title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Through the influence of his wife, Eugénie de Montijo, Napoleon III of France had come into contact with Mexican monarchist exiles, José María Gutiérrez de Estrada and José Manuel Hidalgo who exposed Napoleon to the decades long effort to import a European prince to ascend a Mexican throne. He was initially not interested in the project due to the inevitable opposition that the effort would invite from the United States due to the Monroe Doctrine, a concern that would be rendered null with the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861. Juarez's debt moratorium finally provided a pretext for intervention. Napoleon III would also claim that the military adventure was a foreign policy commitment to free trade and that the establishment of a European-derived monarchy in Mexico would ensure European access to Mexican resources, particularly French access to Mexican silver. However, Emperor Maximilian disagreed with the French emperor on Mexican resources going to anyone but Mexicans. More importantly, Napoleon III wanted to establish Mexico as a monarchist ally in the Americas in order to restrain the growing power of the United States. To realize his ambitions without interference from other European states, Napoleon III entered into a coalition with the United Kingdom and Spain.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 14 December 1861, a Spanish fleet sailed into and took possession of the port of Veracruz. The city was occupied on the 17. French and British forces arrived on 7 January 1862. On 10 January a manifesto was issued by Spanish General Juan Prim disavowing rumors that the allies had come to conquer or to impose a new government. It was emphasized that the three powers merely wanted to open negotiations regarding their claims of damages.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 14 January 1862, a bill of claims was presented to the government in Mexico City. Foreign Minister Manuel Doblado invited the commissioners to travel to Orizaba with two thousand of their own troops for a conference while requesting that the rest of the tripartite forces disembark from Veracruz. The proposal to disembark most of the troops was rejected, but negotiations then resulted in an agreement, ratified on 23 January, to move the forces inland and hold a conference at Orizaba. The agreement also officially recognized the government of Juarez along with Mexican sovereignty.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 9 April 1862, agreements at Orizaba between the allies broke down, as France made it increasingly clear that it intended to invade Mexico and interfere in its government in violation of previous treaties. The British informed the Mexican government that they now intended to exit the country, and an arrangement was made with the British government to settle its claims. Minister Doblado on 11 April made it known to the French government that its intentions would lead to war.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Certain Mexican officers had been sympathetic to the French since the beginning of the intervention. On 16 April 1862, the French issued a proclamation inviting Mexicans to join them in establishing a new government. On 17 April 1862, Mexican general Juan Almonte, who had been a foreign minister of the conservative government during the Reform War, and who was brought back to Mexico by the French, released his own manifesto, assuring the Mexican people of benevolent French intentions.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: The French defeated a small Mexican force at Escamela, and then captured Orizaba. Mexican Generals Porfirio Diaz and Ignacio Zaragoza retreated to "El Ingenio", and then headed towards Puebla.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Almonte now attempted to consolidate the Mexican pro-French movement. The town of Orizaba joined him and so did the port of Veracruz and Isla del Carmen. Colonel Gonzales, Manuel Castellanos, Desiderio Samaniego, , and , and General Taboada arrived in Orizaba to support Almonte. On 28 April 1862, French forces headed towards Puebla.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 5 May, Mexican forces commanded by Ignacio Zaragoza and Porfirio Diaz repulsed the French at the Battle of Puebla while the latter were trying to ascend the hill towards the fortified positions of the city. The French retreated to Orizaba to await reinforcements.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Mexican Generals Florentino Lopez, Leonardo Marquez, and Juan Vicario sought to join the French, and Mexican republican forces suffered defeats at Barranca Seca and Cerro del Borrego in the vicinity of Orizaba.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: In July, reinforcements consisting of 30,000 men were sent out from France under the command of General Forey who was also given a set of instructions by Napoleon III laying out France's occupation policy. The instructions directed Forey to work with Mexican supporters in the pursuit of both military and political goals. A new government was to be set up, friendly to French interests, and the geopolitical aim of preventing the United States from becoming too powerful in the Americas was also emphasized. Forey reached Orizaba on 24 October 1862, and began planning another siege of Puebla, the defense of which had now passed on to Jesús González Ortega after General Zaragoza had died of Typhoid fever on 8 September.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 10 January 1863, a French squadron bombarded the Mexican Pacific port of Acapulco and on 3 February, Forey finally set out for Puebla. Ortega had meanwhile been building up the town's fortifications, and on 10 March he put the town under martial law. The French arrived on the 16 March and began the siege.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 8 May, at , Bazaine and Marquez defeated Ignacio Comonfort who intended to provide reinforcements to Puebla. Having run out of ammunition and food, Ortega held a council of war, and it was agreed to surrender on 17 May, after destroying the remaining armament. All of the officers were taken prisoner and were intended to be transported to France though Ortega and Porfirio Diaz would escape before being sent out of the country.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Upon hearing of the fall of Puebla, President Juarez prepared to evacuate the capital and move the government to San Luis Potosi. Congress closed its session on 31 May after granting Juarez emergency powers. The French entered the capital on 10 June.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 16 June the French government nominated 35 Mexican citizens to constitute a "Junta Superior de Gobierno" who were then tasked with electing a triumvirate that was to serve as the executive of the new government. The three elected were Juan Almonte, Archbishop Labastida, and Jose Mariano Salas. The Junta was also to choose 215 Mexican citizens who together with the "Junta Superio"r were to constitute an "Assembly of Notables" that was to decide upon the form of government. On 11 July, the Assembly published its resolutions, that Mexico was to be a constitutional monarchy and that Ferdinand Maximilian was to be invited to accept the Mexican throne. The executive was then officially changed into the Regency of the Mexican Empire.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Republican guerilla forces maintained a presence surrounding the capital and were repeatedly defeated. Cuernavaca was captured by the imperialists on 29 July 1863. Republican guerilla commanders Catarino Fragoso, León Ugalde, and others continued to wage warfare against any town occupied by the French.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Franco-Mexican forces captured Pachuca and Tulancingo in July to serve as bases for expanding operations. Imperialist Juan Chávez under the command of General Mejia defeated the liberal Tomas O'Horan on the road to Guanajuato. O'Horan would then switch sides and join the imperialists. The imperialist colonel José Antonio Rodríguez then captured . The port of Tampico was captured by French vessels on 11 August. French control of the country still centered on Veracruz and Mexico City but was gradually expanding. By October, advanced forces were spreading across the central regions of Mexico from Jalisco to San Luis Potosi to Oaxaca.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: In August, the imperialist General Tomas Mejia captured the town of Actopan, Hidalgo in the state of Mexico in September, and more imperialist victories in that state followed. The imperialist Gavito, managed to disperse republican guerillas in Cuayuca, and the imperialist Jesús María Visoso managed to defeat Republican guerillas at Puebla.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Franco-Mexican forces under Leonardo Marquez and de Berthier entered Morelia unopposed on 30 November, after Republican forces had evacuated the city. After reinforcements arrived the Republican forces led by José López Uraga attempted to recapture Morelia, only to be defeated by Marquez.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: General Tomas Mejia captured Querétaro on 17 November, while Republican forces there retreated to Guanajuato. Imperialist forces pursued them and the latter city was taken on 9 December.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 22 December, the Republican government evacuated the city of San Luis Potosí and intended to relocate north to the state of Coahuila. Imperialist forces lead by General Mejia captured the city on 25 December, only to face an assault by Republican forces on the 27 which was ultimately defeated.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: French general Bazaine occupied the city of Guadalajara on 5 January 1864. The liberal generals Uraga and Ortega remained in the vicinity but carried out no attacks. After French assaults led by General Abel Douay, Ortega retreated towards Fresnillo, and Uraga westward.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Mexican General of Yucatán proclaimed his support of the Empire, and invaded the state capital of Mérida with the support of French forces, capturing it on 22 January.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Douay, with General Castagny headed north, succeeding in capturing Aguascalientes and Zacatecas by 7 February 1864. Castagny was left in charge of Zacatecas, while Douay went to the relief of Colonel Garnier at Guadalajara. On 16 February, Castagny won a victory at Colotlán in which he took eighty prisoners and Republican General Luis Ghilardi was executed. Republican General and governor of Aguascalientes José Chávez was also executed after being captured in Jerez.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Imperialists struggled to hold on to the southern state of Chiapas. The nearby state capital of Tabasco, San Juan Bautista was recaptured by the Republicans on 27 February. The success inspired a republican incursion into Veracruz, succeeding in capturing Minatitlán on 28 March.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 19 March, the western Mexican commander Manuel Lozada, at the head of the Indian troops of the Tepic district sided with the imperialists.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Douay headed south, pursuing the Republican guerilla chiefs Simón Gutiérrez and Antonio Rojas, routing the former, and destroying two factories for arms and powder near Cocula. In March Douay entered Colima.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Republican General Ortega and several guerilla bands were driven back into the Sierra Hermosa after Manuel Doblado was repulsed by Tomás Mejí in the former's attempted assault on Monterrey. Doblado fled the country for the United States and died a year later. Mejia was subsequently granted the cross of the Legion of Honour by Napoleon III.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: The Emperor and Empress of Mexico arrived in Veracruz in the summer of 1864 and were later crowned in the Cathedral of Mexico City.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: The Republican General Porfirio Diaz, with three thousand troops managed to defeat the imperialists commander Marcos Toledo at the silver mining town of Taxco on 26 October 1864. Diaz then besieged the brigade of Juan Vicario in the town of Iguala until imperialist reinforcements forced him to abandon the siege. Diaz headed south to Oaxaca and managed to increase his troops to eight thousand.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: The Imperialists now controlled the central Mexican states, containing its major cities, two thirds of the population, rich mines and agricultural lands, and the main centers of manufacturing and trade. The Republicans still controlled the sparsely populated frontier states of the north, where President Juarez still led his government-in-exile in the city of Monterrey. These northern states granted them the considerable revenue coming into the Pacific ports of Manzanillo, Mazatlan, and Guaymas. Arms also flowed in from the U.S. states California and Texas along with mercenaries.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: The republicans also still held southern states of Guerrero, Oaxaca, Tabasco, and Chiapas where troops led by Porfirio Diaz maintained a formidable hold.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: The Imperialists now focused on capturing the rest of the north, with troops under General Mejia campaigning along the northern Gulf Coast, and being supported by 's anti-guerilla corps at Tampico, and brigade at San Luis Potosi. Castagny supported the rear, and the entire operation was headquartered at Querétaro.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: In the Pacific Coast, a naval squadron under de Kergrist was ready to cooperate with Douay's troops in Jalisco and sweep north towards Sinaloa. They were aided by quarrels within the Republican military leadership that resulted in José López Uraga being demoted and subsequently joining the Imperialists. On 26 September, the Imperialists captured the port of Bagdad and now controlled every major port in the Gulf. The commander of troops at Bagdad, Juan Cortina then defected to the Imperialists.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Santiago Vidaurri, the governor of had broken with Juarez, as early as March, 1864 over the administration and finances of his state, and had even held a referendum on joining the Empire. Republican troops drove him into Texas, but troops loyal to Viduarri remained active in the region. As Republican forces in the north were diverted by Imperial advances. Vidaurrist troops captured Monterrey on 15 August 1864, with President Juarez barely escaping, and pursued as far as Parras in a bullet-riddled carriage. The triumphant Vidaurri then headed towards the capital where he was made a councilor of Maximilian. By the end of the year the imperialists controlled Nuevo Leon and the greater part of Coahuila to the banks of the Rio Grande.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 28 October 1864, imperialist Generals Leonardo Marquez and Douay attacked the army of Republican General Arteaga in the ravine of Atenquique, routing them. A few days later, the Republicans, Simón Gutiérrez and Antonio Rojas were defeated near the American border by the Imperialist Carlos Rivas, with French reinforcements. Marquez proceeded to occupy Colima and by 18 November 1864, Marquez had captured the port of Manzanillo.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 12 November 1864, a French squadron under De Kergrist, arrived at Mazatlan, and demanded a surrender under the threat of bombardment. At the same time, the imperialist Manuel Lozada besieged the town on land leading to a successful capture.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: The imperialist Juan Vicario was repulsed at Chilapa de Álvarez, while on the way to replace the French garrison in the southern, Pacific port of Acapulco, and subsequently the port had to be evacuated and left to the Republicans in December. French vessels succeeded in recapturing Acapulco on 11 September 1864.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: The Imperialists however hoped to soon begin operations to dislodge Porfirio Diaz from his stronghold in the south, and began to survey the land and build roads. Towards the end of 1864, General Courtois d'Hurbal entered Oaxaca by way of Yanuitlan and other columns followed from Orizaba and Mexico City. Diaz was based in Oaxaca City with three thousand regulars, three thousand troops in the mountains, and had converted the city into a fortified camp.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Commander in Chief of the French Forces, Bazaine decided to lead the siege of Oaxaca City in person and by the end of January 1865, the besieging forces numbered seven thousand men. The use of artillery began on 4 February, and an assault was ordered for the 9th. The amassing of forces inspired a panic in Diaz' men and not willing to engage in a hopeless last stand, he surrendered, and was later sent to Puebla to be imprisoned, where he would escape seven months later and raise armies in the southern state of Guerrero. Back in France, Forey, the former commander in chief of French forces in Mexico criticized Bazaine for not immediately executing Diaz. The former Republican General José López Uraga sent a letter to Diaz hoping to win him over to the imperialist cause, arguing that guerrilla warfare was devastating the country and assuring Diaz that the independence of Mexico was secure under Maximilian. Diaz rejected this offer.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: The French colonel Mangin remained at Oaxaca and rearranged the civilian government. Imperialist forces would continue to face sporadic conflict with Republican forces led by General Luis Pérez Figueroa.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Michoacan continued to be a Republican stronghold, serving as a base of operations for , , Carlos Salazar Ruiz, and Vicente Riva Palacio, with the latter being named governor by Arteaga who held supreme command of the regional forces. On 31 January, the republican commander Nicolás Romero was defeated at Apatzingán by Colonel Poiter with a loss of 200 men. On 19 May, Salazar with four hundred men defeated a Franco-Mexican force of seven hundred at Los Reyes. Arteaga occupied Tacámbaro, and León Ugalde and Fermín Valdés captured Zitácuaro. Regulas ventured out into Guanajuato where he was checked and instead hastened back to Michoacan where he captured Tacambaro on 11 April, where the imperialists lost a significant number of Belgian mercenaries. The town however was soon taken back. Regules once again ventured out, this time towards Morelia but was checked at Huaniqueo by Potier.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: In Jalisco, Douay's operations resulted in Republican guerilla commander Antonio Rojas being killed on 28 January 1865 at Potrerillos. Franco-Mexican operations led by Douay and Manuel Lozada resulted in the defection of the commander of the Republican Central Forces , along with General


