title: Galilee

text: Now Phoenicia and Syria encompass about the Galilees, which are two, and called the Upper Galilee and the Lower. They are bounded toward the sun-setting, with the borders of the territory belonging to Ptolemais, and by Carmel; which mountain had formerly belonged to the Galileans, but now belonged to the Tyrians; to which mountain adjoins Gaba, which is called the City of Horsemen, because those horsemen that were dismissed by Herod the king dwelt therein; they are bounded on the south with Samaria and Scythopolis, as far as the river Jordan; on the east with Hippeae and Gadaris, and also with Ganlonitis, and the borders of the kingdom of Agrippa; its northern parts are hounded by Tyre, and the country of the Tyrians. As for that Galilee which is called the Lower, it, extends in length from Tiberias to Zabulon, and of the maritime places Ptolemais is its neighbor; its breadth is from the village called Xaloth, which lies in the great plain, as far as Bersabe, from which beginning also is taken the breadth of the Upper Galilee, as far as the village Baca, which divides the land of the Tyrians from it; its length is also from Meloth to Thella, a village near to Jordan.


title: Galilee

text: Most of Galilee consists of rocky terrain, at heights of between 500 and 700 m. Several high mountains are in the region, including Mount Tabor and Mount Meron, which have relatively low temperatures and high rainfall. As a result of this climate, flora and fauna thrive in the region, while many birds annually migrate from colder climates to Africa and back through the Hula–Jordan corridor. The streams and waterfalls, the latter mainly in Upper Galilee, along with vast fields of greenery and colourful wildflowers, as well as numerous towns of biblical importance, make the region a popular tourist destination.


title: Galilee

text: Due to its high rainfall –, mild temperatures and high mountains (Mount Meron's elevation is 1,000–1,208 m), the upper Galilee region contains some distinctive flora and fauna: prickly juniper ("Juniperus oxycedrus"), Lebanese cedar ("Cedrus libani"), which grows in a small grove on Mount Meron, cyclamens, paeonias, and "Rhododendron ponticum" which sometimes appears on Meron.


title: Galilee

text: Western Galilee () is a modern term referring to the western part of the Upper Galilee and its shore, and usually also the northwestern part of the Lower Galilee, mostly overlapping with Acre sub-district. Galilee Panhandle is a common term referring to the "panhandle" in the east that extends to the north, where Lebanon is to the west, and includes Hula Valley and Ramot Naftali mountains of the Upper Galilee.


title: Galilee

text: According to the Bible, Galilee was named by the Israelites and was the tribal region of Naphthali and Dan, at times overlapping the Tribe of Asher's land. However, Dan was dispersed among the whole people rather than isolated to the lands of Dan, as the Tribe of Dan was the hereditary local law enforcement and judiciary for the whole nation. Normally, Galilee is just referred to as Naphthali.


title: Galilee

text: Chapter 9 of 1 Kings states that Solomon rewarded his Phoenician ally, King Hiram I of Sidon, with twenty cities in the land of Galilee, which would then have been either settled by foreigners during and after the reign of Hiram, or by those who had been forcibly deported there by later conquerors such as the Assyrians. Hiram, to reciprocate previous gifts given to David, accepted the upland plain among the Naftali Mountains and renamed it "the land of Cabul" for a time.


title: Galilee

text: During the expansion under the Hasmonean dynasty, much of the Galilee region was conquered and annexed by the first Hasmonean king of Judaea Aristobulus I (104–103 BCE). Galilee in the first century was dotted with small towns and villages. The Jewish historian Josephus claims that there were 204 small towns in Galilee, but modern scholars believe this estimate to be an exaggeration. Many of these towns were located around the Sea of Galilee, which contained many edible fish and which was surrounded by fertile land. Salted, dried, and pickled fish were an important export good. In 4 BCE, a rebel named Judah plundered Galilee's largest city, Sepphoris. According to Josephus, the Syrian governor Publius Quinctilius Varus responded by sacking Sepphoris and selling the population into slavery, but the region's archaeology lacks evidence of such destruction.


