title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Andrew Pessin and Doron Ben-Atar have argued that since Israel's gross domestic product nearly doubled between 2006 and 2015 and foreign investment in Israel tripled during the same period, BDS has not had a significant impact on Israel's economy.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: A 2015 Israeli Knesset report concluded that BDS had no discernible impact on Israel despite the vulnerability of its export-dependent economy to such a campaign, and that exports to Europe had doubled since the launch of the movement.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Adam Reuter of the Israeli Reuter Meydan Investment House and founder of the financial risk management firm Financial Immunities has argued that boycotts of consumer goods are ineffective because 95% of Israel's exports are business-to-business. In 2018, Reuter wrote that a years-long study of the BDS movement's effects on the Israeli economy by Financial Immunities that began in 2010 calculated that the proportion of economic damage to Israel was 0.004%. As part of the study, managers of Israeli companies were questioned over how much economic damage they had sustained, with only 0.75% of companies reporting any identifiable economic damage. The rate of damage for all of them was less than 10% of their turnover, most of which took place during the 2014 Gaza War.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: A 2018 analysis by Dany Bahar and Natan Sachs estimated that BDS had far less potential to harm the Israeli economy than such a campaign did against South Africa, as Israeli exports are primarily of not easily replaceable goods, such as high-tech products, computer parts, advanced machinery, and pharmaceuticals, while apartheid-era South Africa's economy depended heavily on exports of easily replaceable goods such as minerals, metals, and agricultural products. In addition, many Israeli exports are of intermediate goods, meaning that they are used in the production of the final product elsewhere, and such exports are harder to boycott as they are not visible to the average consumer. Overall, they concluded that such a boycott of Israel would have a far worse effect on global consumers than the boycott of South Africa did since Israeli products are more difficult for consumers and firms to bypass than South African products were. According to Bahar and Sachs, "view a video of a BDS rally, and there's a fair chance the footage was taken on a device that utilizes Israeli technology: The boycott is broken before it begins." They claimed that due to experience with the Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli economy is adept at dealing with boycotts, with some Israeli firms bypassing the Arab boycott through third-country intermediaries and the Israeli economy evolving towards sectors harder to boycott. They claimed that BDS could affect some economic sectors, such as tourism, agriculture, non-complex manufacturing, and services exports, and that cultural and academic boycotts could also have an impact, but the basic structure of Israel's overall trade is not threatened by a boycott.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Nevertheless, two organizations divested from Israel in 2014: Luxembourg's state pension fund, FDC, excluded eight major Israeli firms, including Bank Hapoalim, Bank Leumi, AFI Group and the American firm Motorola Solutions as part of its socially responsible investments programme, and Norway's YMCA-YWCA announced that it would support a "broad economic boycott of goods and services from Israel and Israeli settlements."


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: According to "Haaretz" columnist and Brown University student Jared Samilow, BDS's most significant impact is the social cost it puts upon Jews living outside Israel.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Reviewing four lists of achievements published by the BDS movement between July 2017 and December 2018, analyst Amin Prager concluded that, with some exceptions, the impact was limited but that BDS's greatest potential effect arises from its long-term aim to influence discourse about Israel's legitimacy and international standing.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In November 2020, "Haaretz" columnist Anshel Pfeffer wrote that BDS was a total failure in economic terms and mainly served as a useful tool of the Israeli right. Citing the surge in foreign trade and relations Israel experienced since 2005, including the normalization agreements with Arab Gulf countries, Pfeffer called BDS "the most failed, overhyped and exaggerated campaign of the first two decades of the 21st century" and a "minor creed in the cultural and identity shadow wars on the Internet and a tiny handful of campuses in the west", writing that it "failed on every front with the minor exception of bullying a handful of singers and academics not to take part in concerts or conferences in Israel." He claimed that the Israeli right was eager to keep the spectre of the movement's threat alive to try to keep a siege mentality in place among the Israeli population.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: The Israel lobby considers BDS an "existential threat" to Israel and countering it is highly prioritized. Whether BDS is actually an "existential threat" to Israel has been debated even within the pro-Israel community. It has organized a counter-campaign to oppose BDS, relying on strategies of defamation, intimidation, and lawfare.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Several groups have been created specifically to combat BDS. In 2010, the Jewish Federations of North America and the Jewish Council for Public Affairs set up the Israel Action Network (IAN) with a pledge of $6 million. In June 2015, pro-Israel megadonors Sheldon Adelson and Haim Saban held a meeting with representatives of 50 Jewish organizations, raising $50 million to fight BDS on U.S. campuses. The same year, the Maccabee Task Force was set up, led by David Brog, with the mission "to ensure that those who seek to delegitimize Israel and demonize the Jewish people are confronted, combatted and defeated". Creative Campaign for Peace says it supports and informs artists scheduled to play in Israel, claiming it just has to "give the facts".


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: One tactic the Israel lobby uses to silence activists in academia is blacklisting. This can cause students and untenured faculty, who worry about reprisals and negative publicity, to refrain from activism. The best-known blacklist is the anonymous website Canary Mission, which publishes photos and personal information about students and faculty who promote BDS. The website has threatened to send students' names to prospective employees. According to the "Intercept", the website has made it harder for activists to organize activities because people worry that they will end up on it. Activists listed on the site have reported receiving death threats. Another blacklist was the now defunct outlawbds.com, operated by the Israeli private intelligence agency Psy-Group. It sent threatening emails to BDS activists in New York, warning them that they had been identified as "BDS promoter[s]." Many activists have attempted to defuse blacklisting's chilling effect by treating inclusion on blacklists as a badge of honor or by attempting to get themselves blacklisted.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: The operators of the blacklists often are anonymous. According to "The Forward's" investigation, the blacklist "SJP Uncovered" was funded by the Israel on Campus Coalition. According to "Haaretz", the Canary Mission was funded by the Jewish Community Federation of San Francisco and the Jewish Community Foundation of Los Angeles, and operated by the Israeli nonprofit Megamot Shalom.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In response to BDS, several legislatures have passed laws designed to hinder people and organizations from boycotting Israel and goods from Israeli settlements. Proponents of such laws say that they are necessary because BDS is a form of antisemitism. After passage of these laws, Dickinson, Texas, residents found they had to certify they would not boycott Israel in order to qualify for relief for damages caused by Hurricane Harvey; a math teacher in Kansas had to pledge not to boycott Israel as a condition for being paid her state salary; and an Arkansas newspaper was asked to sign an anti-boycott pledge in order to be paid for the advertising it ran for Arkansas State University.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Opponents say that Israel and its supporters are engaging in lawfare and that anti-BDS laws infringe on the right to free speech. David Kaye, the UN special rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, has said that boycotts have long been regarded as a legitimate form of expression, that such legislation against BDS appears to "repress a particular political viewpoint" while failing international legal criteria for "permissible restraints on speech" insofar as these laws contradict Article 19(2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), a covenant to which the United States is a signatory.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In the U.S., anti-BDS laws have been passed. Two federal acts have been introduced, the 2017 Israel Anti-Boycott Act and the 2019 Combating BDS Act, both intended to deprive entities participating in boycotts of Israel of government contract work. In several states, these laws have been challenged on First Amendment grounds for violating citizens' freedom of speech. Supporters of anti-BDS statutes argue that boycotts are economic activity, not speech, and that laws prohibiting government contracts with groups that boycott Israel are similar to other anti-discrimination laws that have been upheld as constitutional under the Commerce Clause. Opponents, such as the ACLU, contend that the laws are not analogous to anti-discrimination legislation because they target only boycotts of Israel. Texas, Kansas, and Arizona have amended their anti-BDS laws in response to lawsuits. In a 2022 University of Maryland Critical Issues Poll, 68% of respondents said they opposed laws criminalizing boycotts of Israel.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Israel has enacted two anti-BDS laws: one in 2011 that criminalizes calls to boycott Israel, and one in 2017 that prohibits foreigners who call for such boycotts from entering Israel or its settlements. In 2019, Israel caused some controversy by denying entry to two BDS-supporting U.S. Representatives, Rashida Tlaib and Ilhan Omar.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: From 2016 to 2019 Israel allocated over $100 million in funding to counter BDS, which it considers a strategic threat. In 2016 Israel's ambassador to the UN, Danny Danon, stated that Israel was in many countries "so that it will simply be illegal to boycott Israel." In 2020 it was revealed that an Israeli state-funded lobby group had been instrumental in pushing for anti-BDS laws in many U.S. states.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In 2018 a new code of ethics was adopted for Israeli universities. The code prohibits faculty from calling for or participating in boycotts of Israel.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In 2010, the Israeli think tank Reut Institute presented a paper, "The Delegitimization Challenge: Creating a Political Firewall," at the influential Herzliya Conference. It recommended enlisting intelligence agencies to attack and sabotage what it believed where international "hubs" of the movement in London, Madrid, Toronto, and other cities. In a related paper, the think tank called for pro-Israel advocates to "out, name and shame" Israel's critics and to "frame them...as anti-peace, anti-Semitic, or dishonest purveyors of double standards."


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In a leaked report from 2017, "The Assault On Israel's Legitimacy The Frustrating 20X Question: Why Is It Still Growing?", Reut recommended making a distinction between hardcore anti-Zionist "instigators" and the "long tail": people who are critical of Israel but do not seek its "elimination". The instigators should be "handled uncompromisingly, publicly or covertly", the report stated, but the long tail should be won over by persuasion, as a heavy-handed approach would risk driving them closer to the "anti-Israel camp."


