title: Colgate University

text: For the class of 2026 (entering fall 2022), 21,261 students applied, 2,264 (12%) were admitted, and 841 matriculated. Enrolled students had an average high school GPA of 3.95 out of 4.0, with 72% of students in the top 10% of their class and 91% in top 20%. The middle 50% SAT range was 1460 to 1540, while the ACT composite range was 32 to 35. The university met 100% of the demonstrated need with financial aid. For the admitted students with a total family income of under $125,000, Colgate offers financial aid package that involves no loan.


title: Colgate University

text: In its 2020 edition, "U.S. News & World Report" ranked Colgate tied as the 17th-best liberal arts college in the country, 17th "Best Value School", and tied for 35th "Best Undergraduate Teaching". The university's campus was ranked as the most beautiful by "The Princeton Review" in their 2010 edition. In July 2008, Colgate was named fifth on Forbes' list of Top Colleges for Getting Rich, the only non-Ivy League college in the top 5. Colgate is listed as one of America's 25 "New Ivies" by "Newsweek" magazine. It is also on the list of "100 best campuses for LGBT students." Colgate has been ranked third by "The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education" for its success in integrating African-American students.


title: Colgate University

text: In 2014, Colgate was ranked the top college in the United States by Payscale and CollegeNet's Social Mobility Index college rankings. It is also listed as one of 30 and as one of "Newsweek" "New Ivies". In 2014, Princeton Review ranked Colgate as the Most Beautiful Campus in America.


title: Colgate University

text: Colgate is governed by a board of trustees composed of 35 members: 31 alumni, three parents of students, and the current president. As of December 31, 2021, Colgate's endowment was $1.28 billion.


title: Colgate University

text: Colgate has ten residence halls located on its central campus, which is often referred to as "up the hill." Located near the academic buildings, freshmen live in six of these halls, whereas sophomores live in the other three, or in townhouses or one house on Broad Street. Juniors and seniors live down the hill in a number of residences, such as theme houses on Broad Street, apartment complexes or in "townhouses" located further away from campus. Themed houses are available for students who want to explore their interests. The Creative Arts house is geared toward creative students; Asia House is for students with interests in Asian culture. Although the university provides housing for students all four years, students can apply for off-campus housing, of which only 250 are granted the privilege through a lottery. Students involved in Greek life have the option of living in their organization's house, though they cannot do so until their junior year.


title: Colgate University

text: Colgate has three dining facilities on campus that are run by Colgate Dining Services, which in turn is run by Chartwells. There is also a cafe located in Case Library that serves coffee.


title: Colgate University

text: The O'Connor Campus Center, commonly referred to as the Coop, serves as the center for student life and programming. Renovations on it were completed in 2004, and it now houses the offices for student organizations, a cafeteria, post office, printing center, a computer facility, as well as the new Blackmore Media Center, home to WRCU, Colgate's radio station.


title: Colgate University

text: Since the first chartered chapter in 1856, fraternities and sororities have been part of a long-standing tradition at Colgate University.


title: Colgate University

text: About forty-five percent of sophomores, juniors, and seniors belong to fraternities or sororities at Colgate. Students are not allowed to pledge until the fall semester of their sophomore year. , there are five fraternities (Beta Theta Pi, Delta Upsilon, Theta Chi, Phi Delta Theta, and Phi Kappa Tau) and three sororities (Gamma Phi Beta, Delta Delta Delta, and Kappa Kappa Gamma) that are active on campus.


title: Colgate University

text: Following a number of incidents related to fraternities and sororities on campus, in 2005, the university decided to purchase the Greek houses. All but one of them agreed to sell their houses. The hold-out, Delta Kappa Epsilon, was subsequently derecognized. Students were forbidden from living in the house (which is now school-owned housing) or participating in the fraternity's activities. Delta Kappa Epsilon no longer has an affiliation with the school.


title: Colgate University

text: Colgate has close to 200 student groups and organizations. The groups cover a wide array of interests, including academic organizations, personal interests, student government, honor societies, and cultural and religious organizations. Among its more notable groups are the a cappella groups The Colgate Thirteen and The Swinging 'Gates, the Jewish philanthropic and social group the Blue Diamond Society, the improv group Charred Goosebeak (which was founded by the members of Broken Lizard) and an open collegiate level Club Figure Skating team.


title: Colgate University

text: WRCU is Colgate University's student-operated radio station, broadcasting throughout central New York on 90.1 FM, and the station was re-modeled in 2010. Colgate's student-run TV station, CUTV, broadcasts on the university's local cable system and provides a mix of student-created content and first-run movies 24 hours a day. "The Colgate Maroon-News", is the oldest college weekly in America. The first student newspaper was the "Hamilton Student", launched on November 2, 1846. "The Monthly Rag", the college's satirical newspaper, was founded in 2007. Its slogan is, "written by 13 writers with 13 stories after 13 beers". The Colgate Scene is a quarterly alumni publication.


title: Colgate University

text: The number 13 is considered to be lucky at Colgate. It is said that Colgate was founded by thirteen men with thirteen dollars, thirteen prayers and thirteen articles. This tradition is expressed in many ways. Colgate's address is 13 Oak Drive, and its zip code is 13346, which begins with 13 and ends with three digits that sum to 13. The Tredecim Senior Honor Society (formerly Konosioni) is composed of 13 men and 13 women. Alumni wear Colgate apparel on every Friday the 13th, which is designated as Colgate Day.


title: Colgate University

text: In 1936, the Colgate swim team made its first trip to Fort Lauderdale, Florida for spring break training at the Casino Pool. This became a regular tradition for Colgate that caught on with other schools across the country and proved to be the genesis of the college spring break trip.


title: Colgate University

text: Approximately 25% of students are involved in a varsity sport, and 80% of students are involved in some form of varsity, club, or intramural athletics. There are 25 varsity teams, over 30 club sports teams, and 18 different intramural sports. Colgate is part of NCAA Division I for all varsity sports.


title: Colgate University

text: The football program competes within the Division I Football Championship Subdivision (FCS). The athletic teams are nicknamed the "Raiders," and the traditional team colors are maroon and white, with a more recent addition of gray in the 1970s. Maroon replaced orange as the school's primary color on March 24, 1900. Colgate is a member of the Patriot League for all varsity sports except for hockey, in which both its men's and women's teams are members of ECAC Hockey.


title: Colgate University

text: Starting in 1932, Colgate athletics teams were called the "Red Raiders" in reference to the new maroon uniforms of that season's "undefeated, untied, unscored upon, and uninvited" football team, which was the first to use the moniker. Apocryphal explanations for the name include the team's ability to defeat its much larger rival, the Cornell University Big Red, or that a rainstorm caused one Colgate football team's maroon jerseys to blend into a reddish color. Regardless, after the adoption of a Native American mascot, the school debated changing the name and mascot in the 1970s out of sensitivity to Native Americans. At that time the nickname was retained, but the mascot was changed to a hand holding a torch. In 2001, the administration acknowledged concerns that the adjective "Red" still had a Native American implication, and the school shortened the nickname to the "Raiders" starting in the 2001–02 school year. A new mascot was introduced in 2006.


title: Colgate University

text: Colgate University's football team was selected to share the 1932 national championship by Parke H. Davis in 1933 and appeared in the Associated Press top-level polls in 1942 and 1977. The 1932 team was "unbeaten, untied, unscored upon, and uninvited", as it registered shutouts against all nine opponents, but was not invited to the 1933 Rose Bowl. Colgate began playing in NCAA Division I-AA, now known as Division I FCS, in 1982 and made the Division I-AA (now FCS) football playoffs in 1982, 1983, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2012, 2015 and, most recently, 2018.


title: Colgate University

text: In the 2003 season, the Raiders made it to the NCAA I-AA championship game in football for the first time, where they lost to the University of Delaware. At the end of the season, their record was 15–1. At the time, they had the longest winning streak in all of Division I football, including one win over a Division I-A (now Division I FBS) team, Buffalo.


title: Colgate University

text: Cornell is a common rival in all sports; hockey games against Cornell are major events on campus, with students lining up for hours before the game in order to secure tickets. Colgate's teams (with the exception of football, golf, and men's hockey) also compete annually against Syracuse University. Cornell and Syracuse are both within two hours of Colgate's campus. Colgate and Syracuse were once bitter rivals in football (there are some old traditions related to their games), but a variety of factors, including the splitting of Division I football into Division I FBS and Division I FCS in the late 1970s, helped end the annual game, with some exceptions (such as 2010) over the years. Their men's lacrosse rivalry remains fierce.


title: Colgate University

text: Colgate makes use of its rural location by having a full outdoor education program. A base camp is located on campus and allows students to rent equipment for skiing, camping, and other outdoor events. Each year, twelve to fifteen students are selected to become staffers for Outdoor Education. The training takes more than six months and includes a Wilderness First Responder certification. Incoming first-year students are offered a week-long trip called Wilderness Adventure, where they spend a week backpacking, canoeing, kayaking, tree climbing, caving or rock climbing in the Adirondacks.


title: Colgate University

text: Colgate has more than 34,000 living alumni. , Colgate alumni have a median starting salary of $53,700 and have a median mid-career salary of $119,000. Forbes ranks Colgate 16th in colleges that produce the highest-earning graduates. Among small schools, Colgate is the tenth-largest producer of alumni who go onto the Peace Corps.


title: Manama

text: Manama ( "", ) is the capital and largest city of Bahrain, with an approximate population of 200,000 people as of 2020. Long an important trading center in the Persian Gulf, Manama is home to a very diverse population. After periods of Portuguese and Persian control and invasions from the ruling dynasties of Saudi Arabia and Oman, Bahrain established itself as an independent nation in 1971 after a period of British hegemony.


title: Manama

text: Although the current twin cities of Manama and Muharraq appear to have been founded simultaneously in the 1800s, Muharraq took prominence due to its defensive location and was thus the capital of Bahrain until 1923. Manama became the mercantile capital and was the gateway to the main Bahrain Island. In the 20th century, Bahrain's oil wealth helped spur fast growth and in the 1990s a concerted diversification effort led to expansion in other industries and helped transform Manama into an important financial hub in the Middle East. Manama was designated as the 2012 capital of Arab culture by the Arab League, and a beta global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network in 2018.


title: Manama

text: The name is derived from the Arabic word المنامة ("al-Manãma") meaning "the place of rest" or "the place of dreams".