title: Galilee

text: After the death of Herod the Great that same year, the Roman emperor Augustus appointed his son Herod Antipas as tetrarch of Galilee, which remained a Roman client state. Antipas paid tribute to the Roman Empire in exchange for Roman protection. The Romans did not station troops in Galilee, but threatened to retaliate against anyone who attacked it. As long as he continued to pay tribute, Antipas was permitted to govern however he wished and was permitted to mint his own coinage. Antipas was relatively observant of Jewish laws and customs. Although his palace was decorated with animal carvings, which many Jews regarded as a transgression against the law prohibiting idols, his coins bore only agricultural designs, which his subjects deemed acceptable. In general, Antipas was a capable ruler; Josephus does not record any instance of his use of force to put down an uprising and he had a long, prosperous reign. However, many Jews probably resented him as not sufficiently devout. Antipas rebuilt the city of Sepphoris and, in either 18 CE or 19 CE, he founded the new city of Tiberias. These two cities became Galilee's largest cultural centers. They were the main centers of Greco-Roman influence, but were still predominantly Jewish. A massive gap existed between the rich and poor, but lack of uprisings suggest that taxes were not exorbitantly high and that most Galileans did not feel their livelihoods were being threatened. Late in his reign, Antipas married his half-niece Herodias, who was already married to one of her other uncles. His wife, whom he divorced, fled to her father Aretas, an Arab king, who invaded Galilee and defeated Antipas's troops before withdrawing. Both Josephus and the Gospel of Mark record that the itinerate preacher John the Baptist criticized Antipas over his marriage and Antipas consequently had him imprisoned and then beheaded. In around 39 CE, at the urging of Herodias, Antipas went to Rome to request that he be elevated from the status of tetrarch to the status of king. The Romans found him guilty of storing arms, so he was removed from power and exiled, ending his forty-three-year reign. During the Great Revolt (66–73 CE), a Jewish mob destroyed Herod Antipas's palace.


title: Galilee

text: The archaeological discoveries of synagogues from the Hellenistic and Roman period in the Galilee show strong Phoenician influences, and a high level of tolerance for other cultures relative to other Jewish religious centers.


title: Galilee

text: According to medieval Hebrew legend, Simeon bar Yochai, one of the most famed of all the Tannaim, wrote the Zohar while living in Galilee. Eastern Galilee retained a Jewish majority until at least the seventh century.


title: Galilee

text: After the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s, the Galilee formed part of Jund al-Urdunn (the military district of Jordan), itself part of Bilad al-Sham (Islamic Syria). Its major towns were Tiberias the capital of the district, Qadas, Beisan, Acre, Saffuriya, and Kabul. The geographer al-Ya'qubi (d. 891), who referred to the region 'Jabal al-Jalil', noted that its inhabitants were Arabs from the Amila tribe.


title: Galilee

text: The Shia Fatimids conquered the region in the 10th century; a breakaway sect, venerating the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim, formed the Druze religion, centered in Mount Lebanon and partially in the Galilee. During the Crusades, Galilee was organized into the Principality of Galilee, one of the most important Crusader seigneuries.


title: Galilee

text: During Early Ottoman era, the Galilee was governed as the Safad Sanjak, initially part of the larger administrative unit of Damascus Eyalet (1549–1660) and later as part of Sidon Eyalet (1660–1864). During the 18th century, the administrative division of Galilee was renamed to Acre Sanjak, and the Eyalet itself became centered in Acre, factually becoming the Acre Eyalet between 1775 and 1841.


title: Galilee

text: The Jewish population of Galilee increased significantly following their expulsion from Spain and welcome from the Ottoman Empire. The community for a time made Safed an international center of cloth weaving and manufacturing, as well as a key site for Jewish learning. Today it remains one of Judaism's four holy cities and a center for kabbalah.