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In Israel, the counter-campaign is led by the Ministry of Strategic Affairs. In 2015, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu announced that the ministry would receive over 100 million shekels as well as ten employees to fight BDS. Some of the funds have been used to buy space in the Israeli press to promote its anti-BDS message.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In June 2016, "Haaretz" reported that the ministry was going to establish a "dirty tricks" unit to "establish, hire or tempt nonprofit organizations or groups not associated with Israel, in order to disseminate" negative information about BDS supporters. The news came on the heels of a report that Israel's efforts to fight BDS had been ineffectual, in part because the responsibility had been transferred to the Strategic Affairs Ministry from the Foreign Ministry. "Despite receiving expanded authority in 2013 to run the government's campaign against the delegitimization and boycott efforts against Israel, the Strategic Affairs Ministry did not make full use of its budget and had no significant achievements in this area," "Haaretz" quotes the report as saying. "In 2015, it still did not carry out its work plans." In 2017, the cabinet allocated 128 million shekels over three years for a front company but it spent only 13 million with little to show by way of results.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: On 21 March 2017, Strategic Affairs Minister Gilad Erdan announced a plan to set up a database of Israeli citizens who support BDS. The database would be compiled using open sources such as Facebook and social media posts. Attorney General Avichai Mandelblit objected, saying that only the Israeli secret police, Shin Bet, has the authority to monitor citizens in that way. Arab Israeli Knesset member Ayman Odeh slammed the idea, saying the government was afraid of a nonviolent struggle against occupation.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In 2019, the ministry announced that its economic campaign against BDS had shut down 30 financial accounts of BDS-promoting groups. In October 2020, "+972 Magazine" reported that the Ministry of Strategic Affairs paid "The Jerusalem Post" over NIS 100,000 in 2019 to publish a special supplement titled "Unmasking BDS" in order to delegitimise the BDS movement. The ministry was closed down in 2021 by the 36th government and merged into the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: "Concert" operated as a joint venture with the now closed Ministry for Strategic Affairs but failed in its objective to promote public diplomacy of Israel. In January 2022, it was decided to restart Concert and allocate $31 million over four years with matching contributions sourced from civil organizations.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In September 2009, Mohammed Othman was detained after returning from a trip to Norway where he discussed BDS with Norwegian officials. He was released after four months, after an international campaign in which Amnesty International threatened to declare him a prisoner of conscience. BNC member Jamal Juma was also detained for several weeks in 2009. No charges were leveled against either of them.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In March 2016, Israeli minister Yisrael Katz stated that Israel should employ "targeted civil eliminations" against BDS leaders. The term alluded to the policy of targeted assassinations that Israel uses against members of Palestinian armed groups. Erdan called for BDS leaders to "pay the price" for their work. In response, Amnesty International issued a statement expressing its concern about the safety and liberty of Barghouti and other BDS activists. Barghouti has been the target of several travel bans and in 2019 the Israeli government announced that it was preparing to expel him.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In July 2020, Israeli soldiers arrested Mahmoud Nawajaa, General Coordinator of BNC, in his home near Ramallah and detained him for 19 days.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Academics Rhys Crilley and Ilan Manor have said that "as long as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict endures so Israel's global reputation will become poorer" and cite a number of global surveys, including the 2006 Nation Brand Index, which found that "Israel is the worst brand in the world...Israel's brand is by a considerable margin the most negative we have ever measured" due to its long-running conflict with the Palestinians, which, in combination with BDS activities, has led to its being increasingly associated with apartheid and war crimes. The Israeli government initiated "Brand Israel", a campaign to improve Israel's image by showing its "prettier face", downplaying religion, and avoiding discussing the conflict with the Palestinians.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Brand Israel promotes Israeli culture abroad and also seeks to influence "opinion-formers" by inviting them on free trips to Israel. BDS attempts to counter the campaign by urging people not to participate in its activities. For example, in 2016 the Israeli government offered 26 Oscars-nominated celebrities 10-day free trips to Israel worth at least $15,000 to $18,000 per person. BDS activists took out an ad reading "#SkipTheTrip. Don't endorse Israeli apartheid" and urged the celebrities not to go. According to Catherine Rottenberg, they were successful and not a single celebrity went on the free trip.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: BDS considers the Israeli government's designation of the movement as a "strategic threat" proof of its success. Barghouti believes that the only effect Israel's heavy-handed measures will have is to speed the end of Israel's occupation and apartheid policies, and that its attempt to crush BDS will fail. He argues that BDS has dragged Israel into a "battlefield" over human rights, where its massive arsenal of intimidation, smears, threats, and bullying is rendered as ineffective as its nuclear weapons. Israel's extremism and its willingness to sacrifice its last masks of "democracy" will only help BDS grow, he argues.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Hitchcock speculates that many counter-measures might backfire, especially if they are seen as infringing on the right to free speech. As an example, she gives Trump's 2019 order to federal agencies to use a definition of antisemitism that includes speech critical of Israel when investigating certain types of discrimination complaints. Critics contended that the intent was to crack down on pro-BDS campus activism, and their critique found its way into mainstream periodicals like "The New York Times", "The New Yorker", and the "Los Angeles Times". Liam Hoare argues that the countermeasures have already backfired, that BDS is unpalatable to the masses and that the Israeli government's heavy-handedness keeps it alive.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: A 2022 Pew Research Center poll found that 84% of Americans did not know much about BDS. Of the 15% that knew something about the movement, only 5% supported it.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: BDS enjoys overwhelming support among Palestinians living in the occupied Palestinian territories. In a poll from 2015, 86% supported the boycott campaign and 64% believed that boycotting would help end the occupation.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: The number of Palestinian civil society organizations that support BDS has been rising steadily since its inception in 2005. Some of the Palestinian NGOs supporting BDS are umbrella organizations, such as the Palestinian NGOs Network, which has 135 members as of 2020. According to Melanie Meinzer, many Palestinian NGOs refrain from endorsing BDS because their dependence on donors constrain their politics. According to Finkelstein, BDS is exaggerating its level of support and many Palestinian NGOs endorsing it are small, one-person NGOs.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Palestinian trade unions have been very supportive of BDS; the 290,000-member Palestine General Federation of Trade Unions was one of the original signatories of the BDS Call. In 2011, the Palestinian Trade Union Coalition for BDS was created with the objective of promoting BDS among trade unions internally.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Leading voices in the Palestinian diaspora, such as Ali Abunimah, Joseph Massad, and Linda Sarsour have thrown their weight behind BDS, as have several Palestinian members of the Israeli parliament, including Haneen Zoabi, Basel Ghattas, and Jamal Zahalka.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: The Palestinian leadership's position on BDS is ambivalent. President Mahmoud Abbas does not support a general boycott against Israel and has said that the Palestinians don't either. Barghouti has disputed Abbas's statement, saying that "[t]here is no Palestinian political party, trade union, NGO network or mass organization that does not strongly support BDS. Abbas does, however, support a boycott of goods produced in Israeli settlements, and the Palestinian Authority has at times used boycotts to gain leverage on Israel. For example, in 2015, it imposed a boycott on six major Israeli food manufacturers to retaliate against Israel withholding Palestinian tax funds. The second-highest authority of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), the Palestinian Central Council, has meanwhile announced its intention to:


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: A handful of Palestinian scholars have opposed the academic boycott of Israel. Examples include former Al-Quds University president Sari Nusseibeh, who acknowledges that his view is the minority viewpoint among his colleagues. Some Palestinian academics have criticized Nusseibeh's collaboration with Hebrew University, seeing it as a form of normalization. Matthew Kalman speculated in "The New York Times" that opposition to boycott is more widespread among Palestinian academics but that they are afraid to speak out.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Palestinian-Israeli video blogger Nas Daily has expressed opposition to boycotts of Israel. BDS has in turn denounced him for engaging in normalization.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: BDS has received support from South African organizations and public figures that were involved in the struggle against apartheid. Such support is symbolically important for BDS as it tries to position itself as the spiritual successor of the anti-apartheid movement. The South African archbishop Desmond Tutu (1931–2021), known for his anti-apartheid and human rights activism, endorsed BDS during his lifetime. He came to this conclusion after visiting the Palestinian territories, comparing the conditions there to conditions in apartheid-era South Africa, and suggesting that Palestinian goals should be achieved by the same means used in South Africa. Foxman has criticized Tutu's statements, claiming they convey "bigotry against the Jewish homeland and the Jewish people."


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In 2012, the South African African National Congress (ANC) party gave BDS its blessing, stating, "the Palestinians are the victims and the oppressed in the conflict with Israel." The Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) also supports BDS, fully endorsing it in July 2011. During the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, COSATU vowed to "intensify" its support for BDS, picketing Woolworths for stocking Israeli goods.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: The membership of the Green Party of Canada voted to endorse BDS in 2016, despite strong objections from the party's leader, Elizabeth May, who threatened to resign. In June 2018, the Socialist International declared its support for BDS.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Some political parties have supported BDS, such as Australia's NSW Greens and Canada's Québec solidaire.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: On 7 February 2019, Copenhagen mayor of technical and environmental affairs Ninna Hedeager Olsen of the Danish party Enhedslisten gave three BDS activists known as the "Humboldt 3" an award for their work "to reveal the Apartheid-like nature of the Israeli regime and its systematic violation of international law."


