title: Runway

text: Because airport pavement construction is so expensive, manufacturers aim to minimize aircraft stresses on the pavement. Manufacturers of the larger planes design landing gear so that the weight of the plane is supported on larger and more numerous tires. Attention is also paid to the characteristics of the landing gear itself, so that adverse effects on the pavement are minimized. Sometimes it is possible to reinforce a pavement for higher loading by applying an overlay of asphaltic concrete or portland cement concrete that is bonded to the original slab. Post-tensioning concrete has been developed for the runway surface. This permits the use of thinner pavements and should result in longer concrete pavement life. Because of the susceptibility of thinner pavements to frost heave, this process is generally applicable only where there is no appreciable frost action.


title: Runway

text: Runway pavement surface is prepared and maintained to maximize friction for wheel braking. To minimize hydroplaning following heavy rain, the pavement surface is usually grooved so that the surface water film flows into the grooves and the peaks between grooves will still be in contact with the aircraft tires. To maintain the macrotexturing built into the runway by the grooves, maintenance crews engage in airfield rubber removal or hydrocleaning in order to meet required FAA friction levels.


title: Runway

text: Subsurface underdrains help provide extended life and excellent and reliable pavement performance. At the Hartsfield Atlanta, GA airport the underdrains usually consist of trenches wide and deep from the top of the pavement. A perforated plastic tube ( in diameter) is placed at the bottom of the ditch. The ditches are filled with gravel size crushed stone. Excessive moisture under a concrete pavement can cause pumping, cracking, and joint failure.


title: Runway

text: The most common hard surface types are asphalt and concrete. The most common soft surface types are grass and gravel.


title: Runway

text: A runway of at least in length is usually adequate for aircraft weights below approximately . Larger aircraft including widebodies will usually require at least at sea level. International widebody flights, which carry substantial amounts of fuel and are therefore heavier, may also have landing requirements of or more and takeoff requirements of . The Boeing 747 is considered to have the longest takeoff distance of the more common aircraft types and has set the standard for runway lengths of larger international airports.


title: Runway

text: At sea level, can be considered an adequate length to land virtually any aircraft. For example, at O'Hare International Airport, when landing simultaneously on 4L/22R and 10/28 or parallel 9R/27L, it is routine for arrivals from East Asia, which would normally be vectored for 4L/22R () or 9R/27L () to request 28R (). It is always accommodated, although occasionally with a delay. Another example is that the Luleå Airport in Sweden was extended to to allow any fully loaded freight aircraft to take off.


title: Runway

text: An aircraft taking off at a higher altitude must do so at reduced weight due to decreased density of air at higher altitudes, which reduces engine power and wing lift. An aircraft must also take off at a reduced weight in hotter or more humid conditions (see density altitude). Most commercial aircraft carry manufacturer's tables showing the adjustments required for a given temperature.


title: Runway

text: In India, recommendations of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) are now followed more often. For landing, only altitude correction is done for runway length whereas for take-off, all types of correction are taken into consideration.


title: Park Chanyeol

text: Park Chan-yeol (; born November 27, 1992), better known mononymously as Chanyeol, is a South Korean rapper, singer, songwriter, producer, actor and model. He is a member of the South Korean-Chinese boy group Exo, its sub-group Exo-K and sub-unit Exo-SC. Apart from his group's activities, Chanyeol has also starred in various television dramas and movies such as "So I Married an Anti-fan" (2016), and "Secret Queen Makers" (2018).


title: Park Chanyeol

text: Park Chanyeol was born in Seoul, South Korea. He attended Hyundai High School in Apgujeong-dong, Seoul. He has an elder sister named Park Yoo-ra, who is a former announcer at South Korean broadcasting station YTN, and MBC. Chanyeol was admitted to a private acting institution when he was sixteen years old, where he became good friends with Block B's P.O.


title: Park Chanyeol

text: After watching "School of Rock" in elementary school, Chanyeol became interested in music and soon began playing the drums. Chanyeol wanted to be a singer after listening to "Unconditional Kismet" by Yoo Young-jin.


title: Park Chanyeol

text: Chanyeol has cited Jason Mraz and Eminem as his biggest influences, though he was a fan of rock bands like Muse, Green Day, Nirvana, and X-Japan in middle school.


title: Park Chanyeol

text: Chanyeol became a trainee under SM Entertainment after winning second place in the 2008 Smart Model Contest. While training under S.M., he began to turn his focus towards rapping. Prior to his debut, Chanyeol made cameo appearances in TVXQ's "HaHaHa Song" music video and Girls' Generation's "Genie" music video in 2008 and 2010 respectively.


title: Park Chanyeol

text: Chanyeol became the last Exo member to be officially introduced to the public on February 23, 2012. He possesses a baritone singing voice. The group official debuted on April 8 with the extended play "Mama". He made a guest appearance in Girls' Generation-TTS's music video for their debut single "Twinkle". In October 2013, Chanyeol joined the cast of SBS' reality TV show "Law of the Jungle" during its filming in Micronesia. He also composed and recorded an original soundtrack titled "Last Hunter" for the show in 2015 after rejoining the show.


title: Park Chanyeol

text: In 2014, Chanyeol wrote the rap for the Korean version of the track "Run" from Exo's second extended play "Overdose" and was featured in label-mates Henry's second extended play and Zhou Mi's debut EP. In May 2014, he became a regular cast member of the first season of SBS' reality TV show "Roommate". He left the show in September 2014 due to schedule conflicts.


title: Park Chanyeol

text: In April 2015, Chanyeol made his big screen debut with a supporting role in the South Korean film "Salut d'Amour", which starred Park Geun-hyung and Youn Yuh-jung. He later starred as the male lead alongside actress Moon Ga-young and fellow Exo members in the web-drama "Exo Next Door". In June 2015, Chanyeol, along with fellow Exo members Chen and Lay, co-wrote the Korean version of the track "Promise" from "Love Me Right", the re-released version of Exo's second studio album. He later wrote the rap for "Lightsaber", Exo's promotional single for "", which was subsequently included in their third extended play "Sing for You".


title: Park Chanyeol

text: In April 2016, Chanyeol wrote and performed the rap for the song "Confession" from Yesung's debut extended play. In Exo's third studio album "Ex'Act", which was released in May 2016, he co-wrote the lyrics for the track "Heaven". In June 2016, Chanyeol starred alongside Yuan Shanshan and label-mate Seohyun in the South Korean-Chinese film "So I Married an Anti-fan". He and Yuan Shanshan also recorded a duet titled "I Hate You" as the theme song for the movie. In October 2016, Chanyeol and American R&B singer Tinashe were featured in American hip hop group Far East Movement and American electronic musician Marshmello's song "Freal Luv". In December 2016, Chanyeol and South Korean singer Punch collaborated on an original soundtrack titled "Stay With Me" for tvN's drama "". The song reached number three on South Korea's Gaon Digital Chart.


title: Park Chanyeol

text: In January 2017, Chanyeol played a supporting role in MBC's drama "Missing 9". In February 2017, it was reported that he had allegedly registered himself as a music producer under the pen name "LOEY" with the Korea Music Copyright Association. Later in February, Chanyeol collaborated with South Korean singer Junggigo on a duet titled "Let Me Love You".


title: Park Chanyeol

text: In May 2018, it was announced that Chanyeol would be playing the supporting role of Jung Se-joo, Hee-joo's younger brother in tvN's drama "Memories of the Alhambra".


title: Park Chanyeol

text: On September 14, 2018, Chanyeol with fellow Exo member Sehun released a collaborative single, "We Young", for SM Station X 0.


title: Park Chanyeol

text: On April 25, 2019, he released his first solo song "SSFW" through SM Station. On June 28, it was confirmed that Chanyeol along with his fellow Exo member Sehun would debut as the group's second official sub-unit Exo-SC, and they released their first EP "What a Life" on July 22, 2019.


title: Park Chanyeol

text: In 2021, he appeared in musical road film "The Box", a jukebox musical containing familiar popular songs from world music as; Coldplay, Billie Eilish, and Pharrell Williams in the backdrop of South Korean locales.


title: Park Chanyeol

text: Along with fellow Exo members Suho and Baekhyun, Chanyeol attended Kyung Hee Cyber University and took online classes for Culture and Arts Department of Business Administration. Prior to his enlistment, Chanyeol took graduate studies at Inha University for interior design.


title: Park Chanyeol

text: Chanyeol enlisted into the military as an active duty soldier on March 29, 2021. He was finally discharged on September 28, 2022.


title: Neil Oliver

text: Neil Oliver (born 21 February 1967) is a British television presenter, archaeologist, historian and author. He has presented several documentary series on archaeology and history, including "A History of Scotland", "Vikings", and "Coast". He is also an author of popular history books and historical fiction.


title: Neil Oliver

text: Oliver was born in Renfrew and raised in Ayr and Dumfries where he attended Dumfries Academy and then the University of Glasgow. He obtained an MA (Hons) in archaeology and then worked as a freelance archaeologist, before training as a journalist.<ref Name="Pass/Fail"></ref>


title: Neil Oliver

text: Oliver first appeared on television in the 2002 BBC Two series "Two Men in a Trench", in which he and archaeologist Tony Pollard visited historic British battlefields. He was also a co-author of the two books accompanying the series. In 2006, he presented "The Face of Britain" for Channel 4 and "Scotland's History: The Top Ten" for the BBC. Early in his career he also appeared on "The One Show" and "Time Team".


title: Neil Oliver

text: Oliver was a co-presenter of the first series of "Coast" in 2005, and replaced Nicholas Crane as the show's main presenter for the second, third, fourth, and fifth series. He also presented "Coast Australia" (2013) and "Coast New Zealand" (2016).


title: Neil Oliver

text: From 2006 to 2018 Oliver presented a number of history documentaries for the BBC, including "A History of Scotland" (2008) and "Sacred Wonders of Britain" (2013). In 2012, he wrote and presented "Vikings", a three-part series on the Vikings.


title: Neil Oliver

text: In April 2021, Oliver was announced as a presenter for GB News. He hosts a weekly current affairs and interview programme on the channel.


