title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: During this chaos, Kongo was being increasingly manipulated by Soyo. In an act of desperation, the central authority in Kongo called on Luanda to attack Soyo in return for various concessions. The Portuguese invaded the county of Soyo in 1670. They met with no more success than Garcia II, being roundly defeated by Soyo's forces at the Battle of Kitombo on 18 October 1670. The kingdom of Kongo was to remain completely independent, though still embroiled in civil war, thanks to the very force (Portuguese colonials) it had fought so long to destroy. This Portuguese defeat was resounding enough to end all Portuguese ambitions in Kongo's sphere of influence, until the end of the nineteenth century.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: The battles between the Kimpanzu and Kinlaza continued plunging the kingdom into a chaos not known in centuries. The fighting between the two lineages led to the sack of São Salvador in 1678. Ironically, the capital built by the pact of Mpemba and Mbata was burned to the ground, not by the Portuguese or rival African nations but by its very heirs. The city and hinterland around Mbanza Kongo became depopulated. The population dispersed into the mountain top fortresses of the rival kings. These were the Mountain of Kibangu east of the capital and the fortress of the Águas Rosadas, a line founded in the 1680s from descendants of Kinlaza and Kimpanzu, the region of Mbula, or Lemba where a line founded by the Kinlaza pretender, Pedro III ruled; and Lovota, a district in southern Soyo that sheltered a Kimpanzu lineage whose head was D Suzanna de Nóbrega. Finally, D Ana Afonso de Leão founded her own center on the Mbidizi River at Nkondo and guided her junior kinsmen to reclaim the country, even as she sought to reconcile the hostile factions.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: In the interim, however, tens of thousands fleeing the conflict or caught up in the battles were sold as slaves to European slave traders every year. One human stream led north to Loango, whose merchants, known as Vili (Mubires in the period) carried them primarily to merchants bound for North America and the Caribbean, and others were taken south to Luanda, where they were sold to Portuguese merchants bound for Brazil. By the end of the seventeenth century, several long wars and interventions by the now independent Counts of Soyo (who restyled themselves as Grand Princes) had brought an end to Kongo's golden age.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Kongo artists began making crucifixes and other religious objects that depicted Jesus as an African. Such objects produced by many workshops over a long period (given their variety) reflect that emerging belief that Kongo was a central part of the Christian world, and fundamental to its history. A story of the eighteenth century was that the partially ruined cathedral of São Salvador, originally constructed for the Jesuits in 1549 and eventually elevated to cathedral status, was actually built overnight by angels. It was called affectionately, Nkulumbimbi. Pope John Paul II would eventually say mass at this cathedral in 1992.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: Manuel II of Kongo succeeded Pedro IV in 1718. Manuel II ruled over a restored and restive kingdom until his death in 1743. However, Soyo's provincial status in the kingdom, nominal for years, limited Manuel's power. Nsundi on the north had also more or less become independent, although still claiming to be part of the larger kingdom and more or less permanently ruled by a Kimpanzu family. Even within the remaining portions of the kingdom, there were still powerful and violent rivalries. At least one major war took place in the 1730s in the province of Mbamba. Pedro IV's successor, Garcia IV Nkanga a Mvandu, ruled from 1743 to 1752. Pedro IV's restoration required his successor's membership in a branch of the Kinlaza faction resident in Matadi that had sworn loyalty to Pedro IV in 1716. Other Kinlaza branches had developed in the north, at Lemba and Matari, and in the south along the Mbidizi River in lands that had been ruled by D. Ana Afonso de Leão. De Leão's lands came to be called the "Lands of the Queen".