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In 2017, the Munich city council barred public funding or space for BDS supporters. This position was challenged in court and a lower court's ruling was overturned on appeal in 2020. In January 2022, a German federal court denied the council's appeal, stating that German law "guarantees everyone the right to freely express and disseminate their opinion."


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In April 2014, the UK's National Union of Teachers, the EU's largest teacher's union, passed a resolution backing boycotts against Israel. In July of that year, the UK's Unite the Union voted to join BDS.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In December 2014, UAW Local 2865, a local chapter of the United Auto Workers union representing over 14,000 workers at the University of California, adopted a resolution in support of BDS with 65 percent of the vote in favor. It became the first major U.S. labor union to endorse BDS.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: A year after the vote, the UAW International Executive Board (IEB) informed UAW Local 2865 that it had nullified the vote. The opposition to the BDS resolution came from a small pro-Israel group known as the Informed Grads, represented by the global law firm Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher. IEB said that the endorsement of the boycott would interfere with the "flow of commerce to and from earmarked companies." UAW 2865's BDS Caucus repudiated the IEB's argument, saying that the IEB cared more about the "flow of commerce" than solidarity with Palestinian labor unions. The IEB further alleged that the resolution was antisemitic; the BDS Caucus called the allegation "the same baseless accusations of anti-Semitism frequently attributed to anyone who is critical of Israel."


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In April 2015, the Confédération des syndicats nationaux, Quebec, Canada, representing 325,000 in nearly 2,000 unions, voted to join the campaign for BDS and support a military embargo against Israel.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: On 11 September 2019, the British Trades Union Congress passed a motion titled "Palestine: supporting rights to self-determination", called for the prioritization of "Palestinians' rights to justice and equality, including by applying these principles based on international law to all UK trade with Israel", and declared its opposition to "any proposed solution for Palestinians, including Trump's 'deal', not based on international law recognising their collective rights to self-determination and to return to their homes".


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Former Spanish Prime Minister José María Aznar said that BDS applies a double standard to Israel and that it is therefore antisemitic. In his view, BDS wants to "empty" Israel of Jews.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In 2016, Israel's President Reuven Rivlin compared boycotts to violence and incitement. He asserted that boycotts only divide people, that BDS delegitimizes Israel, and that some parts of the movement seek Israel's destruction.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Political parties that oppose BDS include the Liberal Party of Australia and both major U.S. political parties. A common reason given for opposing BDS is that it attacks Israel's legitimacy and fosters antisemitism.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In May 2017, the Berlin branch of the Social Democratic Party of Germany passed a resolution condemning BDS as antisemitic.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In 2017, all 50 U.S. state governors and the mayor of Washington, D.C., signed on to "Governors United Against BDS""," an initiative sponsored by the American Jewish Committee that condemns BDS as "antithetical to our values and the values of our respective states" and emphasizes "our support for Israel as a vital U.S. ally, important economic partner and champion of freedom."


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: On 17 May 2017, Israeli PM Benjamin Netanyahu encouraged Danish minister of foreign affairs Anders Samuelsen to stop funding Palestinian organizations supporting the BDS movement. Two days later, the Danish ministry of foreign affairs began an investigation of the 24 organizations in Israel and Palestine that Denmark supports. On 24 May, Netanyahu called Danish PM Lars Løkke Rasmussen to complain about Denmark's funding activities in the area. In December 2017, the Danish ministry of foreign affairs announced that Denmark would fund fewer organizations and that the conditions for obtaining Danish funds needed to be "stricter and clearer". Michael Aastrup Jensen, spokesman of foreign affairs for Venstre, said, "Israel has objected emphatically. And it is a problem that Israel sees it as a problem, so now we clear up the situation and change our support".


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In a response to Ireland's progressing of the Control of Economic Activity (Occupied Territories) Bill 2018, Netanyahu issued a press release condemning the bill as an attempt to support BDS and to "harm the State of Israel". According to the Israeli Foreign Ministry, the Irish ambassador said that the Irish government opposes BDS.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Former and current British Prime Ministers Tony Blair, David Cameron, Theresa May, and Boris Johnson have all opposed or condemned boycotts of Israel.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Holocaust historian Deborah Lipstadt has argued that if the boycott of Israel were the main goal, then we "would all have to give up our iPhones" because a lot of technology is created in Israel. According to Lipstadt, BDS's objective is to make anything coming out of Israel seem toxic but it is not the case that "any kid who supports B.D.S. is ipso facto an anti-Semite".


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: The Arab Council for Regional Integration, a group of 32 Arab intellectuals, repudiated BDS at a London conference in November 2019. It said that BDS has cost the Arab nations billions in trade, "undercut Palestinian efforts to build institutions for a future state, and torn at the Arab social fabric, as rival ethnic, religious and national leaders increasingly apply tactics that were first tested against Israel." At the council, Kuwaiti information minister Sami Abdul-Latif Al-Nisf spoke about the opportunity costs to Palestinians, saying that outsize focus on BDS draws money and attention away from investment in Palestinian professionals such as doctors and engineers.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Political activist Noam Chomsky has argued against BDS. His principal argument is that its philosophy is intellectually indolent and designed to make the boycotters feel good more than to actually help any Palestinians. Chomsky also rejects the analogy between apartheid South Africa and the State of Israel and BDS's demand for a Palestinian right of return, which he called "a virtual guarantee of failure." But in a 2022 interview, Chomsky clarified that comparing Israeli actions toward Palestinians is a "gift to Israel" and that "the Occupied Territories are much worse than South Africa." He said BDS "has a mixed record" and "should become "more flexible [and] more thoughtful" about the effects of its actions. He said, "The groundwork is there" and "It is necessary to think carefully about how to carry it forward."


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Jewish activists have often played central roles in BDS campaigns, something Barghouti argues refutes the antisemitism allegation against the movement. Maia Hallward attributes BDS's Jewish support to two factors: the long history of social justice activism among Jews and the desire among activists to defuse allegations of antisemitism. Sina Arnold calls it a "form of strategic essentialism," where Jewish activists make themselves visible or are made visible by others.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Philip Mendes distinguishes those Jews who recognize Palestinian rights and support Jewish-Arab dialogue from those "unrepresentative token Jews" whom BDS use as an alibi. David Hirsh has written, "Jews too can make anti-Semitic claims ... and play an important, if unwitting, part in preparing the ground for the future emergence of anti-Semitic movement." Noa Tishby wrote, "As Judaism always takes sides with human rights and encourages dissent, I am all for speaking against the Israeli government's policies when you don't like them. But when [Jewish university] students ... cry in support of BDS, I'm not sure what the goal really is, and I am pretty sure they don't know either." The ADL has written that Jewish Voice for Peace "uses its Jewish identity to shield the anti-Israel movement from allegations of anti-Semitism and provide a greater degree of credibility to the anti-Israel movement". JVP replies that its activism is grounded in Jewish values and traditions. Judith Butler sees her BDS activism as "affirming a different Jewishness than the one in whose name the Israeli state claims to speak."


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Jewish BDS activists have had their Jewish credentials questioned by other Jews and some have reported being called "self-hating Jews", "Nazis", or "traitors". The influential rabbi David Wolpe has said that Jewish BDS supporters should be shunned:


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Arnold believes that the polarization signals a shift among young progressive American Jews who identify with Israel less strongly than older generations. Almost one quarter of American Jews under 40 support boycotting Israeli products, according to a J Street poll in 2020. After a November 2021 visit to Washington, Israeli Interior Minister Ayelet Shaked expressed concern that young Jewish American college applicants and students have been reluctant to show support for Israel and that the BDS campaigns on campus are to blame.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: According to the Israeli Institute for National Security Studies, BDS depicts Israel as a racist, fascist, totalitarian, and apartheid state, which the institute considers defamation and demonization of Israel. They state that boycotting Israeli targets, regardless of their position or connection to the Israel-Palestinian conflict is incitement.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In a 2009 opinion column for "The Jerusalem Post", Gil Troy argued that BDS targets not Israel's policies but its legitimacy.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In 2007, "The Economist" called the boycott "flimsy" and ineffective, noted that "blaming Israel alone for the impasse in the occupied territories will continue to strike many outsiders as unfair," and pointed out that the Palestinian leadership did not support the boycott. By early 2014, however, they noted that the campaign, "[o]nce derided as the scheming of crackpots", was "turning mainstream" in the eyes of many Israelis.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: According to Alan Dershowitz, BDS disincentivizes Palestinians from negotiating with Israel. The ADL similarly argues that BDS ignores the Israeli government's willingness to negotiate with the Palestinians and instead favors delegitimization tactics.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: According to Noa Tishby, BDS's official website is riddled with cherry-picked misinformation about the history of the Arab-Israeli conflict. For example, the website claims, "Israel deliberately attacked Palestinian ... civilian infrastructure", but does not contextualize the claim with Hamas's use of human shields in the Gaza Strip. According to Tishby, reticence about Hamas activities against Israel, radical ideology, and oppression of Palestinians is a pattern on the BDS website.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: According to Creative Community for Peace, some performers feel harassed or even physically threatened by BDS groups.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: BDS's opponents argue that it is good for Palestinians in the West Bank that Israeli companies operate there. They say that they offer employment with higher wages than Palestinian employers and that the employees do not feel exploited. It is therefore counterproductive to boycott companies operating in the settlements, they argue.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: BDS supporters say that many Palestinian workers in settlements earn less than the Israeli minimum wage, that their salaries are often withheld, their social rights denied, and that they are often exposed to danger in the workplace. To work in settlements, Palestinians must obtain work permits from the Israeli Civil Administration. The permits can be annulled at any time—for example, if the workers try to unionize or engage in any kind of political activity. BDS supporters further argue that, regardless of the economic costs, the boycott against Israel enjoys overwhelming support among Palestinians.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Dershowitz and IAN point to Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas's support of a boycott specific to Israeli businesses that operate in Israeli settlements in the Palestinian Territories over a general boycott of Israel as evidence that BDS is not in the Palestinians' favor. Dershowitz added, "The BDS movement is immoral because it would hurt the wrong people", such as Palestinians employees of the firms affected by BDS or patients awaiting medicine made by those firms. Similarly, Cary Nelson wrote, "BDS actually offers nothing to the Palestinian people, whom it claims to champion. Perhaps that is the single most cruel and deceptive feature of the BDS movement. Its message of hate is a route to war, not peace."