title: Neil Oliver

text: In 2014, Oliver stated that he was "proud of Britain" ahead of the Scottish independence referendum, saying that "this kind of internecine squabbling puts my teeth on edge. I would rather that it would just go away — or that it had never happened" and that he "liked the status quo". When he was appointed President of the National Trust for Scotland, thousands signed petitions calling on him to resign. In 2020, Oliver reasserted his opposition to Scottish independence, describing the uncertainty caused by the prospect of a second referendum as a "cancerous presence" and saying that "I'm a British citizen, that's how I see myself. Not in an argumentative way, I don't see that I should have to cede my right to understand myself as I am to some politician."


title: Neil Oliver

text: Commenting on the British government's response to the coronavirus pandemic in 2021, Oliver said, "Lockdown is the biggest single mistake in world history". He also criticised the drive to vaccinate children in the UK against COVID-19, saying, "Never before in medical history has there been a proposal to vaccinate children against a disease that poses them no measurable harm. Added to this is the undeniable fact these vaccines for COVID are experimental, in that no data is available concerning long term effects." He likened the fight against government anti-COVID measures to the fight against Nazi Germany, saying, "there's another battle of Britain being fought now. It's being fought by a minority outgunned and shouted down by those who would accept freedom handed to them by MPs on condition that they do as they are told. That's not freedom. That is tyranny."


title: Neil Oliver

text: Oliver's opposition to coronavirus restrictions led to him leaving the unionist campaign group These Islands. Tom Holland, an advisory board member of These Islands, said that Oliver's "current focus was not compatible with our own".


title: Neil Oliver

text: On GB News, Oliver spoke on the subject of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, saying "I'll be honest. I don't know what's happening in Ukraine. I don't understand it either" and "I do know that I don't trust Putin, or our government, or Europe's governments, or the governments of North America either. I certainly don't trust any of them to tell the truth".


title: Neil Oliver

text: Oliver lives in Stirling with his wife, three children and two Irish Wolfhounds. He is a patron of the Association of Lighthouse Keepers.


title: Neil Oliver

text: In November 2011, he was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Abertay Dundee. having previously received an honorary degree from the University of Glasgow in 2015.


title: Interstate 90

text: Interstate 90 (I-90) is an east–west transcontinental freeway and the longest Interstate Highway in the United States at . It begins in Seattle, Washington, and travels through the Pacific Northwest, Mountain West, Great Plains, Midwest, and the Northeast, ending in Boston, Massachusetts. The highway serves 13 states and has 16 auxiliary routes, primarily in major cities such as Chicago, Cleveland, Buffalo, and Rochester.


title: Interstate 90

text: I-90 begins at Washington State Route 519 in Seattle and crosses the Cascade Range in Washington and the Rocky Mountains in Montana. It then traverses the northern Great Plains and travels southeast through Wisconsin and the Chicago area by following the southern shore of Lake Michigan. The freeway continues across Indiana and follows the shore of Lake Erie through Ohio and Pennsylvania to Buffalo. I-90 travels across New York by roughly following the historic Erie Canal and traverses Massachusetts, reaching its eastern terminus at Massachusetts Route 1A near Logan International Airport in Boston.


title: Interstate 90

text: The freeway was established by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, replacing a series of existing U.S. highways that had been preceded by local roads and auto trails established in the early 20th century. I-90 was numbered in 1957, reflecting its status as the northernmost transcontinental route of the system, and construction was underway on several sections with funding from the Federal-Aid Highway Act.


title: Interstate 90

text: The route also incorporates several toll roads that predate the Interstate Highway System, including the Jane Addams Memorial Tollway, Indiana Toll Road, Ohio Turnpike, New York State Thruway, and the Massachusetts Turnpike. These toll roads opened in the 1950s and were followed by toll-free sections in Pennsylvania and Wisconsin that were finished in the 1960s. The Midwestern sections of I-90 were fully completed in 1978, and the majority of the route between Seattle and South Dakota opened by 1987. The final section, near the western terminus in Seattle, opened in September 1993; an eastern extension in Boston was completed in 2003 as part of the Big Dig project.


title: Interstate 90

text: I-90 is the longest Interstate Highway in the United States, spanning across the north of the country. The transcontinental freeway passes through 13 states in the Pacific Northwest, Mountain West, Great Plains, Midwest, and the Northeast regions of the United States. From the Wisconsin–Illinois state line to Massachusetts, approximately of I-90 uses turnpikes and other tolled highways with the exception of segments in Chicago, northeastern Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Albany, New York. The toll road sections comprise 25 percent of the freeway's total length.


title: Interstate 90

text: According to 2011 data from the Federal Highway Administration, the busiest section of I-90 is in the Chicago area, where a daily average of 306,574 vehicles use the freeway. The lowest daily traffic counts on I-90 were recorded in Wyoming, where an average of 9,820 vehicles used rural sections of the freeway.


title: Interstate 90

text: The western terminus of I-90 is at an intersection with Washington State Route 519 and 4th Avenue South in the SoDo neighborhood of Seattle. The junction is south of Downtown Seattle, adjacent to the Port of Seattle and two major sports stadiums, Lumen Field and T-Mobile Park. The freeway travels east through an interchange with I-5 and around Beacon Hill before it enters the Mount Baker Ridge Tunnel alongside the future 2 Line of the Link light rail system, set to open in 2023. I-90 emerges from the tunnel on a pair of floating bridges, among the longest of their kind: the eastbound-only Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge and the Homer M. Hadley Memorial Bridge, which carries westbound traffic and the future light rail line.


title: Interstate 90

text: The floating bridges cross Lake Washington to Mercer Island, where I-90 travels through a series of tunnels under of parkland, including Aubrey Davis Park. The freeway continues from the island and enters Bellevue, the largest city of the Eastside region, and intersects I-405 near Factoria. I-90 then travels along Lake Sammamish and through Issaquah as it leaves the Seattle metropolitan area and ascends into the Cascade Range on the Mountains to Sound Greenway, a designated National Heritage Area and National Scenic Byway. The freeway crosses Snoqualmie Pass, elevation , at the crest of the mountain range near a ski resort.


title: Interstate 90

text: From Snoqualmie Pass, I-90 follows the Yakima River into the Kittitas Valley and intersects I-82 in Ellensburg after a brief concurrency with U.S. Route 97 (US 97). The highway crosses the Columbia River on the Vantage Bridge and turns northeast to climb the cliffs of the Columbia Plateau near George. After traveling east across Moses Lake and the surrounding agricultural region, I-90 begins a long concurrency with US 395 at Ritzville as the highways turn northeast towards Spokane. I-90/US 395 is joined by US 2 through western Spokane, where it intersects US 195. The freeway crosses downtown Spokane on an elevated viaduct and splits from US 2 and US 395 to continue east across Spokane Valley towards the Idaho state line.


title: Interstate 90

text: I-90 traverses the Idaho Panhandle region at the north end of the state, where it connects Coeur d'Alene to communities in the Silver Valley. From the Washington state line, the freeway follows the Spokane River through Post Falls and Huetter to the city of Coeur d'Alene, where it intersects US 95, the state's main north–south highway. I-90 then turns southeast to bypass Coeur d'Alene and travel along a series of ridges that face Lake Coeur d'Alene, crossing an arm of the lake on the Veterans Memorial Centennial Bridge.


title: Interstate 90

text: The freeway continues east across Fourth of July Summit and descends into the Silver Valley, where it follows the Coeur d'Alene River through several small towns along the historic Mullan Road. I-90 serves the cities of Kellogg and Wallace before it ascends into the Bitterroot Range and crosses Lookout Pass, which also marks the Montana state line.


title: Interstate 90

text: Montana has the longest section of I-90, at almost , despite the highway only serving a portion of the state's east–west width. It descends from Lookout Pass along the St. Regis and Clark Fork rivers between the foothills of the Bitteroot Range and Coeur d'Alene Mountains. The freeway travels east through the Alberton Gorge and crosses the Clark Fork River several times before it reaches the head of the Missoula Valley. After a short concurrency with US 93, I-90 runs along the north side of Missoula and joins US 12 to continue southeast along the foothills of the Garnet Range and Sapphire Mountains.


title: Interstate 90

text: After it splits from US 12 in Garrison, the freeway turns south to traverse the Deer Lodge Valley. It then turns east to serve Butte, where it overlaps with I-15 for and intersects I-115. I-90 then continues southeast and crosses the Rocky Mountains and Continental Divide at Homestake Pass, which is the highest point on the entire Interstate at . The freeway travels east across the Jefferson Valley and passes the headwaters of the Missouri River near Three Forks. It then enters the Gallatin Valley.


title: Interstate 90

text: I-90 travels around Bozeman, where it is joined by US 191, and crosses Bozeman Pass between the Bridger and Gallatin mountains. At the east end of the mountains, the freeway begins to follow the Yellowstone River and is briefly concurrent with US 89, which serves Yellowstone National Park, and splits from US 191 at Big Timber. I-90 continues along the Yellowstone River through Billings, overlapping with US 87 and US 212, until it reaches Lockwood, the western terminus of I-94. The freeways split and I-90 continues east across the Bighorn Basin before it turns south near Hardin to follow the Little Bighorn River into the Crow Indian Reservation. The highway passes the site of the Battle of the Little Bighorn near Crow Agency and continues south along the river and the Wolf Mountains into Wyoming.


title: Interstate 90

text: From 1995 to 1999, there was no numbered daytime speed limit on rural highways in Montana, including I-90. The speed limit was simply defined as "reasonable and proper" as determined on a case-by-case basis by the Montana Highway Patrol until the Montana Supreme Court ruled it was unconstitutional. The maximum daytime speed limit in Montana was initially set at in 1999 and was later raised to in 2015.


title: Interstate 90

text: I-90 serves a portion of northeastern Wyoming that is primarily rural. The freeway, briefly concurrent to US 14, travels southeast along a series of creeks to Sheridan in the northeastern foothills of the Bighorn Mountains. I-90 and US 87 split in Sheridan and travel parallel to each other to Fort Phil Kearny, where they rejoin and continue south past Lake Desmet to Buffalo. The highways split again near Buffalo at a junction with I-25, which overlaps with US 87 to Casper.


title: Interstate 90

text: From Buffalo, the highway turns east to cross the Powder River Basin, a region with several large coal mines. I-90 then reaches Gillette, where it begins a concurrency with US 14 and US 16 to a three-way split in Moorcroft. The freeway continues into the Bear Lodge Mountains (part of the Black Hills) and is rejoined in Sundance by US 14, which looped north to serve the Devils Tower. I-90/US 14 then continues northeast to Beulah, where it enters South Dakota.