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: The system of alternating succession broke down in 1764, when Álvaro XI, a Kinlaza, drove out the usurping Kimpanzu king Pedro V (the first to bear this title) and took over the throne. Pedro and his successor in Luvata maintained a separate court at Sembo, and never acknowledged the usurpation. A regent of Pedro's successor claimed the throne in the early 1780s and pressed his claims against a José I, a Kinlaza from the Mbidizi Valley branch of the royal family. José won the showdown, fought at São Salvador in 1781, a massive battle involving 30,000 soldiers on José's side alone. To show his contempt for his defeated rival, José refused to allow the soldiers of the other faction to receive Christian burial. José's power was limited, as he had no sway over the lands controlled by the Kinlaza faction of Lemba and Matari, even though they were technically of the same family, and he did not follow up his victory to extend his authority over the Kimpanzu lands around Luvota. At the same time, the lands around Mount Kibangu, Pedro IV's original base, was controlled—as it had been for the whole eighteenth century—by members of the Água Rosada family, who claimed descent from both the Kimpanzu and Kinlaza.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: José ruled until 1785, when he handed power over to his brother Afonso V (1785–87). Afonso's brief reign ended in his sudden death, rumored to be by poisoning. A confused struggle broke out following Afonso's death. By 1794, the throne ended up in the hands of Henrique I, a man of uncertain factional origin, who arranged for three parties to divide the succession. Garcia V abrogated the arrangement, proclaiming himself king in 1805. He ruled until 1830. André II, who followed Garcia V, appeared to have restored the older rotational claims, as he was from the northern branch of the Kinlaza, whose capital had moved from Matadi to Manga. Andre ruled until 1842 when Henrique II, from the southern (Mbidizi Valley) branch of the same family, overthrew him. Henrique II developed his power in the same manner as other entrepreneurial nobles, by founding villages of slaves or followers and drawing strength from them.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: Andre, however, did not accept his fate and withdrew with his followers to Mbanza Mputo, a village just beyond the edge of São Salvador, where he and his descendants kept up their claims. King Henrique II, who came to power after overthrowing André II, ruled Kongo from 1842 until his death in 1857. While Aleixo de Água Rosada (brother of king Henrique III) ordered a Dembo chief Nambwa Ngôngo not to pay a new Portuguese tax in 1841. His capture and imprisonment by the Portuguese took place some time after he Ordered Nambwa Ngôngo.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: In the 1750s and beyond a new class of nobles emerged in Kongo. While they belonged to the less category of nobles, they lived by banditry and captured people to found new villages under their control. They took advantage of the lack of control that higher nobles had over their territories to construct fortified locations. One of the more famous of these nobles is only known by the sobriquet Mbwa Lau (Mad Dog) who, along with several other nobles, founded a fortified settlement not far from the capital. A Portuguese missionary priest raveled with an order from the bishop demanding that Kongo nobles cease selling slaves to merchants from Loango (called Vilis) because they would be selling Catholics to Protestants, as the trade of Loango included English and Dutch merchants. Mbwa Lau abused the priest and threatened to kill him. The weak documentary record does not record the rise of these nobles in detail, although modern traditions of the more successful may allow their reconstruction.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: Even members of the higher nobility founded their own villages of captured people or persuaded the commoners to join them for protection. The kings, who no longer operated as the heads of a responsible bureaucracy, might appoint them as Dukes or Marquis, but they only ever controlled the lands they ruled themselves. While the entrepreneurial nobles sought local political and economic power, they also sold slaves into the slave trade, and it was largely their small scale wars and captures of other people that fed the growing trade from the country to the New World. The most destructive part of Kongo's long involvement in the slave trade probably occurred in this period.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: In 1839, the Portuguese government, acting on British pressure, abolished the slave trade south of the equator which had so damaged Central Africa. Human trafficking continued until well into the 1920s, first as an illegal slave trade, then as contract labor. A commodity trade replaced the slave trade, at first focused on ivory and wax, but gradually grew to include peanuts and rubber. This trade revolutionized the economies and eventually the politics of the whole of Central Africa. In place of the slave trade, largely under the control of state authorities, thousands, and eventually hundreds of thousands, of commoners began carrying goods from inland to coastal ports. These people managed to share in the wealth of the new trade, and as a result, commercially connected people constructed new villages and challenged the authorities.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: During this period, as the slave trade ended, long-distance trade became more prominent, and entrepreneurial nobles became more stable founding markets and protecting trade. They founded new, "makanda", nominally clans descended from common ancestors that were as much trading associations as family units. These clans founded strings of villages connected by fictional kinship along the trade routes, from Boma or the coast of Soyo to São Salvador and then on into the interior. A new oral tradition about the founder of the kingdom, often held to be Afonso I, described the kingdom as originating when the king caused the clans to disperse in all directions. The histories of these clans, typically describing the travels of their founder and his followers from an origin point to their final villages, replaced the history of the kingdom itself in many areas.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: Despite violent rivalries and the fracturing of the kingdom, it continued to exist independently well into the 19th century. Álvaro Ndongo, a Kimpanzu, claimed the throne on behalf of the Kinlaza faction of Matari, ignoring the existence of Andre's group at Mbanza Puto, calling himself Álvaro XIII; while Pedro Lelo claimed the throne on behalf of the Mbidizi Valley faction of the Kinlaza, from a base at Bembe. Pedro ultimately won a long military struggle thanks to soliciting Portuguese aid, and with their help his soldiers defeated Álvaro in 1859. Like André II, Álvaro XIII did not accept defeat and established his own base at Nkunga, not far from São Salvador. The Portuguese support which had put Pedro Lelo on the throne had a price, for when he was crowned Pedro V (he was actually the second king named Pedro V; the first one ruled in the late 1770s) he had also sworn a treaty of vassalage to Portugal. Portugal thus gained nominal authority over Kongo when Pedro gained control of it in 1859, and even constructed a fort in São Salvador to house a garrison. In the same year prince Nicolas protested vassalage of Kongo by publishing a letter in the newspaper "Jornal do Commércio" in Lisbon, on 1 December.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: In 1866, citing excessive costs, the Portuguese government withdrew its garrison. Pedro was able to continue reigning over Kongo, although he faced increasing rivalry from clan-based trading magnates who drained his authority from much of the country. The most dangerous of these was Garcia Mbwaka Matu of the town of Makuta. This town had been founded by a man named Kuvo, one of the entrepreneurial nobles, his successors including Garcia made a great deal of controlling markets in the new trading regime. Though this was a great challenge in the 1870s, after Garcia's death in 1880 Makuta became less problematic.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: At the Conference of Berlin in 1884–1885, European powers divided most of Central Africa between them. Portugal claimed the lion's share of what remained of independent Kongo; however, Portugal was not then in a position to make "effective occupation". King Pedro V continued to rule until his death in 1891, and was able to use the Portuguese to strengthen his control. In 1888 he voluntarily reaffirmed Kongo's position as a Portuguese vassal state. After a revolt against the Portuguese in 1914, Portugal declared the abolition of the kingdom of Kongo, of which the ruler at that time was Manuel III of Kongo, ending native rule and replacing it with direct colonial rule. However, according to the "Almanach de Bruxelles" a series of titular kings kept on using the title until at least until 1964, when a dispute over the succession began.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: The kingdom's army consisted of a mass levy of archers, drawn from the general male population, and a smaller corps of heavy infantry, who fought with swords and carried shields for protection. Portuguese documents typically referred to heavy infantry, considered nobles, as "fidalgos" in documents. The bearing of a shield was also important, as Portuguese documents usually call the heavy infantry "adargueiros" (shield bearers). There is weak evidence to suggest revenue assignments paid and supported them. A large number, perhaps as many as 20,000, stayed in the capital. Smaller contingents lived in the major provinces under the command of provincial rulers.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: After 1600, civil war became far more common than inter-state warfare. The government instituted a draft for the entire population during wartime, but only a limited number actually served. Many who did not carry arms instead carried baggage and supplies. Thousands of women supported armies on the move. Administrators expected soldiers to have two weeks' worth of food upon reporting for campaign duty. Logistical difficulties probably limited both the size of armies and their capacity to operate for extended periods. Some Portuguese sources suggested that the king of Kongo fielded armies as large as 70,000 soldiers for a 1665 Battle of Mbwila, but it is unlikely that armies larger than 20–30,000 troops could be raised for military campaigns.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: Troops were mobilized and reviewed on Saint James' Day, 25 July, when taxes were also collected. Subjects celebrated this day in honor of Saint James and Afonso I, whose miraculous victory over his brother in 1509 was the principal significance of the holiday in the Kongo.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: When the Portuguese arrived in Kongo they were immediately added as a mercenary force, probably under their own commander, and used special-purpose weapons, like crossbows and muskets, to add force to the normal Kongo order of battle. Their initial impact was muted; Afonso complained in a letter of 1514 that they had not been very effective in a war he waged against Munza, a Mbundu rebel, the year before. By the 1580s, however, a musketeer corps, which was locally raised from resident Portuguese and their Kongo-mestiço (mixed race) offspring, was a regular part of the main Kongo army in the capital. Provincial armies had some musketeers; for example, they served against the Portuguese invading army in 1622. Three hundred and sixty musketeers served in the Kongo army against the Portuguese at the Battle of Mbwila.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: The "vata" village, referred to as "libata" in Kongo documents and by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century, served as Kongo's basic social unit after the family. "Nkuluntu", or mocolunto to the Portuguese, chiefs headed the villages. The one to two hundred citizens per village migrated about every ten years to accommodate soil exhaustion. Communal land-ownership and collective farms produced harvests divided by families according to the number of people per household. The nkuluntu received special premium from the harvest before the division.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: Villages were grouped in "wene", small states, led by "awene" (plural of "mwene") or "mani" to the Portuguese. Awene lived in "mbanza", larger villages or small towns of somewhere between 1,000 and 5,000 citizens. Higher nobility typically chose these leaders. The king also appointed lower-level officials to serve, typically for three-year terms, by assisting him in patronage.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: Various provinces made up Kongo's higher administrative divisions, with some of the larger and more complex states, such as Mbamba, divided into varying numbers of sub-provinces, which the administration further subdivided. The king appointed the Mwene Mbamba, the Duke of Mbamba after the 1590s. The king technically had the power to dismiss the Mwene Mbamba, but the complex political situation limited the king's exercise of his power. When the administration gave out European-style titles, large districts like Mbamba and Nsundi typically became "Duchies". The administration made smaller ones, such as Mpemba, Mpangu or a host of territories north of the capital), "Marquisates". Soyo, a complex province on the coast, became a "County," as did Nkusu, a smaller and less complex state east of the capital.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: Hereditary families controlled a few provinces, most notably the Duchy of Mbata and the County of Nkusu, through their positions as officers appointed by the king. In the case of Mbata, the kingdom's origin as an alliance produced this power, exercised by the Nsaku Lau. In the seventeenth century, political maneuvering also caused some provinces, notably Soyo, but occasionally Mbamba, to be held for very long terms by the same person. Provincial governments still paid income to the crown and their rulers reported to the capital to give account.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: The kingdom of Kongo was made up of a large number of provinces. Various sources list from six to fifteen as the principal ones. Duarte Lopes' description, based on his experience there in the late sixteenth century, identified six provinces as the most important. These were Nsundi in the northeast, Mpangu in the center, Mbata in the southeast, Soyo in the southwest and two southern provinces of Mbamba and Mpemba.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: The king of Kongo also held several kingdoms in at least nominal vassalage. These included the kingdoms of Kakongo, Ngoyo and Vungu to the north of Kongo. The royal titles, first elaborated by Afonso in 1512, styled the ruler as "King of Kongo and Lord of the Mbundus" and later titles listed a number of other counties over which he also ruled as "king". The Mbundu kingdoms included Ndongo (sometimes erroneously mentioned as "Angola"), Kisama and Matamba. All of these kingdoms were south of Kongo and much farther from the king's cultural influence than the northern kingdoms. Still later eastern kingdoms such as Kongo dia Nlaza were named in the ruler's titles as well.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: The kingdom of Kongo was governed in concert by the Mwene Kongo and the royal council known as the ne mbanda-mbanda, roughly translates as "the top of the top". It was composed of twelve members divided into three groups. One group were bureaucrats, another who were electors and a last of matrons. Senior officials chose the Mwene Kongo or king who served for life following their choice. Electors varied over time, and there was probably never a completely fixed list; rather, senior officials who exercised power did so. Many kings tried to choose their successor, not always successfully. One of the central problems of Kongo history was the succession of power, and as a result, the country was disturbed by many rebellions and revolts.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: These four, non-electing posts, were composed of the Mwene Lumbo (lord of the palace/major-domo), Mfila Ntu (most trusted councilor/prime minister), Mwene Vangu-Vangu (lord of deeds or actions/high judge particularly in adultery cases), and Mwene Bampa (treasurer). These four are all appointed by the king and have a great influence on the day-to-day operations of the court.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: Another four councillors worked to elect the king as well as man important posts. The electors are composed of the Mwene Vunda (lord of Vunda, a small territory north of the capital with mostly religious obligations who leads the electors,) the Mwene Mbata (lord of Mbata province directly east of the capital and run by the Nsaka Lau kanda which provides the king's great wife), Mwene Soyo (lord of Soyo province west of the capital and historically the wealthiest province due to it being the only port and having access to salt), and a fourth elector, likely the Mwene Mbamba (lord of Mbamba province south of the capital and captain-general of the armies). The Mwene Vunda was appointed by the king from the Nsaku ne Vunda kanda. The Mwene Mbata was nominally confirmed by the king from the Nsaku Lau kanda. The Mwene Soyo was appointed by the king from the Da Silva kanda. The Mwene Mbamba was appointed by the king from anywhere he desired, but was usually a close family relation. These four men elected the king, while the Mwene Vunda and Mwene Mbata played crucial roles in the coronation.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: Lastly, the council contained four women with great influence on the council. They were led by the Mwene Nzimba Mpungu, a queen-mother, usually being the king's paternal aunt. The next most powerful woman was the Mwene Mbanda, the king's great wife, chosen from the Nsaku Lau kanda. The other two posts were given to the next most important women in the kingdom being widowed queens dowager or the matriarchs of former ruling kandas.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: The universal currency in Kongo and the surrounding region of Central Africa was the shell of "Olivella nana", a sea snail, known locally as "nzimbu". One hundred nzimbu could purchase a hen; 300 a garden hoe and 2,000 a goat. Slaves, which were always a part of Kongo's economy, were also bought in nzimbu. A female slave could be purchased (or sold) for 20,000 nzimbu and a male slave for 30,000. The slave trade had increased in volume after contact with Portugal.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: Nzimbu shells were collected from the island of Luanda and kept as a royal monopoly. The smaller shells were filtered out so that only the large shells entered the marketplace as currency. Kongo would not trade for gold or silver, but nzimbu shells, often put in pots in special increments, could buy anything. Kongo's "money pots" held increments of 40, 100, 250, 400, and 500. For especially large purchases, there were standardized units such as a funda (1,000 big shells), Lufuku (10,000 big shells) and a kofo (20,000 big shells).


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: The Kongo administration regarded their land as "renda", revenue assignments. The Kongo government exacted a monetary head tax for each villager, which may well have been paid in kind as well, forming the basis for the kingdom's finances. The king granted titles and income, based on this head tax. Holders reported annually to the court of their superior for evaluation and renewal.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: Provincial governors paid a portion of the tax returns from their provinces to the king. Dutch visitors to Kongo in the 1640s reported this income as twenty million nzimbu shells. In addition, the crown collected its own special taxes and levies, including tolls on the substantial trade that passed through the kingdom, especially the lucrative cloth trade between the great cloth-producing region of the "Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza", the eastern regions (also called "Momboares"), "The Seven" in Kikongo, and the coast, especially the Portuguese colony of Luanda.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: Crown revenues supported the church, paid by revenue assignments based on royal income. For example, Pedro II (1622–1624) detailed the finances of his royal chapel by specifying that revenues from various estates and provincial incomes would support it. Baptismal and burial fees also supported local churches.


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: When King Garcia II gave up the island of Luanda and its royal fisheries to the Portuguese in 1651, he switched the kingdom's currency to raffia cloth. The cloth was "napkin-sized" and called "mpusu". In the 17th century, 100 mpusu could buy one slave implying a value greater than that of the nzimbu currency. Raffia cloth was also called Lubongo (singular : "Lubongo", "Libongo", plural : "Mbongo").