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Jonathan Schanzer of the Foundation for Defense of Democracies has argued that there are links between BDS and American supporters of Hamas. In a 2016 congressional hearing, he said that some leaders of organizations that had been "designated, shut down, or held civilly liable for providing material support to the terrorist organization Hamas" appeared to have "pivoted to leadership positions within the American BDS campaign."


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: A 2018 report by the Israeli Strategic Affairs Ministry accused the EU of having given 5 million euros to organizations that "promote anti-Israel delegitimization and boycotts". The report was sharply rebuked by EU officials such as foreign policy chief Federica Mogherini, who called the accusations "vague and unsubstantiated" and said they conflated "terrorism with the boycott issue." A February 2019 report by the Ministry, "Terrorists in Suits", claimed that BDS is a "complementary track to terrorism" and that Hamas and Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) members had infiltrated organizations affiliated with BDS to advance "the elimination of the State of Israel as the nation-state of the Jewish people". As examples of such infiltration the report listed Rasmea Odeh, a former member of PFLP who was involved in a bombing in Jerusalem in 1969 and had participated in meetings organized by JVP and SJP, and Leila Khaled, also a former PFLP member who hijacked a plane in 1969 and attempted to hijack one in 1970 and is a well-known figure in BDS.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: BDS dismissed the report as "wildly fabricated and recycled propaganda" from "the far-right Israeli government". Both the Ministry's reports were cited by an Amnesty report from 2019 as examples of Israel's efforts to delegitimize Israeli and Palestinian human rights defenders and organizations.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In 2019, the German Parliament voted to declare that BDS is antisemitic and cut off funding to any organizations that actively support it. The measure read in part, "The argumentation patterns and methods used by the BDS movement are anti-Semitic." In passing the bill, some lawmakers said some BDS slogans were reminiscent of Nazi propaganda.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: According to Ira M. Sheskin of the University of Miami and Ethan Felson of the Jewish Council for Public Affairs, BDS efforts have at times targeted Jewish people who have little or nothing to do with the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. They argue that BDS causes Jews to be blamed for the supposed sins of other Jews.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: The AMCHA Initiative stated that there is a "strong correlation" between BDS support and antisemitism on U.S. campuses.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: In September 2019, European Jewish Association founder Menachem Margolin asserted that BDS was "responsible for the vast majority of physical attacks and social media hatred against Jews in Europe."


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: The Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism was released by a group of over 200 scholars on 25 March 2021. It states boycotting Israel is not in and of itself antisemitic. The lead drafters are antisemitism scholars in the United States, Israel, Germany and Britain. A separate statement a week earlier by a liberal group of Jewish scholars said that "double standards applied to Israel were not necessarily anti-Semitic."


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Some opponents argue that there are similarities between BDS and historical boycotts against Jews. For example, in May 2019, the German Bundestag passed a resolution stating that BDS was "reminiscent of the most terrible chapter in German history" and that it triggered memories of the Nazi slogan "Don't buy from Jews."


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Supporters argue that BDS does not target Jews because boycott targets are selected based on their complicity in Israel's human rights violations, potential for cross-movement solidarity, media appeal, and likelihood of success, not on their national origin or religious identity. According to Barghouti, the majority of companies targeted are non-Israeli foreign companies that operate in Israel and Palestine. Israeli Holocaust historian Daniel Blatman, though a BDS opponent, argues that BDS's calls for boycotts of Israel and historical boycotts against Jews have nothing in common.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Critics argue that BDS employs a "double standard" and "singles out" Israel. In their view, it is a form of antisemitism to campaign against Israeli human rights violations when other governments engage in similar or more repressive actions. Marc Greendorfer believes that BDS "applies a unique standard [to Israel] not applied to any other country."


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: BDS supporters reply that by that logic any movement focusing on a single country's human rights violations would be racist; the Anti-Apartheid Movement singled out South Africa while ignoring human rights violations in other African countries and the U.S. sanctions against Iran affect only Iran and not other countries committing similar human rights violations.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Barghouti states that BDS focuses on Israeli oppression because it affects the Palestinians and BDS is a Palestinian movement. He rhetorically asks: "If you suffer from the flu and seek medication from it, is it misguided to do so when there are worse diseases out there? Well, the flu is the disease that is afflicting you!" He and other BDS supporters argue that it is the Western world—not BDS—that has a double standard, by not holding Israel accountable for its human rights violations.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Jacobs and Soske state that boycotts, divestment, and sanctions is a strategy that doesn't make sense against all regimes worthy of opprobrium. Pol Pot's regime, Boko Haram, and ISIS would be unlikely to respond to the strategy, but the Israeli government might, they argue.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: BDS supporters frequently allege that accusations of antisemitism against them are deliberately or mistakenly conflating anti-Zionism or criticism of Israel with antisemitism. In 2018, for example, 41 left-wing Jewish groups wrote that BDS was not antisemitic and that it was important to distinguish between antisemitism and criticism of Israel. Jay Michaelson wrote that accusing BDS of antisemitism "cheapens the meaning of the term 'anti-Semitism' itself".


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Butler argues that if BDS is antisemitic, then human rights, which she believes BDS advocates, are also antisemitic. She argues that calling BDS antisemitic is a "lamentable stereotype" about Jews since it assumes that all Jews are politically committed to Israel. Barghouti similarly argues that criticizing BDS as an attack on Jews is "a patently racist assumption" since it assumes that all Jews per se are somehow responsible for Israeli crimes.


title: Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

text: Human Rights Watch's Wenzel Michalski has said that it is indisputable that some antisemites use the term "Israel" or "Zionist" in place of "Jews", and that this needs to be "called out". At the same time, he adds that presenting boycotts of Israel as antisemitic is misplaced, a flawed way to counter antisemitism. Anti-boycott legislation is, in this view, tantamount to punishing companies that follow their international legal responsibilities by complying with the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights that required them to stop operating in settlements.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: The National Institutes of Health, commonly referred to as NIH (with each letter pronounced individually), is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and public health research. It was founded in the late 1880s and is now part of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. The majority of NIH facilities are located in Bethesda, Maryland, and other nearby suburbs of the Washington metropolitan area, with other primary facilities in the Research Triangle Park in North Carolina and smaller satellite facilities located around the United States. The NIH conducts its own scientific research through the NIH Intramural Research Program (IRP) and provides major biomedical research funding to non-NIH research facilities through its Extramural Research Program.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: , the IRP had 1,200 principal investigators and more than 4,000 postdoctoral fellows in basic, translational, and clinical research, being the largest biomedical research institution in the world, while, as of 2003, the extramural arm provided 28% of biomedical research funding spent annually in the U.S., or about US$26.4 billion.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: The NIH comprises 27 separate institutes and centers of different biomedical disciplines and is responsible for many scientific accomplishments, including the discovery of fluoride to prevent tooth decay, the use of lithium to manage bipolar disorder, and the creation of vaccines against hepatitis, "Haemophilus influenzae" (HIB), and human papillomavirus (HPV).


