title: Sandy Denny

text: In 1997, a one-disc compilation of Denny's solo BBC recordings was released as "The BBC Sessions 1971–1973" on Strange Fruit Records. Due to rights issues it was withdrawn on the day of release, thereby creating a highly collectible disc (up until the release of the comprehensive "Live at the BBC" box set in 2007). This release was followed in 1998 when Denny's final performance at the Royalty Theatre, entitled "Gold Dust", was issued on CD, following a degree of re-recording and overdubbing of selected backing parts to replace reportedly unsatisfactory originals.


title: Sandy Denny

text: In 1999, a single-disc compilation, "Listen Listen – An Introduction to Sandy Denny", was released on Island Records comprising 17 previously released tracks taken from her four Island solo albums.


title: Sandy Denny

text: "No More Sad Refrains: The Anthology" was released by Universal Records in 2000. When first released, this compilation had several rare tracks, including "The Ballad of Easy Rider" from the Liege and Lief sessions, "Learning the Game" and "When Will I Be Loved" from the Bunch album "Rock On", "Here in Silence" and "Man of Iron" from the "Pass of Arms" soundtrack, and a previously unissued demo of "Stranger to Himself".


title: Sandy Denny

text: In 2002, a previously unreleased, 2-CD live US concert recording by Fairport Convention from 1974 featuring Denny was released on the Burning Airlines label. Entitled "Before The Moon", it originated from a radio broadcast from Ebbets Field in Denver, Colorado, on 23/24 May 1974. The second disc was a limited release bonus with the original release comprising the second set from the same concert. This recording was re-released in shortened form as a single disc in 2011 on the It's About Music label entitled "Fairport Convention with Sandy Denny: Ebbets Field 1974".


title: Sandy Denny

text: Also in 2002, the American A&M Records issued a budget-price "20th Century Masters" compilation called "The Best of Sandy Denny" with 10 tracks all available on Denny's studio albums.


title: Sandy Denny

text: In 2004 a second comprehensive five-CD box set was released on the Fledg'ling record label called "A Boxful of Treasures" that included many unreleased recordings, in particular a whole disc of acoustic demos, many recorded at her home in Byfield that was highly prized amongst fans and critics alike, who had long asserted that her solo performances showed her work in its best light, revealing the true quality of her vocal style and compositions. Also in 2004, the Spectrum label issued a 16-track compilation of previously released material entitled "The Collection: Chronological Covers & Concert Classics", including a mix of studio recordings and live excerpts from the "Gold Dust" Royalty concert.


title: Sandy Denny

text: In 2005, remastered versions of all Denny's solo albums came out with bonus tracks. Also in 2005, a single CD compilation entitled "Where the Time Goes: Sandy '67" was released on Castle Music containing all of Saga's Denny album tracks (including the alternative recordings on "It's Sandy Denny"), together with two self accompanied tracks from Denny's recordings with the Strawbs.


title: Sandy Denny

text: A DVD documentary entitled "Sandy Denny Under Review" was released on the Sexy Intellectual label in 2006 which contained interviews with her contemporaries plus brief excerpts from her audio recordings, plus some short video clips including two of the poor quality video recordings with Fairport from Birmingham University (details given above), two with Fotheringay from German TV's "Beat-Club" (further details given below), and three solo excerpts from the only surviving BBC footage on "One In Ten" (details as given in the next item).


title: Sandy Denny

text: A 4-disc box set, "Sandy Denny Live at the BBC", came out in September 2007 containing (virtually) all of the known solo recordings made by Denny for that UK broadcaster including two complete concerts, one at the Paris Theatre in 1972 and one recorded for "Sounds on Sunday" in 1973, plus a range of other material spanning the years 1966–1973. Disc 3 of this set was a DVD containing surviving TV footage from a 1971 BBC "One in Ten" session comprising solo performances by Denny of "The North Star Grassman and the Ravens", "Crazy Lady Blues" and "Late November", along with digitised excerpts from her diaries, rare photos and a discography. A 1-disc subset of this box set entitled "The Best of the BBC Recordings" was subsequently released in 2008.


title: Sandy Denny

text: A companion box set, "Fairport Convention Live at the BBC", also came out in 2007 and covered equivalent live recordings by Fairport over the period 1968–1974, of which the first two discs (1968–1970) contain examples from Denny's time with that group.


title: Sandy Denny

text: In 2008, Jerry Donahue completed the unfinished second "Fotheringay" album begun in the autumn of 1970. It was released to general acclaim as "Fotheringay 2" and contained some notable Denny performances, in particular earlier versions of two Denny compositions, "Late November" and "John the Gun", and performances of the traditional songs "Gypsy Davey" and "Wild Mountain Thyme". Also in 2008, Island Remasters issued a double CD entitled "The Music Weaver (Sandy Denny Remembered)" which contained a mix of better known tracks and less well known demos and live recordings, previously released but not in companion with studio sessions. This compilation is also one of the very few to contain the Led Zeppelin track "The Battle Of Evermore" which features a rare guest appearance by Denny.


title: Sandy Denny

text: In 2010, a large 19-CD retrospective box set, simply titled "Sandy Denny", was released by Universal/Island Records in a limited edition of 3,000. It contained Denny's entire catalogue of studio recordings, including her work with the Strawbs, Fairport Convention, Fotheringay and as a solo artist. The compilation also included a large number of outtakes, demos, live recordings, radio sessions and interviews. The box set was released to good reviews, including a 5-star review in "Uncut" and a 4-star review in "The Guardian".


title: Sandy Denny

text: In late 2010, Thea Gilmore was commissioned by Denny's estate, in conjunction with Island Records, to write melodies to unrecorded lyrics found in Denny's papers. The resulting album, "Don't Stop Singing", was released in November 2011 to generally good notices, including 4-star reviews in "The Independent" and "The Guardian" among others. On 21 April 2012, the single "London" was released as an exclusive Record Store Day 7″ single.


title: Sandy Denny

text: Further recordings were released in 2011, including a German recording of Fotheringay in concert released as "Essen 1970" on the Garden of Delights label. The performance was remastered by original band member Jerry Donahue. This release was followed by "19 Rupert Street", a home recording of a rehearsal featuring Sandy and Alex Campbell recorded at his flat in August 1967. This release is notable for the fact that Sandy performs a number of tracks that are not available in any other versions, including a cover of "Fairytale Lullaby" by John Martyn. This CD was put out by Sandy's former Strawbs bandmate Dave Cousins on his Witchwood label.


title: Sandy Denny

text: Two-disc "Deluxe Editions" of Denny's album reissues appeared in 2011 and 2012 with additional tracks; the 2012 Deluxe Edition of "Sandy" included a previously unreleased eight-song solo set from her 1973 U.S. tour recorded at Ebbet's Field in Denver, Colorado. A similar two-disc reissue of Fairport Convention's "Rising for the Moon" also included, for the first time, the complete 1974 L.A. Troubadour performance of Fairport with Denny back on board, prior to the official announcement of her re-joining the group.


title: Sandy Denny

text: On account of unprecedented demand for, and exhaustion of supply of the limited edition 19-CD set cited above, in October 2012 a limited edition 4-CD version was released entitled "The Notes and The Words: A Collection of Demos and Rarities", containing "75 songs that represent the cream of the rarities, demos and outtakes from the box set". Limited to 3,500 copies, this compilation is also now out-of-print.


title: Sandy Denny

text: In 2013, Spectrum records issued a single-disc CD entitled "The Lady – The Essential Sandy Denny" that comprised 15 previously issued tracks, generally from Denny's well known albums.


title: Sandy Denny

text: 2014 saw the release of another Fairport live U.S. radio broadcast from their 1974 tour with Denny, on RockBeat Records, entitled "Live 1974 (My Father's Place)", comprising 11 live tracks, most featuring Denny, recorded at the New York rock club My Father's Place.


title: Sandy Denny

text: A four-disc Fotheringay retrospective, "Nothing More: The Collected Fotheringay", was released on 30 March 2015. This is the most comprehensive compilation of the group's recordings, and contains, in addition to all the tracks on "Fotheringay" and "Fotheringay 2" as both final studio versions and demos/alternate takes, the complete live concert set from Rotterdam in 1970 (including several previously unreleased tracks), seven Fotheringay tracks recorded in session for BBC radio (which had previously circulated only as bootlegs), plus a DVD disc containing four performances by Fotheringay recorded for the German "Beat-Club" TV series in 1970, which considerably augment the otherwise sparse known TV footage of Denny in particular.


title: Sandy Denny

text: May 2016 saw the release of a 2-CD compilation, "I've Always Kept A Unicorn – The Acoustic Sandy Denny" which collected together many previously released, but dispersed, acoustic and/or demo versions of songs better known from their album counterparts, as well as three previously unreleased demos (with Linda Thompson, at the time Linda Peters) from 1972's "Rock On" sessions by one-off band The Bunch.


title: Sandy Denny

text: A 7-CD box set by Fairport Convention entitled "Come All Ye – The First 10 Years" was released in July 2017 and contains a small number of additional, previously unreleased demos and alternate takes featuring Denny during her first tenure with the band over the period 1968–1969. Tracks not previously available include versions of Joni Mitchell's "Eastern Rain", an "a capella" version of "Nottamun Town", alternative takes of "Autopsy" and "Who Knows Where the Time Goes", and a rehearsal version of "The Deserter".


title: Sandy Denny

text: In addition to the authorised material listed above, a number unofficial/unauthorised compilations exist plus a range of audience recordings of varying quality, none of which would likely see the light of day as commercial issues but are of interest to a sector of Denny's audience on either historic or aesthetic grounds, often providing alternative views of songs known otherwise only from their commercially released versions. The first available unauthorised/bootleg CDs available in the 1980s and 1990s comprised principally off-air and other obscure material under such titles as "Borrowed Thyme", "Poems from Alexandra", "Dark the Night", "Wild Mountain Thyme" and "One Last Sad Refrain"; such compilations are now largely superseded by the subsequent availability of most of the off-air material in much better quality as official releases as described above.


