title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: In the 2014–15 season, Swindon reached the League One Play-off final again where they lost 4–0 to Preston after a season in which they were competing for automatic promotion. They went top of the league after a 3–0 win away to Coventry; however, a 2–0 defeat to Sheffield United was the first of a series of results that saw Swindon's form dip, and a 1–0 defeat to bottom club Yeovil Town meant that Swindon were consigned to finish in the play-offs. They reached Wembley after a record-breaking 5–5 draw (winning 7–6 on aggregate) against Sheffield United, the highest-scoring EFL play-off match in history.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: In the 2016–17 season, Swindon were relegated to League Two for a third time; they finished third from bottom on 22 April 2017 after losing 2–1 to Scunthorpe United with only one more fixture on the road in hand. Following this relegation, manager Luke Williams was sacked after Swindon lost 3–0 at Charlton Athletic. On the 5th of February 2017 Swindon played local rivals Oxford United who managed to secure the 3 points by scoring 2 goals in 3 minutes to make Swindon lose 2-1. A red card was shown to keeper Lawrence Vigouroux for saying how bad of a club Swindon is.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: On 9 June 2020, Swindon were crowned League Two champions on the basis of average points per game, matches in the 2019–20 season having been suspended from March due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom. However, in the following season, the pandemic created financial difficulties for the club, with the chairman, Lee Power, warning in February 2021 of potential bankruptcy, and then, in April 2021, being charged with breaching FA regulations concerning the club's ownership and/or funding. On 18 April, manager John Sheridan resigned after winning just eight of 33 matches, with the club seven points from safety with four matches to play. The club's relegation to League Two was confirmed following a 5–0 defeat by Milton Keynes Dons on 24 April 2021.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: On 26 May 2021, John McGreal was appointed Swindon manager but, on 25 June 2021, after less than a month in the job, he left Swindon by mutual consent, citing ownership uncertainty which was preventing him signing new players. Chief executive Steve Anderson also left the club on the same day, followed by director of football Paul Jewell. Swindon supporter groups urged fans to boycott games until the ownership problems were resolved, with High Court hearings due to start on 6 September 2021. On 30 June 2021, the Official Supporters Club was told that a deal to transfer ownership to Australian businessman Clem Morfuni's Axis group would be completed "in the next couple of weeks", though the club later complained that the Axis group was delaying payment.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: In early July 2021, it emerged that players and staff had not received their June wages, and that the County Ground's owner, Swindon Borough Council, was taking legal action after receiving no rent since April 2020. The EFL described the ownership wrangle as "concerning" and imposed a transfer embargo on the club. In pre-season friendlies at Melksham Town and Hungerford Town, Swindon fielded sides featuring just a few experienced first-team players, with the rest of the squads being composed of youngsters and trialists. The club then cancelled its planned pre-season friendly with Swansea City at the County Ground on 17 July 2021, citing "ongoing logistical and operational issues". On 15 July 2021, it was reported that the club had paid 60% of the outstanding wages due in June. On 21 July 2021, it was reported that Power had transferred ownership of his shares in the club, and that the EFL had granted Morfuni consent to acquire additional shares, having passed its owners' and directors' test. Morfuni appointed Ben Garner as head coach and Ben Chorley as director of football plus Rob Angus ( ex Nationwide Director) appointed as CEO and, on 26 July 2021, the new management announced their first signing, with midfielder Ben Gladwin returning for a fourth spell at Swindon. On 16 September 2021, Swindon Town was given a suspended three-point deduction by the EFL, relating to the non-payment of player wages in June.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: Swindon Town have used at least five different kit badges since their inception. The original badge depicted a robin inside a shield with the letters STFC in the four corners, this changed to the "Steam Train" badge which was a coat of arms for the club based heavily on the coat of arms used by the local council. The "Steam Train" badge was in the form of a traditional shield, bisected with the club's name, a GWR steam locomotive (as Swindon is a railway town), a football and with a robin sitting on top. Beneath the shield was a motto on a scroll – ""Salubritas et Industria"" – meaning "health and industry". This motto is also that of the town of Swindon itself.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: During the 1970s the club changed the badge to one referred to as the "ST arrow" or "traffic sign" badge. This was circular and had the letters 'S' and 'T' interlocked, which both ends of the letter 'S' being made into an arrow. Also shown was a simple football and the club name.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: Following the 1985–86 season, the "Steam Train" badge was re-introduced onto the kits. The crest was re-styled and the text "Division Four Champions 1985/1986" replaced the motto.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: A diamond shaped crest for Swindon Town was introduced at the beginning of the 1991–92 season following a series of financial problems for the club. The idea behind the new crest was to give the club a new fresh image.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: On 5 April 2007, the club unveiled plans to change the badge, claiming the diamond badge was correct for the time, but did not represent or show any of the club's heritage or history. Swindon offered fans the chance to vote on-line for the three new choices, which were all similar to the original steam train design, and a fourth option of keeping the 1991 design.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: On 23 April 2007, it was announced that option three of the logo vote was the winner of the poll (it can be seen on the far right of the picture). Winning the vote with 68% in favour, the new badge includes the club name, a robin, a GWR steam locomotive – the rail industry being an important part of the Town's heritage – a football, and re-introduces the town's motto – 'Salubritas et Industria'. It has been in use since the beginning of the 2007–08 season.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: Originally playing in black and white with the addition of blue sash for away games, the club changed to black and red quarters on entry to the Southern League in 1894. The club changed again in 1897 with the "Swindon Advertiser" reporting:


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: With problems obtaining green dyes, the kit was short-lived and Swindon Town changed their shirts to the more familiar red in 1901. Initially a dark maroon, a lighter shade was chosen for the start of the 1902–03 season and also resulted in the club's nickname "the Robins" appearing in print for the first time in programme notes for the first game. The nickname is a reference to the former name of the European robin – "redbreast".


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: Swindon Town have played their home games in variations on the red and white theme since then, wearing a red shirt with white collars and white or red shorts for much of their history which has led to the team being known as the "Red and White Army". For example; the kit worn during the 1985–86 Division Four Champions season consisted of a red shirt with white pinstripes, white shorts and red socks and chants of "Lou Macari's Red and White Army" were heard from the supporters at the final stages of the season.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: Following the rebranding of the club in 1991, green elements were re-introduced onto the home strip and badge to represent the team's short-lived kit from the turn of the century. These were removed in 2007.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: The club's away kits have only begun to change since the 1990s and the advent of the lucrative replica kit market. Swindon's first away kit (that was entirely separate to the home kit) consisted of an all-blue strip; this was not used for the club's 1969 League Cup Final victory where they elected to wear an all-white strip.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: For a period in the 1980s the club changed their away kit to white shirts and black shorts and introduced a new third kit of yellow shirts and blue shorts. The club alternated between these two schemes as its away kit for the 1980s.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: When the club re-branded in the 1991 close season, it introduced a new away strip: the white and green "potato print" shirt with dark blue shorts. This remained in use until its replacement in 1993 with another yellow and blue strip, integrating the new colour scheme by adding a green collar.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: A special third kit was added for the 1996–97 season and was coloured "petrol green" in honour of the then sponsors Castrol.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: Swindon wore black and gold striped away shirts for the 2003–04 season with an all-white third kit, following this with variants on the blue theme until returning to all-white in 2007.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: In 2008–09 they returned to the dark blue away kit that was used previously for the 2006–07 season but this time they had white shorts instead of a whole dark blue strip. In 2009–10 they returned once again to the all-white kit, but unlike the home kit, which showed "FourFourTwo" on the front, this showed 'FIFA10' on the front as a part of sponsorship with EA. They also this year had an all-blue third kit which was featured for the FA Cup and also the play-off away game to Charlton.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: In 2010–11 they had an all-black third kit. The all-black kit became the club's away kit for the 2011–12 season with an all-white kit as a third kit used for the FA Cup run. This kit caused controversy among some fans, because it had the sponsors "The People" printed on the shirts.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: For 2012–13 they had a blue and yellow away kit, again controversial as these are the colours of Swindon's close rivals Oxford United.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: For the 2021–22 season, they released a checkered gold and green kit. The colours of the Australia national team, paying homage to the new Australian owner Clem Morfuni. Later in the season they also released a special all black third kit. This included a darkened club badge, intended to signify the club coming "out of the darkness" following the take over of the new owner.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: Since 2015 Swindon's kit has been manufactured by Puma. Previous manufacturers include Umbro, Admiral, Adidas, Coffer Sports, Spall, Diamond Leisure, Loki, Mizuno, Lotto, Xara, DGI, Strikeforce, and Lonsdale. The club's shirt sponsors have included ISIS, Lowndes Lambert Group, GWR FM, Burmah, Castrol, Nationwide, Kingswood Group, FourFourTwo, Samsung, EA Sports FIFA, C&D, Imagine Cruising, Bartercard and First City Nursing & Care.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: Swindon Town's original pitch was located south of Bath Road, in the region of Bradford Road, adjacent to the Okus Quarry. After a young spectator fell into the quarry the team decided to move first to Lansdown Road and then to a pitch near The Croft where they were to remain for the next 11 years.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: Swindon Town have been playing at the County Ground since 1896. They played their games on the site of the adjacent cricket pitch also called the County Ground from 1893 until the ground opened.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: Thomas Arkell of Arkell's Brewery donated £300 to finance the construction of a stand on what was then known as the 'Wiltshire County Ground', this investment was enough to begin development of a purpose-built football ground. Since its original construction, the ground has been periodically updated with new features or fittings. A cover on the Shrivenham Road side was erected in 1932, followed by the current roof at the Town End. This cost £4,300, which was raised by the Supporters' Club, and was opened on 27 August 1938 by local MP, W.W. Wakefield.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: The War Department took over the ground in 1940, where for a while POWs were housed in huts placed on the pitch. For this the club received compensation of £4,570 in 1945.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: The addition of floodlights in 1951 at a cost of £350, gave Swindon the honour of being the first League club to do so. These were first tried out "v." Bristol City on 2 April 1951 beating Arsenal by six months.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: These original set of lights were supplemented by lights on both side stand roofs, which were sufficient for the County Ground to stage its first floodlit league match on 29 February 1956 "v." Millwall. (seven days after Fratton Park became the first ground to stage a floodlit league fixture). The present pylons date from 1960.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: The ground currently contains elements constructed between 1950 and 1995, with the latest addition being the large sponsored stand on the south side. The County Ground is also the only football stadium in the world with a Rolex watch acting as its timekeeper, the clock on the Stratton Bank stand featuring its name was erected to celebrate promotion in 1963.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: The ground itself is on land owned by Swindon Borough Council to which the club pays rent. Swindon have in the past considered a move to a club owned stadium to generate more revenue, but have not had the financial backing to do so. In 2006 a redevelopment campaign for the County Ground began, with the club and TrustSTFC (the supporters' trust) raising a petition to 'Save Our Home' urging the Borough Council to "facilitate the redevelopment of the stadium and do everything they can to keep the club within the Borough" including the proposed upgrading of the adjacent Cricket Club to County standard and Athletic Club to Olympic standard.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: As an expanding railway town, the club had attendances of up to 32,000 on match days until the early 1970s. Due to Swindon's low unemployment rate (one of the lowest in the United Kingdom), more people work in the town than live there and so are unlikely to support the team. In addition; poor team performances, the financial instability in the club and the change to an all-seated stadium following the Taylor Report have led to attendances at the County Ground dropping.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: With an all-seated capacity of 15,728 at the County Ground, Swindon averaged a home attendance of 5,839 for the 2004–05 season. Only 37% of the grounds seats were occupied at a game on average.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: A core group of fans has inhabited the Town End of the stadium since the 1980s, producing past fanzines such as "The 69'er", "Bring the Noise" "Randy Robin" and "The Magic Roundabout" amongst others. Supporters call the team "The Town", "The Reds", "STFC" and also the "Red and White Army". The red and white army is a term the supporters use to identify themselves as well. The Junior Robins is the children's supporters club which operates to provide lower ticket prices, away game activities and transport to young fans. Membership of the club also allows them to be nominated as game mascot and gives them the opportunity to train in one of the many Football Schools run by the club.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: The supporters' trust, TrustSTFC, was established in 2000. This organisation is a democratically elected group of fans who raise funds for the club and aim to give supporters access and input into decisions made by the club's board. The group run a number of schemes including the "Loan Note Scheme", the aim of which is to buy shares in the club and assist with investment. Another scheme is the Red Army Fund, the money raised by this fund is given to the club to contribute towards the purchase and wages of new players. TrustSTFC also take part in the Fans' Consortium, who aim to place a supporter with a large stake-holding in the club onto the board of directors. The trust is also currently campaigning with the club for the re-development of the County Ground.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: The "Football Fever Report" published by statisticians of the Littlewoods Football Pools was released in January 2007. This report researched those teams that were the most stressful to support. Swindon Town were placed 5th out of all 92 League clubs, with the report stating –