title: Galilee

text: In the mid-17th century Galilee and Mount Lebanon became the scene of the Druze power struggle, which came in parallel with much destruction in the region and decline of major cities.


title: Galilee

text: In the mid-18th century, Galilee was caught up in a struggle between the Arab leader Zahir al-Umar and the Ottoman authorities who were centred in Damascus. Zahir ruled Galilee for 25 years until Ottoman loyalist Jezzar Pasha conquered the region in 1775.


title: Galilee

text: In 1831, the Galilee, a part of Ottoman Syria, switched hands from Ottomans to Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt until 1840. During this period, aggressive social and politic policies were introduced, which led to a violent 1834 Arab revolt. In the process of this revolt the Jewish community of Safed was greatly reduced, in the event of Safed Plunder by the rebels. The Arab rebels were subsequently defeated by the Egyptian troops, though in 1838, the Druze of Galilee led another uprising. In 1834 and 1837, major earthquakes leveled most of the towns, resulting in great loss of life.


title: Galilee

text: Following the 1864 Tanszimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire, the Galilee remained within Acre Sanjak, but was transferred from Sidon Eyalet to the newly formed Syria Vilayet and shortly, from 1888, became administered from Beirut Vilayet.


title: Galilee

text: In 1866, Galilee's first hospital, the Nazareth Hospital, was founded under the leadership of American-Armenian missionary Dr. Kaloost Vartan, assisted by German missionary John Zeller.


title: Galilee

text: In the early 20th century, Galilee remained part of Acre Sanjak of Ottoman Syria. It was administered as the southernmost territory of the Beirut Vilayet.


title: Galilee

text: Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, and the Armistice of Mudros, it came under British rule, as part of the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration. Shortly after, in 1920, the region was included in the British Mandate territory, officially a part of Mandatory Palestine from 1923.


title: Galilee

text: After the 1948 Arab–Israeli war, nearly the whole of Galilee came under Israel's control. A large portion of the population fled or was forced to leave, leaving dozens of entire villages empty; however, a large Israeli Arab community remained based in and near the cities of Nazareth, Acre, Tamra, Sakhnin, and Shefa-'Amr, due to some extent to a successful rapprochement with the Druze. The kibbutzim around the Sea of Galilee were sometimes shelled by the Syrian army's artillery until Israel seized Western Golan Heights in the 1967 Six-Day War.


title: Galilee

text: During the 1970s and the early 1980s, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) launched multiple attacks on towns and villages of the Upper and Western Galilee from Lebanon. This came in parallel to the general destabilization of Southern Lebanon, which became a scene of fierce sectarian fighting which deteriorated into the Lebanese Civil War. On the course of the war, Israel initiated Operation Litani (1979) and Operation Peace For Galilee (1982) with the stated objectives of destroying the PLO infrastructure in Lebanon, protecting the citizens of the Galilee and supporting allied Christian Lebanese militias. Israel took over much of southern Lebanon in support of Christian Lebanese militias until 1985, when it withdrew to a narrow security buffer zone.


title: Galilee

text: From 1985 to 2000, Hezbollah, and earlier Amal, engaged the South Lebanon Army supported by the Israel Defense Forces, sometimes shelling Upper Galilee communities with Katyusha rockets. In May 2000, Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak unilaterally withdrew IDF troops from southern Lebanon, maintaining a security force on the Israeli side of the international border recognized by the United Nations. The move brought a collapse to the South Lebanon Army and takeover of Southern Lebanon by Hezbollah. However, despite Israeli withdrawal, clashes between Hezbollah and Israel continued along the border, and UN observers condemned both for their attacks.


title: Galilee

text: The 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict was characterized by round-the-clock Katyusha rocket attacks (with a greatly extended range) by Hezbollah on the whole of Galilee, with long-range, ground-launched missiles hitting as far south as the Sharon Plain, Jezreel Valley, and Jordan Valley below the Sea of Galilee.