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: The people of the Kongo are divided into many subgroups including the Yombe, Beembe, Sundi, and others but share a common language, Kikongo. These groups have many cultural similarities, including that they all produce a huge range of sculptural art. The most notable feature of this region's figurative style is the relative naturalism of the representation of both humans and animals. "The musculature of face and body is carefully rendered, and great attention is paid to items of personal adornment and scarification. Much of the region’s art was produced for social and political leaders such as the Kongo king."


title: Kingdom of Kongo

text: The central Bantu groups which comprised most of the Kongo kingdom passed on status through matrilineal succession. Furthermore, women in the group of kingdoms that at various times were provinces in the Kongo kingdom could have important roles in rulership and war. For example, Queen Nzinga, or Njinga, who ruled parts of the kingdom in Ndongo and Matamba provinces in the 17th century, was an effective ruler and war leader. In fact, she became a thorn in the side of the Portuguese to the degree that their correspondence at times was mainly about how to foil her. Nevertheless, the only thing that ended her efforts against them was her death in 1663 at an advanced age.


title: Damping

text: Damping is an influence within or upon an oscillatory system that has the effect of reducing or preventing its oscillation. In physical systems, damping is produced by processes that dissipate the energy stored in the oscillation. Examples include viscous drag (a liquid's viscosity can hinder an oscillatory system, causing it to slow down; see viscous damping) in mechanical systems, resistance in electronic oscillators, and absorption and scattering of light in optical oscillators. Damping not based on energy loss can be important in other oscillating systems such as those that occur in biological systems and bikes (ex. Suspension (mechanics)). Not to be confused with friction, which is a dissipative force acting on a system. Friction can cause or be a factor of damping.


title: Damping

text: The damping ratio is a dimensionless measure describing how oscillations in a system decay after a disturbance. Many systems exhibit oscillatory behavior when they are disturbed from their position of static equilibrium. A mass suspended from a spring, for example, might, if pulled and released, bounce up and down. On each bounce, the system tends to return to its equilibrium position, but overshoots it. Sometimes losses (e.g. frictional) damp the system and can cause the oscillations to gradually decay in amplitude towards zero or attenuate. The damping ratio is a measure describing how rapidly the oscillations decay from one bounce to the next.


title: Damping

text: The damping ratio is a system parameter, denoted by (zeta), that can vary from undamped (), underdamped () through critically damped () to overdamped ().


title: Damping

text: The behaviour of oscillating systems is often of interest in a diverse range of disciplines that include control engineering, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, structural engineering, and electrical engineering. The physical quantity that is oscillating varies greatly, and could be the swaying of a tall building in the wind, or the speed of an electric motor, but a normalised, or non-dimensionalised approach can be convenient in describing common aspects of behavior.


title: Damping

text: Depending on the amount of damping present, a system exhibits different oscillatory behaviors and speeds.


title: Damping

text: A damped sine wave or damped sinusoid is a sinusoidal function whose amplitude approaches zero as time increases. It corresponds to the "underdamped" case of damped second-order systems, or underdamped second-order differential equations.


title: Damping

text: Damped sine waves are commonly seen in science and engineering, wherever a harmonic oscillator is losing energy faster than it is being supplied.


title: Damping

text: A true sine wave starting at time = 0 begins at the origin (amplitude = 0). A cosine wave begins at its maximum value due to its phase difference from the sine wave. A given sinusoidal waveform may be of intermediate phase, having both sine and cosine components. The term "damped sine wave" describes all such damped waveforms, whatever their initial phase.


title: Damping

text: The most common form of damping, which is usually assumed, is the form found in linear systems. This form is exponential damping, in which the outer envelope of the successive peaks is an exponential decay curve. That is, when you connect the maximum point of each successive curve, the result resembles an exponential decay function. The general equation for an exponentially damped sinusoid may be represented as:


title: Damping

text: The "damping ratio" is a parameter, usually denoted by "ζ" (Greek letter zeta), that characterizes the frequency response of a second-order ordinary differential equation. It is particularly important in the study of control theory. It is also important in the harmonic oscillator. In general, systems with higher damping ratios (one or greater) will demonstrate more of a damping effect. Underdamped systems have a value of less than one. Critically damped systems have a damping ratio of exactly 1, or at least very close to it.


title: Damping

text: The damping ratio provides a mathematical means of expressing the level of damping in a system relative to critical damping. For a damped harmonic oscillator with mass "m", damping coefficient "c", and spring constant "k", it can be defined as the ratio of the damping coefficient in the system's differential equation to the critical damping coefficient:


title: Damping

text: Using the natural frequency of a harmonic oscillator formula_21 and the definition of the damping ratio above, we can rewrite this as:


title: Damping

text: This equation is more general than just the mass–spring system, and also applies to electrical circuits and to other domains. It can be solved with the approach.


title: Damping

text: Two such solutions, for the two values of "s" satisfying the equation, can be combined to make the general real solutions, with oscillatory and decaying properties in several regimes:


title: Damping

text: When a second-order system has formula_32 (that is, when the system is underdamped), it has two complex conjugate poles that each have a real part of formula_33; that is, the decay rate parameter formula_34 represents the rate of exponential decay of the oscillations. A lower damping ratio implies a lower decay rate, and so very underdamped systems oscillate for long times. For example, a high quality tuning fork, which has a very low damping ratio, has an oscillation that lasts a long time, decaying very slowly after being struck by a hammer.


title: Damping

text: For underdamped vibrations, the damping ratio is also related to the logarithmic decrement formula_35. The damping ratio can be found for any two peaks, even if they are not adjacent. For adjacent peaks:


title: Damping

text: where formula_39, formula_40 are amplitudes of two successive positive peaks and formula_41, formula_42 are amplitudes of two successive negative peaks.


title: Damping

text: In control theory, overshoot refers to an output exceeding its final, steady-state value. For a step input, the percentage overshoot (PO) is the maximum value minus the step value divided by the step value. In the case of the unit step, the "overshoot" is just the maximum value of the step response minus one.


title: Damping

text: When an object is falling through the air, the only force opposing its freefall is air resistance. An object falling through water or oil would slow down at a greater rate, until eventually reaching a steady-state velocity as the drag force comes into equilibrium with the force from gravity. This is the concept of viscous drag, which for example is applied in automatic doors or anti-slam doors.


title: Damping

text: Electrical systems that operate with alternating current (AC) use resistors to damp the electrical current, since they are periodic. Dimmer switches or volume knobs are examples of damping in an electrical system.


title: Damping

text: Kinetic energy that causes oscillations is dissipated as heat by electric eddy currents which are induced by passing through a magnet's poles, either by a coil or aluminum plate. In other words, the resistance caused by magnetic forces slows a system down. An example of this concept being applied is the brakes on roller coasters.


title: Damping

text: 11. Britannica, Encyclopædia. “Damping.” "Encyclopædia Britannica", Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/science/damping.


title: Damping

text: 12. OpenStax, College. “Physics.” "Lumen", courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/23-4-eddy-currents-and-magnetic-damping/.


title: Art film

text: An art film (or arthouse film) is typically an independent film, aimed at a niche market rather than a mass market audience. It is "intended to be a serious, artistic work, often experimental and not designed for mass appeal", "made primarily for aesthetic reasons rather than commercial profit", containing "unconventional or highly symbolic content".


title: Art film

text: Film critics and film studies scholars typically define an art film as possessing "formal qualities that mark them as different from mainstream Hollywood films". These qualities can include (among other elements): a sense of social realism; an emphasis on the authorial expressiveness of the director; and a focus on the thoughts, dreams, or motivations of characters, as opposed to the unfolding of a clear, goal-driven story. Film scholar David Bordwell describes art cinema as "a film genre, with its own distinct conventions".


title: Art film

text: Art film producers usually present their films at special theaters (repertory cinemas or, in the U.S., art-house cinemas) and at film festivals. The term "art film" is much more widely used in North America, the United Kingdom, and Australia, compared to mainland Europe, where the terms auteur films and national cinema (e.g. German national cinema) are used instead. Since they are aimed at small, niche-market audiences, art films rarely acquire the financial backing that would permit large production budgets associated with widely released blockbuster films. Art film directors make up for these constraints by creating a different type of film, one that typically uses lesser-known film actors (or even amateur actors), and modest sets to make films that focus much more on developing ideas, exploring new narrative techniques, and attempting new film-making conventions.


title: Art film

text: Such films contrast sharply with mainstream blockbuster films, which are usually geared more towards linear storytelling and mainstream entertainment. Film critic Roger Ebert called "Chungking Express", a critically acclaimed 1994 art film, "largely a cerebral experience" that one enjoys "because of what you know about film". That said, some art films may widen their appeal by offering certain elements of more familiar genres such as documentary or biography. For promotion, art films rely on the publicity generated from film critics' reviews; discussion of the film by arts columnists, commentators, and bloggers; and word-of-mouth promotion by audience members. Since art films have small initial investment costs, they only need to appeal to a small portion of mainstream audiences to become financially viable.


title: Art film

text: The forerunners of art films include Italian silent film "L'Inferno" (1911), D. W. Griffith's "Intolerance" (1916) and the works of Russian filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein, who influenced the development of European cinema movements for decades. Eisenstein's film "Battleship Potemkin" (1925) was a revolutionary propaganda film he used to test his theories of using film editing to produce the greatest emotional response from an audience. The international critical renown that Eisenstein garnered from this film enabled him to direct "" as part of a grand 10th anniversary celebration of the October Revolution of 1917. He later directed "The General Line" in 1929.


title: Art film

text: The film by Alexander Dovzhenko "Earth" (1930), filmed under the influence of Eisenstein, is defined by some critics as the pinnacle of art cinema.


title: Art film

text: Art films were also influenced by films by Spanish avant-garde creators, such as Luis Buñuel and Salvador Dalí (who made "L'Age d'Or" in 1930), and by the French playwright and filmmaker Jean Cocteau, whose 1932 avant-garde film "The Blood of a Poet" uses oneiric images throughout, including spinning wire models of a human head and rotating double-sided masks. In the 1920s, film societies began advocating the notion that films could be divided into "entertainment cinema directed towards a mass audience and a serious art cinema aimed at an intellectual audience". In England, Alfred Hitchcock and Ivor Montagu formed a film society and imported films they thought were "artistic achievements", such as "Soviet films of dialectical montage, and the expressionist films of the Universum Film A.G. (UFA) studios in Germany".