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: "It's only just over a decade ago that Swindon were a Premier League side, but the past 10 years have been tough going for fans at the County Ground. Relegation from the top flight in 1994 was followed by a second successive drop, and although promotion from Division Two was secured a year later, the team struggled in Division One in the next three seasons, finishing 19th, 18th and 17th. In 2000 came relegation, and a year later Swindon avoided another 'double relegation' by just one point. A glimmer of hope came when the play-offs were reached in 2004 – ending in a semi-final loss to Brighton – but last term Town became the first club to drop into the bottom tier of the Football League having once been in the Premier League. We bet Robins' fans can hardly believe it."


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: With the dwindling support during matches in the 2004–05 season, another fans' group "Red Army Loud and Proud" was formed. Red Army Loud and Proud is a small group of fans attempting to bring back the atmosphere and fun to match days. With the stated aim of being "the 12th man on the pitch", the group sponsors players and also provides large colourful flags to the matches.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: However, in more recent years 2010–11 Swindon has rapidly increasing attendances with an 8,400 average attendance for the 2010–11 season despite relegation.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: Swindon Town has had problems with hooliganism since the 1970s, with the first known group being called the Swindon Town Aggro Boys (STAB). In a home game against Wrexham in March 1978, STAB were responsible for pelting the opposing goalkeeper with darts, stones and a golf ball. Club chairman Cecil Green later proclaimed: "We intend to stamp out this thuggery. The incidents were diabolical." A new hooligan gang emerged in the 1980s, the Swindon Southside Firm (SSF), who were named after the area of terracing they occupied. In a match at Northampton Town, then manager Lou Macari walked straight into a group of more than 100 SSF members chasing Northampton fans up the street. Macari said the incident was "worse than a Celtic–Rangers game".


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: In the 1990s, the Swindon Active Service (SAS) came to prominence and it is believed they were at the centre of several hostilities with fans of local rivals Oxford and Reading. In September 1998, 19 SAS members were arrested at the home match with Oxford. A fracas at an away game versus AFC Bournemouth on 18 December 2004 resulted in the arrest of seventeen and the imposition of banning orders on those found to be guilty. The fighting, involving more than forty supporters, occurred in a busy shopping centre before the game. "District Judge Roger House said it had been a 'frightening and terrifying' experience for scores of Christmas shoppers who witnessed the scenes."


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: The "Swindon Advertiser" reported that "The area was packed with Christmas shoppers, who watched in horror as pub windows were smashed and fans traded insults."


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: On 16 December 2006, Swindon recorded one of their highest attendances of the season: 10,010 at a home win against rivals Bristol Rovers. The game was marred by supporter trouble which resulted in 11 arrests and saw an area of seating in the Arkell's Stand damaged, with the "Western Daily Press" reporting that "the incident [...] ended with damage to 60 seats after they were used as missiles between opposing fans". On the day of the return game in Bristol, twenty Rovers fans attacked a number of Swindon supporters with baseball bats at a local pub.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: Nick Lowles, author of "Hooligans 2: The M–Z of Britain's Football Hooligan Gangs", has said "If you look at Swindon, the police have been very proactive in the last five years in terms of stopping hooliganism".


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: Swindon Town has imposed Banning Orders on those supporters who cause disruption, criminal damage or are violent when attending games. There were 29 banning orders in place in 2006, which was an increase from a total of 11 in 2005. The increase in banning orders has resulted in a reduction of arrests at games, with only 22 people being arrested attending games in 2005–06 compared to 39 arrests in 2004–05. Of the 22 arrests in 2005–06; 11 were for Public Disorder, five for violent disorder and the rest were made up of offences relating to missile throwing, racist chanting, pitch invasion, alcohol-related offences and one incident of being in possession of an offensive weapon. 33 Swindon fans were also banned from travelling to the 2006 FIFA World Cup. In 2013, 10 Swindon fans were charged with violent disorder following an incident outside the Royal Oak pub in Brentford before the club's League 1 play-off semi-final defeat.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: On 23 November 2013 a Swindon fan was arrested after running onto the pitch and punching Leyton Orient's goalkeeper, Jamie Jones.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: In 2003, a poll of supporters of all Football League clubs to find out which teams they see as their main rivals was conducted by the Football Fans Census, the results of which put Swindon in joint 13th place on the list of teams with most rivals. This was calculated from the number of other clubs that consider Swindon to be their first, second or third biggest rivals. Swindon fans considered Oxford United to be their main rivals, something that was reciprocated by Oxford fans. Less fierce rivalries exist with Bristol City, Bristol Rovers, Cheltenham Town, Newport County, Plymouth Argyle, Reading and Forest Green Rovers.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: Swindon Town Ladies FC were established on 28 September 1993, after breaking away from the established Swindon Spitfires Women's and Girls' Football Club. The current Swindon Town Women Football Club (STWFC) first team play in the FA Women's National League South West Division 1, and reached the third round proper of the FA Women's Cup for the first time in their history during the 2012–13 season where they were narrowly defeated 1–0 in extra time by Gillingham LFC. Swindon Town Women currently play their home games at Fairford Town F.C. In addition to the senior squad, the club run a Development and U16 team. The Development team compete in the South West Regional Women's Football League while the U16s compete in the Wiltshire Women and Girls Football League.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: As of November 2018, 37 men have been appointed as a manager of Swindon Town Football Club, excluding caretaker managers. Danny Williams and Andy King are the only men to have been given the job on a permanent basis twice.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: On 15 December 2011, local newspaper the "Swindon Advertiser" announced that the club were to launch the Swindon Town 'Hall of Fame'. Former players Don Rogers, John Trollope and Paul Bodin were the first three confirmed inductees with the others announced during a BBC Wiltshire Radio broadcast on 30 December 2011.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: "The following have either played for or managed Swindon Town and have been inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame"


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: John Trollope holds the record for Swindon Town appearances, having played 889 first-team matches between 1960 and 1980. Trollope also holds the English Football League Record of most appearances by a player at one club, having played in 770 League games. Central defender Maurice Owen comes second, having played 601 times. The record for a goalkeeper is held by Sam Burton, who is third with 509 appearances.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: Harry Morris holds all of Swindon's goal records, having scored 229 goals for the club between 1926 and 1933. Harold Fleming is second with 203, with Don Rogers third with 178. Morris scored the most goals in a season with 48 during 1926–27, 47 of which were in League games which is another club record. The most goals scored by an individual is also held by Morris and Keith East, who have both scored 5 against League opposition (Morris having achieved this in 1926 and 1930).