title: National Institutes of Health

text: In 2019, the NIH was ranked number two in the world, behind Harvard University, for biomedical sciences in the Nature Index, which measured the largest contributors to papers published in a subset of leading journals from 2015 to 2018.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: In 1887, a laboratory for the study of bacteria, the Hygienic Laboratory, was established within the Marine Hospital Service, which at the time was expanding its functions beyond the system of Marine Hospitals into quarantine and research programs. It was initially located at the New York Marine Hospital on Staten Island. In 1891, it moved to the top floor of the Butler Building in Washington, D.C. In 1904, it moved again to a new campus at the Old Naval Observatory, which grew to include five major buildings.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: In 1901, the Division of Scientific Research was formed, which included the Hygienic Laboratory as well as other research offices of the Marine Hospital Service. In 1912, the Marine Hospital Service became the Public Health Service (PHS). In 1922, PHS established a Special Cancer Investigations laboratory at Harvard Medical School. This marked the beginning of a partnership with universities.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: In 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was re-designated as the National Institute of Health by the Ransdell Act, and was given $750,000 to construct two NIH buildings at the Old Naval Observatory campus. In 1937, NIH absorbed the rest of the Division of Scientific Research, of which it was formerly part.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: In 1938, NIH moved to its current campus in Bethesda, Maryland. Over the next few decades, Congress would markedly increase funding of the NIH, and various institutes and centers within the NIH were created for specific research programs. In 1944, the Public Health Service Act was approved, and the National Cancer Institute became a division of NIH. In 1948, the name changed from National Institute of Health to National Institutes of Health.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: In the 1960s, virologist and cancer researcher Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into patients at the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital. When three doctors resigned after refusing to inject patients without their consent, the experiment gained considerable media attention. The NIH was a major source of funding for Southam's research and had required all research involving human subjects to obtain their consent prior to any experimentation. Upon investigating all of their grantee institutions, the NIH discovered that the majority of them did not protect the rights of human subjects. From then on, the NIH has required all grantee institutions to approve any research proposals involving human experimentation with review boards.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: In 1967, the Division of Regional Medical Programs was created to administer grants for research for heart disease, cancer, and strokes. That same year, the NIH director lobbied the White House for increased federal funding in order to increase research and the speed with which health benefits could be brought to the people. An advisory committee was formed to oversee the further development of the NIH and its research programs. By 1971 cancer research was in full force and President Nixon signed the National Cancer Act, initiating a National Cancer Program, President's Cancer Panel, National Cancer Advisory Board, and 15 new research, training, and demonstration centers.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: Funding for the NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress, serving as a proxy for the political currents of the time. In 1992, the NIH encompassed nearly 1 percent of the federal government's operating budget and controlled more than 50 percent of all funding for health research, and 85 percent of all funding for health studies in universities. While government funding for research in other disciplines has been increasing at a rate similar to inflation since the 1970s, research funding for the NIH nearly tripled through the 1990s and early 2000s, but has remained relatively stagnant since then.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: By the 1990s, the NIH committee focus had shifted to DNA research and launched the Human Genome Project.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: The NIH Office of the Director is the central office responsible for setting policy for NIH, and for planning, managing, and coordinating the programs and activities of all NIH components. The NIH Director plays an active role in shaping the agency's activities and outlook. The Director is responsible for providing leadership to the Institutes and Centers by identifying needs and opportunities, especially in efforts involving multiple Institutes. Within the Director's Office is the Division of Program Coordination, Planning and Strategic Initiatives with 12 divisions including:


title: National Institutes of Health

text: The Agency Intramural Research Integrity Officer "is directly responsible for overseeing the resolution of all research misconduct allegations involving intramural research, and for promoting research integrity within the NIH Office of Intramural Research (OIR)." There is a Division of Extramural Activities, which has its own Director. The Office of Ethics has its own Director, as does the Office of Global Research.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: Intramural research is primarily conducted at the main campus in Bethesda, Maryland, and Rockville, Maryland, and the surrounding communities.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: The Bayview Campus in Baltimore, Maryland houses the research programs of the National Institute on Aging, National Institute on Drug Abuse, and National Human Genome Research Institute with nearly 1,000 scientists and support staff. The Frederick National Laboratory in Frederick, MD and the nearby Riverside Research Park, houses many components of the National Cancer Institute, including the Center for Cancer Research, Office of Scientific Operations, Management Operations Support Branch, the division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics and the division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences is located in the Research Triangle region of North Carolina.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: Other ICs have satellite locations in addition to operations at the main campus. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases maintains its Rocky Mountain Labs in Hamilton, Montana, with an emphasis on BSL3 and BSL4 laboratory work. NIDDK operates the Phoenix Epidemiology and Clinical Research Branch in Phoenix, Arizona.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: As of 2017, 153 scientists receiving financial support from the NIH have been awarded a Nobel Prize and 195 have been awarded a Lasker Award.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: NIH devotes 10% of its funding to research within its own facilities (intramural research), and gives >80% of its funding in research grants to extramural (outside) researchers. Of this extramural funding, a certain percentage (2.8% in 2014) must be granted to small businesses under the SBIR/STTR program. , the extramural funding consisted of about 50,000 grants to more than 325,000 researchers at more than 3000 institutions. , this rate of granting remained reasonably steady, at 47,000 grants to 2,700 organizations. , NIH spent (not including temporary funding from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009) on clinical research, on genetics-related research, on prevention research, on cancer, and on biotechnology.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: In 2008 a Congressional mandate called for investigators funded by the NIH to submit an electronic version of their final manuscripts to the National Library of Medicine's research repository, PubMed Central (PMC), no later than 12 months after the official date of publication. The NIH Public Access Policy was the first public access mandate for a U.S. public funding agency.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: In 2000, the Joint Economic Committee of Congress reported NIH research, which was funded at $16 billion a year in 2000, that some econometric studies had given a rate of return of 25 to 40 percent per year by reducing the economic cost of illness in the US. It found that of the 21 drugs with the highest therapeutic impact on society introduced between 1965 and 1992, public funding was "instrumental" for 15. As of 2011 NIH-supported research helped to discover 153 new FDA-approved drugs, vaccines, and new indications for drugs in the 40 years prior. One study found NIH funding aided either directly or indirectly in developing the drugs or drug targets for all of the 210 FDA-approved drugs from 2010 to 2016. In 2015, Pierre Azoulay et al. estimated $10 million invested in research generated two to three new patents.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: Since its inception, the NIH intramural research program has been a source of many pivotal scientific and medical discoveries. Some of these include:


title: National Institutes of Health

text: In September 2006, the NIH Blueprint for Neuroscience Research started a contract for the NIH Toolbox for the Assessment of Neurological and Behavioral Function to develop a set of state-of-the-art measurement tools to enhance collection of data in large cohort studies. Scientists from more than 100 institutions nationwide contributed. In September 2012, the NIH Toolbox was rolled out to the research community. NIH Toolbox assessments are based, where possible, on Item Response Theory and adapted for testing by computer.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: NIH sponsors the Database of Genotypes and Phenotypes (dbGap), a repository of information produced by studies investigating the interaction of genotype and phenotype. The information includes phenotypes, molecular assay data, analyses and documents. Summary-level data is available to the general public whereas the individual-level data is accessible to researchers.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: The NIH partnered with Moderna in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic to develop a vaccine. The final phase of testing began on July 27 with up to 30,000 volunteers assigned to one of two groups—one receiving the mRNA-1273 vaccine and the other receiving salt water injections—and continued until there had been approximately 100 cases of COVID-19 among the participants. In 2021, the NIH contributed $4,395,399 towards the Accelerating COVID-19 Therapeutic Interventions and Vaccines (ACTIV) program.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: Following the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, NIH-funded EcoHealth Alliance has been the subject of controversy and increased scrutiny due to its ties to the Wuhan Institute of Virology (WIV)—which has been at the center of speculation since early 2020 that SARS-CoV-2 may have escaped in a lab incident. Under political pressure, the NIH withdrew funding to EcoHealth Alliance in July 2020.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: On February 13, 2012, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) announced a new group of individuals assigned to research pain. This committee is composed of researchers from different organizations and will focus to "coordinate pain research activities across the federal government with the goals of stimulating pain research collaboration… and providing an important avenue for public involvement" ("Members of new", 2012). With a committee such as this research will not be conducted by each individual organization or person but instead a collaborating group which will increase the information available. With this hopefully more pain management will be available including techniques for those with arthritis. In 2020 Beth Darnall, American scientist and pain psychologist, was appointed as scientific member of the group.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: To allocate funds, the NIH must first obtain its budget from Congress. This process begins with institute and center (IC) leaders collaborating with scientists to determine the most important and promising research areas within their fields. IC leaders discuss research areas with NIH management who then develops a budget request for continuing projects, new research proposals, and new initiatives from the Director. NIH submits its budget request to the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), and the HHS considers this request as a portion of its budget. Many adjustments and appeals occur between NIH and HHS before the agency submits NIH's budget request to the Office of Management and Budget (OMB). OMB determines what amounts and research areas are approved for incorporation into the President's final budget. The President then sends NIH's budget request to Congress in February for the next fiscal year's allocations. The House and Senate Appropriations Subcommittees deliberate and by fall, Congress usually appropriates funding. This process takes approximately 18 months before the NIH can allocate any actual funds.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: When a government shutdown occurs, the NIH continues to treat people who are already enrolled in clinical trials, but does not start any new clinical trials and does not admit new patients who are not already enrolled in a clinical trial, except for the most critically ill, as determined by the NIH Director.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: Over the last century, the responsibility to allocate funding has shifted from the OD and Advisory Committee to the individual ICs and Congress increasingly set apart funding for particular causes. In the 1970s, Congress began to earmark funds specifically for cancer research, and in the 1980s there was a significant amount allocated for AIDS/HIV research.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: Funding for the NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress, serving as a proxy for the political currents of the time. During the 1980s, President Reagan repeatedly tried to cut funding for research, only to see Congress partly restore funding. The political contention over NIH funding slowed the nation's response to the AIDS epidemic; while AIDS was reported in newspaper articles from 1981, no funding was provided for research on the disease. In 1984 National Cancer Institute scientists found implications that "variants of a human cancer virus called HTLV-III are the primary cause of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)," a new epidemic that gripped the nation.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: In 1992, the NIH encompassed nearly 1 percent of the federal government's operating budget and controlled more than 50 percent of all funding for health research and 85 percent of all funding for health studies in universities. From 1993 to 2001 the NIH budget doubled. For a time, funding essentially remained flat, and for seven years following the financial crisis, the NIH budget struggled to keep up with inflation.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: In 1999 Congress increased the NIH's budget by $2.3 billion to $17.2 billion in 2000. In 2009 Congress again increased the NIH budget to $31 billion in 2010. In 2017 and 2018, Congress passed laws with bipartisan support that substantially increasing appropriations for NIH, which was 37.3 billion dollars annually in FY2018.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: Researchers at universities or other institutions outside of NIH can apply for research project grants (RPGs) from the NIH. There are numerous funding mechanisms for different project types (e.g., basic research, clinical research, etc.) and career stages (e.g., early career, postdoc fellowships, etc.). The NIH regularly issues "requests for applications" (RFAs), e.g., on specific programmatic priorities or timely medical problems (such as Zika virus research in early 2016). In addition, researchers can apply for "investigator-initiated grants" whose subject is determined by the scientist.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: The total number of applicants has increased substantially, from about 60,000 investigators who had applied during the period from 1999 to 2003 to slightly less than 90,000 in who had applied during the period from 2011 to 2015. Due to this, the "cumulative investigator rate", that is, the likelihood that unique investigators are funded over a 5-year window, has declined from 43% to 31%.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: R01 grants are the most common funding mechanism and include investigator-initiated projects. The roughly 27,000 to 29,000 R01 applications had a funding success of 17-19% during 2012 though 2014. Similarly, the 13,000 to 14,000 R21 applications had a funding success of 13-14% during the same period. In FY 2016, the total number of grant applications received by the NIH was 54,220, with approximately 19% being awarded funding. Institutes have varying funding rates. The National Cancer Institute awarded funding to 12% of applicants, while the National Institute for General Medical Science awarded funding to 30% of applicants.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: NIH employs five broad decision criteria in its funding policy. First, ensure the highest quality of scientific research by employing an arduous peer review process. Second, seize opportunities that have the greatest potential to yield new knowledge and that will lead to better prevention and treatment of disease. Third, maintain a diverse research portfolio in order to capitalize on major discoveries in a variety of fields such as cell biology, genetics, physics, engineering, and computer science. Fourth, address public health needs according to the disease burden (e.g., prevalence and mortality). And fifth, construct and support the scientific infrastructure (e.g., well-equipped laboratories and safe research facilities) necessary to conduct research.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: Advisory committee members advise the institute on policy and procedures affecting the external research programs and provide a second level of review for all grant and cooperative agreement applications considered by the Institute for funding.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: In 2014, it was announced that the NIH is directing scientists to perform their experiments with both female and male animals, or cells derived from females as well as males if they are studying cell cultures, and that the NIH would take the balance of each study design into consideration when awarding grants. The announcement also stated that this rule would probably not apply when studying sex-specific diseases (for example, ovarian or testicular cancer).


