flights. The Air Force deployed Air Squadron 6 and 7 which were equipped with Mi-4, Bell 204B and UH-34D helicopters to the operation.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: The Air Force began to be re-equipped by receiving former Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) CAC Sabres – an Australian re-design of the F-86 Sabre – to replace the MiG-21s. The Sabre was used by the TNI-AU until 1982. In 1973, the United States supplied military assistance including T33s trainers and UH-34D helicopters in exchange for four old MiG-21F-13s. Pakistan Air Force took over the responsibility to train Indonesian pilots in the Sabre and in logistical aspects of the Air Force. Over the next three years, the US supplied 16 North American Rockwell OV-10 Broncos counter-insurgency aircraft and F-5E/F Tiger II fighters, in exchange for which the Indonesian Air Force handed over the majority of its remaining MiG-21F-13s, which were used to form a US Air Force Aggressor squadron. Indonesia also purchased BAE Hawk Mk 53s from the United Kingdom in the 1970s.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In the early 1980s, the Air Force, needing modern strike aircraft, organised "Operation Alpha" to clandestinely acquire ex-Israeli Air Force A-4 Skyhawks. Air Force personnel were sent in secret by different routes and eventually Indonesia received 32 aircraft.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In 1982, Indonesia purchased 16 Northrop F-5E/F Tiger II from the United States to replace their Sabres under the Peace Komodo I and II. These were upgraded in Belgium from 1995.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: During 1986–88, there was a competition for the contract to provide a new fighter bomber, between the General Dynamics F-16 and Dassault Mirage 2000. Indonesia eventually ordered 12 F-16A/B "Fighting Falcon" Block 15 OCU as a new fighter in 1989. The Indonesian Air Force had originally planned to acquire 60 F-16s to cover and defend its 12 million square kilometres of territory. A total of 10 F-16A and F-16B are still in service with Indonesian Air Force: 2 planes crashed in two different accidents. A follow-up order for 9 more F-16A Block-15 OCU was cancelled in favour of 24 Su-30KI, but this order was also cancelled due to the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: The Indonesian Air Force ordered eight BAE Hawk Mk 109s and 32 Mk 209s in 1993. The last of these was delivered by January 1997.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In 1999, the Indonesian military staged a military intervention in East Timor following an independence referendum. The result was that more than 1,500 civilians were killed and 70 percent of Dili's infrastructure razed. In response, the United States and the European Union both imposed arms embargoes. Although the European Union chose not to renew its ban in 2000, the United States did not lift its embargo until November 2005. During this embargo, the Indonesian government turned to Russia to supply them with arms including fighters, helicopters, missiles, radars and other equipment.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In 2002, the Indonesian Air Force conducted operations against separatists, such as the Free Aceh Movement "Gerakan Aceh Merdeka" (GAM) and Free Papua Movement "Organisasi Papua Merdeka" (OPM). In the conflict with GAM in Aceh, the Indonesian Air Force utilised OV-10Fs for counter-insurgency actions along with BAe Hawk 53 and 209.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In that same year, the Air Force received two Sukhoi Su-27s and two Sukhoi Su-30s from Russia. The fighters were partly paid for in Indonesian palm oil. The purchase, however, did not include any weaponry. Seven KT-1B Korean basic trainers were also purchased.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: By 2005 the Air Force was experiencing a logistical crisis. The F-16s and A-4s, which accounted for 80% of its air combat assets, were at the minimum or nil level of combat readiness. To respond to the crisis, in 2006, the Indonesian Air Force ordered three Sukhoi Su-27SKM and three Su-30MK2 to complete a full squadron. It was also made public that the four aircraft procured in 2003 were inactive and awaiting an upgrade of their communication systems, as they were incompatible with the Indonesian systems in use. The additional aircraft were ordered with systems complying with the Indonesian and international standards and would also include new weaponry for all variants. A further 12 KT-1b trainers were also ordered in 2006.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: Until 2008, the Indonesian Air Force had only purchased four types of missiles: KS-1 Komet, Vympel K-13, AIM-9 Sidewinder and AGM-65 Maverick. Starting from 2008, it started receiving more advanced Russian made Vympel R-73 and R-77 air-to-air missiles for its new Su-27 and Su-30 fighters. Also, a limited number of Kh-29, Kh-31 and Kh-59 air-to-ground missiles were delivered for the Su-30s.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: Local weapons are being developed such as P-100 air-to-ground bomb manufactured by PT Dahana and PT Sari Bahari Malang, East Java. P-100 has been successfully tested in Su-27 and Su-30 for ground attack missions. Large-scale production has received certification from Ministry of Defence.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: During the visit of US President Barack Obama on 9–10 November 2010, the TNI-AU was offered 24 ex-USAF F-16 Block 25 aircraft as part of the Peace Bima-Sena II agreement. In October 2011, the House of Representatives approved the grant. The jets will be upgraded similar to the latest Block 50/52 variant with payment. The TNI-AU is also progressing with the reactivation of all 10 units of F-16 Block 15 OCU, which resulted in the reactivation of TS-1606, TS-1609 and TS-1612 recently. To replace the Fokker F-27s, the TNI-AU has ordered nine Spanish CASA C-295 in joint production with PT. Dirgantara Indonesia. New unmanned aerial vehicles will also be purchased to strengthen TNI-AU aerial observation and will be based at Supadio Air Force Base, Pontianak, Kalimantan Barat.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: Starting in 2010, Minister of Defence Purnomo Yusgiantoro stated that TNI-AU will gradually purchase a total of 180 Su-27s and Su-30s to complete the needs of 10 squadrons. India also offered TNI-AU Indian-Russian made BrahMos missiles to equip its Su-27s and Su-30s.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: Indonesia signed a memorandum of understanding to participate in the South Korean KF-X programme in July 2010 and the terms of agreement was signed in 2011. Indonesia will finance 20 percent of the project and will receive 50 jets in return, while South Korea will get 200 jets. A Defence ministry spokesman claimed that the jet would be more capable than the F-16 but less capable that the F-35. The project was started in 2009 and the first prototype is expected to roll out in the second half of 2020. But payment problems and technical difficulties had caused several delays and postponement of the KAI KF-X project. Indonesia has also signed an MOU with China to produce C-705 missiles which will arm the Sukhoi jets.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In April 2011, Indonesia confirmed that it will buy 16 supersonic KAI T-50 Golden Eagle trainer jets from South Korea for up to $400 million after an evaluation of the Yakovlev Yak-130, Guizhou JL-9/FTC-2000 " Mountain Eagle" and Aero L-159 Alca. The T-50 would replace the BAE Hawk MK-53 trainer jets. Deliveries were completed by January 2014 and were commissioned on 13 February 2014.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In June 2011, Indonesia signed the final contract for 8 Super Tucano as the replacement for the OV-10 Bronco in the counter-insurgency role