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: The highest attendance at the County Ground of 32,000 was recorded on 15 January 1972 in a FA Cup Third Round match against Arsenal. The capacity of the ground is now 15,728 so it is unlikely that this record will be broken in the foreseeable future.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: Swindon Town have also set records in English football, being the second team (after York City in 1983–84) to score over 100 points in the League when they became Fourth Division champions in 1985–86. The total of 102 that the club scored has since been beaten. They also hold the Premier League record for most goals conceded in a season, 100 in 1993–94, though several teams have finished with a lower points tally.


title: Swindon Town F.C.

text: On 20 February 2007 the club played in a landmark League game away to Barnet, a 1–0 loss. The completion of this match meant that Swindon had, during their history, played a League game at home and away against every team who, in the 2006–07 season and 2011–12 season, were in the Premier League, Championship, League One and League Two.


title: Truck classification

text: Truck classifications are typically based upon the maximum loaded weight of the truck, typically using the gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) and sometimes also the gross trailer weight rating (GTWR), and can vary among jurisdictions.


title: Truck classification

text: In the United States, commercial truck classification is determined based on the vehicle's gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR). The classes are numbered 1 through 8. Trucks are also classified more broadly by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), which groups classes 1 and 2 as "light duty", 3 through 6 as "medium duty", and 7 and 8 as "heavy duty". The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has a separate system of emissions classifications for trucks. The United States Census Bureau also assigned classifications in its now-discontinued Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey (VIUS) (formerly Truck Inventory and Use Survey (TIUS)).


title: Truck classification

text: United States federal law requires drivers to have a commercial driver's license (CDL) to operate heavy-duty vehicles (Class 7 and 8) in commerce, with the exception of emergency vehicles and vehicles strictly used for recreational and/or agricultural purposes, though it allows states to require a CDL for these vehicles under their discretion. A CDL is also required to operate any vehicle that transports at least 16 passengers (including the driver) or hazardous materials requiring placards under federal and state law regardless of the weight of the vehicle. States may extend CDL requirements for additional vehicles, for example, New York requires a CDL to operate a stretched limousine and California requires a CDL for any vehicle with three or more axles that has a gross vehicle weight rating of over 6,000 pounds.


title: Truck classification

text: When light-duty trucks were first produced in the United States, they were rated by their payload capacity in tons: (1000 pounds), (1500 pounds) and 1-ton (2000 pounds). Ford had introduced the "One-Tonner" in 1938 to their line of trucks. The "Three-quarter-tonner" appeared in the Ford truck lineup in 1939. Over time, payload capacities for most domestic pickup trucks have increased while the ton titles have stayed the same. The 1948 Ford F-1 had a Gross Vehicle Weight Rating (GVWR) of 4700 pounds. The truck was marketed with a "Nominal Tonnage Rating: Half-Ton." The actual cargo capacity had increased to 1450 pounds. Ford adopted this promotional nomenclature in 1948 to assist buyers, sellers, and users. The now-imprecise ton rating has continued since the post World War II era to compare standard sizes, rather than actual capacities. In 1975, a change in U.S. emission laws required any vehicle under 6000 pounds GVWR to burn unleaded fuel. U.S. pickup truck manufacturers responded with a "heavy half" pickup of over 6000 pounds GVWR. The F-150 had a capacity of over 2000 pounds, compared to 1500 pounds for the F-100.


title: Truck classification

text: This has led to categorizing trucks similarly, even if their payload capacities are different. The Chevrolet Silverado/GMC Sierra 1500, Ford F-150, Nissan Titan, Ram 1500, and Toyota Tundra are called "half-ton" pickups (-ton). The Chevrolet Silverado/GMC Sierra 2500, Ford F-250, and Ram 2500 are called "three-quarter-ton" pickups. The Chevrolet Silverado/GMC Sierra 3500, Ford F-350, and Ram 3500 are known as "one ton" pickups.


title: Truck classification

text: Similar schemes exist for vans and SUVs (e.g. a 1-ton Dodge Van or a -ton GMC Suburban), medium duty trucks (e.g. the 1-ton Ford ) and some military vehicles, like the ubiquitous deuce-and-a-half.


title: Truck classification

text: The Class 8 truck gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) is a vehicle with a GVWR exceeding . These include tractor trailer tractors, single-unit dump trucks of a GVWR over 33,000 lb, as well as non-commercial chassis fire trucks; such trucks typically have 3 or more axles. The typical 5-axle tractor-trailer combination, also called a "semi" or "18-wheeler", is a Class 8 vehicle. Standard trailers vary in length from containers to van trailers, with the most common length being the trailer. Specialized trailers for oversized loads can be considerably longer. Commercial operation of a Class 8 vehicle in the United States requires either a Class-B CDL for non-combination vehicles, or a Class-A CDL for combination vehicles (tractor-trailers).


title: Truck classification

text: Vehicle classifications vary among provinces in Canada, due to "differences in size and weight regulations, economic activity, physical environment, and other issues". While several provinces use their own classification schemes for traffic monitoring, Manitoba, Ontario, Prince Edward Island and Saskatchewan have adopted the 13-class system from the United States' Federal Highway Administration—sometimes with modifications, or in Ontario's case, for limited purposes. British Columbia and Ontario also distinguish between short- and long-combination trucks. In accident reporting, eight jurisdictions subdivide trucks by GVWR into light and heavy classes at approximately ().


title: Truck classification

text: Vehicle categories on a European driving licence include (among others) B for general motor vehicles, C for large goods vehicles, D for large passenger vehicles (buses), and are limited by the Gross Vehicle Weight Rating and number of passenger seats.


title: Truck classification

text: For the "trailer" categories, a separate driving test is generally required (e.g., "C", and "CE" require separate tests).


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: The 7.62×25mm Tokarev cartridge (designated as the 7.62 × 25 Tokarev by the C.I.P.) is a Russian rimless bottlenecked pistol cartridge widely used in former Soviet states and in China, among other countries. The cartridge has since been replaced in most capacities by the 9×18mm Makarov in Russian service.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: Prior to the First World War, the 7.63×25mm Mauser C96 pistol gained in popularity worldwide. In 1908, the Tsarist army placed the C96 on a list of approved sidearms that officers could purchase at their own expense in lieu of carrying the Nagant M1895 revolver. Between 1914 and 1917, more Mauser pistols and ammunition were obtained as captured arms from German and Turkish forces.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: The Mauser and its cartridge were used on all fronts of the Russian Civil War and in the 1920s, during a period of relatively close cooperation between Soviet Russia and the Weimar Republic, the Red Army purchased batches of the smaller Bolo version as well as ammunition for use by its officers. Although a copy of the cartridge was being produced at the Podolsky Ammunition Factory, the Soviets eventually purchased a license and manufacturing equipment from DWM in Germany to produce the cartridge.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: In 1929, the Soviet Artillery Committee made a proposal to develop a domestic pistol chambered for the Mauser cartridge. After considerable research and development, it was decided that the "Model 1930 7.62 mm pistol cartridge," essentially the Mauser round with minor modifications, was to become the standard caliber for Soviet pistols and submachine guns. Early versions of the Vasily Degtyaryov-designed PPD-40 submachine gun were marked "for Mauser cartridge caliber 7.62 mm".


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: Although dimensionally similar to the Mauser cartridge (so much so that both cartridges will chamber, load, and fire in any of these firearms), the Soviets increased the power of the Tokarev cartridge powder charge significantly. As such, while the lower-power Mauser rounds can be safely used in any of these firearms, the Tokarev cartridge is not safe for use in firearms which were not designed for the added pressure.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: Americans would define the shoulder angle at alpha/2 = 19 degrees. The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 240 mm (1 in 9.45 in), four grooves, diameter of lands = , diameter of grooves = , land width = and the primer type is Berdan or boxer small pistol.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: According to the official C.I.P. (Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives) rulings the 7.62×25mm Tokarev case can handle up to P piezo pressure. In C.I.P. regulated countries every handgun cartridge combo has to be proofed at 130% of this maximum C.I.P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: This means that 7.62×25mm Tokarev chambered arms in C.I.P. regulated countries are currently (2017) proof tested at PE piezo pressure.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: The cartridge is in principle an enhanced Russian version of the 7.63×25mm Mauser. The Russians produced a wide array of loadings for this cartridge for use in submachine guns. These include armor-piercing, tracer, and incendiary rounds. This cartridge has excellent penetration and can easily defeat lighter ballistic vests (NIJ level I and IIA) as well as some kevlar helmets, such as the American PASGT helmet.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: When fired from a carbine-length barrel, the cartridge may penetrate NIJ level II, but is sometimes stopped by the current standard armor NIJ level IIIA. (Level IIIA is an advanced version of the Level II that can stop faster bullets than Level II, but does not meet the Level III standard. NIJ standards factor in up to 1400 fps of bullet velocity; higher-velocity rounds can eventually penetrate them, but by definition, level III must be able to stop any 7.65 mm bullet ). Although most firearms chambered in this caliber were declared obsolete and removed from military inventories, some police and special forces units in Russia, Pakistan and China may still use it because of the large quantity of stored ammunition available.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: There is a common misconception that military surplus 7.62 Tokarev ammunition uses copper-coated mild steel bullets, and that this increases the chance of dangerous ricochets when fired at hard targets and can damage bullet traps often used on shooting ranges. While steel-core ammunition in 7.62×25 is available internationally, in the United States the importation of 7.62×25 cartridges loaded with copper-coated steel bullets is illegal; federal law defines these as armor-piercing pistol ammunition. So-called steel bullets sold are generally lead-core bullets with copper-washed steel jackets, and these do not present a significantly greater risk of ricochet than a standard copper-jacketed projectile.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: In 2018, 7.62×25 ammunition was available for export from Romania, Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Russia.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: Reloadable cartridge cases can be produced by resizing and trimming 9mm Winchester Magnum brass, or alternately by reforming 5.56×45mm NATO. The cartridge case is inserted into the open-topped die, which produces a shoulder in the correct position, and the portion of the case projecting through the top is sawed off. Afterward, a reamer—which fits a tap handle—is used to ream out the new case neck to an acceptable thickness.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: This is necessary because a powerful rifle cartridge has just been cut back to where the brass is relatively thick and must be thinned if excessive chamber pressures are to be avoided in the pistol. Alternately, reloaders in the US can purchase proper, new cases from Starline Mfg. Use .308" or .309" bullets for reloading for the Tokarev TT-33 and Czech CZ-52. Mauser C96 and C30 "Broomhandle" pistols typically have oversized bores, and .311" bullets may be needed to produce acceptable accuracy.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: However, firing the 7.62×25 out of a Mauser C96 is not recommended, as it is too powerful and it may damage the pistol. Hornady makes an 85-grain .309" "XTP" bullet that functions well in all these pistols. On the Starline website, information is given about using the slightly less powerful, but otherwise nearly identical ammunition designed for the Mauser C96 pistol (7.63×25mm Mauser) from which the Tokarev cartridge was derived, in pistols chambered for the Tokarev round. This was common practice by Finnish and German forces in WWII.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: Various Tokarev cartridges achieve muzzle velocities around the range of 1,300 to 1,800 fps. A common velocity is around with about of energy. Given the wide disparity in ammunition manufactured in many different nations, ammunition is encountered that yields higher and lower velocities. Some newly manufactured ammunition intended for commercial use has a velocity of approximately .