title: Sandy Denny

text: Of more enduring interest are audience tapes of shows of which no "official" tapes survive. These include some early shows by Fairport Convention; a performance by Fotheringay at the 1970 Tenth National Jazz and Blues Festival, held at Plumpton Race Track, Streat, East Sussex, England; "solo" shows by Denny (on occasion with a small band including, among others, Richard Thompson) at the 1971 Lincoln Folk Festival and at the Eltham Well Hall Open Theatre in 1972; performances from York University and Guildhall, Newcastle upon Tyne, also in 1972; an early 1972 U.S. performance from The Bitter End in New York; and several sets (Birmingham and Croydon) from her final 1977 tour in addition to the officially released "Gold Dust" album; plus quite a large number of recordings strongly featuring Denny as part of the re-formed Fairport Convention over the period 1974–1975. The majority of these can be fairly easily located via relevant internet searches and, in addition, can be readily downloaded from archival music servers such as Sugarmegs (Sandy Denny concerts listed under "S": SugarMegs Streaming Server, Fairport and Fotheringay under "F": SugarMegs Streaming Server).


title: Sandy Denny

text: After relocating to Australia and remarrying, Trevor Lucas died of a heart attack in 1989. Denny's estate is now managed by Lucas' widow, Elizabeth Hurtt-Lucas. A number of otherwise unreleased recordings of Sandy Denny from his collection have subsequently been the basis for posthumous releases of Denny's work including those on "The Attic Tracks" and elsewhere.


title: Sandy Denny

text: Sandy Denny's daughter, Georgia, has rarely spoken about her mother in a public forum and in the mid-2000s declined an invitation to write the liner notes for "Sandy Denny Live at the BBC". However, in 2006 she flew to Britain from Australia to accept on her mother's behalf the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards award for Most Influential Folk Album of All Time, which was given for Fairport Convention's "Liege and Lief". Georgia gave birth to twin daughters on 29 April 1997, and a tribute album, "Georgia on Our Mind", featuring many of Sandy Denny's former bandmates and friends, was compiled in the children's honour. She also administers a Facebook page "Sandy Denny and Family" dedicated to her mother's memory and more recently, under the name Georgia Katt, has released some of her own DJ-based music.


title: Sandy Denny

text: Since her death, many tributes have been made to Denny, both in music and elsewhere. Dave Pegg of Fairport Convention recorded the tribute "Song for Sandy" on his 1983 solo album "The Cocktail Cowboy Goes It Alone". Dave Cousins of the Strawbs wrote "Ringing Down the Years" in memory of Denny shortly after her death. Songs more specific to the death were Bert Jansch's "Where Did My Life Go" (from the album "Thirteen Down") and Richard Thompson's "Did She Jump or Was She Pushed?" (from the album "Shoot Out the Lights"). Fellow Brit folk pioneers Spriguns changed the title of their 1978 album to "Magic Lady" after hearing of Denny's death while recording. In 1998, a variety of Daylily was named after her.


title: Sandy Denny

text: Denny's songs have been covered by numerous artists in the years since her death. Some of the notable acts to have covered her music include Yo La Tengo, former Marillion frontman Fish, who covered "Solo" on his album "Songs from the Mirror", Cat Power, Judy Collins, Nanci Griffith and Nina Simone. Kate Bush mentioned Denny in the lyric of "Blow Away (For Bill)", as one of the musicians to greet Bill in Heaven. "Blow Away (For Bill)" is the third track on Bush's 1980 album "Never for Ever". In 1984, Clann Eadair released the single "A tribute to Sandy Denny", featuring Phil Lynott on vocals.


title: Sandy Denny

text: Several radio specials have been produced about Denny's life and music, including BBC Radio 2's "The Sandy Denny Story: Who Knows Where the Time Goes". In 2007, Denny's song "Who Knows Where the Time Goes?" also received BBC Radio 2's 2007 Folk Award for "Favourite Folk Track of All Time". In 2010, she was recognized by NPR in their "50 Great Voices" special series.


title: Sandy Denny

text: In April 2008, a tribute concert was held at The Troubadour in London, to mark the thirtieth anniversary of Denny's death. Those taking part included Martin Carthy, Linda Thompson and Joe Boyd.


title: Sandy Denny

text: A more extensive tribute was given later that year in December at the Southbank in the Queen Elizabeth Hall called "The Lady: A Tribute to Sandy Denny" with a band composed of members of Bellowhead, the evening featured a mix of young folk acts like Jim Moray and Lisa Knapp alongside those that had known and worked with Denny such as Dave Swarbrick and Jerry Donahue. These acts were joined by performers from outside the world of folk like PP Arnold and Marc Almond. The concert, which primarily featured songs written by Denny, received a four-star review in "The Guardian". In May 2012 the Southbank concert was expanded into an eight date UK tour called "The Lady: A Homage to Sandy Denny". The tour showcased Sandy's entire songbook taking in her work with Fairport Convention, Fotheringay, her solo career and the new songs completed by Thea Gilmore on her album "Don't Stop Singing".


title: Sandy Denny

text: The band was, once again, composed of members of Bellowhead. Other acts performing included the aforementioned Thea Gilmore and up-and-coming folk acts Lavinia Blackwall of Trembling Bells, Blair Dunlop and Sam Carter, alongside more established folk stars Maddy Prior, Dave Swarbrick and Jerry Donahue. The line-up was completed with performers not normally associated with the folk scene; Green Gartside, Joan Wasser (also known as Joan As Police Woman), and PP Arnold. The tour was well received, obtaining a four-star review in "The Times". The London concert at the Barbican was filmed for BBC4, and broadcast in a 90-minute programme titled "The Songs of Sandy Denny" in November 2012.


title: Sandy Denny

text: In the 2012 Irish film "Silence" (Harvest Films & South Wind Blows), "Who Knows Where the Time Goes" is used during the film and final credits.


title: Sandy Denny

text: Alela Diane recorded the tribute "Song for Sandy" on her album "Cusp", released in February 2018. The song reflects on Denny's final tragic days and her orphaned baby daughter.


title: Sandy Denny

text: Denny's collaborations with other artists, including with Alex Campbell, The Strawbs, Fairport Convention, Fotheringay, and The Bunch, together with numerous posthumous releases and compilation albums, are detailed further on the Sandy Denny discography page.


title: Maud of Wales

text: Maud of Wales (Maud Charlotte Mary Victoria; 26 November 1869 – 20 November 1938) was the Queen of Norway as the wife of King Haakon VII. The youngest daughter of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra of the United Kingdom, she was known as Princess Maud of Wales before her marriage, as her father was the Prince of Wales at the time.


title: Maud of Wales

text: Maud was born on 26 November 1869 at Marlborough House, London. She was the third daughter and fifth child of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, the eldest son of Queen Victoria, and Alexandra, Princess of Wales, the eldest daughter of Christian IX of Denmark. She was christened "Maud Charlotte Mary Victoria" at Marlborough House by John Jackson, Bishop of London, on 24 December 1869.


title: Maud of Wales

text: Her godparents were her paternal uncle Prince Leopold, for whom the Duke of Cambridge stood proxy; Prince Frederick William of Hesse-Kassel, for whom Prince Francis of Teck stood proxy; Count Gleichen; the Duchess of Nassau, for whom Princess Francis of Teck stood proxy; Charles XV of Sweden, for whom Baron Hochschild, the Swedish minister, stood proxy; Princess Marie of Leiningen, for whom Princess Claudine of Teck stood proxy; her maternal aunt the Tsarevna of Russia for whom Baroness de Brunnow stood proxy; Crown Princess Louise of Denmark, for whom Madame de Bülow, the Danish Minister's wife, stood proxy; and her great-grandaunt the Duchess of Inverness.


title: Maud of Wales

text: The tomboyish Maud was known as "Harry" to the royal family, after Edward VII's friend Admiral Henry Keppel, whose conduct in the Crimean War was considered particularly courageous at the time. Maud took part in almost all the annual visits to the Princess of Wales's family gatherings in Denmark and later accompanied her mother and sisters on cruises to Norway and the Mediterranean. She was a bridesmaid at the 1885 wedding of her paternal aunt Beatrice to Prince Henry of Battenberg, and at the wedding of her brother George to Mary of Teck in 1893.


title: Maud of Wales

text: Maud, along with her sisters, Victoria and Louise, received the Imperial Order of the Crown of India from their grandmother Queen Victoria on 6 August 1887. Like her sisters, she also held the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert (First Class) and was a Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem.


title: Maud of Wales

text: Maud married relatively late, waiting until her late twenties to find a husband. She had initially wanted to marry a distant cousin, Prince Francis of Teck, younger brother of her sister-in-law Mary. Despite being relatively impoverished from mounting gambling debts and being in a position to possibly benefit from Maud's status, he ignored her advances.


title: Maud of Wales

text: On 22 July 1896, Princess Maud married her first cousin, Prince Carl of Denmark, in the private chapel at Buckingham Palace. Prince Carl was the second son of Queen Alexandra's eldest brother, Crown Prince Frederick of Denmark, and Princess Louise of Sweden. The bride's father gave them Appleton House on the Sandringham Estate as a country residence for her frequent visits to England. It was there that the couple's only child, Prince Alexander, was born on 2 July 1903.


title: Maud of Wales

text: Prince Carl served as an officer in the Royal Danish Navy, and he and his family lived mainly in Denmark until 1905. In June 1905 the Norwegian Storting dissolved Norway's 91-year-old union with Sweden and voted to offer the throne to Prince Carl of Denmark. Maud's membership in the British royal house played some part in why Carl was chosen. Following a plebiscite in November, Prince Carl accepted the Norwegian throne as King Haakon VII, while his young son was renamed Olav. King Haakon VII and Queen Maud were crowned at Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim on 22 June 1906; it became the last coronation in Scandinavia to date.


title: Maud of Wales

text: Queen Maud never lost her love of Britain, but she quickly adapted to her new country and duties as a queen consort. A court was formed, and Marie Magdalena Rustad was appointed her principal lady-in-waiting. Maud played a strong and dominant role within the court and family, but a discreet role in public.


title: Maud of Wales

text: During her first years in Norway, she and her spouse were photographed in Norwegian folk costumes, and enjoying winter sports such as skiing, to give them a Norwegian appearance in the eyes of the public. She disliked representation but performed her role as a queen with great care, and used clothes and jewellery to make a regal impression. She supported charitable causes, particularly those associated with children and animals, and gave encouragement to musicians and artists. Among her projects was "Dronningens Hjelpekomité" (the Queen's Relief Committee) during World War I. She supported the feminist Katti Anker Møller's home for unwed mothers (1906), which was regarded as radical, designed furniture for the benefit of the "Barnets utstilling" (Children's Exhibition) 1921, and sold photographs for charitable purposes. An avid rider, Maud insisted that the stables of the royal palace in Oslo be upgraded. Queen Maud supervised much of this project herself and was greatly inspired by the Royal Mews in London when the stables were expanded.


