title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: On October 31, 1978, Michael Myers is shot by his psychiatrist Dr. Sam Loomis and falls off a balcony. He survives and escapes into the night. Wandering the alleys, he steals a kitchen knife from an elderly couple and kills the teenage girl next door. Meanwhile, Laurie Strode, who narrowly avoided being killed that night, is taken to Haddonfield Memorial Hospital while Loomis continues his pursuit of Michael, accompanied by Sheriff Leigh Brackett. Loomis mistakes costumed teenager Ben Tramer for Michael, resulting in Ben being hit by a police car and burning to death. Upon learning his daughter Annie has been killed by Michael, Sheriff Brackett blames Loomis and abandons the search, leaving Deputy Gary Hunt to take his place.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: At the hospital, paramedic Jimmy develops an attraction to Laurie, but head nurse Virginia Alves limits the time he spends with her. After hearing a newsflash revealing Laurie's location, Michael makes his way to the hospital, where he cuts the phone lines and slashes all the car tires so no one can escape and go for help. Wandering the halls in search of Laurie, he kills the security guard, the doctor, and several nurses throughout the night. In her hospital room, Laurie dreams about the time she learned she was adopted, and remembers she once visited a young Michael at the sanitarium. Jimmy and nurse Jill Franco search the hospital for Laurie, who is trying to evade Michael.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Jimmy finds the body of Mrs. Alves by slipping in a pool of her blood and knocking himself unconscious, giving himself a concussion. Meanwhile, police are informed that Michael broke into the local elementary school earlier. Loomis rides with them. His colleague Marion Chambers arrives to escort him back to Smith's Grove on the governor's orders and under the enforcement of a US Marshal. On the way, she tells him that Laurie is Michael's younger sister; she was put up for adoption after the death of Michael's parents, with the records sealed to protect the family.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Realizing that Michael is after Laurie and being told she was brought to Haddonfield Memorial Hospital, Loomis forces the marshal at gunpoint to drive back to Haddonfield. Jill finally finds Laurie, only to be killed by Michael, who then pursues Laurie through the hospital. She manages to escape to the parking lot and hides in a car. Jimmy soon arrives and tries to drive the car to safety, but passes out again on the horn, attracting Michael’s attention. Loomis, Marion, and the marshal reach the hospital just in time to save Laurie. Loomis shoots Michael until he falls down, seemingly dead. While Marion calls the police on the marshal’s radio, the marshal tries to check Michael's pulse as Loomis warns him to stay away, knowing he isn't dead. Michael revives and slits the marshal’s throat with a scalpel.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Loomis and Laurie run into an operating room, where he gives her the marshal's gun before being stabbed by Michael. Laurie shoots the assailant in both eyes, blinding him. As he swings around the space violently, the two fill the room with flammable gas. Loomis orders Laurie to get out before igniting the gas, immolating himself and Michael in an explosion. Laurie watches as Michael, engulfed in flames, emerges from the fire before finally collapsing. The next morning, she is transferred to another hospital, traumatized but alive.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Carpenter and Hill, the writers of the first "Halloween", had originally considered setting the sequel a few years after the events of "Halloween". They planned to have Myers track Laurie Strode to her new home in a high-rise apartment building. However, the setting was later changed to Haddonfield Hospital in script meetings. Tommy Lee Wallace, who served on the crew of the original film, stated that "no one thought of sequels" over the prospect of a sequel, but producer Irwin Yablans was eager to make a second film. When Yablans approached him about the project, Carpenter was in the midst of developing "The Fog" (1980). According to Yablans, he had planned to produce "The Fog" for Carpenter, but that Robert Rehme intervened and acquired production rights with his company, Embassy Pictures. A lawsuit between Yablans and Rehme ensued, after which it was determined that Embassy would retain rights to "The Fog", while Yablans's Compass International Pictures would be guaranteed production rights for "Halloween II".


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: The sequel was intended to conclude the story of Michael Myers and Laurie Strode. The third film, "", released a year later, contained a plot that deviated wholly from that of the first two films. Wallace, who went on to direct "Halloween III", stated, "It is our intention to create an anthology out of the series, sort of along the lines of "Night Gallery", or "The Twilight Zone", only on a much larger scale, of course." When asked, in a 1982 interview, what happened to Myers and Loomis, Carpenter flatly answered, "The Shape is dead. Pleasence's character is dead, too, unfortunately." This would later be retconned and both Michael and Loomis would return for multiple later installments.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: The screenplay of "Halloween II" was written by Carpenter and Hill. Carpenter described that his writing of the screenplay "mainly dealt with a lot of beer, sitting in front of a typewriter saying 'What the fuck am I doing? I don't know.'" In a 1981 interview with "Fangoria" magazine, Hill mentions the finished film differs somewhat from initial drafts of the screenplay. Upon receiving the script, Yablans was disappointed as he felt it was "pedestrian and predictable." The plot twist of Laurie being Michael's sister was initially never planned by Carpenter or Hill, but was conceived, according to Carpenter, "purely as a function of having decided to become involved in the sequel to the movie where I didn't think there was really much of a story left." He would later refer to this plotline as "silly" and "foolish," though it would go on to shape the narrative arc of the series in the subsequent films. It was retconned in "Halloween", the 2018 rebooted sequel of the franchise, when Laurie's granddaughter Allyson (Andi Matichak) dismisses the idea that Laurie and Michael are siblings as "just something people made up." Screenwriter Danny McBride felt that Michael Myers would be scarier if he had no motive for killing people.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Film critic Roger Ebert, who praised the first film, notes that the plot of the sequel was rather simple: "The plot of "Halloween II" absolutely depends, of course, on our old friend the Idiot Plot, which requires that everyone in the movie behave at all times like an idiot. That's necessary because if anyone were to use common sense, the problem would be solved and the movie would be over." Hill rebuffed such critiques by arguing that "in a thriller film, what a character says is often irrelevant, especially in those sequences where the objective is to build up suspense."


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Historian Nicholas Rogers suggests that a portion of the film seems to have drawn inspiration from the "contemporary controversies surrounding the holiday itself." He points specifically to the scene in the film when a young boy in a pirate costume arrives at Haddonfield Memorial Hospital with a razor blade lodged in his mouth, a reference to the urban legend of tainted Halloween candy. According to Rogers, "The "Halloween" films opened in the wake of the billowing stories about Halloween sadism and clearly traded on the uncertainties surrounding trick-or-treating and the general safety of the festival."


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: The main cast of "Halloween" reprised their roles in the sequel with the exception of Nick Castle, who had played the adult Michael Myers in the original. Veteran English actor Donald Pleasence continued the role of Dr. Sam Loomis, who had been Myers' psychiatrist for the past 15 years while Myers was institutionalized at Smith's Grove Sanitarium. Curtis (then 22), again played the teenage babysitter Laurie Strode, revealed in this film as the younger sister of Myers. Curtis required a wig for the role of long-haired Laurie Strode, as she had her own hair cut shorter at the time. Charles Cyphers reprised the role of Sheriff Leigh Brackett, though his character disappears from the film when the corpse of his daughter Annie (Nancy Loomis) is discovered. Nancy Loomis appears as Annie in a cameo role as her father, Sheriff Brackett, closes her eyes as her corpse is being taken out of the house in a stretcher. Actor Hunter von Leer heads the manhunt for Myers in the role of Deputy Gary Hunt. He admitted in an interview that he had never watched "Halloween" before being cast in the part. He stated, "I did not see the original first but being from a small town, I wanted the Deputy to have compassion." Nancy Stephens, who played Loomis's nurse colleague Marion Chambers in the original, also reprised the character and was given a more important role, revealing to Loomis the family connection between Laurie and Michael.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Stunt performer Dick Warlock played Michael Myers (as in "Halloween", listed as "The Shape" in the credits), replacing Castle who was beginning a career as a director. Warlock's previous experience in film was as a stunt double in films, such as "The Green Berets" (1968) and "Jaws" (1975), and the 1974 television series "". In an interview, Warlock explained how he prepared for the role since Myers received far more screen time in the sequel than the original. Warlock said:


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Warlock also claims that the mask he wore was the same one Nick Castle used in the first film. Hill confirmed this in an interview.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: The supporting cast consisted of relatively unknown actors and actresses, except for Jeffrey Kramer and Ford Rainey. Most of the cast previously or later appeared in films or television series by Universal Studios (the distributor for this film). Kramer was previously cast in a supporting role as Deputy Jeff Hendricks in "Jaws" and "Jaws 2" (1978). In "Halloween II", Kramer played Dr. Graham, a dentist who examines the charred remains of Ben Tramer. Rainey was chosen to play Haddonfield Memorial Hospital's drunk resident doctor, Frederick Mixter. A host of character actors were cast as the hospital's staff. Many were acquaintances of director Rosenthal. He told an interviewer, "I'd been studying acting with Milton Katselas at the Beverly Hills Playhouse and I brought many people from the Playhouse into "Halloween 2"." These included Pamela Susan Shoop, Leo Rossi, Ana Alicia and Gloria Gifford. Rossi played the part of Budd Scarlotti, a hypersexual EMS driver; Rossi as well as several others, such as Stephens, had been members of an acting class with Rosenthal.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Shoop played Nurse Karen Bailey, who is scalded to death by Myers in the hospital therapy tub. Featured in the only nude scene in the film, Shoop discussed filming the scene, and recalled getting an ear infection: "[The water] was cold and dirty. They were playing it off like the water was boiling, but it was absolutely freezing! Leo [Rossi] and I were so cold, our teeth were chattering.!" Gifford and Alicia played minor supporting roles as head nurse Mrs. Virginia Alves and orderly Janet Marshall. Actor Lance Guest played an EMS driver, Jimmy. "The Last Starfighter" director Nick Castle stated in an interview, "When I was assigned to the film, Lance Guest was the first name I wrote down on my list for Alex after seeing him in "Halloween II"." Castle adds, "He possessed all the qualities I wanted the character to express on the screen, a kind of innocence, shyness, yet determination." Future "Saturday Night Live" and "Wayne's World" star Dana Carvey also appears briefly in a non-speaking role, wearing a blue baseball cap and receiving instructions from the TV reporter. Carvey originally had a bit of a bigger role, including some speaking scenes, before his scenes ultimately got mostly cut.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: "Halloween" executive producers Irwin Yablans and Moustapha Akkad invested heavily in the sequel, boasting a much larger budget than its predecessor: $2.5 million (compared to only $320,000 for the original). Italian film producer Dino De Laurentiis assisted in financing the production. There was discussion of filming "Halloween II" in 3-D; Hill said, "We investigated a number of 3-D processes ... but they were far too expensive for this particular project. Also, most of the projects we do involve a lot of night shooting—evil lurks at night. It's hard to do that in 3-D." Dean Cundey, the director of photography on the first film, reprised his role as cinematographer, opting out of shooting Tobe Hooper's "Poltergeist" (1982) as he felt a loyalty to Carpenter and Hill.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: "Halloween II" was filmed over a six-week period starting on April 6, 1981 and ending on May 18, 1981. Most of the film was shot at Morningside Hospital in Los Angeles, California, and Pasadena Community Hospital in Pasadena. Rosenthal recalled filming at Pasadena Community Hospital as being extraordinarily difficult due to its proximity to an airport, which disrupted shooting frequently due to incoming airplanes.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Reluctant to extend his involvement in the film, Carpenter refused to direct and originally approached Tommy Lee Wallace, the art director from the original "Halloween", to take the helm. Carpenter told one interviewer: "I had made that film once and I really didn't want to do it again." After Wallace declined, Carpenter chose Rosenthal, a relatively unknown and inexperienced director whose previous credits included episodes of the television series "Secrets of Midland Heights" (1980–1981). Rosenthal was chosen to direct based on a short film he had made, "The Toyer", while a student at the American Film Institute. Debra Hill had also considered directing at one point, but did not want to appear as "just a protégé" of Carpenter.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Stylistically, Rosenthal attempted to recreate the elements and themes of the original film, stating: "conceptually, it's not at all my film. It's a continuation of a John Carpenter and Debra Hill ...  film. But in execution, it's my vision." "Halloween II" opens with a title sequence zooming in on a jack-o'-lantern that splits in half to reveal a human skull, a reference to the original film's title sequence, which featured a similar zoom into the eye of a jack-o'-lantern. The first scene of the film is presented through a first-person camera format in which a voyeuristic Michael Myers enters an elderly couple's home and steals a knife from the kitchen. Rosenthal attempts to reproduce the "jump" scenes present in "Halloween", but does not film Myers on the periphery, which is where he appeared in many of the scenes of the original. Under Rosenthal's direction, Myers is the central feature of a majority of the scenes. Rosenthal also stated that he attempted to replicate the visual elements of the previous film "until we [the audience] get to the hospital ...  Once we're in there, I got a certain freedom: long corridors, moody dark lighting, all of that." In an interview with Luke Ford, Rosenthal explains:


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: The decision to include more gore and nudity in the sequel was not made by Rosenthal, who contends that it was Carpenter who chose to make the film much bloodier than the original. Wallace explains: "Since the release of "Halloween", horror movies had changed. There was inflation involved in terms of violence and gore and what you saw onscreen, to the point that John [Carpenter] felt like he was in a boxhe could not do the same thing that "Halloween" had been doing." According to the film's official website, "Carpenter came in and directed a few sequences to clean up some of Rosenthal's work." One reviewer of the film notes that "Carpenter, concerned that the picture would be deemed too 'tame' by the slasher audience, re-filmed several death scenes with more gore." When asked about his role in the directing process, Carpenter told an interviewer:


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Rosenthal was not pleased with Carpenter's changes. He reportedly complained that Carpenter "ruined [my] carefully paced film." Regardless, many of the graphic scenes contained elements not seen before in film. Roger Ebert claims, "This movie has the first close-up I can remember of a hypodermic needle being inserted into an eyeball." The film is often categorized as a splatter film rather than a slasher film due to the elevated level of gore.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Carpenter composed and performed the score with Alan Howarth, who had previously been involved in "" (1979), and worked with Carpenter on several projects including "Escape from New York" (1981), "" (1982), "Christine" (1983), and "Prince of Darkness" (1987). The film's score was a variation of Carpenter compositions from "Halloween", particularly the main theme's familiar piano melody played in a compound 5/4 time rhythm. The score was performed on a synthesizer organ rather as well as a piano. One reviewer for the BBC described the revised score as having "a more eerie, gothic feel."


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: The film featured the song "Mr. Sandman" performed by The Chordettes, which would later be featured in the opening scenes of "". Reviewers commented on the decision to include this song in the film, calling the selection "interesting" and "not a song you would associate with a film like this." The song worked well to "mimic Laurie's situation (sleeping a lot), [making] the once innocent sounding lyrics seem threatening in a horror film." Another critic saw the inclusion of the song as "inappropriate" and asked, "What was "that" about?"


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: The film was principally edited by Mark Goldblatt. Skip Schoolnik, an editor who had simultaneously been commissioned to edit the television cut for the original "Halloween", was invited by Carpenter and Hill to view the cut of "Halloween II" at the time. Schoolnik and Carpenter spent a weekend editing Goldblatt's cut of the film, ultimately excising around 14 minutes. During this editing process, Carpenter realized that an unresolved plot hole was present: It was unclear as to how Michael Myers was able to track Laurie to the hospital. To resolve this, Carpenter shot a sequence featuring a young boy walking on the street with a portable radio playing a news broadcast concerning the murders and Laurie's whereabouts; as the boy walks along, he accidentally bumps into Michael, and resumes walking. According to Warlock, Carpenter also shot the close-up footage of Michael's burning body shown at the film's conclusion, as well as the murder sequence of Anne Bruner, a teenage girl who is killed by Michael early in the film.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: To advertise "Halloween II", Universal printed a poster that featured a skull superimposed onto a pumpkin.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: The theatrical distribution rights to "Halloween II" were sold to Universal Pictures. Universal released the film on October 30, 1981 in the United States on 1,211 screens. The film grossed $7,446,508 on its opening weekend, ranking number one at the box office. While the gross earnings of the sequel paled in comparison to the original's $47 million, it was a success in its own right, exceeding the earnings of other films of the same genre released in 1981: "Graduation Day" ($23.9 million), "Friday the 13th Part 2" ($21.7 million), "" ($20.4 million) and "The Howling" ($18 million). "Halloween II" was a box office success, becoming the second-highest grossing horror film of 1981 behind "An American Werewolf in London" ($30.5 million). Internationally, "Halloween II" was released throughout Europe, but it was banned in West Germany and Iceland due to the graphic violence and nudity; a later 1986 release on home video was banned in Norway. The film was shown in Canada, Australia, the Philippines and Japan.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 30% based on , with a weighted average rating of 4.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads: ""Halloween II" picks up where its predecessor left off - and quickly wanders into a dead end that the franchise would spend decades struggling to find its way out of." On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 40 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Several critics were unwelcoming to the film's ramped-up violence, including Kevin Thomas of the "Los Angeles Times", who lambasted the film for its "reprehensible content," summarizing that ""Halloween II", as a reprise, simply piles up a greater number of corpses." Roman Cooney of the "Calgary Herald" noted that while the film is "not the bloodbath other movies of its ilk have been, several of the murder scenes are so painfully gruesome as to be tasteless and more than merely distressing," and added that the plot is "convenient rather than complex, relying on a cast of characterless individuals like so many dominoes waiting to be toppled." Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" echoed similar sentiments, writing that "Halloween II" represented "a fall from greatness" that "doesn't even attempt to do justice to the original." He also commented, "Instead, it tries to outdo all the other violent "Halloween" rip-offs of the last several years." "The Arizona Republic"s Michael Maza assessed the film as continuing part of the prominent slasher trend, noting that Carpenter and Hill appear to be "picking up a few tricks from their imitators (most notably "Friday the 13th")."


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" instead compared the film to other horror sequels and recently released slasher films of the period rather than to its predecessor: "By the standards of most recent horror films, this—like its predecessor—is a class act." She notes that there "is some variety to the crimes, as there is to the characters, and an audience is more likely to do more screaming at suspenseful moments than at scary ones." Maslin applauded the performance of the cast and Rosenthal and concluded, "That may not be much to ask of a horror film, but it's more than many of them offer."


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: David Pirie's review in "Time Out" magazine gave Rosenthal's film positive marks, stating, "Rosenthal is no Carpenter, but he makes a fair job of emulating the latter's visual style in this sequel." He wrote that the Myers character had evolved since the first film to become "an agent of Absolute Evil." Film historian Jim Harper suggests, "Time has been a little fairer to the film" than original critics. In retrospect, "many critics have come to recognise that it's considerably better than the slew of imitation slashers that swamped the genre in the eighties."


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Like the original "Halloween", this and other slasher films have come under fire from feminist critics. According to historian Nicholas Rogers, academic critics "have seen the slasher movies since "Halloween" as debasing women in as decisive a manner as hardcore pornography."


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: In 1982, the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films, USA, nominated the film for two Saturn Awards: Best Horror Film and Best Actor for Pleasence. The film lost to "An American Werewolf in London" (1981) and Harrison Ford was chosen over Pleasence for his role in "Raiders of the Lost Ark" (1981).


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Carpenter later said that he considered the film's twist that Laurie and Michael were siblings to be a bad idea and that he only came up with it because he was drunk and looking for more material to include in the NBC television cut of the first film. Quentin Tarantino criticized "Halloween II" and every sequel that followed in its continuity for the same reason, calling it "fruit from a poison tree because Laurie is not the sister of the Shape."