title: National Institutes of Health

text: One of the goals of the NIH is to "expand the base in medical and associated sciences in order to ensure a continued high return on the public investment in research." Taxpayer dollars funding NIH are from the taxpayers, making them the primary beneficiaries of advances in research. Thus, the general public is a key stakeholder in the decisions resulting from the NIH funding policy. However, some in the general public do not feel their interests are being represented, and individuals have formed patient advocacy groups to represent their own interests.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: Important stakeholders of the NIH funding policy include researchers and scientists. Extramural researchers differ from intramural researchers in that they are not employed by the NIH but may apply for funding. Throughout the history of the NIH, the amount of funding received has increased, but the proportion to each IC remains relatively constant. The individual ICs then decide who will receive the grant money and how much will be allotted.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: Policy changes on who receives funding significantly affect researchers. For example, the NIH has recently attempted to approve more first-time NIH R01 applicants or the research grant applications of young scientists. To encourage the participation of young scientists, the application process has been shortened and made easier. In addition, first-time applicants are being offered more funding for their research grants than those who have received grants in the past.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: In 2011 and 2012, the Department of Health and Human Services Office of Inspector General published a series of audit reports revealing that throughout the fiscal years 2000–2010, institutes under the aegis of the NIH did not comply with the time and amount requirements specified in appropriations statutes, in awarding federal contracts to commercial partners, committing the federal government to tens of millions of dollars of expenditure ahead of appropriation of funds from Congress.


title: National Institutes of Health

text: The NIH is composed of 27 separate institutes and centers (ICs) that conduct and coordinate research across different disciplines of biomedical science. These are:


title: National Institutes of Health

text: In addition, the National Center for Research Resources operated from April 13, 1962, to December 23, 2011.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Phillips Academy (also known as PA, Phillips Academy Andover, or simply Andover) is a co-educational university-preparatory school for boarding and day students in grades 9–12, along with a post-graduate year. The school is in Andover, Massachusetts, United States, 25 miles north of Boston. Phillips Academy has 1,131 students, and is a highly selective school, accepting 13% of applicants with a yield as high as 86% (in 2017). It is part of the Eight Schools Association and the Ten Schools Admissions Organization, as well as the G30 Schools Group.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Founded in 1778, Andover is one of the oldest incorporated secondary schools in the United States. It has educated a long list of notable alumni through its history, including American presidents George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush, foreign heads of state, numerous members of Congress, five Nobel laureates and six Medal of Honor recipients. It has been referred to by many contemporary sources as the most elite boarding school in America.


title: Phillips Academy

text: It became coeducational in 1973, the year in which it merged with its neighbor girls' school Abbot Academy.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Phillips Academy is the oldest incorporated academy in the United States, established in 1778 by Samuel Phillips Jr. His uncle, Dr. John Phillips, later founded Phillips Exeter Academy in 1781. Phillips Academy's endowment stood at just over one billion dollars as of February 2016. Andover is subject to the control of a board of trustees, headed by Amy Falls, who succeeded Peter Currie, business executive and former Netscape Chief Financial Officer, who himself had taken over as president of the Phillips Academy Board of Trustees on July 1, 2012. On December 5, 2019, Dr. Raynard S. Kington, 13th President of Grinnell College, was named the 16th Head of School.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Phillips Academy admitted only boys until the school became coeducational in 1973, the year of Phillips Academy's merger with Abbot Academy, a boarding school for girls also in Andover. Abbot Academy, founded in 1828, was one of the first incorporated schools for girls in New England. Then-headmaster Theodore Sizer of Phillips and Donald Gordon of Abbot oversaw the merger.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Andover traditionally educated its students for Yale, just as Phillips Exeter Academy educated its students for Harvard, and Lawrenceville prepped students for Princeton.


title: Phillips Academy

text: The school's student-run newspaper, "The Phillipian", is the oldest secondary school newspaper in the United States, the next oldest secondary school newspaper being "The Exonian", Phillips Exeter Academy's weekly. "The Phillipian" was first published on July 28, 1857, and has been published regularly since 1878. It retains financial and editorial independence from Phillips Academy, having completed a $500,000 endowment drive in 2014. Students comprise the editorial board and make all decisions for the paper, consulting with two faculty advisors at their own discretion. The Philomathean Society is one of the oldest high school debate societies in the nation, second to the Daniel Webster Debate Society at Phillips Exeter Academy.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Phillips Academy also runs a five-week summer session for approximately 600 students entering grades 8 through 12.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Phillips Academy was founded during the American Revolution as an all-boys school in 1778 by Samuel Phillips Jr.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Phillips Academy's traditional rival is Phillips Exeter Academy, which was established three years later in Exeter, New Hampshire, by Samuel Phillips' uncle, Dr. John Phillips, who was also a major contributor to Andover's founding. The two schools still maintain a rivalry. The football teams have met nearly every year since 1878, making it the oldest prep school rivalry in the country. In 1882, the first high school lacrosse teams were formed at Phillips Academy, Phillips Exeter Academy and the Lawrenceville School.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Several figures from the revolutionary period are associated with the school. George Washington visited the school during his presidency in 1789, and Washington's nephews later attended the school. John Hancock signed the school's articles of incorporation and the great seal of the school was designed by Paul Revere.


title: Phillips Academy

text: For a hundred years of its history, Phillips Academy shared its campus with the Andover Theological Seminary, which was founded on Phillips Hill in 1807 by orthodox Calvinists who had fled Harvard College after it appointed a liberal Unitarian theologian to a professorship of divinity. The Andover Theological Seminary was independent of Phillips Academy but shared the same board of directors. In 1908, the seminary departed Phillips Academy, leaving behind its key buildings: academic building Pearson Hall (formerly a chapel), and dormitories Foxcroft Hall and Bartlet Hall. These buildings later became part of the Andover campus, which was expanded in the 1920s and 1930s around this historic core with new buildings of similar Georgian style: Samuel Phillips Hall, George Washington Hall, Samuel Morse Hall, Paul Revere Hall, Oliver Wendell Holmes Library, Commons, the Addison Gallery of American Art and Cochran Chapel. Small portions of Andover's campus were laid out by Frederick Law Olmsted, designer of Central Park and himself a graduate of the school.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Revere's design of the school's seal incorporated bees, a beehive, and the sun. The school's primary motto, "Non Sibi", located in the sun, means "not for oneself". The school's second motto, "Finis Origine Pendet", meaning "the end depends upon the beginning", is scrolled across the bottom of the seal.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Phillips was one of the schools where students on the Chinese Educational Mission were sent to study by the Qing dynasty government from 1878 to 1881. One of the students, Liang Cheng, later became the Chinese ambassador to the United States.