title: Maud of Wales

text: Maud continued to regard Great Britain as her true home even after her arrival in Norway, and visited Great Britain every year. She mostly stayed at her Appleton House, Sandringham, during her visits. She did, however, also appreciate some aspects of Norway, such as the winter sports, and she supported bringing up her son as a Norwegian. She learned to ski and arranged for English gardens at Kongsseteren, the royal lodge overlooking Oslo, and at the summer residence at Bygdøy. She is described as reserved as a public person but energetic and with a taste for practical jokes as a private person.


title: Maud of Wales

text: Queen Maud's last public appearance in Britain was at the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in May 1937 at Westminster Abbey. She sat in the royal pew at Westminster Abbey next to her sister-in-law Queen Mary and her niece Mary, Princess Royal, as part of the official royal party.


title: Maud of Wales

text: Maud also acquired a reputation for dressing with fashionable chic. An exhibition of numerous items from her elegant wardrobe was held at the Victoria and Albert Museum in 2005 and published in the catalogue "Style and Splendour: Queen Maud of Norway's Wardrobe 1896–1938".


title: Maud of Wales

text: Maud visited England in October 1938. Initially, she stayed at Sandringham, but then moved into a hotel in London's West End. She became ill and was taken to a nursing home at 18 Bentinck Street, Marylebone, London, where an abdominal operation was performed on 16 November 1938. King Haakon immediately travelled from Norway to her bedside. Although she survived the surgery, Maud died unexpectedly of heart failure on 20 November 1938, six days before her 69th birthday and on the 13th anniversary of her mother's death. Norwegian newspapers were allowed to break the law forbidding publication on Sundays in order to notify the Norwegian public of her death. King Haakon returned Appleton House to the British royal family.


title: Maud of Wales

text: Her body was returned to Norway on board , the flagship of the Second Battle Squadron of the Royal Navy's Home Fleet. Her body was moved to a small church in Oslo before the burial. Queen Maud was buried in the royal mausoleum at Akershus Castle in Oslo. At her death, Queen Maud was the last surviving child of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra. Her will was sealed in London in 1939. Her estate in England and Wales was valued at £7,941 (or £362,400 in 2022 when adjusted for inflation).


title: Maud of Wales

text: Queen Maud Land and Queen Maud Mountains in Antarctica; Queen Maud Secondary School in Hong Kong; and Queen Maud Gulf (including Queen Maud Gulf Migratory Bird Sanctuary) in Nunavut, Canada, are named after Maud. The ship "Maud", designed to the specifications of Roald Amundsen for service in the Arctic Ocean and launched in 1916 to traverse and explore the Northeast Passage, was christened in honor of Maud of Wales. The replenishment ship HNoMS "Maud" of the Royal Norwegian Navy has also been named for her. The Queen Maud fromage (a sweet dessert) is named after her.


title: Maud of Wales

text: Upon her marriage, Maud was granted the use of a personal coat of arms, being those of the kingdom, with an inescutcheon of the shield of Saxony, differenced with a label argent of five points, the outer pair and centre bearing hearts gules, the inner pair crosses gules. The inescutcheon was dropped by royal warrant in 1917.


title: Fortune Feimster

text: Emily Fortune Feimster (; born July 1, 1980) is an American writer, comedian, and actress. Having made her television debut on NBC's "Last Comic Standing" in 2010, Feimster starred as Colette on "The Mindy Project" (2015–2017). In July 2019, she began hosting "What a Joke with Papa and Fortune" with Tom Papa, interviewing comedians and celebrities, the first live programming on the Sirius XM channel Netflix is a Joke. Feimster played Heather in "", a reboot of "The L Word".


title: Fortune Feimster

text: the youngest of three, with two older brothers, Price and Jay. Fortune is her maternal great-grandmother's maiden name. Growing up in Belmont, North Carolina, she attended Belmont Central Elementary School and Belmont Junior High, subsequently graduating from South Point High School in 1998. That same year, she was presented to society at the Gastonia Debutante Ball. At South Point, she played basketball, softball, and tennis.


title: Fortune Feimster

text: She attended Peace College, then a women-only university, and was elected student body president, majored in communications, and played soccer and tennis. She graduated summa cum laude and was the student speaker at commencement in 2002. The graduation speaker was Raleigh native actress Emily Procter, with whom Feimster became acquainted after the graduation.


title: Fortune Feimster

text: After living in Spain for a year, she moved to Los Angeles in 2003 to become a personal assistant to Procter and pursue comedy. After connecting with Procter's neighbor, a journalist for the "Los Angeles Daily News", Feimster began a seven-year career in entertainment journalism. In 2005, she joined The Groundlings Theatre, studying improv and sketch comedy. After four years, she was selected to join the Groundlings' Sunday Company.


title: Fortune Feimster

text: Feimster came out as lesbian in 2005 at age 25. In 2016, she began dating kindergarten teacher Jacquelyn Smith,


title: Fortune Feimster

text: becoming engaged in early 2018. She and Smith own homes in Los Angeles and Belmont, North Carolina. They married in a small ceremony on Friday, October 23, 2020.


title: Stork

text: Storks are large, long-legged, long-necked wading birds with long, stout bills. They belong to the family called Ciconiidae, and make up the order Ciconiiformes . Ciconiiformes previously included a number of other families, such as herons and ibises, but those families have been moved to other orders.


title: Stork

text: Storks dwell in many regions and tend to live in drier habitats than the closely related herons, spoonbills and ibises; they also lack the powder down that those groups use to clean off fish slime. Bill-clattering is an important mode of communication at the nest. Many species are migratory. Most storks eat frogs, fish, insects, earthworms, small birds and small mammals. There are 19 living species of storks in six genera.


title: Stork

text: Various terms are used to refer to groups of storks, two frequently used ones being a "muster" of storks and a "phalanx" of storks.


title: Stork

text: Storks tend to use soaring, gliding flight, which conserves energy. Soaring requires thermal air currents. Ottomar Anschütz's famous 1884 album of photographs of storks inspired the design of Otto Lilienthal's experimental gliders of the late nineteenth century. Storks are heavy, with wide wingspans: the marabou stork, with a wingspan of and weight up to , joins the Andean condor in having the widest wingspan of all living land birds.


title: Stork

text: Their nests are often very large and may be used for many years. Some nests have been known to grow to over in diameter and about in depth. All storks were once thought to be monogamous, but this is only partially true. Some species may change mates after migrations, and may migrate without a mate.


title: Stork

text: Storks' large size, serial monogamy, and faithfulness to an established nesting site contribute to their prominence in mythology and culture.


title: Stork

text: Storks range in size from the marabou, which stands tall and can weigh , to the Abdim's stork, which is only high and weighs only . Their shape is superficially similar to the herons, with long legs and necks, but they are more heavy-set. There is some sexual dimorphism (differences between males and females) in size, with males being up to 15% bigger than females in some species (for example the saddle-billed stork), but almost no difference in appearance. The only difference is in the colour of the iris of the two species in the genus "Ephippiorhynchus".


title: Stork

text: The bills of storks are large to very large, and vary considerably between the genera. The shape of the bills is linked to the diet of the different species. The large bills of the "Ciconia" storks are the least specialised. Larger are the massive and slightly upturned bills of the "Ephippiorhynchus" and the jabiru. These have evolved to hunt for fish in shallow water. Larger still are the massive daggers of the two adjutants and marabou ("Leptoptilos"), which are used to feed on carrion and in defence against other scavengers, as well as for taking other prey. The long, ibis-like downcurved bills of the "Mycteria" storks have sensitive tips that allow them to detect prey by touch (tactilocation) where cloudy conditions would not allow them to see it. The most specialised bills of any storks are those of the two openbills ("Anastomus."), which as their name suggested is open in the middle when their bill is closed. These bills have evolved to help openbills feed on their only prey item, aquatic snails.


title: Stork

text: Although it is sometimes reported that storks lack syrinxes and are mute, they do have syrinxes, and are capable of making some sounds, although they do not do so often. The syrinxes of storks are "variably degenerate" however, and the syringeal membranes of some species are found between tracheal rings or cartilage, an unusual arrangement shared with the ovenbirds.


title: Stork

text: Storks have a nearly cosmopolitan distribution, being absent from the poles, most of North America and large parts of Australia. The centres of stork diversity are in tropical Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, with eight and six breeding species respectively. Just three species are present in the New World: wood stork, maguari stork and jabiru, which is the tallest flying bird of the Americas. Two species, white and black stork, reach Europe and western temperate Asia, while one species, Oriental stork, reaches temperate areas of eastern Asia, and one species, black-necked stork, is found in Australasia.


title: Stork

text: Storks are more diverse and common in the tropics, and the species that live in temperate climates for the most part migrate to avoid the worst of winter. They are fairly diverse in their habitat requirements. Some species, particularly the "Mycteria " "wood storks" and "Anastomus" openbills, are highly dependent on water and aquatic prey, but many other species are far less dependent on this habitat type, although they will frequently make use of it. Species like the marabou and Abdim's stork will frequently be found foraging in open grasslands of savannah. Preferred habitats include flooded grasslands, light woodland, marshes and paddyfields, wet meadows, river backwaters and ponds. Many species will select shallow pools, particularly when lakes or rivers are drying out, as they concentrate prey and make it harder for prey to escape, or when monsoonal rainfall increases water depth of larger waterbodies. Some species like the woolly-necked storks and lesser adjutant storks have adapted to changing crops of tropical agricultural landscapes showcasing behavioral plasticity that enables them to remain resident despite the transformations brought about by seasonal crops. In South Africa, the woolly-necked storks have adapted to artificial feeding and now largely nest on trees in gardens with swimming pools.


