title: Decembrist revolt

text: Alexander's heir apparent, Konstantin, had privately declined the succession, unknown to the court, and his younger brother Nicholas decided to take power as Emperor Nicholas I, pending formal confirmation. While some of the army had sworn loyalty to Nicholas, a force of about 3,000 troops tried to mount a military coup in favour of Konstantin. The rebels, although weakened by dissension between their leaders, confronted the loyalists outside the Senate building in the presence of a large crowd. In the confusion, the Emperor's envoy, Mikhail Miloradovich, was assassinated. Eventually, the loyalists opened fire with heavy artillery, which scattered the rebels. Many were sentenced to hanging, prison, or exile to Siberia. The conspirators became known as the "Decembrists" ().


title: Decembrist revolt

text: At first, many officers were encouraged by Tsar Alexander I's early liberal reformation of Russian society and politics. Liberalism was encouraged on an official level, creating high expectations during the period of rapprochement between Napoleon and Alexander. The major advocate for reform in Alexander's regime was Count Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky. During his early years in the regime, Speransky helped inspire the organization of the Ministry of the Interior, the reform of ecclesiastic education, and strengthening the government's role in the country's economic development. Speransky's role increased greatly in 1808. From then until 1812, when they feared him as a liberal similar to Napoleon and his invasion, Speransky developed plans for the reorganization of Russia's government. Because of increasing hostility, he was forced to flee into exile.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: Returning from exile in 1819, Speransky was appointed as the governor of Siberia, with the task of reforming local government. In 1818, the tsar asked Count Nikolay Nikolayevich Novosiltsev to draw up a constitution. The abolition of serfdom in the Baltic provinces was instituted between 1816 and 1819. However, internal and external unrest, which the tsar believed stemmed from political liberalization, led to a series of repressions and a return to a former government of restraint and conservatism.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: Meanwhile, the experiences of the Napoleonic Wars and realization of the suffering of peasant soldiers resulted in Decembrist officers and sympathizers being attracted to reform changes in society. They displayed their contempt of court by rejecting the court lifestyle, wearing their cavalry swords at balls (to indicate their unwillingness to dance), and committing themselves to academic study. These new practices captured the spirit of the times as a willingness by the Decembrists to embrace both the peasant (i.e., the fundamental Russian people) and ongoing reform movements from intellectuals abroad.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: Historians have noted that the United States Declaration of Independence and the American Revolution may also have influenced Decembrists, as they did other nations. The constitution written by Nikita Muravyov was highly similar to the United States Constitution. But the Decembrists were against slavery in the United States. They worked to free any slaves and serfs from all countries in Russia immediately. Pestel and his followers opposed the United States' federal model in peaceful times as threatening to the would-be Russian/United Slavic federation; they only approved the US revolutionary model. While agreeing with Pestel that the American revolutionary model could be the best form for Russia, the Polish patriotic society would not agree to participate in establishing a federation. They wanted a United States-style republic or other state, with Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine to be included in a unitary Poland (i.e., more or less the territory of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth), without any Russian involvement in the affairs of these territories.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: In 1816, several officers of the Imperial Russian Guard founded a society known as the Union of Salvation, or of the Faithful and True Sons of the Fatherland. The society acquired a revolutionary cast after it was joined by the idealistic Pavel Pestel. The charter was similar to charters of the organizations of "carbonari." Pestel was supported by Yakushkin when there were rumors that the emperor had intended to transfer the capital from Saint Petersburg to Warsaw, and to liberate all peasants without the consent of Russian landlords. They would not be able to influence a government based in Warsaw. Yakushkin intended to kill the emperor even before the revolution. When the society consisting of Russian landlords had refused to kill the emperor based on such rumors, Yakushkin left the society. The more liberal Mikhail Muravyov-Vilensky created a new charter similar to that of Tugendbund. It did not have revolutionary plans and the society was called the Union of Prosperity. It was still considered illegal and similar to masonic lodges. (The small Order of Russian knights, excepting its prominent member Alexander von Benckendorff, also joined the Union of Prosperity, together with the members of the Union of Salvation.)