title: Interstate 90

text: I-90/US 14 enters South Dakota near Spearfish and travels east through prairie land, where it is briefly concurrent with US 85. Beyond Sturgis, the freeway turns south and follows the edge of the Black Hills to Rapid City, the gateway to Mount Rushmore. It then skirts the northern edge of Rapid City, which is served by spur route I-190, and passes Ellsworth Air Force Base while it continues east across the plains. I-90 splits from US 14 near Wall, home to the Wall Drug roadside attraction and located northeast of Badlands National Park.


title: Interstate 90

text: The freeway travels southeast into the Buffalo Gap National Grassland and also passes a pair of decommissioned missile silos that form the Minuteman Missile National Historic Site. I-90 continues east along the top of a plateau that faces the White River and passes near Kadoka and Murdo. US 83 briefly joins the highway from Murdo to Vivian, where it splits off to serve the state capital of Pierre. It then crosses the Missouri River on the Lewis and Clark Memorial Bridge near Chamberlain and passes a rest area which overlooks the river and includes the "Dignity" statue. From Chamberlain, I-90 continues east across the plains and past several small towns near the city of Mitchell. It then reaches the Sioux Falls area, where it bypasses the city to the north and intersects I-29 and I-229. I-90 leaves Sioux Falls and crosses into Minnesota near Brandon.


title: Interstate 90

text: I-90 crosses the southern portion of Minnesota and carries unsigned Legislative Route 391 across the state. From the South Dakota border near Beaver Creek to Albert Lea, the freeway travels east across farmland and towns in the plains and rolling hills of the Buffalo Ridge. It also intersects several north–south highways, including US 75 in Luverne, US 59 in Worthington, US 71 in Jackson, and US 169 in Blue Earth. I-90 travels around the northern outskirts of Albert Lea and intersects I-35 northeast of the city. It then reaches Austin and a brief concurrency with US 218.


title: Interstate 90

text: From Austin, the freeway turns northeast to head towards Rochester, which it bypasses to the south and intersects US 63 and US 52. I-90 continues east into the hilly Driftless Area and descends from the bluffs that overlook Lake Onalaska on the Mississippi River. It turns southeast at Dakota and is joined by US 14 until the highways split near La Crescent. I-90 turns east before it reaches La Crescent, where it crosses the Mississippi River on the Dresbach Bridge into Wisconsin.


title: Interstate 90

text: I-90 enters Wisconsin near La Crosse and bisects French Island before it reaches Onalaska. This section is briefly concurrent to US 53 between La Crosse and Onalaska. The freeway travels east, generally along the La Crosse River, through several towns and Fort McCoy before it reaches a junction with I-94 in Tomah. The two Interstates join at Tomah and travel southeast along the edge of the hills of the Western Upland, following the Lemonweir and Wisconsin rivers. It passes Wisconsin Dells, situated on the gorge of the same name and home to several water parks and theme parks.


title: Interstate 90

text: The freeway travels east from Wisconsin Dells to the Portage area, where I-39 begins its concurrency with I-90/I-94. The highway then crosses the Wisconsin River and travels south towards Madison, where it forms an eastern bypass of the city. East of Madison, I-94 separates from I-39/I-90, which continues southeast through Edgerton and Janesville. The highway turns south and enter Beloit, where it intersects I-43 and crosses into Illinois.


title: Interstate 90

text: I-90 uses several sections of the Illinois Tollway system as it traverses the northeastern corner of the state, primarily in the Chicago metropolitan area. It enters the state from Beloit, Wisconsin, and remains concurrent to I-39 and US 51 on the Jane Addams Memorial Tollway through the eastern outskirts of Rockford, where the highways split off. I-90 continues on the tollway as it follows US 20 southeast through Belvidere and Elgin in the Fox Valley.


title: Interstate 90

text: The tollway cuts through the northwestern suburbs of Chicago, where it intersects I-290 in Schaumburg and passes the north side of O'Hare International Airport. On the east side of the airport in Rosemont, I-90 intersects I-294 and I-190, the latter of which serves the airport's passenger terminals and marks the end of the tollway. The freeway, now named the Kennedy Expressway, travels through northwestern Chicago, where the Blue Line of the "L" rapid transit system runs in the median and serves several stops. I-90 turns southeast and is rejoined by I-94 in Irving Park, where it gains a set of reversible express lanes that travel for toward the Near West Side.


title: Interstate 90

text: The Kennedy Expressway travels south through the Near West Side, opposite the Chicago River from the Chicago Loop (the city's central business district), and intersects I-290 again at the Jane Byrne Interchange. The freeway continues onto the Dan Ryan Expressway and crosses the Chicago River near Chinatown and an interchange with I-55. The Dan Ryan is the widest section of I-90, at 12 through lanes, and is split between local and express lanes. I-90/I-94 is joined by the "L" Red Line in the median of the expressway through the city's South Side, where it passes Guaranteed Rate Field, the Illinois Institute of Technology campus, and Washington Park. I-90 splits from the Dan Ryan Expressway in Englewood and turns southeast onto the tolled Chicago Skyway. The tolled Skyway travels towards the Indiana state line, which the freeway crosses near the Calumet River in the East Side.


title: Interstate 90

text: The entirety of I-90 within Indiana is concurrent with the Indiana Toll Road, which crosses the state's northern fringe and is mostly shared with I-80. From the Illinois state line, the tollway travels south through Hammond and turns east to follow the Grand Calumet River through northern Gary, where it intersects US 41 and US 12. I-90 then crosses I-65 in eastern Gary and I-94 in Lake Station, where it begins a concurrency with I-80.


title: Interstate 90

text: I-94 travels northeast near the Lake Michigan shoreline from Lake Station to Michigan City, while the Indiana Toll Road (I-80/I-90) follows it to the south. The tollway then moves closer to the Michigan–Indiana state line and turns east, passing through the northern outskirts of South Bend and Elkhart. In South Bend, it intersects US 31 and passes near the University of Notre Dame. I-80/I-90 travels parallel to the state line until it reaches an interchange with I-69 near Fremont, where it turns southeast. The tollway then turns east and crosses the Ohio state line near Angola.


title: Interstate 90

text: At the state line near Montpelier, I-80/I-90 transitions from the Indiana Toll Road to the Ohio Turnpike, which crosses northern Ohio. The highway continues east around several rural towns as it approaches the Toledo area. The turnpike crosses under I-475 in Maumee without an interchange; access to I-475 is instead provided through a nearby junction with US 20. I-80/I-90 then continues southeast across the Maumee River to Rossford on the southern outskirts of Toledo, where it intersects I-75.


title: Interstate 90

text: The turnpike travels southeast through a rural area near the southwest shore of Lake Erie, where it passes the cities of Fremont and Sandusky. Near Norwalk, the highway turns northeast to follow State Route 2 (SR 2) and heads to Elyria, where I-90 splits from I-80 (which remains on the turnpike). The freeway then merges with SR 2 and continues northeast through the lakeshore suburbs west of Cleveland, including Rocky River and Lakewood. I-90 and SR 2 separate after crossing the Rocky River and travel parallel to each other as they enter Cleveland. I-90 continues through the southwestern residential neighborhoods of Cleveland and reaches a junction with I-71 and I-490 in Tremont, where it turns north.


title: Interstate 90

text: From Tremont, I-90 turns north onto the Innerbelt Freeway and crosses the Cuyahoga River into Downtown Cleveland on the George V. Voinovich Bridges. The Innerbelt skirts the south side of Downtown Cleveland, where it intersects I-77 near Progressive Field and turns north to bisect the Goodrich–Kirtland Park neighborhood. Near Cleveland Burke Lakefront Airport, the freeway makes a sharp, 90-degree turn (nicknamed "Dead Man's Curve" for its frequent crashes) and rejoins SR 2 on the Cleveland Memorial Shoreway until they split again in Euclid. I-90 briefly turns southeast but resumes its northeastern route after a junction with I-271 in Willoughby Hills. The freeway travels parallel to the Lake Erie shoreline through farmland and exurban towns and crosses into Pennsylvania near Conneaut.


title: Interstate 90

text: Within Pennsylvania, I-90 is non-tolled and generally travels northeast around several communities on the Lake Erie shoreline and remains entirely in Erie County. It enters the state in Springfield Township and passes through rural areas along the lake shore, parallel to US 20 and the Lake Road. The freeway then travels through the southern outskirts of Erie, where it intersects I-79 and US 19. I-90 returns to the rural areas of northeastern Erie County and intersects I-86 before it reaches the New York state line near the borough of North East. At , the Pennsylvania section is I-90's shortest within a single state.


title: Interstate 90

text: I-90 enters New York in Chautauqua County and runs concurrently with the mainline of the tolled New York State Thruway. It travels northeast along the Lake Erie shoreline between Lake Road to the north and US 20 to the south through Dunkirk and Fredonia. The highways enter the Buffalo area, where the toll road runs north–south through Cheektowaga and forms an eastern bypass, using auxiliary routes I-190 and I-290 to serve the city. At a junction with I-290 near Buffalo Niagara International Airport, I-90 turns east to follow the historic Water Level Route of the New York Central Railroad, itself parallel to the 19th-century Erie Canal.


title: Interstate 90

text: The Thruway passes south of Rochester, which it serves via a loop on I-490 and the direct north–south spur I-390. I-90 travels through the Finger Lakes region and moves closer to the Erie Canal as it approaches the Syracuse area. It travels through the city's northern outskirts, where it intersects I-690, I-81, and I-481 from west to east. It then continues to Utica, where the Thruway runs along the north side of the Mohawk River (part of the Erie Canal). The section through Utica, connected to the city's downtown via I-790, was built between the lines of SR 49, which does not merge with the Thruway.


title: Interstate 90

text: I-90 then closely follows the Mohawk River southeast through several towns and villages between the foothills of the Catskill and Adirondack mountains. The Thruway then reaches Schenectady, which it bypasses to the southwest and intersects I-88 and I-890, the latter of which serves the city's downtown. The highway continues southeast into Albany to a junction with I-87, where I-90 splits from the Thruway, which turns south to serve New York City. I-90 travels east as a toll-free freeway through the northern neighborhoods of Albany and intersects I-787 before it crosses the Hudson River into Rensselaer. The freeway travels south around Rensselaer and rejoins the Thruway via the Berkshire Connector, which continues east into Taconic Mountains towards the Massachusetts state line.