title: Art film

text: "Cinéma pur", a French avant-garde film movement in the 1920s and 1930s, also influenced the development of the idea of art film. The "cinema pur" film movement included several notable Dada artists. The Dadaists used film to transcend narrative storytelling conventions, bourgeois traditions, and conventional Aristotelian notions of time and space by creating a flexible montage of time and space.


title: Art film

text: The "cinema pur" movement was influenced by German "absolute" filmmakers such as Hans Richter, Walter Ruttmann and Viking Eggeling. Richter falsely claimed that his 1921 film "Rhythmus 21" was the first abstract film ever created. In fact, he was preceded by the Italian Futurists Bruno Corra and Arnaldo Ginna between 1911 and 1912 (as reported in the "Futurist Manifesto of Cinema"), as well as by fellow German artist Walter Ruttmann, who produced "Lichtspiel Opus 1" in 1920. Nevertheless, Richter's film "Rhythmus 21" is considered an important early abstract film.


title: Art film

text: The first British "art cinema" was temporarily opened at the Palais de Luxe in London in 1929 by Elsie Cohen. She went on to establish a permanent location at the Academy Cinema in Oxford Street in 1931.


title: Art film

text: In the 1930s and 1940s, Hollywood films could be divided into the artistic aspirations of literary adaptations like John Ford's "The Informer" (1935) and Eugene O'Neill's "The Long Voyage Home" (1940), and the money-making "popular-genre films" such as gangster thrillers. William Siska argues that Italian neorealist films from the mid-to-late 1940s, such as "Open City" (1945), "Paisa" (1946), and "Bicycle Thieves" can be deemed as another "conscious art film movement".


title: Art film

text: In the late 1940s, the U.S. public's perception that Italian neorealist films and other serious European fare were different from mainstream Hollywood films was reinforced by the development of "arthouse cinemas" in major U.S. cities and college towns. After the Second World War, "...a growing segment of the American film going public was wearying of mainstream Hollywood films", and they went to the newly created art-film theaters to see "alternatives to the films playing in main-street movie palaces". Films shown in these art cinemas included "British, foreign-language, and independent American films, as well as documentaries and revivals of Hollywood classics". Films such as Rossellini's "Open City" and Mackendrick's "Tight Little Island" ("Whisky Galore!"), "Bicycle Thieves" and "The Red Shoes" were shown to substantial U.S. audiences.


title: Art film

text: In the late 1950s, French filmmakers began to produce films that were influenced by Italian Neorealism and classical Hollywood cinema, a style that critics called the French New Wave. Although never a formally organized movement, New Wave filmmakers were linked by their self-conscious rejection of classical cinematic form and their spirit of youthful iconoclasm, and their films are an example of European art cinema. Many also engaged in their work with the social and political upheavals of the era, making their radical experiments with editing, visual style and narrative part of a general break with the conservative paradigm. Some of the most prominent pioneers among the group, including François Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Éric Rohmer, Claude Chabrol, and Jacques Rivette, began as critics for the film magazine "Cahiers du cinéma". Auteur theory holds that the director is the "author" of his films, with a personal signature visible from film to film.


title: Art film

text: The French New Wave movement continued into the 1960s. During the 1960s, the term "art film" began to be much more widely used in the United States than in Europe. In the U.S., the term is often defined very broadly to include foreign-language (non-English) ""auteur"" films, independent films, experimental films, documentaries and short films. In the 1960s, "art film" became a euphemism in the U.S. for racy Italian and French B-movies. By the 1970s, the term was used to describe sexually explicit European films with artistic structure such as the Swedish film "I Am Curious (Yellow)". In the U.S., the term "art film" may refer to films by modern American artists, including Andy Warhol with his 1969 film "Blue Movie", but is sometimes used very loosely to refer to the broad range of films shown in repertory theaters or "art house cinemas". With this approach, a broad range of films, such as a 1960s Hitchcock film, a 1970s experimental underground film, a European auteur film, a U.S. "independent" film, and even a mainstream foreign-language film (with subtitles) might all fall under the rubric of "art house films".


title: Art film

text: By the 1980s and 1990s, the term "art film" became conflated with "independent film" in the U.S., which shares many of the same stylistic traits. Companies such as Miramax Films distributed independent films that were deemed commercially viable. When major motion-picture studios noted the niche appeal of independent films, they created special divisions dedicated to non-mainstream fare, such as the Fox Searchlight Pictures division of Twentieth Century Fox, the Focus Features division of Universal, the Sony Pictures Classics division of Sony Pictures Entertainment, and the Paramount Vantage division of Paramount. Film critics have debated whether films from these divisions can be considered "independent films", given they have financial backing from major studios.


title: Art film

text: In 2007, Professor Camille Paglia argued in her article "Art movies: R.I.P." that "[a]side from Francis Ford Coppola's "Godfather" series, with its deft flashbacks and gritty social realism, ...[there is not]... a single film produced over the past 35 years that is arguably of equal philosophical weight or virtuosity of execution to Bergman's "The Seventh Seal" or "Persona"". Paglia states that young people from the 2000s do not "have patience for the long, slow take that deep-think European directors once specialized in", an approach which gave "luxurious scrutiny of the tiniest facial expressions or the chilly sweep of a sterile room or bleak landscape".


title: Art film

text: According to director, producer, and distributor Roger Corman, the "1950s and 1960s was the time of the art film's greatest influence. After that, the influence waned. Hollywood absorbed the lessons of the European films and incorporated those lessons into their films." Corman states that "viewers could see something of the essence of the European art cinema in the Hollywood movies of the seventies... [and so], art film, which was never just a matter of European cinema, increasingly became an actual world cinema—albeit one that struggled to gain wide recognition". Corman notes that, "Hollywood itself has expanded, radically, its aesthetic range... because the range of subjects at hand has expanded to include the very conditions of image-making, of movie production, of the new and prismatic media-mediated experience of modernity. There's a new audience that has learned about art films at the video store." Corman states that "there is currently the possibility of a rebirth" of American art film.


title: Art film

text: Film scholar David Bordwell outlined the academic definition of "art film" in a 1979 article entitled "The Art Cinema as a Mode of Film Practice", which contrasts art films with the mainstream films of classical Hollywood cinema. Mainstream Hollywood-style films use a clear narrative form to organize the film into a series of "causally related events taking place in space and time", with every scene driving towards a goal. The plot of mainstream films is driven by a well-defined protagonist, fleshed out with clear characters, and strengthened with "question-and-answer logic, problem-solving routines, [and] deadline plot structures". The film is then tied together with fast pacing, a musical soundtrack to cue the appropriate audience emotions, and tight, seamless editing.


title: Art film

text: In contrast, Bordwell states that "the art cinema motivates its narrative by two principles: realism and authorial expressiveness". Art films deviate from the mainstream "classical" norms of film making in that they typically deal with more episodic narrative structures with a "loosening of the chain of cause and effect".


title: Art film

text: Mainstream films also deal with moral dilemmas or identity crises, but these issues are usually resolved by the end of the film. In art films, the dilemmas are probed and investigated in a pensive fashion, but usually without a clear resolution at the end of the film.


title: Art film

text: The story in an art film often has a secondary role to character development and exploration of ideas through lengthy sequences of dialogue. If an art film has a story, it is usually a drifting sequence of vaguely defined or ambiguous episodes. There may be unexplained gaps in the film, deliberately unclear sequences, or extraneous sequences that are not related to previous scenes, which force the viewer to subjectively make their own interpretation of the film's message. Art films often "bear the marks of a distinctive visual style" and the authorial approach of the director. An art cinema film often refuses to provide a "readily answered conclusion", instead putting to the cinema viewer the task of thinking about "how is the story being told? Why tell the story in this way?"


title: Art film

text: Bordwell claims that "art cinema itself is a [film] genre, with its own distinct conventions". Film theorist Robert Stam also argues that "art film" is a film genre. He claims that a film is considered to be an art film based on artistic status in the same way film genres can be based on aspects of films such as their budgets (blockbuster films or B-movies) or their star performers (Adam Sandler films).


title: Art film

text: There are scholars who point out that mass market films such as those produced in Hollywood appeal to a less discerning audience. This group then turns to film critics as a cultural elite that can help steer them towards films that are more thoughtful and of a higher quality. To bridge the disconnect between popular taste and high culture, these film critics are expected to explain unfamiliar concepts and make them appealing to cultivate a more discerning movie-going public. For example, a film critic can help the audience—through their reviews—think seriously about films by providing the terms of analysis of these art films. Adopting an artistic framework of film analysis and review, these film critics provide viewers with a different way to appreciate what they are watching. So when controversial themes are explored, the public will not immediately dismiss or attack the movie where they are informed by critics of the film's value such as how it depicts realism. Here, art theaters or art houses that exhibit art films are seen as "sites of cultural enlightenment" that draw critics and intellectual audiences alike. It serves as a place where these critics can experience culture and an artistic atmosphere where they can draw insights and material.


title: Art film

text: The following list is a small, partial sample of films with "art film" qualities, compiled to give a general sense of what directors and films are considered to have "art film" characteristics. The films in this list demonstrate one or more of the characteristics of art films: a serious, non-commercial, or independently made film that is not aimed at a mass audience. Some of the films on this list are also considered to be "auteur" films, independent films, or experimental films. In some cases, critics disagree over whether a film is mainstream or not. For example, while some critics called Gus Van Sant's "My Own Private Idaho" (1991) an "exercise in film experimentation" of "high artistic quality", "The Washington Post" called it an ambitious mainstream film. Some films on this list have most of these characteristics; other films are commercially made films, produced by mainstream studios, that nevertheless bear the hallmarks of a director's "auteur" style, or which have an experimental character. The films on this list are notable either because they won major awards or critical praise from influential film critics, or because they introduced an innovative narrative or film-making technique.