title: Manama

text: There is evidence of human settlement on the northern coastline of Bahrain dating back to the Bronze Age. The Dilmun civilisation inhabited the area in 3000 BC, serving as a key regional trading hub between Mesopotamia, Magan and the Indus Valley civilisation. Approximately 100,000 Dilmun burial mounds were found across the north and central regions of the country, some originating 5,000 years ago. Despite the discovery of the mounds, there is no significant evidence to suggest heavy urbanisation took place during the Dilmun era. It is believed that the majority of the population lived in rural areas, numbering several thousand. Evidence of an ancient large rural population was confirmed by one of Alexander the Great's ship captains, during voyages in the Persian Gulf. A vast system of aqueducts in northern Bahrain helped facilitate ancient horticulture and agriculture.


title: Manama

text: The commercial network of Dilmun lasted for almost 2,000 years, after which the Assyrians took control of the island in 700 BC for more than a century. This was followed by Babylonian and Achaemenid rule, which later gave way to Greek influence during the time of Alexander the Great's conquests. In the first century AD, the Roman writer Pliny the Elder wrote of Tylos, the Hellenic name of Bahrain in the classical era, and its pearls and cotton fields. The island came under the control of the Parthian and Sassanid empires respectively, by which time Nestorian Christianity started to spread in Bahrain. By 410–420 AD, a Nestorian bishopric and monastery was established in Al Dair, on the neighbouring island of Muharraq. Following the conversion of Bahrain to Islam in 628 AD, work on one of the earliest mosques in the region, the Khamis Mosque, began as early as the seventh century AD. During this time, Bahrain was engaged in long distance marine trading, evident from the discovery of Chinese coins dating between 600 and 1200 AD, in Manama.


title: Manama

text: In 1330, under the Jarwanid dynasty, the island became a tributary of the Kingdom of Hormuz. The town of Manama was mentioned by name for the first time in a manuscript dating to 1345 AD. Bahrain, particularly Manama and the nearby settlement of Bilad Al Qadeem, became a centre of Shia scholarship and training for the ulema, it would remain so for centuries. The ulema would help fund pearling expeditions and finance grain production in the rural areas surrounding the city. In 1521, Bahrain fell to the expanding Portuguese Empire in the Persian Gulf, having already defeated Hormuz. The Portuguese consolidated their hold on the island by constructing the Bahrain Fort, on the outskirts of Manama. After numerous revolts and an expanding Safavid empire in Persia, the Portuguese were expelled from Bahrain and the Safavids took control in 1602.


title: Manama

text: The Safavids, sidelining Manama, designated the nearby town of Bilad Al Qadeem as the provincial capital. The town was also the seat of the Persian governor and the Shaikh al-Islam of the islands. The position of Shaikh al-Islam lay under the jurisdiction of the central Safavid government and as such, candidates were carefully vetted by the Isfahan courts. During the Safavid era, the islands continued to be a centre for Twelver Shi'ism scholarship, producing clerics for use in mainland Persia. Additionally, the rich agricultural northern region of Bahrain continued to flourish due to an abundance of date palm farms and orchards. The Portuguese traveler Pedro Teixeira commented on the extensive cultivation of crops like barley and wheat. The opening of Persian markets to Bahraini exports, especially pearls, boosted the islands' export economy. The yearly income of exported Bahraini pearls was 600,000 ducats, collected by around 2,000 pearling dhows. Another factor that contributed to Bahrain's agricultural wealth was the migration of Shia cultivators from Ottoman-occupied Qatif and al-Hasa, fearing religious persecution, in 1537. Sometime after 1736, Nader Shah constructed a fort on the southern outskirts of Manama (likely the Diwan Fort).


title: Manama

text: Persian control over the Persian Gulf waned during the later half of the 18th century. At this time, Bahrain archipelago was a dependency of the emirate of Bushehr, itself a part of Persia. In 1783, the Bani Utbah tribal confederation invaded Bahrain and expelled the resident governor Nasr Al-Madhkur. As a result, the Al Khalifa family became the rulers of the country, and all political relations with Bushehr and Persia/Iran were terminated. Ahmed ibn Muhammad ibn Khalifa (later called Ahmed al-Fateh, lit. "Ahmed the conqueror") become the dynasty's first Hakim of Bahrain. Political instability in the 19th century had disastrous effects on Manama's economy; Invasions by the Omanis in 1800 and by the Wahhabis in 1810–11, in addition to a civil war in 1842 between Bahrain's co-rulers saw the town being a major battleground. The instability paralysed commercial trade in Manama; the town's port was closed, most merchants fled abroad to Kuwait and the Persian coast until hostilities ceased. The English scholar William Gifford Palgrave, on a visit to Manama in 1862, described the town as having a few ruined stone buildings, with a landscape dominated with the huts of poor fishermen and pearl-divers.


title: Manama

text: The Pax Britannica of the 19th century resulted in British consolidation of trade routes, particularly those close to the British Raj. In response to piracy in the Persian Gulf region, the British deployed warships and forced much of the Persian Gulf States at the time (including Bahrain) to sign the General Maritime Treaty of 1820, which prohibited piracy and slavery. In 1861, the Perpetual Truce of Peace and Friendship was signed between Britain and Bahrain, which placed the British in charge of defending Bahrain in exchange for British control over Bahraini foreign affairs. With the ascension of Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa as the Hakim of Bahrain in 1869, Manama became the centre of British activity in the Persian Gulf, though its interests were initially strictly commercial. Trading recovered fully by 1873 and the country's earnings from pearl exports increased by sevenfold between 1873 and 1900. Representing the British were native agents, usually from minorities such as Persians or Huwala who regularly reported back to British India and the British political residency in Bushehr. The position of native agent was later replaced by a British political agent, following the construction of the British political residency (locally referred to in ) in 1900, which further solidified Britain's position in Manama.


title: Manama

text: Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the British Raj used Manama as a military base of operations during the Mesopotamian campaign. Prompted by the presence of oil in the region, the British political agency in Bushire concluded an oil agreement with the Hakim to prohibit the exploration and exploitation of oil for a five-year period. In 1919, Bahrain was officially integrated into the British empire as an overseas imperial territory following the Bahrain order-in-council decree, issued in 1913. The decree gave the resident political agent greater powers and placed Bahrain under the residency of Bushire and therefore under the governance of the British Raj. The British pressured a series of administrative reforms in Bahrain during the 1920s (a move met with opposition from tribal leaders), during which the aging Hakim Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa was forced to abdicate in favour of his reform-minded son Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa. A municipal government was established in Manama in 1919, the Customs office was reorganised in 1923 and placed under the supervision of an English businessman, the pearling industry was later reformed in 1924. Earnings from the customs office would be kept in the newly created state treasury. Civil courts were established for the first time in 1923, followed by the establishment of the Department of Land Registration in 1924. Charles Belgrave, from the Colonial office, was appointed in 1926 by the British to carry on further reforms and manage administration as a financial advisor to the King. He later organised the State Police and was in charge of the Finance and Land departments of the government.


title: Manama

text: In 1927, the country's pearling economy collapsed due to the introduction of Japanese cultured pearls in the world market. It is estimated that between 1929 and 1931, pearling entrepreneurs lost more than two-thirds of their income. Further aggravated by the Great Depression, many leading Bahraini businessmen, shopkeepers, and pearl-divers fell into debt. With the discovery of oil in 1932 and the subsequent production of oil exports in 1934, the country gained a greater significance in geopolitics. The security of oil supplies in the Middle East was a priority of the British, especially in the run-up to the Second World War. The discovery of oil led to gradual employment of bankrupt divers from the pearling industry in the 1930s, eventually causing the pearling industry to disappear. During the war, the country served as a strategic airbase between Britain and India as well as hosting RAF Muharraq and a naval base in Juffair. Bahrain was bombed by the Italian Air Force in 1940. In 1947, following the end of the war and subsequent Indian independence, the British residency of the Persian Gulf moved to Manama from Bushire.


title: Manama

text: Following the rise of Arab nationalism across the Middle East and sparked by the Suez Crisis in 1956, anti-British unrest broke out in Manama, organised by the National Union Committee. Though the NUC advocated peaceful demonstrations, buildings and enterprises belonging to Europeans (the British in particular) as well as the main Catholic church in the city and petrol stations, were targeted and set ablaze. Demonstrations held in front of the British political residency called for the dismissal of Charles Belgrave, who was later dismissed by the direct intervention of the Foreign Office the following year. A subsequent crackdown on the NUC led to the dissolution of the body. Another anti-British uprising erupted in March 1965, though predominately led by students aspiring for independence rather than by Arab nationalists. In 1968, the British announced their withdrawal from Bahrain by 1971. The newly independent State of Bahrain designated Manama as the capital city.


title: Manama

text: Post-independence Manama was characterised by the rapid urbanisation of the city and the swallowing-up of neighboring villages and hamlets into a single urbanised area, incorporating new neighbourhoods such as Adliya and Salmaniya. The construction boom attracted large numbers of foreigners from the Indian subcontinent and by 1981, foreigners outnumbered Bahrainis two-to-one. The construction of the Diplomatic Area district in the city's northeast helped facilitate diversification of the country's economy from oil by exploiting the lucrative financial industry. Financial institutions in the district numbered 187 by 1986. The scarcity of land suitable for construction led to land reclamation. Religious activism migrated from Manama to the suburban districts of Bani Jamra, Diraz and Bilad Al Qadeem, hotspots of unrest in the 1990s uprising that called for the reinstatement of an elected parliament. In 2001, the National Action Charter, presented by King Hamad bin Isa al-Khalifa was approved by Bahrainis. The charter led to the first parliamentary and municipal elections in decades. Further elections in 2006 and 2010 led to the election of Islamist parties, Al Wefaq, Al Menbar, and Al Asalah, as well as independent candidates. In 2011, a month-long uprising led to the intervention of GCC forces and the proclamation of a three-month state of emergency. The Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry published a 500-page report on the events of 2011.


title: Manama

text: Historically, Manama has been restricted to what is now known as the Manama Souq and the Manama Fort (now the Ministry of Interior) to its south. However the city has now grown to include a number of newer suburban developments as well as older neighboring villages that have been engulfed by the growth of the city. The districts that make up Manama today include:


title: Manama

text: Manama is part of the Capital Governorate, one of five Governorates of Bahrain. Until 2002 it was part of the municipality of Al-Manamah. Councils exist within the governorates; eight constituencies are voted upon within Capital Governorate in 2006.