title: Galilee

text: , there were 1.2 million residents in Galilee, of which 47% were Jewish. The Jewish Agency has attempted to increase the Jewish population in this area, but the non-Jewish population also has a high growth rate.


title: Galilee

text: The largest cities in the region are Acre, Nahariya, Nazareth, Safed, Karmiel, Shaghur, Shefa-'Amr, Afula, and Tiberias. The port city of Haifa serves as a commercial center for the whole region.


title: Galilee

text: Because of its hilly terrain, most of the people in the Galilee live in small villages connected by relatively few roads. A railroad runs south from Nahariya along the Mediterranean coast, and a fork to the east was opened in 2016. The main sources of livelihood throughout the area are agriculture and tourism. Industrial parks are being developed, bringing further employment opportunities to the local population which includes many recent immigrants. The Israeli government is contributing funding to the private initiative, the Galilee Finance Facility, organised by the Milken Institute and Koret Economic Development Fund.


title: Galilee

text: The Galilee is home to a large Arab population, comprising a Muslim majority and two smaller populations, of Druze and Arab Christians, of comparable sizes. Both Israeli Druze and Christians have their majorities in the Galilee. Other notable minorities are the Bedouin, the Maronites and the Circassians.


title: Galilee

text: The north-central portion of the Galilee is also known as Central Galilee, stretching from the border with Lebanon to the northern edge of the Jezreel Valley, including the cities of Nazareth and Sakhnin, has an Arab majority of 75% with most of the Jewish population living in hilltop cities like Upper Nazareth. The northern half of the central Lower Galilee, surrounding Karmiel and Sakhnin is known as the "Heart of the Galilee". The eastern Galilee is nearly 100% Jewish. This part includes the Finger of the Galilee, the Jordan River Valley, and the shores the Sea of Galilee, and contains two of Judaism's Four Holy Cities. The southern part of the Galilee, including Jezreel Valley, and the Gilboa region are also nearly 100% Jewish, with a few small Arab villages near the West Bank border. About 80% of the population of the Western Galilee is Jewish, all the way up to the Lebanese border. Jews also form a small majority in the mountainous Upper Galilee with a significant minority Arab population (mainly Druze and Christians).


title: Galilee

text: As of 2011, the Galilee is attracting significant internal migration of Haredi Jews, who are increasingly moving to the Galilee and Negev as an answer to rising housing prices in central Israel.


title: Galilee

text: Galilee is a popular destination for domestic and foreign tourists who enjoy its scenic, recreational, and gastronomic offerings. The Galilee attracts many Christian pilgrims, as many of the miracles of Jesus occurred, according to the New Testament, on the shores of the Sea of Galilee—including his walking on water, calming the storm, and feeding five thousand people in Tabgha. In addition, numerous sites of biblical importance are located in the Galilee, such as Megiddo, Jezreel Valley, Mount Tabor, Hazor, Horns of Hattin, and more.


title: Galilee

text: A popular hiking trail known as the "yam leyam", or sea-to-sea, starts hikers at the Mediterranean. They then hike through the Galilee mountains, Tabor, Neria, and Meron, until their final destination, the Kinneret (Sea of Galilee).


title: Galilee

text: In April 2011, Israel unveiled the "Jesus Trail", a 40-mile (60-km) hiking trail in the Galilee for Christian pilgrims. The trail includes a network of footpaths, roads, and bicycle paths linking sites central to the lives of Jesus and his disciples, including Tabgha, the traditional site of Jesus's miracle of the loaves and fishes, and the Mount of Beatitudes, where he delivered his Sermon on the Mount. It ends at Capernaum on the shores of the Sea of Galilee, where Jesus espoused his teachings.


title: Galilee

text: Many kibbutzim and moshav families operate "Zimmerim" (from the Yiddish word for 'room', צימער, from 'Zimmer' in German, with the Hebrew ending for plural, -im; the local term for a Bed and breakfast). Numerous festivals are held throughout the year, especially in the autumn and spring holiday seasons. These include the Acre (Acco) Festival of Alternative Theater, the olive harvest festival, music festivals featuring Anglo-American folk, klezmer, Renaissance, and chamber music, and Karmiel Dance Festival.