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: An alternate version of "Halloween II" (sometimes referred to as 'The Television Cut') has aired on network television since the early 1980s, with most of the graphic violence and blood edited out and many minor additional scenes added, while others are removed. This cut of the film was released in 2012 by Scream Factory on their Collector's Edition Blu-ray disc, and again in 2014 as a standalone DVD accompanying the "Complete Collection" Deluxe Edition Blu-ray set, which features entire series.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: The television cut runs approximately 92 minutes, roughly one minute less than the theatrical version. There are also many edits. The murder of Dr. Mixter is presumed to still happen, but remains off camera; as does Janet's, although dialogue indicates she might have also gone home at the end of her shift instead of being killed. The scene where Michael stalks Alice is recut to imply that he attacks and kills her neighbor Mrs. Elrod instead. Jimmy's discovery of Mrs. Alves dead and his subsequent slipping in the pool of blood has been significantly shortened (or removed altogether in some prints) and moved just prior to the explosion which kills Myers and Loomis. Jill's stabbing is less graphic, and a moan from the ground implies she might have survived it. Also added are scenes of Michael cutting the power (this explains the dark setting throughout the latter half of the film) and a power generator kicking in. There is also extra dialogue between Laurie and Jimmy, Laurie and Mrs. Alves, Janet and Karen, Karen and Mr. Garrett, Bud and Karen, Jill and Jimmy, etc. Another notable difference is the killing of the marshal. In the theatrical version his throat is slit, while in the TV version it is softened, with Michael grabbing him and stabbing him from behind (with no detail shown). While the theatrical version ends with the deaths of Michael Myers and Dr. Loomis and leaves the audience in a gray area as to whether Jimmy survives, the television cut features an extended ending showing Jimmy alive (with a bandaged head wound from his slip) in the ambulance with Laurie Strode. They hold hands and Laurie says, "We made it."


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: "Halloween II" was first released on VHS, Capacitance Electronic Disc, and LaserDisc in 1982 by MCA/Universal Home Video and later by Goodtimes Home Video. In 1998, Goodtimes released the film on DVD in a non-anamorphic version. Three years later, on September 18, 2001, Universal Home Video released an anamorphic widescreen DVD.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: The film received its first North American Blu-ray released on September 13, 2011 through Universal, packaged as a 30th Anniversary Edition. This release sparked controversy immediately due to the fact that Universal removed the credit "Moustapha Akkad Presents" and replaced it with "Universal, An MCA Company, Presents"... in a font that did not match the rest of the opening credits. Akkad's son, Malek, called the stunt "disgusting. It's a disgrace ...  objectively, any horror fan would find this as an insult to the man who has done so much to the series. And to come after his tragic death, he's not even around to defend himself. It's classless. I'm talking to Universal now and they're 'looking into it.'" However, Akkad was still credited on the packaging. Fans immediately called for a boycott of the disc and set up a Facebook page. On November 28, Universal began sending out emails announcing that the revised Blu-ray was now available and for owners of the previous disc to provide the studio with their "address and daytime phone number" to receive replacements.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Scream Factory, a subsidiary of Shout! Factory, re-released the film in a 2-disc Collector's Edition Blu-ray on September 18, 2012 with new special features, including two audio commentaries, two "behind-the-scenes" featurettes, deleted scenes, an alternate ending, the theatrical trailer, TV and radio spots, and a still gallery. The Collector's Edition also contains the television cut, along with a downloadable script of the film. This Blu-ray release restores the Akkad credit. The Scream Factory Blu-ray was repackaged and re-released in 2014 as part of the company's "Complete Collection," which features the entire film series.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: In October 2021 Scream Factory released "Halloween II" on 4K Ultra HD. The film was scanned from the original camera negative and the transfer was approved by cinematographer Dean Cundey. Audio options include a new Dolby Atmos mix as well as the previous DTS-HD 5.1 mix and the film’s original two channel mix presented in DTS-HD 2.0. The included Blu-ray also features the new 4k scan and Atmos mix. A third DVD also includes the TV cut that was available in Scream Factory’s previous collector’s editions.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Trick or Treat Studios has released a series of officially licensed "Halloween II" masks, costumes, and props from Universal Studios, beginning in October 2012. Some of these include the "Halloween II" Michael Myers mask, "Halloween II" Michael Myers mask with blood tears, Michael Myers props, and Michael Myers' coveralls.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: An adaptation of the screenplay was printed as a mass market paperback in 1981 by horror and science-fiction writer Dennis Etchison under the pseudonym Jack Martin. Etchison's novelization was distributed by Kensington Books and became a bestseller. It also features captioned black and white stills from the film at the beginning of each chapter.


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: An incident with minor connections to the film heightened attitudes about the potent effects of media violence on young people. On December 7, 1982, Richard Delmer Boyer of El Monte, California, murdered Francis and Eileen Harbitz, an elderly couple in Fullerton, California, leading to the trial "People v. Boyer" (1989). The couple were stabbed 43 times by Boyer. According to the trial transcript, Boyer's defense was that he suffered from hallucinations in the Harbitz residence brought on by "the movie "Halloween II", which defendant had seen under the influence of PCP, marijuana, and alcohol." The film was played for the jury, and a psychopharmacologist "pointed out various similarities between its scenes and the visions defendant described."


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: Boyer was found guilty and sentenced to death. The incident became known as the ""Halloween II" Murders" and was featured in a short segment on TNT's "MonsterVision", hosted by film critic Joe Bob Briggs. Following the trial, moral critics came to the defense of horror films and rejected calls to ban them. Thomas M. Sipos, for instance, stated,


title: Halloween II (1981 film)

text: It would be silly, after all, to ban horror films just because Boyer claims to have thought that he was reenacting "Halloween II", or to ban cars because Texas housewife Clara Harris intentionally ran down and killed her husband. Nor does it make sense to ban otherwise useful items such as drugs or guns just because some individuals misuse them.


title: Elite Model Management

text: Elite Model Management (MM) refers to two independent chain modeling agencies that originated as one in Paris, France in 1972 with subsequent locations in New York, Los Angeles, Miami, London and Toronto. In 2004, the agencies in New York, Miami, Los Angeles and Toronto separated forming Elite Model Management North America. Elite MM is a subsidiary of Elite World S.A., which main shareholder Silvio Scaglia controls his stake through managing company Elite World Group (EWG) where Elite MM is one of brands along with The Society Management (The Society), Women Management, Supreme Management, and Elite Model Look and Women 360 (W360) added in 2019. Although Elite Model Management North America and Elite World Group share the logo, they have separate ownership and are not part of a business network.


title: Elite Model Management

text: Elite Model Management was founded in Paris in 1972 by John Casablancas (1942–2013) and Alain Kittler. Casablancas was inspired by his then-wife Jeanette Christiansen, former model and Miss Universe from Denmark, to open a model agency. Casablancas founded the model agency with his savings.


title: Elite Model Management

text: Elite Model opened with several high-profile models including Ingmari Lamy; Ann Schaufuss, Clive Arrowsmith's girlfriend; Barry Lategna's wife, Lynn Kohlman; Paula Brenken; and Paris Plannings Emanuelle Dano.


title: Elite Model Management

text: At the time, boutique agencies in Paris and Milan fell out of favor with models due to payment issues. Models often found Parisian and Milanese model agencies holding their pay to coerce them into returning without work visas and work. British and American based chains gave models the financial security they needed. In 1977, Casablancas opened up Elite Models in New York. During the 1980s, New York endured the model wars. Despite agencies like Wilhelmina Models taking part in these wars, the primary battle was between Elite Models and Ford Models. Models such as Esmé Marshall left Elite for Ford Models. Casablancas alleged that Eileen Ford was out to get him and Ford responded with a $32.5 million suit. Until 1977, Ford was affiliated with Elite until Elite opened up offices in New York and began stealing Ford's models. Due to the death of Wilhelmina Cooper, models were in a panic bouncing from agency to agency. Even the highest paid black model at the time Beverly Johnson left Elite for Ford, only to return to Elite a week later.


title: Elite Model Management

text: Models such as Christie Brinkley and Anna Andersen sued Elite after they exited. In 1981, Elite Models formed a partnership with Models 1 which lasted until 1989. By 1983, Elite established the Elite Model Look, which was called The Look of the Year, Competition to rival its competitors Ford's Supermodel of the World Contest. The following year, the company expanded its offices in the U.S. with the formation of Elite Models Chicago, Elite Models Atlanta, Elite Models Los Angeles, Elite Models San Francisco, and Elite Models Miami. By 1986, Elite Models had twenty offices worldwide. In 1988, Elite opened offices in Milan.


title: Elite Model Management

text: Nicholas Farrae later purchased the agency in 1990. Elite World S.A. is the parent company of Elite Model Management (MM). The expansion of Elite Models furthered as Elite Models formed partnerships with already established agencies. In 1990, Elite Models formed a partnership with Model Management Heidi Gross in Hamburg. In 1992, Munich Models was formed and formed a partnership with Elite MM.


title: Elite Model Management

text: In 1994, Elite MM sought to break into the Asian market and awarded its Greater China rights to Michel Lu. In partnership with him they established Elite Models Hong Kong and China. In 1996, Lu went on to expand Elite MM to Singapore that served as a regional office for South East Asia. Similar to their debut in Paris, Elite swept up top local and regional talents such as Charmaine Harn, Junita Simon, Sonia Couling, and Nadya Hatagalung.


title: Elite Model Management

text: In 1999, a film was broadcast by the BBC showing the President of Elite MM, Gerald Marie, offering an undercover reporter sex for money. It was later proven that some images had been manipulated and the BBC admitted that its portrayal was unfair and had to make a substantial payout to the model agency In the wake of this controversy, Casablancas left and formed the John Casablancas Modeling and Career Center in New York.


title: Elite Model Management

text: Elite World SA was incorporated on Dec. 14, 1999 as an umbrella company and for licensing. In 2002 Elite MM, along with several other New York model agencies, was sued for hundreds of millions of dollars in a class action that accused them of fixing fees for the past 30 years. The following year, Elite opened offices in Asia. At the same time, an employee was awarded $5.2 million in a suit concerning passive smoking in the US office of Elite.


title: Elite Model Management

text: As a result of the bad publicity, the over expansion of Elite, and the loss of talents, Elite World SA filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2004. Elite Models New York was put up for auction and bought by Florida businessman Eddie Trump for $4.4 million, who asked Casablancas to come back and advise him. Elite Models NY together with Los Angeles, Miami, and Toronto became Elite MM North America separate from Elite World SA. In August 2005, Elite World SA reestablished Elite MM in Singapore using it as the satellite office for their new South East Asia operation. Elite Models branches in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Philippines were also added in August 2005. In October 2005, the Elite Model Look contest was added in Singapore.