title: Manama

text: Manama is the focal point of the Bahraini economy. While petroleum has decreased in importance in recent years due to depleting reserves and growth in other industries, it is still the mainstay of the economy. Heavy industry (e.g. aluminium smelting, ship repair), banking and finance, and tourism are among the industries which have experienced recent growth. Several multinationals have facilities and offices in and around Manama. The primary industry in Manama itself is financial services, with over two hundred financial institutions and banks based in the CBD and the Diplomatic Area. Manama is a financial hub for the Persian Gulf region and a center of Islamic banking. There is also a large retail sector in the shopping malls around Seef, while the center of Manama is dominated by small workshops and traders.


title: Manama

text: Manama's economy in the early 20th century relied heavily on pearling; in 1907, the pearling industry was estimated to include 917 boats providing employment for up to 18,000 people. Shipbuilding also employed several hundred in both Manama and Muharraq. The estimated income earned from pearling in 1926 and subsequent years prior to the Great Depression was £1.5 million annually. Custom duties and tariffs served as the prime source of revenue for the government. With the onset of the Great Depression, the collapse of the pearling industry and the discovery of oil in 1932, the country's economy began to shift towards oil.


title: Manama

text: Historically, the ports at Manama were of poor reputation. The British described the ports importing systems as being "very bad – goods were exposed to the weather and there were long delays in delivery", in 1911. Indians began maintaining the ports and new resources were built on site, improving the situation. As of 1920, Manama was one of the main exporters of Bahrain pearls, attracting steamships from India. During this time, they also imported goods from India and from other regional countries. They imported rice, textiles, ghee, coffee, dates, tea, tobacco, fuel, and livestock. They exported less of a variety, with a focus on pearls, oysters, and sailcloth. For the year of 1911–12, Manama was visited by 52 steamships, the majority being British and the rest Turkish-Arabian.


title: Manama

text: The role of Manama as a regional port city in the Persian Gulf made it a hub for migrant workers in search of a better living. As a result, Manama has often been described, both in the pre-oil and post-oil era, as a cosmopolitan city. In 1904, it was estimated that Manama's population numbered 25,000, out of which half were believed to have been foreigners from Basra, Najd, al-Hasa and Iran, as well as from India and Europe.


title: Manama

text: The two main branches of Islam, Shia Islam and Sunni Islam, coexisted in Manama for centuries and are represented by distinct ethnic groups. The Shia community is represented by the native Arab Baharna, the Hasawis and Qatifis of mainland Arabia and the Persian Ajam. The Sunni community is represented by Arab Bedouin tribes who migrated in the eighteenth century along with the Bani Utbah and the Huwala.


title: Manama

text: Manama is the main hub of the country's road network. At the moment the city's road network is undergoing substantial development to ameliorate the situation of traffic in the city. Due to the fact that it is the capital and the main city in the country, where most of the government and the commercial offices and facilities are established, along with the entertainment centers, and the country's fast growth, vehicle population is increasing rapidly.


title: Manama

text: The widening of roads in the old districts of Manama and the development of a national network linking the capital to other settlements commenced as early as the arrival of the first car in 1914. The continuous increase in the number of cars from 395 in 1944, to 3,379 in 1954 and to 18,372 cars in 1970 caused urban development to primarily focus on expanding the road network, widening carriageways and the establishment of more parking spaces. Many tracks previously laid in the pre-oil era (prior to the 1930s) were resurfaced and widened, turning them into 'road arteries'. Initial widening of the roads started in the Manama Souq district, widening its main roads by demolishing encroaching houses.


title: Manama

text: A series of ring roads were constructed (Isa al Kabeer avenue in the 1930s, Exhibition avenue in the 1960s and Al Fateh highway in the 1980s), to push back the coastline and extend the city area in belt-like forms. To the north, the foreshore used to be around "Government Avenue" in the 1920s but it shifted to a new road, "King Faisal Road", in the early 1930s which became the coastal road. To the east, a bridge connected Manama to Muharraq since 1929, a new causeway was built in 1941 which replaced the old wooden bridge. Transits between the two islands peaked after the construction of the Bahrain International Airport in 1932.


title: Manama

text: To the south of Manama, roads connected groves, lagoons and marshes of Hoora, Adliya, Gudaibiya and Juffair. Villages such as Mahooz, Ghuraifa, Seqaya served as the end of these roads. To the west, a major highway was built that linked Manama to the isolated village port of Budaiya, this highway crossed through the 'green belt' villages of Sanabis, Jidhafs and Duraz. To the south, a road was built that connected Manama to Riffa. The discovery of oil accelerated the growth of the city's road network.


title: Manama

text: The four main islands and all the towns and villages are linked by well-constructed roads. There were of roadways in 2002, of which were paved. A causeway stretching over , connect Manama with Muharraq Island, and another bridge joins Sitra to the main island. A four-lane highway atop a causeway, linking Bahrain with the Saudi Arabian mainland via the island of Umm an-Nasan was completed in December 1986, and financed by Saudi Arabia. In 2000, there were 172,684 passenger vehicles and 41,820 commercial vehicles.


title: Manama

text: Bahrain's port of Mina Salman can accommodate 16 oceangoing vessels drawing up to . In 2001, Bahrain had a merchant fleet of eight ships of 1,000 GT or over, totaling 270,784 GT. Private vehicles and taxis are the primary means of transportation in the city.


title: Manama

text: Manama has a bus service that launched on 1 April 2015, with a fleet of 141 MAN buses. Regulated by the Ministry of Transportation, bus routes extend across Bahrain and around Manama with fares of a minimum 200 Fils (BD0.200) (around $0.50(USD); £0.30).


title: Manama

text: Bahrain International Airport is located on the nearby Muharraq Island, approximately from the CBD. It is a premier hub airport in the Middle East. Strategically located in the Northern Persian Gulf between the major markets of Saudi Arabia and Iran, the airport has one of the widest range and highest frequency of regional services with connections to major international destinations in Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America.


title: Manama

text: Bahrain also has a military airbase, the Isa Air Base, located in the south at Sakhir. This is the base of the Bahrain Defence Force, or BDF.


title: Manama

text: Quranic schools were the only source of education in Bahrain prior to the 20th century; such schools were primarily dedicated to the study of the Qur'an. The first modern school to open in the country was a missionary elementary school set up in 1892 (according to one account) in Manama by the Reformed Church in America, with the school's syllabus comprising English, Mathematics and the study of Christianity. Leading merchants in the country sent their children to the school until it was closed down in 1933 due to financial difficulties. The school reopened some years later under the name of Al Raja School where it operates till the present day. In addition to the American Mission School, another foreign private school was opened in 1910; Al-Ittihad school, funded by the Persian community of Bahrain.


title: Manama

text: Following the end of the First World War, Western ideas became more widespread in the country, culminating in the opening of the first public school of Bahrain, Al-Hidaya Al-Khalifia Boys school, in the island of Muharraq in 1919. The school was founded by prominent citizens of Muharraq and was endorsed by the Bahraini royal family. The country's first Education Committee was established by several leading Bahraini merchants, headed by Shaikh Abdulla bin Isa Al-Khalifa, the son of the then-ruler of Bahrain Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa, who acted as the de facto Minister of Education. The Education Committee was also responsible for managing the Al-Hidaya Boys school. The school was, in fact, the brainchild of Shaikh Abdulla, who suggested the idea after returning from post-World War I celebrations in England.


title: Manama

text: In 1926, a second public school for boys opened up in Manama called the Jafaria School. Two years later, in 1928, the first public school for girls was established. Due to financial constraints suffered by the Education Committee, the Bahraini government took control of the schools in 1930.


title: Manama

text: Presently, Manama has a wide range of private and public universities and colleges such as Ahlia University, Applied Science University, Arab Open University, Arabian Gulf University, Bahrain Institute of Banking and Finance, and the College of Health and Sport Sciences. Other notable primary and secondary schools situated in the city include the Bahrain School, the Indian School, Al Raja School amongst others.


title: Manama

text: The city is located in the north-eastern corner of Bahrain on a small peninsula. As in the rest of Bahrain, the land is generally flat (or gently rolling) and arid.


title: Manama

text: Manama has an arid climate. In common with the rest of Bahrain, Manama experiences extreme climatic conditions, with summer temperatures up to , and winter as low as with even hail on rare occasions. Average temperatures of the summer and winter seasons are generally from about 17 °C (63 °F) to about 34 °C (93 °F). The most pleasant time in Bahrain is autumn when sunshine is comparatively low, coupled with warm temperatures tempered by soft breezes.


title: Manama

text: The country attracts a large number of foreigners and foreign influences, with just under one-third of the population hailing from abroad. Alcohol is legal in the country, with bars and nightclubs operating in the city. Bahrain gave women the right to vote in elections for the first time in 2002. Football is the most popular sport in Manama (and the rest of the country), with three teams from Manama participating in the Bahraini Premier League.


title: Manama

text: Notable cultural sites within Manama include the Bab Al Bahrain and the adjacent souq area. In the 2010s, the historic core of Manama underwent revitalisation efforts alongside the Manama souq, which were due to be completed in 2020. The central areas of Manama are also the main location for Muharram processions in the country, attracting hundreds of thousands of people annually from Bahrain and across the Gulf.


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: Veeram () is a 2014 Indian Tamil-language action drama film directed by Siva and produced by Vijaya Productions. The film stars Ajith Kumar and Tamannaah, with a supporting cast including Vidharth, Bala, Santhanam, Nassar, Pradeep Rawat and Atul Kulkarni. Pre-production works had been ongoing since December 2011, with shooting starting in April 2013. The film was released on 10 January 2014. The film received positive reviews from critics and became successful at box-office. The film was remade in Telugu as "Katamarayudu" (2017), and in Kannada as "Odeya".