title: Galilee

text: The cuisine of the Galilee is very diverse. The meals are lighter than in the central and southern regions. Dairy products are heavily consumed (especially the Safed cheese that originated in the mountains of the Upper Galilee). Herbs like thyme, mint, parsley, basil, and rosemary are very common with everything including dips, meat, fish, stews and cheese.


title: Galilee

text: In the eastern part of the Galilee, there is freshwater fish as much as meat (especially the Tilapia that lives in the Sea of Galilee, Jordan river, and other streams in the region), including fish filled with thyme and grilled with rosemary to flavor, or stuffed with oregano leaves, then topped with parsley and served with lemon to squash. This technique exists in other parts of the country including the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. A specialty of the region is a baked Tilapia flavored with celery, mint and a lot of lemon juice. Baked fish with tahini is also common in Tiberias while the coastal Galileans prefer to replace the tahini with yogurt and add sumac on top.


title: Galilee

text: The Galilee is famous for its olives, pomegranates, wine and especially its Labneh w'Za'atar which is served with pita bread, meat stews with wine, pomegranates and herbs such as akub, parsley, khalmit, mint, fennel, etc. are common. Galilean kubba is usually flavored with cumin, cinnamon, cardamom, concentrated pomegranate juice, onion, parsley and pine nuts and served as meze with tahini dip.


title: Galilee

text: Kebabs are also made almost in the same way with sumac replacing cardamom and with carob sometimes replacing the pomegranate juice.


title: Galilee

text: The definition of Galilee varies depending on the period, author, and point of view (geological, geographical, administrative). Ancient Galilee consisted in broad terms of the Upper and Lower Galilee. Today the northwestern part of the Upper Galilee is in Southern Lebanon, with the rest being in Israel. The Israeli Galilee is often divided into these subregions, which often overlap:


title: Galilee

text: The following subregions are sometimes regarded, from different points of view, as distinct from the Galilee, for instance the entire Jordan Valley including the Sea of Galilee and its continuation to the south as one geological and geographical unit, and the Jezreel, Harod, and Beit She'an valleys as "the northern valleys".


title: Jiro Horikoshi

text: Jiro Horikoshi was born near the city of Fujioka, Gunma Prefecture, Japan, in 1903. Horikoshi graduated from the newly established Aviation Laboratory (Kōkū Kenkyūjo) within the Engineering Department of the University of Tokyo, and started his career in Mitsubishi Internal Combustion Engine Company Limited, which later became Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Nagoya Aircraft Manufacturing Plant.


title: Jiro Horikoshi

text: One of Jiro Horikoshi's first works was the flawed Mitsubishi 1MF10, an experimental aircraft that never passed the prototype stage after some flight tests. However, lessons learned from this design led to the development of the far more successful Mitsubishi A5M (Allied codename "Claude") which entered mass production in 1936.


title: Jiro Horikoshi

text: In 1937, Horikoshi and his team at Mitsubishi were asked to design Prototype 12 (corresponding to the 12th year of the Shōwa era). Prototype 12 was completed in July 1940, and it was accepted by the Imperial Japanese Navy. Since 1940 was the Japanese year 2600, the new fighter was named as "Model 00", "Zero" or A6M Zero, in Japan also known as the "Rei-sen" (literally meaning "zero fight", shortened for "Model zero fighter airplane"). Subsequently, he was involved with designing many other fighters manufactured by Mitsubishi, including the Mitsubishi J2M "Raiden" ("Thunderbolt") and the Mitsubishi A7M "Reppu" ("Strong gale").