title: Phillips Academy

text: During the 1930s the school was involved in the International Schoolboy Fellowship, a cultural exchange program between US academies, British public schools and Nazi boarding schools.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Phillips Academy curriculum and extracurricular activities include music ensembles, 30 competitive sports, a campus newspaper, a radio station, and a debate club. In 1973 Phillips Academy merged with neighboring Abbot Academy, which was founded in 1829 as one of the first schools for girls in New England and named for Sarah Abbot. After existing at Phillips Academy almost since its inception, secret societies were officially disbanded in 1949. Despite this, at least one secret society continues to exist.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Phillips Academy is one of only a few private high schools (others include Roxbury Latin and St. Andrew's School) in the United States that attained need-blind admissions in 2007 and 2008, and it has continued this policy through the present. In 2013 it received 3,029 applications and accepted 13%, a record low acceptance rate for the school. Of those accepted, 79% went on to matriculate at the Academy.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Phillips Academy follows a trimester program, where a school year is divided into three terms, with each term lasting approximately 10 weeks. Classes are held from Monday to Friday, with the first period of the day beginning at 8:30 am and the last period ending at 2:50 pm. On Wednesdays, classes end early at 1:00 pm in order to provide more time for athletics, clubs, and community service.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Many courses are year-long, while others last only one to two terms. Most students take five courses each trimester. Four-year students at Phillips Academy are required to take courses in English, foreign language, mathematics (through precalculus), history and social science, laboratory science, art, music, philosophy and religious studies, and physical education. Students may also choose to pursue an independent research program in a topic of choice under the guidance of faculty members if there are no more courses suitable for them in one or more disciplines.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Andover does not rank students, and rather than a four-point GPA scale, Phillips Academy calculates GPA using a six-point system. The Office of the Dean of Studies claims that there is no formal equivalent between the zero-to-six system and a conventional letter-grade system. However, a six is considered outstanding and is (theoretically) rarely awarded, a five is the lowest honors grade, and a two is the lowest passing grade. Grades earned in classes are sometimes weighted at the discretion of the instructor, and the school provides no uniform scale for converting percent scores into grades on the six-point scale.


title: Phillips Academy

text: For the 239 members of the class of 2018, average SAT scores were 720 on the English section and 740 on the Math section.


title: Phillips Academy

text: The school also has dormitories to house the roughly 800 students that board. These buildings range in size from housing as few as four to as many as 40 students. The campus is organized into five "clusters," groups of dorms situated closely together. These five clusters are named Abbot, Flagstaff, Pine Knoll, West Quad North, and West Quad South. Each cluster contains around 220 students, 40 faculty families, and a cluster dean and are responsible for organizing social events, orientation, study breaks, and munches (cluster-wide snacking social events).


title: Phillips Academy

text: Two notable dorms are America House, where the song "America" was penned, and Stowe House, where American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe (author of "Uncle Tom's Cabin") lived while her husband taught at the Andover Theological Seminary. None of the original buildings remain; the oldest dorm is Blanchard House, built in 1789. Several dorms are named after prominent alumni, such as Henry L. Stimson, Secretary of War during World War II, and men instrumental in the founding of the Academy, such as Nathan Hale and Paul Revere. Also located on campus is The Andover Inn. Built in 1930, The Andover Inn is a New England country inn with 30 rooms and meeting space.


title: Phillips Academy

text: The Addison Gallery of American Art is an art museum given to the school by alumnus Thomas Cochran. Its permanent collection includes Winslow Homer's "Eight Bells", along with work by John Singleton Copley, Benjamin West, Thomas Eakins, James McNeill Whistler, Frederic Remington, George Bellows, Edward Hopper, Georgia O'Keeffe, Jackson Pollock, Frank Stella, and Andrew Wyeth. The museum also features collections in American photography and decorative arts, with silver and furniture dating back to precolonial America, and a collection of colonial model ships. A rotating schedule of exhibitions is open to students and the public alike. In the spring of 2006, the Phillips Academy Board of Trustees approved a $30-million campaign to renovate and expand the Addison Gallery. Construction on the Addison began in the middle of 2008 and, as of September 7, 2010, is complete, and the museum is once again open to the Phillips Academy community and the broader community of the town of Andover.


title: Phillips Academy

text: The Robert S. Peabody Institute of Archaeology was founded in 1901 and is now "one of the nation's major repositories of Native American archaeological collections". The collection includes materials from the Northeast, Southeast, Midwest, Southwest, Mexico and the Arctic, and range from Paleo Indian (more than 10,000 years ago) to the present day. Since the early 1990s, the museum has been at the forefront of compliance with the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. It currently serves as an educational museum for the students of Phillips Academy, but is also accessible to researchers, public schools, and visitors by appointment.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Athletic competition has long been a part of the Phillips Academy tradition. As early as 1805, football was being played on school grounds, according to a letter that Henry Pearson wrote his father, Eliphalet Pearson in 1805, saying, "I cannot write a long letter as I am very tired after having played at football all this afternoon." The first ever interscholastic football game between high schools was in 1875, when Phillips Academy played against Adams Academy.


title: Phillips Academy

text: One of the oldest schoolboy rivalries in American football is the Andover/Exeter competition, started in 1878. That year, the first Andover/Exeter baseball game took place, and "The Phillipian" returned from hiatus, named its first Board and began publishing regularly. Similar boarding school traditions include the Choate-Deerfield rivalry and Hotchkiss-Taft rivalry.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Today, Phillips Academy is an athletic powerhouse among New England private schools. Since the "Constitution of the Phillips Academy Athletic Association" was drawn up in 1903 with the objective of "Athletics for All," Andover has established 29 different interscholastic programs, and 44 intramural or instructional programs, including fencing, tai chi, figure skating, and yoga. Andover Athletes have been successful in winning over 110 New England Championships in these different sports over the last three decades alone, and have even had the chance to compete abroad, in such competitions as the Henley Royal Regatta in Henley, England, for crew.


title: Phillips Academy

text: The athletic directors of Andover and the other members of the Eight Schools Association (ESA) compose the Eight Schools Athletic Council, which organizes sports events and tournaments among ESA schools. Andover is also a member of the New England Preparatory School Athletic Council.


title: Phillips Academy

text: As a way to encourage all students to try new things and stay healthy, all students are required to have an athletic commitment each term. A range of instructional sports are available for those who wish to try new things, and for those already established in a sport, most teams have at least a varsity and junior varsity squad.


title: Phillips Academy

text: For the 2020-2021 school year, the Andover student body included students from 44 states/territories and 51 countries. Self reported students of color comprise 41.9% of the student body (Asian 40.1%, Black 10.4%, Hispanic/Latino 9.4%, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander 1.2%, Indigenous Peoples of the Americas 2.3%). Self reported legacy students (defined as students that "have at least one immediate family member who is currently attending or has previously attended Andover.") account for 33.2% of the students.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Andover has its own nomenclature for grade levels. Juniors are students in their first year, Lowers are in their second year, Uppers are in their third year, and Seniors are in their fourth year. Andover admits postgraduate students as well ("PGs").


title: Phillips Academy

text: 73.7 percent of Andover students live on campus in dorms or houses while day students from the surrounding communities make up the remaining 26.3 percent of the student body.


title: Phillips Academy

text: The Phillipians boast a diverse political landscape, in the 2021 State of the Academy 36.1% identified as Liberal, 13.2% as Independent, 11.3% as Conservative, 4.0% as Communist, 3.2% as Libertarian, 3.2% as Socialist, 1.6% did not identify with the above, leaving 21.8% who were unsure as to their political affiliation.


title: Phillips Academy

text: The Phillips Academy Poll (also known as Andover Poll) is a public opinion research institute based at Phillips Academy. The organization studies political sentiments by surveying registered voters by telephone. The poll’s findings have been covered by MSNBC, Fox News, BBC News, "The New Yorker", "Politico", "The Guardian", "Newsweek", NPR, and "FiveThirtyEight." It is a student-led organization and the first public opinion poll to be conducted by an institution of secondary education.


title: Phillips Academy

text: The Phillips Academy Poll is a student organization at Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts. It was founded by Patrick Chen and Alex Shieh, though the two dispute who originally came up with the idea. The organization's polling is funded by the Abbot Academy Fund, a grant-giving organization furthering the ideals of Abbot Academy, which merged with Phillips Academy in 1973.


title: Phillips Academy

text: The Phillips Academy Poll conducts surveys via telephone, using interactive voice response technology that allows respondents to indicate their responses via the keypad. Outgoing phone calls are initiated with an automated dialing system. The poll's sample is achieved through random digit dialing. Within the area codes assigned to the location being polled, phone numbers are dialed at random, and the response rate is approximately 2-3%. Polling results are interpreted by raking, also known as iterative proportional fitting. This procedure adjusts the weighting for each response so the sample more accurately reflects the demographics and partisan affiliations of the general electorate.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Following the release of its April 2022 New Hampshire poll, Andy Smith, the director of the University of New Hampshire Survey Center, criticized The Phillips Academy Poll's use of interactive voice response to conduct polling, publicly questioning, "Why would you want to talk with a computer about your views on politics unless you really want to express your views on politics?" According to the New Yorker, the poll's computers crashed in its initial polls.