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: Vinayagam is a brave man living in the village of Oddaanchatram, who lives with his four brothers Murughan, Shanmugham, Kumaaran and Shenthil. They are often caught in fights. Advocate Bail Perumaal bails them out whenever legal issues arise because of their brawls. Vinayagam hates the idea of marriage as he feels that his wife might create disharmony among brothers. Though the four younger brothers pretend they don't want to either fall in love or get married, when Vinayagam is not around, they all have secret lovers. They learn through his brother's childhood friend Collector Subbu that Vinayagam, in his school days, was in love with a girl named Kopperum Devi (fondly called Kopu) and his brothers scheme to find her and reintroduce her to Vinayagam, to rekindle their relationship. But she's married now and has kids. So the brothers conspire to find another woman named Koppuram Devi, because, Vinayagam was not in love with that girl so much as her name, and when he meets another girl with that name, he is sure to lose his heart to her, just because she bears that name. Though initially reluctant later Vinayagam himself falls in love with her. He clashes with a goon called Vanangamudi to take care of market in the village. Vanangamudi tries to kill Vinayagam's brothers while Vinayagam kidnaps Vanangamudi's son after clashing, Vinayagam banishes Vanangamudi from the village.


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: While travelling in train to Koppu's village, Koppu narrates her family background to Vinayagam. Koppu's father Nallasivam is a respected man in the village who hates violence, while his son is exact opposite who kills people but when he is killed, Nallasivam refuse to bury him and decided to make his village with peace and harmony. Few goons enter into the train, but Vinayagam bashes all the goons, Koppu is shocked to see Vinayagam whom she thought as a non-violent person, where she leaves for her village and tells Vinayagam to never see her again. Vinayagam and his brothers arrive at Koppu's village with clean shaven look he reveals to Koppu that he has changed and he would never harbor violence again, He and his brothers are welcomed and respected by her family. Vinayagam is touched and impressed by their love, affection and hospitality. Vinayagam discovers that a goon named Aadalarasu wants to kill Nallasivam and his family, Vinayagam confronts Aadalarasu in the Central Jail for the reason, which is revealed through flashback that Aadalarasu's father Aavudaiyapan is responsible for blast of matchstick factory. Nallasivam complains against Aavudaiyappan. Aavudaiyappan is arrested, and kills himself by jumping in front of a lorry from a police van.


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: Aadalarasu swears revenge against Nallasivam, but Vinayagam challenges Aadalarasu that he will protect Nallasivam's family. Vinayagam finishes all the goons and solves all their problems without the knowledge of Nallasivam and family. When Nallasivam's granddaughter finds sickle under Vinayagam's jeep, Nallasivam orders Vinayagam to go out of the town. Aadalarasu who escapes from death penalty arrives to kill Nallasivam but Vinayagam keeps him and his family in a safe place. Aadalarasu informs Vinayagam that he had kidnapped one of his brothers Kumaran, Vinayagam arrives at the nick of time and saves his brother but instead gets attacked by Aadalarasu. Nallasivam and his family who arrives at the place realise the risk taken by Vinayagam to save the family. Though Brutally attacked, Vinayagam rises steadily where he kills Aadalarasu and his henchmen. Nallasivam, who is impressed with Vinayagam's valour gets Vinayagam and Koppu married. Thus, Vinayagam and his brothers get married with great pomp.


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: The potential collaboration between Vijaya Productions and *Ajith Kumar was reported in November 2011, with speculation suggesting that Venkata Ramana Reddy wanted to commemorate his late father B. Nagi Reddy's 100th year since birth with a film project. Siva, who had made his debut in Tamil films with the 2011 film "Siruthai", was noted as a potential candidate to direct the film, while Anushka Shetty was initially reported to play the female lead role. Subsequently, in early December 2011, Ajith signed on to play the lead role in the venture, with a poster released confirming Siva's participation, noting that Vetri and Yuvan Shankar Raja would be cinematographer and music composer, respectively.


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: Alongside Ajith, it was noted that four young actors would appear as his brothers in the venture. Vidharth, who rose to fame with his role in "Mynaa", was signed on for the film after discussions with Prasanna was unsuccessful. Suhail Chandhok, brother of former Formula One racer Karun Chandhok, was signed on for a role after Ajith was impressed with a short film that Suhail had featured in. Munish, who appeared in "Naanga", and Bala, director Siva's brother, were also selected to play Ajith's brothers. Santhanam, who featured in a pivotal role in Siva's previous film, was also chosen to play a supporting role in the film. Tamannaah was chosen to play Ajith's pair in the film, marking her comeback to Tamil films after a three-year sabbatical. Vishakha Singh was approached to play Vidharth's pair in the film but her refusal subsequently meant the producers opted for Manochitra, who was previously seen in "Aval Peyar Thamizharasi" (2010), while Abhinaya signed for another lead role. Vidyullekha Raman signed to be Santhanam's pair for a third film. Jayaprakash, Jayaram and Rajeev Govinda Pillai were also initially reported to be a part of the cast, though a later press release did not confirm their participation. Kannada actor Avinash agreed to play a character "who, due to poverty, has become vengeful and is willing to do anything wrong for his own benefit".


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: A press note was released on 4 April 2013 announcing the start of the filming of the project, while also clarifying the cast and crew. The first schedule for the film began the next day in Hyderabad and went on for two weeks and more. The film was initially rumoured to be titled as "Vetri Kondaan" or "Vinayagam Brothers" before finally confirming "Veeram". The shoot was completed on 2 November 2013.


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: Ajith had participated in a stunt sequence where he had to hang outside the train. The sequence was shot in a location situated in the Orissa border.


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: The film's plot is about a brave person and his four younger brothers who are living in a village. Sudhish Kamath of "The Hindu" noted that the scenes were inspired from films like "Murattu Kaalai" (1980), "Annamalai" (1992) and "Baashha" (1995).


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: The film's soundtrack was composed by Devi Sri Prasad. The music rights were purchased by Junglee Music. The album, consisting of 5 tracks, was scheduled to be released on 20 December 2013 but the tracks leaked on the Internet on 18 December 2013. The music was officially launched on 20 December followed by airplay of the songs on FM stations. "Behindwoods" gave the soundtrack a rating of 2.75 out of 5 and "India Glitz" gave 2.5.


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: The satellite rights of the film were purchased by Sun TV. Central Board of Film Certification gave the film "U" certificate.


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: The film was released in 400 screens in Tamil Nadu, 120 screens in Kerala, 50 screens in Karnataka, and in 220 screens overseas.


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: A first-look teaser was released on 7 Novem ber 2013. The second teaser was released on 5 December 2013 with a dialogue "Enna Naan Solrathu". "Veeram"s trailer was released by Sun TV as a New Year special at 10 am.


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: Across Tamil Nadu, "Veeram" was distributed by various parties: in Chennai City by Sri Thenandal Films, in NSC area by Sri Thenandal Films, in T.T (Trichy and Thanjavur) by Green Screens, in M.R (Madurai, Ramanadhapuram) are by Gopuram Films and in T. K. (Thirunelveli, Kanyakumari) are by Sri Mookambiga Films. Vendhar Movies released the film in Coimbatore and surroundings through Vel Films and in Salem and surroundings through G Film.


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: "The Times of India" gave 3 out of 5 stars and wrote, "The film is a template masala film – a superhuman hero, his cronies who will sing his praises all the time, a beautiful-looking heroine, a raging villain. It has no room for logic, moving from one hero-worshipping scene to the next and is aimed at our visceral tastes. The story is in service of its star and, it is unapologetic about it". Rediff gave 2.5 stars out of 5 and stated, ""Veeram" is a treat for Ajith fans". Sify gave 4 stars out of 5 calling it a "Mass Entertainer" and writing, "The film works mainly due to Ajith's charisma and Siva's script. It is a formula film where essential masala has been correctly mixed in the right proposition. On the whole, Veeram is an enjoyable fun ride". Baradwaj Rangan wrote, "A family with five brothers, another family with representatives from three generations, annan-thambi sentiment, amma sentiment, appa sentiment, and in the middle of all this, a big star giving his fans what they want – if Faazil and Vikraman collaborated on a 'mass' masala movie, it might end up looking like Siva's "Veeram". "Veeram" is about the hero. Everything else – the crude dramatics, the piles of clichés, the characters (especially the bad guys) who come and go as they please – is secondary". Bangalore Mirror gave 3.5 out of 5 and called it "a festival cracker for the fans of Thala".


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: OneIndia rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and said "Veeram is such an entertaining movie where audience will hardly find drawbacks. The entertainment quotient is very high and it could be enjoyed by all section of audience. Ajith has a winner in hand again". "Indiaglitz" gave 3.25 out of 5 and wrote, "Siruthai Siva comes up with a story that is not out of the box, however a racy screenplay and Thala's immense presence and valor takes the ball out of the boundary". "Behindwoods" rated it 2.75 out of 5 and said "Ajith and Siva dish out a 'heady' commercial package for the actor's fans". Deccan Herald wrote, "Tiresomely long, with second half, tad sagging, "Veeram" has Thala Ajith in fulsome flow with all fireworks. While Ajith's fans may swoon and swear by his one-man demolition squad show that will give even hulk Arnold Schwarzenegger the blushes, for the rest though, it's a matinee masala to stay away". IANS gave 2.5 stars out of 5 and wrote, ""Veeram" is a classic example, which elevates Ajith and leaves the rest of the ensemble cast behind. The film is dedicated to Ajith, who is as charismatic as ever in his role. However, he is unfortunately not complemented by a strong screenplay".


title: Veeram (2014 film)

text: Veeram was remade in Telugu as "Katamarayudu" and it was released in 2017. The film was also remade in Kannada as "Odeya" and it was released on 2019. In 2022, the movie was remade in Hindi as "Kisi Ka Bhai Kisi Ki Jaan".


title: Certiorari

text: In law, certiorari is a court process to seek judicial review of a decision of a lower court or government agency. "Certiorari" comes from the name of an English prerogative writ, issued by a superior court to direct that the record of the lower court be sent to the superior court for review. The term is Latin for "to be made certain", and comes from the opening line of such writs, which traditionally began with the Latin words ""Certiorari volumus"..." ("We wish to be made certain...").


title: Certiorari

text: Derived from the English common law, "certiorari" is prevalent in countries utilising, or influenced by, the common law"." It has evolved in the legal system of each nation, as court decisions and statutory amendments are made. In modern law, "certiorari" is recognized in many jurisdictions, including England and Wales (now called a "quashing order"), Canada, India, Ireland, the Philippines and the United States. With the expansion of administrative law in the 19th and 20th centuries, the writ of "certiorari" has gained broader use in many countries, to review the decisions of administrative bodies as well as lower courts.