title: Interstate 90

text: The mileposts and sequential exit numbers on the New York State Thruway mainline originate from New York City, increasing northward on I-87 and westward on I-90; as a result, the mileposts and exit numbers on I-90 through most of New York run backwards compared to federal preference for mile-based numbers increasing from west to east. The Berkshire Connector uses west-to-east mileposts and exit numbers with a "B" prefix; the toll-free section of I-90 through Albany and Rensselaer uses conventional west-to-east mileposts and exit numbers despite being geographically north–south. I-90 is currently the only Interstate that has a complete set of nine spur routes within one state, all numbers being used. In addition, I-990, a short spur route near Buffalo that is not directly connected to I-90, is the highest number given to an Interstate.


title: Interstate 90

text: I-90 in Massachusetts is concurrent with the entirety of the Massachusetts Turnpike (also known as "the Pike" or "MassPike"). The turnpike begins at the New York state line in West Stockbridge and travels southeast through the Berkshires to the Pioneer Valley. The highway travels through the northern suburbs of Springfield, where it intersects I-91 and crosses the Connecticut River into Chicopee. I-90 then crosses over I-391 without an interchange and serves as the northern terminus of I-291 on the eastern outskirts of the city. The turnpike continues east through the hills of Central Massachusetts and serves as the eastern terminus of I-84 in the town of Sturbridge.


title: Interstate 90

text: From Sturbridge, the turnpike travels northeast towards Worcester and passes through the city's southern outskirts. It serves as the respective northern and western terminus of I-395 and I-290 in Auburn, located southwest of Worcester, and continues to an interchange with I-495 near Westborough at the edge of Greater Boston. I-90 travels through the western suburbs of Boston and travels through Framingham before it intersects I-95/Route 128, the main beltway around Boston, on the border of Weston and Newton. The turnpike continues along the Charles River into Boston, where it descends into a tunnel that passes Boston University, Fenway Park, and under the Prudential Tower complex in the Back Bay neighborhood.


title: Interstate 90

text: I-90 intersects I-93 on the south side of Downtown Boston and travels under the Fort Point Channel to serve the Seaport District. The turnpike then enters the Ted Williams Tunnel, which travels northeast under Boston Harbor to the passenger terminals at Logan International Airport. After it passes the northwest side of the airport, I-90 terminates at an interchange with Route 1A in East Boston. The section between I-93 and the airport was opened in the early 2000s as part of the Big Dig megaproject, which rebuilt several Boston freeways and extended I-90 by .


title: Interstate 90

text: An east–west controlled access highway to serve the Northern United States was proposed in the early 20th century in several federal government documents, including reports from the Bureau of Public Roads in the 1930s and 1940s. The Interstate Highway System was created by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, which was approved by the U.S. Congress and signed into law on June 26, 1956. I-90 was assigned to the northernmost transcontinental route in the system by the American Association of State Highway Officials in 1957.


title: Interstate 90

text: The freeway would travel along existing parts of the United States Numbered Highway System, which was established at the suggestion of the federal government in 1926 to replace the named auto trails. Among these auto trails, which were generally designated by private motorist organizations, were the transcontinental Yellowstone Trail and National Parks Highway, created in the 1910s along the future route of I-90 between Seattle and Boston. The national numbered highways along the corridor included US 10 from Seattle to Billings, Montana; US 87 from Billings to Buffalo, Wyoming; US 16 from Buffalo to Portage, Wisconsin; US 51 from Portage to Rockford, Illinois and US 20 from Rockford to Boston.


title: Interstate 90

text: Major portions of I-90 in the Midwest and Northeastern states used existing toll roads built by state governments in the 1950s and 1960s. The Northwest Tollway, Chicago Skyway, Indiana Toll Road, Ohio Turnpike, New York State Thruway, and Massachusetts Turnpike all predate I-90 and were incorporated into the route. This also meant that portions of the route did not adhere to Interstate Highway standards, but they were either deemed adequate or rebuilt to conform by the 1980s. The Pennsylvania section was planned in the early 1950s as the "Erie Extension" of the Pennsylvania Turnpike, but was instead completed as a toll-free road in October 1960 with federal funds. The completion of the section also allowed for full use of the New York State Thruway, which had been finished three years earlier but ended abruptly at the state line.


title: Interstate 90

text: I-90 would use several expressways and tollways in the Chicago area, the earliest of which was the Tri-State Expressway (now the Kingery Expressway), completed in 1950 and extended into Indiana the following year. It was followed by the Congress Expressway in the western suburbs, first opened in 1955, and the Northwest Tollway in 1958. The last section to be completed in Illinois was the toll-free Dan Ryan Expressway, which opened on December 15, 1962, and was described as the "world's widest freeway" at the time. In 1965, the designation for I-90 was switched with I-94 south of Chicago, which moved it to the tolled Chicago Skyway (completed in 1958); the change was requested by the Illinois and Indiana state governments to avoid confusion and provide a continuous toll connection to the Indiana Toll Road, which had been fully opened in 1956. I-90 was moved onto the Kennedy Expressway in 1977 and its western route was replaced with I-290 from Schaumburg to the Circle Interchange in Chicago.


title: Interstate 90

text: The other tolled sections of I-90 were completed in the 1950s by their respective state governments. The Ohio Turnpike opened to traffic on October 1, 1955, three years after construction began. The first segment of the New York Thruway opened in June 1954 and was followed by extensions to Buffalo and the Albany area by the end of the year. It was extended to the Pennsylvania state line in 1957 and to the Massachusetts Turnpike via the Berkshire Connector in 1959. The Berkshire section linked with the Massachusetts Turnpike, which had opened in 1957 from the state line to Newton, a distance of . The turnpike was extended into Boston in two stages: first by from Newton to Allston in September 1964; and finally with an extension to I-93 near South Station in Downtown Boston that opened on February 18, 1965.


title: Interstate 90

text: The freeway also incorporated other non-tolled expressway bypasses planned by state governments in the early 1950s and modified to meet Interstate standards. A bypass of Spokane Valley, Washington, opened in November 1956 as the first section in Washington and was extended into neighboring Spokane two years later. Wisconsin opened their first section in November 1959, connecting the terminus of the Illinois Tollway with Janesville, and extended the freeway through the Madison area to Wisconsin Dells in 1962. The Cleveland Innerbelt opened in stages from 1959 to 1962 and was originally planned to connect with the Parma Freeway, which would have carried I-90 around the northwest side of Downtown Cleveland. It was later cancelled in the 1960s amid public opposition. The first Minnesota section, built to bypass Austin, began construction in 1957 and opened in 1961.


title: Interstate 90

text: Wisconsin was among the first states to complete its rural Interstate system and opened its final section of I-90, from La Crosse to Tomah, in November 1969. The section around Albany, New York, built as a toll-free alternative to the New York Thruway, was completed in 1976 with a connection to the Berkshire Connector, which had been originally intended to carry the I-90 designation across the Hudson River. South Dakota completed its final section in November 1976, which created an unbroken stretch of four-lane highway from the Wyoming state line to Boston but some intersections remained. The Minnesota segment of I-90 was declared complete in September 1978 with a dedication at Blue Earth, where a golden line was painted to emulate the golden spike of the first transcontinental railroad. Two months later, Ohio finished its last section west of Cleveland.


title: Interstate 90

text: The western states were the last to complete their segments of I-90. Wyoming opened its final section, from the Montana state line to Sheridan, in July 1985 and dedicated it three months later following the completion of Montana's cross-border section. The last two-lane section in Montana, near Springdale, was upgraded to four lanes in May 1987. One of the last rural sections of I-90 to be built was through Wallace, Idaho, which placed its downtown on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976 to prevent its demolition for the freeway. The elevated freeway bypassed Wallace to the north and cost $42 million to construct. It opened on September 12, 1991, and the city ceremonially retired the last stoplight on I-90. The Idaho section was declared fully complete in July 1992 after the Veterans Memorial Centennial Bridge opened near Coeur d'Alene.


title: Interstate 90

text: Washington was the last state to complete its section of I-90, primarily due to disputes and litigation over the Seattle–Bellevue section. The Snoqualmie Pass section was completed in 1981 with a viaduct for westbound traffic that stands over Denny Creek. The viaduct replaced an earlier plan for a ground-level freeway at the behest of environmentalists; the Mountains to Sound Greenway was established in 1990 along the corridor between Seattle and Thorp to preserve wilderness and recreational areas and was designated as a National Scenic Byway in 1998, a first for an Interstate Highway. The extension into Seattle was completed in stages between 1989 and 1993 and cost $1.56 billion to construct. The project involved construction of a new floating bridge, expansion of the Mount Baker Ridge Tunnel, addition of lids with parks, and extensive mitigation for environmental and social impacts. The project was originally planned to be completed in 1992, but was delayed a year due to the sinking of the original floating bridge during renovations in November 1990; the bridge was rebuilt and opened for eastbound traffic on September 12, 1993.


title: Interstate 90

text: Extensions at both termini of I-90 were completed in the early 2000s as part of separate projects. The west end at Washington State Route 519 in Seattle was rebuilt as a series of ramps near Safeco Field (now T-Mobile Park) to replace an existing intersection. A component of the Big Dig megaproject in Boston that extended I-90 east by under Fort Point Channel and Boston Harbor to Logan International Airport opened on January 18, 2003, at a cost of $6.5 billion. The Fort Point Channel tunnel later closed in July 2006 due to a ceiling panel collapse that killed one person. It reopened in January 2007 after repairs and retrofit work.


title: Interstate 90

text: Other sections of I-90 have been rebuilt or replaced to accommodate modern needs and meet updated safety standards. The Dan Ryan Expressway in Chicago was reconstructed over a two-year period from 2006 to 2007 at a cost of $975 million, adding auxiliary lanes and improved bridges. The section carried over 300,000 daily vehicles prior to the project. Cleveland's Innerbelt Bridge, which carried I-90 over the Cuyahoga River, was replaced with the George V. Voinovich Bridges, which opened in November 2013 for westbound traffic and September 2016 for eastbound traffic. The old bridge was imploded with explosives on July 12, 2014, and dismantled by the end of the year. The states of Minnesota and Wisconsin replaced the Dresbach Bridge over the Mississippi River in 2016; the project was spearheaded by Minnesota following the I-35W Mississippi River bridge collapse in 2007.