title: Decembrist revolt

text: After a mutiny in the Semenovsky Regiment in 1820, the society decided to suspend activity in 1821. Two groups, however, continued to function secretly: a Southern Society, based at Tulchin, a small garrison town in Ukraine, in which Pestel was the outstanding figure, and a Northern Society, based at Saint Petersburg, led by guard officers Nikita Muraviev, Prince S. P. Trubetskoy and Prince Eugene Obolensky. The political aims of the more moderate Northern Society were a British-style constitutional monarchy with a limited franchise. They envisioned that it could be replaced with a republic in the future but only according to the will of the people. They also believed there should be a legislative assembly and did not call for the execution of the imperial family. They supported the abolition of serfdom, according to the interests of Russian landlords, i.e. with land to be retained by landlords, in a style similar to the abolition of serfdom in Baltic provinces. They also supported equality before the law. The Southern Society, under Pestel's influence, was more radical and wanted to abolish the monarchy, establish a republic, similar to the Union of Salvation, and contrary to the Union of Salvation plans, to redistribute land, taking half into state ownership and dividing the rest among the peasants. The Society of United Slavs (also known as the Slavic Union – Pan-Slavism) was established in Novograd-Volynsky in the Ukraine in 1823. Its never-written program was similar to that of the Southern Society but the main emphasis was on the equal federation of Russia (including Ukraine), Poland, Moldavia (including Bessarabia) with the attachment of Wallachia, Transylvania, Hungary (including Slovakia, Slovenia, Vojvodina, the Carpatho-Ukraine aka Zarkarpattia), Croatia, Serbia, Dalmatia, the Czech lands of Bohemia and Moravia, i.e. all Slavic & Vlach countries with the exception of Bulgaria and Macedonia, in the future. This society joined the Southern Society and adopted its program in exchange for the recognition of the Slavic federation zeal by the Southern society in September 1825.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: When Tsar Alexander I died on , the royal guards swore allegiance to the presumed heir, Alexander's brother Konstantin. When Konstantin made his renunciation public, and Nicholas stepped forward to assume the throne, the Northern Society acted. With the capital in temporary confusion, and one oath to Konstantin having already been sworn, the society scrambled in secret meetings to convince regimental leaders not to swear allegiance to Nicholas. These efforts culminated in the Decembrist Revolt. The leaders of the society elected Prince Sergei Trubetskoy as interim ruler.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: On the morning of , a group of officers commanding about 3,000 men (elements of Life-Guards Moscow Regiment, Grenadier Life Guards Regiment, and Naval Equipage of the Guard) assembled in Senate Square, where they refused to swear allegiance to the new tsar, Nicholas I, proclaiming instead their loyalty to Konstantin. They expected to be joined by the rest of the troops stationed in Saint Petersburg, but they were disappointed. The revolt was hampered when it was deserted by its supposed leader Prince Trubetskoy. His second-in-command, Colonel Bulatov, also vanished from the scene. After a hurried consultation, the rebels appointed Prince Eugene Obolensky as a replacement leader.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: For hours, there was a stand-off between the 3,000 rebels and the 9,000 loyal troops stationed outside the Senate building, with some desultory shooting from the rebel side. A vast crowd of civilian on-lookers began fraternizing with the rebels but did not join the action. Eventually, Nicholas (the new tsar) appeared in person at the square and sent Count Mikhail Miloradovich to parley with the rebels. Miloradovich was fatally shot in back by Pyotr Kakhovsky while delivering a public address, then stabbed by Yevgeny Obolensky. At the same time, a rebelling squad of grenadiers, led by Lieutenant Nikolay Panov, entered the Winter Palace but failed to seize it and retreated.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: After spending most of the day in fruitless attempts to parley with the rebel force, Nicholas ordered a cavalry charge by Her Sovereign Majesty Empress Maria Theodorovna's Chevalier Guard Regiment that slipped on the icy cobbles and retired in disorder. Eventually, at the end of the day, Nicholas ordered three artillery pieces to open fire with grapeshot ammunition to devastating effect. To avoid the slaughter, the rebels broke and ran. Some attempted to regroup on the frozen surface of the river Neva to the north. However, they were targeted by the artillery and suffered many casualties. As the ice was broken by the cannon fire, many sank. The revolt in the north came to an end. There was a rumor that during the nighttime, police and loyal army units were detached to clean the city and the Neva river, as many of the dead, dying, and wounded had been cast into it.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: While the Northern Society scrambled in the days leading up to the revolt, the Southern Society (based in Tulchin) took a serious blow. The day before (), acting on reports of treason, the police arrested Pavel Pestel. It took two weeks for the Southern Society to learn of the events in the capital. Meanwhile, other members of the leadership were arrested. The Southern Society, and a nationalistic group called the United Slavs, discussed revolt. When learning of the location of some of the arrested men, the United Slavs freed them by force. One of the freed men, Sergey Muravyov-Apostol, assumed leadership of the revolt. After converting the soldiers of Vasilkov to the cause, Muraviev-Apostol easily captured the city. The rebelling army was confronted by superior forces that were heavily armed with artillery loaded with grapeshot.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: On , the rebels met defeat, and the surviving leaders were sent to Saint Petersburg to stand trial with the northern leaders. The Decembrists were taken to the Winter Palace to be interrogated, tried, and convicted. The murderer Kakhovsky was executed by hanging, together with four other leading Decembrists: Pavel Pestel; the poet Kondraty Ryleyev; Sergey Muravyov-Apostol; and Mikhail Bestuzhev-Ryumin. A further 31 Decembrists facing the death penalty were instead imprisoned. Other Decembrists were exiled to Siberia, Kazakhstan, and the Far East.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: Suspicion also fell on several eminent persons who were on friendly terms with the Decembrist leaders and could have been aware of their clandestine organizations, notably Alexander Pushkin, Aleksander Griboyedov, and Aleksey Yermolov.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: On , the first party of Decembrist convicts began its exodus to Siberia. Among this group were Prince Trubetskoi, Prince Obolensky, Peter and Andrei Borisov, Prince Volkonsky, and Artamon Muraviev, all of them bound for the mines at Nerchinsk. The journey eastward was fraught with hardship, yet for some it offered refreshing changes in scenery and peoples following imprisonment. Decembrist Nikolay Vasil’yevich Basargin was unwell when he set out from Saint Petersburg, but he recovered his strength on the move; his memoirs depict the journey to Siberia in a cheerful light, full of praise for the "common people" and commanding landscapes.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: Not all Decembrists could identify with Basargin's positive experience. Because of their lower social standing, "soldier-Decembrists" experienced the emperor's vengeance in full. Sentenced by court-martial, many of these "commoners" received thousands of lashes. Those that survived went to Siberia on foot, chained alongside common criminals.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: Fifteen out of 124 Decembrists were convicted of "state-crimes" by the Supreme Criminal Court, and sentenced to "exile-to-settlement". These men were sent directly to isolated locales, such as Berezov, Narym, Surgut, Pelym, Irkutsk, Yakutsk, and Viliuisk, among others. Few Russians inhabited these places: The populations consisted mainly of Siberian aborigines, Tunguses, Yakuts, Tartars, Ostiaks, Mongols, and Buriats.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: Of all those exiled, the largest group of prisoners was sent to Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai, transferred three years later to Petrovsky Zavod, near Nerchinsk. This group, sentenced to hard labor, included principal leaders of the Decembrist movement as well as the members of the United Slavs. Siberian Governor-General Lavinsky argued that it was easiest to control a large, concentrated group of convicts, and Emperor Nicholas I pursued this policy in order to maximize surveillance and to limit revolutionaries’ contact with local populations. Concentration facilitated the guarding of prisoners, but it also allowed the Decembrists to continue to exist as a community. This was especially true at Chita. The move to Petrovsky Zavod, however, forced Decembrists to divide into smaller groups; the new location was compartmentalized with an oppressive sense of order. Convicts could no longer congregate casually. Although nothing could destroy the Decembrists’ conception of fraternity, Petrovsky Zavod forced them to live more private lives. Owing to a number of imperial sentence reductions, exiles started to complete their labor terms years ahead of schedule. The labor was of minimal travail; Stanislav Leparsky, commandant of Petrovsky Zavod, failed to enforce Decembrists’ original labor sentences, and criminal convicts carried out much of the work in place of the revolutionaries. Most Decembrists left Petrovsky Zavod between 1835 and 1837, settling in or near Irkutsk, Minusinsk, Kurgan, Tobol’sk, Turinsk, and Yalutorovsk. Those Decembrists who had already lived in or visited Siberia, such as Dimitri Zavalishin, prospered upon leaving Petrovsky Zavod's confines, but most found it physically arduous and more psychologically unnerving than prison life.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: The Siberian population met the Decembrists with great hospitality. Natives played central roles in keeping lines of communication open among Decembrists, friends, and relatives. Most merchants and state employees were also sympathetic. To the masses, the Decembrist exiles were "generals who had refused to take the oath to Nicholas I." They were great figures that had suffered political persecution for their loyalty to the people. On the whole, indigenous Siberian populations greatly respected the Decembrists and were extremely hospitable in their reception of them.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: Upon arrival at places of settlement, exiles had to comply with extensive regulations under a strict governmental regime. Local police watched, regulated, and notated every move that Decembrists attempted to make. Dimitri Zavalishin was thrown into prison for failing to remove his hat before a lieutenant. Not only were political and social activities carefully monitored and prevented, there was interference regarding religious convictions. Local clergy accused Prince Shakhovskoi of "heresy", due to his interest in natural sciences. Authorities investigated and restrained other Decembrists for not attending church. The regime thoroughly censored all correspondences, especially communication with relatives. Messages were scrupulously reviewed by both officials in Siberia and the Third Division of the political intelligence service at Saint Petersburg. This screening process necessitated dry, careful wording on the part of Decembrists. In the words of Bestuzhev, correspondence bore a "lifeless ... imprint of officiality." Under the settlement regime, allowances were extremely meager. Certain Decembrists, including the Volkonskys, the Murav’yovs, and the Trubetskoys, were rich, but the majority of exiles had no money, and were forced to live off a mere 15 desyatins (about 16 hectares) of land, the allotment granted to each settler. Decembrists, with little to no knowledge of the land, attempted to eke out a living on wretched soil with next to no equipment. Financial aid from relatives and wealthier comrades saved many; others perished.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: Despite extensive restrictions, limitations, and hardships, Decembrists believed that they could improve their situation through personal initiative. A constant stream of petitions came out of Petrovsky Zavod addressed to General Leparskii and Emperor Nicholas I. Most of the petitions were written by Decembrists’ wives who had cast aside social privileges and comfort to follow their husbands into exile. These wives joined under the leadership of Princess Mariia Volkonskaia, and by 1832, through relentless petitions, managed to secure for their men formal cancellation of labor requirements, and several privileges, including the right of husbands to live with their wives in privacy. Decembrists managed to gain transfers and allowances through persuasive petitions as well as through the intervention of family members. This process of petitioning, and the resultant concessions made by the tsar and officials, was and would continue to be a standard practice of political exiles in Siberia. The chain of bureaucratic procedures and orders linking Saint Petersburg to Siberian administration was often circumvented or ignored. These breaks in bureaucracy afforded exiles a small capacity for betterment and activism.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: Wives of many Decembrists followed their husbands into exile. The expression Decembrist wife is a Russian symbol of the devotion of a wife to her husband. Maria Volkonskaya, the wife of the Decembrist leader Sergei Volkonsky, notably followed her husband to his exile in Irkutsk. Despite the spartan conditions of this banishment, Sergei Volkonsky and his wife Maria took opportunities to celebrate the liberalising mode of their exile. Sergei took to wearing an untrimmed beard (rejecting Peter the Great's reforms and salon fashion), wearing peasant dress and socialising with many of his peasant associates with whom he worked the land at his farm in Urik. Maria, equally, established schools, a foundling hospital and a theater for the local population. Sergei returned after 30 years of his exile had elapsed, though his titles and land remained under royal possession. Other exiles preferred to remain in Siberia after their sentences were served, preferring its relative freedom to the stifling intrigues of Moscow and Saint Petersburg, and after years of exile there was not much for them to return to. Many Decembrists thrived in exile, in time becoming landowners and farmers. In later years, they became idols of the populist movement of the 1860s and the 1870s as the Decembrists' advocacy of reform (including the abolition of serfdom) won them many admirers, including the writer Leo Tolstoy.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: During their time in exile, the Decembrists fundamentally influenced Siberian life. Their presence was most definitely felt culturally and economically, political activity being so far removed from the "pulse of national life" so as to be negligible. While in Petrovsky Zavod, Decembrists taught each other foreign languages, arts and crafts, and musical instruments. They established "academies" made up of libraries, schools, and symposia. In their settlements, Decembrists were fierce advocates of education, and founded many schools for natives, the first of which opened at Nerchinsk. Schools were also founded for women, and soon exceeded capacity. Decembrists contributed greatly to the field of agriculture, introducing previously unknown crops such as vegetables, tobacco, rye, buckwheat, and barley, and advanced agricultural methods such as hothouse cultivation. Trained doctors among the political exiles promoted and organized medical aid. The homes of prominent exiles like Prince Sergei Volkonsky and Prince Sergei Trubetskoi became social centers of their locales. All throughout Siberia, the Decembrists sparked an intellectual awakening: literary writings, propaganda, newspapers, and books from European Russia began to circulate the eastern provinces, the local population developing a capacity for critical political observation. The Decembrists even held a certain influence within Siberian administration; Dimitry Zavalishin played a critical role in developing and advocating Russian Far East policy. Although the Decembrists lived in isolation, their scholarly activities encompassed Siberia at large, including its culture, economy, administration, population, geography, botany, and ecology. Despite restricted circumstances, the Decembrists accomplished an extraordinary amount, and their work was deeply appreciated by Siberians.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: On 26 August 1856, with the ascent of Alexander II to the throne, the Decembrists received amnesty, and their rights, privileges were restored. Their children obtained rights, privileges and even titles of their fathers (such as princes) even if their fathers' titles were not restored. However, not all chose to return to the West. Some were financially inhibited, others had no family, and many were weak with old age. To many, Siberia had become home. Those that did return to European Russia did so with enthusiasm for the enforcement of the Emancipation Reforms of 1861. The exile of the Decembrists led to the permanent implantation of an intelligentsia in Siberia. For the first time, a cultural, intellectual, and political elite came to Siberian society as permanent residents; they integrated with the country and participated alongside natives in its development.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: With the failure of the Decembrists, Russia's autocracy would continue for almost a century, although serfdom would be officially abolished in 1861 and the parliaments in Russia and Finland would be established in 1905. Finland had a parliament since Alexander I, but the number of electors was limited. The Russian Constitution of 1905 was called "The basic laws" as the Decembrists had called it. Though defeated, the Decembrists did effect some change on the regime. Their dissatisfaction forced Nicholas I to turn his attention inward to address the issues of the empire. He included many Decembrists who had joined his forces on the Senate Square and did not ultimately support the revolt in spite of their participation in Decembrist meetings into his government (such as Benkendorf, appointed to supervise the human rights, Muraviev-Vilensky and others). In 1826, Speransky was appointed by Nicholas I to head the "Second Section" of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery, a committee formed to codify Russian law. Under his leadership, the committee produced a publication of the complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire, containing 35,993 enactments. This codification called the "Full Collection of Laws" ("Polnoye Sobraniye Zakonov") was presented to Nicholas I, and formed the basis for the "Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire" ("Svod Zakonov Rossiskoy Imperii"), the positive law valid for the Russian Empire. Speransky's liberal ideas were subsequently scrutinized and elaborated by Konstantin Kavelin and Boris Chicherin.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: Although the revolt was a proscribed topic during Nicholas’ reign, Alexander Herzen placed the profiles of executed Decembrists on the cover of his radical periodical "Polar Star". Alexander Pushkin addressed poems to his Decembrist friends; Nikolai Nekrasov, whose father served together with Decembrists in Ukraine, wrote a long poem about the Decembrist wives; and Leo Tolstoy started writing a novel on that liberal movement, which would later evolve into "War and Peace". In the Soviet era Yuri Shaporin produced an opera entitled "Dekabristi" (The Decembrists), about the revolt, with the libretto written by Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy. It premiered at the Bolshoi Theatre on 23 June 1953.