title: Certiorari

text: The term "certiorari" (US English: , , or ; UK English: or ) comes from the words used at the beginning of these writs when they were written in Latin: "certiorārī [volumus]" "[we wish] to be made certain". "Certiorari" is the present passive infinitive of the Latin verb "certioro, certiorare" ("to inform, apprise, show"). It is often abbreviated cert. in the United States, particularly in relation to applications to the Supreme Court of the United States for review of a lower court decision.


title: Certiorari

text: Historical usage dates back to Roman Law. In Roman law, "certiorari" was suggested in terms of reviewing a case—much as the term is applied today—although the term was also used in writing to indicate the need or duty to inform other parties of a court's ruling. It was a highly technical term appearing only in jurisprudential Latin, most frequently in the works of Ulpian.


title: Certiorari

text: The term "certiorari" is often found in Roman literature on law, but applied in a philosophical rather than tangible manner when concerning the action of review of a case or aspects of a case. Essentially, it states that the case will be heard.


title: Certiorari

text: In English common law, "certiorari" was a supervisory writ, serving to keep "all inferior jurisdictions within the bounds of their authority ... [protecting] the liberty of the subject, by speedy and summary interposition". In England and Wales, the Court of King's Bench was tasked with the duty of supervising all lower courts, and had power to issue all writs necessary for the discharge of that duty; the justices of that Court appeared to have no discretion as to whether it was heard, as long as an application for a bill of "certiorari" met established criteria, as it arose from their duty of supervision.


title: Certiorari

text: In Australia, the power to issue "certiorari" is part of the inherent jurisdiction of the superior courts.


title: Certiorari

text: In Canada, "certiorari" is a rarely-used power, part of the inherent jurisdiction of the superior courts. It is usually used to cancel a lower court's decision because of an obvious mistake.


title: Certiorari

text: In "R. v. Awashish," 2018 SCC 45, the Supreme Court of Canada restricted the use of "certiorari" in criminal matters. It ruled that "certiorari" can only be used to correct jurisdictional errors, i.e. when a court makes a decision that is out of its power to make; it cannot be used to correct legal errors, i.e. where a court makes a decision it is allowed to make, but decides incorrectly. The latter type of error can only be challenged through an appeal, once the court makes a final decision in the case. This is part of a general prohibition on interlocutory appeals in criminal matters. "Certiorari" is also available if a decision affects the rights of a third party who would not have standing to appeal the decision. The Supreme Court declined to decide whether "certiorari" would be available to address a legal error that threatens irreparable harm to a party's rights that could not be cured on appeal.


title: Certiorari

text: In the courts of England and Wales, the remedy of "certiorari" evolved into a general remedy for the correction of plain error, to bring decisions of an inferior court, tribunal, or public authority before the superior court for review so that the court can determine whether to quash such decisions.


title: Certiorari

text: Reflecting this evolution in usage as a remedy after judicial review nullifying a decision of a public body, in England and Wales, orders or writs of "certiorari" were renamed "quashing orders" by the Civil Procedure (Modification of Supreme Court Act 1981) Order 2004, which amended the Senior Courts Act 1981.


title: Certiorari

text: The Constitution of India vests the power to issue "certiorari" in the Supreme Court of India, for the purpose of enforcing the fundamental rights guaranteed by Part III of the Constitution. The Parliament of India has the authority to give a similar "certiorari" power to any other court to enforce the fundamental rights, in addition to the "certiorari" power of the Supreme Court.


title: Certiorari

text: In addition to the power to issue "certiorari" to protect fundamental rights, the Supreme Court and the High Courts all have jurisdiction to issue "certiorari" for the protection of other legal rights.


title: Certiorari

text: When the Supreme Court of New Zealand was established a superior court in 1841, it had inherent jurisdiction to issue "certiorari" to control inferior courts and tribunals. The common law jurisdiction to issue "certiorari" was modified by statute in 1972, when the New Zealand Parliament passed the "Judicature Amendment Act". This Act created a new procedural mechanism, known as an "application for review", which could be used in place of "certiorari" and the other prerogative writs. The "Judicature Amendment Act" did not abolish "certiorari" and the other writs, but it was expected that as the legal profession adapted to the use of the new application for review, the writs would cease to be used.


title: Certiorari

text: The Philippines has adapted the extraordinary writ of "certiorari" in civil actions under its Rules of Court, as the procedure to seek judicial review from the Supreme Court of the Philippines.


title: Certiorari

text: As Associate Justice James Wilson (1742–1798), the person primarily responsible for the drafting of Article Three of the United States Constitution, which describes the judicial branch of the US federal government, explains:


title: Certiorari

text: In the United States, "certiorari" is most often seen as the writ that the Supreme Court of the United States issues to a lower court to review the lower court's judgment for legal error (reversible error) and review where no appeal is available as a matter of right. Before the Judiciary Act of 1891, the cases that could reach the Supreme Court were heard as a matter of right, meaning that the Court was required to issue a decision in each of those cases. That is, the Court had to review all properly presented appeals on the merits, hear oral argument, and issue decisions. As the United States expanded in the nineteenth century, the federal judicial system became increasingly strained, and the Supreme Court had a backlog of cases several years long. The Act solved these problems by transferring most of the court's direct appeals to the newly created circuit courts of appeals, whose decisions in those cases would normally be final. The Supreme Court did not completely give up its judiciary authority because it gained the ability to review the decisions of the courts of appeals at its discretion through writ of "certiorari".


title: Certiorari

text: Since the Judiciary Act of 1925 and the Supreme Court Case Selections Act of 1988, most cases cannot be appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States as a matter of right. A party who wants the Supreme Court to review a decision of a federal or state court files a "petition for writ of certiorari" in the Supreme Court. A "petition" is printed in booklet format and 40 copies are filed with the Court. If the Court grants the petition, the case is scheduled for the filing of briefs and for oral argument. A minimum of four of the nine justices is required to grant a writ of "certiorari", referred to as the "rule of four". The court denies the vast majority of petitions and thus leaves the decision of the lower court to stand without review; it takes roughly 80 to 150 cases each term. In the term that concluded in June 2009, for example, 8,241 petitions were filed, with a grant rate of approximately 1.1 percent. Cases on the paid certiorari docket are substantially more likely to be granted than those on the "in forma pauperis" docket. The Supreme Court is generally careful to choose only cases over which the Court has jurisdiction and which the Court considers sufficiently important, such as cases involving deep constitutional questions, to merit the use of its limited resources, utilizing tools such as the cert pool. While both appeals of right and cert petitions often present several alleged errors of the lower courts for appellate review, the court normally grants review of only one or two questions presented in a "certiorari" petition.


title: Certiorari

text: The Supreme Court sometimes grants a writ of "certiorari" to resolve a "circuit split", when the federal appeals courts in two (or more) federal judicial circuits have ruled differently in similar situations. These are often called "percolating issues".


title: Certiorari

text: "Certiorari" is sometimes informally referred to as "cert.", and cases warranting the Supreme Court's attention as ""cert." worthy". The granting of a writ does not necessarily mean that the Supreme Court disagrees with the decision of the lower court. Granting a writ of "certiorari" means merely that at least four of the justices have determined that the circumstances described in the petition are sufficient to warrant review by the Court.


title: Certiorari

text: Conversely, the Supreme Court's denial of a petition for a writ of "certiorari" is sometimes misunderstood as implying that the Supreme Court approves the decision of the lower court. As the Court explained in "Missouri v. Jenkins", such a denial "imports no expression of opinion upon the merits of the case". In particular, a denial of a writ of "certiorari" means that no binding precedent is created by the denial itself, and the lower court's decision is treated as mandatory authority only within the geographical (or in the case of the Federal Circuit, subject-specific) jurisdiction of that court. The reasons for why a denial of "certiorari" cannot be treated as implicit approval were set forth in "Maryland v. Baltimore Radio Show, Inc." (1950), in which the Court explained the many rationales which could underlie the denial of a writ which have nothing to do with the merits of the case.


title: Certiorari

text: Some United States state court systems use the same terminology, but in others, "writ of review", "leave to appeal", or "certification for appeal" is used in place of "writ of certiorari" as the name for discretionary review of a lower court's judgment. The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania uniquely uses the terms "allocatur" (informally) and "allowance of appeal" (formally) for the same process. A handful of states lack intermediate appellate courts; in most of these, their supreme courts operate under a mandatory review regime, in which the supreme court must take all appeals in order to preserve the loser's traditional right to one appeal (except in criminal cases where the defendant was acquitted). Virginia has an intermediate appeals court, but operates under discretionary review except in family law and administrative cases. Mandatory review remains in place in all states where the death penalty exists; in those states, a sentence of death is automatically appealed to the state's highest court.


title: Certiorari

text: In two states without an intermediate appeals court (New Hampshire and West Virginia), the Supreme Court used to operate under discretionary review in all cases, whether civil or criminal. This meant that there was no right of appeal in either state, with the only exception being death penalty cases in New Hampshire; West Virginia abolished its death penalty in 1965. New Hampshire transitioned to mandatory review for the vast majority of cases beginning in 2004, while West Virginia transitioned to mandatory review for all cases beginning in 2010.


title: Certiorari

text: Texas is an unusual exception to the rule that denial of "certiorari" by the state supreme court normally does not imply approval or disapproval of the merits of the lower court's decision. In March 1927, the Texas Legislature enacted a law directing the Texas Supreme Court to summarily "refuse" to hear applications for writs of error when it believed the Court of Appeals opinion correctly stated the law. Thus, since June 1927, over 4,100 decisions of the Texas Courts of Appeals have become valid binding precedent of the Texas Supreme Court itself because the high court refused applications for writ of error rather than denying them and thereby signaled that it approved of their holdings as the law of the state.


title: Certiorari

text: While Texas' unique practice saved the state supreme court from having to hear relatively minor cases just to create uniform statewide precedents on those issues, it also makes for lengthy citations to the opinions of the Courts of Appeals, since the subsequent writ history of the case must always be noted (e.g., no writ, writ refused, writ denied, etc.) in order for the reader to determine at a glance whether the cited opinion is binding precedent only in the district of the Court of Appeals in which it was decided, or binding precedent for the entire state. In contrast, California, Florida, and New York solved the problem of creating uniform precedent by simply holding that the first intermediate appellate court to reach a novel question of law always sets binding precedent for the entire state, unless and until another intermediate appellate court expressly disagrees with the first one. Meanwhile, some states, such as Pennsylvania and New Jersey, avoid the issue entirely by eschewing regionalized appellate courts; the intermediate appellate courts in these states may hear cases from all parts of the state within their subject-matter jurisdiction.