title: Stork

text: Less typical habitats include the dense temperate forests used by European black storks, or the rainforest habitat sought by Storm's stork in South East Asia. They generally avoid marine habitats, with the exception of the lesser adjutant, milky stork and wood stork, all of which forage in mangroves, lagoons and estuarine mudflats. A number of species, especially woolly-necked storks, black-necked storks, Asian openbills and lesser adjutant Storks in south Asia, have adapted to highly modified human habitats, either for foraging or breeding or both. In the absence of persecution several species breed close to people, and species such as the marabou, greater adjutant, and white stork will feed at landfill sites.


title: Stork

text: Storks vary in their tendency towards migration. Temperate species like the white stork, black stork and Oriental stork undertake long annual migrations in the winter. The routes taken by these species have developed to avoid long distance travel across water, and from Europe this usually means flying across the Straits of Gibraltar or east across the Bosphorus and through Israel and the Sinai. Studies of young birds denied the chance to travel with others of their species have shown that these routes are at least partially learnt, rather than being innate as they are in passerine migrants. Migrating black storks are split between those that make stopovers on the migration between Europe and their wintering grounds in Africa, and those that don't.


title: Stork

text: The Abdim's stork is another migrant, albeit one that migrates within the tropics. It breeds in northern Africa, from Senegal to the Red Sea, during the wet season, and then migrates to Southern Africa. Many species that aren't regular migrants will still make smaller movements if circumstances require it; others may migrate over part of their range. This can also include regular commutes from nesting sites to feeding areas. Wood storks have been observed feeding from their breeding colony.


title: Stork

text: Storks are carnivorous predators, taking a range of reptiles, small mammals, insects, fish, amphibians and other small invertebrates. Any plant material consumed is usually by accident. "Mycteria" storks are specialists in feeding on aquatic vertebrates, particularly when prey is concentrated by lowering water levels or flooding into shallows. On marine mudflats and mangrove swamps in Sumatra, milky storks feed on mudskippers, probing the burrow with the bill and even the whole head into the mud. The characteristic feeding method involves standing or walking in shallow water and holding the bill submerged in the water. When contact is made with prey the bill reflexively snaps shut in 25 milliseconds, one of the fastest reactions known in any vertebrate. The reaction is able to distinguish between prey items and inanimate objects like branches, although the exact mechanism is unknown.


title: Stork

text: Openbills are specialists in freshwater molluscs, particularly apple snails. They feed in small groups, and sometimes African openbills ride on the backs of hippos while foraging. Having caught a snail it will return to land or at least to the shallows to eat it. The fine tip of the bill of the openbills is used to open the snail, and the saliva has a narcotic effect, which causes the snail to relax and simplifies the process of extraction.


title: Stork

text: The other genera of storks are more generalised. "Ciconia" storks are very generalised in their diets, although Abdim's stork is something of a specialist in feeding in large flocks on swarms of locusts and at wildfires, although other storks will opportunistically feed in this way if the opportunity arises. This is why white storks and Abdim's storks are known as "grasshopper birds". "Ephippiorhynchus" are carnivorous though have a very diverse diet when living on human modified habitats such as agricultural landscapes. The foraging method used by the generalists is to stalk or walk across grassland or shallow water, watching for prey.


title: Stork

text: Storks range from being solitary breeders through loose breeding associations to fully colonial. The jabiru, "Ephippiorhynchus" storks and several species of "Ciconia" are entirely solitary when breeding. In contrast the "Mycteria" storks, Abdim's stork, openbills and "Leptoptilos" storks all breed in colonies which can range from a couple of pairs to thousands. Many of these species breed in colonies with other waterbirds, which can include other species of storks, herons and egrets, pelicans, cormorants and ibises. White storks, Oriental storks and Maguari storks are all loosely colonial, and may breed in nests that are within visual range of others of the same species, but have little to do with one another. They also may nest solitarily, and the reasons why they choose to nest together or apart are not understood.


title: Stork

text: A DNA study found that the families Ardeidae, Balaenicipitidae, Scopidae and the Threskiornithidae belong to the Pelecaniformes. This would make Ciconiidae the only group.


title: Stork

text: Storks were distinct and possibly widespread by the Oligocene. Like most families of aquatic birds, storks seem to have arisen in the Palaeogene, maybe 40–50 million years ago (mya). For the fossil record of living genera, documented since the Middle Miocene (about 15 mya) at least in some cases, see the genus articles.


title: Stork

text: Though some storks are highly threatened, no species or subspecies are known to have gone extinct in historic times. A "Ciconia" bone found in a rock shelter on the island of Réunion was probably of a bird taken there as food by early settlers; no known account mentions the presence of storks on the Mascarene Islands.


title: Stork

text: The fossil genera "Eociconia" (Middle Eocene of China) and "Ciconiopsis" (Deseado Early Oligocene of Patagonia, Argentina) are often tentatively placed with this family. A "ciconiiform" fossil fragment from the Touro Passo Formation found at Arroio Touro Passo (Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil) might be of the living wood stork "M. americana"; it is at most of Late Pleistocene age, a few 10,000s of years.


title: Stork

text: The Modern English word can be traced back to Proto-Germanic "*sturkaz". Nearly every Germanic language has a descendant of this proto-language word to indicate the (white) stork. Related names also occur in Latvian, "stārķis", and some Slavic languages, e.g. "štorklja" in Slovenian and “щъркел” [shtŭrkel] in Bulgarian, originating as Germanic loanwords.


title: Stork

text: According to the "New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary", the Germanic root is probably related to the modern English "stark", in reference to the stiff or rigid posture of a European species, the white stork. A non-Germanic word linked to it may be Greek "torgos" ("vulture").


title: Stork

text: In some West Germanic languages cognate words of a different etymology exist, e.g. "" in Dutch. They originate from "*uda-faro", "uda" being related to "water" meaning something like "swamp" or "moist area" and "faro" being related to "fare"; so "*uda-faro" is something like "he who walks in the swamp". In later times this name got reanalysed as "*ōdaboro", "ōda" "fortune, wealth" + "boro" "bearer" meaning "he who brings wealth" adding to the myth of storks as maintainers of welfare and bringers of children.


title: Stork

text: In Estonian, "stork" is "toonekurg", which is derived from "toonela" (underworld in Estonian folklore) + "kurg" (crane). At the times storks were named, the now-rare black stork was probably the more common species.


title: Stork

text: Storks have many stories surrounding them, like in Aesop's (6th century BCE) fables The Farmer and the Stork and The Fox and the Stork. The first fable begins with a farmer plowing his fields, sowing his seeds and spreading his nets. These nets catch several cranes who hopped behind him picking up the seed. Along with the cranes tangled in his net, the farmer discovered a stork with a broken leg. The stork begged the farmer to spare his life, arguing that he was not a crane, but a stork. He pointed to his feathers and told the farmer that they didn't resemble a crane's feathers in the least. The farmer laughed at the stork and said, "I have taken you with these robbers, the cranes, and you must die in their company."


title: Stork

text: Storks play a prominent role in Hans Christian Andersen's lengthy fairy tale, "The Marsh King's Daughter."


title: David Flair

text: David Richard Fliehr (born March 6, 1979), better known by his ring name David Flair, is an American retired professional wrestler. He is best known for his time in World Championship Wrestling (WCW), where he held the United States and World Tag Team championships. He is the son of former wrestling world champion Ric Flair, and the older half-brother of 15-time women’s champion Charlotte Flair and the late Reid Flair.


title: David Flair

text: Growing up, Fliehr did not want to become a wrestler, like his father; he always wanted to be a state trooper. He appeared on camera


title: David Flair

text: backstage with his father at Starrcade 1993 in World Championship Wrestling. In the storyline, his father was going to have to "retire" if he lost his match, so his family appeared to increase the emotion. In late 1998, David was back on WCW TV sitting front row and getting involved in some skirmishes with Eric Bischoff and the nWo.


title: David Flair

text: He eventually decided to become a wrestler and teamed with his father in his debut match at WCW/nWo Souled Out on January 17, 1999. Flair wrestled under his father's altered surname of "Fliehr". They wrestled Curt Hennig and Barry Windham and won the match.


title: David Flair

text: On February 21 at SuperBrawl IX, David turned on his father and joined the nWo Elite. He used a taser on his father to help Hogan win their WCW World Title match. He did not wrestle for a while but did appear in vignettes with Samantha (Torrie Wilson) while he was training at the WCW Power Plant.


title: David Flair

text: Flair started to wrestle a regular schedule in May 1999. He made up with his father who then had the Four Horsemen help Flair win matches. Ric, being the on-screen WCW President, stripped WCW United States Champion Scott Steiner of his title and awarded it to Flair. On July 11, Flair defeated Dean Malenko, with the help of Ric and Arn Anderson, to keep the title in his first defense on pay-per-view.


title: David Flair

text: Flair was joined by Daffney at Starrcade in 1999. He was joined a little later by Crowbar. They formed a team and won the vacant WCW World Tag Team Titles in a tournament final on January 3, 2000 over Kevin Nash and Scott Steiner with Anderson as the special referee. They lost the titles to Big Vito and Johnny the Bull, "The Mamalukes," on January 19. Flair soon split with Crowbar and in May 2000, joined Vince Russo's New Blood. He dumped Daffney and took Miss Hancock (Stacy Keibler) as his valet. He also turned on his father again which led to a match against him at The Great American Bash. Flair lost, but the next night, he won a match against his father to retire him and shave his father's head.


title: David Flair

text: Flair toured in the independent circuit for the first part of 2001. He teamed with Don Factor to win the NWA World Tag Team Championship on March 21. They lost them on March 23. He then teamed with Romeo Bliss to win the NWA Georgia Tag Team Championship on March 24. They lost them on April 21.


title: David Flair

text: In May 2001, the WWF picked up Flair's WCW contract and sent him to Ohio Valley Wrestling. He stayed there and feuded with Val Venis and had a brief tag team with Mark Jindrak until late 2002, when they dropped his development contract. He did make two appearances on WWF TV during 2002 as he was beaten up by The Undertaker on March 4 and wrestled the Undertaker on March 14 as part of the build-up for his father's match against Undertaker at WrestleMania X8.


title: David Flair

text: Flair joined Total Nonstop Action Wrestling in December 2002. He joined Vince Russo's Sports Entertainment Xtreme (S.E.X.) group. He had a brief feud with Curt Hennig and then left S.E.X. to form Next Generation with Brian Lawler and Erik Watts. Together, they feuded with Dusty Rhodes and mocked him with an old NWA World Title belt. David left TNA in early 2003.