title: Interstate 90

text: I-90 carries several commemorative names designated by state governments, some of which are shared between multiple states. Washington and Minnesota designated their sections as the "American Veterans Memorial Highway". In the states of Idaho, Montana, and South Dakota, I-90 is part of the Purple Heart Trail, which honors Purple Heart recipients. In Wisconsin, I-90 and I-94 were designated as the Wisconsin Veterans Memorial Highway in 1987. From Lorain, Ohio, through Pennsylvania and New York, I-90 is officially designated as the "AMVETS Memorial Highway".


title: Interstate 90

text: I-90 in New York is the only Interstate Highway to have a complete set of auxiliary routes, all nine possible three-digit route numbers, within a single state. Seven of the thirteen states that the highway passes through do not have auxiliary routes of I-90.


title: Pattie Mallette

text: Patricia Mallette (born April 2, 1975) is the mother of Canadian singer Justin Bieber. She also managed her son's early career. Her autobiography, "Nowhere but Up", was published in 2012 by Christian book publisher Revell, and was number 17 on the "New York Times" Best Seller list during its first week of release.


title: Pattie Mallette

text: Pattie Mallette was born on April 2, 1975, in Stratford, Ontario, of French descent. She is a daughter of Diane M. (Henry) and Michael Mallette. Her older sister Sally was killed at age five, when she was struck by a vehicle while crossing the street. She also has an older brother named Chris.


title: Pattie Mallette

text: Mallette has said her childhood was rattled with sexual abuse and violence and that she was first molested around age three. Mallette alleged that her offenders included a male babysitter, the grandfather of one of her friends and neighborhood kids mature beyond their years. Her book describes sexual abuse continuing until she was 14, followed by an incident of date rape at age 15. She says of the sexual abuse and violence, "I was sexually violated so many times that as the years went by it began to feel normal. It's a strange marriage – knowing something is wrong yet at the same time finding it familiar and commonplace."


title: Pattie Mallette

text: As a child, Mallette showed an interest in acting and singing. At age nine, she began appearing on local television programs, including "Romper Room" and "Big Top Talent", a locally televised children's talent show. When she was 10, she was cast in two theatrical productions in the Stratford Shakespeare Festival, which brings over half a million tourists to the town every year. Throughout middle and high school, she took every drama and choir class available, along with seven years of dancing. After earning numerous trophies and awards for her singing and acting, she was signed to a Toronto-based talent agent. When auditions required her to travel hours to Toronto every weekend, her parents were unable to make the commitment, which left Mallette devastated.


title: Pattie Mallette

text: At age 14, she began using drugs, including alcohol, marijuana and LSD. She also started shoplifting. When she vandalized school property by starting a fire in a bathroom, she was suspended from school. When she was 15 years old, she began a relationship with Jeremy Bieber, which lasted for four years. She left home when she was 16, supporting herself through petty theft and drug dealing. During this time, she experienced loneliness, depression and suicidal ideation. At 17, she attempted suicide by throwing herself in front of a truck, which led to a stint in a mental ward.


title: Pattie Mallette

text: Following her release from the hospital, Mallette rekindled friendships that failed to support her newfound faith. She also reconnected with Jeremy Bieber. Six months later, she became pregnant. Mallette gave birth to her son, Justin, on March 1, 1994, in London, Ontario, one month before her 19th birthday. While Mallette and Jeremy Bieber initially maintained a relationship after the birth of their son, they split up. Mallette raised Justin with the help of her parents.


title: Pattie Mallette

text: Mallette encouraged her son's talents after he began showing an interest in music at the age of two. In 2007, she entered Justin in the local "Stratford Star" talent show where he sang Ne-Yo's song, "So Sick", finishing second in the competition. Mallette posted a video of the performance on YouTube for their family and friends to view and continued to upload videos of subsequent performances as her son's online popularity grew.


title: Pattie Mallette

text: In September 2012, her autobiography (co-written with A.J. Gregory) "Nowhere but Up" was published by Christian book publisher Revell. The book is about the troubled upbringing of Mallette and the personal transformation of turning abandonment and single parenthood into strong faith and a life filled with grace and hope.


title: Pattie Mallette

text: During the first week of release, it was listed at No. 17 on the "New York Times" Best Seller list. The book has received international press and has been reviewed by media outlets around the world.


title: Mille-feuille

text: A (, "thousand-sheets"), also known by the names Napoleon, vanilla slice, and custard slice, is a dessert made of puff pastry layered with pastry cream. Its modern form was influenced by improvements made by Marie-Antoine Carême.


title: Mille-feuille

text: Traditionally, a is made up of three layers of puff pastry (), alternating with two layers of pastry cream (). The top pastry layer is finished in various ways: sometimes it is topped with whipped cream, or it may be dusted with icing sugar, cocoa, pastry crumbs, or sliced almonds. It may also be glazed with icing or fondant alone, or in alternating white (icing) and brown (chocolate) or other colored icing stripes, and combed to create a marbled effect.


title: Mille-feuille

text: All the elements of the recipe are present in numerous cookbooks since at least the 16th century, but the exact origin of the is unknown.


title: Mille-feuille

text: According to the "Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets", recipes from 17th century French and 18th century English cookbooks are a precursor to layer cakes.


title: Mille-feuille

text: The earliest mention of the name itself appears in 1733 in an English-language cookbook written by French chef Vincent La Chapelle. The 18th century was served stuffed with jam and marmalade instead of cream.


title: Mille-feuille

text: To make a cake, you take puff pastry, make out of it five cakes of equal size, & of the thickness of two coins, in the last one you shall make a hole in the middle in the shape of a Knight's cross, regarding the size you will base yourself on the dish that you will use for service, bake them in the oven. When they are baked & cooled, stack them one on the other, the one with the hole on top, & jams between every cake, [sentence unclear, maybe referring to covering all sides with jam] & ice them everywhere with white icing so that they appear to be a single piece; you can embellish it with some red currant jelly, candied lemon skins & pistachio, you serve them on a plate.


title: Mille-feuille

text: The word is not used again in the recipe books of the 18th century. However, under the reign of Napoleon Bonaparte, several of the fanciest Parisian pastry shops appear to have sold the cake. During the 19th century, all recipes describe the cake as filled with jam, with the exception of the 1876 recipe by Urbain Dubois, where it is served with Bavarian cream.


title: Mille-feuille

text: According to Alan Davidson in the "Oxford Companion to Food", the invention of the form (but not of the pastry itself) is usually attributed to Szeged, Hungary, where a caramel-coated is called .


title: Mille-feuille

text: Traditionally, a is made up of three layers of puff pastry and two layers of . The top layer is coated with a sprinkling of powdered sugar. In later variations, the top is glazed with icing, in alternating white (icing) and brown (chocolate) strips, and then combed. Today, there are also savory , with cheese and spinach or other savory fillings.


title: Mille-feuille

text: According to La Varenne, it was earlier called ("cake of a thousand sheets"), referring to the many layers of pastry. Using traditional puff pastry, made with six folds of three layers, it has 729 layers; with some modern recipes it may have as many as 2,048.


title: Mille-feuille

text: In Australia, a variant of the is the custard slice, also known as the vanilla slice. It is made using a gelatin-set , and in many cases, passionfruit icing. "French Vanilla slice" refers to a similar product without fondant icing. In New Zealand, it is variously known as a 'custard slice', a 'custard square', a 'vanilla slice', or, with passion-fruit icing, a 'passion-fruit slice'.


title: Mille-feuille

text: A similar local variety is called in Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, or in Slovenia and Croatia, and in Slovakia.


title: Mille-feuille

text: In Belgium and the Netherlands, the or is the equivalent pastry. Several variations exist in Belgium, but in the Netherlands it has achieved an almost iconic status, with very little variation seen in form, size, ingredients and colour (always two layers of pastry, nearly always pink glazing, but orange around national festivities). The cartoon character Tom Puss by Marten Toonder is named after the .


title: Mille-feuille

text: In Canada, is often named , or 'Napoleon slice' in English Canada. It is sold either with custard, whipped cream, or both, between three layers of puff pastry; almond paste is the most common filling. A French Canadian method of making a sees it made with graham crackers instead of puff pastry, with pudding replacing the custard layer.


title: Mille-feuille

text: In the German speaking part of Switzerland and also in Austria, it is called . In Israel it is known by a variation of that name, ().


title: Mille-feuille

text: In Greece, the pastry is called , a transcription of the word using the Greek alphabet. The filling between the layers is cream whereas Chantilly cream is used at the top of the pastry.


title: Mille-feuille

text: In Hong Kong, the (, 'Napoleon') is layered with buttercream, meringue and walnuts. In Mainland China, a similar product also marketed as a Napoleon (, or more commonly, ) varies between regions and individual bakeries, but usually features a top and bottom layer of rough puff pastry, typically made with vegetable shortening rather than butter, and a sponge cake and artificial buttercream filling.


title: Mille-feuille

text: In Hungary, it is called . One version, the (French Napoleon), is topped with whipped cream and caramel.


title: Mille-feuille

text: In Italy, the is known as the , and contains similar fillings. A savory Italian version consists of puff pastry filled with spinach, cheese or pesto, among other things. Another important distinction of the Italian variety is that it often consists of a layer of puff pastry with layers of sponge cake as well (e.g. from bottom to top, puff pastry, sponge cake strawberries and cream and then puff pastry).


title: Mille-feuille

text: In Iran, the pastry is called (, literally "Napoleonic sweet pastry"). It consists of thin puff pastry and often topped with powdered sugar.


title: Mille-feuille

text: In Lithuanian tradition, Napoleon or is quite similar to Russian Napoleon. The recipe varies slightly as Lithuanians add layers of fruit filling such as apricots. It is often associated with weddings or celebrations and often given as gifts.


title: Mille-feuille

text: In Philippines, they are called ( , ; in the singular), and are made of two to three layers, with pastry cream or white custard as filling, topped with sugar glaze. It is a popular specialty on Negros Island, especially in Silay City, and can be bought as by many who visit the island.


title: Mille-feuille

text: In Poland, the local variant of the pastry is officially called , and less commonly . It consists of two layers of pastry separated by a thick cream layer. The whole pastry is then covered with powdered sugar.