title: Certiorari

text: In the administrative law context, the common-law writ of "certiorari" was historically used by lower courts in the United States for judicial review of decisions made by an administrative agency after an adversarial hearing. Some states have retained this use of the writ of "certiorari" in state courts, while others have replaced it with statutory procedures. In the federal courts, this use of "certiorari" has been abolished and replaced by a civil action under the Administrative Procedure Act in a United States district court or in some circumstances a petition for review in a United States court of appeals.


title: Cannes

text: Cannes ( , , ; ) is a city located on the French Riviera. It is a commune located in the Alpes-Maritimes department, and host city of the annual Cannes Film Festival, Midem, and Cannes Lions International Festival of Creativity. The city is known for its association with the rich and famous, its luxury hotels and restaurants, and for several conferences.


title: Cannes

text: By the 2nd century BC, the Ligurian Oxybii established a settlement here known as "Aegitna" (). Historians are unsure what the name means. The area was a fishing village used as a port of call between the Lérins Islands.


title: Cannes

text: In 154 BC, it became the scene of violent but quick conflict between the troops of Quintus Opimius and the Oxybii.


title: Cannes

text: In the 10th century, the town was known as Canua. The name may derive from "canna", a reed. Canua was probably the site of a small Ligurian port, and later a Roman outpost on Le Suquet hill, suggested by Roman tombs discovered here. Le Suquet housed an 11th-century tower, which overlooked swamps where the city now stands. Most of the ancient activity, especially protection, was on the Lérins Islands, and the history of Cannes is closely tied to the history of the islands.


title: Cannes

text: An attack by the Saracens in 891, who remained until the end of the 10th century, devastated the country around Canua. The insecurity of the Lérins islands forced the monks to settle on the mainland, at the Suquet. Construction of a castle in 1035 fortified the city by then known as Cannes, and at the end of the 11th century construction was started on two towers on the Lérins islands. One took a century to build.


title: Cannes

text: Around 1530, Cannes detached from the monks who had controlled the city for hundreds of years and became independent.


title: Cannes

text: During the 18th century, both the Spanish and British tried to gain control of the Lérins Islands but were chased away by the French. The islands were later controlled by many, such as Jean-Honoré Alziary and the Bishop of Fréjus. They had many different purposes: in the middle of the 19th century, one served as a hospital for soldiers wounded in the Crimean War.


title: Cannes

text: Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux bought land at the Croix des Gardes and constructed the villa Eleonore-Louise. His work to improve living conditions attracted the English aristocracy, who also built winter residences.


title: Cannes

text: At the end of the 19th century, several railways were completed, which prompted the arrival of streetcars. In Cannes, projects such as the Boulevard Carnot and the rue d'Antibes were carried out. After the closure of the Casino des Fleurs (hôtel Gallia), a luxury establishment was built for the rich winter clientele, the Casino Municipal next to the pier Albert-Edouard. This casino was demolished and replaced by the new Palace in 1979.


title: Cannes

text: In the 20th century, new luxury hotels such as the Carlton, Majestic, Martinez, and JW Marriott Cannes were built. The city was modernised with a sports centre, a post office, and schools. There were fewer British and German tourists after the First World War, but more Americans. Winter tourism gave way to summer tourism, and the summer casino at the Palm Beach was constructed.


title: Cannes

text: Cannes has a subtropical Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification "Csa") and the city enjoys 11 hours of sunshine per day during summer (July), while in winter (December to February) the weather is mild. Both seasons see a relatively low rainfall and most rain occurs during October and November, when over falls.


title: Cannes

text: Cannes summers are long and warm, with summer daytime temperatures regularly hitting , while average temperatures are about . Temperatures remain high from June to September, the busiest time of the year.


title: Cannes

text: Mean temperatures drop below for only three months of the year (December to February). The spring and autumn are also warm, although more suited to those who prefer slightly cooler weather.


title: Cannes

text: The Promenade de la Croisette is the waterfront avenue with palm trees. La Croisette is known for picturesque beaches, restaurants, cafés, boutiques and luxury hotels. Le Suquet, the old town, provides a good view of La Croisette. The fortified tower and the Chapelle Sainte-Anne house the Musée des Explorations du monde. A distinctive building in Cannes is the Russian Orthodox church.


title: Cannes

text: Cannes of the 19th century can still be seen in its grand villas, built to reflect the wealth and standing of their owners and inspired by anything from medieval castles to Roman villas. They are not open to the public. Lord Brougham's Italianate Villa Eléonore Louise (one of the first in Cannes) was built between 1835 and 1839. Also known as the Quartier des Anglais, this is the oldest residential area in Cannes. Another landmark is the Villa Fiésole (known today as the Villa Domergue) designed by Jean-Gabriel Domergue in the style of Fiesole, near Florence, which may be visited on appointment.


title: Cannes

text: It took the Man in the Iron Mask 11 years to leave the tiny, forested St Marguerite Island. The mysterious individual was believed to be of noble blood, but his identity has never been proven. His cell can be visited in the Fort of St Marguerite, now renamed the Musée de la Mer (Museum of the Sea). This museum also houses discoveries from shipwrecks off the island, including Roman (1st century BC) and Saracen (10th century AD) ceramics.


title: Cannes

text: Cistercian monks are the only inhabitants of the smaller, southern St Honorat Island. Monks have inhabited the island since AD 410 and, at the height of their powers, owned Cannes, Mougins, and Vallauris. Medieval vestiges remain in the stark church, which is open to the public, and in the ruins of the 11th-century monastery on the sea shore. The monks inhabit the Lérins Abbey and divide their time between prayer and producing red and white wines.


title: Cannes

text: The Musée d'Art et d'Histoire de Provence houses artifacts from prehistoric to present, in an 18th-century mansion. The Musée de la Castre has objects from the Pacific Atolls, Peruvian relics and Mayan pottery. Other venues include the Musée de la Marine, Musée de la Mer, Musée de la Photographie and Musée International de la Parfumerie.


title: Cannes

text: Cannes is not known for traditional theatre. However, small venues stage productions and host short sketches during the annual International Actors' Performance Festival. Local theaters include the Espace Miramar and the Alexandre III.


title: Cannes

text: The area around Cannes has developed into a high-tech cluster. The technopolis of Sophia Antipolis lies in the hills beyond Cannes. The Film Festival is a major event for the industry which takes place every year during the month of May. In addition, Cannes hosts other major annual events such as the MIPIM, MIPTV, MIDEM, Cannes Lions, and the NRJ Music Awards. There is an annual television festival in the last week in September.


title: Cannes

text: The economic environment is based on tourism, business fairs, trade and aviation. Cannes has companies, of which are traders, artisans and service providers. In 2006, 421 new companies were registered.


title: Cannes

text: Cannes hosts the Cannes Mandelieu Space Center, headquarters of Thales Alenia Space, the first European satellite manufacturer.


title: Cannes

text: Cannes is home to the football side AS Cannes, which currently plays in the French third division. The club is notable for having launched the professional career of Zinedine Zidane.


title: Cannes

text: Cannes women's volleyball team RC Cannes has been very successful (won twenty French Championships and two CEV Champions League).


title: Cannes

text: Located from Cannes, Nice Côte d'Azur Airport has close to 10 million passengers a year. Marseille Provence Airport is also away. The smaller Cannes – Mandelieu Airport is nearby.


title: Cannes

text: Cannes station is the main railway station for the city of Cannes. It is situated on the Marseille–Ventimiglia railway.


title: Cannes

text: Coach services arrive at the Gare Routière de Cannes, in the centre of the city, near the Town Hall. Companies from abroad include Eurolines and Agence Phocéens. Regional services are by Rapides Côte d'Azur and CTM, with services from Nice and Grasse/Mandelieu respectively. Local bus services are provided by Bus Azur.


title: Cannes

text: Ferries are available in Nice harbour from Bastia and Calvi in Corsica, with services provided by SNCM Ferryterranée and Corsica Ferries. From Bastia, the journey is 4 hours, 45 minutes on conventional ferries and 3 hours, 40 minutes on express ferries, while from Calvi, conventional vessels take 3 hours, 45 minutes and express vessels take 2 hours, 45 minutes. An average of four ferries a day sail on these routes, with more during summer.


title: Cannes

text: Cannes has 2 marinas - Vieux Port de Cannes (with 800 berths up to 145 m in length) beside the Palais des Festivals and Port Pierre Canto at the far end of the Croisette. Vieux Port is the main port and used for cruise stopovers and yacht charters.


title: Will Sampson

text: William Sampson Jr. (September 27, 1933 – June 3, 1987) was a Muscogee painter, actor, and rodeo performer. He is best known for his performance as the apparent deaf and mute Chief Bromden, the title role in "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest" and as Crazy Horse in the 1977 western "The White Buffalo", as well as his roles as Taylor in "" and Ten Bears in 1976's "The Outlaw Josey Wales".


title: Will Sampson

text: William “Will” Sampson Jr., born in Okmulgee County, Oklahoma to William "Wiley" Sampson Sr. (1904–2001) and Mabel Sampson (née Lewis, 1899–1997), was a member of the Muscogee, a people from the Southeastern Woodlands. Sampson Jr. had at least five children: Samsoche "Sam" and Lumhe "Micco" Sampson (of the Sampson Brothers Duo), actor Timothy "Tim" James Sampson, Robert Benjamin Sampson. The Sampson Brothers Duo are known for their traditional fancy and grass dances, and often perform with Frank Waln, a notable Lakota hip-hop artist. His son Robert was murdered in Tulsa in 2013.


title: Will Sampson

text: Sampson competed in rodeos for about 20 years. His specialty was bronco busting, and he was on the rodeo circuit when producers Saul Zaentz and Michael Douglas — of "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest" — were looking for a large Native American to play the role of Chief Bromden. Sampson stood an imposing 6'7" (2.01 m) tall. Rodeo announcer Mel Lambert mentioned Sampson to them, and after lengthy efforts to find him, they hired him on the strength of an interview. He had never acted before.