title: Jiro Horikoshi

text: Despite Mitsubishi's close ties to the Japanese military establishment and his direct participation in the nation's buildup towards the Second World War, Horikoshi was strongly opposed to what he regarded as a futile war. Excerpts from his personal diary during the final year of the war were published in 1956 and made his position clear:


title: Jiro Horikoshi

text: On 7 December 1944, a powerful earthquake in the Tokai region forced Mitsubishi to halt aircraft production at its plant in Ohimachi, Nagoya. An air raid made by B-29s on the Mitsubishi Engine Works in Daiko-cho, Nagoya a week later caused extensive damage to the works and a severe setback in production. Horikoshi, who had been at a conference in Tokyo with Imperial Navy officers to discuss the new "Reppu" fighter, returned to Nagoya on the 17th, in time to experience another air raid on the Mitsubishi factories the next day. As a result of the air raid, the company evacuated its machinery and engineers to the suburbs of eastern Nagoya. Horikoshi and the Engineering Department were rehoused in a school building which had been requisitioned.


title: Jiro Horikoshi

text: Exhausted and overworked, Horikoshi fell ill with pleurisy on 25 December and remained bedridden through early April. During this time, he recorded in detail the horrors of the increasing air raids on Tokyo and Nagoya, including the devastating "Operation Meetinghouse" Tokyo incendiary raid of 9–10 March. A massive air raid on Nagoya the following night, with B-29s hurling "tens of thousands of incendiary bombs," destroyed most of the largely wooden city. On 12 March, Horikoshi sent most of his family, including his elderly mother, children and brother-in-law, to his home village near Takasaki to be safe from the bombings, though his wife remained with him in Nagoya.


title: Jiro Horikoshi

text: Though greatly weakened by his long illness, Horikoshi returned to work at Mitsubishi in May. He was assigned to the company's No. 1 Works, located at Matsumoto in Nagano Prefecture. While on the train to Matsumoto, he witnessed the true scale of the war's impact on Nagoya:


title: Jiro Horikoshi

text: Still very weak, Horikoshi was sent home to rest after only a week back at work. He returned to his hometown, where he rejoined his family and rested through the month of July. In his diary, he recorded how they could still hear distant explosions as the Allies bombed nearby Takasaki and Maebashi. During the war's final months, Horikoshi recorded Japan's descent into chaos and exhaustion. Though he returned to work at the Matsumoto plant on 22 July, as Matsumoto had been spared from air raids, he found the workforce demoralised and operations in chaos as a result of the emergency evacuations which had scattered employees and workshops around the country. Most of the remaining Mitsubishi employees abandoned all efforts to work by early August and prepared for Japan's defeat and surrender, which came on 15 August, six days after the atomic bombing of Nagasaki.


title: Jiro Horikoshi

text: After the war, Horikoshi participated in the design of the YS-11 with Hidemasa Kimura. He subsequently left Mitsubishi and taught at educational and research institutions. From 1963 to 1965, he was a lecturer at the University of Tokyo's Institute of Space and Aeronautics, and was subsequently a professor at the National Defense Academy from 1965 to 1969. Between 1972 and 1973, he was a professor of the Faculty of Engineering of Nihon University.


title: Jiro Horikoshi

text: In 1956, Horikoshi collaborated on a book about the Zero with Okumiya Masatake, a general in the JASDF and a former Imperial Navy commander who had led Zero fighter squadrons during the war. The book was published in the US in 1956 as "Zero: The Story of Japan's Air War in the Pacific."


title: Jiro Horikoshi

text: In semi-retirement by the early 1970s, he served as an advisor to the society of Japanese aircraft constructors, and continued to receive letters from aircraft enthusiasts around the world. On a trip to New York, he travelled to Long Island and stayed in the Garden City Hotel, where Charles Lindbergh had spent the night before his solo trans-Atlantic flight in 1927.


title: Jiro Horikoshi

text: In the 1973 autumn honours list, Horikoshi was awarded the Order of the Rising Sun, Third Class, for his achievements. His memoir regarding the development of the Zero was published in Japan in 1970, and was translated by the University of Washington Press as "Eagles of Mitsubishi: The Story of the Zero Fighter," which was published in English in 1981.