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: In January 1865, Castagny was sent with three thousand men to Mazatlán to follow up on the Imperialist victory there from the previous November. Fierce warfare ensued with the Republican General Ramón Corona and Lozada was sent to aid Castagny resulting in an Imperialist victory at El Rosario in April, 1865. Corona fled to the north but returned in September to win a victory for the Republicans, at Mazatlán


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: The success at Mazatlan now allowed the imperialists to turn their attention towards the northwest coast, and Castagny hoped to capture the port of Guaymas. A French squadron landed several hundred men under Colonel Garnier on 29 March. Garnier sent troops by sea to Álamos and managed to gain support among the Yaqui, Mayo, and Opata. Chief arrived at Guaymas with reinforcements allowing the imperialists to win the on 24 September, and then march into Hermosillo.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: The end of the American Civil War in April, 1865 marked a turning point in the French intervention. Republican commanders were hopeful that surplus arms and Union troops would soon aid them. Maximilian received a message from the liberal government, hopeful that the U.S. would now aid the Republicans, and advising him that he should leave the country while he still could. President Juarez was now confident of his ultimate victory, writing that "the United States will never permit [Maximilian] to consolidate his power, and his sacrifices and victories will have counted for nothing."


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Republicans organized forces in the north with General Miguel Negrete gathering two thousand troops and in early April, capturing Saltillo, and Monterrey, which had been abandoned by the imperialists. Negrete advanced towards Matamoros and was joined by American volunteers, and general Juan Cortina who had previously defected to the Imperialists, yet now defected back to the Republicans. They succeeded in capturing all of the towns along the Rio Grande from Piedras Negras downstream. They got as far as Matamoros upon which they retreated after being faced with General Tomás Mejia and his French reinforcements.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Republican Colonel Pedro José Méndez captured Ciudad Victoria on April 23d, the culmination of a campaign that had begun in January. He subsequently captured Ciudad Tula on 4 June, and cut off communications from the imperialist held Tampico


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Bazaine dispatched generals Auguste Henri Brincourt and Baron Neigre towards the Mapimi border in order to go after Negrete. Meanwhile, Colonel Pierre Joseph Jeanningros headed up from San Luis Potosi in order to rendezvous with imperialist forces at Saltillo. Negrete engaged with Jeanningros in a skirmish on 31 May, and retreated. His forces were disbanded in the course of being pursued by the imperialists.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: A concentration of American troops and vessels in Texas along the Rio Bravo, led to a surge of imperialist troops along the frontier which only caused guerrilla warfare to flare up in the southern states. A few imperial prefects resigned, unable to govern or defend their respective departments without enough troops.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: In August, 1865 as French troops were concentrated in the north under Bazaine. Sinaloa was left under the care of one regiment under Colonel Cotteret based in Guaymas, while the surrounding areas were entrusted to Indian allies. Republican General Antonio Rosales was killed in August in an attempt to retake Álamos. but General Corona nonetheless pressed upon the imperialists and succeeded in driving French troops throughout Sinaloa back to Mazatlán