title: Decembrist revolt

text: To some extent, the Decembrists were in the tradition of a long line of palace revolutionaries of 1725–1825 who wanted to place their candidate on the throne, but many Decembrists also wanted to implement either classical liberalism or a moderate conservatism contrary to the more Jacobin, centralizing program of Pavel Pestel or the pan-Slavic confederation-advocating revolutionaries of the "Society of United Slavs". The majority of Decembrists were not members of illegal organizations similar to the participants of palace revolutions. Some were members of the Union of Prosperity only, sympathetic to an official, pro-governmental fairly conservative program. But their revolt, unlike previous Romanov palace revolutions, has been considered the beginning of a revolutionary movement. The uprising was the first open breach between the government and reformist elements of the Russian nobility, which would subsequently widen.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Macon ( ), officially Macon–Bibb County, is a consolidated city-county in the U.S. state of Georgia. Situated near the fall line of the Ocmulgee River, it is located southeast of Atlanta and lies near the geographic center of the state of Georgia—hence the city's nickname, "The Heart of Georgia".


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Macon had a population of 157,346 in the year 2020. It is the principal city of the Macon Metropolitan Statistical Area, which had a population of 233,802 in 2020. Macon is also the largest city in the Macon–Warner Robins Combined Statistical Area (CSA), a larger trading area with an estimated 420,693 residents in 2017; the CSA abuts the Atlanta metropolitan area just to the north.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: In a 2012 referendum, voters approved the consolidation of the governments of the City of Macon and Bibb County, thereby making Macon Georgia's fourth-largest city (just after Augusta). The two governments officially merged on January 1, 2014.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Macon is served by three interstate highways: I-16 (connecting the city to Savannah and coastal Georgia), I-75 (connecting the city with Atlanta to the north and Valdosta to the south), and I-475 (a city bypass highway).


title: Macon, Georgia

text: The city has several institutions of higher education, as well as numerous museums and tourism sites. The area is served by Middle Georgia Regional Airport and Herbert Smart Downtown Airport.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Macon was founded on the site of the Ocmulgee Old Fields, where the Creek Indians lived in the 18th century. Their predecessors, the Mississippian culture, built a powerful chiefdom (950–1100 AD) based on the practice of agriculture. The Mississippian culture constructed earthwork mounds for ceremonial, burial, and religious purposes. The areas along the rivers in the Southeast had been inhabited by indigenous peoples for 13,000 years before Europeans arrived.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Macon was developed at the site of Fort Benjamin Hawkins, built in 1809 at the fall line of the Ocmulgee River to protect the community and to establish a trading post with Native Americans. The fort was named in honor of Benjamin Hawkins, Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Southeast territory south of the Ohio River for more than 20 years. He lived among the Creek and was married to a Creek woman. This was the most inland point of navigation on the river from the Low Country. President Thomas Jefferson forced the Creek to cede their lands east of the Ocmulgee River and ordered the fort built. (Archeological excavations in the 21st century found evidence of two separate fortifications.)


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Fort Hawkins guarded the Lower Creek Pathway, an extensive and well-traveled American Indian network later improved by the United States as the Federal Road from Washington, D.C., to the ports of Mobile, Alabama and New Orleans, Louisiana. A gathering point of the Creek and U.S. cultures for trading, it was also a center of the state militia and federal troops. The fort served as a major military distribution point during the War of 1812 against Great Britain and also during the Creek War of 1813. Afterward, the fort was used as a trading post for several years and was garrisoned until 1821. It was decommissioned about 1828 and later burned to the ground. A replica of the southeast blockhouse was built in 1938 and still stands today on a hill in east Macon. Part of the fort site was occupied by the Fort Hawkins Grammar School. In the 21st century, archeological excavations have revealed more of the fort's importance, and stimulated planning for additional reconstruction of this major historical site.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: As many Europeans had already begun to move into the area, Fort Hawkins was renamed "Newtown." After the organization of Bibb County in 1822, the city was chartered as the county seat in 1823 and officially named Macon. This was in honor of the North Carolina statesman Nathaniel Macon, because many of the early residents of Georgia hailed from North Carolina. The city planners envisioned "a city within a park" and created a city of spacious streets and parks. They designated for Central City Park, and passed ordinances requiring residents to plant shade trees in their front yards.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: The city thrived due to its location on the Ocmulgee River, which enabled shipping to markets. Cotton became the mainstay of Macon's early economy, based on the enslaved labor of African Americans. Macon was in the Black Belt of Georgia, where cotton was the commodity crop. Cotton steamboats, stagecoaches, and later, in 1843, a railroad increased marketing opportunities and contributed to the economic prosperity of Macon. In 1836, the Georgia Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church founded Wesleyan College in Macon. Wesleyan was the first college in the United States chartered to grant degrees to women. In 1855, a referendum was held to determine a capital city for Georgia. Macon came in last with 3,802 votes.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: During the American Civil War, Macon served as the official arsenal of the Confederacy manufacturing percussion caps, friction primers, and pressed bullets. Camp Oglethorpe, in Macon, was used first as a prison for captured Union officers and enlisted men. Later it held officers only, up to 2,300 at one time. The camp was evacuated in 1864.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Macon City Hall, which served as the temporary state capitol in 1864, was converted to a hospital for wounded Confederate soldiers. The Union General William Tecumseh Sherman spared Macon on his march to the sea. His troops had sacked the nearby state capital of Milledgeville, and Maconites prepared for an attack. Sherman, however, passed by without entering Macon.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: The "Macon Telegraph" wrote that, of the 23 companies which the city had furnished the Confederacy, only enough men survived and were fit for duty to fill five companies by the end of the war. The human toll was very high.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: In the twentieth century, Macon grew into a prospering town in Middle Georgia. It began to serve as a transportation hub for the entire state. In 1895, the New York Times dubbed Macon "The Central City," in reference to the city's emergence as a hub for railroad transportation and textile factories. Terminal Station was built in 1916.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: In 1994 Tropical Storm Alberto made in Florida bringing of rain, which resulted in major flooding in Georgia. Macon was one of the cities to suffer the worst flooding.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: On May 11, 2008, an EF2 tornado touched down in nearby Lizella. The tornado then moved northeast to the southern shore of Lake Tobesofkee then continued into Macon and lifted near Dry Branch in Twiggs County. The tornado produced sporadic areas of major damage. Widespread straight-line wind damage was also produced along and south of the track of the tornado. The most significant damage was in Macon along Eisenhower Parkway and Pio Nono Avenue where two businesses were destroyed and several others were heavily damaged. Middle Georgia State College was also damaged by the tornado, snapping or uprooting around 50% of the campus trees and doing significant damage to several buildings on campus, with the gymnasium sustaining the worst damage. This tornado varied in intensity from EF0 to EF2 with the EF2 damage and winds up to occurring near the intersection of Eisenhower Parkway and Pio Nono Avenue. Total path length was with a path width of .


title: Macon, Georgia

text: On July 31, 2012, voters in Macon (57.8 percent approval) and Bibb County (56.7 percent approval) passed a referendum to merge the governments of the city of Macon and most of unincorporated Bibb County, based on the authorization of House Bill 1171, passed by the Georgia General Assembly earlier in the year; four previous consolidation attempts (in 1933, 1960, 1972, and 1976) had failed.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Under the consolidation, the governments of Macon and Bibb County were replaced with a single mayor and a nine-member countywide commission elected to office by county districts. A portion of Macon that had extended into nearby Jones County was disincorporated from Macon. Robert Reichert was the first mayor of Macon-Bibb after the election in September 2013 and a runoff with C. Jack Ellis in October.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: The Ocmulgee River is a major river that runs through the city. Macon is one of Georgia's three major Fall Line Cities, along with Augusta and Columbus. The Fall Line is where the hilly lands of the Piedmont plateau meet the flat terrain of the coastal plain. As such, Macon has a varied landscape of rolling hills on the north side and flat plains on the south. The fall line, where the altitude drops noticeably, causes rivers and creeks in the area to flow rapidly toward the ocean. In the past, Macon and other Fall Line cities had many textile mills powered by the rivers.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and (0.82%) is water.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Macon has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfa"). The normal monthly mean temperature ranges from in January to in July. On average, there are 4.8 days with + highs, 83 days with + highs, and 43 days with a low at or below freezing; the average window for freezing temperatures is November 7 thru March 22, allowing a growing season of 228 days. The city has an average annual precipitation of . Snow is occasional, with about half of the winters receiving trace amounts or no snowfall, averaging ; the snowiest winter was 1972−73 with .