title: David Flair

text: After TNA, David toured the independent circuit, winning the IWA Intercontinental Title from Ray Gonzalez on November 28, 2003 in Puerto Rico. He lost it to Gonzalez two days later. Flair quit IWA after problems with IWA promoter Víctor Quiñones.


title: David Flair

text: On December 6, 2008, he wrestled a match with his half-brother, Reid, who was making his professional wrestling debut, defeating The Nasty Boys via submission in Charlotte, North Carolina, with Hulk Hogan as the special guest referee.


title: David Flair

text: Flair dated Stacy Keibler in 2000, when they both worked in WCW. Flair married Robin Haskell in 2004, and they reside in Shelby, North Carolina. They have two children, Pyper and Carter. Pyper is a national ranked gymnast.


title: Essential amino acid

text: An essential amino acid, or indispensable amino acid, is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized from scratch by the organism fast enough to supply its demand, and must therefore come from the diet. Of the 21 amino acids common to all life forms, the nine amino acids humans cannot synthesize are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine.


title: Essential amino acid

text: Six other amino acids are considered conditionally essential in the human diet, meaning their synthesis can be limited under special pathophysiological conditions, such as prematurity in the infant or individuals in severe catabolic distress. These six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline, and tyrosine. Six amino acids are non-essential (dispensable) in humans, meaning they can be synthesized in sufficient quantities in the body. These six are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid, serine, and selenocysteine (considered the 21st amino acid). Pyrrolysine (considered the 22nd amino acid), which is proteinogenic only in certain microorganisms, is not used by and therefore non-essential for most organisms, including humans.


title: Essential amino acid

text: The limiting amino acid is the essential amino acid which is furthest from meeting nutritional requirements. This concept is important when determining the selection, number, and amount of foods to consume because even when total protein and all other essential amino acids are satisfied if the limiting amino acid is not satisfied then the meal is considered to be nutritionally limited by that amino acid.


title: Essential amino acid

text: Eukaryotes can synthesize some of the amino acids from other substrates. Consequently, only a subset of the amino acids used in protein synthesis are essential nutrients.


title: Essential amino acid

text: Of the twenty amino acids common to all life forms (not counting selenocysteine), humans cannot synthesize nine: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine. Additionally, the amino acids arginine, cysteine, glutamine, glycine, proline, taurine, and tyrosine are considered conditionally essential which means that specific populations who do not synthesize it in adequate amounts, such as new born infants and people with diseased livers who are unable to synthesize Cysteine, must obtain one or more of these conditionally essential amino acids from their diet. For example, enough arginine is synthesized by the urea cycle to meet the needs of an adult but perhaps not those of a growing child. Amino acids that must be obtained from the diet are called essential amino acids. Nonessential amino acids are produced in the body. The pathways for the synthesis of nonessential amino acids are quite simple. Glutamate dehydrogenase catalyzes the reductive amination of α-ketoglutarate to glutamate. A transamination reaction takes place in the synthesis of most amino acids. At this step, the chirality of the amino acid is established. Alanine and aspartate are synthesized by the transamination of pyruvate and oxaloacetate, respectively. Glutamine is synthesized from NH4+ and glutamate, and asparagine is synthesized similarly. Proline and arginine are derived from glutamate. Serine, formed from 3-phosphoglycerate, is the precursor of glycine and cysteine. Tyrosine is synthesized by the hydroxylation of phenylalanine, an essential amino acid.


title: Essential amino acid

text: Estimating the daily requirement for the indispensable amino acids has proven to be difficult; these numbers have undergone considerable revision over the last 20 years. The following table lists the WHO and United States recommended daily amounts currently in use for essential amino acids in adult humans, together with their standard one-letter abbreviations.


title: Essential amino acid

text: The recommended daily intakes for children aged three years and older is 10% to 20% higher than adult levels and those for infants can be as much as 150% higher in the first year of life. Cysteine (or sulfur-containing amino acids), tyrosine (or aromatic amino acids), and arginine are always required by infants and growing children. Methionine and Cysteine are grouped together because one of them can be synthesized from the other using the enzyme Methionine S-methyltransferase and the catalyst Methionine synthase. Phenylalanine and Tyrosine are grouped together because one of them can be synthesized from the other using the enzyme Phenylalanine/tyrosine ammonia-lyase.


title: Essential amino acid

text: Historically, amino acid requirements were determined by calculating the balance between dietary Nitrogen intake and nitrogen excreted in the liquid and solid wastes because proteins represent the largest nitrogen content in a body. A positive balance is where more nitrogen is consumed than is excreted which indicates that some of the nitrogen is being used by the body to build proteins. A negative nitrogen balance is where more nitrogen is excreted than is consumed which indicates that there is insufficient intake for the body to maintain its health. Graduate students at the University of Illinois were fed an artificial diet so that there was a slightly positive nitrogen balance. Then one amino acid was omitted and the nitrogen balance recorded. If a positive balance continued then that amino acid was deemed not essential. If a negative balance occurred then that amino acid was slowly restored until a slightly positive nitrogen balance stabilized and the minimum amount recorded.


title: Essential amino acid

text: A similar method was used to determine the protein content of foods. Test subjects were fed a diet containing no protein and the nitrogen losses recorded. During the first week or more there is a rapid loss of labile proteins. Once the nitrogen losses stabilized this baseline is determined to be the minimum required for maintenance. Then the test subjects were fed a measured amount of the food being tested. The difference between the nitrogen in that food and the nitrogen losses above baseline was the amount the body retained to rebuild proteins. The amount of nitrogen retained divided by the total nitrogen intake is called net protein utilization. The amount of nitrogen retained divided by the (nitrogen intake minus nitrogen loss above baseline) is called Biological Value and is usually given as a percentage.


title: Essential amino acid

text: Modern techniques make use of Ion Exchange Chromatography to determine the actual amino acid content of foods. The USDA used this technique in their own labs to determine the content of 7793 foods across 28 categories and published the final database in 2018 to the public.


title: Essential amino acid

text: The limiting amino acid depends on the human requirements and there are currently two sets of human requirements from authoritative sources...one published by WHO and the other published by USDA.


title: Essential amino acid

text: Various attempts have been made to express the "quality" or "value" of various kinds of protein. Measures include the biological value, net protein utilization, protein efficiency ratio, protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score and complete proteins concept. These concepts are important in the livestock industry, because the relative lack of one or more of the essential amino acids in animal feeds would have a limiting effect on growth and thus on feed conversion ratio. Thus, various feedstuffs may be fed in combination to increase net protein utilization, or a supplement of an individual amino acid (methionine, lysine, threonine, or tryptophan) can be added to the feed.


title: Essential amino acid

text: Protein content in foods is often measured in protein per serving rather than protein per calorie. For instance, the USDA lists 6 grams of protein per large whole egg (a 50-gram serving) rather than 84 mg of protein per calorie (71 calories total). For comparison, there are 2.8 grams of protein in a serving of raw broccoli (100 grams) or 82 mg of protein per calorie (34 calories total), or the Daily Value of 47.67g of protein after eating 1,690g of raw broccoli a day at 574 cal. An egg contains 12.5g of protein per 100g, but 4 mg more protein per calorie, or the protein DV after 381g of egg, which is 545 cal. The ratio of essential amino acids (the quality of protein) is not taken into account, one would actually need to eat more than 3 kg of broccoli a day to have a healthy protein profile, and almost 6 kg to get enough calories. It is recommended that adult humans obtain between 10–35% of their 2000 calories a day as protein.


title: Essential amino acid

text: Scientists had known since the early 20th century that rats could not survive on a diet whose only protein source was zein, which comes from maize (corn), but recovered if they were fed casein from cow's milk. This led William Cumming Rose to the discovery of the essential amino acid threonine. Through manipulation of rodent diets, Rose was able to show that ten amino acids are essential for rats: lysine, tryptophan, histidine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, valine, and arginine, in addition to threonine. Rose's later work showed that eight amino acids are essential for adult human beings, with histidine also being essential for infants. Longer-term studies established histidine as also essential for adult humans.


title: Essential amino acid

text: The distinction between essential and non-essential amino acids is somewhat unclear, as some amino acids can be produced from others. The sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine and homocysteine, can be converted into each other but neither can be synthesized "de novo" in humans. Likewise, cysteine can be made from homocysteine but cannot be synthesized on its own. So, for convenience, sulfur-containing amino acids are sometimes considered a single pool of nutritionally equivalent amino acids as are the aromatic amino acid pair, phenylalanine and tyrosine. Likewise arginine, ornithine, and citrulline, which are interconvertible by the urea cycle, are considered a single group.


title: Essential amino acid

text: If one of the essential amino acids is not available in the required quantities, protein synthesis will be inhibited, irrespective of the availability of the other amino acids. Protein deficiency has been shown to affect all of the body's organs and many of its systems, for example affecting brain development in infants and young children; inhibiting upkeep of the immune system, increasing risk of infection; affecting gut mucosal function and permeability, thereby reducing absorption and increasing vulnerability to systemic disease; and impacting kidney function. The physical signs of protein deficiency include edema, failure to thrive in infants and children, poor musculature, dull skin, and thin and fragile hair. Biochemical changes reflecting protein deficiency include low serum albumin and low serum transferrin.


title: Essential amino acid

text: The amino acids that are essential in the human diet were established in a series of experiments led by William Cumming Rose. The experiments involved elemental diets to healthy male graduate students. These diets consisted of corn starch, sucrose, butterfat without protein, corn oil, inorganic salts, the known vitamins, a large brown "candy" made of liver extract flavored with peppermint oil (to supply any unknown vitamins), and mixtures of highly purified individual amino acids. The main outcome measure was nitrogen balance. Rose noted that the symptoms of nervousness, exhaustion, and dizziness were encountered to a greater or lesser extent whenever human subjects were deprived of an essential amino acid.


title: Essential amino acid

text: Essential amino acid deficiency should be distinguished from protein-energy malnutrition, which can manifest as marasmus or kwashiorkor. Kwashiorkor was once attributed to pure protein deficiency in individuals who were consuming enough calories ("sugar baby syndrome"). However, this theory has been challenged by the finding that there is no difference in the diets of children developing marasmus as opposed to kwashiorkor. Still, for instance in Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) maintained by the USDA, lack of one or more of the essential amino acids is described as protein-energy malnutrition.