title: Mille-feuille

text: In Russian literature, a cake named 'Napoleon' () is first mentioned as early as in the first half of the 19th century. Alexander Bestuzhev explained the emergence of such names by the romantic and historicist spirit of that time. The cake has enjoyed an especially great popularity since the centenary celebration of the Russian victory over Napoleon in the Patriotic War of 1812. During the celebrations in 1812, triangular-shape pastries were sold resembling the bicorne. The many layers of the cake symbolized La Grande Armée. The top is covered by pastry crumbs symbolizing the snow of Russia which helped the Russians defeat Napoleon. Later, the cake became a standard dessert in the Soviet cuisine. Nowadays, the Napoleon remains one of the most popular cakes in Russia and other post-Soviet countries. It typically has more layers than the French archetype, but the same height.


title: Mille-feuille

text: In the Spanish , the puff pastry is thin and crunchy. They are often far deeper than solely three layers of pastry and can reach up to tall.


title: Mille-feuille

text: In the central regions, "milhojas" usually have only two or three layers of puff pastry filled with very thick layers of whipped cream or chantilly.


title: Mille-feuille

text: In Sweden as well as in Finland, the (Napoleon pastry) is a filled with whipped cream, custard, and jam. The top of the pastry is glazed with icing and currant jelly. In Denmark it is called and in Norway , both meaning 'Napoleon cake'.


title: Mille-feuille

text: In the United Kingdom, the pastry is most often called a 'vanilla slice', 'cream slice', or a 'custard slice', but can, on occasion, be named or 'Napoleon' on branded products. It is common in the UK to only use two slices of pastry with a single, thick layer of filling between them.


title: Mille-feuille

text: In the United States, the pastry is most often called 'Napoleon'. It typically includes three layers of pastry, is filled with pastry cream, and is glazed with icing sugar in a feathered or marbled pattern.


title: Mille-feuille

text: In Latin American , various layers of puff pastry are layered with dulce de leche and confectioner's sugar on top. A Colombian version of has various layers of puff pastry and pastry cream. It is topped with arequipe (dulce de leche).


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Jack Leonard Warner (born Jacob Warner; August 2, 1892 – September 9, 1978) was a Canadian-American film executive, who was the president and driving force behind the Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California. Warner's career spanned some forty-five years, its duration surpassing that of any other of the seminal Hollywood studio moguls.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: As co-head of production at Warner Bros. Studios, Warner worked with his brother, Sam Warner, to procure the technology for the film industry's first talking picture, "The Jazz Singer" (1927). After Sam's death, Jack clashed with his surviving older brothers, Harry and Albert Warner. He assumed exclusive control of the company in the 1950s when he secretly purchased his brothers' shares in the business after convincing them to participate in a joint sale of stocks.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Although Warner was feared by many of his employees and inspired ridicule with his uneven attempts at humor, he earned respect for his shrewd instincts and tough-mindedness. He recruited many of Warner Bros.' top stars and promoted the hard-edged social dramas for which the studio became known. Given to decisiveness, Warner once commented, "If I'm right fifty-one percent of the time, I'm ahead of the game."


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Throughout his career, Warner was viewed as a contradictory and enigmatic figure. Although he was a staunch Republican, he encouraged film projects that promoted the policies of Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt. He also opposed European fascism and criticized Nazi Germany well before America's involvement in World War II. An opponent of communism, after the war Warner appeared as a friendly witness before the House Un-American Activities Committee, voluntarily naming screenwriters who had been fired as suspected communists or sympathizers. Despite his controversial public image, Warner remained a force in the motion picture industry until his retirement in the early 1970s.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Jacob Warner (as he was named at birth) was born in London, Ontario, Canada, in 1892. His parents were Polish-Jewish immigrants from Congress Poland (then part of the Russian Empire), who spoke mainly Yiddish. He was the fifth surviving son of Benjamin Warner (originally "Wonsal" or "Wonskolaser"), a cobbler from Krasnosielc, and his wife, the former Pearl Leah Eichelbaum. Following their marriage in 1876, the couple had three children in Poland, one of whom died at a young age. One of the surviving children was Jack's eldest brother, Hirsch (later Harry).


title: Jack L. Warner

text: The Warner family had occupied a "hostile world" where the "night-riding of cossacks, the burning of houses, and the raping of women (during pogroms) were part of life's burden for the Jews of the 'shtetl'". In 1888, in search of a better future for his family and himself, Benjamin made his way to Hamburg, Germany, and then took a ship to the United States. The Warner surname was perhaps originally "Wonsal" or "Wonskolaser" Upon arriving in New York City, Benjamin introduced himself as "Benjamin Warner", and the surname "Warner" remained with him for the rest of his life. Pearl Warner and the couple's two children joined him in Baltimore, Maryland, less than a year later. In Baltimore, the couple had five more children, including Abraham (later known as Albert) and Sam Warner.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Benjamin Warner's decision to move to Canada in the early 1890s was inspired by a friend's advice that he could make an excellent living bartering tin wares with trappers in exchange for furs. Their sons Jack and David were born in Ontario. After two arduous years in Canada, Benjamin and Pearl Warner returned to Baltimore, bringing along their growing family. Two more children, Sadie and Milton, were added to the household there. In 1896, the family relocated to Youngstown, Ohio, following the lead of Harry Warner, who established a shoe repair shop in the heart of the emerging industrial town. Benjamin worked with his son Harry in the shoe repair shop until he secured a loan to open a meat counter and grocery store in the city's downtown area.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Jack spent much of his youth in Youngstown. He observed in his autobiography that his experiences there molded his sensibilities. He wrote: "J. Edgar Hoover told me that Youngstown in those days was one of the toughest cities in America, and a gathering place for Sicilian thugs active in the Mafia. There was a murder or two almost every Saturday night in our neighborhood, and knives and brass knuckles were standard equipment for the young hotheads on the prowl." Warner claimed that he briefly belonged to a street gang based at Westlake's Crossing, a notorious neighborhood located just west of the city's downtown area. Meanwhile, he received his first taste of show business in the burgeoning steel town, singing at local theaters and forming a brief business partnership with another aspiring "song-and-dance man". During his brief career in vaudeville, he officially changed his name to Jack Leonard Warner. Jack's older brother Sam disapproved of these youthful pursuits. "Get out front where they pay the actors," he advised Jack. "That's where the money is."


title: Jack L. Warner

text: In Youngstown, the Warner brothers took their first tentative steps into the entertainment industry. In the early 20th century, Sam formed a business partnership with another local resident and "took over" the city's Old Grand Opera House, which he used as a venue for "cheap vaudeville and photoplays". The venture failed after one summer. Sam then secured a job as a projectionist at Idora Park, a local amusement park. He convinced the family of the new medium's possibilities and negotiated the purchase of a Model B Kinetoscope from a projectionist who was "down on his luck". The purchase price was $1,000, and Jack contributed $150 to the venture by pawning a horse, according to his obituary.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: The enterprising brothers screened a well-used copy of "The Great Train Robbery" throughout Ohio and Pennsylvania before renting a vacant store in New Castle, Pennsylvania. This makeshift theatre, called the Bijou, was furnished with chairs borrowed from a local undertaker. Jack, who was still living in Youngstown at the time, arrived on weekends "to sing illustrated song-slides during reel changes".


title: Jack L. Warner

text: In 1906, the brothers purchased a small theater in New Castle, which they called the Cascade Movie Palace. They maintained the theater until moving into film distribution in 1907. That year, the Warner brothers established the Pittsburgh-based Duquesne Amusement Company, a distribution firm that proved lucrative until the advent of Thomas Edison's Motion Picture Patents Company (also known as the Edison Trust), which charged distributors exorbitant fees. In 1909, Harry agreed to bring Jack into the family business; he sent his younger brother to Norfolk, Virginia, where Jack assisted Sam in the operation of a second film exchange company. Later that year, the Warners sold the family business to the General Film Company for "$10,000 in cash, $12,000 in preferred stock, and payments over a four-year period, for a total of $52,000" (equivalent to $ today).


title: Jack L. Warner

text: The Warner brothers pooled their resources and moved into film production in 1910. Then, in 1912, they lent their support to filmmaker Carl Laemmle's Independent Motion Picture Company, which challenged the monopolistic control of the Edison Trust. That same year, Jack acquired a job as a film splicer in New York, where he assisted Sam with the production of the film "Dante's Inferno". Despite the film's success at the box office, Harry remained concerned about the economic threat presented by the Edison Trust. He subsequently broke with Laemmle and sent Jack to establish a film exchange in San Francisco, while Sam did the same in Los Angeles. The brothers were soon poised to exploit the expanding California movie market.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: In 1917, Jack was sent to Los Angeles to open another film exchange company. Their first opportunity to produce a major film came in 1918, when they purchased the film rights for "My Four Years in Germany", a bestselling novel that condemned German wartime atrocities. The film adaptation proved to be a commercial and critical success, and the four brothers were able to establish a studio in California. In the new studio, Jack became co-head of production along with his older brother, Sam. In this capacity, the two brothers secured new scripts and story lines, managed film production, and looked for ways to reduce production costs.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Warner Bros. Studios followed up the success of "My Four Years in Germany" with a popular serial titled "The Tiger's Claw" in 1919. That same year, the studio was less successful in its efforts to promote "Open Your Eyes", a tract on the dangers of venereal disease that featured Jack's sole screen appearance. During this period, the studio earned few profits; and in 1920, the Warners secured a bank loan to settle outstanding debts. Shortly thereafter, they relocated their production studio from Culver City, California, to Hollywood, where they purchased a lot on the corner of Sunset Boulevard and Bronson Avenue, known today as Sunset Bronson Studios. The new location and upgraded facilities did not significantly improve the studio's image, which remained defined by its low-budget comedies and racy films on declining morality.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: In 1923, the studio discovered a trained German Shepherd named Rin Tin Tin. The canine made his debut in "Where the North Begins", a film about an abandoned pup who is raised by wolves and befriends a fur trapper. According to one biographer, Jack's initial doubts about the project were quelled when he met Rin Tin Tin, "who seemed to display more intelligence than some of the Warner comics." Rin Tin Tin proved to be the studio's most important commercial asset until the introduction of sound. Screenwriter Darryl F. Zanuck produced several scripts for Rin Tin Tin vehicles and, during one year, wrote more than half of the studio's features. Between 1928 and 1933, Zanuck served as Jack's right-hand man and executive producer, a position whose responsibilities included the day-to-day production of films. Despite the success of Rin Tin Tin and other projects, Warner Bros. was unable to compete with Hollywood's "Big Three" – Paramount, Universal, and First National studios.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: In 1925, the studio expanded its operations and acquired the Brooklyn-based theater company Vitagraph. Later that year, Sam urged Harry to sign an agreement with Western Electric to develop a series of talking "shorts" using the newly developed Vitaphone technology.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Sam died of pneumonia in 1927 (just before the premiere of the first feature-length talking picture, "The Jazz Singer"), and Jack became sole head of production. His death left Jack inconsolable. One biographer writes, "Throughout his life, Jack had been warmed by Sam's sunshiny optimism, his thirst for excitement, his inventive mind, his gambling nature. Sam had also served as a buffer between Jack and his stern eldest brother, Harry. In the years to come, Jack ran the Warner Bros. Burbank studio with an iron hand. Following his brother's death, he became increasingly difficult to deal with and inspired the resentment of many of his employees.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: As the family grieved over Sam's sudden passing, the success of "The Jazz Singer" helped establish Warner Bros. as a major studio. While Warner Bros. invested only $500,000 in the film, the studio reaped $3 million in profits. Hollywood's five major studios, which controlled most of the nation's movie theaters, initially attempted to block the growth of "talking pictures". In the face of such organized opposition, Warner Bros. produced twelve "talkies" in 1928 alone. The following year, the newly formed Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences recognized Warner Bros. for "revolutionizing the industry with sound".