title: Art film

text: In the 1920s and 1930s, filmmakers did not set out to make "art films", and film critics did not use the term "art film". However, there were films that had sophisticated aesthetic objectives, such as Carl Theodor Dreyer's "The Passion of Joan of Arc" (1928) and "Vampyr" (1932), surrealist films such as Luis Buñuel's "Un chien andalou" (1929) and "L'Âge d'Or" (1930), or even films dealing with political and current-event relevance such as Sergei Eisenstein's famed and influential masterpiece "Battleship Potemkin". The U.S. film "" (1927) by German Expressionist director F. W. Murnau uses distorted art design and groundbreaking cinematography to create an exaggerated, fairy-tale-like world rich with symbolism and imagery. Jean Renoir's film "The Rules of the Game" (1939) is a comedy of manners that transcends the conventions of its genre by creating a biting and tragic satire of French upper-class society in the years before WWII; a poll of critics from "Sight & Sound" ranked it as the fourth greatest film ever, placing it behind "Vertigo", "Citizen Kane" and "Tokyo Story".


title: Art film

text: Some of these early, artistically oriented films were financed by wealthy individuals rather than film companies, particularly in cases where the content of the film was controversial or unlikely to attract an audience. In the late 1940s, UK director Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger made "The Red Shoes" (1948), a film about ballet, which stood out from mainstream-genre films of the era. In 1945, David Lean directed "Brief Encounter", an adaptation of Noël Coward's play "Still Life", which observes a passionate love affair between an upper-class man and a middle-class woman amidst the social and economic issues that Britain faced at the time.


title: Art film

text: In the 1950s, some of the well-known films with artistic sensibilities include "La Strada" (1954), a film about a young woman who is forced to go to work for a cruel and inhumane circus performer to support her family, and eventually comes to terms with her situation; Carl Theodor Dreyer's "Ordet" (1955), centering on a family with a lack of faith, but with a son who believes that he is Jesus Christ and convinced that he is capable of performing miracles; Federico Fellini's "Nights of Cabiria" (1957), which deals with a prostitute's failed attempts to find love, her suffering and rejection; "Wild Strawberries" (1957), by Ingmar Bergman, whose narrative concerns an elderly medical doctor, who is also a professor, whose nightmares lead him to re-evaluate his life; and "The 400 Blows" (1959) by François Truffaut, whose main character is a young man trying to come of age despite abuse from his parents, schoolteachers, and society, this film is the first big step in the French New Wave and for cinema, it showed that films can be made with little money, amateur actors, and a small crew. In Poland, the Khrushchev Thaw permitted some relaxation of the regime's cultural policies, and productions such as "A Generation", "Kanal", "Ashes and Diamonds", "Lotna" (1954–1959), all directed by Andrzej Wajda, showed the Polish Film School style.


title: Art film

text: In India, there was an art-film movement in Bengali cinema known as "Parallel Cinema" or "Indian New Wave". This was an alternative to the mainstream commercial cinema known for its serious content, realism and naturalism, with a keen eye on the social-political climate of the times. This movement is distinct from mainstream Bollywood cinema and began around the same time as French and Japanese New Wave. The most influential filmmakers involved in this movement were Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen and Ritwik Ghatak. Some of the most internationally acclaimed films made in the period were "The Apu Trilogy" (1955–1959), a trio of films that tell the story of a poor country boy's growth to adulthood, and Satyajit Ray's "Distant Thunder" (1973), which tells the story of a farmer during a famine in Bengal. Other acclaimed Bengali filmmakers involved in this movement include Rituparno Ghosh, Aparna Sen and Goutam Ghose.


title: Art film

text: Japanese filmmakers produced a number of films that broke with convention. Akira Kurosawa's "Rashomon" (1950), the first Japanese film to be widely screened in the West, depicts four witnesses' contradictory accounts of a rape and murder. In 1952, Kurosawa directed "Ikiru", a film about a Tokyo bureaucrat struggling to find a meaning for his life. "Tokyo Story" (1953), by Yasujirō Ozu, explores social changes of the era by telling the story of an aging couple who travel to Tokyo to visit their grown children, but find the children are too self-absorbed to spend much time with them. "Seven Samurai" (1954), by Kurosawa, tells the story of a farming village that hires seven master-less samurais to combat bandits. "Fires on the Plain" (1959), by Kon Ichikawa, explores the Japanese experience in World War II by depicting a sick Japanese soldier struggling to stay alive. "Ugetsu" (1953), by Kenji Mizoguchi, is a ghost story set in the late 16th century, which tells the story of peasants whose village is in the path of an advancing army. A year later, Mizoguchi directed "Sansho the Bailiff" (1954), which tells the story of two aristocratic children sold into slavery; in addition to dealing with serious themes such as the loss of freedom, the film features beautiful images and long, complicated shots.


title: Art film

text: The 1960s was an important period in art film, with the release of a number of groundbreaking films giving rise to the European art cinema. Jean-Luc Godard's "À bout de souffle" ("Breathless") (1960) used innovative visual and editing techniques such as jump cuts and hand-held camera work. Godard, a leading figure of the French New Wave, would continue to make innovative films throughout the decade, proposing a whole new style of film-making. Following the success of "Breathless", Godard made two more very influential films, "Contempt" in 1963, which it shown his view on studio filmmaking system, beautiful long take, and film within film, and "Pierrot le fou" in 1965, which it is a mash of mash of crime and romance films with and his anti Hollywood style. "Jules et Jim", by François Truffaut, deconstructed a complex relationship of three individuals through innovative screenwriting, editing, and camera techniques. Italian director Michelangelo Antonioni helped revolutionize filmmaking with such films as "L'Avventura" (1960), influential for its landscape photography and framing techniques, follows the disappearance of a young upper-class woman during a boating trip, and the subsequent search by her lover and her best friend; "La Notte" (1961), a complex examination of a failed marriage that dealt with issues such as anomie and sterility; "Eclipse" (1962), about a young woman who is unable to form a solid relationship with her boyfriend because of his materialistic nature; "Red Desert" (1964), his first color film, which deals with the need to adapt to the modern world; and "Blowup" (1966), his first English-language film, which examines issues of perception and reality as it follows a young photographer's attempt to discover whether he had photographed a murder.


title: Art film

text: Swedish director Ingmar Bergman began the 1960s with chamber pieces such as "Winter Light" (1963) and "The Silence" (1963), which deal with such themes as emotional isolation and a lack of communication. His films from the second half of the decade, such as "Persona" (1966), "Shame" (1968), and "A Passion" (1969), deal with the idea of film as an artifice. The intellectual and visually expressive films of Tadeusz Konwicki, such as "All Souls' Day" ("Zaduszki", 1961) and "Salto" (1962), inspired discussions about war and raised existential questions on behalf of their everyman protagonists.


title: Art film

text: Federico Fellini's "La Dolce Vita" (1960) depicts a succession of nights and dawns in Rome as witnessed by a cynical journalist, this film is a bridge between his previous Italian neorealist style and his later surrealist style. In 1963, Fellini made "8½", an exploration of creative, marital and spiritual difficulties, filmed in black-and-white by cinematographer Gianni di Venanzo. The 1961 film "Last Year at Marienbad" by director Alain Resnais examines perception and reality, using grand tracking shots that became widely influential. Robert Bresson's "Au Hasard Balthazar" (1966) and "Mouchette" (1967) are notable for their naturalistic, elliptical style. Spanish director Luis Buñuel also contributed heavily to the art of film with shocking, surrealist satires such as "Viridiana" (1961) and "The Exterminating Angel" (1962).


title: Art film

text: Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky's film "Andrei Rublev" (1966) is a portrait of the medieval Russian icon painter of the same name. The film is also about artistic freedom and the possibility and necessity of making art for, and in the face of, a repressive authority. A cut version of the film was shown at the 1969 Cannes Film Festival, where it won the FIPRESCI prize. At the end of the decade, Stanley Kubrick's "" (1968) wowed audiences with its scientific realism, pioneering use of special effects, and unusual visual imagery. In 1969, Andy Warhol released "Blue Movie", the first adult art film depicting explicit sex to receive wide theatrical release in the United States. According to Warhol, "Blue Movie" was a major influence in the making of "Last Tango in Paris", an internationally controversial erotic art film, directed by Bernardo Bertolucci and released a few years after "Blue Movie" was made. In Soviet Armenia, Sergei Parajanov's "The Color of Pomegranates", in which Georgian actress Sofiko Chiaureli plays five different characters, was banned by Soviet authorities, unavailable in the West for a long period, and praised by critic Mikhail Vartanov as "revolutionary"; and in the early 1980s, "Les Cahiers du Cinéma" placed the film in its top 10 list. In 1967, in Soviet Georgia, influential Georgian film director Tengiz Abuladze directed "Vedreba" (Entreaty), which was based on the motifs of Vaja-Pshavela's literary works, where story is told in a poetic narrative style, full of symbolic scenes with philosophical meanings. In Iran, Dariush Mehrjui's "The Cow" (1969), about a man who becomes insane after the death of his beloved cow, sparked the new wave of Iranian cinema.


title: Art film

text: Puppeteer Jim Henson had an arthouse success with his 1965 Oscar-nominated non-Muppet short "Time Piece".


title: Art film

text: In the early 1970s, directors shocked audiences with violent films such as "A Clockwork Orange" (1971), Stanley Kubrick's brutal exploration of futuristic youth gangs, and "Last Tango in Paris" (1972), Bernardo Bertolucci's taboo-breaking, sexually-explicit and controversial film. At the same time, other directors made more introspective films, such as Andrei Tarkovsky's meditative science fiction film "Solaris" (1972), supposedly intended as a Soviet riposte to "2001". In 1975 and 1979 respectively, Tarkovsky directed two other films, which garnered critical acclaim overseas: "The Mirror" and "Stalker". Terrence Malick, who directed "Badlands" (1973) and "Days of Heaven" (1978) shared many traits with Tarkovsky, such as his long, lingering shots of natural beauty, evocative imagery, and poetic narrative style.


title: Art film

text: Another feature of 1970s art films was the return to prominence of bizarre characters and imagery, which abound in the tormented, obsessed title character in German New Wave director Werner Herzog's "Aguirre, the Wrath of God" (1973), and in cult films such as Alejandro Jodorowsky's psychedelic "The Holy Mountain" (1973) about a thief and an alchemist seeking the mythical Lotus Island. The film "Taxi Driver" (1976), by Martin Scorsese, continues the themes that "A Clockwork Orange" explored: an alienated population living in a violent, decaying society. The gritty violence and seething rage of Scorsese's film contrasts other films released in the same period, such as David Lynch's dreamlike, surreal and industrial black and white classic "Eraserhead" (1977). In 1974, John Cassavetes offered a sharp commentary on American blue-collar life in "A Woman Under the Influence", which features an eccentric housewife slowly descending into madness.