title: Elite Model Management

text: By 2006, Casablancas' appointment was short-lived and Elite World SA went public on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange. In 2009, the president of Elite World SA (the parent company of Elite MM), Bertrand Hennet, was arrested on drug charges. At the same time, acquired Elite Models Copenhagen, which was founded in 1966 under the name Copenhagen Models by legendary scout Trice Tomsen and formally a licensee of Elite Models (now Elite Models Management Copenhagen ApS controlled together with its licenses by Elite Licensing Company SA owned by Elite World SA). After Tomsen decided to distance herself from the day to day work, she was replaced by Munir Bouylud, as the new director there. Also in 2009, Elite Models London opened nearly 20 years after its first attempt to have offices in London. It was also in 2009 that Elite Models Chicago and Atlanta severed ties with Elite World SA and were renamed Factor Women.


title: Elite Model Management

text: In February 2011, Elite World SA shareholders elected a new Board of Directors. The new board election follows the acquisition of a controlling stake in Elite World SA by Pacific Global Management, SARL ("PGM") (now Freedom Holding, Inc.) owned by Silvio Scaglia. In 2012, Elite MM opened its branch in China with Elite Models in Shanghai immediately followed by agencies in Beijing, Shenzhen, Guang Zhou and Hong Kong.


title: Elite Model Management

text: In 2012, Elite Models Amsterdam acquired Model Masters in Amsterdam. Model Masters is best known for representing models who win Holland's Next Top Model. With that acquisition, Elite fired Ananda Marchildon for being "too fat". The company lost a breach of contract lawsuit by Ananda Marchildon and had to pay her around €65,000 damages.


title: Elite Model Management

text: In 2013, Elite World SA opened a New York division under the name The Society Management (The Society, The Society Model Management, Inc.).


title: Elite Model Management

text: Elite World Group, LLC ("EWG") was created in order to hold PGM's stake in Elite World SA and EWG's branch was incorporated in New York on Jan. 28, 2019. In 2019, Julia Haart was announced Chief Executive Officer and Chief Creative Officer of EWG which oversees Elite MM.


title: Elite Model Management

text: In 2022, Paolo Barbieri was announced Group Chief Executive Officer of Elite World Group which oversees Elite MM, The Society Management and Women Management.


title: Elite Model Management

text: Allegations of an "ingrained culture" of sexual assault and rape by Elite's male employees, especially its boss Gérald Marie, have dogged the agency for decades. In 1999, a BBC investigation filmed Marie saying he hoped to seduce the contestants at the annual Elite Model Look show, as well as assaulting an undercover journalist and offering her money for sex. He was temporarily suspended from Elite and in an interview at the time, said: "I'm destroyed ... I'm finished". But Elite countered with a libel action which was quietly settled with an apology from the BBC, who also agreed not to rebroadcast their documentary.


title: Elite Model Management

text: Marie was married to Linda Evangelista between 1987 and 1993, at the time of many of the alleged offences; Marie is alleged to have raped several aspiring models in their flat while Evangelista was away on assignment, including a 15-year-old girl. Supermodel and actress Carré Otis claimed in her 2011 memoir, "Beauty, Disrupted", that she was raped "countless" times in the flat by Marie starting around 1986, when she was 17. Otis and others have also claimed that rape by ancillary employees, such as hairdressers and photographers, was commonplace. In October 2020, Evangelista said: “During my relationship with Gérald Marie, I knew nothing of these sexual allegations against him, so I was unable to help these women. Hearing them now, and based on my own experiences, I believe that they are telling the truth. It breaks my heart because these are wounds that may never heal, and I admire their courage and strength for speaking up today.”


title: Elite Model Management

text: Elite's activities are also alleged to have been regularly used as a "front" for "pimping out" young models to wealthy men unconnected to the modelling industry. Adnan Khashoggi, the Saudi billionaire arms dealer is said to have admitted to at least one such introduction, to a model who became one of his "harem wives". She said that in the early 1980s he routinely browsed photographic portfolios of young women, with his assistant "asking whom he would like to meet, and discussing meet-up fees of between $35,000 and $50,000."


title: Elite Model Management

text: In the wake of the MeToo movement, the allegations have increased; as of November 2020, at least 15 women have now spoken out against Marie and are cooperating in an investigation launched by French prosecutors. Marie has denied all the allegations via his lawyers and said he intends to fight any charges laid against him. Despite this, more publications are claiming his alleged sexual misconduct was an open secret for years in the fashion industry.


title: Elite Model Management

text: Gérald Marie’s contract with Elite MM ended in December 2010 and the company was sold in 2011 to its current owners Elite World Group, for whom Marie has never worked. However, since 2012 Marie has been the chairman and major shareholder of Oui Management, a prestigious Paris modelling agency.


title: Elite Model Management

text: Elite Model Look "discovered" Cindy Crawford, Stephanie Seymour, Karen Mulder, Tatjana Patitz, Gisele Bündchen, Alessandra Ambrosio, Caitriona Balfe, and Lara Stone.


title: Elite Model Management

text: Elite represents, or has represented, numerous models including Diana Penty, Linda Evangelista, Naomi Campbell, Iman, Paulina Porizkova, Kendall Jenner, Irina Shayk, Adriana Lima, Adut Akech, Adesuwa Aighewi, Helena Christensen, Veronica Webb, Claudia Schiffer, Eva Herzigová, Tatiana Sorokko, Angelika Kallio, Tyra Banks, Hunter Schafer, Laura Harrier, Monica Bellucci, Anna Nicole Smith, Anna Bayle, Josephine Skriver, Heidi Klum, Camille Kostek, Jill McCormick, Karen Elson, Coco Rocha, Liu Wen, Crystal Renn, Ingrid Schram, Nina Agdal, Mariacarla Boscono, Stella Maxwell, Amber Valletta, Chloe Lloyd, Pooja Mor, Bridget Malcolm, Joséphine Le Tutour, Estelle Chen, Pauline Hoarau Vittoria Ceretti, Joanna Krupa, Huggy Ragnarsson, A'Whora, Kelly Gale, Özge Ulusoy, Hanne Gaby Odiele, Julia Saner, Olga Puchkova, Erika Lucas, Kathryn Edwards, Marta Piekarz, Jordan Rand and Aaron Philip.


title: Elite Model Management

text: From 2007–2011, the company was the official license holder to select a representative for the United States at the Miss World pageant.


title: Torii

text: A is a traditional Japanese gate most commonly found at the entrance of or within a Shinto shrine, where it symbolically marks the transition from the mundane to the sacred.


title: Torii

text: The presence of a "torii" at the entrance is usually the simplest way to identify Shinto shrines, and a small "torii" icon represents them on Japanese road maps.


title: Torii

text: The first appearance of "torii" gates in Japan can be reliably pinpointed to at least the mid-Heian period; they are mentioned in a text written in 922. The oldest existing stone "torii" was built in the 12th century and belongs to a Hachiman shrine in Yamagata Prefecture. The oldest existing wooden "torii" is a "ryōbu torii" (see description below) at Kubō Hachiman Shrine in Yamanashi Prefecture built in 1535.


title: Torii

text: "Torii" gates were traditionally made from wood or stone, but today they can be also made of reinforced concrete, copper, stainless steel or other materials. They are usually either unpainted or painted vermilion with a black upper lintel. Shrines of Inari, the "kami" of fertility and industry, typically have many "torii" because those who have been successful in business often donate "torii" in gratitude. Fushimi Inari-taisha in Kyoto has thousands of such "torii", each bearing the donor's name.


title: Torii

text: The "torii", a gateway erected on the approach to every Shinto shrine, may be derived from the Indian word "torana". While the Indian term denotes a gateway, the Japanese characters can be translated as "bird perch".


title: Torii

text: Ancient Indian "torana" sacred gateway architecture has influenced gateway architecture across Asia, especially where Buddhism was transmitted from India; Chinese "paifang" gateways, Japanese "torii" gateways, Korean "hongsalmun" gateways, Vietnam "Tam quan" gateways and "Sao Ching Cha" in Thailand have been derived from the Indian "torana". The functions of all are similar, but they generally differ based on their respective architectural styles. According to several scholars, the vast evidence shows how the "torii", both etymologically and architecturally, were originally derived from the "torana", a free-standing sacred ceremonial gateway which marks the entrance of a sacred enclosure, such as Hindu-Buddhist temple or shrine, or city. Bernhard Scheid wonders whether "torii" existed in Japan before Buddhism or arrived with it from India.


title: Torii

text: The function of a "torii" is to mark the entrance to a sacred space. For this reason, the road leading to a Shinto shrine ("sandō") is almost always straddled by one or more "torii", which are therefore the easiest way to distinguish a shrine from a Buddhist temple. If the "sandō" passes under multiple "torii", the outer of them is called . The following ones, closer to the shrine, are usually called, in order, and . Other "torii" can be found farther into the shrine to represent increasing levels of holiness as one nears the inner sanctuary ("honden"), core of the shrine. Also, because of the strong relationship between Shinto shrines and the Japanese Imperial family, a "torii" stands also in front of the tomb of each Emperor.


title: Torii

text: In the past "torii" must have been used also at the entrance of Buddhist temples. Even today, as prominent a temple as Osaka's Shitennō-ji, founded in 593 by Shōtoku Taishi and the oldest state-built Buddhist temple in the country (and world), has a "torii" straddling one of its entrances. (The original wooden "torii" burned in 1294 and was then replaced by one in stone.) Many Buddhist temples include one or more Shinto shrines dedicated to their tutelary "kami "("Chinjusha"), and in that case a "torii" marks the shrine's entrance. Benzaiten is a syncretic goddess derived from the Indian divinity Sarasvati, who unites elements of both Shinto and Buddhism. For this reason halls dedicated to her can be found at both temples and shrines, and in either case in front of the hall stands a "torii". The goddess herself is sometimes portrayed with a "torii" on her head.


title: Torii

text: Finally, until the Meiji period (1868–1912) "torii" were routinely adorned with plaques carrying Buddhist sutras.


title: Torii

text: "Yamabushi", Japanese mountain ascetic hermits with a long tradition as mighty warriors endowed with supernatural powers, sometimes use as their symbol a "torii".