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Macon is the largest principal city of the Macon-Warner Robins-Fort Valley CSA, a Combined Statistical Area that includes the Macon metropolitan area (Bibb, Crawford, Jones, Monroe, and Twiggs counties) and the Warner Robins metropolitan area (Houston, Peach, and Pulaski counties), which had a combined population of 411,898 at the 2010 census.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: As of the official 2010 U.S. Census, the population of Macon was 91,351. In the last official census, in 2000, there were 97,255 people, 38,444 households, and 24,219 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 44,341 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 67.94% African American, 28.56% White, 0.02% Native American, 0.65% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.46% from other races, and 0.77% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 2.48% of the population.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: There were 38,444 households, out of which 30.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 33.0% were married couples living together, 25.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.0% were non-families. 31.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.08.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 26.9% under the age of 18, 11.3% from 18 to 24, 27.5% from 25 to 44, 20.0% from 45 to 64, and 14.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 79.7 males. For every 100 females aged 18 and over, there were 72.8 males.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: According to the 2010 Census, the median household income in the city was $28,366, as compared with the state average of $49,347. The median family income was $37,268. Full-time working males had a median income of $34,163 versus $28,082 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,010. About 24.1% of families and 30.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 43.6% of those under age 18 and 18.4% of those over 65.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Malls include The Shoppes at River Crossing, Macon Mall, and Eisenhower Crossing. Traditional shopping centers are in the downtown area and Ingleside Village.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Robins Air Force Base, the largest single-site industrial complex in the state of Georgia, is just 10 miles south of Macon on Highway 247 next to the city of Warner Robins.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: The headquarters of the 48th Infantry Brigade Combat Team, Georgia Army National Guard is located in Macon.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Macon was home to numerous musicians/composers including Emmett Miller, The Allman Brothers Band, Randy Crawford, Mark Heard, Lucille Hegamin, Ben Johnston, Otis Redding, Little Richard, Mike Mills, and Bill Berry of R.E.M., as well as more recent artists like violinist Robert McDuffie and country artist Jason Aldean. Capricorn Records, run by Macon natives Phil Walden and briefly Alan Walden, made the city a center for Southern rock music production in the late 1960s and 1970s.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: The Macon Symphony Orchestra, a youth symphony, and the Middle Georgia Concert Band perform at the Grand Opera House in downtown Macon.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Macon is home to the Mercer Bears, who compete at the NCAA Division I level in sports that include soccer (men's and women's), football, baseball, basketball (men's and women's), tennis, and lacrosse. Central Georgia Technical College also competes in men's and women's basketball. Wesleyan College, an all-female school, has teams in basketball, soccer, cross country, tennis, softball, and volleyball.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Prior to 2013, the city government consisted of a mayor and city council. Robert Reichert was elected the first mayor of the consolidated Macon-Bibb County in October 2013. There are also 9 County Commissioners elected from districts within the county.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: On March 15, 2019, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission charged the former County Manager, Dale M. Walker, with fraud.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Georgia Academy for the Blind, operated by the state of Georgia, is a statewide school for blind students.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Macon has a substantial number of local television and radio stations. It is also served by two local papers.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: In "Bart on the Road", the Season 7 episode of "The Simpsons", character Nelson Muntz suggests the boys take a road trip to Macon. Later he reminds the group that none of their trouble would have happened had they chosen Macon over Knoxville, Tennessee.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: In Margaret Mitchell's novel "Gone with the Wind", Aunt Pittypat's coachman, Uncle Peter, protected her when she fled to Macon during Sherman's assault on Atlanta.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: U.S. Senator Augustus Bacon, of Georgia, in his 1911 will, devised land in Macon in trust, to be used as a public park for the exclusive benefit of white people. The park, known as Baconsfield, was operated in that manner for many years. In "Evans v. Newton", the Supreme Court of the United States held that the park could not continue to be operated on a racially discriminatory basis. The Supreme Court of Georgia thereupon declared “that the sole purpose for which the trust was created has become impossible of accomplishment” and remanded the case to the trial court, which held cy-près doctrine to be inapplicable, since the park's segregated character was an essential and inseparable part of Bacon's plan. The trial court ruled that the trust failed and that the property reverted to Bacon's heirs. The Supreme Court of Georgia and the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed. The 50-acre (20 ha) park was lost and commercially developed.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: The city of Macon is visited in two different "The Walking Dead" spinoff games by Telltale Games: "The Walking Dead: Season One" and "The Walking Dead: 400 Days".


title: Macon, Georgia

text: In "Season One", the city is portrayed as a small rural town and is visited by the main characters as they temporarily set up camp in the city. The city is the hometown of the game's main protagonist and the playable character throughout the game, Lee Everett. He and the other survivors barricade themselves inside his family's pharmacy as they are besieged by zombies. After one of the survivors dies, the group heads to a motel on the outskirts of Macon where they set up camp for two more episodes, before eventually deciding to leave the city for Savannah.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: In "400 Days", the city is briefly shown in the episode "Vince's Story" as a flashback to when the episode's main character, Vince, fatally shoots an unseen and unnamed resident of the city before fleeing into the night before the apocalypse began. This murder would ultimately lead to Vince's arrest and the events that occurred at the beginning of the zombie apocalypse.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: The Macon Transit Authority (MTA) is Macon's public-transit system, operating the Public Transit City Bus System throughout Macon-Bibb County. As of 2022, the MTA has a total of 10 city bus routes, operating out of the Terminal Station hub.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Greyhound Lines provides intercity bus service. In 2019, they moved from a stand-alone bus station to the Terminal Station to be in the same hub as the local mass transit busses.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Macon grew as a center of rail transport after the 1846 opening of the Macon and Western Railroad. Two of the most note-worthy train companies operating through the city were the Central of Georgia Railway and the Southern Railway. The city continued to be served by passenger trains at Terminal Station until 1971. The Frisco Railroad's "Kansas City–Florida Special" served the city until 1964. The Southern's "Royal Palm" ran from Cincinnati, through Macon, to Miami, Florida until 1966. (A truncated route served to Valdosta, Georgia until 1970.) The Central of Georgia's "Nancy Hanks" ran through Macon, from Atlanta to Savannah until 1971.


title: Macon, Georgia

text: Since at least 2006 Macon has been included in the proposed Georgia Rail Passenger Program to restore inter-city rail service but as of 2020, Georgia lacks any inter-city passenger rail service other than the federally funded inter-state Amtrak services. In 2022, Amtrak announced a new fifteen year plan to expand its services, which Macon was included in.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: Red is a 2021 Indian Telugu-language crime thriller film directed by Kishore Tirumala and produced by Sri Sravanthi Movies. It stars Ram Pothineni in a double role with Nivetha Pethuraj, Malvika Sharma and Amritha Aiyer. A remake of the Tamil film "Thadam" (2019), it follows a murder investigation involving a civil engineer and his lookalike as prime suspects.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: The film was announced in October, had its principal shoot commenced in November 2019 and ended in March 2020. Most of the film was shot in Hyderabad, except for two songs that were shot in Italy. "Red" has music composed by Mani Sharma while Sameer Reddy and Junaid Siddiqui performed the cinematography and editing, respectively. The film was released on 14 January 2021, coinciding with Sankranthi, after being delayed from its initial release date of 9 April 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: Siddharth is an IIT graduated civil engineer running a successful building firm, while his lookalike, Aditya, is a gambling thief who deceives people along with his sidekick, Vema. Siddharth is in love with Mahima, while Gayathri loves Aditya, unaware of his real identity. One day, Aditya tries to help Vema pay his debt by extracting money from Gayathri through lies, but she helps him in spite of knowing the truth. After taking the money, Aditya is enraged, and so is Siddharth after a party. That night, one of them breaks into a house and attacks the owner, Akash, stabbing him to death.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: The next day, Aditya frees Vema by paying his debt and wins Gayathri's trust by returning her money and telling her the truth. As the investigation of Akash's murder proceeds, a selfie clicked by a couple nearby is found with either Siddharth or Aditya in it. Both of them are brought in and interrogated without knowledge of the other's presence. CI Nagendra, who shares an old rivalry with Siddharth, tortures him. Siddharth's alibi is that his car broke down, and as his car doesn't have the repair kit, he called a taxi driver to help him. Sub-inspector Yamini handles Aditya, who on the other hand, cites various laws to escape torture. She reaches out to Akash's friend and shows him the photograph of Siddharth/Aditya, but he refuses to recognize him. She also questions Vema and orders him not to leave the city without permission, but he secretly escapes.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: Yamini then learns of the rivalry between Siddharth and Nagendra; Siddharth helped Nagendra's daughter elope with her lover against her father's wishes. The forensic expert informs Yamini about a hair sample recovered from the crime scene and how it doesn't match anyone else in Akash's home. At the police station, Siddharth tries to escape but is interrupted by Aditya. The two violently fight, hurting everyone and vandalizing the station in the process.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: Aditya and Siddharth are revealed to be identical twins after their DNA is found to be the same, and both confess their pasts: The twins parted ways in their childhood when their parents divorced. Aditya lived with his mother, who developed a gambling addiction to cope with her grief and anger over her difficult family and marital life, but wouldn't refuse anyone who asked for help. One day, Aditya's mother promised to give up gambling, but instead committed suicide. Aditya was then taken in by his father, who showed no love to him. As a result, he ended up developing the gambling addiction. One day, his father spotted him gambling and took him by force, whe got into a fight with him and Siddarth. The twins then spent one year in a mental development institution due to anger management issues.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: Later, Aditya became interested in studying law but eventually left school due to his lack of college ethics. The duo separated once their dad died. Recently, when Aditya came home one day and left in front of Siddharth, his ring for Mahima went missing. Siddharth reported his brother to the police, who beat him up. Aditya himself told Siddharth where the ring was, causing Siddharth to realize his mistake. Aditya had actually come home for a photo of their mother, and vowed to seek revenge.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: Nagendra still wants to frame Siddharth for Akash's murder, but the taxi driver who helped Siddharth confirms he was really stuck on the night of the murder. It is also proved that Aditya paid Vema's debt with gambling money he won after playing all night. The court acquits both Aditya and Siddharth in order to protect the innocent one from punishment. Nagendra voluntarily retires without getting his revenge. A disappointed Yamini later calls Akash's friend to inquire about a girl he was infatuated with, and is shocked to learn it was Mahima. Siddharth is finally revealed to have murdered Akash for drugging, kidnapping and raping Mahima to death out of a childhood lust. Akash had also bribed the police to avoid charges. When Aditya found out about the murder, he helped Siddharth by getting arrested as well to throw off the police.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: Later, Aditya meets with Siddharth and explains how Yamini can't reopen the case since she created a fake witness to help Siddharth and could get herself arrested, having been suspended once for doing this. Siddharth gives Aditya a photograph of them with their mother and says he is going to Mumbai, and later to Copenhagen, never to return. Having sold all of his property in India, Siddharth gives a 50% share to Aditya as a tribute. After his marriage to Gayathri, Aditya realizes his lack of trust in his mother, coupled with her family's, prompted her to kill herself. He promises to do better with his wife.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: Seven months later, some of the investigating officers agree to appear in a documentary about the murder. One of the officers calls the case unprecedented, before a filmmaker tells him that similar cases occurred in other countries as well.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: On 13 March 2019, producers Sravanthi Ravi Kishore of Sri Sravanthi Movies, purchased the remake rights of the Arun Vijay-starrer "Thadam" (2019), starring Ram Pothineni in the lead role. However, he had not signed his final call for the film, as he was busy in shooting for the film "ISmart Shankar" (2019) in Goa, which is also yet to see the Tamil film. Although it was rumoured that Magizh Thirumeni, the director of its original counterpart, wanted to direct its Telugu remake, Kishore Tirumala was signed to helm the project. The film marks the third collaboration of Ram and Tirumala, after "Nenu Sailaja" (2016) and "Vunnadhi Okate Zindagi" (2017).