title: Art film

text: Also in the 1970s, Radley Metzger directed several adult art films, such as "Barbara Broadcast" (1977), which presented a surrealistic "Buñellian" atmosphere, and "The Opening of Misty Beethoven" (1976), based on the play "Pygmalion" by George Bernard Shaw (and its derivative, "My Fair Lady"), which was considered, according to award-winning author Toni Bentley, to be the "crown jewel" of the Golden Age of Porn, an era in modern American culture that was inaugurated by the release of Andy Warhol's "Blue Movie" (1969) and featured the phenomenon of "porno chic" in which adult erotic films began to obtain wide release, were publicly discussed by celebrities (such as Johnny Carson and Bob Hope) and taken seriously by film critics (such as Roger Ebert).


title: Art film

text: In 1980, director Martin Scorsese gave audiences, who had become used to the escapist blockbuster adventures of Steven Spielberg and George Lucas, the gritty, harsh realism of his film "Raging Bull". In this film, actor Robert De Niro took method acting to an extreme to portray a boxer's decline from a prizewinning young fighter to an overweight, "has-been" nightclub owner. Ridley Scott's "Blade Runner" (1982) could also be seen as a science fiction art film, along with "2001: A Space Odyssey" (1968). "Blade Runner" explores themes of existentialism, or what it means to be human. A box-office failure, the film became popular on the arthouse circuit as a cult oddity after the release of a "director's cut" became successful via VHS home video. In the middle of the decade, Japanese director Akira Kurosawa used realism to portray the brutal, bloody violence of Japanese samurai warfare of the 16th century in "Ran" (1985). "Ran" followed the plot of "King Lear", in which an elderly king is betrayed by his children. Sergio Leone also contrasted brutal violence with emotional substance in his epic tale of mobster life in "Once Upon a Time in America".


title: Art film

text: Other directors in the 1980s chose a more intellectual path, exploring philosophical and ethical issues like Andrzej Wajda's "Man of Iron" (1981), a critique of the Polish communist government, which won the 1981 Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival. Another Polish director, Krzysztof Kieślowski, made "The Decalogue" for television in 1988, a film series that explores ethical issues and moral puzzles. Two of these films were released theatrically as "A Short Film About Love" and "A Short Film About Killing". In 1989, Woody Allen made, in the words of "New York Times" critic Vincent Canby, his most "securely serious and funny film to date", "Crimes and Misdemeanors", which involves multiple stories of people who are trying to find moral and spiritual simplicity while facing dire issues and thoughts surrounding the choices they make. French director Louis Malle chose another moral path to explore with the dramatization of his real-life childhood experiences in "Au revoir, les enfants", which depicts the occupying Nazi government's deportation of French Jews to concentration camps during World War II.


title: Art film

text: Another critically praised art film from this era, Wim Wenders's road movie "Paris, Texas" (1984), also won the Palme d'Or.


title: Art film

text: Kieślowski was not the only director to transcend the distinction between the cinema and television. Ingmar Bergman made "Fanny and Alexander" (1982), which was shown on television in an extended five-hour version. In the United Kingdom, Channel 4, a new television channel, financed, in whole or in part, many films released theatrically through its Film 4 subsidiary. Wim Wenders offered another approach to life from a spiritual standpoint in his 1987 film "Wings of Desire", a depiction of a "fallen angel" who lives among men, which won the Best Director Award at the Cannes Film Festival.


title: Art film

text: In 1982, experimental director Godfrey Reggio released the surprise arthouse hit "Koyaanisqatsi", a film without dialogue, which emphasizes cinematography (consisting primarily of slow motion and time-lapse cinematography of cities and natural landscapes, which results in a visual tone poem) and philosophical ideology about technology and the environment.


title: Art film

text: Another approach used by directors in the 1980s was to create bizarre, surreal alternative worlds. Martin Scorsese's "After Hours" (1985) is a comedy-thriller that depicts a man's baffling adventures in a surreal nighttime world of chance encounters with mysterious characters. David Lynch's "Blue Velvet" (1986), a film noir-style thriller-mystery filled with symbolism and metaphors about polarized worlds and inhabited by distorted characters who are hidden in the seamy underworld of a small town, became surprisingly successful considering its highly disturbing subject matter. Peter Greenaway's "The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover" (1989) is a fantasy/black comedy about cannibalism and extreme violence with an intellectual theme: a critique of "elite culture" in Thatcherian Britain.


title: Art film

text: According to Raphaël Bassan, in his article ""The Angel": Un météore dans le ciel de l'animation", Patrick Bokanowski's "The Angel", shown at the 1982 Cannes Film Festival, can be considered the beginning of contemporary animation. The characters' masks erase all human personality and give the impression of total control over the "matter" of the image and its optical composition, using distorted areas, obscure visions, metamorphoses, and synthetic objects.


title: Art film

text: In 1989, Hou Hsiao-hsien's "A City of Sadness" became the first Taiwanese film awarded the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival. The film shows the history of Taiwan through one family, and marks another step of the Taiwanese New Wave, which tends to depict realistic, down-to-earth life in both urban and rural Taiwan.


title: Art film

text: In the 1990s, directors took inspiration from the success of David Lynch's "Blue Velvet" (1986) and Peter Greenaway's "The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover" (1989) and created films with bizarre alternative worlds and elements of surrealism. Japanese director Akira Kurosawa's "Dreams" (1990) depicted his imaginative reveries in a series of vignettes that range from idyllic pastoral country landscapes to horrific visions of tormented demons and a blighted post-nuclear war landscape. The Coen Brothers' "Barton Fink" (1991), which won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival, features various literary allusions in an enigmatic story about a writer who encounters a range of bizarre characters, including an alcoholic, abusive novelist and a serial killer. "Lost Highway" (1997), from the same director as "Blue Velvet", is a psychological thriller that explores fantasy worlds, bizarre time-space transformations, and mental breakdowns using surreal imagery.


title: Art film

text: Other directors in the 1990s explored philosophical issues and themes such as identity, chance, death, and existentialism. Gus Van Sant's "My Own Private Idaho" (1991) and Wong Kar-wai's "Chungking Express" (1994) explored the theme of identity. The former is an independent road movie/buddy film about two young street hustlers, which explores the theme of the search for home and identity. It was called a "high-water mark in '90s independent film", a "stark, poetic rumination", and an "exercise in film experimentation" of "high artistic quality". "Chungking Express" explores themes of identity, disconnection, loneliness, and isolation in the "metaphoric concrete jungle" of modern Hong Kong. Todd Haynes explored the life of a suburban housewife and her eventual death from toxic materials in the 1995 critical darling "Safe".


title: Art film

text: In 1991, another important film of Edward Yang, a Taiwanese New Wave director, "A Brighter Summer Day" is portrayal of one normal teenager life that evacuated from China to Taiwan which affacted by political situation, school situation, and family situation that make a main protagonist murders a girl in the end. In 1992, "Rebels of the Neon God", first feature film of Tsai Ming-liang, second generation of Taiwanese New Wave, it has his unique style of filmmaking like alienation, slow movement of actor (his recurring cast, Lee Kang-sheng), slow-paced, and a few dialogues.


title: Art film

text: Daryush Shokof's film "Seven Servants" (1996) is an original high art cinema piece about a man who strives to "unite" the world's races until his last breath. One year after "Seven Servants", Abbas Kiarostami's film "Taste of Cherry" (1997), which won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival, tells a similar tale with a different twist; both films are about a man trying to hire a person to bury him after he commits suicide. "Seven Servants" was shot in a minimalist style, with long takes, a leisurely pace, and long periods of silence. The film is also notable for its use of long shots and overhead shots to create a sense of distance between the audience and the characters. Zhang Yimou's early 1990s works such as "Ju Dou" (1990), "Raise the Red Lantern" (1991), "The Story of Qiu Ju" (1992) and "To Live" (1994) explore human emotions through poignant narratives. "To Live" won the Grand Jury Prize.


title: Art film

text: Several 1990s films explored existentialist-oriented themes related to life, chance, and death. Robert Altman's "Short Cuts" (1993) explores themes of chance, death, and infidelity by tracing 10 parallel and interwoven stories. The film, which won the Golden Lion and the Volpi Cup at the Venice Film Festival, was called a "many-sided, many mooded, dazzlingly structured eclectic jazz mural" by "Chicago Tribune" critic Michael Wilmington. Krzysztof Kieślowski's "The Double Life of Véronique" (1991) is a drama about the theme of identity and a political allegory about the East/West split in Europe; the film features stylized cinematography, an ethereal atmosphere, and unexplained supernatural elements.


title: Art film

text: Darren Aronofsky's film "Pi" (1998) is an "incredibly complex and ambiguous film filled with both incredible style and substance" about a paranoid mathematician's "search for peace". The film creates a David Lynch-inspired "eerie "Eraserhead"-like world" shot in "black-and-white, which lends a dream-like atmosphere to all of the proceedings" and explores issues such as "metaphysics and spirituality". Matthew Barney's "The Cremaster Cycle" (1994–2002) is a cycle of five symbolic, allegorical films that creates a self-enclosed aesthetic system, aimed to explore the process of creation. The films are filled with allusions to reproductive organs and sexual development, and use narrative models drawn from biography, mythology, and geology.


title: Art film

text: In 1997, Terrence Malick returned from a 20-year absence with "The Thin Red Line", a war film that uses poetry and nature to stand apart from typical war movies. It was nominated for seven Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director.


title: Art film

text: Some 1990s films mix an ethereal or surreal visual atmosphere with the exploration of philosophical issues. "Sátántangó" (1994), by the Hungarian director Béla Tarr, is a -hour-long film, shot in black and white, that deals with Tarr's favorite theme, inadequacy, as con man Irimias comes back to a village at an unspecified location in Hungary, presenting himself as a leader and Messiah figure to the gullible villagers. Kieslowski's "Three Colors" trilogy (1993–94), particularly "" (1993) and "" (1994), deal with human relationships and how people cope with them in their day-to-day lives. The trilogy of films was called "explorations of spirituality and existentialism" that created a "truly transcendent experience". "The Guardian" listed "Breaking the Waves" (1996) as one of its top 25 arthouse films. The reviewer stated that "[a]ll the ingredients that have come to define Lars von Trier's career (and in turn, much of modern European cinema) are present here: high-wire acting, innovative visual techniques, a suffering heroine, issue-grappling drama, and a galvanising shot of controversy to make the whole thing unmissable".