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Despite Warner Bros.' new prosperity, Jack kept a tight rein on costs. He placed the studio's directors on a quota system and decreed a flat, low-key lighting style to make the sets look cheaper than they were.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: The studio emerged relatively unscathed from the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and produced a broad range of films, including "backstage musicals," "crusading biopics," "swashbucklers," and "women's pictures." As Thomas Schatz observed, this repertoire was "a means of stabilizing marketing and sales, of bringing efficiency and economy into the production of some fifty feature films per year, and of distinguishing Warners' collective output from that of its competitors". Warner Bros. became best known, however, for its hard-hitting social dramas, whose production Jack tended to support. These included gangster classics such as "Little Caesar" and "The Public Enemy" as well as the critically acclaimed "I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang", starring Paul Muni. Some of these films reflected a surprising (albeit temporary) shift in Jack's political outlook. By 1932, despite his longstanding association with the Republican Party, he openly supported Democratic presidential candidate Franklin D. Roosevelt, staging a "Motion Picture and Electrical Parade Sports Pageant" at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum in Roosevelt's honor. This development foreshadowed an "era in which Warner would recruit the most New Deal-ish (often simultaneously the most left-wing) writers".


title: Jack L. Warner

text: During this period, Jack took an active role in recruiting talent. To furnish Warner Bros. with much needed "star power", he raided contract players from rival studios, in some cases offering to double their salaries. This strategy yielded three leading stars from Paramount – William Powell, Kay Francis, and Ruth Chatterton. In 1929, Jack persuaded British stage and screen actor George Arliss to play the title role in a remake of the 1921 United Artists film "Disraeli", a project that turned out to be a box-office hit. Then, in 1930, he spotted future stars James Cagney, Joan Blondell, and Frank McHugh in the cast of a New York play called "Penny Arcade". Although Cagney turned out to be Jack's greatest prize, he was also the studio executive's biggest professional challenge. During their frequent arguments, Cagney often resorted to screaming the Yiddish obscenities he learned during his upbringing in the Yorkville district of New York City. According to a 1937 "Fortune" magazine article, Jack's most intense contract disputes involved Cagney, "who got sick of being typed as a girl-hitting mick and of making five pictures a year instead of four."


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Zanuck resigned during a contract dispute with Harry Warner in 1933. According to a 1933 letter that Jack wrote to Will H. Hays, then president of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America, Zanuck requested a higher salary and "indicated his desire to raise the salaries of the actors and personnel in the motion pictures we were producing". That year, Zanuck established Twentieth Century Pictures, which merged with Fox Film Corporation in 1935. Longtime producer for the studio, Hal B. Wallis, took over as the studio's executive producer. Jack, however, denied Wallis the sweeping powers enjoyed by Zanuck, and the result was a decentralization of creative and administrative control that often created confusion at the studio. Under the new system, each picture was assigned a supervisor who was usually plucked from the ranks of the studio's screenwriters. Although Warner Bros. maintained a high rate of production throughout the 1930s, some pictures showed an uneven quality that reflected "not only the difficulty of shifting to a supervisory system but also the consequences of dispersing authority into the creative ranks".


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Meanwhile, Jack's role in production became somewhat limited. After acquiring a creative property, he often had little to do with a film's production until it was ready for preview. Nevertheless, he could be heavy-handed in his dealings with employees, and he was "merciless in his firings." Film director Gottfried Reinhardt claimed that Jack "derived pleasure" from humiliating subordinates. "Harry Cohn was a sonofabitch," Reinhardt said, "but he did it for business; he was not a sadist. Mayer could be a monster, but he was not mean for the sake of meanness. Jack was."


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Jack's management style frustrated many studio employees. Comedian Jack Benny, who once worked at Warner Bros., quipped, "Jack Warner would rather tell a bad joke than make a good movie". Jack frequently clashed with actors and supposedly banned them from the studio's executive dining room, with the explanation, "I don't need to look at actors when I eat."


title: Jack L. Warner

text: The studio executive did, however, win the affection of a few film personalities. Among these was Bette Davis, one of the studio's leading stars, who once fled to England to secure release from her contract. In later years, Davis defended Jack against rumors of sexual impropriety when she wrote: "No lecherous boss was he! His sins lay elsewhere. He was the father. The power. The glory. And he was in business to make money." Davis revealed that, after the birth of her child, Jack's attitude toward her became warm and protective. "We became father and child, no question about it." she said. "He told me I didn't have to come back to work until I really felt like it. He was a thoughtful man. Not many nice things were said about him." Warner also earned the gratitude and affection of Errol Flynn. In 1935, the studio head personally selected Flynn for the title role of "Captain Blood", even though he was an unknown actor at the time. In 1936, following the success of another costume epic, "The Charge of the Light Brigade", Jack tore up Flynn's contract and signed him to a long-term deal that doubled his weekly salary.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: As the 1930s came to an end, both Jack and Harry Warner became increasingly alarmed over the rise of Nazism. As Bernard F. Dick observed, the Warners, "as sons of Polish Jews who fled their homeland because of antisemitic pogroms ... had a personal interest in exposing Nazism." Moreover, the attraction to films critical of German militarism had a long history with the Warners that predated their production of "My Four Years in Germany" in 1918. In 1917, while it was still in distribution, the Warners had secured the rights for "War Brides", a movie that featured Alla Nazimova as "a woman who kills herself rather than breed children for an unidentified country whose army looks suspiciously Teutonic." Beyond this, Jack was shaken by the 1936 murder of studio salesman Joe Kaufman, who was beaten to death by Nazi stormtroopers in Berlin. He later described the incident in the following terms: "Like many an outnumbered Jew he was trapped in an alley. They [Nazi hoodlums] hit him with fists and clubs and then kicked the life out of him with their boots and left him dying there." Hence, while other Hollywood studios sidestepped the issue, fearing domestic criticism and the loss of European markets, Warner Bros. produced films that were openly critical of Nazi Germany.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: In 1939, the studio published "Confessions of a Nazi Spy", starring Edward G. Robinson. The project, which was recommended to Jack by FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover, drew on the real-life experiences of Agent Leon G. Turrou, who had worked as an undercover agent. Despite legal ramifications preventing the use of actual names, the studio aimed for an "aura of authenticity" and Wallis initially recommended eliminating credits to give the film "the appearance of a newsreel." "Confessions of a Nazi Spy" was widely criticized. The critic Pare Lorentz wrote, "The Warner brothers have declared war on Germany with this one." The German ambassador responded by issuing a protest to Secretary of State Cordell Hull, and the German dictator, Adolf Hitler, who watched the film at Berchtesgaden, was outraged. Meanwhile, the studio received stern warnings from U.S. Congressman Martin Dies Jr. about defaming a "friendly country".


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Initially, the studio bowed to pressure from the Roosevelt Administration, the Hays Office, and isolationist lawmakers to desist from similar projects. Jack announced that the studio would release no more "propaganda pictures" and promptly ordered the shelving of several projects with an anti-Nazi theme. In time, however, Warner Bros. produced more films with anti-Nazi messages, including "Underground" and "All Through the Night". In 1940, the studio produced short films that dramatically documented the devastation wrought by the German bombing raids on London. Meanwhile, the studio celebrated the exploits of the Royal Canadian Air Force with films such as "Captains of the Clouds". In 1941, Warner also produced the influential war film "Sergeant York".


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Contemporary reports that Jack had banned the use of the German language throughout the company's studios were denied by studio representatives who indicated that this move would have prevented scores of studio employees from communicating with each other.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: After the American declaration of war against the Axis Powers, Jack, like some other studio heads, was commissioned as a lieutenant colonel in the U.S. Army Air Corps.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: In 1943 the studio's film "Casablanca" won the Academy Award for Best Picture. When the award was announced, Wallis got up to accept, only to find Jack had rushed onstage "with a broad, flashing smile and a look of great self-satisfaction" to take the trophy, Wallis later recalled. "I couldn't believe it was happening. "Casablanca" had been my creation; Jack had absolutely nothing to do with it. As the audience gasped, I tried to get out of the row of seats and into the aisle, but the entire Warner family sat blocking me. I had no alternative but to sit down again, humiliated and furious. ... Almost forty years later, I still haven't recovered from the shock."


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Also in 1943, Jack, at the advice of President Roosevelt, produced a film adaptation of the controversial book "Mission to Moscow", a film intended to inspire public support of the uneasy military alliance between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Later, while testifying before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) on October 27, 1947, Jack dismissed allegations during the Cold War that this film was subversive, and he argued that "Mission to Moscow" was produced "only to help a desperate war effort, and not for posterity." After the film's lackluster response under distribution, the Republican National Committee accused him of producing "New Deal propaganda."


title: Jack L. Warner

text: In line with the Warner brothers' early opposition to Nazism, Warner Bros. produced more pictures about the war than any other studio, covering every branch of the armed services. In addition, the studio produced patriotic musicals such as "This Is the Army" and "Yankee Doodle Dandy".