title: Jiro Horikoshi

text: Horikoshi died of pneumonia in a Tokyo hospital on 11 January 1982, aged 78. His obituary was covered in several major newspapers around the world. He was posthumously promoted to the fourth rank in the order of precedence. He was survived by five children, none of whom pursued a career in aircraft design or engineering.


title: Jiro Horikoshi

text: Horikoshi is the subject of "The Wind Rises", a fictionalized biographical animated film by Hayao Miyazaki, released in 2013, in which his voice was provided by Hideaki Anno (and Joseph Gordon-Levitt in the English dub). In particular, although the film follows the progression of his aircraft designs, the details of his personal life are mostly fictitious (for example, he had an older brother, not a younger sister). These additional plot elements were adapted by Miyazaki from Hori Tatsuo's 1937 novel "The Wind Has Risen".


title: Millenarianism

text: Millenarianism or millenarism (from Latin , "containing a thousand") is the belief by a religious, social, or political group or movement in a coming fundamental transformation of society, after which "all things will be changed". Millenarianism exists in various cultures and religions worldwide, with various interpretations of what constitutes a transformation.


title: Millenarianism

text: These movements believe in radical changes to society after a major cataclysm or transformative event.


title: Millenarianism

text: Millenarianist movements can be secular (not espousing a particular religion) or religious in nature, and are therefore not necessarily linked to millennialist movements in Christianity.


title: Millenarianism

text: The terms "millennialism" and "millenarianism" are sometimes used interchangeably. Stephen Jay Gould has argued that this usage is incorrect, stating:


title: Millenarianism

text: The application of an apocalyptic timetable to the changing of the world has happened in many cultures and religions, continues to this day, and is not relegated to the sects of major world religions, both Abrahamic and non-Abrahamic. Increasingly in the study of apocalyptic new religious movements, "millenarianism" is used to refer to a more cataclysmic and destructive arrival of a utopian period as compared to "millennialism" which is often used to denote a more peaceful arrival and is more closely associated with a one thousand year utopia.


title: Millenarianism

text: Millennialism often refers to a specific type of Christian millenarianism, and is sometimes referred to as Chiliasm from the New Testament use of the Greek "chilia" (thousand). It is part of the broader form of apocalyptic expectation. A core doctrine in some variations of Christian eschatology is the expectation that the Second Coming is very near and that there will be an establishment of a Kingdom of God on Earth. According to an interpretation of biblical prophecies in the Book of Revelation, this Kingdom of God on Earth will last a thousand years (a "millennium") or more.


title: Millenarianism

text: Many if not most millenarian groups claim that the current society and its rulers are corrupt, unjust, or otherwise wrong, and that they will soon be destroyed by a powerful force. The harmful nature of the status quo is considered intractable without the anticipated dramatic change. Henri Desroche observed that millenarian movements often envisioned three periods in which change might occur. First, the elect members of the movement will be increasingly oppressed, leading to the second period in which the movement resists the oppression. The third period brings about a new utopian age, liberating the members of the movement.


title: Millenarianism

text: In the modern world, economic rules, perceived immorality or vast conspiracies are seen as generating oppression. Only dramatic events are seen as able to change the world and the change is anticipated to be brought about, or survived, by a group of the devout and dedicated. In most millenarian scenarios, the disaster or battle to come will be followed by a new, purified world in which the believers will be rewarded.


title: Millenarianism

text: While many millennial groups are pacifistic, millenarian beliefs have been claimed as causes for people to ignore conventional rules of behavior, which can result in violence directed inwards (such as the Jonestown mass suicides) or outwards (such as the Aum Shinrikyo terrorist acts). It sometimes includes a belief in supernatural powers or predetermined victory. In some cases, millenarians withdraw from society to await the intervention of God. This is also known as world-rejection.


title: Millenarianism

text: Millenarian ideologies or religious sects sometimes appear in oppressed peoples, with examples such as the 19th-century Ghost Dance movement among Native Americans, early Mormons, and the 19th and 20th-century cargo cults among isolated Pacific Islanders.