title: Phillips Academy

text: For the 2021-2022 academic year, Phillips Academy charged boarding students $61,950 and day students $48,020. In the 2018-2019 academic year, Phillips Academy charged boarding students $55,800 and day students $43,300, making it more expensive than HMC schools and among the most expensive boarding schools in the world. Tuition to Phillips Academy has increased at rate of 4.27% a year since the 2002 academic year, or 3.76% per year over the last decade. There are mandatory fees for boarding students and optional fees on top of tuition. These were an estimated $2400/year plus travel to and from the Academy in the 2017–2018 academic year.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Phillips Academy offers needs-blind financial aid. In the 2021-2022 academic year, 100% of demonstrated financial need was met with 47% of students receiving some form of financial aid and 15% of students receiving full scholarships. Returning students receive an average grant of $40,800.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Andover is a member of the Eight Schools Association, begun informally in 1973–74 and formalized in 2006. Andover was host to the annual meeting of ESA in April 2008. It is also a member of the Ten Schools Admissions Organization, founded in 1956. There is a seven-school overlap of membership between the two groups. In addition, Andover is a member of the G20 Schools group, an international organization of independent secondary schools.


title: Phillips Academy

text: In 2013, Phillips Academy drew national attention for apparent bias against girls and women, as highlighted by a low number of girls in student leadership.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Reports in 2016 and 2017 identified several former teachers in the past who had engaged in inappropriate sexual contact with students. The school hired an independent law firm to investigate allegations of misconduct, and the head of school, John Palfrey, and the head of the Board of Trustees, Peter Currie, sent an email to the school community that such transgressions must not recur.


title: Phillips Academy

text: In 2020, an Instagram account, @blackatandover, began circulating stories from anonymous current and former Black-identifying students, many of whom detailed personal experiences with racism at Phillips Academy. Several anonymous individuals raised concerns about Phillips Academy's disciplinary system, including perceived racial disparities in outcomes, a perceived emphasis on punishment over restorative justice, and an apparent lack of due process in discipline procedure outlined by the student handbook. The @blackatandover account was reported on by "The New York Times", prompting school officials to form an "Anti-Racism Task Force," which released a final report in March 2022.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Andover has educated two American presidents (George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush), a Supreme Court Justice (William Henry Moody), six Medal of Honor recipients (Civil War: 2; Spanish–American War: 1; World War II: 2; Korean War: 1), five Nobel laureates (making it one of only four secondary schools in the world to have educated five or more Nobel Prize winners), as well as winners of Tony, Grammy, Emmy and Academy Awards. Numerous graduates have become billionaires, including Tim Draper, venture capitalist; Ed Bass, philanthropist and environmentalist; Theodore J. Forstmann, founder of Forstmann Little & Company and IMG; and Lachlan Murdoch, CEO of the Fox Corporation.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Other notable alumni include Edgar Rice Burroughs, author known for creating Tarzan of the Apes and John Carter of Mars; Bill Belichick, coach for the New England Patriots and recipient of eight Super Bowl rings; Humphrey Bogart, an Academy Award-winning actor considered to be one of the greatest stars of American cinema; Jack Lemmon, actor and recipient of two Academy Awards; Olivia Wilde, actress; Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., writer, polymath, and member of the Fireside poets; Francis Cabot Lowell, instrumental figure in the American Industrial Revolution and namesake of Lowell, Massachusetts; Chris Hughes, co-founder of Facebook; David Graeber, anthropologist and activist; Frederick Law Olmsted, landscape architect known for designing Central Park and the Emerald Necklace; John F. Kennedy Jr., lawyer, journalist, and son of President John F. Kennedy; and Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, an early feminist and social reformer; Jonathan Alter, journalist for "Newsweek" and bestselling author; Carl Andre, minimalist artist; Julia Alvarez, writer, poet and National Medal of Arts recipient; Willow Bay, journalist for the "Huffington Post"; John Berman, anchor for CNN; Michael Beschloss, historian; Buzz Bissinger, journalist and author of ""; Richard H. Brodhead, president of Duke University; Norman Cahners, publisher; Joseph Cornell, influential avant-garde artist and filmmaker; Peter Currie, CFO of Netscape; Stephen Carlton Clark, founder of the Baseball Hall of Fame; George Church, geneticist; Lucy Danziger, editor-in-chief of "Self"; John Darnton, Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist for "The New York Times"; Dana Delany, Emmy Award-winning actress; Jonathan Dee, Pulitzer Prize-winning novelist; Bill Drayton, social entrepreneur; Walker Evans, photojournalist; Charles L. Flint, co-founder of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the University of Massachusetts Amherst; A. Bartlett Giamatti, president of Yale University; Richard Theodore Greener, first African-American graduate of Harvard; Peter Halley, postmodernist painter and essayist central to the development of Neogeo (art) in 1980s New York; Walter Boardman Kerr, WWII correspondent for the "New York Herald Tribune" and author; Victor Kiam, owner of the New England Patriots and entrepreneur; William Damon, noted psychologist and educator; Tracy Kidder, Pulitzer Prize-winning literary journalist; Karl Kirchwey, poet; Heather Mac Donald, conservative political commentator; Sara Nelson, editor-in-chief of "Publishers Weekly"; Robert B. Stearns, co-founder of Bear Stearns; Benjamin Spock, pediatrician whose book "Baby and Child Care" is one of the best-selling volumes in history; Bill Veeck, owner of the Chicago White Sox and Cleveland Indians; Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, King of Bhutan; Philip K. Wrigley, chewing gum manufacturer; and Theodore Dwight Weld, prominent abolitionist.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Alumni also includes numerous politicians and government officials, including as Katie Porter, U.S. Representative for California's 45th congressional district; Christopher Wray, the 8th Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation; Seth Moulton, U.S. Representative for Massachusetts's 6th congressional district and 2020 presidential candidate; Jeb Bush, former Governor of Florida, 2016 presidential candidate, and member of the Bush family; Patrick J. Kennedy, U.S. Representative for Rhode Island's 1st congressional district and member of the Kennedy family; William King, first Governor of Maine and prominent proponent for Maine's statehood; Josiah Quincy III, a U.S. Representative, Mayor of Boston, President of Harvard University, and namesake of Quincy Market; Joseph Carter Abbott, U.S. Senator from South Carolina and colonel in the Civil War; Henry L. Stimson, U.S. Secretary of State and Secretary of War; Vance C. McCormick, Chair of the DNC and of the American delegation at the Treaty of Versailles; Sullivan Ballou, Union Civil War officer remembered for a letter written to his wife before he was killed at the Battle of Bull Run; James Bell, U.S. Senator from New Hampshire; Hiram Bingham III, Governor of Connecticut and U.S. Senator who rediscovered Machu Picchu; David B. Birney, Union General during the Civil War; Harlan Cleveland, U.S. Ambassador to NATO; Raymond C. Clevenger, Senior U.S. Circuit Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit; Lincoln Chafee, U.S. Senator and Governor of Rhode Island; Johnson N. Camden Jr., U.S. Senator from Kentucky; Thomas C. Foley, U.S. Ambassador to Ireland; Scooter Libby, political advisor during the Bush administration; Charles Ruff, White House Council to Bill Clinton; William R. Timken, U.S. Ambassador to Germany; and Alexander Trowbridge, U.S. Secretary of Commerce.


title: Phillips Academy

text: Andover, often linked with Exeter, is often understood symbolically as an "elite New England prep school", connoting privilege. Writer William S. Dietrich II described Andover and other elite prep schools as being part of a "WASP ascendancy" during the first half of the twentieth century. Elite universities such as Yale and Princeton tended to accept disproportionate percentages of prep school students while using quotas to deny admission to minority applicants. An account in "Time" in 1931 described the two schools as having "flourished", and that both schools were "twin giants of prep schools in size and in prestige". essentially feeder schools for Ivy League universities such as Harvard and Yale, according to Joseph Lieberman. A cultural image from the 1960s was young men who had "perfect white teeth" and wore Lacoste shirts, with a look easy to identify by young women at the time:


title: Phillips Academy

text: The WASP ascendancy began to break down around the 1960s and onwards when the admissions policies of elite prep schools and universities began to emphasize merit rather than affluence. Still, images of exclusivity based on unfairness tended to remain. Gore Vidal suggested that Andover and Exeter had a "style that was quite witty." If the WASP ascendancy has waned, the image of unaffordability continues to persist, with one writer deploring how the schools cost $30,000 and more annually. Recent reports from graduates, however, paint a picture of educational excellence and diversification. For example, Cristina Hartmann, who attended Andover from 2001 to 2003, described the school as having a need blind admissions policy. She suggested the student body was mostly diversified, and that the school had dedicated buildings for specific subject areas, was challenging academically, and had flexible teachers and peers who were "smart and driven". She elaborated that Andover provided two sign language interpreters, free of charge, to help her academically to cope with her deafness. While the overall image may be changing to one which emphasizes greater diversity and respect for individual talent, the image of the school in the media continues to connote privilege, money, exclusivity, prestige, academic quality, and sometimes negatively connotes chumminess, clubbiness, or arrogance.


title: Tite Kubo

text: , known professionally as , is a Japanese manga artist and character designer. He is best known for his manga series "Bleach" (2001–2016), which had over 130 million copies in circulation as of 2022.