title: Red (2021 film)

text: In July 2019, Nivetha Pethuraj was cast for Vidya Pradeep's character from the original film. Actresses Malvika Sharma and Amritha Aiyer were also signed. On 28 October 2019, coinciding the eve of Diwali, title of the film was announced as "Red."


title: Red (2021 film)

text: The film was launched on 30 October 2019, at a studio in Hyderabad, and Puri Jagannadh and Charmme Kaur, clapped the first shot of the film. Although, the makers announced that the shooting of the film will commence from 16 November 2019, filming began two days earlier. The film has action choreographed by Peter Hein.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: While the major portions of the film were shot in Hyderabad, the makers headed to Italy, to shoot two songs for the film, choreographed by Shobi Paulraj. The shoot was commenced on 12 February 2020 in Florence, Tuscany and the Dolomites, and ended on 20 February. It was also announced that the dubbing of the film was completed within early February.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: The makers headed to Hyderabad to complete the last leg of the shoot on 5 March. According to reports, a song featuring Ram Pothineni alongside Hebah Patel was shot in the Ramoji Film City in Hyderabad, choreographed by Jani Master. Principal photography wrapped up in March 2020, although Ram completed dubbing for his portions by October 2020.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: The film's soundtrack album is composed by Mani Sharma, with lyrics written by Sirivennela Sitarama Sastry, Kasarla Shyam and Kalyan Chakravarthy. The film marks Sharma's first collaboration with Kishore Tirumala, and second collaboration with Ram, after "ISmart Shankar" (2019). The film's first song, "Nuvve Nuvve", was released by Lahari Music on 6 March 2020. The song "Dinchak" had vocals featuring Saketh and Keerthana Sharma, who earlier sung a similar song from Ram Pothineni's "ISmart Shankar", which was also composed by Mani Sharma. It was initially slated to release as the film's second single, after the response for its promo which released on the occasion of Ram's birthday, 15 May 2020. However, the makers released another song "Kaun Acha Kaun Lucha" as the second single track on 12 December 2020. After a request from fans, the makers released the full song of "Dinchak" as the third single on the occasion of New Year's Eve on 30 December 2020. The full album was released on 12 January 2021.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: A reviewer from "Indiaglitz" gave 3 out of 5 statings, "The lyrics are laced with meaning even though the wordings do sound a bit too familiar. Perhaps, it's also dated but that's how Mani Sharma chooses to do it sometimes. The lines reflect the greyish nature of the protagonist. The composer sets to tune a winner of a song, although the notes sound like a rehash."


title: Red (2021 film)

text: "Red" was initially scheduled to release theatrically on 9 April 2020, but was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. There were rumours surfacing that the film might premiere on an over-the-top media service (OTT), however, Ram confirmed the film would have a theatrical release. In an interview with "The Times of India", regarding the speculation on the film's release, he stated "There were very few OTT platforms which approached us with a good deal. But we refused to release it on OTT as the movie was meant only for the big screens, and we intend to give a fine movie watching experience to our audience." Later the year, the film's release date was announced as 14 January 2021.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: On late January 2021, the makers announced that the film will be released in seven dubbed languages, which includes Hindi, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Marathi, Bengali and Bhojpuri apart from being released in the Telugu original. The Tamil dubbed version is scheduled for a direct premiere on OTT platform, whereas the Kannada dubbed version titled "Clue" will be released theatrically on 14 January 2021, along with the Telugu version. The Malayalam dubbed version was scheduled for a release on 21 January 2022. The Hindi dubbed version was scheduled for a release on 28 January 2022 but however was directly premiered on Goldmines TV channel on 11 September 2022. The release of the Marathi, Bengali and Bhojpuri dubbed versions were not finalized, with sources claiming that the film might be released in February 2021 in these three languages.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: The film began streaming on Netflix and Sun NXT from 25 February 2021, within 42 days of its theatrical release.


title: Red (2021 film)

text: Neetishta Nyayapati of "The Times of India" gave 2.5 out of 5 and stated,""RED" has its moments and has two characters that are kind of interesting at its core. It also has a brilliant cast. If only it were not let down by a draggy screenplay. Give this one a chance only if a weird, mixed dose of romance, thriller and masala is your cup of tea." Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of "The Hindu" stated ""Red" is intriguing in parts; it could have been a better thriller had it been more consistent and, of course, concise." "123Telugu" gave the film 2.75 out of 5 and stated "Red is a suspense thriller that works here and there. The story idea is good, and Ram leads from the front with his impressive act. But the screenplay is weak, twists and narration are also jaded."


title: Red (2021 film)

text: Hemanth Kumar of "Firstpost" gave the film 2.5 out of 5 and stated, "The problem with "RED" is that it explains too much. It treats its more thrilling elements as a sideshow because it tries to turn the story into a wholesome family drama. Despite an interesting premise, the film itself isn’t consistently interesting." "Indiaglitz" gave the film 2.25 out of 5 stating "An investigative thriller with great potential, 'RED' falls apart for several reasons. Its flashback, at least, should have been way better."


title: 25th Hour

text: 25th Hour is a 2002 American drama film directed by Spike Lee and starring Edward Norton. Adapted by David Benioff from his own 2001 debut novel "The 25th Hour", it tells the story of a man's last 24 hours of freedom as he prepares to go to prison for seven years for dealing drugs.


title: 25th Hour

text: "25th Hour" opened to positive reviews, with several critics since having named it one of the best films of its decade and praising it for its portrayal of New York City after the September 11 attacks.


title: 25th Hour

text: A car pulls up on a New York City street, which Monty Brogan exits with his friend Kostya to look at an injured dog lying in the road. Monty intends to perform a mercy kill and shoot him, but changes his mind after he looks it in the eye; he takes the dog to a nearby clinic instead.


title: 25th Hour

text: A few years later, Monty is about to begin serving a seven-year prison sentence for dealing drugs. He sits in a park with Doyle, the dog he rescued, on his last day of freedom. He plans to meet childhood friends Frank, a boorish Wall Street trader, and Jacob, an introverted high school teacher with a crush on his student Mary, at a club with his girlfriend Naturelle.


title: 25th Hour

text: Monty visits his father, James, a former firefighter and recovering alcoholic at his bar, to confirm their plans to drive to the prison the following morning. James was able to establish the bar with Monty’s drug money, and remorsefully sneaks a drink when Monty goes to the bathroom. Facing himself in the mirror, Monty lashes out in his mind against everyone in New York before finally turning on himself, angry for becoming greedy and not giving up drug dealing before he was caught.