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: Wolf Gold FMJ tops out at with of energy, as does PPU ammunition. Some of this ammunition, such as the Wolf Gold and Sellier & Bellot, use boxer primed brass cases that are reloadable.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: The Soviet P-41 was a 74 grain, steel-cored, incendiary variant produced for use in the PPSh-41 and PPS-43 during World War II. This ammunition would achieve a velocity of 1,600 feet per second when fired from these firearms.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: The Chinese 7.62mm Type P is a special subsonic, heavy, pointed (spitzer) loading of the cartridge, designed specifically for use in suppressed firearms. The Chinese-produced standard loading of the cartridge is designated as the "Type 64".


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: The most notable use of this cartridge was in the Tokarev TT-33 pistol, which was the Soviet Union's standard service pistol from the early 1930s until the mid-1950s. It was also used in the Yugoslavian Zastava M57 pistol, and the Czech ČZ vz. 52, which was the standard Czech service pistol from 1952 until 1982. In addition, the cartridge was used in numerous submachine guns, including the Soviet PPD-40, PPSh-41, and PPS-43, the Russian PP-19 Bizon, the East German WG66, the Czech Sa 24 and Sa 26. Norinco of China makes a line of Sig-Sauer clones including the NP762 chambered in 7.62×25mm Tokarev.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: One of the strangest weapons attempted for this cartridge was the LAD light machine gun (5.6 kg empty weight, 960 mm length), developed the Soviet designers V.F. Lyuty, N.M. Afanasyev and V.S. Daykin during 1942–1943. Only two prototypes were built and it was not accepted for service.


title: 7.62×25mm Tokarev

text: Outside COMECON countries it is not so common; however after the Cold War, many firearms, especially pistols, were exported and the round is still in production. The cartridge was also used in the Russian OTs-27 Berdysh and OTs-39 submachine gun, the North Vietnamese K-50M and VPA/Viet Minh modified MAT-49s, Czech Sa 23 and the Yugoslav M49 and M56, the latter gun being developed from the design of the German MP40. Aftermarket conversion kits are also available for many firearms including the AR and AK platforms so they may fire the Tokarev round.


title: Bangalore Days

text: Bangalore Days is a 2014 Indian Malayalam-language coming of age romantic comedy-drama film written and directed by Anjali Menon, and co-produced by Anwar Rasheed and Sophia Paul under the banner Anwar Rasheed Entertainments and Weekend Blockbusters. The film features an ensemble cast consisting of Dulquer Salmaan, Nivin Pauly, Fahadh Faasil, Nazriya Nazim, Parvathy Thiruvothu, Isha Talwar and Paris Laxmi. Nithya Menen appears in a cameo. The plot revolves around three cousins from Kerala who move to Bangalore, continuing Menon's trend of films about family relationships. The film released on 30 May 2014 in 205 theatres, making it one of the biggest release for a Malayalam film, simultaneously all over India and received positive reviews.


title: Bangalore Days

text: The film received three Kerala State Film Awards including Best Actor and Best Actress awards for Nivin Pauly and Nazriya Nazim respectively, and Best Screenplay for Anjali Menon, while Parvathy Thiruvothu went to win Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress and Anjali Menon winning the Filmfare Award for Best Director. The film is later remade in Tamil as "Bangalore Naatkal" (2016). The movie is considered to be one of the best Malayalam movies made during the New-Gen cinema movement in Malayalam. The film will be remade in Hindi as "Yaariyan 2" in 2023.


title: Bangalore Days

text: The story revolves around three cousins, Divya Prakash aka 'Kunju', Krishnan P.P. aka 'Kuttan' and Arjun aka 'Aju', who have shared a close bond since their childhood. Aju, whose parents are divorced, is a bike mechanic who lives life on his own terms. Kuttan is a software engineer whose heart and soul is back home in his village. Kunju has completed her graduation and aspires to do her MBA from IIM, but is compelled to marry the workaholic corporate executive Shivadas aka 'Das' because of her parents' astrologer's suggestions. After their wedding, Divya moves to Bangalore as Das is settled there. Kuttan does the same for his job, while Aju joins a biker gang as a mechanic in the same city.


title: Bangalore Days

text: Kunju feels emotionally alone as Das continues to ignore her. Her only solace is the time she gets to spend with her cousins. Naive Kuttan, who wants a traditional, modest, saree-clad girl for a wife, falls in love with air hostess Meenakshi on the Bangalore-Kochi flight. They date, and Kuttan changes from a reserved and shy person to a trendy person to impress her, but his dreams are shattered when her ex-boyfriend arrives at her flat and he realizes that she was only trying to get back with him. He breaks off his relationship with her.


title: Bangalore Days

text: Kunju and Das's personal life keeps falling into despair. After an argument, one day, Kunju, upon inspecting a room in their apartment that Das never lets anyone enter, is shocked to find it filled with photos, knickknacks, and possessions of a strange girl. In horror of not having a place in Das's heart and life, she leaves him and returns home to Kerala in sorrow, with Kuttan. There they are still pulled into despair as Kuttan's father has abandoned his rich family and gone for a permanent pilgrimage, willing all his wealth and its rights to Kuttan and his sister. Kuttan has to bring his mother to Bangalore, after she convinces him to.


title: Bangalore Days

text: Aju was a bike racer, but due to a foul incident, he is forced to serve a year's ban from racing. He falls for a radio jockey named Sarah, but when he finally meets her in person, he finds that she is a paraplegic. He begins to like her attitude and follows her. They become good friends, but Aju is saddened when he learns that Sarah is to leave for Australia on a university scholarship.


title: Bangalore Days

text: Meanwhile, as Kunju and Das are in the middle of getting a divorce, Aju learns that a few years back, Das was a former bike racer. He then went by the name Shiva and was the leader of his biking gang. Shiva had given up on racing after he was involved in an accident that killed his love Natasha Francis. Upon knowing what happened, Kunju decides to return to Bangalore and works towards her MBA. She gradually wins over a repentant Das and soon arranges for him to meet Natasha's parents. After the meeting, Das is able to let go of his past. Kunju forgives him and they get their marital life on track.


title: Bangalore Days

text: Kuttan's mother gets to know about the urban Indian culture with her neighbors, and after three months, decides to visit her daughter in Oklahoma. In the airport, Kuttan and his mother see Meenakshi, who will be an air hostess in Kuttan's mother's flight to America. Meenakshi approaches Kuttan and reveals that her relationship with the old boyfriend has broken permanently, and she will be waiting for his call. Just seconds after that, Kuttan goes by and talks with her, telling to leave him.


title: Bangalore Days

text: Aju gets a chance to race on the same day that Sarah has to leave for Australia. With Kunju, Kuttan, and Das cheering for him, he wins the race. After the race, Aju realizes how important Sarah is to him and that meeting her changed his life. He asks her not to leave for Australia. Sarah forgoes her scholarship to stay with Aju in Bangalore. In the end, Kuttan marries his neighbor in Bangalore, a foreigner named Michelle, a European Bharathanatyam dancer who has embraced the culture of India. The film ends with Kunju, Das, Aju, and Sarah breaking into their room and all of them posing for a photo.


title: Bangalore Days

text: After the success of "Manjadikuru" and "Ustad Hotel", Anjali Menon announced her new project named "L for Love," and said it will be produced by Anwar Rasheed and Sophia Paul in later Anjali clarified that the film was titled "Bangalore Days". Anjali described the film as simple at its core, about people we all know, about dreams, relationships, love and how our environment can transform us and yet within. In a conversation to a leading newspaper, Anjali said that most of the film would be shot completely in Bangalore, the City of Garden, as the story demands it and the film will features bunch of youngsters who have migrated to Bangalore for work and their lives in the city. The film was again from the friendship of Anjali and Anwar Rasheed shared when they worked together in the previous films. Menon announced that the film features new actors and actress of Malayalam cinema including Nivin Pauly, Dulquer Salmaan, Nazriya Nazim and Fahadh Faasil. Rafeeq Ahmed, Santhosh Varma and Anna Katharina Valayil wrote the lyrics while Gopi Sunder signed to compose the music of the film. Cinematography was handled by Sameer Thahir and editing was given to Praveen Prabhakar. The first look trailer of the film was released online on 7 May 2014, followed by a subtitled version on 12 May. Anjali selected Nazriya, Dulquer and Nivin which will be perfect and fit for the role of three cousins. Fahadh was later selected to do his character. Maniyanpilla Raju, Praveena, Vijayaraghavan, Kalpana and Vivas were signed for supporting roles.


title: Bangalore Days

text: Filming of "Bangalore Days" started in December 2013. The filming was wrapped in March 2014 and completed shooting in 70 days. The film was shot in Bangalore, Kochi at a budget of . The song "Ethu Kari Raavilum" was shot in Mysore and some of the scenes in Sankey.


title: Bangalore Days

text: The soundtrack features five songs composed by Gopi Sunder. He was sued for copyright violation by Bryan Adams on the basis that the song "Nam Ooru Bengaluru" bore a strong resemblance to Adams' song "Summer of '69".