title: Greta (2018 film)

text: Greta is a 2018 psychological thriller film directed by Neil Jordan and written by Ray Wright and Jordan. The film stars Isabelle Huppert, Chloë Grace Moretz, Maika Monroe, Colm Feore and Stephen Rea, and follows a young woman as she befriends a lonely widow who becomes disturbingly obsessed with her.


title: Greta (2018 film)

text: "Greta" held its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on 6 September 2018. It was theatrically released on 1 March 2019 in the United States, by Focus Features. The film has grossed over $18 million worldwide and received mixed reviews from critics.


title: Greta (2018 film)

text: Frances McCullen (Chloë Grace Moretz) is a young waitress living in New York City with her friend and roommate Erica (Maika Monroe). Frances is still reeling from the death of her mother one year prior, and maintains a strained relationship with her workaholic father Chris (Colm Feore). One morning, Frances finds a handbag on a subway train; the ID inside confirms the bag belongs to a Greta Hideg (Isabelle Huppert). Frances visits Greta the next day to return the bag and the kindly Greta invites her in for coffee.


title: Greta (2018 film)

text: Greta tells Frances she is a widow from France, and her daughter Nicola is still there, studying in Paris. Frances begins to spend time with Greta to keep her company, visiting the church where her husband played the organ, and helping her adopt a dog, despite Erica's objections that their friendship is unnatural. One night while having dinner at Greta's, Frances finds a closet full of multiple handbags, identical to the one she found on the train. Attached to the bags are names and phone numbers, including Frances's own.


title: Greta (2018 film)

text: Frances, disturbed by her discovery, decides to cut ties with Greta. Greta begins to stalk Frances, seeing herself as a replacement for Frances's late mother; she rings her multiple times and even turns up at the restaurant where Frances works, and sits outside, staring at her. Greta also stalks Erica; Frances and Erica pursue a restraining order, but are told the process could take months. Frances later meets a former lover of Greta's daughter, and finds out how deep Greta's lies run: not only is she really Hungarian and not French, Greta's daughter actually committed suicide four years ago due to her mother's sadistic behavior, and that Greta suffers with mental illness. Later that night, Greta shows up at the restaurant again, and insists to Frances that her mother had to die for them to meet, eventually causing a disturbing scene that results in Greta being hospitalized and Frances getting fired.


title: Greta (2018 film)

text: Frances is torn between going home with her father or going on vacation with Erica. Erica then suggests Frances lie to Greta, saying she is going away while secretly hiding in their apartment. The next morning, Frances is drugged and kidnapped by Greta; she locks Frances in a wooden toy chest in a secret room, then uses Frances's cell phone to separately text Erica and Chris, telling each that Frances is with the other. When Frances is released from the chest, she finds articles of clothing and IDs of other young women Greta had previously kidnapped; it is implied that Greta has killed all of them.


title: Greta (2018 film)

text: Erica and Chris eventually get together and learn that Frances is not with either of them. As time passes, Greta forces Frances to learn Hungarian and how to play the piano, trying to make her her new "daughter". During a cooking lesson, while Greta is distracted, Frances cuts off Greta's little finger with a cookie cutter and knocks her unconscious with a rolling pin. She tries to escape but finds that all the doors and windows are sealed. Frances runs into the basement to search for an exit and finds one of Greta's previous victims under a plastic sheet. Greta sneaks up behind Frances and suffocates her until she passes out.


title: Greta (2018 film)

text: Chris hires Cody, a private investigator, to find his daughter and investigate Greta. Cody learns that Greta was formerly a nurse until she was dismissed for misusing anaesthetics. Cody meets with Greta in her home. Frances, gagged and bound, attempts to get his attention by shaking the bed, but Greta blocks out the noise with music. When Greta is out of the room, Cody figures out there is a secret room behind the piano. Greta suddenly appears and plunges a syringe into his neck. He draws his gun as he loses consciousness, and Greta uses it to shoot him dead.


title: Greta (2018 film)

text: An indeterminate amount of time passes. Greta leaves another handbag on the subway and a young woman brings it to Greta's home. She invites the girl in and makes them a pot of coffee; Greta drinks her cup and starts to feel faint. The woman suddenly loses her Southern accent, takes off her wig, and reveals herself to be Erica, having drugged Greta's cup. She reveals that she has been searching for the handbag on the subway for a long time. Greta passes out and Erica finds Frances. As they try to escape, Greta, regaining consciousness, emerges from the shadows and grabs Frances's face before passing out again.


title: Greta (2018 film)

text: Erica and Frances place Greta's unconscious body in the toy chest and leave, using a metal Eiffel Tower trinket to lock it shut. After they leave the room to call the police, Greta begins to rattle the lid of the chest and the trinket shifts.


title: Greta (2018 film)

text: In May 2017, it was announced that Isabelle Huppert and Chloë Grace Moretz had signed to star in the film, then titled "The Widow". In August 2017, Maika Monroe joined the cast. In September 2017, Stephen Rea, Colm Feore, and Zawe Ashton were added as well.


title: Greta (2018 film)

text: The film was produced by Metropolitan Films in cooperation with Lawrence Bender Films, Little Wave Productions and Sidney Kimmel Entertainment. It also received an €650,000 production grant from the Irish Film Board.


title: Greta (2018 film)

text: Principal photography took place in and around Dublin, beginning in October 2017. It was also filmed on location in Toronto and New York City.


title: Greta (2018 film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on 6 September 2018. Shortly after, Focus Features acquired distribution rights to the film for $4 million, though some sources believed the number was as high as $6 million. It was theatrically released on 1 March 2019 in the United States.


title: Greta (2018 film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Greta" was released alongside "A Madea Family Funeral", and was projected to gross around $6million from 2,000 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $1.6 million on its first day, including $350,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $4.6 million, finishing eighth at the box office.


title: Greta (2018 film)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of , based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "A bonkers B movie that's occasionally elevated by its A-list talent, "Greta" dives headlong into camp and struggles to stay afloat." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 54 out of 100, based on 42 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C" on an A+ to F scale, while those at PostTrak gave it an average 2 out of 5 stars and a 34% "definite recommend".


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: The Boeing MH-6M Little Bird (nicknamed the Killer Egg) and its attack variant, the AH-6, are light helicopters used for special operations in the United States Army. Originally based on a modified OH-6A, it was later based on the MD 500E, with a single five-bladed main rotor. The newest version, the MH-6M, is based on the MD 530F and has a single, six-bladed main rotor and four-bladed tail rotor.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: The OH-6 was started in 1960, when the U.S. Army issued Technical Specification 153 for a Light Observation Helicopter (LOH) that could perform personnel transport, escort and attack missions, casualty evacuation, and observation. Twelve companies took part in the competition and Hughes Tool Company's Aircraft Division submitted the Model 369. Two designs, those submitted by Fairchild-Hiller and Bell, were selected as finalists by the Army-Navy design competition board, but the Army later included the helicopter from Hughes as well.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: The first Model 369 prototype flew on 27 February 1963. Originally designated the YHO-6A under the army's designation system, the aircraft was redesignated the YOH-6A under the Department of Defense's new joint system in 1962. Five prototypes were built, each fitted with a Allison T63-A-5A engine, and delivered to the U.S. Army at Fort Rucker, Alabama to compete against the other 10 prototype aircraft submitted by Bell and Fairchild-Hiller. In the end, Hughes won the competition and the Army awarded a contract for production in May 1965. The initial order was for 714 aircraft, but that was later increased to 1,300 with an option to buy another 114. Seventy helicopters were built in the first month.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: This agile, unarmed helicopter is outfitted with outboard "benches" designed to ferry up to three commandos on each side. There is also a gunship variant, the AH-6. Painted black for nighttime operations, this small aircraft can conduct rapid insertions and extractions of special operations forces into areas its larger brother, the MH-60 Black Hawk, cannot.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: After the April 1980 failure of Operation Eagle Claw, it was determined that the US Army lacked aircraft and crews who were trained and prepared to perform special operations missions. (Marine pilots and Navy helicopters were used.) To remedy this shortcoming, the Army began developing a special aviation task force to prepare for the next attempt to rescue the hostages: Operation Credible Sport.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: The United States Army 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne), also known as Night Stalkers, is a special operations force that provides helicopter aviation support for general purpose forces and special operations forces. Its missions have included attack, assault, and reconnaissance, and are usually conducted at night, at high speeds, low altitudes, and on short notice.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: The architects of the task force identified the need for a small helicopter that could land in the most restrictive locations and could be easily transported on Air Force airlifters. They chose the OH-6A scout helicopter, and it became known as the Little Bird compared to the other aircraft in the task force, the UH-60A and the CH-47C. As a separate part of the project, armed OH-6As were being developed at Fort Rucker, Alabama.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: The pilots selected to fly the OH-6A helicopters came from the 229th Attack Helicopter Battalion and were sent to the Mississippi Army National Guard's Army Aviation Support Facility (AASF) at Gulfport, Mississippi, for two weeks of qualification training in the aircraft. When the training was completed, C-141 aircraft transported the aircraft and crews to Fort Huachuca, Arizona, for two weeks of mission training. The mission training consisted of loading onto C-130 transport aircraft which would then transport them to forward staging areas over routes as long as . The armed OH-6 aircraft from Fort Rucker joined the training program in the fall of 1980.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: Operation Credible Sport was a joint project of the U.S. military in the second half of 1980 to prepare for a second rescue attempt of the hostages held in Iran. It was canceled after the hostages were released on 20 January 1981 and, for a short while, it looked as if the task force would be disbanded and the personnel returned to their former units. However, the Army decided that it would be more prudent to keep the unit. The task force, which had been designated Task Force 158, was soon formed into the 160th Aviation Battalion. The OH-6A helicopters used for transporting personnel became the MH-6 aircraft of the Light Assault Company and the armed OH-6As became the AH-6 aircraft of the Light Attack Company.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: The OH-6s of 160th SOAR saw overt combat action for the first time in Grenada during Operation Urgent Fury on the Oct. 25, 1983. On D-Day, six MH-6 and two AH-6s were flown to the Eastern Caribbean island from Pope Air Force Base in North Carolina in the bellies of four Air Force C-130s. In addition to the helicopter air crews, the aircraft also carried a company of U.S. Army Rangers and a Delta Force squadron, units that were also part of the American assault forces.  By the time the aircraft arrived over the island, other Rangers, flying separately from the U.S., had parachuted onto a nearly finished runway on the island's southwestern coast. When the air-dropped Rangers secured the runway, the four C-130s landed and unloaded. The two AH-6s set off for the capital city of St. George's to attack Fort Rupert, the permanent Grenadian military headquarters. The “Little Birds” found air defenses around the capital to be too formidable and they returned to the airport within 10 minutes. (This action appears to have given rise to later erroneous published speculation that an OH-6 was shot down on D-Day) A planned MH-6 assault by the Ranger/Delta force on Fort Rupert (also known as Fort George) was cancelled because of the stiff antiaircraft resistance. However, it did participate in other unscripted support tasks, including ferrying wounded servicemen to medical facilities on Navy ships offshore and a search and rescue mission to a Black Hawk helicopter crash site.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: None of these aircraft were listed in the public inventory of U.S. military at the time. The existence of the secret aviation unit became widely known in the aftermath of the invasion, as OH-6s helicopters were photographed and filmed in action by civilians onlookers.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: The CIA also deployed a two highly modified, "silent" Hughes 500D helicopters to nearby Barbados in advance of the invasion. They were offered to the Pentagon's invasion commanders for clandestine reconnaissance purposes, but were not used by the military over Grenada during Urgent Fury.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: By 1983, 160th SOAR and its helicopters were heavily committed to supporting the contras, a United States-subsidized military force. Specially adapted unmarked Hughes 500D helicopters from the CIA Seaspray unit based in Fort Eustis also took part in this task .