title: 25th Hour

text: In a flashback, Monty remembers the night he was arrested: DEA agents raided Monty's apartment and quickly found the drugs he was selling for Uncle Nikolai, a Russian mobster. Kostya tries to persuade Monty it was Naturelle who betrayed him, since she knew where he hid his drugs and money. Monty refused to turn state's evidence against Nikolai, but is unsure about Nikolai’s actions. Monty remembers how he met Naturelle hanging around his old school, and how happy they were. He then asks Frank to find out if it was Naturelle who betrayed him.


title: 25th Hour

text: Jacob sees Mary outside the club, and Monty invites her inside with them. Discussing what kind of a future Monty can have after prison, Frank says they can open a bar together, even though he told Jacob that he believes Monty deserves his sentence for dealing drugs. Frank accuses Naturelle of living high on Monty's money despite knowing its origins, but she retorts that Frank also knew but said nothing. The argument culminates with Frank insulting Naturelle's ethnicity, followed by her slapping Frank and leaving. Jacob, meanwhile, finds the courage to kiss Mary, but both are shocked afterwards and go their separate ways.


title: 25th Hour

text: Monty and Kostya go to see Nikolai, who gives Monty advice on surviving in prison. Nikolai then reveals it was Kostya who betrayed Monty, and offers him a chance to kill Kostya in exchange for protecting his father's bar. Monty refuses, reminding Nikolai that he was the one who told Monty to trust Kostya in the first place. Monty walks out, leaving Kostya to be killed by the Russian mobsters.


title: 25th Hour

text: Monty returns to his apartment and apologizes to Naturelle for mistrusting her. He then hands Doyle over to Jacob in the park. He admits that he is terrified of being raped in prison, whereupon he asks Frank to beat him, believing that he might have a chance at survival if he enters the prison ugly. Frank refuses, and Monty goads Frank into taking out his frustrations, leaving Monty bruised and bloody, with a broken nose.


title: 25th Hour

text: Naturelle tries to comfort him as Monty's father arrives to take him to Federal Correctional Institution, Otisville. On the drive to prison, Monty once again sees a parade of faces from the streets of the city. James suggests they go west, into hiding, giving Monty a vision of a future where he avoids imprisonment, reunites with Naturelle, starts a family, and grows old. As the fantasy ends, Monty and James drive past the bridge to the west and towards prison.


title: 25th Hour

text: Benioff completed the book "The 25th Hour" while studying at the University of California Irvine, and it was published in 2001. Six months before the book's publication a preliminary trade copy was circulated which Tobey Maguire read, and he was interested in playing the role of Monty Brogan. He acquired the option for a potential film project and asked Benioff to adapt it into a screenplay. However, after the script was written, Maguire became pre-occupied with the "Spider-Man" film and had to abandon the plan, although he would later act as a producer on the film that was made. Spike Lee then expressed an interest in directing the film. Spike Lee was interested in the long monologue that Benioff called the "fuck monologue" whereby Monty ranted against the five boroughs of New York; Benioff had considered leaving it out as he thought it might not be dramatic, and Lee persuaded Benioff to keep it in. Disney picked up the film rights and wanted the monologue cut, but Lee filmed the scene nonetheless.


title: 25th Hour

text: The film was in the "planning stages" at the time of the September 11 attacks, and so Lee "decided not to ignore the tragedy but to integrate it into his story".


title: 25th Hour

text: "25th Hour" received a 79% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 175 reviews, with an average rating of 7.22/10. The consensus calls the film "an intelligent and well-acted film despite the usual Spike Lee excesses." On Metacritic it has a score of 68/100 based on reviews from 40 critics, indicating “generally favorable reviews”. Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B− on scale of A to F.


title: 25th Hour

text: Five years after the September 11 attacks, Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" wrote: "Released 15 months after Sept. 11, 2001, Spike Lee's "25th Hour" is the only great film dealing with the Sept. 11 tragedy... "25th Hour" is as much an urban historical document as Rossellini's "Open City," filmed in the immediate aftermath of the Nazi occupation of Rome".


title: 25th Hour

text: Film critic Roger Ebert added the film to his "Great Movies" list on December 16, 2009. A. O. Scott, Richard Roeper and Roger Ebert all placed it on their respective lists for best films of the decade. It was named the 26th greatest film since 2000 in a 2016 BBC poll of 177 critics.


title: 25th Hour

text: Terence Blanchard composed the film's musical score. Other songs that appear in the film (and are not included in the original score) include:


title: 25th Hour

text: The "Better Call Saul" season 1 episode "Bingo" makes both visual and verbal references to the film and its source novel, as well as to "The Simpsons". Jimmy tells Kim to "Picture "The 25th Hour", starring Ned and Maude Flanders", when he phones Kim to tell her the Kettlemans, one of whom is facing jail time, have hired him to replace Kim as their attorney.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: A telephone numbering plan is a type of numbering scheme used in telecommunication to assign telephone numbers to subscriber telephones or other telephony endpoints. Telephone numbers are the addresses of participants in a telephone network, reachable by a system of destination code routing. Telephone numbering plans are defined in each of the administrative regions of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) and in private telephone networks.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: For public numbering systems, geographic location typically plays a role in the sequence of numbers assigned to each telephone subscriber. Many numbering plan administrators subdivide their territory of service into geographic regions designated by a prefix, often called an area code or city code, which is a set of digits forming the most-significant part of the dialing sequence to reach a telephone subscriber.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Numbering plans may follow a variety of design strategies which have often arisen from the historical evolution of individual telephone networks and local requirements. A broad division is commonly recognized between closed and open numbering plans. A closed numbering plan, as found in North America, features fixed-length area codes and local numbers, while an open numbering plan has a variance in the length of the area code, local number, or both of a telephone number assigned to a subscriber line. The latter type developed predominantly in Europe.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has established a comprehensive numbering plan, designated E.164, for uniform interoperability of the networks of its member state or regional administrations. It is an open numbering plan, however, imposing a maximum length of 15 digits to telephone numbers. The standard defines a country calling code ("country code") for each state or region which is prefixed to each national telephone number for international destination routing.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Private numbering plans exist in telephone networks that are privately operated in an enterprise or organizational campus. Such systems may be supported by a private branch exchange (PBX), which provides a central access point to the PSTN and also controls internal calls between telephone extensions.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: In contrast to numbering plans, which determine telephone numbers assigned to subscriber stations, dialing plans establish the customer dialing procedures, i.e., the sequence of digits or symbols to be dialed to reach a destination. It is the manner in which the numbering plan is used. Even in closed numbering plans, it is not always necessary to dial all digits of a number. For example, an area code may often be omitted when the destination is in the same area as the calling station.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: National or regional telecommunication administrations that are members of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) use national telephone numbering plans that conform to international standard E.164.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: E.164 specifies that a telephone number consist of a country calling code and a national telephone number. National telephone numbers are defined by national or regional numbering plans, such as the European Telephony Numbering Space, the North American Numbering Plan (NANP), or the UK number plan.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Within a national numbering plan, a complete destination telephone number is typically composed of an area code and a subscriber telephone number.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Many national numbering plans have developed from local historical requirements and progress or technological advancements, which resulted in a variety of structural characteristics of the telephone numbers assigned to telephones. In the United States, the industry decided in 1947 to unite all local telephone networks under one common numbering plan with a fixed length of ten digits for the national telephone number of each telephone, of which the last seven digits were known as the local "directory number", or "subscriber number". Such a numbering plan became known as a closed numbering plan. In several European countries, a different strategy prevailed, known as the open numbering plan, which features a variance in the length of the area code, the local number, or both.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: The subscriber number is the address assigned to a telephone line or wireless communication channel terminating at the customer equipment. The first few digits of the subscriber number may indicate smaller geographical scopes, such as towns or districts, based on municipal aspects, or individual telephone exchanges ("central office code"), such as a wire centers. In mobile networks they may indicate the network provider. Callers in a given area sometimes do not need to include area prefixes when dialing within the same area, but devices that dial telephone numbers automatically may include the full number with area and access codes.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: The subscriber number is typically listed in local telephone directories, and is therefor often referred to as the "directory number".