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: After the defeat of Negrete, Brincourt had then proceeded towards Chihuahua with two thousand five hundred men. He entered Chihuahua City, then serving as the provisional capital of the Mexican Republic, on 15 August, reorganized the administration, was able to drive President Juarez out, and also provided encouragement to the various Indian allies of the Empire in the region. Out of fear that a border skirmish would occur with American forces, Bazaine ordered Brincourt to return to Durango within three weeks of reaching Chihuahua. Brincourt believed that leaving a garrison of a thousand men in Chihuahua was enough to pacify the region, but Bazaine repeated his orders, and Brincourt left on 29 October.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 1 October, the Republican government arranged a loan in New York for thirty million dollars. American volunteers were joining the Republicans, and Juarez now taking refuge at El Paso del Norte expressed confidence that American pressure could play a decisive role in influencing French withdrawal.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 2 October 1865, the imperial government passed the so-called "Black Decree" which declared that anyone caught engaging in guerrilla warfare against the Empire would be court-martialed and executed within twenty four hours. Less severe penalties were prescribed for aiding guerillas and exceptions were made for those who were forced into service or were involved circumstantially.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 13 October, Imperialist Colonel Ramón Méndez won a victory over the Republicans at Amatlán, and captured the generals Arteaga and Salazar, the latter who ranked as the commander in chief of the republican army of the center. Méndez took advantage of the recently passed Black Decree to execute both of them.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Mariano Escobedo attempted to take Matamoros on 25 October. The imperialist commander Tomas Mejia hesitated to take the offensive due to the presence of nearby U.S. troops and their sympathy for the Republicans, until French reinforcements arrived and scattered Escobedo's forces on 8 November.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: After having stayed El Paso del Norte, Juarez was subsequently able then to return to Chihuahua City on 20 November. Maximilian however had convinced Bazaine to retain Chihuahua and an expedition of five hundred troops then towards the city led by Jean-Baptiste Billot. Juarez was forced to evacuate yet again on 9 December, and fled to the American border.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Escobedo then fell back on Monterrey succeeding in capturing the city, but a remnant of imperial forces remained in the citadel and held out until General Pierre Joseph Jeanningros arrived with reinforcements on 25 November, after which the imperialists recaptured Monterrey.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: General Tomas Mejia and French naval commander Georges Charles Cloué protested to the United States regarding the aid in material, supplies, hospital care and troops being lent to the Republicans but the commandant at Clarksville, at the mouth of the Rio Grande, replied that such troops could no longer be considered as belonging to the United States military. In January 1866, American troops raided Bagdad, a blatant violation of neutrality which resulted in the federal government removing the commandant and disciplining those involved in the raid. The sack of Bagdad would leave the French cautious, and prevent them from active campaigning near the border, instead focusing on consolidating their hold a few strong positions, maintaining communications with French held ports.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: At the opening of the French chambers in January 1866, Napoleon III announced that he would withdraw French troops from Mexico. In reply to a French request for neutrality, the American secretary of state William H. Seward replied that French withdrawal should be unconditional, and Napoleon assured the American government that the withdrawal would no longer be deferred, laying out a plan to reduce the troops in phases starting in November 1866 and ending one year later in November 1867. Seward then requested that French reinforcements to Mexico should now cease, and that Austria should stop recruiting volunteers for the Mexican expedition. The French and Austrian governments subsequently complied.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Billot retired on 31 January from Chihuahua, leaving the city in charge of Indian allies, but it fell to Republican troops in March. Maximilian commanded Bazaine to retake Chihuahua in May, and a new expedition was prepared, but new withdrawal instructions from France caused the expedition to be abandoned.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Durango was evacuated by November, and Castagny withdrew to Leon leading to a loss of the former province to the Republicans. Juarez moved his government south to Durango on 26 December 1866.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: In the northwest provinces of Sonora and Sinaloa the French were mostly confined to Guaymas and Mazatlan, though the imperial General Edvard Emile Langberg held positions in the interior with the aid of the Opata natives. Álamos was captured by the Republican general Ángel Martínez with forces from Sinaloa, and dealt out retributions to the Mayo and Yaqui tribes that had allied themselves with the Empire. He then took back Hermosillo on 4 May only to lose it to the Imperialists the day after. The French withdrew from Guaymas in September, and around the same time Langberg was killed in a battle that led the Republicans to take the town of Ures.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Sonora now fell to the Republicans and hundreds of refugees fled to the United States or tried to retreat with the French. Imperialist commanders and were overtaken and shot with their families by the Republicans.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: In July, 1865 Arteaga had advanced towards Tacámbaro with three thousand men where he was routed by Lieutenant Colonel with less than one thousand troops.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: In Michoacan Regules were repeatedly repulsed to the point that his forces dissolved in April, 1866. In May however, he resumed operations and made it into the Toluca region, finding allies around Zitacuaro and Guerrero. Acapulco was held on to by the imperialist General Montenegro, but his troops were greatly weakened by fever and desertion.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: After Porfirio Diaz escaped he fled to Oaxaca and hoped to form a new army. The imperialist prefect Prieto had held on to Tehuantepec since mid-1865, and hoped to turn it into a base for operations. Diaz encroached upon this territory in the Spring of 1866, notably at Jamiltepec and Putla, upon which he sought to cut off communications between Oaxaca and Puebla. Diaz took Teotitlan in August, 1866, before he was repulsed by Austro-Mexican forces. In early October, Diaz routed the imperialist general Oronoz, who barely escaped and retreated into Oaxaca City, after which Diaz began a siege. The siege was lifted for a few days to face Austro-Mexican reinforcements, which Diaz defeated, and then captured Oaxaca City on 1 November 1866. From there he completed the capture of Oaxaca and advanced into Puebla.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: In the northeast, Republican forces were led by Mendez who blocked the route to Tampico, Mariano Escobedo who was based north of Linares, and Gonzales Herrera and Trevino who were based around Parras. After a Republican assault on Parras, the imperialist commander Briant came up from Saltillo, reinstalled the imperialist prefect Campos, on 20 February. He then set out to attack the liberals at Santa Isabel where due to underestimating their forces was routed and captured. The Republicans did not immediately take Parrs, but the French withdrawal allowed them to take the town on June, 1866.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: At Charco Escondido, Mejia was struggling against Republicans whose forces were being swelled by American soldiers. He was given reinforcements by General Jeanningros in April. Another train of reinforcements led by General Olvera left Matamors where they were surrounded and defeated by Republican troops led by Mariano Escobedo near Camargo. Olvera nonetheless managed to retreat to and hold Matamoros, but the Imperialist General Tuce who had arrived with reinforcements from Monterey was obliged to retreat. Mejia was left with 500 men, and ultimately retreated on June 23d with all his men to Veracruz.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: In November 1866, Matamoros fell to the Republicans with the aid of American troops. On 9 November, the imperialist Generals Marquez and Miramon returned from Europe to aid in the war effort. By the end of November, the French withdrawal had resulted in the Republicans taking back the North and West of the country.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 13 November 1866, the French completed their evacuation of Mazatlan. After having aided the evacuation the former imperialist General Lozada retired from the conflict and proclaimed his neutrality.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: The Republican commander Mendez who had raided communications between San Luis Potosi and the gulf was killed during an imperialist raid near Tampico. Nonetheless, due to the French withdrawal, the Republican General Aureliano Rivera captured Tampico in May. The French held on to the port but surrendered in July and in August they surrendered Tuxpan. Veracruz was now the only gulf port left under imperialist control.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Douay evacuated Matehuala on 28 October, then being the northernmost imperialist post. Troops were left in San Luis Potosi under Mejia, yet the small prospect of victory induced them to retreat on Christmas Eve to San Felipe in Guanajuato. Castagny reached Guanajuato around the same time, with French forces from Durango and Zacatecas the latter having been evacuated in November.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Veracruz and the roads leading to them had been harassed by Republicans ever since the beginning of 1866, and the beginning of the French withdrawal. There was an Imperialist victory at Papaloapan River, but by August, Tlacotalpan and Alvarado were surrendered to the Republicans. A republican revolt led by had been crushed in Papantla and Misantla, but with Republican successes further north, Alatorre rose up again, capturing Jalapa in November. Pachuca was captured by the republicans in November, and Perote fell in January, 1867.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: The capital itself became vulnerable in late 1866. Cuautitlán was raided in October, and Chalco and Tlalpan were left exposed to Republican incursions in December, while raiders harassed the stream of soldiers and refugees heading towards Vera Cruz. The Imperialist commander Ortiz de la Peña had retreated to Cuernavaca after a defeat in Ixtla, and Regules and Riva Palacio moved ahead to occupy the Lerma Valley.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Guadalajara was abandoned by the French on 12 December 1866, and imperial forces were left under General Gutierrez. The imperialists evacuated the city on 19 December, and headed for Guanajuato. The former imperial commander Lozada meanwhile declared the neutrality of the department of Nayarit.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 19 December 1866, Napoleon III made it known that all troops would now be withdrawn, ahead of the previously laid out schedule.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: In late December, the French evacuated Guanjuato, rendezvousing in Querétaro with retreating troops from San Luis Potosi, and then heading towards the port of Vera Cruz. An imperialist garrison under Tomas Mejia however remained at Guanajuato, were able to hold a position and keep republican troops at bay.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Bazaine evacuated the capital on 5 February 1867. Vera Cruz was left in charge of the imperial general Perez Gomez. Vera Cruz was a hub of activity with more than thirty vessels, including transports, mail steamers, and squadron ships in the harbor to help the evacuation. Bazaine and the last of the French troops embarked for Toulon on 12 March.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: With the end of the official French presence, the Intervention was technically over, and yet the Empire which French troops and their Mexican collaborators had set up would last for a few months more, with the same Mexican generals that had previously fought alongside the French continuing the play a leading role, along with hundreds of Frenchmen that remained as independent mercenaries.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: After a council at Orizaba which decided against his abdication, Maximilian intended to return to Mexico City, first remaining at Puebla for nearly three weeks, and making preparations for the campaign. The country was divided into three great military districts the western, comprising the provinces north of Colima, including Durango and Chihuahua; the eastern, stretching from Aguascalientes and Tampico northward; and the central, embracing all the vast remainder to Chiapas. Miramon, who took command of the western district, had already set out to create his army, with little regard for the means to be employed, but Mejia in the east stood at the head of nearly 4,000 men; and Marquez, controlling the center, had 4,000 under Ramón Méndez in Michoacan, and fully 2,000 troops stationed at Puebla, Maximilian assumed the supreme command, and issued orders for the active formation of the new national army as well as militia.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Unfortunately for the Empire, the Western and Eastern military district were in possession of the Republicans, as well as the region south of Puebla, while the few remaining central provinces were overrun by hostile bands and about to be invaded by the Republican armies. Funds and resources were also lacking. Meanwhile arms and funds from the United States were pouring into the hands of the Republicans.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 27 January 1867, Miramon triumphantly captured Aguascalientes and nearly succeeded in capturing Juarez, the retreat of Governor Auza managing to save him. Miramon however, did not intend to advance any further, satisfied with seizing funds from the population and with the diversion he had created among the Republicans, he retired to join Castillo at San Luis Potosi. The Republican general Mariano Escobedo figured out his intentions and intercepted him at San Jacinto at 1 February, leading to a complete rout. Miramon escaped with Castillo and took refuge in Queretaro. The Republicans had by then captured Guanajuato, and then Morelia. The Imperialists retreated from Michoacan to the borders of San Luis Potosi and fell back upon Queretaro.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Maximilian joined the army at Queretaro along with Minister Aguirre, Leonardo Marquez, and Miguel López with the sum of fifty thousand pesos, with sixteen hundred men and twelve cannons. Maximilian reached Queretaro on 19 February, and was received by enthusiasm Miramon and the other generals who held a formal reception for the emperor.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: A few days after his arrival a review of the troops was held, showing 9,000 men with 39 cannon, including about 600 Frenchmen, Miramon was placed at the head of the infantry, of which Castillo and Casanova received each a division, Mendez assuming command of the reserve brigade, in which Miguel Lopez served as colonel, Mejia became chief of the cavalry, Reyes of engineers, and Arellano of the artillery. To, Marquez, chief of the general staff, was accorded the foremost place, to the indignity of Miramon. Maximilian, Miramon, Marquez, Mejia, and Mendez became known as the five magic M’s of the Empire.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: In the first council of war that had been held on 22 February, it had been agreed to fight the Republicans at once, before their combined forces became too strong, but ultimately this strategy, which historian Bancroft suggests could have achieved victory, was rejected at the behest of Marquez. As the liberals began to surround Queretaro, Marquez then suggested to flee to Mexico City, still held by the Imperialists, gather their forces and face the liberal armies in one final decisive battle, but this was deemed as impractical.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 5 March, the Republican forces came into view of the defenders at Queretaro, and began to prepare for a siege. After the fighting had begun Marquez once again brought up his plan of retreating to Mexico City, but Miramon and others strongly opposed it. Miramon planned to lead a counter attack to recover the hill of San Gregorio on 17 March. When the time arrived however, a false alarm arose that the Imperialist headquarters were under attack, leading to the assulat on San Gregorio to be put off.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Miramon now expressed his support for a plan to destroy the Western positions of the Republicans therefore providing a way to retreat if needed. Marquez was assigned to go to Mexico City to seek reinforcements. Miramon was assigned to provide a distraction and on 22 March he led an expedition down the valley, which captured a quantity of provisions. Marquez was able to depart during the night with 1200 horsemen and Miramon now became the leading general at Queretaro.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: After the Imperialists repulsed another Republican assault, leaving the latter with 2000 deaths, Miramon, during an award ceremony, took one of the medals and asked to decorate the Emperor for his conduct during the battle, which Maximilian accepted, and would go on the wear as the most valued of his decorations.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: On 1 April Miramon led a counter attack to the hill of San Gregorio, but lack of reinforcements left the attack without any decisive results.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: As any news of Marquez failed to arrive, a mission was sent to Mexico City to see what happened. Miramon urged Maximilian to leave as well but, the latter chose to stay. The mission failed, and now leading officers outright urged surrender.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: The Imperialists now planned to fight their way out of Queretaro, and as preparation Miramon planned an attack on the Cimatario Hill on 27 April, to which he advanced with 2000 men. The Imperialist repulsed the Republican forces, dispersing thousands and taking 500 prisoners, but the Imperialists squandered vital time planning their next move, and Republican reserves arrived to provide a defeat.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: The Imperialists now sought to break through the enemy lines and seek refuge in the mountain range of the Sierra Gorda, and possibly reach the coast. The operation was scheduled to take place on 15 May.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Unfortunately for the Imperialists, before these plans were carried out they were betrayed by Colonel Miguel Lopez, and on the night of 14 May , he opened the gates of Queretaro to the Republican forces in exchange for a sum of gold. Republican troops quickly overwhelmed the city and Miramon, Mejia, and Maximilian were taken prisoner.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Following a court-martial, Maximilian was sentenced to death. Many of the crowned heads of Europe and other prominent figures (including liberals Victor Hugo and Giuseppe Garibaldi) sent telegrams and letters to Mexico pleading for Maximilian's life to be spared, but Juárez refused to commute the sentence. He believed he had to send a strong message that Mexico would not tolerate any government imposed by foreign powers.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Maximilian was executed on 19 June (along with his generals Miguel Miramón and Tomás Mejía) on the Cerro de las Campanas, a hill on the outskirts of Querétaro, by forces loyal to President Benito Juárez, who had kept the federal government functioning during the French intervention. Mexico City surrendered the day after Maximilian was executed.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: The republic was restored, and President Juárez was returned to power in the national capital. He made few changes in policy, given that the progressive Maximilian had upheld most of Juárez's liberal reforms.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: After the victory, the Conservative party was so thoroughly discredited by its alliance with the invading French troops that it effectively became defunct. The Liberal party was almost unchallenged as a political force during the first years of the "restored republic". In 1871, however, Juárez was re-elected to yet another term as president in spite of a constitutional prohibition of re-elections. The French intervention ended with the Republican-led government being more stable and both internal and external forces were now kept at bay.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Porfirio Díaz (a Liberal general and a hero of the French war, but increasingly conservative in outlook), one of the losing candidates, launched a rebellion against the president. Supported by conservative factions within the Liberal party, the attempted revolt (the so-called Plan de la Noria) was already at the point of defeat when Juárez died in office on 19 July 1872, making it a moot point. Díaz ran against interim president Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, lost the election, and retired to his hacienda in Oaxaca. Four years later, in 1876, when Lerdo ran for re-election, Díaz launched a second, successful revolt (the Plan de Tuxtepec) and captured the presidency. He held it through eight terms until 1911 now known as the Porfiriato. After many decades of civil wars, Mexico had finally exhausted itself and the general Porfirio Díaz had forced peace through his regime with no big rebellions or coups occurring.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: France's adventure in Mexico had improved relations with Austria through Maximilian but produced no result as France had politically alienated itself in the international community. During 1866, Prussia went to war with France's indirect ally Austria, which was promptly defeated while French troops were still in Mexico unable to affect the situation in Europe. As for Napoleon's empire, it would later collapse in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian war.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: As early as 1859, U.S. and Mexican efforts to ratify the McLane-Ocampo Treaty had failed in the bitterly divided U.S. Senate, where tensions were high between the North and the South over slavery issues. Such a treaty would have allowed U.S. construction in Mexico and protection from European forces in exchange for a payment of $4 million to the heavily indebted government of Benito Juárez. On 3 December 1860, President James Buchanan had delivered a speech stating his displeasure at being unable to secure Mexico from European interference:


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: European governments would have been deprived of all pretext to interfere in the territorial and domestic concerns of Mexico. We should have thus been relieved from the obligation of resisting, even by force, should this become necessary, any attempt of these governments to deprive our neighboring Republic of portions of her territory, a duty from which we could not shrink without abandoning the traditional and established policy of the American people.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: United States policy did not change during the French occupation as it had to use its resources for the American Civil War, which lasted 1861 to 1865. President Abraham Lincoln expressed his sympathy to Latin American republics against any European attempt to establish a monarchy. Shortly after the establishment of the imperial government in April 1864, United States Secretary of State William H. Seward, while maintaining U.S. neutrality, expressed U.S. discomfort at the imposition of a monarchy in Mexico: "Nor can the United States deny that their own safety and destiny to which they aspire are intimately dependent on the continuance of free republican institutions throughout America."


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Resolved, &c., That the Congress of the United States are unwilling, by silence, to leave the nations of the world under the impression that they are indifferent spectators of the deplorable events now transpiring in the Republic of Mexico; and they therefore think fit to declare that it does not accord with the policy of the United States to acknowledge a monarchical government, erected on the ruins of any republican government in America, under the auspices of any European power.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Near the end of the American Civil War, representatives at the 1865 Hampton Roads Conference briefly discussed a proposal for a north–south reconciliation by a joint action against the French in Mexico. In 1865, through the selling of Mexican bonds by Mexican agents in the United States, the Juárez administration raised between $16-million and $18-million dollars for the purchase of American war material. Between 1865 and 1868, General Herman Sturm acted as an agent to deliver guns and ammunition to the Mexican Republic led by Juárez. In 1866 General Philip Sheridan was in charge of transferring additional supplies and weapons to the Liberal army, including some 30,000 rifles directly from the Baton Rouge Arsenal in Louisiana.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: By 1867, Seward shifted American policy from thinly veiled sympathy for the republican government of Juárez to open threat of war to induce a French withdrawal. Seward had invoked the Monroe Doctrine and later stated in 1868, "The Monroe Doctrine, which eight years ago was merely a theory, is now an irreversible fact."


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: At its peak in 1863, the French expeditionary force counted 38,493 men (which represented 16.25% of the French army). 6,654 French died, including 4,830 from disease. Among these losses, 1,918 of the deaths were from the regiment of the French Foreign Legion.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: This corps was officially designated as the "Belgian Volunteers", but generally known as the "Belgian Legion".


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: While officially designated as the Austrian Voluntary Corps, this foreign contingent included Hungarian, Polish and other volunteers from the Danube Monarchy. It consisted of:


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: This unit was commonly designated as the "Egyptian Battalion". It consisted of 453 men (including troops recruited from the Sudan), who were placed under the command of French commandant Mangin of the 3rd Zouave Regiment. Operating effectively in the Veracruz region, the Corps suffered 126 casualties until being withdrawn to Egypt in May 1867.