title: Torii

text: The "torii" is also sometimes used as a symbol of Japan in non-religious contexts. For example, it is the symbol of the Marine Corps Security Force Regiment and the 187th Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division and of other US forces in Japan.


title: Torii

text: The origins of the "torii" are unknown and there are several different theories on the subject, none of which has gained universal acceptance. Because the use of symbolic gates is widespread in Asia—such structures can be found for example in India, China, Thailand, Korea, and within Nicobarese and Shompen villages—historians believe they may be an imported tradition.


title: Torii

text: They may, for example, have originated in India from the "torana" gates in the monastery of Sanchi in central India. According to this theory, the "torana" was adopted by Shingon Buddhism founder Kūkai, who used it to demarcate the sacred space used for the homa ceremony. The hypothesis arose in the 19th and 20th centuries due to similarities in structure and name between the two gates. Linguistic and historical objections have now emerged, but no conclusion has yet been reached.


title: Torii

text: In Bangkok, Thailand, a Brahmin structure called Sao Ching Cha strongly resembles a "torii". Functionally, however, it is very different as it is used as a swing. During ceremonies Brahmins swing, trying to grab a bag of coins placed on one of the pillars.


title: Torii

text: Other theories claim "torii" may be related to the "pailou" of China. These structures however can assume a great variety of forms, only some of which actually somewhat resemble a "torii". The same goes for Korea's "hongsal-mun". Unlike its Chinese counterpart, the hongsal-mun does not vary greatly in design and is always painted red, with "arrowsticks" located on the top of the structure (hence the name).


title: Torii

text: Various tentative etymologies of the word "torii" exist. According to one of them, the name derives from the term .


title: Torii

text: Another hypothesis takes the name literally: the gate would originally have been some kind of bird perch. This is based on the religious use of bird perches in Asia, such as the Korean "sotdae" (솟대), which are poles with one or more wooden birds resting on their top. Commonly found in groups at the entrance of villages together with totem poles called "jangseung", they are talismans which ward off evil spirits and bring the villagers good luck. "Bird perches" similar in form and function to the "sotdae" exist also in other shamanistic cultures in China, Mongolia and Siberia. Although they do not look like "torii" and serve a different function, these "bird perches" show how birds in several Asian cultures are believed to have magic or spiritual properties, and may therefore help explain the enigmatic literal meaning of the "torii's" name ("bird perch").


title: Torii

text: Poles believed to have supported wooden bird figures very similar to the "sotdae" have been found together with wooden birds, and are believed by some historians to have somehow evolved into today's "torii". Intriguingly, in both Korea and Japan single poles represent deities ("kami" in the case of Japan) and is the counter for "kami".


title: Torii

text: In Japan birds have also long had a connection with the dead, this may mean it was born in connection with some prehistorical funerary rite. Ancient Japanese texts like the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki for example mention how Yamato Takeru after his death became a white bird and in that form chose a place for his own burial. For this reason, his mausoleum was then called . Many later texts also show some relationship between dead souls and white birds, a link common also in other cultures, shamanic like the Japanese. Bird motifs from the Yayoi and Kofun periods associating birds with the dead have also been found in several archeological sites. This relationship between birds and death would also explain why, in spite of their name, no visible trace of birds remains in today's "torii": birds were symbols of death, which in Shinto brings defilement ("kegare").


title: Torii

text: Finally, the possibility that "torii" are a Japanese invention cannot be discounted. The first "torii" could have evolved already with their present function through the following sequence of events:


title: Torii

text: The "shinmei torii", whose structure agrees with the historians' reconstruction, consists of just four unbarked and unpainted logs: two vertical pillars () topped by a horizontal lintel () and kept together by a tie-beam (). The pillars may have a slight inward inclination called or just . Its parts are always straight.


title: Torii

text: Structurally, the simplest is the (see illustration below). Probably one of the oldest types of torii, it consists of two posts with a sacred rope called "shimenawa" tied between them.


title: Torii

text: All other "torii" can be divided in two families, the and the . "Torii" of the first have only straight parts, the second have both straight and curved parts.


title: Torii

text: The , which gives the name to the family, is constituted solely by a lintel ("kasagi") and two pillars ("hashira") united by a tie beam ("nuki"). In its simplest form, all four elements are rounded and the pillars have no inclination. When the "nuki" is rectangular in section, it is called "Yasukuni torii", from Tokyo's Yasukuni Jinja. It is believed to be the oldest "torii" style.


title: Torii

text: (see illustration above) are gates found only at the Inner Shrine and Outer Shrine at Ise Shrine in Mie Prefecture. For this reason, they are also called "Jingū torii", from Jingū, Ise Grand Shrine's official Japanese name.


title: Torii

text: There are two variants. The most common is extremely similar to a "shinmei torii", its pillars however have a slight inward inclination and its "nuki" is kept in place by wedges ("kusabi"). The "kasagi" is pentagonal in section (see illustration in the gallery below). The ends of the "kasagi" are slightly thicker, giving the impression of an upward slant. All these "torii" were built after the 14th century.


title: Torii

text: The second type is similar to the first, but has also a secondary, rectangular lintel ("shimaki") under the pentagonal "kasagi".


title: Torii

text: This and the "shinmei torii" style started becoming more popular during the early 20th century at the time of State Shinto because they were considered the oldest and most prestigious.


title: Torii

text: The is a "myōjin torii" (see illustration above) with straight top lintels. The style takes its name from Kasuga-taisha's , or main "torii".


title: Torii

text: The pillars have an inclination and are slightly tapered. The "nuki" protrudes and is held in place by "kusabi" driven in on both sides.


title: Torii

text: This "torii" was the first to be painted vermilion and to adopt a "shimaki" at Kasuga Taisha, the shrine from which it takes its name.


title: Torii

text: Almost identical to a "kasuga torii" (see illustration above), but with the two upper lintels at a slant, the first appeared during the Heian period. The name comes from the fact that this type of "torii" is often used at Hachiman shrines.


title: Torii

text: The (see illustration above) is a "shinmei torii" without "korobi", with "kusabi" and a protruding nuki. It takes its name from Kashima Shrine in Ibaraki Prefecture.


title: Torii

text: The is a "shinmei torii" built with unbarked wood. Because this type of "torii" requires replacement at three years intervals, it is becoming rare. The most notorious example is Nonomiya Shrine in Kyoto. The shrine now however uses a "torii" made of synthetic material which simulates the look of wood.


title: Torii

text: The or is a "shinmei torii" made with logs from which bark has been removed. This type of "torii" is present at the tombs of all Emperors of Japan.


title: Torii

text: The (see illustration above) is a type of "torii" which appears to be formed from three individual "torii" (see gallery). It is thought by some to have been built by early Japanese Christians to represent the Holy Trinity.


title: Torii

text: The , by far the most common "torii" style, are characterized by curved upper lintels ("kasagi" and "shimaki"). Both curve slightly upwards. Kusabi are present. A "myōjin torii" can be made of wood, stone, concrete or other materials and be vermilion or unpainted.


title: Torii

text: The style, which takes its name from Nakayama Jinja in Okayama Prefecture, is basically a "myōjin torii", but the "nuki" does not protrude from the pillars and the curve made by the two top lintels is more accentuated than usual. The "torii" at Nakayama Shrine that gives the style its name is 9 m tall and was erected in 1791.


title: Torii

text: The (see illustration above) is a "myōjin torii" with two rings called "daiwa" at the top of the two pillars. The name "Inari torii" comes from the fact that vermilion "daiwa torii" tend to be common at Inari shrines, but even at the famous Fushimi Inari Shrine not all "torii" are in this style. This style first appeared during the late Heian period.


title: Torii

text: The (see photo below) is "myōjin torii" with a gable over the two top lintels. The best example of this style is found at Hiyoshi Shrine near Lake Biwa.


title: Torii

text: Also called , or (see illustration above), the is composed of three "myōjin torii" without inclination of the pillars. It can be found with or without doors. The most famous one is at Ōmiwa Shrine, in Nara, from which it takes its name.


title: Torii

text: Also called , or , the is a "daiwa torii" whose pillars are reinforced on both sides by square posts (see illustration above). The name derives from its long association with Ryōbu Shintō, a current of thought within Shingon Buddhism. The famous "torii" rising from the water at Itsukushima is a "ryōbu torii", and the shrine used to be also a Shingon Buddhist temple, so much so that it still has a pagoda.


title: Torii

text: The is an unusual type of torii with a rounded "kasagi" and pillars that flare downwards. They are found only in Saga prefecture and the neighboring areas.


title: Ingrid Goes West

text: Ingrid Goes West is a 2017 American black comedy drama film directed by Matt Spicer and written by Spicer and David Branson Smith. The film stars Aubrey Plaza, Elizabeth Olsen, Billy Magnussen, Wyatt Russell, Pom Klementieff, and O'Shea Jackson Jr., and follows a young woman who moves to Los Angeles in an effort to befriend her Instagram idol.


title: Ingrid Goes West

text: The film premiered in competition at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival, where it won the Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award. It had a limited release in the United States on August 11, 2017, by Neon, grossing $3 million. The film received positive reviews, with many praising the script, dark themes, humor, and performances.


title: Ingrid Goes West

text: After crashing the wedding of Instagram influencer Charlotte Buckwald and pepper spraying her, Ingrid checks in to a recovery facility where she "writes" to Charlotte as if she knows her when, in reality, Charlotte commented on one of her pictures once and Ingrid has no way of getting letters to Charlotte.


title: Ingrid Goes West

text: After being released, Ingrid learns of a social media influencer named Taylor Sloane from a magazine article. She rents a house in Venice from Dan Pinto, an aspiring screenwriter, and gets a makeover in her style with money inherited from her recently deceased mother.


title: Ingrid Goes West

text: After running into Taylor at one of her favorite bookstores, Ingrid follows her to her house and kidnaps her dog, Rothko. After Taylor puts up "lost dog" posters in the neighborhood, Ingrid returns Rothko, meeting Taylor and her husband Ezra. Ingrid accepts their offer to stay for dinner. The next day, Dan lends Ingrid his truck to help Taylor move some items to her home in Joshua Tree, on the condition that she return that evening to take a part in a table read of his screenplay. She tells Taylor the truck is her boyfriend's. They stay out late and party, and on the way home Ingrid damages the truck while driving under the influence. She returns it the following morning to a furious Dan, who was forced to cancel his table read.