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Telephone administrations that manage telecommunication infrastructure of extended size, such as a large country, often divide the territory into geographic areas. This benefits independent management by administrative or historical subdivisions, such as states and provinces, of the territory or country. Each area of subdivision is identified in the numbering plan with a routing code. This concept was first developed in the planning for a "nationwide numbering plan" for Operator Toll Dialing and direct distance dialing (DDD) in the Bell System in the United States in the 1940s, a system that resulted in the North American Numbering Plan for World Zone 1. AT&T divided the United States and Canada into numbering plan areas (NPAs), and assigned to each NPA a unique three-digit prefix, the "numbering plan area code", which became known in short-form as "NPA code" or simply area code. The area code is prefixed to each telephone number issued in its service area.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Other national telecommunication authorities use various formats and dialing rules for area codes. The size of area code prefixes may either be fixed or variable. Area codes in the NANP have three digits, while two digits are used in Brazil, one digit in Australia and New Zealand. Variable-length formats exist in multiple countries including: Argentina, Austria (1 to 4), Germany (2 to 5 digits), Japan (1 to 5), Mexico (2 or 3 digits), Peru (1 or 2), Syria (1 or 2) and the United Kingdom. In addition to digit count, the format may be restricted to certain digit patterns. For example, the NANP had at times specific restrictions on the range of digits for the three positions, and required assignment to geographical areas avoiding nearby areas receiving similar area codes to avoid confusion and misdialing.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Some countries, such as Denmark and Uruguay, have merged variable-length area codes and telephone numbers into fixed-length numbers that must always be dialed independently of location. In such administrations, the area code is not distinguished formally in the telephone number.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: In the UK, area codes were first known as subscriber trunk dialling (STD) codes. Depending on local dialing plans, they are often necessary only when dialed from outside the code area or from mobile phones. In North America ten-digit dialing is required in areas with overlay numbering plans, in which multiple area codes are assigned to the same area.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: The strict correlation of a telephone to a geographical area has been broken by technical advances, such as local number portability and voice over IP services.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: When dialing a telephone number, the area code may be preceded by a trunk prefix or national access code, the international access code, and country code.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Area codes are often quoted by including the national access code. For example, a number in London may be listed as "020 7946 0321". Users must correctly interpret "020" as the code for London. If they call from another station within London, they may merely dial "7946 0321", or if dialing from another country, the initial "0" should be omitted after the country code.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: The E.164 standard of the International Telecommunication Union is an international numbering plan and establishes a country calling code ("country code") for each member organization. Country codes are prefixes to national telephone numbers that denote call routing to the network of a subordinate number plan administration, typically a country, or group of countries with a uniform numbering plan, such as the NANP. E.164 permits a maximum length of 15 digits for the complete international phone number consisting of the country code, the national routing code (area code), and the subscriber number. E.164 does not define regional numbering plans, however, it does provide recommendations for new implementations and uniform representation of all telephone numbers.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Country codes are necessary only when dialing telephone numbers in other countries than the originating telephone, but many networks permit them for all calls. These are dialed before the national telephone number.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Following ITU-T specification E.123, international telephone numbers are commonly indicated in listings by prefixing the country code with a plus sign (). This reminds the subscriber to dial the international access code of the country from which the call is placed. For example, the international dialing prefix or "access code" in all NANP countries is "011", and "00" in most other countries. On modern mobile telephones and many voice over IP services, the plus sign can usually be dialed and functions directly as the international access code.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Within the system of country calling codes, the ITU has defined certain prefixes for special services, and assigns such codes for independent international networks, such as satellite systems, spanning beyond the scope of regional authorities.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Satellite phones are typically issued with telephone numbers with a special country calling code, for example:


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Some satellite phones are issued with ordinary phone numbers, such as Globalstar satellite phones issued with NANP telephone numbers.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Like a public telecommunications network, a private telephone network in an enterprise or within an organizational campus may implement a "private" numbering plan for the installed base of telephones for internal communication. Such networks operate a private switching system or a private branch exchange (PBX) within the network. The internal numbers assigned are often called "extension numbers", as the internal numbering plan extends an official, published main access number for the entire network. A caller from within the network only dials the extension number assigned to another internal destination telephone.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: A private numbering plan provides the convenience of mapping station telephone numbers to other commonly used numbering schemes in an enterprise. For example, station numbers may be assigned as the room number of a hotel or hospital. Station numbers may also be strategically mapped to certain keywords composed from the letters on the telephone dial, such as 4357 ("help") to reach a help desk.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: The internal number assignments may be independent of any direct inward dialing (DID) services provided by external telecommunication vendors. For numbers without DID access, the internal switch relays externally originated calls via an operator, an automated attendant or an electronic interactive voice response system. Telephone numbers for users within such systems are often published by suffixing the official telephone number with the extension number, e.g., 1 (800) 555-0001 x2055.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Some systems may automatically map a large block of DID numbers (differing only in a trailing sequence of digits) to a corresponding block of individual internal stations, allowing each of them to be reached directly from the public switched telephone network. In some of these cases, a special shorter dial-in number can be used to reach an operator who can be asked for general information, e.g. help looking up or connecting to internal numbers. For example, individual extensions at Universität des Saarlandes can be dialed directly from outside via their four-digit internal extension +49-681-302-xxxx, whereas the university's official main number is +49-681-302-0 (49 is the country code for Germany, 681 is the area code for Saarbrücken, 302 the prefix for the university).


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Callers within a private numbering plan often dial a trunk prefix to reach a national or international destination ("outside line") or to access a leased line (or "tie-line") to another location within the same enterprise. A large manufacturer with factories and offices in multiple cities may use a prefix (such as '8') followed by an internal routing code to indicate a city or location, then an individual four- or five-digit extension number at the destination site. A common trunk prefix for an outside line on North American systems is the digit 9, followed by the outside destination number.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Additional dial plan customisations, such as single-digit access to a hotel front desk or room service from an individual room, are available at the sole discretion of the PBX owner.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Signaling in telecommunication networks is specific to the technology in use for each link. During signaling, it is common that additional information is passed between switching systems that is not represented in telephone numbers, which serve only as network addresses of endpoints. One such information element is the numbering plan indicator (NPI). It is a number defined in the ITU standard Q.713, paragraph 3.4.2.3.3, indicating the numbering plan of the attached telephone number. NPIs can be found in Signalling Connection Control Part (SCCP) and short message service (SMS) messages. , the following numbering plans and their respective numbering plan indicator values have been defined:


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: While a telephone numbering plan specifies the digit sequence assigned to each telephone or wire line, establishing the network addresses needed for routing calls, numbering plan administrators may define certain dialing procedures for placing calls. This may include the dialing of additional prefixes necessary for administrative or technical reasons, or it may permit short code sequences for convenience or speed of service, such as in cases of emergency. The body of dialing procedures of a numbering plan administration is often called a dial plan.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: A dial plan establishes the expected sequence of digits dialed on subscriber premises equipment, such as telephones, in private branch exchange (PBX) systems, or in other telephone switches to effect access to the telephone networks for the routing of telephone calls, or to effect or activate specific service features by the local telephone company, such as 311 or 411 service.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Within the North American Numbering Plan (NANP), the administration defines standard and permissive dialing procedures, specifying the number of mandatory digits to be dialed for local calls within a single numbering plan area (NPA), as well as alternate, optional sequences, such as adding the prefix 1 before the telephone number.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Despite the closed numbering plan in the NANP, different dialing procedures exist in many of the territories for local and long-distance telephone calls. This means that to call another number within the same city or area, callers need to dial only a subset of the full telephone number. For example, in the NANP, only the seven-digit number may need to be dialed, but for calls outside the local numbering plan area, the full number including the area code is required. In these situations, ITU-T Recommendation E.123 suggests to list the area code in parentheses, signifying that in some cases the area code is optional or may not be required.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Internationally, an area code is typically prefixed by a domestic trunk access code (usually 0) when dialing from inside a country, but is not necessary when calling from other countries; there are exceptions, such as for Italian land lines.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: The plus character (+) in the markup signifies that the following digits are the country code, in this case 61. Some phones, especially mobile telephones, allow the + to be entered directly. For other devices the user must replace the + with the international access code for their current location. In the United States, most carriers require the caller to dial 011 before the destination country code.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: New Zealand has a special-case dial plan. While most nations require the area code to be dialed only if it is different, in New Zealand, one needs to dial the area code if the phone is outside the local calling area. For example, the town of Waikouaiti is in the Dunedin City Council jurisdiction, and has phone numbers (03) 465 7xxx. To call the city council in central Dunedin (03) 477 4000, residents must dial the number in full, including the area code, even though the area code is the same, as Waikouaiti and Dunedin lie in different local calling areas (Palmerston and Dunedin, respectively.)


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: In many areas of the NANP, the domestic trunk code (long-distance access code) must also be dialed along with the area code for long-distance calls even within the same numbering plan area. For example, to call a number in Regina in area code 306 (Regina and the rest of the province of Saskatchewan are also served by the overlay code 639):


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: In many parts of North America, especially in area code overlay plans, dialing the area code, or 1 and the area code, is required even for local calls. Dialing from mobile phones does not require the trunk code in the US, although it is still necessary for calling all long-distance numbers from a mobile phone in Canada. Many mobile handsets automatically add the area code of the set's telephone number for outbound calls, if not dialed by the user.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: In some parts of the United States, especially northeastern states such as Pennsylvania served by Verizon Communications, the ten-digit number must be dialed. If the call is not local, the call fails unless the dialed number is preceded by digit 1. Thus:


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: In California and New York, because of the existence of both overlay area codes (where an area code must be dialed for every call) and non-overlay area codes (where an area code is dialed only for calls outside the subscriber's home area code), "permissive home area code dialing" of 1 + the area code within the same area code, even if no area code is required, has been permitted since the mid-2000s. For example, in the 559 area code (a non-overlay area code), calls may be dialed as 7 digits (XXX-XXXX) or 1 559 + 7 digits. The manner in which a call is dialed does not affect the billing of the call. This "permissive home area code dialing" helps maintain uniformity and eliminates confusion given the different types of area code relief that has made California the nation's most "area code" intensive State. Unlike other states with overlay area codes (Texas, Maryland, Florida and Pennsylvania and others), the California Public Utilities Commission and the New York State Public Service Commission maintain two different dial plans: Landlines must dial 1 + area code whenever an Area Code is part of the dialed digits while cellphone users can omit the "1" and just dial 10 digits.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Many organizations have private branch exchange systems which permit dialing the access digit(s) for an outside line (usually 9 or 8), a "1" and finally the local area code and "xxx xxxx" in areas without overlays. This aspect is unintentionally helpful for employees who reside in one area code and work in an area code with one, two, or three adjacent area codes. 1+ dialing to any area code by an employee can be done quickly, with all exceptions processed by the private branch exchange and passed onto the public switched telephone network.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: In small countries or areas, the full telephone number is used for all calls, even in the same area. This has traditionally been the case in small countries and territories where area codes have not been required. However, there has been a trend in many countries towards making all numbers a standard length, and incorporating the area code into the subscriber's number. This usually makes the use of a trunk code obsolete.