title: Bangalore Days

text: The track "Ente Kannil Ninakkai" seems to be based on Carla Bruni's song, Quelqu'un m'a dit from her album of the same name.


title: Bangalore Days

text: The film was originally scheduled for release on 9 May 2014, but was rescheduled due to delays in production. The film released on 30 May 2014 in 205 theatres, making it one of the biggest release for a Malayalam film, simultaneously all over India. At the time of release, "Bangalore Days" was the Malayalam film to have a subtitled release in maximum number of screens. The movie released with English subtitles, in more than 200 screens across India. The film released in UAE on 3 July 2014.


title: Bangalore Days

text: "Bangalore Days" was distributed in India by A & A Release through August Cinema. Star Movie was the distributor in the United States, Indian Movies in United Kingdom and Tricolor Entertainments in Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia, Singapore and Japan.


title: Bangalore Days

text: The film received positive reviews from critics, with praise towards the direction, performances, music and cinematography. Veeyen of Nowrunning.com stated that ""Bangalore Days" is a buoyant examination of love, the basest of all human emotions and the bonds and bondages that it leaves in its wake. Pungently played out in the metro city of Bangalore, it's a stunning reminder of a spectacular marvel that unravels before us every day — a marvel called life." The reviewer of Sify.com gave the verdict as "Good" and said, ""Bangalore Days" is a young, vibrant film that is colourful and peppy." Krishnanunni U. of Oneindia.in rated the film 4 in a scale of 5 and described it as a "perfect youth entertainer." Aswin J Kumar of "The Times of India" wrote, ""Bangalore Days" might not be charming as a whole, still Anjali shows intent in knitting together family bonds in purely comic vein, throwing up characters like a wife and husband who just drift apart from each other out of love for independent life. This is a film that talks cheerfully about love and hope," and rated the film 3.5 in a scale of 5. Paresh C Palicha of Rediff.com wrote, "The first feature film Anjali Menon directed was "Manjadikuru" where children get a perplexed view of the adult world. "Bangalore Days" can be seen as an extension of that, where those children are grown up but still want to hold on to their childhood." He gave the film 3 out of 5 stars.


title: Bangalore Days

text: The film collected in its first week. The film grossed £100,670 (₹ 1.03 crore) within 1 month, and $180,217 (₹ 1.34 crore) in its final run from the UK box office.


title: Bangalore Days

text: The film's total gross collection was about ₹48 - 50 crore worldwide, making it the highest grossing Malayalam film of the year and one of the highest grossing Malayalam films of all time. The film ran for a hundred days in four centres in Chennai and two months in Hyderabad.


title: Bangalore Days

text: The remake rights of the film, for Tamil, Telugu and Hindi languages, was jointly acquired by Dil Raju and PVP Cinemas.


title: Bangalore Days

text: The Tamil version of this film, titled "Bangalore Naatkal" was released on 5 February 2016. The film is directed by Bhaskar and produced by Prasad V. Potluri under the production companies PVP Cinema and Bommarillu Bhaskar Cinema. The film stars Sri Divya, Bobby Simha, Arya, Rana Daggubati, Raai Laxmi, Parvathy Thiruvothu, Paris Laxmi and Prakash Raj in starring roles with Samantha Ruth Prabhu appears in a cameo appearance.The film will be remade in Hindi as Yaariyan 2 in 2023.


title: White nationalism

text: White nationalism is a type of racial nationalism or pan-nationalism which espouses the belief that white people are a race and seeks to develop and maintain a white racial and national identity. Many of its proponents identify with and are attached to the concept of a white nation, or a "white ethnostate".


title: White nationalism

text: White nationalists say they seek to ensure the survival of the white race, and the cultures of historically white states. They hold that white people should maintain their majority in majority-white countries, maintain their political and economic dominance, and that their cultures should be foremost in these countries. Many white nationalists believe that miscegenation, multiculturalism, immigration of nonwhites and low birth rates among whites are threatening the white race.


title: White nationalism

text: Analysts describe white nationalism as overlapping with white supremacism and white separatism. White nationalism is sometimes described as a euphemism for, or subset of, white supremacism and the two have been used interchangeably by journalists and analysts. White separatism is the pursuit of a "white-only state" while supremacism is the belief that white people are superior to nonwhites and should dominate them, taking ideas from social Darwinism and Nazism. Critics argue that the term "white nationalism" is simply a "rebranding" and ideas such as white pride exist solely to provide a sanitized public face for "white supremacy", which white nationalists allegedly avoid using because of its negative connotations, and that most white nationalist groups promote racial violence.


title: White nationalism

text: According to Merriam-Webster, the first documented use of the term "white nationalist" was 1951, to refer to a member of a militant group which espouses white supremacy and racial segregation. Merriam-Webster also notes usage of the two-word phrase as early as 1925. According to Dictionary.com, the term was first used in the title of a 1948 essay by South African writer and ecologist Thomas Chalmers Robertson titled "Racism Comes to Power in South Africa: The Threat of White Nationalism".


title: White nationalism

text: According to Daryl Johnson, a former counterterrorism expert at the Department of Homeland Security, the term was used to appear more credible while also avoiding negative stereotypes about white supremacists. Modern members of racist organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan generally favor the term and avoid self-describing as white supremacist.


title: White nationalism

text: Some sociologists have used white nationalism as an umbrella term for a range of white supremacist groups and ideologies, while others regard these movements as distinct. Analysis suggests that two groups largely overlap in terms of membership, ideology, and goals. Civil rights groups have described the two terms as functionally interchangeable. Ryan Lenz of the Southern Poverty Law Center has said "there is really no difference", and Kristen Clarke of the Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law has said "There is no defensible distinction that can be drawn between white supremacy, white nationalism or white separatism in society today." News reports will sometimes refer to the a group or movement by one term or the other, or both interchangeably.


title: White nationalism

text: White nationalists claim that culture is a product of race, and advocate for the self-preservation of white people. White nationalists seek to ensure the survival of the white race, and the cultures of historically white nations. They hold that white people should maintain their majority in mainly-white countries, maintain their dominance of its political and economic life, and that their culture should be foremost. Many white nationalists believe that miscegenation, multiculturalism, mass immigration of non-whites and low birth rates among whites are threatening the white race, and some argue that it amounts to white genocide.


title: White nationalism

text: Political scientist Samuel P. Huntington described white nationalists as arguing that the demographic shift in the United States towards non-whites would bring a new culture that is intellectually and morally inferior. White nationalists claim that this demographic shift brings affirmative action, immigrant ghettos and declining educational standards. Most American white nationalists say immigration should be restricted to people of European ancestry.


title: White nationalism

text: White nationalists embrace a variety of religious and non-religious beliefs, including various denominations of Christianity, generally Protestant, although some specifically overlap with white nationalist ideology (Christian Identity, for example, is a family of white supremacist denominations), Germanic neopaganism (e.g. Wotanism) and atheism.


title: White nationalism

text: Most white nationalists define white people in a restricted way. In the United States, it often—though not exclusively—implies European ancestry of non-Jewish descent. Some white nationalists draw on 19th-century racial taxonomy. White nationalist Jared Taylor has argued that Jews can be considered "white", although this is controversial within white nationalist circles. Many white nationalists oppose Israel and Zionism, while some, such as William Daniel Johnson and Taylor, have expressed support for Israel and have drawn parallels between their ideology and Zionism. Other white nationalists such as George Lincoln Rockwell exclude Jews from the definition but include Turks, who are a transcontinental ethnicity.


title: White nationalism

text: White nationalist definitions of race are derived from the fallacy of racial essentialism, which presumes that people can be meaningfully categorized into different races by biology or appearance. White nationalism and white supremacy view race as a hierarchy of biologically discrete groups. This has led to the use of often contradictory obsolete racial categories such as Aryanism, Nordicism, or the one-drop rule. Since the second half of the 20th century, attempts to categorize humans by race have becoming increasingly seen as largely pseudoscientific.


title: White nationalism

text: The White Australia policy was semi-official government policy in Australia until the mid twentieth century. It restricted non-white immigration to Australia and gave preference to British migrants over all others.


title: White nationalism

text: The Barton Government, which won the first elections following the Federation of Australia in 1901, was formed by the Protectionist Party with the support of the Australian Labor Party (ALP). The support of the Labor Party was contingent upon restricting non-white immigration, reflecting the attitudes of the Australian Workers' Union and other labor organizations at the time, upon whose support the Labor Party was founded. The first Parliament of Australia quickly moved to restrict immigration to maintain Australia's "British character", passing the Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901 and the Immigration Restriction Act 1901 before parliament rose for its first Christmas recess. The Immigration Restriction Act limited immigration to Australia and required a person seeking entry to Australia to write out a passage of 50 words dictated to them in any European language, not necessarily English, at the discretion of an immigration officer. Barton argued in favour of the bill: "The doctrine of the equality of man was never intended to apply to the equality of the Englishman and the Chinaman." The passage chosen for the test could often be very difficult, so that even if the test was given in English, a person was likely to fail. The test enabled immigration officials to exclude individuals on the basis of race without explicitly saying so. Although the test could theoretically be given to any person arriving in Australia, in practice it was given selectively on the basis of race. This test was later abolished in 1958.


title: White nationalism

text: Australian Prime Minister Stanley Bruce supported the White Australia policy, and made it an issue in his campaign for the 1925 Australian federal election.


title: White nationalism

text: It is necessary that we should determine what are the ideals towards which every Australian would desire to strive. I think those ideals might well be stated as being to secure our national safety, and to ensure the maintenance of our White Australia Policy to continue as an integral portion of the British Empire. We intend to keep this country white and not allow its peoples to be faced with the problems that at present are practically insoluble in many parts of the world.


title: White nationalism

text: At the beginning of World War II, Prime Minister John Curtin (ALP) expressed support for White Australia policy: "This country shall remain forever the home of the descendants of those people who came here in peace in order to establish in the South Seas an outpost of the British race."