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: Maximilian protested the loss of the Egyptian Corps, ostensibly to suppress a rebellion in the Sudan, because they were "extremely helpful in the hot lands".


title: Second French intervention in Mexico

text: At least one Romanian, an officer, served with the French forces. Captain Yarka of the Romanian Army served with the 3rd Regiment of "Chasseurs d'Afrique" as a volunteer, keeping the same rank. In April 1863, Yarka engaged a Republican ("Juariste") Colonel in one-on-one combat, killing him. Yarka himself was wounded. In contemporary French sources, he is referred to as Wallachian ("Valaque").


title: Sheryl Lee

text: Sheryl Lynn Lee (born April 22, 1967) is a German-born American film, stage, and television actress. After studying acting in college, Lee relocated to Seattle, Washington to work in theater, where she was cast by David Lynch as Laura Palmer and Maddy Ferguson on the 1990 television series "Twin Peaks" and in the 1992 film "". After completing "Twin Peaks", she returned to theater, appearing in the title role of "Salome" on Broadway opposite Al Pacino.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: Her film roles include Astrid Kirchherr in "Backbeat" (1994), as well as a lead role in the drama "Mother Night" (1996), the role of Katrina in John Carpenter's "Vampires" (1998) and the part of April in "Winter's Bone" (2010). She has had recurring roles on such television series as "One Tree Hill" (2005–06) and "Dirty Sexy Money" (2007–2009), and later reprised her role of Laura Palmer in the Showtime revival of "Twin Peaks" in 2017.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: Lee was born in Augsburg, Bavaria, West Germany to an artist mother and architect father; the first of three children. She grew up in Boulder, Colorado, United States, where she was a graduate of Fairview High School (class of 1985). After graduating, Lee moved to Pasadena, California where she studied at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, and later attended the North Carolina School of the Arts, the National Theatre Conservatory in Denver, and the University of Colorado.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: After several years of studying, Lee moved to Seattle, Washington where she acted in several stage plays and appeared in several commercials. She studied with theater director Mark Jenkins at the now-defunct Empty Space Theater in Seattle.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: Lee's first television role was as the dead Laura Palmer in the television series "Twin Peaks". To save on money, creator David Lynch intended to cast a local girl from Seattle "just to play a dead girl". That local girl ended up being Sheryl Lee. Lynch asked her to audition for him after seeing a publicity photo of her in Seattle from one of the plays she was starring in at the time. "But no one — not Mark, me, anyone — had any idea that she could act, or that she was going to be so powerful just being dead." The image of Lee wrapped in plastic as well as her homecoming queen photograph became one of the show's most enduring and memorable images. When Lynch shot the home movie that James Hurley takes of Donna Hayward and Laura, he realized that Lee had something special. "She did do another scene — the video with Donna on the picnic — and it was that scene that did it." As a result, Sheryl Lee became a semi-regular addition to the cast, appearing in flashbacks as Laura, and becoming a recurring character, Laura's cousin Maddy Ferguson, later in the series (a role which was reportedly written because Lynch, impressed with her abilities, wanted to give her a fuller role on the show). She worked again with Lynch when she appeared as Glinda the Good Witch in "Wild at Heart" (1990).


title: Sheryl Lee

text: She also starred in the prequel "", which elaborated on events leading up to Laura Palmer's death. While the film itself was a critical and financial failure at the time of its release, Lee was praised by the critics for her performance, which earned her Best Actress nominations at the Independent Spirit Awards and the Saturn Awards. For her work in "Twin Peaks", Lee has been described as a "Scream queen", in particular for scenes in the otherworldly Black Lodge.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: In 1992 Lee starred as Salome alongside Al Pacino in the Broadway production of Oscar Wilde's "Salome" in the Circle in the Square Theatre under the direction of Robert Allan Ackerman. The play co-starred Suzanne Bertish, Esai Morales and Arnold Vosloo.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: In 1994 she was cast as Astrid Kirchherr in the film "Backbeat", a bio-pic of the early career of The Beatles opposite Stephen Dorff. The following years, Lee played the part of Liza in Gary Walkow's 1995 adaptation of Fyodor Dostoyevsky's novella "Notes from Underground" opposite Henry Czerny, the role of Helga and Resi Noth in the 1996 romantic war film "Mother Night", based on Kurt Vonnegut's 1961 novel of the same name, starred alongside Craig Sheffer in "Bliss" (1997) and played the role of Katrina in John Carpenter's 1998 film "Vampires" opposite James Woods and Daniel Baldwin. She played also a leading role in the 1999 crime drama film "Angel's Dance" with Kyle Chandler and Jim Belushi and starred as Dr. Sarah Church in the short lived series "L.A. Doctors" (1998—1999) which ran for a single season.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: Lee starred opposite Anthony Michael Hall as the sweet but vengeful housewife Eve Robbins in the 2001 USA Cable movie "Hitched".


title: Sheryl Lee

text: There is speculation that she (and Phoebe Augustine, who played her friend Ronette in "Twin Peaks") appeared in David Lynch's "Mulholland Drive" (2001). Many online databases even list them as appearing uncredited in the movie, but it's unknown if it's actually them or actresses who look similar to Laura and Ronette, and it has never been confirmed either way.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: She played the leading role of Elinore Murphy in "Children on Their Birthdays" (2002), based on the short story of the same title by Truman Capote. In the 2003 television series "Kingpin", she played the role of Marlene Cadena opposite Yancey Arias and Bobby Cannavale.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: In 2004 Lee was the original choice for the role of Mary-Alice Young on "Desperate Housewives". It would have been the second time she would have played a dead character on a series; however, the producers ultimately chose to replace her with Brenda Strong, as producers thought that Lee was not right for the part. Strong commented on the casting change for her character, explaining, "I think it was a conceptual shift ... There certainly wasn't something wrong with what [Lee] did. It was just that instead of vanilla they wanted chocolate, and I happened to be chocolate."


title: Sheryl Lee

text: In 2005–06, she played the recurring role of Ellie Harp, the biological mother of Peyton Sawyer (played by Hilarie Burton), who battles breast cancer, on the third season of the WB Network series "One Tree Hill".


title: Sheryl Lee

text: In 2007 and 2008 Lee appeared on the ABC dramedy "Dirty Sexy Money" as Andrea Smithson, the mother of Brian Darling's (Glenn Fitzgerald) illegitimate child. Lee, along with several other "Twin Peaks" cast members, guest starred in a special "Twin Peaks"-themed episode of "Psych" titled "Dual Spires." Other cast members reunited with Lee included Sherilyn Fenn (Audrey Horne), Dana Ashbrook (Bobby Briggs), Ray Wise (Leland Palmer), Lenny Von Dohlen (Harold Smith), Robyn Lively (Lana Budding Milford), and Catherine E. Coulson (The Log Lady).


title: Sheryl Lee

text: In 2010 she appeared in a supporting role as April in Debra Granik's "Winter's Bone" (which won best picture at the Sundance Film Festival in 2010). The film is about a seventeen-year-old girl (Jennifer Lawrence) in the rural Ozarks, caring for her mentally-ill mother and her younger brother and sister, when she discovers that her father put their house and land up as a bond for a court appearance, at which he failed to appear. Lee won two Awards for "Best Ensemble" at Detroit Film Critics Society and Gotham Awards, shared with the cast. Lee played Lucie Sliger in the 2011 crime thriller "Texas Killing Fields" alongside Jessica Chastain, Sam Worthington and Chloë Grace Moretz.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: In the art drama thriller "White Bird in a Blizzard" (2014), written and directed by Gregg Araki, she played May opposite Shailene Woodley and Eva Green. In 2015, at the Twin Peaks UK Festival, Lee confirmed that she would be returning to "Twin Peaks" for the 2017 limited Showtime run.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: In 2016 she appeared in a supporting role as Air in the Netflix production "Rebirth", which premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival, and had a small part as Karen in "Café Society", written and directed by Woody Allen. The film had its premiere at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival. In 2017 she reprised her role as Laura Palmer in "Twin Peaks" and also playing the part of Carrie Page, making it her third character in the series. Although she was credited in every one of the 18 episodes, most of her appearance was in archive footage. New material of her was seen in the episodes Part 2, Part 17 and Part 18. The same year, she starred as Alley in the short film "Dead Ink Archive" by David Schendel, making it their second collaboration after the 1994 film "The Can" (which was filmed in the late 1980s). In 2018 Lee played one of the leads in the Teen-Thriller "#SquadGoals" as Emily Hodges.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: In 2019, Lee returned to Theater, playing alongside Judd Nelson in "Love Letters". She performed the play before in 1991 with Luke Perry and Tim Daly as co-stars.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: The 2020 released book "Laura's Ghost: Women Speak about Twin Peaks" by Courtenay Stallings, which explores the legacy of the fictional character Laura Palmer, played by Lee in the television show "Twin Peaks", features interviews and a foreword from Lee.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: Lee dated David Duchovny, who was one of her "Twin Peaks" cast-mates. She was at one time married to Jesse Diamond, a photographer and son of singer and songwriter Neil Diamond. They have a son, Elijah, born in 2000.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: Lee is also a Teacher at UCLA School of Theater, Film and Television. Together with her former "Twin Peaks" castmate Gary Hershberger (who played "Mike Nelson"), Lee teaches actors, directors and writers at their workshop "The Actor's Director Workshop".


title: Sheryl Lee

text: Lee is an animal rights and environmental activist. She appeared nude in two print advertisements for PETA.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: In October 2008, Lee participated in the 3rd Munchkin's Project Pink annual breast cancer awareness campaign to raise money for breast cancer research.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: Additionally, Lee has also participated in various environmentalist events and charities: In November 2000, she attended the premiere of the public awareness campaign "Why Are We Here?", to raise awareness for biodiversity protection, In 2011, Lee attended the iMatter March in Denver, Colorado to raise awareness about climate change, and also supported the "Ride for Renewables" project to promote renewable energy. In December 2011, Lee advocated the protection of wolves and supported the environmental organization WildEarth Guardians' "Wolves in the American West" campaign.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: In September 2012, Lee signed environmental activist Tom Weis' open letter calling on President Barack Obama and Governor Mitt Romney to withdraw their support for the construction of the southern leg of Keystone XL, a pipeline that would transport bitumen from Montana to Texas. Other signatories included climate scientist James Hansen and actors Daryl Hannah, Mariel Hemingway, and Ed Begley, Jr.


title: Sheryl Lee

text: On December 8, 2012, Lee performed poems written by herself as part of a collaborative performance along with artist Marina DeBris, dancer Maya Gabay, and musician Marla Leigh, for the U.S. National Committee for UN Women's "First Annual Special Assembly: Women, Climate Change, and Human Rights".


title: Featherweight (MMA)

text: For the sake of uniformity, most American mixed martial arts media outlets consider Featherweight competitors to be between 136 and 145 lb (60 and 66 kg).


title: Featherweight (MMA)

text: King of the Cage (KOTC) refers to its 145 lb (66 kg) division as "bantamweight" whereas Shooto refers to its 143 lb (65 kg) division as "lightweight". The UFC uses the Nevada definition of "featherweight".


title: Featherweight (MMA)

text: The featherweight limit, as defined by the Nevada State Athletic Commission and the Association of Boxing Commissions is 145 lb (66 kg).