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Warner responded grudgingly to the rising popularity of television in the late 1940s. Initially he tried to compete with the new medium, introducing gimmicks such as 3-D films, which soon lost their appeal among moviegoers. In 1954, Warner finally engaged the new medium, providing ABC with a weekly show, "Warner Bros. Presents". The studio followed up with a series of Western dramas, such as "Maverick", "Bronco", and "Colt .45". Accustomed to dealing with actors in a high-handed manner, within a few years Jack provoked hostility among emerging TV stars like James Garner, who filed a lawsuit against Warner Bros. over a contract dispute. Warner was angered by the perceived ingratitude of television actors, who evidently showed more independence than film actors, and this deepened his contempt for the new medium. Following his deal with ABC, Warner also made his son, Jack Jr., head of the company's new television department.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: During this period, Warner showed little foresight in his treatment of the studio's cartoon operation. Animated characters such as Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, and Porky Pig, while embraced by cartoon lovers, "were always stepchildren at Warner Bros." As biographer Bob Thomas wrote, "Jack Warner...considered cartoons no more than an extraneous service provided to exhibitors who wanted a full program for their customers." In 1953, during a rare meeting between the Warners and the studio's cartoon makers, Jack confessed that he didn't "even know where the hell the cartoon studio is", and Harry added, "The only thing I know is that we make Mickey Mouse," a reference to the flagship character of a competing company, Walt Disney Productions. Several years later, Jack sold all of the 400 cartoons Warner Bros. made before 1948 for $3,000 apiece. As Thomas noted, "They have since earned millions, but not for Warner Bros."


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Jack's tumultuous relationship with his brother Harry worsened in February 1956, when Harry learned of Jack's decision to sell the Warner Bros.' pre-1950 films to Associated Artists Productions (soon to merge with United Artists Television) for the modest sum of $21 million. "This is our heritage, what we worked all our lives to create, and now it is gone," Harry exclaimed, upon hearing of the deal. The breach between Jack and Harry widened later that year. In July 1956, Jack, Harry, and Albert announced that they were putting Warner Bros. on the market. Jack, however, secretly organized a syndicate that purchased control of the company. By the time Harry and Albert learned of their brother's dealings, it was too late. Jack, as the company's largest stockholder, appointed himself as the new company president. Shortly after the deal was closed, he announced that the company and its subsidiaries would be "directed more vigorously to the acquisition of the most important story properties, talents, and to the production of the finest motion pictures possible".


title: Jack L. Warner

text: The two brothers had often argued, and earlier in the decade, studio employees claimed they saw Harry chase Jack through the studio with a lead pipe, shouting, "I'll get you for this, you son of a bitch" and threatening to kill him. This subterfuge, however, proved too much for Harry. He never spoke to Jack again. When Harry died on July 27, 1958, Jack did not attend the funeral, and he departed for his annual vacation at Cap d'Antibes. Asked to respond to his brother's death, he said, "I didn't give a shit about Harry." At the same time, Jack took pride in the fact that President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent him a letter of condolence.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: In the 1960s, Warner kept pace with rapid changes in the industry and played a key role in developing films that were commercial and critical successes. In February 1962, he purchased the film rights for the Broadway musical "My Fair Lady", paying an unprecedented $6.5 million. The previous owner, CBS director William S. Paley set terms that included fifty percent of the distributor's gross profits "plus ownership of the negative at the end of the contract." Despite the "outrageous" purchase price, and the ungenerous terms of the contract, the deal proved lucrative for Warner Bros., securing the studio $12 million in profits. Warner was criticized for choosing a non-singing star, Audrey Hepburn, to play the leading role of Eliza Doolittle; indeed, the 1964 Academy Award for Best Actress went to Julie Andrews, who had played Eliza in both the Broadway and London productions of the musical, for "Mary Poppins", while Hepburn wasn't even nominated. However, the film won the Best Picture Oscar for 1964.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: In 1965, Warner surprised many industry observers when he purchased the rights to "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?", Edward Albee's searing play about a destructive marriage. From the beginning, the project was beset by controversy. Ernest Lehman's script, which was extremely faithful to Albee's play, stretched the U.S. film industry's Production Code to the limit. Jack Valenti, who just assumed leadership of the Motion Picture Association of America, recalled that a meeting with Warner and studio aide Ben Kalmenson left him "uneasy". "I was uncomfortable with the thought that this was just the beginning of an unsettling new era in film, in which we would lurch from crisis to crisis without any suitable solution in sight," Valenti wrote. Meanwhile, Lehman and the film's director, Mike Nichols, battled with studio executives and exhibitors who insisted that the film be shot in color rather than black and white. These controversies soon faded into the background while Warner challenged the validity of the Production Code by publicly requiring theaters showing the film to post an "adults only" label and restrict ticket sales accordingly, all as a marketing tease to entice audiences to see what warranted that restriction. At this, the MPAA — wary of a repeat of the embarrassment it had trying to censor the highly acclaimed film "The Pawnbroker" — gave in and approved the film as a special exception because of its quality, which led to other filmmakers to challenge the Code themselves even more aggressively. Upon its release, "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?" was embraced by audiences and critics alike. It secured thirteen nominations from the Academy, including one for Best Picture of 1966.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Despite these achievements, Warner grew weary of making films, and he sold a substantial amount of his studio stock to Seven Arts Productions on November 14, 1966. Some observers believed that Ben Kalmenson, Warner Bros.' executive vice president, persuaded Warner to sell his stock so that Kalmenson could assume leadership of the studio. Warner, however, had personal reasons for seeking retirement. His wife, Ann, continually pressured him to "slow down", and the aging studio head felt a need to put his affairs in order. He sold his 1.6 million shares of studio stock shortly after producing the film adaptation of Lerner & Loewe's "Camelot". The sale yielded, after capital gains taxes, about $24 million (equivalent to $ million today). Eight months after the sale, Warner quipped, "Who would ever have thought that a butcher boy from Youngstown, Ohio, would end up with twenty-four million smackers in his pocket?" At the time of the sale, he had earned the distinction of being the second production chief to also serve as company president, after Columbia Pictures' Harry Cohn.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Warner's decision to sell came at a time when he was losing the formidable power that he once took for granted. He had already survived the dislocations of the 1950s, when other studio heads – including Mayer, David O. Selznick, and Samuel Goldwyn – were pushed out by stockholders who "sought scapegoats for dwindling profits". Structural changes that occurred in the industry during this period ensured that studios would become "more important as backers of independent producers than as creators of their own films", a situation that left little room for the traditional movie mogul. By the mid-1960s, most of the film moguls from the Golden Age of Hollywood had died, and Warner was regarded as one of the last of a dying breed. Evidence of his eroding control at Warner Bros. included his failure to block production of the controversial but highly influential film "Bonnie and Clyde", a project he initially "hated". Similarly, as producer of the film adaptation of "Camelot", he was unable to persuade director Joshua Logan to cast Richard Burton and Julie Andrews in the leading roles. Instead, Logan selected Richard Harris and Vanessa Redgrave, a move that contributed to the project's critical – and commercial – failure. Another factor was that Logan was able to manipulate Warner's ego to persuade him from cutting the screenplay's length, despite the fact that the studio executive had already agreed with the film's unofficial producer, Joel Freeman, that it was overlong. Warner officially retired from the studio in 1969.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Warner remained active as an independent producer until the early 1970s to run some of the company's distributions and exhibition division. Among his last productions was a film adaptation of a Broadway musical, "1776", which was released through Columbia Pictures. Before the film's release, Warner showed a preview cut to President Richard Nixon, who recommended substantial changes, including the removal of the song 'Cool, Cool, Considerate Men' that struck him as veiled criticisms of the ongoing Vietnam War. Without consulting the film's director, Peter H. Hunt, Warner ordered the film re-edited. The cuts have since been restored in most television showings and in the film's DVD release.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: In November 1972, the film opened to enthusiastic audiences at Radio City Music Hall, but it fared poorly in theaters. Faced with a polarized political climate, few Americans were drawn to "a cheery exercise in prerepublic civics". Warner's efforts to promote the film were sometimes counterproductive; during an interview with talk show host Merv Griffin, the elderly producer engaged in a lengthy tirade against "pinko communists". This would become his only television interview.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: On October 14, 1914, Warner married Irma Claire Salomon, the daughter of Sam Salomon and Bertha Franklin Salomon from one of San Francisco's pioneer Jewish families. Irma gave birth to the couple's only child, Jack M. Warner, on March 27, 1916. Jack Sr. named the child after himself, disregarding an Eastern European Jewish custom that children should not be named after living relatives. Although his son bore a different middle initial, he "has been called Junior all his life".


title: Jack L. Warner

text: Warner's first marriage ended in 1935, when he left his wife for another woman, Ann Page, with whom he had a daughter named Barbara. Irma sued her husband for divorce on the grounds of desertion. Harry Warner reflected the family's feelings about the marriage when he exclaimed, "Thank God our mother didn't live to see this". Jack married Ann after the divorce. The Warners, who took Irma's side in the affair, refused to accept Ann as a family member. In the wake of this falling out, Warner's relationship with his son, Jack Jr., also became strained.


title: Jack L. Warner

text: In the late 1950s, Warner was almost killed in a car accident that left him in a coma for several days. On August 5, 1958, after an evening of baccarat at the Palm Beach Casino in Cannes, his Alfa Romeo roadster swerved into the path of a coal truck on a stretch of road located near the seaside villa of Prince Aly Khan. Warner was thrown from the car, which burst into flames upon impact. Shortly after the accident, Jack Jr. joined other family members in France, where the unconscious studio head was hospitalized. In an interview with reporters, Jack Jr. suggested that his father was dying. Then, during a visit to his father's hospital room, the young man offended Ann, whom he largely blamed for his parents' divorce. When Warner regained consciousness, he was enraged by reports of his son's behavior and their "tenuous" relationship came to an end. On December 30, 1958, Jack Jr. was informed, by Jack Sr.'s lawyer Arnold Grant, that the elder Warner had released him from the company. When he attempted to report for work, studio guards denied him entry. The two men never achieved a reconciliation, and Jack Jr. is not mentioned in his father's 1964 autobiography.