title: Ingrid Goes West

text: Ingrid's friendship with Taylor grows as they begin to regularly hang out at galleries, restaurants and shops. After a while, Ingrid arrives at Taylor and Ezra's house and meets Taylor's obnoxious brother Nicky, a drug addict who is instantly rude to Ingrid. Taylor dismisses her previous plans with Ingrid to attend a party with Nicky, furthering Ingrid's disdain for him. Taylor and Nicky tease Ingrid about her "imaginary" boyfriend Dan, whom they've never met. They invite Ingrid to a party that weekend at fashion blogger Harley Chung's house and tell her to bring Dan.


title: Ingrid Goes West

text: Ingrid apologizes to Dan for damaging his truck, promising to reimburse him and take him out to dinner. Later that night, after bonding over their past losses, the two have sex and begin a relationship. Ingrid invites Dan to Harley's party and asks him to tell everyone he's her boyfriend. Once there, Ingrid becomes envious of Taylor and Harley's friendship. After a conversation with Ezra, Ingrid begins to realize that several aspects of Taylor's persona are fabricated. After noticing Ingrid enter Taylor's birthday as her phone password, Nicky steals the phone and finds several incriminating photographs that reveal her obsession with Taylor, and blackmails her for money. In retaliation, Ingrid pays a stranger to punch her in the face and tells Dan that Nicky did it. She begs him not to call the police for fear of what Nicky might do, and instead convinces him to kidnap and terrorize Nicky to keep him quiet. Nicky escapes his bindings and attacks Dan, leading Ingrid to stun Nicky with a crowbar. Ingrid rushes Dan to the hospital and leaves Nicky unconscious in the desert. Later on, Ingrid sees on Instagram that Taylor and Ezra went to Joshua Tree. Ingrid decides to drive and surprise them but no one is home. Ingrid tries to call Taylor, but Ezra answers and tells Ingrid that Nicky has told them what happened, that Taylor does not want to hear from Ingrid again, and that she would have been arrested if Nicky had not been trying to hide his own crimes.


title: Ingrid Goes West

text: Desperate, Ingrid moves into the small house next door to Taylor, using the remaining chunk of her inheritance. Unable to pay the bills, she eventually loses power at the house. After noticing a Halloween party at Taylor's house, she dons a bed sheet and wig and crashes the party to charge her phone. When discovered, Ingrid berates Nicky, Ezra, and Taylor. Taylor responds that because of her façade, the two were never truly friends, and suggests Ingrid needs professional help. Bereft, Ingrid retreats to her home surrounded by lit candles and records a video for her Instagram page, confessing her past deception before attempting suicide by overdosing on pills.


title: Ingrid Goes West

text: Ingrid survives after Dan sees the video and calls emergency services. She wakes in the hospital to find Dan waiting for her, and they rekindle their relationship. He gladly informs Ingrid that her video has gone viral, and thousands of strangers have responded to her hashtag #iamingrid to show support.


title: Ingrid Goes West

text: Principal photography began on July 11, 2016 in Los Angeles and wrapped August 12, 2016 in Joshua Tree, California. A focal point of the film is "All My Life" by K-Ci & JoJo; initially this song was meant to be Seal's "Kiss from a Rose" (which would have tied into the Dan character's Batman obsession, as it's from the "Batman Forever" soundtrack), but Seal's asking price for the song was higher than the production could afford. Spicer's sister recommended "All My Life" as a replacement.


title: Ingrid Goes West

text: "Ingrid Goes West" had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 20, 2017. Shortly after, Neon acquired the North American distribution rights to the film. It was released on August 11, 2017.


title: Ingrid Goes West

text: Following several weeks in limited release, the film went wide on August 25, 2017, and grossed $3,019,057 from 647 theaters, an average of $1,208 per venue.


title: Ingrid Goes West

text: "Ingrid Goes West" garnered positive reviews from film critics. It holds approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on reviews, with an average score of . The website's critical consensus reads, "Led by strong performances from Aubrey Plaza and Elizabeth Olsen, "Ingrid Goes West" delivers smart, topical humor underlined by timely social observations." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 71 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Combinatorics

text: Combinatorics is an area of mathematics primarily concerned with counting, both as a means and an end in obtaining results, and certain properties of finite structures. It is closely related to many other areas of mathematics and has many applications ranging from logic to statistical physics and from evolutionary biology to computer science.


title: Combinatorics

text: Combinatorics is well known for the breadth of the problems it tackles. Combinatorial problems arise in many areas of pure mathematics, notably in algebra, probability theory, topology, and geometry, as well as in its many application areas. Many combinatorial questions have historically been considered in isolation, giving an "ad hoc" solution to a problem arising in some mathematical context. In the later twentieth century, however, powerful and general theoretical methods were developed, making combinatorics into an independent branch of mathematics in its own right. One of the oldest and most accessible parts of combinatorics is graph theory, which by itself has numerous natural connections to other areas. Combinatorics is used frequently in computer science to obtain formulas and estimates in the analysis of algorithms.


title: Combinatorics

text: The full scope of combinatorics is not universally agreed upon. According to H.J. Ryser, a definition of the subject is difficult because it crosses so many mathematical subdivisions. Insofar as an area can be described by the types of problems it addresses, combinatorics is involved with:


title: Combinatorics

text: Leon Mirsky has said: "combinatorics is a range of linked studies which have something in common and yet diverge widely in their objectives, their methods, and the degree of coherence they have attained." One way to define combinatorics is, perhaps, to describe its subdivisions with their problems and techniques. This is the approach that is used below. However, there are also purely historical reasons for including or not including some topics under the combinatorics umbrella. Although primarily concerned with finite systems, some combinatorial questions and techniques can be extended to an infinite (specifically, countable) but discrete setting.


title: Combinatorics

text: Basic combinatorial concepts and enumerative results appeared throughout the ancient world. In the 6th century BCE, ancient Indian physician Sushruta asserts in Sushruta Samhita that 63 combinations can be made out of 6 different tastes, taken one at a time, two at a time, etc., thus computing all 2 − 1 possibilities. Greek historian Plutarch discusses an argument between Chrysippus (3rd century BCE) and Hipparchus (2nd century BCE) of a rather delicate enumerative problem, which was later shown to be related to Schröder–Hipparchus numbers. Earlier, in the "Ostomachion", Archimedes (3rd century BCE) may have considered the number of configurations of a tiling puzzle, while combinatorial interests possibly were present in lost works by Apollonius.


title: Combinatorics

text: In the Middle Ages, combinatorics continued to be studied, largely outside of the European civilization. The Indian mathematician Mahāvīra () provided formulae for the number of permutations and combinations, and these formulas may have been familiar to Indian mathematicians as early as the 6th century CE. The philosopher and astronomer Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra () established the symmetry of binomial coefficients, while a closed formula was obtained later by the talmudist and mathematician Levi ben Gerson (better known as Gersonides), in 1321.


title: Combinatorics

text: The arithmetical triangle—a graphical diagram showing relationships among the binomial coefficients—was presented by mathematicians in treatises dating as far back as the 10th century, and would eventually become known as Pascal's triangle. Later, in Medieval England, campanology provided examples of what is now known as Hamiltonian cycles in certain Cayley graphs on permutations.


title: Combinatorics

text: During the Renaissance, together with the rest of mathematics and the sciences, combinatorics enjoyed a rebirth. Works of Pascal, Newton, Jacob Bernoulli and Euler became foundational in the emerging field. In modern times, the works of J.J. Sylvester (late 19th century) and Percy MacMahon (early 20th century) helped lay the foundation for enumerative and algebraic combinatorics. Graph theory also enjoyed an increase of interest at the same time, especially in connection with the four color problem.


title: Combinatorics

text: In the second half of the 20th century, combinatorics enjoyed a rapid growth, which led to establishment of dozens of new journals and conferences in the subject. In part, the growth was spurred by new connections and applications to other fields, ranging from algebra to probability, from functional analysis to number theory, etc. These connections shed the boundaries between combinatorics and parts of mathematics and theoretical computer science, but at the same time led to a partial fragmentation of the field.


title: Combinatorics

text: Enumerative combinatorics is the most classical area of combinatorics and concentrates on counting the number of certain combinatorial objects. Although counting the number of elements in a set is a rather broad mathematical problem, many of the problems that arise in applications have a relatively simple combinatorial description. Fibonacci numbers is the basic example of a problem in enumerative combinatorics. The twelvefold way provides a unified framework for counting permutations, combinations and partitions.


title: Combinatorics

text: Analytic combinatorics concerns the enumeration of combinatorial structures using tools from complex analysis and probability theory. In contrast with enumerative combinatorics, which uses explicit combinatorial formulae and generating functions to describe the results, analytic combinatorics aims at obtaining asymptotic formulae.


title: Combinatorics

text: Partition theory studies various enumeration and asymptotic problems related to integer partitions, and is closely related to q-series, special functions and orthogonal polynomials. Originally a part of number theory and analysis, it is now considered a part of combinatorics or an independent field. It incorporates the bijective approach and various tools in analysis and analytic number theory and has connections with statistical mechanics. Partitions can be graphically visualized with Young diagrams or Ferrers diagrams. They occur in a number of branches of mathematics and physics, including the study of symmetric polynomials and of the symmetric group and in group representation theory in general.


title: Combinatorics

text: Graphs are fundamental objects in combinatorics. Considerations of graph theory range from enumeration (e.g., the number of graphs on "n" vertices with "k" edges) to existing structures (e.g., Hamiltonian cycles) to algebraic representations (e.g., given a graph "G" and two numbers "x" and "y", does the Tutte polynomial "T"("x","y") have a combinatorial interpretation?). Although there are very strong connections between graph theory and combinatorics, they are sometimes thought of as separate subjects. While combinatorial methods apply to many graph theory problems, the two disciplines are generally used to seek solutions to different types of problems.