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In August 2011, Indonesia announced that it would acquire 18 Grob G120TP for its basic trainer requirements which would likely replace the FFA AS-202 Bravo and Beechcraft T-34 Mentor trainers.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: On 29 December 2011 Indonesia committed to purchase 6 Su-30MK2 jet fighters in a $470 million procurement contract signed by the Defence Ministry and Russia's JSC Rosoboronexport. Deliveries will reportedly start after 2013.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In January 2012, the Australian and Indonesian governments agreed to the transfer of four used C-130H Hercules aircraft from the Royal Australian Air Force to the Indonesian Air Force in 2012, which was approved by the US as the Hercules' producer.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In January 2014, Defence Minister Purnomo Yusgiantoro said that he hoped to start the replacement of the F-5 fighters under the upcoming 2015 to 2020 strategic plan. The Indonesian Air Force shortlisted five candidates for the replacement, comprising the Sukhoi Su-35S, Saab JAS 39 Gripen, Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, and F-16C/D Block 60.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In September 2014, Head of Indonesian National Armed Forces Public Relations and Media Office ("Kapuspen TNI"), Major General (TNI) Mochamad Fuad Basya explained the Minimum Essential Forces (MEF) Plan of TNI-AU consist of: 11 Fighter Squadrons, 6 Transport Squadrons, 2 VIP/VVIP Squadrons, 2 Patrol Squadrons, 4 Helicopter Squadrons, 2 Training Squadrons and 2 UAV Squadrons.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In September 2015, Defence Minister Ryamizard Ryacudu said Indonesian had chosen the Su-35 Flanker-E to replace the F-5 Tiger II. Although in recent times, the deal to purchase Su-35 is in limbo due to Russia's refusal to give transfer of technology to Indonesia owing its small number of orders in addition to Indonesian concerns over price.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In January 2017, Indonesia approved for the acquisition of 5 Airbus A400M Atlas multi-role aircraft worth US$2 billion, as part of the plans to boost the country's military capabilities. They are to be acquired in both transport and utility configurations and will be operated by the Indonesian Air Force (TNI-AU) Aviation Squadrons 31 and 32. In November 2021, Indonesian ministry of defence officially orders two Airbus A400M in multirole tanker and transport configuration.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: On 12 May 2017, Defence Minister Ryamizard Ryacudu confirm that Indonesian Air Force (TNI-AU) will sign contract to buy 10 units Su-35. Russia will open the factory for Sukhoi Spare Part in Indonesia as part in the contract.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: On 28 November 2017, Defence Minister Ryamizard Ryacudu confirm that Indonesian Air Force (TNI-AU) have completed procurement process of 11 units Su-35.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: On 14 February 2018, Defence Ministry have signed purchase agreement of 11 units of Su-35 fighters with Rostec, which will replace the F-5s.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In October 2019 the Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Air Force Yuyu Sutisna said the Indonesian Air Force will purchase at least 2 Squadrons (32 aircraft) of F-16V Block 70/72 for the last phase of the 'Minimum Essential Force' program (MEF Fase 3 2020–2024). Possibly to replace the older BAE Systems Hawk. Since 2017 the Indonesian Air Force with Lockheed Martin and Indonesian Aerospace is also upgrading their existing F-16A/B with the Falcon STAR eMLU upgrade program that include new avionics, new armament capability that could carry AMRAAM, and JDAM, new aircraft airframe that will last longer, Sniper ATP, LITENING, and Bird Slicer IFF. The upgrade is being carried out by Indonesian companies supervised by Lockheed Martin in Skadron Teknik 042.