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: Charles Schuldiner (born May 13, 1967 – December 13, 2001) was an American musician. He founded the death metal band Death in 1983, in which he was the lead vocalist, guitarist, primary songwriter and only consistent member until his death in 2001. His obituary in the January 5, 2002 issue of UK's "Kerrang!" magazine described him as "one of the most significant figures in the history of metal." Schuldiner was ranked No. 10 in Joel McIver's book "The 100 Greatest Metal Guitarists" in 2009 and No. 20 in March 2004 "Guitar World"s "The 100 Greatest Metal Guitarists". In 1987, Schuldiner founded the publishing company Mutilation Music, affiliated with performance rights organization BMI. Schuldiner died in 2001 of a brain tumor.


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: Schuldiner is often referred to as "The Godfather of death metal", although he was uncomfortable with this nickname, remarking that "I don't think I should take the credits for this death metal stuff. I'm just a guy from a band, and I think Death is a metal band."


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: Schuldiner was born on May 13, 1967, on Long Island, New York. His father Mal Schuldiner was Jewish and the son of Austrian immigrants, and his mother Jane Schuldiner was from the American South and had converted to Judaism. In 1968, his family moved to Florida.


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: Schuldiner was originally inspired by Black Sabbath, Judas Priest, Iron Maiden, Kiss and classical jazz, among others. He was particularly interested in the metal movement known as NWOBHM – New Wave of British Heavy Metal – and cited bands of that genre among his favorites. He frequently cited French band Sortilège as his personal favorite metal group. Slayer, Celtic Frost, Possessed, Mercyful Fate/King Diamond and Metallica were later influences he would apply more to his own songwriting. Later in his career, Schuldiner frequently cited progressive metal bands such as Watchtower, Coroner and Queensrÿche as influences. The official Schuldiner website, Empty Words, quotes Schuldiner's mother making the claim that he enjoyed all forms of music except country and rap.


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: Schuldiner performed well in school before becoming bored with education and eventually dropping out. He later regretted this decision. He has stated that if he had not become a musician, he would have liked to have become a veterinarian or a cook.


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: Taking inspiration from Nasty Savage, Schuldiner formed Death as Mantas in 1983 when he was just 16 years old. Original members were Schuldiner (guitar), Rick Rozz (guitar) and Kam Lee (drums and vocals). In January 1986, Schuldiner moved to Toronto and temporarily joined the Canadian band Slaughter. However, he quickly returned to continue the formation of Death.


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: Death underwent many lineup changes. With Chris Reifert, Schuldiner eventually released the first Death album, titled "Scream Bloody Gore", in 1987. He continued with 1988's "Leprosy" with the line-up of former Mantas guitarist Rick Rozz and rhythm section Terry Butler on bass and Bill Andrews on drums, and 1990's "Spiritual Healing", where guitarist James Murphy had replaced the fired Rozz in 1989.


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: After "Spiritual Healing", Schuldiner stopped working with full-time band members, preferring to work with studio and live venue musicians, due to bad relationships with Death's previous rhythm section and guitarists. This earned Schuldiner something of a 'perfectionist' reputation in the metal community. Schuldiner had also fired his manager Eric Greif but settled and re-hired him before the recording of his next, influential release.


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: Death's breakthrough album, "Human" saw the band evolving to a more technical and progressive style, in which Schuldiner displayed his guitar skills more than ever. He continued in this style (and continued the success of the band) with 1993's "Individual Thought Patterns", 1995's "Symbolic", and finally "The Sound of Perseverance" in 1998.


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: He put Death on hold after this to continue Control Denied, which he had been putting together prior to the release of "The Sound of Perseverance", and released "The Fragile Art of Existence" in 1999. Control Denied also had other players from the latest Death album but featured a melodic metal vocalist. Schuldiner also played guitar in the "supergroup" Voodoocult on the album "Jesus Killing Machine" in 1994 and played a guest solo on Naphobia's 1995 release, "Of Hell" on the track "As Ancients Evolve" as a favor to the band's bassist at the time who was a friend of Schuldiner's. Schuldiner was also asked to be one of the many guest vocalists on Dave Grohl's 2001 Probot. Grohl, Napalm Death, Ozzy Osbourne, and Anthrax all increased efforts to raise funds for Schuldiner's medical bills with Grohl trying to involve Schuldiner on an album he was working on. In a 1999 interview, Schuldiner spoke about why he didn't sing on the Control Denied album "The Fragile Art of Existence" "...these vocals are all I ever wanted to do in Death but couldn't. I've had this dream of recording like that for years, and it seems like a dream come true. Tim Aymar is an amazing singer and this is the main difference. I think people will be surprised at the violence and strength of the album. Many people are expecting something like Iron Maiden, but, despite being one of my favorite bands, I didn't want to make an Iron Maiden-like album. I wanted to make an unpredictable album, just like I did in Death, I guess. I don't like to make predictable albums."


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: In 1999, Schuldiner was diagnosed with brain cancer. He continued to work on his music, continuing his work with Control Denied. He was at first unable to afford the surgery that he needed immediately. A press release called for support from everyone, including fellow artists. Jane Schuldiner urged all who read the statements about Schuldiner and his illness to go out and get insurance, stating her frustration in the American healthcare system. Schuldiner had taken out medical insurance after his first surgery, but the insurer had refused to pay because the cancer pre-dated insurance being taken out. Many artists, including Kid Rock, Korn and Red Hot Chili Peppers, got together during the summer of 2001 to auction off personal items, with the funds assisting Schuldiner's medical expenses, an effort covered by MTV. Matt Heafy, vocalist and guitarist for Trivium, has also stated that at the age of 15 his band had played a benefit show for Schuldiner while he was in the hospital in their days as a local band. In November 2001, Schuldiner's condition worsened as he became ill with Pneumocystis carinii.


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: With the assistance of Schuldiner's family, former manager Eric Greif handled his legacy as President of Perseverance Holdings Ltd. Schuldiner's mother Jane and sister Beth Schuldiner frequently interact with his fans and both have stated many times that they enjoy his music. Greif kept track of his recordings and handled Schuldiner's intellectual property. Beth Schuldiner has a son named Christopher Steele, who also plays guitar and has all of Schuldiner's guitars. BC Rich also released a statement in their 2008 catalog stating that Schuldiner's signature model Stealth will be available for purchase, and that endorsement is overseen by Steele.


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: A legal battle began from the time of Schuldiner's death on the settlement of the rights to the partially completed second Control Denied album, "When Man and Machine Collide", which was recorded in 2000–2001 and was scheduled for release in 2013. Demos of these unreleased Control Denied songs, as well as early Death demos and live Death recordings from 1990, were released in the "Zero Tolerance" two-part compilation bootlegs by the Dutch Hammerheart Holdings company and the Schuldiners and Greif asserted rights on behalf of Schuldiner's Estate. The matter was settled in November 2009, anticipating the project being finished and released in 2010.


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: Tribute concerts have been coordinated or funded by Schuldiner's mother and family and various Death tribute groups internationally. Former CKY frontman, Deron Miller, who considers Schuldiner an idol of his, got the idea, while working on various projects with former Death guitarist (and pituitary tumor survivor) James Murphy, to do a tribute album. Murphy announced he would release a Chuck Schuldiner tribute album to commemorate his lasting mark on the metal community and Schuldiner's family publicly offered support for Murphy's effort, though it has never materialized. Schuldiner's sister Beth confirmed via her YouTube channel that "Death: Live in Japan", a behind the scenes Death video, as well as a potential boxset containing all of Schuldiner's works including some exclusive copies of handwritten notes by Schuldiner are in the works via Relapse Records. Schuldiner Estate lawyer Eric Greif held a charity Chuck Schuldiner Birthday Bash in Calgary, Alberta, May 13, 2011, featuring speeches by Greif and former Death guitarist Paul Masvidal, as well as bands performing Schuldiner's music.


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: In January 2001, Mahyar Dean, an Iranian metal guitarist/musician, wrote "", a book about Death and Schuldiner poems. The book includes bilingual lyrics and many articles about the band. The book was sent through the site keepers of emptywords.org to Schuldiner, who in his words was "truly blown away and honored by the obvious work and devotion he put into bringing the book to life".


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: Schuldiner designed the Death logo and its various incarnations during the length of his career. In 1991, before the release of "Human", he cleaned up the logo taking out more intricate details and the "T" in the logo was swapped from an inverted cross to a more regular looking "T", one reason being to quash any implication of religion.


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: Schuldiner was also openly against hard drugs; he is quoted as saying, "I've tripped several times. That's all because I don't like the hard drugs. And my only drugs are alcohol and grass."


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: Schuldiner was mostly self-taught as a guitarist. In 1993, he expressed a disinterest in music theory: "I know enough about what I'm playing to memorize the scales and things, but I have no idea how you would label them. As long as I can play it, memorize it and apply it, I don't need to know what you call it."