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: MH-6s were based in Palmerola Air Base, Honduras, and flew missions into Nicaragua. The unit members wore civilian clothes, flew by night, and were instructed to destroy their aircraft if they were forced down.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: On 24 July 1987, a Kuwaiti oil tanker, reflagged as "Bridgeton" and escorted by U.S. Navy warships, struck a mine in the Persian Gulf. It became apparent that more than escort ships would be required to guard merchant ships. The U.S. military deployed the MH-6 and AH-6 aircraft from the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (SOAR) to provide surveillance and patrols in cooperation with other U.S. special operations units in Operation Prime Chance.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: Two MH-6 and four AH-6 aircraft were initially deployed and designated as Detachment 160 Aviation Group (DET 160 AVGP). The MH-6 aircraft carried Forward Looking Infra-Red (FLIR) and a videotape system which gave them excellent ability to detect and identify targets, then direct the armed AH-6s. The AH-6 helicopters were armed with 7.62 miniguns and 2.75-inch rockets. Initially, the aircraft patrolled in teams (call sign "SEABAT") that waited for U.S. Navy SH-2s to direct them to the targets. Later, to preserve the aircraft and crews from fatigue and wear, the SEABAT teams remained on the ship's deck until a contact was identified.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: At 10 pm on 21 September 1987, the captain of launched a SEABAT team (a MH-6 and two AH-6s) to check out reports of Iranian minelaying. The team found "Iran Ajr", an amphibious landing ship equipped with minelaying racks. The MH-6 confirmed that "Iran Ajr" was laying mines, the AH-6s opened fire, causing the crew to abandon ship. The vessel was subsequently boarded and captured.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: On the night of 8 October 1987, an Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps Boghammar and two Boston Whaler boats were detected by an SH-2. A SEABAT team was launched from , and as the MH-6 drew near to investigate, the Boghammar opened fire, the first of a series of engagements by both AH-6s and the MH-6 (recently armed with a minigun). The Boghammar launched two Stinger missiles at the helicopters, but eventually all three boats were sunk.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: For the remainder of the operation, barges, set up as mobile sea bases (MSB), would facilitate the operation of the special operations forces. "Hercules" and "Wimbrown VII" were leased to provide these bases and the SEABAT teams began operating from the barges.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: In early 1988, it was decided that modified U.S. Army OH-58D helicopters, fitted with weapons, would replace the SEABAT teams. On 24 February 1988, a team of two AHIP helicopters replaced the SEABAT team on the Wimbrown VII but it would be several months (June 1988) before the SEABAT team aboard the barge Hercules would be relieved by another AHIP detachment.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: On 17 December 1989, 9 MH-6s, 11 AH-6G/Js, 19 UH/MH-60As were flown by Air Force C-5 Galaxy airlifters to Howard AFB's Hangar 3. After dark, on 19 December, the aircraft were rolled out to prepare for Operation Just Cause.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: Before the main invasion force arrived in Panama City, Panama, two MH-6s supported by two AH-6s landed at Torrijos-Tocumen Airport to insert a beacon and combat controllers. Four other AH-6s conducted pre-assault attacks on the Panamanian Defense Force (PDF) Headquarters, "La Comandancia", adjoining the heavily populated "El Chorrillo" neighborhood in downtown Panama City. One of the AH-6s was damaged by ground fire and crashlanded in the Comandancia compound. The two pilots, pinned down by small-arms fire for two hours, eventually made their way back to friendly forces, taking a PDF soldier prisoner along the way.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: Other AH-6s escorted MH-6s on a rooftop rescue operation conducted at "Cárcel Modelo", a prison adjacent to La Comandancia. In Operation Acid Gambit, the aircraft approached the prison. Under fire from a nearby apartment house, the Little Birds landed on the roof, dropped off the rescue team, and lifted off. Upon their return, heavy smoke made it tough to find the roof and the helicopters took heavy fire from a cellblock about 50 to from the landing site. Maj. Richard Bowman, a copilot, took a round in the elbow. His pilot took over the controls and landed the aircraft. The aircraft picked up the rescue personnel and headed back toward Howard AFB, but one MH-6 lost power as it left the roof, and crashed in the street below with minor injuries to the passengers, who were helped from the crash site by U.S. infantry soldiers.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: Elsewhere, four AH-6s provided fire support for the airborne assault at Rio Hato Airfield, supported by an MH-60 which operated as a Forward Arming and Refueling Point (FARP). Two nine-man teams from the 160th participated in the airborne assaults of Torrijos-Tocumen Airfield and Rio Hato Airfield, and were dropped from Air Force C-141s to set up FARPs, platforms with HE-rocket and minigun ammunition, parts and replacements for the miniguns, and fuel and refueling pumps, hoses, etc. But the FARP dropped at Rio Hato landed out of reach in a marsh, forcing the team to "wet wing" refuel from the MH-60.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: The Rio Hato mission originally included nine other MH-60s and four MH-6s. Several hours prior to H-hour, these aircraft and crews were instead sent to support a raid near Colón, Panama, a key PDF stronghold where PDF leaders were believed to be. At H-hour, the helicopters conducted an air assault on a beach house along the coast of Colon. It was during this mission that the first 160th soldiers to die in combat perished when their AH-6 was shot down.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: Another force of eight MH-60s and four MH-6s waited on the airstrip with crew aboard, to conduct follow-on raids should the need arise.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: After these initial missions, elements of the 160th provided support to special operations forces securing outlying areas, recovering weapons caches, and "hunt for Elvis" – the phrase the men of the 160th used to refer to the search for General Manuel Noriega. Four MH-60s, two MH-6s, two AH-6s, and two MH-47s were moved to Ft. Sherman in the north for operations in and around Colon.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: The 160th conducted numerous air assault missions over the next two weeks, and on 3 January 1990, the majority of the force went back to Fort Campbell, Kentucky.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: MH-6 Little Birds were part of the initial assault near the Olympic Hotel in the Bakara Market of Mogadishu, Somalia. The MH-6s conducted rooftop insertions of Delta Force soldiers.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: After the shootdown of the MH-60L, call sign "Super Six-One", by a rocket-propelled grenade (RPG), an MH-6 Little Bird, call sign "Star Four-One", landed in the street next to the downed MH-60 and attempted to evacuate the casualties. The pilot went to assist survivors, successfully pulling two soldiers into the Little Bird, while the copilot laid down suppressive fire from the cockpit with his individual weapon. Under intense ground fire, the MH-6 departed with its crew and survivors.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: During the night, AH-6J gunships provided fire support to Rangers and Delta Force operators who were in defensive positions around the crash site of "Super Six-One" and under constant fire from Warlord Mohammad Farrah Aidid's militia members.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: During the invasion of Iraq in 2003 and up until the end of the war in late 2011, Little Bird pilots took part in numerous missions. Two AH-6 and two MH-6 helicopters were part of a special operations raid at Al Qadisiyah in western Iraq. AH-6 and MH-6 gave support for the 75th Ranger Regiment during its seizure of the Haditha Dam complex in April 2003.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: AH-6 helicopters were also tasked with supporting the rescue mission of Private First Class Jessica Lynch in April 2003.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: MH-6 helicopters were part of TF-145, as well as the rescue of three Italian contractors and Polish businessman taken hostage by Iraqi insurgents in 2004.


title: MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird

text: In September 2009, two AH-6 and two MH-6 helicopters were used in an operation in Somalia by United States Navy SEALs to kill wanted terrorist Saleh Ali Saleh Nabhan.


Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston, (20 October 1784 – 18 October 1865) was a British statesman who was twice Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in the mid-19th century. Palmerston dominated British foreign policy during the period 1830 to 1865, when Britain stood at the height of its imperial power. He held office almost continuously from 1807 until his death in 1865. He began his parliamentary career as a Tory, defected to the Whigs in 1830, and became the first prime minister from the newly formed Liberal Party in 1859. He was highly popular with the British public. David Brown argues that "an important part of Palmerston's appeal lay in his dynamism and vigour".


title: Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston

text: Henry Temple succeeded to his father's Irish peerage (which did not entitle him to a seat in the House of Lords, leaving him eligible to sit in the House of Commons) as the 3rd Viscount Palmerston in 1802. He became a Tory MP in 1807. From 1809 to 1828 he served as Secretary at War, organising the finances of the army. He first attained Cabinet rank in 1827, when George Canning became prime minister, but like other Canningites, he resigned from office one year later. He served as foreign secretary 1830–1834, 1835–1841, and 1846–1851. In this office, Palmerston responded effectively to a series of conflicts in Europe.


text: In 1852 Aberdeen formed a coalition government. The Peelites insisted that Lord John Russell be foreign secretary, forcing Palmerston to take the office of home secretary. As home secretary Palmerston enacted various social reforms, although he opposed electoral reform. When Aberdeen's coalition fell in 1855 over its handling of the Crimean War, Palmerston was the only man able to sustain a majority in Parliament, and he became prime minister. He had two periods in office, 1855–1858 and 1859–1865, before his death at the age of 80 years, a few months after victory in a general election in which he had achieved an increased majority. He remains most recent British prime minister to die in office.


text: Palmerston masterfully controlled public opinion by stimulating British nationalism. Although Queen Victoria and most of the political leadership distrusted him, he received and sustained the favour of the press and the populace, from whom he received the affectionate sobriquet "Pam". Palmerston's alleged weaknesses included mishandling of personal relations, and continual disagreements with the Queen over the royal role in determining foreign policy.


text: Historians rank Palmerston as one of the greatest foreign secretaries, due to his handling of great crises, his commitment to the balance of power (which provided Britain with decisive agency in many conflicts), his analytic skills, and his commitment to British interests. His policies in relation to India, China, Italy, Belgium, and Spain had extensive long-lasting beneficial consequences for Britain. This does not mean that Palmerston is completely without controversy. Palmerston's leadership during the Opium Wars was questioned and denounced by other prominent statesmen such as William Ewart Gladstone. The consequences of the conquest of India may have, at first, seemed to benefit both Britain (in the sense of access to goods and gold) and India (by adding infrastructure and a stable justice system), but this view has been challenged by more recent scholarship. Both the burdens placed on India by enduring the rule of a nation so far away and on the British government saddled with enduring the anxiety of generations of officials on how to properly govern had ended up producing a chaotic administration with minimal coherence. The consequences of his policies toward France, the Ottoman Empire, and the United States proved more ephemeral.


text: Henry John Temple was born in his family's Westminster house to the Irish branch of the Temple family on 20 October 1784. His family derived their title from the Peerage of Ireland, although he rarely visited Ireland. His father was The 2nd Viscount Palmerston (1739–1802), an Anglo-Irish peer, and his mother was Mary (1752–1805), a daughter of Benjamin Mee, a London merchant. From 1792 to 1794, he accompanied his family on a long Continental tour. Whilst in Italy Palmerston acquired an Italian tutor, who taught him to speak and write fluent Italian. The family owned a huge country estate in the north of County Sligo in the northwest of Ireland.


text: He was educated at Harrow School (1795–1800). Admiral Sir Augustus Clifford, 1st Bt., was a fag to Palmerston, Viscount Althorp and Viscount Duncannon and later remembered Palmerston as by far the most merciful of the three. Temple was often engaged in school fights and fellow Old Harrovians remembered Temple as someone who stood up to bullies twice his size. Henry Temple's father took him to the House of Commons in 1799, where the young Palmerston shook hands with the prime minister, William Pitt.


text: Temple was then at the University of Edinburgh (1800–1803), where he learnt political economy from Dugald Stewart, a friend of the Scottish philosophers Adam Ferguson and Adam Smith. Temple later described his time at Edinburgh as producing "whatever useful knowledge and habits of mind I possess". Lord Minto wrote to the young Palmerston's parents that Henry Temple was well-mannered and charming. Stewart wrote to a friend, saying of Temple: "In point of temper and conduct he is everything his friends could wish. Indeed, I cannot say that I have ever seen a more faultless character at this time of life, or one possessed of more amiable dispositions."


text: Henry Temple succeeded his father to the title of Viscount Palmerston on 17 April 1802, before he had turned 18. He also inherited a vast country estate in the north of County Sligo in the west of Ireland. He later built Classiebawn Castle on this estate. Palmerston went to St John's College, Cambridge (1803–1806). As a nobleman, he was entitled to take his MA without examinations, but Palmerston wished to obtain his degree through examinations. This was declined, although he was allowed to take the separate College examinations, where he obtained first-class honours.


text: After war was declared on France in 1803, Palmerston joined the Volunteers mustered to oppose a French invasion, being one of the three officers in the unit for St John's College. He was also appointed Lieutenant-Colonel Commander of the Romsey Volunteers.


text: In February 1806, Palmerston was defeated in the election for the University of Cambridge constituency. In November he was elected for Horsham but was unseated in January 1807, when the Whig majority in the Commons voted for a petition to unseat him.


text: Due to the patronage of Lord Chichester and Lord Malmesbury, Lord Palmerston was given the post of Junior Lord of the Admiralty in the ministry of the Duke of Portland. He stood again for the Cambridge seat in May but he lost by three votes after he advised his supporters to vote for the other Tory candidate in the two-member constituency so as to ensure a Tory was elected.


text: Palmerston entered Parliament as Tory MP for the pocket borough of Newport on the Isle of Wight in June 1807.


text: On 3 February 1808 he spoke in support of confidentiality in the working of diplomacy and the bombardment of Copenhagen and the capture and destruction of the Danish navy by the Royal Navy in the Battle of Copenhagen. Denmark was neutral but Napoleon had recently agreed with the Russians in the Treaty of Tilsit to build a naval alliance against Britain, including using the Danish navy for invading Britain. Pre-empting this, the British offered Denmark the choice of temporarily handing over its navy until the war's end or the destruction of their navy. The Danes refused to comply and so Copenhagen was bombarded. Palmerston justified the attack by peroration with reference to the ambitions of Napoleon to take control of the Danish fleet:


text: it is defensible on the ground that the enormous power of France enables her to coerce the weaker state to become an enemy of England... It is the law of self-preservation that England appeals for the justification of her proceedings. It is admitted by the honourable gentleman and his supporters, that if Denmark had evidenced any hostility towards this country, then we should have been justified in measures of retaliation... Denmark coerced into hostility stands in the same position as Denmark voluntarily hostile, when the law of self-preservation comes into play...Does anyone believe that Buonaparte will be restrained by any considerations of justice from acting towards Denmark as he has done towards other countries? ... England, according to that law of self-preservation which is a fundamental principle of the law of nations, is justified in securing, and therefore enforcing, from Denmark a neutrality which France would by compulsion have converted into an active hostility.


text: In a letter to a friend on 24 December 1807, he described the late Whig MP Edmund Burke as possessing "the palm of political prophecy". This would become a metaphor for his own career in divining the course of imperial foreign policy.


text: Palmerston's speech was so successful that Spencer Perceval, who formed his government in 1809, asked him to become Chancellor of the Exchequer, then a less important office than it was to become from the mid-nineteenth century. Palmerston preferred the office of Secretary at War, charged exclusively with the financial business of the army. Without a seat in the cabinet until 1827, he remained in the latter post for 20 years.


text: On 1 April 1818 a retired officer on half-pay, Lieutenant Davies, who had a grievance about his application from the War Office for a pension and was also mentally ill, shot Lord Palmerston as he walked up the stairs of the War Office. The bullet only grazed his back and the wound was slight. After learning of Davies' illness, he paid for his legal defence at the trial,and Davies was sent to Bedlam.


text: After the suicide of Castlereagh in 1822, the Tory Cabinet of Robert Banks Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool began to split along political lines. The more liberal wing of the Tory government made some ground, with George Canning becoming Foreign Secretary and Leader of the House of Commons, William Huskisson advocating and applying the doctrines of free trade, and Catholic emancipation emerging as an open question. Although Palmerston was not in the Cabinet, he cordially supported the measures of Canning and his friends.


text: Upon the retirement of Lord Liverpool in April 1827, Canning was called to be prime minister. The more conservative Tories, including Sir Robert Peel, withdrew their support, and an alliance was formed between the liberal members of the late ministry and the Whigs. The post of Chancellor of the Exchequer was offered to Palmerston, who accepted it, but this appointment was frustrated by some intrigue between King George IV and John Charles Herries. Lord Palmerston remained Secretary at War, though he gained a seat in the cabinet for the first time. The Canning administration ended after only four months on the death of the Prime Minister, and was followed by the ministry of Lord Goderich, which barely survived the year.


text: The Canningites remained influential, and the Duke of Wellington hastened to include Palmerston, Huskisson, Charles Grant, William Lamb, and the Earl of Dudley in the government he subsequently formed. However, a dispute between Wellington and Huskisson over the issue of parliamentary representation for Manchester and Birmingham led to the resignation of Huskisson and his allies, including Palmerston. In the spring of 1828, after more than twenty years continuously in office, Palmerston found himself in opposition.


text: On 26 February 1828 Palmerston delivered a speech in favour of Catholic Emancipation. He felt that it was unseemly to relieve the "imaginary grievances" of the Dissenters from the established church while at the same time "real afflictions pressed upon the Catholics" of Great Britain. Palmerston also supported the campaign to pass the Reform Bill to extend the franchise to more men in Britain. One of his biographers has stated that: "Like many Pittites, now labelled tories, he was a good whig at heart." The Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 finally passed Parliament in 1829 when Palmerston was in the opposition. The Great Reform Act passed Parliament in 1832.


text: Following his move to opposition Palmerston appears to have focused closely on foreign policy. He had already urged Wellington into active interference in the Greek War of Independence, and he had made several visits to Paris, where he foresaw with great accuracy the impending overthrow of the Bourbons. On 1 June 1829 he made his first great speech on foreign affairs.


text: in September 1830, Wellington tried to induce Palmerston to re-enter the cabinet, but he refused to do so without Lord Lansdowne and Lord Grey, two notable Whigs. This can be said to be the point in 1830, when his party allegiance changed.


text: Palmerston entered the office of Foreign Secretary with great energy and continued to exert his influence there for twenty years; he held it from 1830 to 1834 (his apprentice years), 1835 to 1841, and 1846 to 1851. Basically, Palmerston was responsible for the whole of British foreign policy from the time of the French and Belgian Revolutions of 1830 until December 1851. His abrasive style would earn him the nickname "Lord Pumice Stone", and his manner of dealing with foreign governments who crossed him, especially in his later years, was the original "gunboat diplomacy".


text: The revolutions of 1830 gave a jolt to the settled European system that had been created in 1814–15. The United Kingdom of the Netherlands was rent in half by the Belgian Revolution, the Kingdom of Portugal was the scene of civil war, and the Spanish were about to place an infant princess on the throne. Poland was in arms against the Russian Empire, while the northern powers (Russia, Prussia, and Austria) formed a closer alliance that seemed to threaten the peace and liberties of Europe. Polish exiles called on Britain to intervene against Russia during the November Uprising of 1830.