title: Art film

text: Lewis Beale of "Film Journal International" stated that Australian director Andrew Dominik's western film "The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford" (2007) is "a fascinating, literary-based work that succeeds as both art and genre film". Unlike the action-oriented Jesse James films of the past, Dominik's unconventional epic perhaps more accurately details the outlaw's relinquishing psyche during the final months of his life as he succumbs to the paranoia of being captured and develops a precarious friendship with his eventual assassin, Robert Ford.


title: Art film

text: In 2009, director Paul Thomas Anderson claimed that his 2002 film "Punch-Drunk Love" about a shy, repressed rage-aholic was "an art house Adam Sandler film", a reference to the unlikely inclusion of "frat boy" comic Sandler in the film; critic Roger Ebert claims that "Punch Drunk Love" "may be the key to all of the Adam Sandler films, and may liberate Sandler for a new direction in his work. He can't go on making those moronic comedies forever, can he? Who would have guessed he had such uncharted depths?"


title: Art film

text: Apichatpong Weerasethakul's "Uncle Boonmee Who Can Recall His Past Lives", which won the 2010 Cannes Palme d'Or, "ties together what might just be a series of beautifully shot scenes with moving and funny musings on the nature of death and reincarnation, love, loss, and karma". Weerasethakul is an independent film director, screenwriter, and film producer, who works outside the strict confines of the Thai film studio system. His films deal with dreams, nature, sexuality, including his own homosexuality, and Western perceptions of Thailand and Asia. Weerasethakul's films display a preference for unconventional narrative structures (such as placing titles/credits at the middle of a film) and for working with non-actors.


title: Art film

text: Terrence Malick's "The Tree of Life" (2011) was released after decades of development and won the Palme d'Or at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival; it was highly praised by critics. At the Avon Theater in Stamford, Connecticut, a message was posted about the theater's no-refund policy due to "some customer feedback and a polarized audience response" to the film. The theater stated that it "stands behind this ambitious work of art and other challenging films". "Drive" (2011), directed by Nicolas Winding Refn, is commonly called an arthouse action film. Also in 2011, director Lars von Trier released "Melancholia", a movie dealing with depression and other mental disorders while also showing a family's reaction to an approaching planet that could collide with the Earth. The movie was well received, some claiming it to be Von Trier's masterpiece with others highlighting Kirsten Dunst's performance, the visuals, and realism depicted in the movie.


title: Art film

text: Jonathan Glazer's "Under the Skin" (an example of "arthouse sci-fi") was screened at the 2013 Venice Film Festival and received a theatrical release through indie studio A24 the following year. The film, starring Scarlett Johansson, follows an alien in human form as she travels around Glasgow, picking up unwary men for sex, harvesting their flesh and stripping them of their humanity. Dealing with themes such as sexuality, humanity, and objectification, the film received positive reviews and was hailed by some as a masterpiece; critic Richard Roeper described the film as "what we talk about when we talk about film as art".


title: Art film

text: This decade also saw a re-emergence of "art horror" with the success of films like "Beyond the Black Rainbow" (2010), "Black Swan" (2010), "Stoker" (2013), "Enemy" (2013), "The Babadook" (2014), "Only Lovers Left Alive" (2014), "A Girl Walks Home Alone at Night" (2014), "Goodnight Mommy" (2014), "Nightcrawler" (2014), "It Follows" (2015), "The Witch" (2015), "The Wailing" (2016), "Split" (2016), the social thriller "Get Out" (2017), "Mother!" (2017), "Annihilation" (2018), "A Quiet Place" (2018), "Hereditary" (2018), "Suspiria" (2018; a remake of the 1977 film of the same name), "Mandy" (2018), "The Nightingale" (2018), "The House That Jack Built" (2018), "Us" (2019), "Midsommar" (2019), "The Lighthouse" (2019), "Color Out of Space" (2019) and the Academy Award for Best Picture winner "Parasite" (2019).


title: Art film

text: "Roma" (2018), is a film by Alfonso Cuarón inspired by his childhood living in 1970s Mexico. Shot in black-and-white, it deals with themes shared with Cuarón's past films, such as mortality and class. The film was distributed through Netflix, earning the streaming giant their first Academy Award nomination for Best Picture.


title: Art film

text: Arthouse animation (with Oscar-nominated titles like "Song of the Sea" and "Loving Vincent") was also gaining momentum during this era as an alternative to mainstream animated features alongside the works of acclaimed animators Satoshi Kon, Don Hertzfeldt and Ari Folman from the previous decade.


title: Art film

text: Tom Shone said of the work of Christopher Nolan: "He has completed eleven features, [...] all ticking the boxes of studio entertainment, yet indelibly marked with the kind of personal themes and obsessions that are more traditionally the preserve of the art house: the passage of time, the failures of memory, our quirks of denial and deflection, the intimate clockwork of our interior lives, set against landscapes in which the fault lines of late industrialism meet the fissure points and paradoxes of the information age."


title: Art film

text: "LA Weekly" film critic Michael Nordine cited the films "Gummo" (1997) as being an "art-house exploitation flick" and "Amores Perros" (2000) exemplifying "the art-house stereotype of featuring more dead dogs than "Where the Red Fern Grows" and every other book you had to read in middle school".


title: Art film

text: "Quality artistic television", a television genre or style which shares some of the same traits as art films, has been identified. Television shows, such as David Lynch's "Twin Peaks" and the BBC's "The Singing Detective", also have "a loosening of causality, a greater emphasis on psychological or anecdotal realism, violations of classical clarity of space and time, explicit authorial comment, and ambiguity".


title: Art film

text: As with much of Lynch's other work (notably the film "Blue Velvet"), "Twin Peaks" explores the gulf between the veneer of small-town respectability and the seedier layers of life lurking beneath its surface. The show is difficult to place in a defined television genre; stylistically, it borrows the unsettling tone and supernatural premises of horror films and simultaneously offers a bizarrely comical parody of American soap operas with a campy, melodramatic presentation of the morally dubious activities of its quirky characters. The show represents an earnest moral inquiry distinguished by both weird humor and a deep vein of surrealism, incorporating highly stylized vignettes, surrealist and often inaccessible artistic images alongside the otherwise comprehensible narrative of events.


title: Art film

text: Charlie Brooker's Emmy Award-winning UK-focused "Black Mirror" television series explores the dark and sometimes satirical themes in modern society, particularly with regard to the unanticipated consequences of new technologies; while classified as "speculative fiction", rather than art television, it received rave reviews. HBO's "The Wire" might also qualify as "artistic television", as it has garnered a greater amount of critical attention from academics than most television shows receive. For example, the film theory journal "Film Quarterly" has featured the show on its cover.


title: Art film

text: Art films have been part of popular culture from animated sitcoms like "The Simpsons" and "Clone High" spoofing and satirizing them to even the comedic film review webseries "Brows Held High" (hosted by Kyle Kallgren).


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung Chan-sung (; born March 17, 1987), anglicized as Chan Sung Jung and better known by his ring name The Korean Zombie, is a South Korean professional mixed martial artist and kickboxer. He currently competes in the Featherweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). A professional competitor since 2007, Jung formerly fought for the WEC, Pancrase, World Victory Road, and DEEP. His nickname, The Korean Zombie, comes from his zombie-like ability to continue to move forward and fight aggressively, even after taking heavy blows. As of November 8, 2022, he is #6 in the UFC featherweight rankings.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Born in Pohang, South Korea in 1987, Jung moved to Namyangju, a satellite city of Seoul when he was in his mid-teens. Due to his slight stature and his rural origins, he was bullied constantly by his classmates and got into many fights as a result. When his aunt could no longer stand to see Jung's predicament, she took him to a nearby Hapkido gym when he was around 14 years old. Jung trained in kickboxing until his junior year of high school. He graduated from Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology. Later he also began training in judo and Brazilian jiu jitsu.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: At the age of 18, Jung joined the South Korean Navy and started training in Taekwondo. In June 2007, he won a sambo tournament arranged by the Korean Sambo Association, and in December of the same year, he won the Lightweight division of the "Pancrase Korea Neo-Blood Tournament" after defeating fellow South Koreans Yoo In Seok and Lee Hyung Geol. At age of 20, Jung began mixed martial arts and made his professional debut soon after. In May 2008, he participated in and won KOREA-FC's 8-man MMA tournament in the 65 kg division.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung was also a participant in a show called Street Fighter in 2007 which aired on South Korean cable television. He participated in the 70 kg tournament and won. The tournament was stand-up only (similar to K-1 but not in a ring).