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: In the early days of Death, Schuldiner used a "deep, raspy" death growl vocal technique. He said in 1993 that "it takes a lot of energy and a lot of throat abuse to get through a show."


title: Chuck Schuldiner

text: Schuldiner used a simple setup. For most of his career, his main guitar was a B.C. Rich Stealth fitted with a single DiMarzio X2N bridge pickup. For his amplificiation, Schuldiner used a Marshall Valvestate 8100 head played through a Marshall Valvestate VS412 cabinet. He used 10-46 gauge GHS Boomers strings, and a Dunlop Tortex .88mm pick. Schuldiner used very little effects except for a chorus effect during his solos.


title: Cylinder

text: A cylinder (from ) has traditionally been a three-dimensional solid, one of the most basic of curvilinear geometric shapes. In elementary geometry, it is considered a prism with a circle as its base.


title: Cylinder

text: A cylinder may also be defined as an infinite curvilinear surface in various modern branches of geometry and topology. The shift in the basic meaning—solid versus surface (as in ball and sphere)—has created some ambiguity with terminology. The two concepts may be distinguished by referring to solid cylinders and cylindrical surfaces. In the literature the unadorned term cylinder could refer to either of these or to an even more specialized object, the "right circular cylinder".


title: Cylinder

text: The definitions and results in this section are taken from the 1913 text "Plane and Solid Geometry" by George Wentworth and David Eugene Smith .


title: Cylinder

text: A "" is a surface consisting of all the points on all the lines which are parallel to a given line and which pass through a fixed plane curve in a plane not parallel to the given line. Any line in this family of parallel lines is called an "element" of the cylindrical surface. From a kinematics point of view, given a plane curve, called the "directrix", a cylindrical surface is that surface traced out by a line, called the "generatrix", not in the plane of the directrix, moving parallel to itself and always passing through the directrix. Any particular position of the generatrix is an element of the cylindrical surface.


title: Cylinder

text: A solid bounded by a cylindrical surface and two parallel planes is called a (solid) '. The line segments determined by an element of the cylindrical surface between the two parallel planes is called an "element of the cylinder". All the elements of a cylinder have equal lengths. The region bounded by the cylindrical surface in either of the parallel planes is called a ' of the cylinder. The two bases of a cylinder are congruent figures. If the elements of the cylinder are perpendicular to the planes containing the bases, the cylinder is a ', otherwise it is called an '. If the bases are disks (regions whose boundary is a circle) the cylinder is called a ". In some elementary treatments, a cylinder always means a circular cylinder.


title: Cylinder

text: The cylinder obtained by rotating a line segment about a fixed line that it is parallel to is a '. A cylinder of revolution is a right circular cylinder. The height of a cylinder of revolution is the length of the generating line segment. The line that the segment is revolved about is called the ' of the cylinder and it passes through the centers of the two bases.


title: Cylinder

text: The bare term "cylinder" often refers to a solid cylinder with circular ends perpendicular to the axis, that is, a right circular cylinder, as shown in the figure. The cylindrical surface without the ends is called an "". The formulae for the surface area and the volume of a right circular cylinder have been known from early antiquity.


title: Cylinder

text: A right circular cylinder can also be thought of as the solid of revolution generated by rotating a rectangle about one of its sides. These cylinders are used in an integration technique (the "disk method") for obtaining volumes of solids of revolution.


title: Cylinder

text: A tall and thin "needle cylinder" has a height much greater than its diameter, whereas a short and wide "disk cylinder" has a diameter much greater than its height.


title: Cylinder

text: A cylindric section is the intersection of a cylinder's surface with a plane. They are, in general, curves and are special types of "plane sections". The cylindric section by a plane that contains two elements of a cylinder is a parallelogram. Such a cylindric section of a right cylinder is a rectangle.


title: Cylinder

text: A cylindric section in which the intersecting plane intersects and is perpendicular to all the elements of the cylinder is called a "". If a right section of a cylinder is a circle then the cylinder is a circular cylinder. In more generality, if a right section of a cylinder is a conic section (parabola, ellipse, hyperbola) then the solid cylinder is said to be parabolic, elliptic and hyperbolic, respectively.


title: Cylinder

text: For a right circular cylinder, there are several ways in which planes can meet a cylinder. First, planes that intersect a base in at most one point. A plane is tangent to the cylinder if it meets the cylinder in a single element. The right sections are circles and all other planes intersect the cylindrical surface in an ellipse. If a plane intersects a base of the cylinder in exactly two points then the line segment joining these points is part of the cylindric section. If such a plane contains two elements, it has a rectangle as a cylindric section, otherwise the sides of the cylindric section are portions of an ellipse. Finally, if a plane contains more than two points of a base, it contains the entire base and the cylindric section is a circle.


title: Cylinder

text: In the case of a right circular cylinder with a cylindric section that is an ellipse, the eccentricity of the cylindric section and semi-major axis of the cylindric section depend on the radius of the cylinder and the angle between the secant plane and cylinder axis, in the following way:


title: Cylinder

text: If the base of a circular cylinder has a radius and the cylinder has height , then its volume is given by


title: Cylinder

text: In more generality, by the same principle, the volume of any cylinder is the product of the area of a base and the height. For example, an elliptic cylinder with a base having semi-major axis , semi-minor axis and height has a volume , where is the area of the base ellipse (= ). This result for right elliptic cylinders can also be obtained by integration, where the axis of the cylinder is taken as the positive -axis and the area of each elliptic cross-section, thus:


title: Cylinder

text: Using cylindrical coordinates, the volume of a right circular cylinder can be calculated by integration over


title: Cylinder

text: Having radius and altitude (height) , the surface area of a right circular cylinder, oriented so that its axis is vertical, consists of three parts:


title: Cylinder

text: The area of the top and bottom bases is the same, and is called the "base area", . The area of the side is known as the "", .


title: Cylinder

text: An "open cylinder" does not include either top or bottom elements, and therefore has surface area (lateral area)


title: Cylinder

text: The surface area of the solid right circular cylinder is made up the sum of all three components: top, bottom and side. Its surface area is therefore,


title: Cylinder

text: For a given volume, the right circular cylinder with the smallest surface area has . Equivalently, for a given surface area, the right circular cylinder with the largest volume has , that is, the cylinder fits snugly in a cube of side length = altitude ( = diameter of base circle).


title: Cylinder

text: The lateral area, , of a circular cylinder, which need not be a right cylinder, is more generally given by:


title: Cylinder

text: where is the length of an element and is the perimeter of a right section of the cylinder. This produces the previous formula for lateral area when the cylinder is a right circular cylinder.


title: Cylinder

text: A "right circular hollow cylinder" (or "") is a three-dimensional region bounded by two right circular cylinders having the same axis and two parallel annular bases perpendicular to the cylinders' common axis, as in the diagram.


title: Cylinder

text: Cylindrical shells are used in a common integration technique for finding volumes of solids of revolution.


title: Cylinder

text: In the treatise by this name, written c. 225 BCE, Archimedes obtained the result of which he was most proud, namely obtaining the formulas for the volume and surface area of a sphere by exploiting the relationship between a sphere and its circumscribed right circular cylinder of the same height and diameter. The sphere has a volume that of the circumscribed cylinder and a surface area that of the cylinder (including the bases). Since the values for the cylinder were already known, he obtained, for the first time, the corresponding values for the sphere. The volume of a sphere of radius is . The surface area of this sphere is . A sculpted sphere and cylinder were placed on the tomb of Archimedes at his request.


title: Cylinder

text: In some areas of geometry and topology the term "cylinder" refers to what has been called a cylindrical surface. A cylinder is defined as a surface consisting of all the points on all the lines which are parallel to a given line and which pass through a fixed plane curve in a plane not parallel to the given line. Such cylinders have, at times, been referred to as "". Through each point of a generalized cylinder there passes a unique line that is contained in the cylinder. Thus, this definition may be rephrased to say that a cylinder is any ruled surface spanned by a one-parameter family of parallel lines.


title: Cylinder

text: A cylinder having a right section that is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola is called an elliptic cylinder, parabolic cylinder and hyperbolic cylinder, respectively. These are degenerate quadric surfaces.


title: Cylinder

text: When the principal axes of a quadric are aligned with the reference frame (always possible for a quadric), a general equation of the quadric in three dimensions is given by


title: Cylinder

text: with the coefficients being real numbers and not all of , and being 0. If at least one variable does not appear in the equation, then the quadric is degenerate. If one variable is missing, we may assume by an appropriate rotation of axes that the variable does not appear and the general equation of this type of degenerate quadric can be written as


title: Cylinder

text: If this is the equation of an "elliptic cylinder". Further simplification can be obtained by translation of axes and scalar multiplication. If formula_11 has the same sign as the coefficients and , then the equation of an elliptic cylinder may be rewritten in Cartesian coordinates as:


title: Cylinder

text: This equation of an elliptic cylinder is a generalization of the equation of the ordinary, "circular cylinder" (). Elliptic cylinders are also known as "cylindroids", but that name is ambiguous, as it can also refer to the Plücker conoid.


title: Cylinder

text: If formula_11 has a different sign than the coefficients, we obtain the "imaginary elliptic cylinders":


title: Cylinder

text: If and have different signs and formula_16, we obtain the "hyperbolic cylinders", whose equations may be rewritten as:


title: Cylinder

text: Finally, if assume, without loss of generality, that and to obtain the "parabolic cylinders" with equations that can be written as:


title: Cylinder

text: In projective geometry, a cylinder is simply a cone whose apex (vertex) lies on the plane at infinity. If the cone is a quadratic cone, the plane at infinity (which passes through the vertex) can intersect the cone at two real lines, a single real line (actually a coincident pair of lines), or only at the vertex. These cases give rise to the hyperbolic, parabolic or elliptic cylinders respectively.


title: Cylinder

text: A "solid circular cylinder" can be seen as the limiting case of a -gonal prism where approaches infinity. The connection is very strong and many older texts treat prisms and cylinders simultaneously. Formulas for surface area and volume are derived from the corresponding formulas for prisms by using inscribed and circumscribed prisms and then letting the number of sides of the prism increase without bound. One reason for the early emphasis (and sometimes exclusive treatment) on circular cylinders is that a circular base is the only type of geometric figure for which this technique works with the use of only elementary considerations (no appeal to calculus or more advanced mathematics). Terminology about prisms and cylinders is identical. Thus, for example, since a "truncated prism" is a prism whose bases do not lie in parallel planes, a solid cylinder whose bases do not lie in parallel planes would be called a "truncated cylinder".