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: However, in other countries, such as France, Belgium, Japan, Switzerland, South Africa and some parts of North America, the trunk code is retained for domestic calls, whether local or national, e.g.,


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: While some, like Italy, require the initial zero to be dialed, even for calls from outside the country, e.g.,


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: While dialing of full national numbers takes longer than a local number without the area code, the increased use of phones that can store numbers means that this is of decreasing importance. It also makes it easier to display numbers in the international format, as no trunk code is required—hence a number in Prague, Czech Republic, can now be displayed as:


title: Telephone numbering plan

text: Some countries already switched, but trunk prefix re-added with the closed dialing plan, for example in Bangkok, Thailand before 1997:


title: Frederick William I of Prussia

text: Frederick William I (; 14 August 1688 – 31 May 1740), known as the "Soldier King" (), was King in Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg from 1713 until his death in 1740, as well as Prince of Neuchâtel. He was succeeded by his son, Frederick the Great.


title: Frederick William I of Prussia

text: He was born in Berlin to King Frederick I of Prussia and Princess Sophia Charlotte of Hanover. During his first years, he was raised by the Huguenot governess Marthe de Roucoulle. When Great Northern War plague outbreak devastated Prussia, the inefficiency and corruption of the king's favorite ministers and senior officials were highlighted. Frederick William with a party that formed at the court brought down the leading minister Johann Kasimir Kolbe von Wartenberg and his cronies following an official investigation that exposed Wartenberg's huge-scale misappropriation and embezzlement. His close associate August David zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Hohenstein was imprisoned at Spandau Citadel, fined 70,000 thalers and banished subsequently. The incident exerted great influence on Frederick William, making him resent corruption, wastage and inefficiency and realize the necessity of institutional reform. It also became the first time he actively participated in politics. From then on, Frederick I began to let his son take more power.


title: Frederick William I of Prussia

text: His father had successfully acquired the title of king for the margraves of Brandenburg. On ascending the throne in 1713, Frederick William I did much to improve Prussia economically and militarily. He replaced mandatory military service among the middle class with an annual tax, and he established schools and hospitals. The king encouraged farming, reclaimed marshes, stored grain in good times and sold it in bad times. He dictated the manual of Regulations for State Officials, containing 35 chapters and 297 paragraphs in which every public servant in Prussia could find his duties precisely set out: a minister or councillor failing to attend a committee meeting, for example, would lose six months' pay; if he absented himself a second time, he would be discharged from the royal service. In short, Frederick William I concerned himself with every aspect of his relatively small country, ruling an absolute monarchy with great energy and skill.


title: Frederick William I of Prussia

text: The king also took an interest in Prussian colonial affairs. In 1717, he revoked the charter of the Brandenburg Africa Company (BAC), which had been granted said charter by his father to establish a colony in West Africa known as the Brandenburg Gold Coast (and used it to transport between 17,000 and 30,000 enslaved Africans to the Americas). The king was unwilling to spend money on maintaining either the colony or the Prussian Navy, preferring to utilise state revenues on enlarging the Royal Prussian Army. In 1721, Frederick William sold the Brandenburg Gold Coast to the Dutch West India Company in exchange for 7,200 ducats and 12 enslaved African boys wearing gold chains.


title: Frederick William I of Prussia

text: In 1732, the king invited the Salzburg Protestants to settle in East Prussia, which had been depopulated by plague in 1709. Under the terms of the Peace of Augsburg, the prince-archbishop of Salzburg could require his subjects to practice the Catholic faith, but Protestants had the right to emigrate to a Protestant state. Prussian commissioners accompanied 20,000 Protestants to their new homes on the other side of Germany. Frederick William I personally welcomed the first group of migrants and sang Protestant hymns with them.


title: Frederick William I of Prussia

text: Frederick William intervened briefly in the Great Northern War, allied with Peter the Great of Russia, in order to gain a small portion of Swedish Pomerania; this gave Prussia new ports on the Baltic Sea coast. More significantly, aided by his close friend Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau, the "Soldier-King" made considerable reforms to the Prussian army's training, tactics and conscription program—introducing the canton system, and greatly increasing the Prussian infantry's rate of fire through the introduction of the iron ramrod. Frederick William's reforms left his son Frederick with the most formidable army in Europe, which Frederick used to increase Prussia's power. The observation that "the pen is mightier than the sword" has sometimes been attributed to him. ("See as well:" "Prussian virtues".)


title: Frederick William I of Prussia

text: Although a highly effective ruler, Frederick William had a perpetually short temper which sometimes drove him to physically attack servants (or even his own children) with a cane at the slightest perceived provocation. His violent, harsh nature was further exacerbated by his inherited porphyritic disease, which gave him gout, obesity and frequent crippling stomach pains. He also had a notable contempt for France, and would sometimes fly into a rage at the mere mention of that country, although this did not stop him from encouraging the immigration of French Huguenot refugees to Prussia.


title: Frederick William I of Prussia

text: Frederick William died in 1740 at age 51 and was interred at the Garrison Church in Potsdam. During World War II, in order to protect it from advancing allied forces, Hitler ordered the king's coffin, as well as those of Frederick the Great and Paul von Hindenburg, into hiding, first to Berlin and later to a salt mine outside of Bernterode. The coffins were later discovered by occupying American forces, who re-interred the bodies in St. Elisabeth's Church in Marburg in 1946. In 1953 the coffin was moved to Burg Hohenzollern, where it remained until 1991, when it was finally laid to rest on the steps of the altar in the Kaiser Friedrich Mausoleum in the Church of Peace on the palace grounds of Sanssouci. The original black marble sarcophagus collapsed at Burg Hohenzollern—the current one is a copper copy.


title: Frederick William I of Prussia

text: His eldest surviving son was Frederick II (Fritz), born in 1712. Frederick William wanted him to become a fine soldier. As a small child, Fritz was awakened each morning by the firing of a cannon. At the age of 6, he was given his own regiment of children to drill as cadets, and a year later, he was given a miniature arsenal.


title: Frederick William I of Prussia

text: The love and affection Frederick William had for his heir initially was soon destroyed due to their increasingly different personalities. Frederick William ordered Fritz to undergo a minimal education, live a simple Protestant lifestyle, and focus on the Army and statesmanship as he had. However, the intellectual Fritz was more interested in music, books and French culture, which were forbidden by his father as decadent and unmanly. As Fritz's defiance for his father's rules increased, Frederick William would frequently beat or humiliate Fritz (he preferred his younger sibling Augustus William). Fritz was beaten for being thrown off a bolting horse and wearing gloves in cold weather. After the prince attempted to flee to England with his tutor, Hans Hermann von Katte, the enraged King had Katte beheaded before the eyes of the prince, who himself was court-martialled. The court declared itself not competent in this case. Whether it was the king's intention to have his son executed as well (as Voltaire claims) is not clear. However, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI intervened, claiming that a prince could only be tried by the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire itself. Frederick was imprisoned in the Fortress of Küstrin from 2 September to 19 November 1731 and exiled from court until February 1732, during which time he was rigorously schooled in matters of state. After achieving a measure of reconciliation, Frederick William had his son married to Princess Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern, whom Frederick despised, but then grudgingly allowed him to indulge in his musical and literary interests again. He also gifted him a stud farm in East Prussia, and Rheinsberg Palace. By the time of Frederick William's death in 1740, he and Frederick were on at least reasonable terms with each other.


title: Frederick William I of Prussia

text: Although the relationship between Frederick William and Frederick was clearly hostile, Frederick himself later wrote that his father "penetrated and understood great objectives, and knew the best interests of his country better than any minister or general."


title: Frederick William I of Prussia

text: Frederick William married his first cousin Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, George II's younger sister (daughter of his uncle, King George I of Great Britain and Sophia Dorothea of Celle) on 28 November 1706. Frederick William was faithful and loving to his wife but they did not have a happy relationship: Sophia Dorothea feared his unpredictable temper and resented him, both for allowing her no influence or independence at court, and for refusing to marry her children to their English cousins. She also abhorred his cruelty towards their son and heir Frederick (with whom she was close), although rather than trying to mend the relationship between father and son she frequently spurred Frederick on in his defiance. They had fourteen children, including:


title: Frederick William I of Prussia

text: He was the godfather of the Prussian envoy Friedrich Wilhelm von Thulemeyer and of his grand-nephew, Prince Edward Augustus of Great Britain.


title: 2021 in video games

text: In the video game industry, 2021 saw the release of many new titles. The numerous delays in software and hardware releases due to the continuation of the COVID-19 pandemic heavily impacted development schedules, leading to several games being delayed into 2022 or even postponed indefinitely. Additionally, computer and console hardware were impacted by the combined effects of a semiconductor shortage (partially from post-COVID-19 effects) and a rising growth of bitcoin mining that strained the supply of critical components.


title: 2021 in video games

text: Metacritic is an aggregator of video game journalism reviews. It generally considers expansions and re-releases as separate entities.


title: 2021 in video games

text: According to market research firm Newzoo, the global video game market reached total revenues of , a 1.4% growth from 2020. Of this, 52% of the revenue was attributed to the mobile game market and the larger growth over the prior year, 28% to the console games market (including hardware and software), and 20% to the personal computer market.


title: 2021 in video games

text: According to market research firm Newzoo, the following countries were the largest video game markets in 2021.


title: 2021 in video games

text: The following titles were 2021's top ten best-selling premium games by region (excluding microtransactions and free-to-play titles) on PC and console platforms, for Japan, the United States, and Europe.