title: Will Sampson

text: Sampson's most notable roles were as Chief Bromden in "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest" and as Taylor the Medicine Man in the horror film "". He had a recurring role on the TV series "Vega$" as Harlon Twoleaf, and starred in the movies "Fish Hawk", "The Outlaw Josey Wales", and "Orca". Sampson appeared in the production of "Black Elk Speaks" with the American Indian Theater Company in Tulsa, Oklahoma, where David Carradine and other Native American actors (such as Wes Studi and Randolph Mantooth) have appeared in stage productions. He also played Crazy Horse in "The White Buffalo" with Charles Bronson.


title: Will Sampson

text: Sampson was a visual artist. His large painting depicting the Ribbon Dance of the Muscogee (Creek) is in the collection of the Creek Council House Museum in Okmulgee, Oklahoma. His artwork has been shown at the Gilcrease Museum and the Philbrook Museum of Art.


title: Will Sampson

text: Sampson suffered from scleroderma, a chronic degenerative condition that affected his heart, lungs, and skin. During his lengthy illness, his weight fell from to , causing complications related to malnutrition. After undergoing a heart and lung transplant at Houston Methodist Hospital in Houston, he died on June 3, 1987, of post-operative kidney failure. Sampson was 53 years old. Sampson was interred at Graves Creek Cemetery in Hitchita, Oklahoma.


title: Will Sampson

text: Will Sampson Road, in Okmulgee County (east of Highway 75 near Preston, Oklahoma), is named after him.


title: Will Sampson

text: During the filming of "The White Buffalo", Sampson halted production by refusing to act when he discovered that producers had hired white actors to portray Native Americans for the film. In 1983, with assistance from his personal secretary Zoe Escobar, Sampson founded the "American Indian Registry for the Performing Arts" for Native American actors. He also served on the registry's Board of Directors.


title: Love Yourself World Tour

text: BTS World Tour: Love Yourself, commonly known as the Love Yourself World Tour, was the third worldwide concert tour headlined by South Korean band BTS to promote their "Love Yourself" series, including their "" EP, "" studio album, and "" compilation album. The tour began on August 25, 2018, in South Korea. A stadium extension to the tour, titled BTS World Tour Love Yourself: Speak Yourself, was added on February 9, 2019, and began in Pasadena, California on May 4, 2019. The tour concluded on October 29, 2019, comprising 62 concerts in 14 countries. The Love Yourself World Tour ranked at number three on "Billboard"'s 2019 Year End Top 40 Tours chart worldwide, with a worldwide gross of $196.4 million from the last 42 shows of the tour. In total, the tour was attended by 2,019,800 people, becoming BTS' most successful tour to date and the highest-grossing concert tour by an act that performs primarily in a non-English language, as reported by "Billboard".


title: Love Yourself World Tour

text: On April 26, 2018, Big Hit Entertainment released a trailer on their official YouTube channel announcing an upcoming world tour. The video revealed an initial schedule of 22 concerts across 11 cities worldwide. After the announcement, multiple hashtags trended worldwide on social media, including the tour's namesake tag— #LOVE_YOURSELF, highlighting the level of anticipation surrounding the event.


title: Love Yourself World Tour

text: In May 2018, after the first round of North American ticket pre-sales sold out in seconds, a fourth show at Los Angeles' Staples Center was added to the tour due to overwhelming fan demand. Tickets for the Hamilton shows sold out in just over an hour, with organizers for the Ontario stop, Core Entertainment, revealing they would have sold out faster if not for the strain put on Ticketmaster's online system due to the unprecedented heavy influx of site traffic. All fourteen North American stops completely sold out, prompting the addition of a fifteenth and final stop of the North American leg at New York's Citi Field. The concert sold out in under ten minutes, making BTS the first Korean artist to headline a stadium show in the United States. The London, Amsterdam, Berlin, and Paris arena stops, marking the group's first and biggest headlining shows in Europe at the time, also met commercial success with the London dates selling out in two minutes and the Berlin shows selling out in nine minutes. After the second general sale for Seoul's Seoul Olympic Stadium dates opened in August, all 90,000 available tickets sold out. Estimated to have sold a total of 790,000 tickets from 33 sold-out shows in 16 cities, BTS added eight additional Asia dates while touring the European leg of the tour. The first K-pop artists to play at Singapore's National Stadium, tickets sold out in less than four hours.


title: Love Yourself World Tour

text: According to ticket resale site StubHub, BTS was one of 2018's best selling live artists in international markets outside the United States, second to only Ed Sheeran. "Variety" named BTS as one of the top touring acts of Fall 2018 in the United States, entering StubHub's "highest-selling act" and "best-selling shows" lists with the "highest-selling average sales per show position". According to "Yahoo!" Finance, BTS were also the top-selling act and top-selling show in Canada for Fall 2018. In Japan, BTS came in as the nineteenth best-selling touring act on "Nikkei Entertainment"'s 2018 Concert Mobilization Ranking Top 50.


title: Love Yourself World Tour

text: The Love Yourself received positive reviews from critics. For the first concerts in America, local media reported in Los Angeles since the moment fans started to camp outside the "Staples Center" days ahead the concert. Philip Cosores from "Uproxx" described BTS' Staples Center 4 night concerts as "Enormous, multi-sensory experience" bringing an "Inclusive" and "Multicultural experience" where music is above any language barrier. Tiffany Taylor from "The Hollywood Reporter" noted for "Billboard News" the "Amazing choreography" praising the solo performances and energy of the fans as highlight of the night. Jim Harrington from "The Mercury News" referred to the Oracle Arena concert on Oakland as "the hottest concert of the year in the Bay Area" noting the solo performances as "witnessing seven individual stars, each of whom could enjoy a successful solo career." For the Chicago show critic Kim Youngdae stated their strengths were the dazzling group displays, the artistry in the solo numbers, and how immersive it was. Crystal Bell from MTV said about the tour, "BTS have created an experience so captivating, so inclusive, and so visually stunning that it's cemented the boy band as one of the most vital acts in pop music today." The Quietus wrote about the European tour as " The show is about a search for self-identity. After two-and-a-half hours of costume changes, pulsing beats, soaring high notes and the impossible iconic beauty of their videos, BTS walk to the front of the stage in low-key jeans and T-shirts. As they sing the last song, ‘Anpanman’, which is about a new kind of superhero, we realise that their awkwardness and sensitivity is also the source of their strength."


title: Love Yourself World Tour

text: The Denisonian rated the concert ten out of ten, stating the music, visuals, dancing, and fans is what made it a great experience. Vivid Seats named BTS the 2018 artist of the year, citing the group's history-making concert at Citi Field.


title: Love Yourself World Tour

text: BTS featured three set lists for their concerts. It included the same songs except for the title medley (#12 to #16).


title: Love Yourself World Tour

text: BTS World Tour Love Yourself: Speak Yourself was the stadium extension to the Love Yourself World Tour, separated under a different name. The extension began on May 4, 2019, in Pasadena, California and featured concerts in North and South America, Europe, and Asia, including the United States, Brazil, England, France, and Japan.


title: Love Yourself World Tour

text: Speak Yourself was first announced on February 19, 2019, through the Big Hit Entertainment YouTube channel, where a spot for the extension was posted. The video featured clips of the BTS members performing, with the title and dates for the tour written on top of them. That same day, Live Nation was revealed as the concert promoter, with tickets sold through Ticketmaster.


title: Love Yourself World Tour

text: In North America, tickets sold out for all initial three dates in approximately two and a half hours. The Wembley Stadium stop sold out in 90 minutes and in France tickets sold out in about five and a half hours. Tickets went on sale in Brazil on March 11, 2019. Despite ticket sales website having connecting issues at the time, tickets sold out in 75 minutes. To accommodate demand, additional dates were added to all American, European, and Brazilian dates. The additional European dates sold out the same day they were listed. According to pop music website "PopCrush", the extension had higher first-day sales in the United States and Europe than the Rolling Stones' 2019 tour, which went on sale the same day. BTS were also the first Asian act to sell out the Rose Bowl.


title: Love Yourself World Tour

text: According to "Billboard" Boxscore, the North and South American leg of the tour generated $51.7 million in ticket sales and played to 384,498 fans over eight sold-out shows, becoming the highest-grossing concert tour in month of May 2019. These included a two night stint at Chicago's Soldier Field, playing for 88,156 people, and two nights at East Rutherford's Met Life Stadium, playing for 98,574. Grossing $16.6 million with an attendance of 113,040, Los Angeles' Rose Bowl was the highest grossing show of the leg and the tour overall, ranking as the sixth largest boxscore of the year reported by "Billboard". BTS' Rose Bowl stint was also the single highest-grossing engagement in the venue's Boxscore history, out-pacing previous high marks by Taylor Swift and U2, as well as co-headlining stints by Beyoncé & Jay-Z and Eminem & Rihanna. In Europe, the tour continued to be a success with two sold out nights at London's Wembley Stadium, playing for 114,583 people, and two nights at Paris' Stade de France, playing to a crowd of 107,328. Combined, the first 12 shows of the tour extension grossed $78.9 million with 606,409 tickets.


title: Love Yourself World Tour

text: Averaging $5.8 million and 48,814 tickets per show, the tour extension's total gross revenue reached $115,749,851 with total attendance topping out at 976,283 tickets. BTS, with the Love Yourself World Tour, were the top-grossing touring group of 2019 and ranked at number 3 on "Billboard's" Year End Top 40 Tours. With $196.4 million from 1.6 million tickets at 42 shows in 2019, BTS holds the highest year end ranking in "Billboard" Boxscore history for an act that performs primarily in a non-English language. "Pollstar"'s Year End Top 100 Tours chart ranked BTS at number 6. On "Billboard"'s Year End Top 25 Boxscores, BTS held seven entries.


title: Love Yourself World Tour

text: Their three-day finale in Seoul in October 2019 was estimated to have an economic value of almost ₩1 trillion ($862 million) and brought in 187,000 foreign visitors to South Korea.


title: Love Yourself World Tour

text: Love Yourself tour was nominated for three awards during ticket sale website Ticketmaster's year-end awards, winning two of them. The Ticket of the Year Award was awarded to BTS following a user poll by Ticketmaster, using a database of roughly 200 million people to determine the most popular touring act of 2018. In addition, BTS was awarded the French ticket of the year award, which pulled from data via French Ticketmaster sales. The tour was also nominated for the "Most Anticipated Event of the Year, 2019" award, but did not receive it. Love Yourself also won the grand prize award at the 6th Edaily Culture Awards for Best Concert. The Seoul performances were popular among judges because, according to Kim Eun-koo of "Edaily", they "created a new history [for] K-pop". The skill of the performers and popularity of the event were also cited as influences on the decision.


title: Love Yourself World Tour

text: At the 47th Annual American Music Awards, Love Yourself World Tour was awarded the "Tour of the Year" award. The tour was also nominated for Ticketmaster's 2019 UK ticket of the year and Global ticket of the year awards, while it won the France ticket of the year, Most Anticipated Event of the Year 2020 in France and in Spain awards.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: Saint-Denis (, ) is a commune in the northern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located from the centre of Paris. Saint-Denis had a population of 112,091 as of 2018. It is a subprefecture () of the department of Seine-Saint-Denis, being the seat of the arrondissement of Saint-Denis.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: Saint-Denis is home to the royal necropolis of the Basilica of Saint-Denis and was also the location of the associated abbey. It is also home to France's national football and rugby stadium, the Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Saint-Denis is a formerly industrial suburb currently changing its economic base. Inhabitants of Saint-Denis are called "Dionysiens".