title: Cylinder

text: From a polyhedral viewpoint, a cylinder can also be seen as a dual of a bicone as an infinite-sided bipyramid.


title: Graceland (album)

text: Graceland is the seventh solo studio album by the American singer-songwriter Paul Simon. It was produced by Simon, engineered by Roy Halee and released on August 25, 1986, by Warner Bros. Records.


title: Graceland (album)

text: In the early 1980s, Simon's relationship with his former musical partner Art Garfunkel had deteriorated, his marriage to actress Carrie Fisher had collapsed, and his previous record, "Hearts and Bones" (1983), had been a commercial failure. In 1984, after a period of depression, Simon became fascinated by a bootleg cassette of "mbaqanga", South African street music. He and Halee visited Johannesburg, where they spent two weeks recording with South African musicians. Further recordings were held in the United States, with guest musicians including Linda Ronstadt, the Everly Brothers, Louisiana band Good Rockin' Dopsie and the Twisters, and Los Angeles band Los Lobos.


title: Graceland (album)

text: "Graceland" features an eclectic mixture of genres, including pop, rock, "a cappella", zydeco, "isicathamiya" and "mbaqanga". Simon wrote songs inspired by the recordings made in Johannesburg, collaborating with African and American artists. He received criticism for breaking the cultural boycott of South Africa because of its policy of apartheid. Following its completion, Simon toured alongside South African musicians, performing their music and songs from "Graceland".


title: Graceland (album)

text: "Graceland" became Simon's most successful studio album and his highest-charting album in over a decade; it is estimated to have sold more than 16 million copies worldwide. It was lauded by critics, won the 1987 Grammy for Album of the Year, and is frequently cited as one of the best albums of all time. In 2006, it was added to the United States' National Recording Registry as "culturally, historically, or aesthetically important".


title: Graceland (album)

text: Following a series of hit records released in the 1970s, Simon fell on hard times. His relationship with his former musical partner Art Garfunkel had again deteriorated; his sixth solo studio album, "Hearts and Bones" (1983), achieved the lowest sales of his career, and his marriage to actress Carrie Fisher collapsed. "I had a personal blow, a career setback, and the combination of the two put me into a tailspin", he recalled.


title: Graceland (album)

text: In 1984, Simon agreed to produce a record by a young singer-songwriter, Heidi Berg. Berg, who had played in the house bands for "Saturday Night Live" and "The New Show", was introduced to Simon by television producer Lorne Michaels. As an example for how she wanted her record to sound, Heidi loaned Simon a bootlegged tape of "mbaqanga", black street music from the Soweto township of Johannesburg. Simon described it as "very good summer music, happy music" that reminded him of 1950s rhythm and blues. He began improvising melodies over it as he listened in his car.


title: Graceland (album)

text: Simon asked his contacts at his label, Warner, to identify the artists on the tape. Through South African record producer Hilton Rosenthal, Warner confirmed that the music was South African and played by either the vocal group Ladysmith Black Mambazo or the Boyoyo Boys. Simon considered buying the rights to his favorite song on the tape, "Gumboots", and using it to write his own song, as he had with the song "El Condor Pasa" in the 1970s. But Rosenthal instead suggested that Simon record an album of South African music, and sent him dozens of records from South African artists.


title: Graceland (album)

text: In the 1980s, recording in South Africa was dangerous, and the United Nations had imposed a cultural boycott for its policy of apartheid. This forced states to "prevent all cultural, academic, sporting and other exchanges" with South Africa, and ordered writers, artists, musicians and "other personalities" to boycott it. Nonetheless, Simon resolved to go to South Africa, and told "The New York Times": "I knew I would be criticized if I went, even though I wasn't going to record for the government ... or to perform for segregated audiences. I was following my musical instincts in wanting to work with people whose music I greatly admired."


title: Graceland (album)

text: Before leaving for Johannesburg, Simon contributed to "We Are the World", a charity single benefiting African famine relief. Simon discussed recording in South Africa with "We Are the World" producers Quincy Jones and Harry Belafonte, who both encouraged him to go. The South African black musicians' union also voted to let Simon come, as it could benefit their music by placing it on an international stage. When Simon told Berg of his plans to record an album inspired by the tape she had loaned him, their working relationship deteriorated.


title: Graceland (album)

text: In February 1985, Simon and his longtime engineer Roy Halee flew to Johannesburg, intending their visit to be secret. Warner executives were uninterested in the project, viewing Simon as a bad investment due to the failure of his previous two solo albums. Simon felt their indifference worked in his favor, as it gave him more freedom. Halee believed executives at the label viewed him and Simon as "crazy".


title: Graceland (album)

text: Rosenthal used his connections to assemble various musicians who had inspired Simon, including Lulu Masilela, Tao Ea Matsekha, General M. D. Shirinda and the Gaza Sisters, and the Boyoyo Boys Band. Though musicians in Johannesburg were typically paid $15 an hour, Simon arranged to pay them $200 an hour, around triple the rate for top players in New York City. Simon said he "wanted to be as above board as I could possibly be," as many of the musicians did not know who he was and would not be lured by the promise of royalties alone. He also offered writer's royalties to those he felt had actually contributed to composing the songs.


title: Graceland (album)

text: Recording sessions took place at Ovation Studios. Halee worried the studio would be a "horror show" but was surprised to find it "very comfortable". It was reminiscent of a garage, which Halee feared would be a problem for recording, and none of the musicians wore headphones. Jam sessions ranged from 10 to 30 minutes, and Simon and Halee intended to assemble an album from the recordings on their return home. Though the playing was technically simple, Simon found it difficult to mimic. Outside the studio, the general public was hostile toward Simon, but the Musician's Union received him warmly.


title: Graceland (album)

text: Though Simon described the recording sessions as "euphoric", he recalled "tension below the surface" due to the effects of apartheid. Musicians would become anxious when recording sessions continued into the evening, since they were prohibited from using public transportation or even being on the streets after curfew. Simon recalled, "In the middle of the euphoric feeling in the studio, you would have reminders that you're living in an incredibly tense racial environment, where the law of the land was apartheid." At the end of the two-week trip, Simon felt a relief from his personal turmoil and a revitalized passion for music.


title: Graceland (album)

text: Simon and Halee returned to the Hit Factory studio in New York City to edit the material. Simon flew several South African musicians to New York to complete the record three months after the Johannesburg sessions. The sessions resulted in "You Can Call Me Al" and "Under African Skies". Simon began writing lyrics at his home in Montauk, New York, while listening to the recordings. The process was slow, but he determined he had sufficient material to begin rerecording the tracks. He played the tracks backward to "enhance their sound", interspersing gibberish to complete the rhythms.


title: Graceland (album)

text: Simon involved guest musicians, including American singer Linda Ronstadt and his childhood heroes the Everly Brothers. During a trip to Louisiana with Richard "Dickie" Landry, he saw a performance by the Lafayette zydeco band Good Rockin' Dopsie and the Twisters, and recorded "That Was Your Mother" with them in a small studio behind a music store. He felt that the accordion, central to zydeco, would make a pleasing transition back to his own culture. Afterward, he contacted Mexican-American band Los Lobos, with which he recorded "All Around the World or The Myth of Fingerprints" in Los Angeles.


title: Graceland (album)

text: Halee edited the album with new digital technology, transferring analog tape recordings to the digital workspace countless times. He said: "The amount of editing that went into that album was unbelievable ... without the facility to edit digital, I don't think we could have done that project." He used tape echo and delay on every song, and paid particular attention to the bass, saying: "The bassline is what the album is all about. It's the essence of everything that happened." Each song was mixed in about two days at the Hit Factory, where most of the vocal overdubs were recorded.


title: Graceland (album)

text: "Graceland" features an eclectic mixture of musical styles including pop, "a cappella", zydeco, "isicathamiya", rock, and "mbaqanga". " Mbaqanga", or "township jive", originated as the street music of Soweto, South Africa. The album was strongly influenced by the earlier work of South African musicians Johnny Clegg and Sipho Mchunu, and their band Juluka's Zulu-Western pop crossover music. Juluka was South Africa's first integrated pop band. Simon includes thanks to Clegg, Juluka, and Juluka's producer Hilton Rosenthal in the "Special Thanks" citation in "Graceland" liner notes. He included American "roots" influences with tracks featuring zydeco musicians such as Rockin' Dopsie and Tex-Mex musicians.


title: Graceland (album)

text: The album alternates between playful and more serious songs. Simon thought of it as like a play: "As in a play, the mood should keep changing. A serious song may lead into an abstract song, which may be followed by a humorous song." On many songs, Simon and Halee employ a Synclavier to "enhance" the acoustic instruments, creating an electronic "shadow".


title: Graceland (album)

text: "The Boy in the Bubble" is a collaboration with Lesotho-based Tao Ea Matsekha. "Graceland" features the playing of bassist Bakithi Kumalo and guitarist Ray Phiri. Simon remarks on the album's original liner notes that it reminded him of American country music, and wrote: "After the recording session, Ray told me that he'd used a relative minor chord—something not often heard in South African music—because he said he thought it was more like the chord changes he'd heard in my music." Steel guitarist Demola Adepoju contributed to the track some months after its completion. "I Know What I Know" is based on music from an album by General M.D. Shirinda and the Gaza Sisters. Simon was attracted to their work due to the unusual style of guitar playing, as well as the "distinctive sound" of the women's voices. "Gumboots" is a re-recording (with additional saxophone solos) of the song with which Simon first found himself enamored from the cassette tape that spawned "Graceland".