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In January 2020 the Indonesian Minister of Defence Prabowo Subianto during a bilateral meeting in France and met with his French counterpart Florence Parly, it was reported that the Ministry is interested on French military equipments including 48 Dassault Rafales, four Scorpène submarines and two Gowind corvettes.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: On 12 March 2020 Bloomberg reported that Indonesia cancelled the Su-35 deal due to the US pressure. Indonesia is instead looking to negotiate the purchase of F-35 aircraft. This was later denied and Russia ensured that the cooperation would continue, although there were still a number of things to discuss. On 8 July 2020 Russian Ambassador to Indonesia, Lyudmila Vorobieva stated that Indonesia's plan to buy 11 Sukhoi Su-35 fighter jets from Russia is still continuing.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: On 20 July 2020, a letter written by defense minister, Prabowo Subianto to his Austrian counterpart Klaudia Tanner, was published by Indonesian news outlets expressing interest in acquiring Austria's "Luftstreitkräfte" entire fleet of Eurofighter Typhoon jets.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: On 18 February 2021, the Chief of Staff of the Air Force Air Chief Marshal Fadjar Prasetyo announces in annual Air Force Leadership Meeting that Indonesian Air Force plans to buy 36 Dassault Rafales and 8 F-15EX Strike Eagle, of which 6 F-15EX are expected to arrive in 2022, along with C-130J Super Hercules and Medium-altitude long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicle. The Air Chief Marshal also stated that the Air Force will modernize its various fleet of combat aircraft, whose implementation will begin in 2021.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In November 2021, Airbus confirmed that the Indonesian Ministry of Defense had signed a deal with Airbus for 2 A400Ms configured for MRTT role, with an option, in the form of a letter of intent, for four additional aircraft.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: On 22 December 2021 during a Press Tour and Media Gathering, Fadjar Prasetyo has confirmed that the Su-35 purchase will not go ahead. Regarding the planned purchase of the Sukhoi Su-35, Fadjar said it would be abandoned.It has ambitious plans for a home made future 4.5 generation jet fighter with South Korea's KAI and Indonesia IAe, the KF-X/IF-X. On November 11, 2021, it was reported that South Korea and Indonesia had reached an agreement on the payment Indonesia would have to make for their joint fighter jet project after concerns that Jakarta would default on the deal. Under the renegotiated agreement, Indonesia will have to pay 1.6 trillion won ($1.35 billion) of the 8.1 trillion-won project.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: On 10 February 2022, Dassault Aviation stated that Indonesia has officially signed an order for 42 Dassault Rafale F4s, concluding two years of negotiations with 6 aircraft for Batch I. Hours later the State Department of the United States approved Indonesia to purchase up to 36 F-15ID aircraft, the would-be Indonesian variant of the F-15EX.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: On 20 April 2022, PT Len Industri and Thales Group signed a strategic partnership agreement for further collaboration on a wide array of defence-related topics including radars, military satellites, electronic warfare, UAVs and combat management systems.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: On 17 May 2022, PT Len Industri signed an agreement with Thales Group to jointly produce 13 GCI radars. Thales will be partnering with state-owned defence electronics firm PT Len Industri to supply Ground Master 403 (GM403) air surveillance radars and SkyView command-and-control (C2) system to Indonesia.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: Indonesia has considered in acquiring 12 used Mirage 2000-5s from Qatar for the Indonesian Air Force. In November 2022, the Ministry of Finance of Indonesia has approved foreign loans to fund several Indonesian Air Force procurement programs, including the ex-Qatari Mirage 2000s proposal.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: The Indonesian Air Force is structured into the following in accordance with Presidential decree No. 66/ 2019:


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: Indonesian Air Force air bases consist of three types (A/B/C) and placed under National Air Operations Command as follows:


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: In the Air Force, as well as in other armed forces branches in Indonesia, the rank consists of officer known as in Indonesian: "Perwira", NCO "Bintara" and enlisted "Tamtama".


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: The proper title to address of rank on official document are as follows, all high-ranking officers (Marshal) use their rank followed by "(TNI)", while other officers use their rank followed by respective branch/corps abbreviation. For example, an Air Force colonel from Flying Corps use the title "Kolonel (PNB)", while an Air Force Marshal from Flying Corps use the title "Marsekal (TNI)". Enlisted airmen are not required to put their respective branch/corps specialty.


title: Indonesian Air Force

text: Note: Indonesia is not a member of NATO, so there is not an official equivalence between the Indonesian military ranks and those defined by NATO. The displayed parallel is approximate and for illustration purposes only.


title: Katie Melua

text: Ketevan Katie Melua (; , ; born 16 September 1984) is a Georgian and British singer and songwriter. She was born in Kutaisi and raised in Belfast and London. Under the management of composer Mike Batt, she is signed to the small Dramatico record label. She made her musical debut in 2003 and within three years, she was the United Kingdom's best-selling female artist as well as Europe's highest selling European female artist.


title: Katie Melua

text: In November 2003, Melua released her first album, "Call Off the Search", which reached the top of the United Kingdom album charts and sold 1.8 million copies in its first five months of release. Her second album, "Piece by Piece", was released in September 2005, and has gone platinum (one million units sold) four times. She released her third studio album "Pictures" in October 2007.


title: Katie Melua

text: According to the Sunday Times Rich List 2008, Melua had amassed fortune of £18 million, making her the seventh-richest British musician under the age of 30.


title: Katie Melua

text: Ketevan Melua was born on 16 September 1984 to Amiran and Tamara Melua in Kutaisi, Georgia, which was then part of the Soviet Union. She spent her first years with her grandparents in Tbilisi before moving with her parents and brother to the town of Batumi, where her father worked as a heart specialist. During this time, Melua sometimes had to carry buckets of water up five flights of stairs to her family's flat and according to her, "Now, when I'm staying in luxurious hotels, I think back to those days".


title: Katie Melua

text: In 1993, when Melua was eight, the family moved to Belfast, Northern Ireland, in the aftermath of the Georgian Civil War. Her father, a heart surgeon, took up a position at the Royal Victoria Hospital. The family remained in Belfast, living close to Falls Road, until Melua was 14. During her time in Northern Ireland, Melua attended St Catherine's Primary School on the Falls Road and later moved to Dominican College, Fortwilliam.


title: Katie Melua

text: The Melua family then moved to Sutton, London and some time later moved again to Redhill, Surrey. In 2008, Melua moved out of her parents' home in Maida Vale to an apartment in Notting Hill, where she transformed the spare bedroom into a recording studio. Melua is fluent in English and speaks some Russian; despite still speaking her native Georgian fluently she has admitted that she cannot write songs in the language. Melua is also partly of Canadian and Russian ancestry.