title: White nationalism

text: Another (ALP) Leader of the Labor Party from 1960 to 1967 Arthur Calwell supported the White European Australia policy. This is reflected by Calwell's comments in his 1972 memoirs, "Be Just and Fear Not", in which he made it clear that he maintained his view that non-European people should not be allowed to settle in Australia. He wrote:


title: White nationalism

text: I am proud of my white skin, just as a Chinese is proud of his yellow skin, a Japanese of his brown skin, and the Indians of their various hues from black to coffee-coloured. Anybody who is not proud of his race is not a man at all. And any man who tries to stigmatize the Australian community as racist because they want to preserve this country for the white race is doing our nation great harm... I reject, in conscience, the idea that Australia should or ever can become a multi-racial society and survive.


title: White nationalism

text: The Parliament of Canada passed the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 to bar all Chinese from coming to Canada with the exception of diplomats, students, and those granted special permission by the Minister of Immigration. Chinese immigration to Canada had already been heavily regulated by the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 which required Chinese immigrants to pay a fifty dollar fee to enter the country (the fee was increased to one hundred dollars in 1900 and to five hundred dollars in 1903). Groups such as the Asiatic Exclusion League, which had formed in Vancouver, British Columbia, on 12 August 1907 under the auspices of the Trades and Labour Council, pressured Parliament to halt Asian immigration. The Exclusion League's stated aim was "to keep Oriental immigrants out of British Columbia."


title: White nationalism

text: The Canadian government also attempted to restrict immigration from British India by passing an order-in-council on 8 January 1908. It prohibited immigration of persons who "in the opinion of the Minister of the Interior" did not "come from the country of their birth or citizenship by a continuous journey and or through tickets purchased before leaving their country of their birth or nationality." In practice, this applied only to ships that began their voyages in India, because the great distance usually necessitated a stopover in either Japan or Hawaii. These regulations came at a time when Canada was accepting massive numbers of immigrants (over 400,000 in 1913 alone—a figure that remains unsurpassed to this day), almost all of whom came from Europe. This piece of legislation has been called the "continuous journey regulation".


title: White nationalism

text: The Thule Society developed out of the "Germanic Order" in 1918, and those who wanted to join the "Order" in 1917 had to sign a special "blood declaration of faith" concerning their lineage: "The signer hereby swears to the best of his knowledge and belief that no Jewish or coloured blood flows in either his or in his wife's veins, and that among their ancestors are no members of the coloured races." Heinrich Himmler, one of the main perpetrators of the Holocaust, said in a speech in 1937: "The next decades do in fact not mean some struggle of foreign politics which Germany can overcome or not... but a question of to be or not to be for the white race..." As the Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg said on 29 May 1938 on the Steckelburg in Schlüchtern: "It is however certain that all of us share the fate of Europe, and that we shall regard this common fate as an obligation, because in the end the very existence of White people depends on the unity of the European continent."


title: White nationalism

text: At the same time Nazi Party subdivided white people into groups, viewing the Nordics as the "master race" ("Herrenvolk") above groups like Alpine and Mediterranean peoples. Slavic peoples, such as Russians and Poles, were considered "Untermenschen" (subhumans) instead of Aryan. Adolf Hitler's conception of the Aryan "Herrenvolk" ("Aryan master race") explicitly excluded the vast majority of Slavs, regarding the Slavs as having dangerous Jewish and Asiatic influences. The Nazis, because of this, declared Slavs to be "Untermenschen". Hitler described Slavs as "a mass of born slaves who feel the need of a master". Hitler declared that because Slavs were subhumans that the Geneva Conventions were not applicable to them, and German soldiers in World War II were thus permitted to ignore the Geneva Conventions in regard to Slavs. Hitler called Slavs "a rabbit family" meaning they were intrinsically idle and disorganized. Nazi Germany's propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels had media speak of Slavs as primitive animals who were from the Siberian tundra who were like a "dark wave of filth". The Nazi notion of Slavs being inferior was part of the agenda for creating "Lebensraum" ("living space") for Germans and other Germanic people in Central and Eastern Europe that was initiated during World War II under "Generalplan Ost", millions of Germans and other Germanic settlers would be moved into conquered territories of Eastern Europe, while the original Slavic inhabitants were to be exterminated and enslaved. Nazi Germany's ally the Independent State of Croatia rejected the common conception that Croats were primarily a Slavic people and claimed that Croats were primarily the descendants of the Germanic Goths. However the Nazi regime continued to classify Croats as "subhuman" in spite of the alliance. Even among European cultures and people that were considered Aryan, the Nazis considered the Nordic race and German culture to be superior to other Aryan races and cultures, thus making them far less Pan-European than groups that identify themselves as White Nationalist.


title: White nationalism

text: Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán stated in 2018 that "we do not want to be diverse and do not want to be mixed: we do not want our own colour, traditions and national culture to be mixed with those of others." In 2022, he stated that "we do not want to become peoples of mixed-race," praising "The Camp of the Saints" and referring specifically to the admixture of Europeans and non-European migrants, commenting that racially mixed countries "are no longer nations." Laura Barrón-López of PBS described his ideology as white nationalist. White nationalists of the American alt-right and the European identitarian movements enthusiastically support Orbán's policies. Some have personally migrated there and collaborated with the political party Jobbik.


title: White nationalism

text: Following the example of anti-Chinese poll taxes enacted by California in 1852 and by Australian states in the 1850s, 1860s and 1870s, John Hall's government passed the Chinese Immigration Act 1881. This imposed a £10 tax per Chinese person entering the Colony of New Zealand, and permitted only one Chinese immigrant for every 10 tons of cargo. Richard Seddon's government increased the tax to £100 per head in 1896, and tightened the other restriction to only one Chinese immigrant for every 200 tons of cargo.


title: White nationalism

text: The Immigration Restriction Act of 1899 prohibited the entry of immigrants who were not of British or Irish parentage and who were unable to fill out an application form in "any European language". The Immigration Restriction Amendment Act 1920 aimed to further limit Asian immigration into the Dominion of New Zealand by requiring all potential immigrants not of British or Irish parentage to apply in writing for a permit to enter the country. The Minister of Customs had the discretion to determine whether any applicant was "suitable". Prime Minister William Massey asserted that the act was "the result of a deep seated sentiment on the part of a huge majority of the people of this country that this Dominion shall be what is often called a 'white' New Zealand."


title: White nationalism

text: One case of a well known opponent of non-European immigration to New Zealand is that of white supremacist Lionel Terry who, after traveling widely to South Africa, British Columbia and finally New Zealand and publishing a book highly critical of capitalism and Asian immigration, shot and killed an elderly Chinese immigrant in Wellington. Terry was convicted of murder in 1905 and sentenced to death, but the sentence was commuted to life incarceration in New Zealand psychiatric institutions.


title: White nationalism

text: A Department of External Affairs memorandum in 1953 stated: "Our immigration is based firmly on the principle that we are and intend to remain a country of European development. It is inevitably discriminatory against Asians—indeed against all persons who are not wholly of European race and colour. Whereas we have done much to encourage immigration from Europe, we do everything to discourage it from Asia."


title: White nationalism

text: In Paraguay, the New Australian Movement founded New Australia, a utopian socialist settlement in 1893. Its founder, William Lane, intended the settlement to be based on a "common-hold" instead of a commonwealth, life marriage, teetotalism, communism and a brotherhood of Anglophone white people and the preservation of the "colour-line". The colony was officially founded as "Colonia Nueva Australia" and comprised 238 adults and children.


title: White nationalism

text: In July 1893, the first ship left Sydney, Australia for Paraguay, where the government was keen to get white settlers, and had offered the group a large area of good land. The settlement had been described as a refuge for misfits, failures and malcontents of the left wing of Australian democracy. Notable Australian individuals who joined the colony included Mary Gilmore, Rose Summerfield and Gilbert Stephen Casey. Summerfield was the mother of León Cadogan, a noted Paraguayan ethnologist.


title: White nationalism

text: Due to poor management and a conflict over the prohibition of alcohol, the government of Paraguay eventually dissolved New Australia as a cooperative. Some colonists founded communes elsewhere in Paraguay but others returned to Australia or moved to England. , around 2,000 descendants of the New Australia colonists still lived in Paraguay.


title: White nationalism

text: In South Africa, white nationalism was championed by the National Party starting in 1914, when it was established as a political party to represent Afrikaners after the Second Boer War by J. B. M. Hertzog in 1914. It articulated a policy promoting white "civilised labour" above African ""swart gevaar"," and some radical nationalist movements such as the Afrikaner Broederbond, D. F. Malan's Purified National Party, and Oswald Pirow's New Order openly sympathized with Nazi Germany. In 1948, the Reunited National Party under Malan won the South African general election against the more moderate United Party and implemented the segregationist social system known as apartheid.


title: White nationalism

text: The Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act, 1959 established homelands (sometimes pejoratively referred to as Bantustans) for ten different black African tribes. The ultimate goal of the National Party was to move all Black South Africans into one of these homelands (although they might continue to work in South Africa as ""guest workers""), leaving what was left of South Africa (about 87 percent of the land area) with what would then be a White South African majority, at least on paper. As the homelands were seen by the apartheid government as embryonic independent nations, all Black South Africans were registered as citizens of the homelands, not of the nation as a whole, and were expected to exercise their political rights only in the homelands. Accordingly, the three token parliamentary seats that had been reserved for White representatives of black South Africans in Cape Province were scrapped. The other three provinces—Transvaal, the Orange Free State, and Natal—had never allowed any Black representation.


title: White nationalism

text: Coloureds were removed from the Common Roll of Cape Province in 1953. Instead of voting for the same representatives as white South Africans, they could now only vote for four White representatives to speak for them. Later, in 1968, the Coloureds were disenfranchised altogether. In the place of the four parliamentary seats, a partially elected body was set up to advise the government in an amendment to the Separate Representation of Voters Act.