title: Combinatorics

text: Design theory is a study of combinatorial designs, which are collections of subsets with certain intersection properties. Block designs are combinatorial designs of a special type. This area is one of the oldest parts of combinatorics, such as in Kirkman's schoolgirl problem proposed in 1850. The solution of the problem is a special case of a Steiner system, which systems play an important role in the classification of finite simple groups. The area has further connections to coding theory and geometric combinatorics.


title: Combinatorics

text: Combinatorial design theory can be applied to the area of design of experiments. Some of the basic theory of combinatorial designs originated in the statistician Ronald Fisher's work on the design of biological experiments. Modern applications are also found in a wide gamut of areas including finite geometry, tournament scheduling, lotteries, mathematical chemistry, mathematical biology, algorithm design and analysis, networking, group testing and cryptography.


title: Combinatorics

text: Finite geometry is the study of geometric systems having only a finite number of points. Structures analogous to those found in continuous geometries (Euclidean plane, real projective space, etc.) but defined combinatorially are the main items studied. This area provides a rich source of examples for design theory. It should not be confused with discrete geometry (combinatorial geometry).


title: Combinatorics

text: Order theory is the study of partially ordered sets, both finite and infinite. It provides a formal framework for describing statements such as "this is less than that" or "this precedes that". Various examples of partial orders appear in algebra, geometry, number theory and throughout combinatorics and graph theory. Notable classes and examples of partial orders include lattices and Boolean algebras.


title: Combinatorics

text: Matroid theory abstracts part of geometry. It studies the properties of sets (usually, finite sets) of vectors in a vector space that do not depend on the particular coefficients in a linear dependence relation. Not only the structure but also enumerative properties belong to matroid theory. Matroid theory was introduced by Hassler Whitney and studied as a part of order theory. It is now an independent field of study with a number of connections with other parts of combinatorics.


title: Combinatorics

text: Extremal combinatorics studies how large or how small a collection of finite objects (numbers, graphs, vectors, sets, etc.) can be, if it has to satisfy certain restrictions. Much of extremal combinatorics concerns classes of set systems; this is called extremal set theory. For instance, in an "n"-element set, what is the largest number of "k"-element subsets that can pairwise intersect one another? What is the largest number of subsets of which none contains any other? The latter question is answered by Sperner's theorem, which gave rise to much of extremal set theory.


title: Combinatorics

text: The types of questions addressed in this case are about the largest possible graph which satisfies certain properties. For example, the largest triangle-free graph on "2n" vertices is a complete bipartite graph "K". Often it is too hard even to find the extremal answer "f"("n") exactly and one can only give an asymptotic estimate.


title: Combinatorics

text: Ramsey theory is another part of extremal combinatorics. It states that any sufficiently large configuration will contain some sort of order. It is an advanced generalization of the pigeonhole principle.


title: Combinatorics

text: In probabilistic combinatorics, the questions are of the following type: what is the probability of a certain property for a random discrete object, such as a random graph? For instance, what is the average number of triangles in a random graph? Probabilistic methods are also used to determine the existence of combinatorial objects with certain prescribed properties (for which explicit examples might be difficult to find) by observing that the probability of randomly selecting an object with those properties is greater than 0. This approach (often referred to as "the" probabilistic method) proved highly effective in applications to extremal combinatorics and graph theory. A closely related area is the study of finite Markov chains, especially on combinatorial objects. Here again probabilistic tools are used to estimate the mixing time.


title: Combinatorics

text: Often associated with Paul Erdős, who did the pioneering work on the subject, probabilistic combinatorics was traditionally viewed as a set of tools to study problems in other parts of combinatorics. However, with the growth of applications to analyze algorithms in computer science, as well as classical probability, additive number theory, and probabilistic number theory, the area recently grew to become an independent field of combinatorics.


title: Combinatorics

text: Algebraic combinatorics is an area of mathematics that employs methods of abstract algebra, notably group theory and representation theory, in various combinatorial contexts and, conversely, applies combinatorial techniques to problems in algebra. Algebraic combinatorics has come to be seen more expansively as an area of mathematics where the interaction of combinatorial and algebraic methods is particularly strong and significant. Thus the combinatorial topics may be enumerative in nature or involve matroids, polytopes, partially ordered sets, or finite geometries. On the algebraic side, besides group and representation theory, lattice theory and commutative algebra are common.


title: Combinatorics

text: Combinatorics on words deals with formal languages. It arose independently within several branches of mathematics, including number theory, group theory and probability. It has applications to enumerative combinatorics, fractal analysis, theoretical computer science, automata theory, and linguistics. While many applications are new, the classical Chomsky–Schützenberger hierarchy of classes of formal grammars is perhaps the best-known result in the field.


title: Combinatorics

text: Geometric combinatorics is related to convex and discrete geometry. It asks, for example, how many faces of each dimension a convex polytope can have. Metric properties of polytopes play an important role as well, e.g. the Cauchy theorem on the rigidity of convex polytopes. Special polytopes are also considered, such as permutohedra, associahedra and Birkhoff polytopes. Combinatorial geometry is a historical name for discrete geometry.


title: Combinatorics

text: It includes a number of subareas such as polyhedral combinatorics (the study of faces of convex polyhedra), convex geometry (the study of convex sets, in particular combinatorics of their intersections), and discrete geometry, which in turn has many applications to computational geometry. The study of regular polytopes, Archimedean solids, and kissing numbers is also a part of geometric combinatorics. Special polytopes are also considered, such as the permutohedron, associahedron and Birkhoff polytope.


title: Combinatorics

text: Combinatorial analogs of concepts and methods in topology are used to study graph coloring, fair division, partitions, partially ordered sets, decision trees, necklace problems and discrete Morse theory. It should not be confused with combinatorial topology which is an older name for algebraic topology.


title: Combinatorics

text: Arithmetic combinatorics arose out of the interplay between number theory, combinatorics, ergodic theory, and harmonic analysis. It is about combinatorial estimates associated with arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division). Additive number theory (sometimes also called additive combinatorics) refers to the special case when only the operations of addition and subtraction are involved. One important technique in arithmetic combinatorics is the ergodic theory of dynamical systems.


title: Combinatorics

text: Infinitary combinatorics, or combinatorial set theory, is an extension of ideas in combinatorics to infinite sets. It is a part of set theory, an area of mathematical logic, but uses tools and ideas from both set theory and extremal combinatorics. Some of the things studied include continuous graphs and trees, extensions of Ramsey's theorem, and Martin's axiom. Recent developments concern combinatorics of the continuum and combinatorics on successors of singular cardinals.


title: Combinatorics

text: Gian-Carlo Rota used the name "continuous combinatorics" to describe geometric probability, since there are many analogies between "counting" and "measure".


title: Combinatorics

text: Combinatorial optimization is the study of optimization on discrete and combinatorial objects. It started as a part of combinatorics and graph theory, but is now viewed as a branch of applied mathematics and computer science, related to operations research, algorithm theory and computational complexity theory.


title: Combinatorics

text: Coding theory started as a part of design theory with early combinatorial constructions of error-correcting codes. The main idea of the subject is to design efficient and reliable methods of data transmission. It is now a large field of study, part of information theory.


title: Combinatorics

text: Discrete geometry (also called combinatorial geometry) also began as a part of combinatorics, with early results on convex polytopes and kissing numbers. With the emergence of applications of discrete geometry to computational geometry, these two fields partially merged and became a separate field of study. There remain many connections with geometric and topological combinatorics, which themselves can be viewed as outgrowths of the early discrete geometry.


title: Combinatorics

text: Combinatorial aspects of dynamical systems is another emerging field. Here dynamical systems can be defined on combinatorial objects. See for example


title: Combinatorics

text: There are increasing interactions between combinatorics and physics, particularly statistical physics. Examples include an exact solution of the Ising model, and a connection between the Potts model on one hand, and the chromatic and Tutte polynomials on the other hand.


title: French Republican calendar

text: The French Republican calendar (), also commonly called the French Revolutionary calendar (), was a calendar created and implemented during the French Revolution, and used by the French government for about 12 years from late 1793 to 1805, and for 18 days by the Paris Commune in 1871.


title: French Republican calendar

text: The revolutionary system was designed in part to remove all religious and royalist influences from the calendar, and was part of a larger attempt at decimalisation in France (which also included decimal time of day, decimalisation of currency, and metrication). It was used in government records in France and other areas under French rule, including Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Malta, and Italy.


title: French Republican calendar

text: The National Constituent Assembly at first intended to create a new calendar marking the "era of Liberty", beginning on 14 July 1789, the date of the Storming of the Bastille. However, on 2 January 1792 its successor the Legislative Assembly decided that Year IV of Liberty had begun the day before. Year I had therefore began on 1 January 1789.


title: French Republican calendar

text: On 21 September 1792, the French First Republic was proclaimed, and the new National Convention decided that 1792 was to be known as Year I of the French Republic. It decreed on 2 January 1793 that Year II of the Republic had begun the day before. However, the new calendar as adopted by the Convention in October 1793 made 22 September 1792 the first day of Year I.


title: French Republican calendar

text: The First Republic ended with the coronation of Napoleon I as Emperor on 11 Frimaire, Year XIII, or 2 December 1804. Despite this, the republican calendar continued to be used until 1 January 1806, when Napoleon declared it abolished. It was briefly used again for a few weeks of the Paris Commune, in May 1871.


title: French Republican calendar

text: The prominent anticlerical atheist Sylvain Maréchal published the first edition of his "Almanach des Honnêtes-gens" (Almanac of Honest People) in 1788. The first month in the almanac is "Mars, ou Princeps" (March, or First), the last month is "Février, ou Duodécembre" (February, or Twelfth). (The months of September [meaning "the seventh"] through December [meaning "the tenth"] are already numeric names, although their meanings do not match their positions in either the Julian or the Gregorian calendar since the Romans added the months January and February to the original ten-month March-to-December year of King Romulus.) The lengths of the months are the same as those in the Gregorian calendar; however, the 10th, 20th, and 30th days are singled out of each month as the end of a "décade" (group of ten days). Individual days were assigned, instead of to the traditional saints, to noteworthy people. Later editions of the almanac would switch to the Republican Calendar.