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: Until the 3rd century, Saint-Denis was a small settlement called "Catolacus" or "Catulliacum", probably meaning "estate of Catullius", a Gallo-Roman landowner. About 250 AD, the first bishop of Paris, Saint Denis, was martyred on Montmartre hill and buried in "Catolacus". Shortly after 250 AD, his grave became a shrine and a pilgrimage centre, with the building of the Abbey of Saint Denis, and the settlement was renamed Saint-Denis.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: In 1793, during the French Revolution, Saint-Denis was renamed "Franciade" in a gesture of rejection of religion. In 1803, however, under the Consulate of Napoléon Bonaparte, the city reverted to its former name of Saint-Denis.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: During its history, Saint-Denis has been closely associated with the French royal house. Starting from Dagobert I (c. 603–639), almost every French king was buried in the Basilica.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: However, Saint-Denis is older than that. In the 2nd century, there was a Gallo-Roman village named "Catolacus" on the location that Saint-Denis occupies today. Saint Denis, the first bishop of Me saint of France, was martyred in about 250 AD and buried in the cemetery of Catolacus. Denis' tomb quickly became a place of worship. Around 475 AD, Sainte Geneviève had a small chapel erected on Denis' tomb, which by then had become a popular destination for pilgrims. It was this chapel that Dagobert I had rebuilt and turned into a royal monastery. Dagobert granted many privileges to the monastery: independence from the bishop of Paris, the right to hold a market, and, most importantly, he was buried in Saint-Denis; a tradition which was followed by almost all his successors. During the Middle Ages, because of the privileges granted by Dagobert, Saint-Denis grew to become very important. Merchants from all over Europe (and indeed from the Byzantine Empire) came to visit its market.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: In 1140, Abbot Suger, counselor to the King, granted further privileges to the citizens of Saint-Denis. He also started the work of enlarging the Basilica of Saint Denis that still exists today, often cited as the first example of high early Gothic Architecture. The new church was consecrated in 1144.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: Saint-Denis was depopulated in the Hundred Years' War; of its 10,000 citizens, only 3,000 remained after the war.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: During the French Wars of Religion, the Battle of Saint-Denis was fought between Catholics and Protestants on 10 November 1567. The Protestants were defeated, but the Catholic commander Anne de Montmorency was killed. In 1590, the city surrendered to Henry IV, who converted to Catholicism in 1593 in the abbey of Saint-Denis.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: King Louis XIV (1638–1715) started several industries in Saint-Denis: weaving and spinning mills and dyehouses. His successor, Louis XV (1710–1774), whose daughter was a nun in the Carmelite convent, took a lively interest in the city: he added a chapel to the convent and also renovated the buildings of the royal abbey.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: During the French Revolution, not only was the city renamed "Franciade" from 1793 to 1803, but the royal necropolis was looted and destroyed. The remains were removed from the tombs and thrown together; during the French Restoration, since they could not be sorted out anymore, they were reburied in a common ossuary.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: The last king to be interred in Saint-Denis was Louis XVIII (1755 – 1824). After France became a republic and an empire, Saint-Denis lost its association with royalty.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: On 1 January 1860, the city of Paris was enlarged by annexing neighbouring communes. On that occasion, the commune of La Chapelle-Saint-Denis was disbanded and divided between the city of Paris, Saint-Denis, Saint-Ouen, and Aubervilliers. Saint-Denis received the north-western part of La Chapelle-Saint-Denis.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: During the 19th century, Saint-Denis became increasingly industrialised. Transport was much improved: in 1824 the Canal Saint-Denis was constructed, linking the Canal de l'Ourcq in the northeast of Paris to the River Seine at the level of L'Île-Saint-Denis, and in 1843 the first railway reached Saint-Denis. By the end of the century, there were 80 factories in Saint-Denis.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: The presence of so many industries also gave rise to an important socialist movement. In 1892, Saint-Denis elected its first socialist administration, and by the 1920s, the city had acquired the nickname of "la ville rouge", the red city. Until Jacques Doriot in 1934, all mayors of Saint-Denis were members of the Communist Party.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: During the Second World War, after the defeat of France, Saint-Denis was occupied by the Germans on 13 June 1940. There were several acts of sabotage and strikes, most notably on 14 April 1942 at the Hotchkiss factory. After an insurgency which started on 18 August 1944, Saint-Denis was liberated by the 2nd Armored Division (France) on 27 August 1944.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: After the war, the economic crisis of the 1970s and 1980s hit the city, which was strongly dependent on its heavy industry.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: During the 1990s, however, the city started to grow again. The 1998 FIFA World Cup provided an enormous impulse; the main stadium for the tournament, the Stade de France, was built in Saint-Denis, along with many infrastructural improvements, such as the extension of the metro to Saint-Denis-Université. The stadium is used by the national football and rugby teams for friendly matches. The Coupe de France, Coupe de la Ligue and Top 14 final matches are held there, as well as the Meeting Areva international athletics event.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: Since 2000, Saint-Denis has worked with seven neighbouring "communes" (Aubervilliers, Villetaneuse, Pierrefitte-sur-Seine, Épinay-sur-Seine, L'Île-Saint-Denis (since 2003), Stains (since 2003), and La Courneuve (since 2005)) in Plaine Commune.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: On 13–14 November 2015, Saint-Denis was the main location of a series of mass shootings and hostage-takings just outside the Stade de France. On 18 November, a major follow-up raid occurred. Several suspects were killed, including alleged mastermind Abdelhamid Abaaoud.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: In 2016, Saint-Denis was one of the host cities of the UEFA European Football Championships, including the opening game.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: 18.1% of the population of Saint-Denis was Maghrebian. Melissa K. Brynes, author of "French Like Us? Municipal Policies and North African Migrants in the Parisian Banlieues, 1945–1975", wrote that in the middle of the 20th century, "few of [the Paris-area communes with North African populations] were as engaged with their migrant communities as the Dionysiens."


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: Saint-Denis is served by Metro, RER, tram, and Transilien connections. The Saint-Denis rail station, built in 1846, was formerly the only one in Saint-Denis, but today serves as an interchange station for the Transilien Paris – Nord (Line H) suburban rail line and RER line D. The French rail company SNCF is also based in the town.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: Saint-Denis is known for its crime, with high rates of robbery, drugs offences and murder. In 2005 it had 15,071 criminal incidents per 100,000 inhabitants, far higher than the national average (8,300 per 100,000) and higher than its department Seine-Saint-Denis also known as '93' with 9,567 crimes per 100,000.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: Saint-Denis also holds the record for the highest rate of violence in Europe (31.27 per thousand while the national average is 6 in France) with 1,899 violent robberies and 1,031 assaults in 2010 (equivalent to an average of 6 robberies and 3 assaults per day)


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: Because the inhabitants of Saint-Denis suffer with daily insecurity and entrenched delinquency, the Minister of Public Safety Jean-Marc Ayrault increased national police force in the Basilica district and the Landy Nord, classifying them as a Priority Security Zone 'ZSP' since 2012.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: In 2014, a total of 14,437 crimes have been reported for 110,000 inhabitants. Police efficiency has been reported to be very low, with only 19.82% of crimes solved by the police.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: Saint-Denis made international headlines for violent disorder before and after the 2022 UEFA Champions League Final, in which fans of visiting English teams Liverpool F.C. and Real Madrid were beaten and robbed by gangs of young men. Subtitled testimony of victims circulated in France, becoming an issue in the 2022 French legislative election. Before the game, French former footballer Thierry Henry said on English-language television "The final is in Saint-Denis, not Paris. Trust me, you don’t want to be in Saint-Denis."


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: Saint-Denis has 29 public preschools/nursery schools ("écoles maternelles"). Saint-Denis has 30 public elementary schools ("écoles élémentaires"), with one of those schools (École Élémentaire Maria Casarès) being an intercommunal school. Saint-Denis has eight public junior high schools ("collèges"). Saint-Denis has the following senior high schools/sixth-form colleges: Lycée Bartholdi, Lycée Paul Éluard, Lycée Suger, and Lycée d’application de l’E.N.N.A.


title: Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis

text: Saint-Denis has one private elementary, middle, and high school ("Ensemble Scolaire Jean-Baptiste de la Salle-Notre Dame de la Compassion") and one private middle and high school ("Collège et lycée Saint-Vincent-de-Paul").


title: Tata Starbucks

text: Tata Starbucks Private Limited, formerly known as Tata Starbucks Limited, is a 50:50 joint venture company, owned by Tata Consumer Products and Starbucks Corporation, that owns and operates Starbucks outlets in India. The outlets are branded "Starbucks "A Tata Alliance"".


title: Tata Starbucks

text: In January 2011, Starbucks Corporation and Tata Coffee announced plans to begin opening Starbucks locations in India. Despite a false start in 2007, in January 2012 Starbucks finally announced a 50:50 joint venture with Tata Global Beverages, called Tata Starbucks Ltd., which would own and operate outlets branded "Starbucks, A Tata Alliance". Starbucks had previously attempted to enter the Indian market in 2007. Starbucks did not cite any reason for the withdrawal.


title: Tata Starbucks

text: On 19 October 2012, Starbucks opened its first store in India, measuring 4,500 sq ft in Elphinstone Building, Horniman Circle, Mumbai. Starbucks opened its first roasting and packaging plant to supply its Indian outlets in Kodagu, Karnataka in 2013.