title: White nationalism

text: During the 1960s, 1970s, and early 1980s, the government implemented a policy of "resettlement", to force people to move to their designated "group areas". Millions of people were forced to relocate during this period. These removals included people relocated due to slum clearance programs, labour tenants on White-owned farms, the inhabitants of the so-called "black spots", areas of Black owned land surrounded by White farms, the families of workers living in townships close to the homelands, and "surplus people" from urban areas, including thousands of people from the Western Cape (which was declared a "Coloured Labour Preference Area") who were moved to the Transkei and Ciskei homelands. The best-publicised forced removals of the 1950s occurred in Johannesburg, when 60,000 people were moved to the new township of Soweto, an abbreviation for South Western Townships.


title: White nationalism

text: Until 1955, Sophiatown had been one of the few urban areas where Blacks were allowed to own land, and was slowly developing into a multiracial slum. As industry in Johannesburg grew, Sophiatown became the home of a rapidly expanding black workforce, as it was convenient and close to town. It could also boast the only swimming pool for Black children in Johannesburg. As one of the oldest black settlements in Johannesburg, Sophiatown held an almost symbolic importance for the 50,000 Blacks it contained, both in terms of its sheer vibrancy and its unique culture. Despite a vigorous African National Congress protest campaign and worldwide publicity, the removal of Sophiatown began on 9 February 1955 under the Western Areas Removal Scheme. In the early hours, heavily armed police entered Sophiatown to force residents out of their homes and load their belongings onto government trucks. The residents were taken to a large tract of land, thirteen miles (19 km) from the city center, known as Meadowlands (that the government had purchased in 1953). Meadowlands became part of a new planned Black city called Soweto. The Sophiatown slum was destroyed by bulldozers, and a new White suburb named Triomf (Triumph) was built in its place. This pattern of forced removal and destruction was to repeat itself over the next few years, and was not limited to people of African descent. Forced removals from areas like Cato Manor (Mkhumbane) in Durban, and District Six in Cape Town, where 55,000 coloured and Indian people were forced to move to new townships on the Cape Flats, were carried out under the Group Areas Act 1950. Ultimately, nearly 600,000 coloured, Indian and Chinese people were moved in terms of the Group Areas Act. Some 40,000 White people were also forced to move when land was transferred from "White South Africa" into the Black homelands.


title: White nationalism

text: Before South Africa became a republic, politics among white South Africans was typified by the division between the chiefly Afrikaans-speaking pro-republic conservative and the largely English-speaking anti-republican liberal sentiments, with the legacy of the Boer War still constituting a political factor for sections of the white populace. Once South Africa's status as a republic was attained, Hendrik Verwoerd called for improved relations and greater accord between the two groups. He claimed that the only difference now was between those who supported apartheid and those who stood in opposition to it. The ethnic divide would no longer be between white Afrikaans-speakers and English-speakers, but rather White and Black South Africans. Most Afrikaners supported the notion of unanimity of White people to ensure their safety. Anglophone white South Africans voters were divided. Many had opposed a republic, leading to a majority "no" vote in Natal. Later, however, some of them recognized the perceived need for White unity, convinced by the growing trend of decolonization elsewhere in Africa, which left them apprehensive. Harold Macmillan's "Wind of Change" pronouncement lead the Anglophone white South African population to perceive that the British government had abandoned them. The more conservative Anglophones gave support to Verwoerd; others were troubled by the severing of ties with Britain and remained loyal to the Crown. They were acutely displeased at the choice between British and South African nationality. Although Verwoerd tried to bond these different blocs, the subsequent ballot illustrated only a minor swell of support, indicating that a great many Anglophones remained apathetic and that Verwoerd had not succeeded in uniting the White population in South Africa.


title: White nationalism

text: The Black Homeland Citizenship Act of 1970 was a denaturalization law passed during the apartheid era of South Africa that changed the status of the inhabitants of the Bantustans (Black homelands) so that they were no longer citizens of South Africa. The aim was to ensure that white South Africans came to make up the majority of the "de jure" population.


title: White nationalism

text: The Naturalization Act of 1790 () provided the first rules to be followed by the United States government in granting national citizenship. This law limited naturalization to immigrants who were "free white persons" of "good moral character." In 1856, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the "Dred Scott v. Sandford" decision that free blacks descended from slaves could not hold United States citizenship even if they had been born in the country. Major changes to this racial requirement for US citizenship did not occur until the years following the American Civil War. In 1868, the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was passed to grant birthright citizenship to black people born in the US, but it specifically excluded untaxed Indians, because they were separate nations. However, citizenship for other non-whites born in the US was not settled until 1898 with "United States v. Wong Kim Ark", 169 U.S. 649, which concluded with an important precedent in its interpretation of the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This racial definition of American citizenship has had consequences for perceptions of American identity.


title: White nationalism

text: Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, racial definitions of the American nation were still common, resulting in race-specific immigration restrictions, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act. Groups such as the Asiatic Exclusion League, formed on 14 May 1905 in San Francisco, California, by 67 labor unions and supported by labor leaders (and European immigrants) Patrick Henry McCarthy of the Building Trades Council of San Francisco, Andrew Furuseth and Walter McCarthy of the Sailor's Union, attempted to influence legislation restricting Asian immigration.


title: White nationalism

text: During the controversy surrounding the All of Mexico Movement, Senator John C. Calhoun of South Carolina stated "We have never dreamt of incorporating into our Union any but the Caucasian race—the free white race... Ours, sir, is the Government of a white race."


title: White nationalism

text: Following the defeat of the Confederate States of America and the abolition of slavery in the United States at the end of the American Civil War, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was founded as an insurgent group with the goal of maintaining the Southern racial system throughout the Reconstruction Era. The creation of this group was able to instill fear in African Americans while, in some cases, filling white Americans with pride in their race and reassurance in the fact that they will stay 'on top'. The message they gave to people around them was that, even though the Confederate States did not exist anymore, the same principle remained in their minds: whites were superior. Although the first incarnation of the KKK was focused on maintaining the Antebellum South, its second incarnation in the 1915-1940s period was much more oriented towards white nationalism and American nativism, with slogans such as "One Hundred Percent Americanism" and "America for Americans", in which "Americans" were understood to be white and Protestant. The 1915 film "The Birth of a Nation" is an example of an allegorical invocation of white nationalism during this time, and its positive portrayal of the first KKK is considered to be one of the factors which led to the emergence of the second KKK.


title: White nationalism

text: The second KKK was founded in Atlanta, Georgia, in 1915 and, starting in 1921, it adopted a modern business system of recruiting. The organization grew rapidly nationwide at a time of prosperity. Reflecting the social tensions of urban industrialization and vastly increased immigration, its membership grew most rapidly in cities and spread out of the South to the Midwest and West. The second KKK called for strict morality and better enforcement of prohibition. Its rhetoric promoted anti-Catholicism and nativism. Some local groups took part in attacks on private houses and carried out other violent activities. The violent episodes were generally in the South.


title: White nationalism

text: The second KKK was a formal fraternal organization, with a national and state structure. At its peak in the mid-1920s, the organization claimed to include about 15% of the nation's eligible population, approximately 4 to 5 million men. Internal divisions, criminal behavior by leaders, and external opposition brought about a collapse in membership, which had dropped to about 30,000 by 1930. It faded away in the 1940s.


title: White nationalism

text: Starting in the 1960s, white nationalism grew in the US as the conservative movement developed in mainstream society. Samuel P. Huntington argues that it developed as a reaction to a perceived decline in the essence of American identity as European, Anglo-Protestant and English-speaking. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 had opened entry to the US to immigrants other than traditional Northern European and Germanic groups, and as a result it would significantly, and unintentionally, alter the demographic mix in the US.


title: White nationalism

text: The slogan "white power" was popularized by American Nazi Party leader George Lincoln Rockwell, who used the term in a debate with Stokely Carmichael of the Black Panther Party after Carmichael issued a call for "black power". Rockwell advocated a return to white control of all American institutions, and violently opposed any minority advancement. He rejected the Nazi idea of "master race", however, and accepted all white European nationalities in his ideology, including Turks.


title: White nationalism

text: One influential white nationalist in the United States was William Luther Pierce, who founded the National Alliance in 1974.


title: White nationalism

text: In the United States a movement calling for white separatism emerged in the 1980s. Leonard Zeskind has chronicled the movement in his book "Blood and Politics", in which he argues that it has moved from the "margins to the mainstream".


title: White nationalism

text: During the 1980s the United States also saw an increase in the number of esoteric subcultures within white nationalism. According to Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, these movements cover a wide variety of mutually influencing groups of a radically ethnocentric character which have emerged, especially in the English-speaking world, since World War II. These loose networks use a variety of mystical, occult or religious approaches in a defensive affirmation of white identity against modernity, liberalism, immigration, multiracialism, and multiculturalism. Some are neo-fascist, neo-Nazi or Third Positionist; others are politicised around some form of white ethnic nationalism or identity politics, and a few have national anarchist tendencies. One example is the neo-tribalist paganism promoted by Else Christensen's Odinist Fellowship. Especially notable is the prevalence of devotional forms and esoteric themes, so these subcultures often have the character of new religious movements.


title: White nationalism

text: Included under the same umbrella by Goodrick-Clarke are movements ranging from conservative revolutionary schools of thought ("Nouvelle Droite", European New Right, Evolian Traditionalism) to white supremacist and white separatist interpretations of Christianity and paganism (Christian Identity, Creativity, Nordic racial paganism) to neo-Nazi subcultures (Esoteric Hitlerism, Nazi Satanism, National Socialist black metal).


title: White nationalism

text: In the 2010s, the alt-right, a broad term covering many different far-right ideologies and groups in the United States, some of which endorse white nationalism, gained traction as an alternative to mainstream conservatism in its national politics. The comic book super hero Captain America, in an ironic co-optation, has been used for dog whistle politics by the alt-right in college campus recruitment in 2017.