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung made his professional debut in June 2007 and in December the same year, he won a Lightweight Tournament arranged by Pancrase Korea. In 2008 he won both his fights for Japanese promotion DEEP. He then entered the 2009 Sengoku Featherweight Grand Prix where he won his first-round fight but was eliminated from the tournament by the eventual winner Masanori Kanehara.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: On August 16, 2008, he defeated Michihiro Omigawa at "DEEP: Gladiator" via unanimous decision. His next fight was against Fanjin Son at "DEEP: 39 Impact" where he won via knockout in 17 seconds.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung then entered the 2009 Sengoku Featherweight Grand-Prix and was matched up with Shintaro Ishiwatari in his first-round fight at "Sengoku 7". After dropping Ishiwatari once in stand-up striking, Jung hit Ishiwatari with a right hand forcing him to give up his back. From there Jung sunk in a rear-naked choke submission forcing Ishiwatari to submit at 4:29 of the first round.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: In his second-round fight at "Sengoku 8" on May 2, 2009, he lost via unanimous decision to Masanori Kanehara officially eliminating him from the tournament. The decision was considered questionable by the English commentators and many fans (especially given Sengoku's history of biased decisions against Korean fighters), who felt that Jung had done enough to deserve the decision. On June 7, 2009, it was announced Jung would face American Matt Jaggers at "Sengoku 9" in a reserve bout for the tournament with the winner stepping in as a replacement should some of the remaining fighters be unable to continue. Jung ended up winning the fight by triangle choke submission at 1:25 of the second round, but was not required to step in as a replacement.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Chan Sung Jung then signed with World Extreme Cagefighting. He made his American and WEC debut against Leonard Garcia (who replaced injured opponent Cub Swanson) on April 24, 2010 at WEC 48 losing by an extremely controversial split decision. Many MMA publications and fans (including many in the Sacramento home crowd) opposed the decision, which has led again to questions about the accuracy of the fight judging. However, the bout was awarded the "Fight of the Night" honors, this was later declared the "Fight of the Year" by the Wrestling Observer Newsletter.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung next faced George Roop on September 30, 2010, at WEC 51. He lost the fight via knockout due to a head kick in the second round.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung was expected to face Rani Yahya on January 22, 2011, at UFC Fight Night 23. However, Jung was forced from the card with an injury.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: A rematch with Garcia was scheduled for March 26, 2011, at UFC Fight Night 24, after Jung stepped in to replace an injured Nam Phan. Jung was able to avenge the original loss after submitting Garcia with a twister in the final second of the second round. This was the first time in the history of the UFC that a twister submission finished an opponent and the win earned Jung his first "Submission of the Night" honors. This was later awarded for the "Submission of the Year" by the World MMA Awards. In his post-fight interview, Jung stated he learned the move by watching Eddie Bravo videos on YouTube.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung faced former title challenger Mark Hominick on December 10, 2011, at UFC 140. Jung won the bout via KO at seven seconds of the first round, which tied a UFC record for the fastest knockout at the time. Jung's victory over Mark Hominick earned him "Knockout of the Night" honors. The victory also earned Jung much praise in his native South Korea, appearing on news broadcasts on the country's major national television channels (such as KBS).


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung faced Dustin Poirier on May 15, 2012, at . Jung defeated Poirier via submission in the fourth round. The performance earned Jung "Submission of the Night" and both participants "Fight of the Night" honors. The bout was honored as Fight of the Year and Submission of the Year by several publications at the conclusion of 2012. This fight was the first time that Jung walked out to the incredibly popular and appropriately named song; Zombie by The Cranberries. He would use this for every fight thereafter.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung was expected to face Ricardo Lamas on July 6, 2013, at UFC 162. However, on June 14, it was announced that Jung had been pulled from the Lamas bout and would replace an injured Anthony Pettis to face José Aldo for the UFC Featherweight Championship on August 3, 2013, at UFC 163.<ref name="PettisOut/JungIn"></ref> Aldo defeated Jung via fourth-round TKO, finishing Jung with a flurry of strikes after Jung suffered a dislocated shoulder while throwing an overhand right.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung was expected to face Akira Corassani on October 4, 2014, at UFC Fight Night 53. However, Jung pulled out of the bout citing another injury and was replaced by Max Holloway.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung announced in mid-October 2014 his intention to begin his stint for mandatory military service in his home country of South Korea. While Jung did not comment about the future upon his completion, his manager indicated that he would return to mixed martial arts at the end of the two years.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung faced Dennis Bermudez on February 4, 2017, at UFC Fight Night 104. He won the fight by knockout in the first round. The win also won Jung his first "Performance of the Night" bonus award.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung was expected to face Ricardo Lamas on July 29, 2017, at UFC 214. However, Jung pulled out of the fight in early June citing a knee injury. He was replaced by Jason Knight.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung was expected to face Frankie Edgar on November 10, 2018 at UFC Fight Night 139. However, it was reported on October 26, 2018 that Edgar was pulled from the bout due to injury and he was replaced by Yair Rodríguez. He lost the fight via knockout in the final second of the fifth round. Both participants received "Fight of the Night" honors.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung faced Renato Moicano on June 22, 2019 at UFC on ESPN+ 12. He won the fight via technical knockout in 58 seconds of the first round. This fight earned him the "Performance of the Night" award.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung was scheduled to face Brian Ortega on December 21, 2019 at UFC on ESPN+ 23. However, Ortega pulled out of the fight in early December citing a knee injury and he was replaced by Frankie Edgar. Jung won the fight via TKO in the first round. The win also earned Jung a "Performance of the Night" bonus award.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: The bout against Brian Ortega was rescheduled on October 18, 2020 at UFC Fight Night 180. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung faced Dan Ige on June 19, 2021 at UFC on ESPN 25. He won the fight via unanimous decision. Following the fight, Jung was promoted to the rank of black belt in Brazilian Jiu Jitsu.


title: The Korean Zombie

text: Jung challenged for the UFC Featherweight Championship for a second time against Alexander Volkanovski at UFC 273 on April 9, 2022. After being out struck and knocked down multiple times throughout the fight, Jung lost the fight via TKO early in round four.


title: Emma Appleton

text: Emma Jill Appleton was born and raised in Witney, Oxfordshire, England and attended West Witney Primary School and then Wood Green School. Whilst at school, Drama was the only subject where Appleton felt that she excelled.


title: Emma Appleton

text: Appleton began a modelling career as a teenager, modelling for Victoria Beckham, The Kooples, Margaret Howell and DAKS, and advertising brands such as Fred Perry, Toni & Guy, Rimmel, and Converse.


title: Emma Appleton

text: She progressed to acting in 2016 with her first acting role was as Pixie in the short film "Dreamlands". In 2017, an opportunity opened for the cast of the BBC Three series "Clique" where she played the role of Fay Brookstone for 6 episodes.


title: Emma Appleton

text: In 2019, Appleton landed a major role was as Feef Symonds in six episodes of Channel 4's spy thriller "Traitors". In December 2019, Appleton played the role of Princess Renfri, alongside Henry Cavill in the Netflix fantasy drama series "The Witcher".


title: Emma Appleton

text: In 2021, Appleton guest-starred as Mya Miller in two episodes of the British science fiction television series "Intergalactic".


title: Emma Appleton

text: In 2022, Appleton had a brief appearance as Nancy Spungen in the Danny Boyle directed "Pistol (miniseries)", and played a lead role in the China Moo-Young directed adaption of the Dolly Alderton memoir "Everything I Know About Love", alongside Bel Powley.


title: Emma Appleton

text: Appleton plays a main role as Thomasina in the upcoming sci-fi feature film LOLA (film), where two sisters attempt to change their fate with a machine that can obtain information from the future.


title: DC Entertainment

text: DC Entertainment is an American entertainment company that was founded in September 2009 and was based in Burbank, California. The company is a subsidiary of Warner Bros. Discovery that manages its DC Comics units and characters in other units, as they work with other Warner Bros. units. It also delves into those units within their flagship the DC Extended Universe (DCEU).


title: DC Entertainment

text: In April 2022, following the merger of parent company WarnerMedia with Discovery Inc., DC Entertainment was reported to be reorganized into its own vertical unit rather than being handled by other Warner Bros. subsidiaries on its behalf.


title: DC Entertainment

text: In September 9, 2009, Warner Bros. announced that DC Comics would become a subsidiary of DC Entertainment, Inc., with Diane Nelson, President of Warner Premiere, becoming president of the newly formed holding company and DC Comics President and Publisher Paul Levitz moving to the position of Contributing Editor and Overall Consultant there. Warner Bros. and DC Comics have been owned by the same company since.


title: DC Entertainment

text: On February 18, 2010, DC Entertainment named Jim Lee and Dan DiDio as Co-Publishers of DC Comics, Geoff Johns as Chief Creative Officer, John Rood as EVP (Executive Vice President) of Sales, Marketing and Business Development, and Patrick Caldon as EVP of Finance and Administration.


title: DC Entertainment

text: In October 2013, DC Entertainment announced that the DC Comics offices were going to move in 2015 from New York City to the headquarters of Warner Bros. in Burbank, California. The other units, animation, film, television and portfolio planning, had preceded DC Comics by moving there in 2010.


title: DC Entertainment

text: DC Entertainment announced its first franchise, the DC Super Hero Girls universe, in April 2015 with multi-platform content, toys and apparel to start appearing in 2016.


title: DC Entertainment

text: Warner Bros. Pictures reorganized in May 2016 to have genre-responsible film executives, thus DC Entertainment franchise films under Warner Bros. were placed under a newly created division, DC Films, created under Warner Bros. executive vice president Jon Berg and DC chief content officer Geoff Johns. This was done in the same vein as Marvel Studios in unifying DC-related filmmaking under a single vision and clarifying the greenlighting process. Johns also kept his existing role at DC Comics. Johns was promoted to DC president and CCO with the addition of his DC Films while still reporting to DCE President Nelson. In August 2016, Amit Desai was promoted from senior vice president, marketing & global franchise management to exec vice president, business and marketing strategy, direct-to-consumer and global franchise management.


title: DC Entertainment

text: DC Comics are available in digital form through several sources. Free services: In 2015, Hoopla Digital became the first library-based digital system to distribute DC Comics.


title: DC Entertainment

text: In April 2017, DC announced an upcoming streaming service with Warner Bros. Digital Networks, which was to feature original live-action and animated series based on DC characters and franchises, such as "Titans" and "". The service, later announced as DC Universe, would launch in September 2018, and also feature access to classic DC television series and digital comics.


title: DC Entertainment

text: With frustration over DC Films not matching Marvel Studios' results and Berg wanting to step back to being a producer in January 2018, it was announced that Warner Bros. executive Walter Hamada was appointed president of DC film production. After a leave of absence starting in March 2018, Diane Nelson resigned as president of DC Entertainment. The company's executive management were to report to WB Chief Digital Officer Thomas Gewecke until a new president was selected.


title: DC Entertainment

text: In June 2018, Johns was also moved out of his position as chief creative officer and DC Entertainment president for a writing and producing deal with the DC and WB companies. Jim Lee added DC Entertainment chief creative officer title to his DC co-publisher post. In September 2018, DC became part of the newly-founded Warner Bros. Global Brands and Franchises division overseen by President Pam Lifford. Paid services were Google Play and ComiXology. In January 2019 it was reported that 7 of the DC's 240 person workforce were laid off, including several vice presidents.