title: French Republican calendar

text: The days of the French Revolution and Republic saw many efforts to sweep away various trappings of the "Ancien Régime" (the old feudal monarchy); some of these were more successful than others. The new Republican government sought to institute, among other reforms, a new social and legal system, a new system of weights and measures (which became the metric system), and a new calendar. Amid nostalgia for the ancient Roman Republic, the theories of the Enlightenment were at their peak, and the devisers of the new systems looked to nature for their inspiration. Natural constants, multiples of ten, and Latin as well as Ancient Greek derivations formed the fundamental blocks from which the new systems were built.


title: French Republican calendar

text: The new calendar was created by a commission under the direction of the politician Charles-Gilbert Romme seconded by Claude Joseph Ferry and Charles-François Dupuis. They associated with their work the chemist Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, the mathematician and astronomer Joseph-Louis Lagrange, the astronomer Joseph Jérôme Lefrançois de Lalande, the mathematician Gaspard Monge, the astronomer and naval geographer Alexandre Guy Pingré, and the poet, actor and playwright Fabre d'Églantine, who invented the names of the months, with the help of André Thouin, gardener at the Jardin des Plantes of the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris. As the rapporteur of the commission, Charles-Gilbert Romme presented the new calendar to the Jacobin-controlled National Convention on 23 September 1793, which adopted it on 24 October 1793 and also extended it proleptically to its epoch of 22 September 1792. It is because of his position as rapporteur of the commission that the creation of the republican calendar is attributed to Romme.


title: French Republican calendar

text: The calendar is frequently named the "French Revolutionary Calendar" because it was created during the Revolution, but this is a slight misnomer. In France, it is known as the "calendrier républicain" as well as the "calendrier révolutionnaire". There was initially a debate as to whether the calendar should celebrate the Great Revolution, which began in July 1789, or the Republic, which was established in 1792. Immediately following 14 July 1789, papers and pamphlets started calling 1789 year I of Liberty and the following years II and III. It was in 1792, with the practical problem of dating financial transactions, that the legislative assembly was confronted with the problem of the calendar. Originally, the choice of epoch was either 1 January 1789 or 14 July 1789. After some hesitation the assembly decided on 2 January 1792 that all official documents would use the "era of Liberty" and that the year IV of Liberty started on 1 January 1792. This usage was modified on 22 September 1792 when the Republic was proclaimed and the Convention decided that all public documents would be dated Year I of the French Republic. The decree of 2 January 1793 stipulated that the year II of the Republic began on 1 January 1793; this was revoked with the introduction of the new calendar, which set 22 September 1793 as the beginning of year II. The establishment of the Republic was used as the epochal date for the calendar; therefore, the calendar commemorates the Republic, and not the Revolution.


title: French Republican calendar

text: French coins of the period naturally used this calendar. Many show the year () in Arabic numbers, although Roman numerals were used on some issues. Year 11 coins typically have a XI date to avoid confusion with the Roman II.


title: French Republican calendar

text: The French Revolution is usually considered to have ended with the coup of 18 Brumaire, Year VIII (9 November 1799), the coup d'état of Napoleon Bonaparte against the established constitutional regime of the "Directoire".


title: French Republican calendar

text: The Concordat of 1801 re-established the Roman Catholic Church as an official institution in France, although not as the state religion of France. The concordat took effect from Easter Sunday, 28 Germinal, Year XI (8 April 1802); it restored the names of the days of the week to the ones from the Gregorian Calendar, and fixed Sunday as the official day of rest and religious celebration. However, the other attributes of the republican calendar, the months, and years, remained as they were.


title: French Republican calendar

text: The French Republic ended with the coronation of Napoleon I as "Empereur des Français" (Emperor of the French) on 11 Frimaire, Year XIII (2 December 1804), but the republican calendar would remain in place for another year. Napoleon finally abolished the republican calendar with effect from 1 January 1806 (the day after 10 Nivôse Year XIV), a little over twelve years after its introduction. It was, however, used again briefly in the "Journal officiel" for some dates during a short period of the Paris Commune, 6–23 May 1871 (16 Floréal–3 Prairial Year LXXIX).


title: French Republican calendar

text: Years appear in writing as Roman numerals (usually), with epoch 22 September 1792, the beginning of the "Republican Era" (the day the French First Republic was proclaimed, one day after the Convention abolished the monarchy). As a result, Roman Numeral I indicates the first year of the republic, that is, the year before the calendar actually came into use. By law, the beginning of each year was set at midnight, beginning on the day the apparent autumnal equinox falls at the Paris Observatory.


title: French Republican calendar

text: There were twelve months, each divided into three ten-day weeks called "décades". The tenth day, "décadi", replaced Sunday as the day of rest and festivity. The five or six extra days needed to approximate the solar or tropical year were placed after the months at the end of each year and called complementary days. This arrangement was an almost exact copy of the calendar used by the Ancient Egyptians, though in their case the beginning of the year was not marked by the autumnal equinox.


title: French Republican calendar

text: A period of four years ending on a leap day was to be called a "Franciade". The name "Olympique" was originally proposed but changed to Franciade to commemorate the fact that it had taken the revolution four years to establish a republican government in France.


title: French Republican calendar

text: The leap year was called "Sextile", an allusion to the "bissextile" leap years of the Julian and Gregorian calendars, because it contained a sixth complementary day.


title: French Republican calendar

text: Each day in the Republican Calendar was divided into ten hours, each hour into 100 decimal minutes, and each decimal minute into 100 decimal seconds. Thus an hour was 144 conventional minutes (2.4 times as long as a conventional hour), a minute was 86.4 conventional seconds (44% longer than a conventional minute), and a second was 0.864 conventional seconds (13.6% shorter than a conventional second).


title: French Republican calendar

text: Clocks were manufactured to display this decimal time, but it did not catch on. Mandatory use of decimal time was officially suspended 7 April 1795, although some cities continued to use decimal time as late as 1801.


title: French Republican calendar

text: The numbering of years in the Republican Calendar by Roman numerals ran counter to this general decimalization tendency.


title: French Republican calendar

text: The Republican calendar year began the day the autumnal equinox occurred in Paris, and had twelve months of 30 days each, which were given new names based on nature, principally having to do with the prevailing weather in and around Paris and sometimes evoking the Medieval Labors of the Months. The extra five or six days in the year were not given a month designation, but considered Sansculottides or Complementary Days.


title: French Republican calendar

text: Note: On many printed calendars of Year II (1793–94), the month of "Thermidor" was named "Fervidor" (from Latin "fervidus", "burning hot").


title: French Republican calendar

text: Most of the month names were new words coined from French, Latin, or Greek. The endings of the names are grouped by season. "Dor" means "giving" in Greek.


title: French Republican calendar

text: In Britain, a contemporary wit mocked the Republican Calendar by calling the months: Wheezy, Sneezy and Freezy; Slippy, Drippy and Nippy; Showery, Flowery and Bowery; Hoppy, Croppy and Poppy. The historian Thomas Carlyle suggested somewhat more serious English names in his 1837 work "", namely Vintagearious, Fogarious, Frostarious, Snowous, Rainous, Windous, Buddal, Floweral, Meadowal, Reapidor, Heatidor, and Fruitidor. Like the French originals, they are neologisms suggesting a meaning related to the season.


title: French Republican calendar

text: The Catholic Church used a calendar of saints, which named each day of the year after an associated saint. To reduce the influence of the Church, Fabre d'Églantine introduced a Rural Calendar in which each day of the year had a unique name associated with the rural economy, stated to correspond to the time of year. Every "décadi" (ending in 0) was named after an agricultural tool. Each "quintidi" (ending in 5) was named for a common animal. The rest of the days were named for "grain, pasture, trees, roots, flowers, fruits" and other plants, except for the first month of winter, Nivôse, during which the rest of the days were named after minerals.


title: French Republican calendar

text: Five extra days – six in leap years – were national holidays at the end of every year. These were originally known as "les sans-culottides" (after "sans-culottes"), but after year III (1795) as "les jours complémentaires":


title: French Republican calendar

text: Below are the Gregorian dates each Republican year ("an" in French) began while the calendar was in effect.


title: French Republican calendar

text: The calendar was abolished in the year XIV (1805). After this date, opinions seem to differ on the method by which the leap years would have been determined if the calendar were still in force. There are at least four hypotheses used to convert dates from the Gregorian calendar:


title: French Republican calendar

text: The following table shows when several years of the Republican Era begin on the Gregorian calendar, according to each of the four above methods:


title: French Republican calendar

text: For this calendar, the Romme method of calculating leap years is used. Other methods may differ by one day. Time may be cached and therefore not accurate. Decimal time is according to Paris meantime, which is 9 minutes 21 seconds (6.49 decimal minutes) ahead of Greenwich Mean Time. (This tool calibrates the time, if calibration is desired.)


title: French Republican calendar

text: Leap years in the calendar are a point of great dispute, due to the contradicting statements in the establishing decree stating:


title: French Republican calendar

text: These two specifications are incompatible, as leap years defined by the autumnal equinox in Paris do not recur on a regular four-year schedule. Thus, the years III, VII, and XI were observed as leap years, and the years XV and XX were also planned as such, even though they were five years apart.


title: French Republican calendar

text: A fixed arithmetic rule for determining leap years was proposed in the name of the Committee of Public Education by Gilbert Romme on 19 Floréal An III (8 May 1795). The proposed rule was to determine leap years by applying the rules of the Gregorian calendar to the years of the French Republic (years IV, VIII, XII, etc. were to be leap years) except that year 4000 (the last year of ten 400-year periods) should be a common year instead of a leap year. Shortly thereafter, he was sentenced to the guillotine, and his proposal was never adopted and the original astronomical rule continued, which excluded any other fixed arithmetic rule. The proposal was intended to avoid uncertain future leap years caused by the inaccurate astronomical knowledge of the 1790s (even today, this statement is still valid due to the uncertainty in ΔT). In particular, the committee noted that the autumnal equinox of year 144 was predicted to occur at 11:59:40 pm local apparent time in Paris, which was closer to midnight than its inherent 3 to 4 minute uncertainty.