title: White nationalism

text: North Idaho state Rep. Heather Scott—who in 2015 had paraded with a Confederate battle flag—in 2017 attempted to distinguish "white supremacy" from "white nationalism", claiming that the former was characterized by "extreme racism" and "violent acts" while the latter was merely nationalism by people who happen to be white, i.e. in her personal use of the term, a white nationalist is "no more than a Caucasian who for the Constitution and making America great again." Scott's interpretation of the term was rejected as "incorrect" by University of Idaho sociology professor Kristin Haltinner and as "patently false" by Vanderbilt University sociology professor Sophie Bjork-James.


title: White nationalism

text: In 2019, the Democratic-controlled U.S. House of Representatives passed an amendment to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2020 to study whether it would be possible to screen military enlistees for "white nationalist" beliefs. However, the Republican-controlled U.S. Senate eliminated those words before passing the bill, expanding the wording to "extremist and gang-related activity", rather than specifically referencing white nationalism.


title: White nationalism

text: In 2020, it was reported that white nationalist groups leaving flyers, stickers, banners and posters in public places more than doubled from 1,214 in 2018 to 2,713 in 2019.


title: White nationalism

text: In a July 2021 Morning Consult Poll found that among Republican-leaning male voters, 23 percent responded that they have a favorable view of white nationalist groups. Eleven percent of Republican men surveyed said they have a "very favorable" view while 12 percent said they are only "somewhat", With Democrat men it was 17 percent who said they have some form of "favorable" view of white nationalist groups.


title: White nationalism

text: Also in 2021 a poll found that in the state of Oregon. Nearly four in 10 Oregonians strongly or somewhat agree with statements that reflect core arguments of white nationalism. In 2018, 31 percent believed that America had to protect or preserve its White European heritage, while in 2021 it want up to 40 percent.


title: White nationalism

text: In February 1962 George Lincoln Rockwell, the leader of the American Nazi Party, spoke at a Nation of Islam (NOI) rally in Chicago, where he was applauded by Elijah Muhammad as he pronounced: "I am proud to stand here before black men. I believe Elijah Muhammed is the Adolf Hitler of the black man!" Rockwell had attended, but did not speak at, an earlier NOI rally in Washington, D.C., in June 1961, and once, he even donated $20 to the NOI. In 1965, after breaking with the Nation of Islam and denouncing its separatist doctrine, Malcolm X told his followers that the Nation of Islam under Elijah Muhammad had made secret agreements with the American Nazi Party and the Ku Klux Klan.


title: White nationalism

text: Rockwell and other white supremacists (e.g. Willis Carto) also supported less well-known black separatist groups, such as Hassan Jeru-Ahmed's Blackman's Army of Liberation, in reference to which Rockwell told "Los Angeles Times" reporter Michael Drosnin in 1967 that if "Any Negro wants to go back to Africa, I'll carry him piggy-back."


title: White nationalism

text: Tom Metzger, a former Ku Klux Klan leader from California, spoke at a NOI rally in Los Angeles in September 1985 and donated $100 to the group. In October of that same year, over 200 prominent white supremacists met at former Klan leader Robert E. Miles's farm to discuss an alliance with Louis Farrakhan, head of the NOI. In attendance were Edward Reed Fields of the National States' Rights Party, Richard Girnt Butler of the Aryan Nations, Don Black, Roy Frankhouser, and Metzger, who said that "America is like a rotting carcass. The Jews are living off the carcass like the parasites they are. Farrakhan understands this."


title: White nationalism

text: From the outset of his campaign, Donald Trump was endorsed by various white nationalist and white supremacist movements and leaders. On 24 February 2016, David Duke, a former Ku Klux Klan Grand Dragon, expressed vocal support for Trump's campaign on his radio show. Shortly thereafter in an interview with Jake Tapper, Trump repeatedly claimed to be ignorant of Duke and his support. Republican presidential rivals were quick to respond on his wavering, and Senator Marco Rubio stated the Duke endorsement made Trump unelectable. Others questioned his professed ignorance of Duke by pointing out that in 2000, Trump called him a "Klansman". Trump later blamed the incident on a poor earpiece he was given by CNN. Later the same day Trump stated that he had previously disavowed Duke in a tweet posted with a video on his Twitter account. On 3 March 2016, Trump stated: "David Duke is a bad person, who I disavowed on numerous occasions over the years. I disavowed him. I disavowed the KKK."


title: White nationalism

text: On 22 July 2016 (the day after Trump's nomination), Duke announced that he will be a candidate for the Republican nomination for the United States Senate election in Louisiana. He commented, "I'm overjoyed to see Donald Trump and most Americans embrace most of the issues that I've championed for years." A spokesperson for the Trump campaign said Trump "has disavowed David Duke and will continue to do so."


title: White nationalism

text: On 25 August 2016, Hillary Clinton gave a speech saying that Trump is "taking hate groups mainstream and helping a radical fringe take over the Republican Party." She identified this radical fringe with the "alt-right", a largely online variation of American far-right that embraces white nationalism and is anti-immigration. During the election season, the alt-right movement "evangelized" online in support of racist and anti-semitic ideologies. Clinton noted that Trump's campaign chief executive Stephen Bannon described his Breitbart News Network as "the platform for the alt-right". On 9 September 2016, several leaders of the alt-right community held a press conference, described by one reporter as the "coming-out party" of the little-known movement, to explain their goals. They affirmed their racialist beliefs, stating "Race is real, race matters, and race is the foundation of identity." Speakers called for a "White Homeland" and expounded on racial differences in intelligence. They also confirmed their support of Trump, saying "This is what a leader looks like."


title: White nationalism

text: Richard B. Spencer, who ran the white nationalist National Policy Institute, said, "Before Trump, our identity ideas, national ideas, they had no place to go". The editor of the neo-Nazi website "The Daily Stormer" stated, "Virtually every alt-right Nazi I know is volunteering for the Trump campaign." Rocky Suhayda, chairman of the American Nazi Party said that although Trump "isn't one of us", his election would be a "real opportunity" for the white nationalist movement.


title: White nationalism

text: The Southern Poverty Law Center monitored Trump's campaign throughout the election and noted several instances where Trump and lower-level surrogates either used white nationalist rhetoric or engaged with figures in the white nationalist movement.


title: White nationalism

text: Numerous individuals and organizations have argued that ideas such as white pride and white nationalism exist merely to provide a sanitized public face for white supremacy. Kofi Buenor Hadjor argues that black nationalism is a response to racial discrimination, while white nationalism is the expression of white supremacy. Other critics have described white nationalism as a "...somewhat paranoid ideology" based upon the publication of pseudo-academic studies.


title: White nationalism

text: Carol M. Swain argues that the unstated goal of white nationalism is to appeal to a larger audience, and that most white nationalist groups promote white separatism and racial violence. Opponents accuse white nationalists of hatred, racial bigotry, and destructive identity politics. White supremacist groups have a history of perpetrating hate crimes, particularly against people of Jewish and African descent. Examples include the lynching of black people by the Ku Klux Klan (KKK).


title: White nationalism

text: Some critics argue that white nationalists—while posturing as civil rights groups advocating the interests of their racial group—frequently draw on the nativist traditions of the KKK and the National Front. Critics have noted the anti-semitic rhetoric used by some white nationalists, as highlighted by the promotion of conspiracy theories such as Zionist Occupation Government.


title: Carrier strike group

text: A carrier strike group (CSG) is a type of carrier battle group of the United States Navy. It is an operational formation composed of roughly 7,500 personnel, usually an aircraft carrier, at least one cruiser, a destroyer squadron of at least two destroyers or frigates, and a carrier air wing of 65 to 70 aircraft. A carrier strike group also, on occasion, includes submarines, attached logistics ships and a supply ship. The carrier strike group commander operationally reports to the commander of the numbered fleet, who is operationally responsible for the area of waters in which the carrier strike group is operating.


title: Carrier strike group

text: Strike groups comprise a principal element of U.S. power projection capability; a single supercarrier holds enough firepower to rival the air forces of entire nations. Previously referred to as carrier battle groups (a term still used by other nations), they are often referred to by the carrier they are associated with (e.g., Strike Group). there are 9 carrier strike groups in the U.S. Navy.


title: Carrier strike group

text: The carrier strike group is a flexible naval force that can operate in confined waters or in the open ocean, during day and night, in all weather conditions. The principal role of the carrier and its air wing within the carrier strike group is to provide the primary offensive firepower, while the other ships provide defense and support. These roles are not exclusive, however. Other ships in the strike group sometimes undertake offensive operations (launching cruise missiles, for instance) and the carrier's air wing contributes to the strike group's defense (through combat air patrols and airborne anti-submarine efforts). Thus, from a command and control perspective, carrier strike groups are combat organized by mission rather than by platform.


title: Carrier strike group

text: The development of the U.S. Navy carrier battle group can be traced to the 1920s and was initially based on previous experience grouping battleships and other major surface combatants. In World War II, administratively, aircraft carriers were assigned to carrier divisions (CARDIVs). Operationally they were assigned to Task Forces, of which Task Force 11, Task Force 16 and Task Force 17 perhaps gained the most fame for their roles in the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway. The single-carrier battle group was born with the military drawdown that followed World War II. Carrier Division 1 was redesignated Carrier Group 1 on 30 June 1973, and seemingly all Carrier Divisions were redesignated Carrier Groups on that date.


title: Carrier strike group

text: Throughout the 1990s, the U.S. Navy's aircraft carrier groups were officially referred to as Carrier Battle Groups (CVBGs), and were commanded by either flag officers called Cruiser-Destroyer Group (CRUDESGRU) or Carrier Group (CARGRU) commanders.


title: Carrier strike group

text: In the summer of 1992, the U.S. Navy instituted a concept that mandated greater task group integration of naval air and surface warfare assets into a more permanent carrier battle group structure. Each of the Navy's 12 existing carrier battle groups consisted of an aircraft carrier; an embarked carrier air wing; cruisers, destroyer, and frigate units; and two nuclear-powered attack submarines.