title: His House

text: His House is a 2020 horror thriller film written and directed by Remi Weekes from a story by Felicity Evans and Toby Venables. It stars Wunmi Mosaku, Sope Dirisu and Matt Smith. The film tells the story of a refugee couple from South Sudan, struggling to adjust to their new life in an English town that has an evil lurking beneath the surface.


title: His House

text: It had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on 27 January 2020. It was released on 30 October 2020, by Netflix and received widespread acclaim from critics.


title: His House

text: Bol and Rial are refugees fleeing with their daughter, Nyagak, from war-torn South Sudan. They brave stormy waters on an overcrowded motorboat, along with fellow refugees traversing the perilous English Channel from France in search of a better life. Although they survive the treacherous crossing, their daughter and many others do not. When they are finally granted probational asylum in Britain three months later, the government assigns them a shabby house with peeling walls and dismal furnishings on the outskirts of London. They are given strict restrictions or they may face deportation. They experience racism and hatred from their tenement neighbours. They are met by their case worker Mark, who tells them he hopes they are two of "the good ones."


title: His House

text: Bol tries to assimilate: he sings football songs, asks Rial to use utensils rather than her hands when they eat, and even changes how he dresses. Bol wants to prove to the government that he and Rial belong in the UK. Rial, however, clings to their culture. She retains their daughter's necklace, dresses in colourful clothes, and rather than using a table, sits on the floor to eat. Bol and Rial soon experience strange phenomena in their new home and see visions of Nyagak and a mysterious man, who both escape into the walls.


title: His House

text: Rial figures out that the evil in the house is an apeth or "night witch." She tells Bol the story of a poor man in her village who accidentally stole from an apeth by the river. When the thief built his home, the apeth moved in with him and haunted him. Rial believes that an apeth has followed them and if they repay their debt, the apeth will bring Nyagak back to them. However it is not immediately clear what the "debt" is. Bol burns everything they brought with them, but the apeth continues to torment him and the couple's relationship deteriorates. He goes to Mark and requests new accommodation under the guise that their unit is infested with rats, but is unable to convince him. Bol tears apart the house looking for the apeth, which threatens the couple's chances of staying in the UK when Mark discovers the damage. Rial tells Bol that she wants to leave. Bol locks Rial in the house and summons the apeth himself, who calls him a thief and claiming that Bol has stolen a life that was not his to take. The apeth offers Bol a deal: his life for Nyagak's, but he refuses this offer, resulting in Bol being forced into a state of catatonia.


title: His House

text: Rial escapes the house but finds herself inexplicably back in South Sudan in a familiar classroom. She is reunited with old friends, who are revealed in a further flashback to be victims of a horrendous massacre. Rial was able to survive by hiding. Bol finds her and they escape as violence grips the region, but find that a bus they need to board would only let people with children on. Desperate, Bol sees Nyagak in the crowd and abducts her, falsely claiming that she is their daughter. The couple get on the bus and escape, leaving Nyagak's real mother behind as gunfire erupts. Later, when crossing the rough sea, Nyagak and others fall overboard. Neither Bol nor Rial reaches her in time. Having accepted what they did, Bol decides to repay the debt to the apeth and tells Rial. Bol starts to let the apeth into his skin and Nyagak enters the room and returns to Rial. Rial chooses to save Bol instead of accepting this alternative reality, by slitting the apeth's throat.


title: His House

text: Later, Mark comes to inspect the house to find it repaired. Bol and Rial tell him they have chosen to stay and make it their new home. They say Rial killed the witch that haunted them, which Mark finds funny. Bol says they decided to live with the ghosts of their past from South Sudan, including Nyagak.


title: His House

text: "His House" was developed by British production company Starchild Pictures run by producers Ed King and Martin Gentles. In August 2017, it was announced that Remi Weekes would direct the film from a screenplay he wrote. The Weinstein Company filed a lawsuit against Starchild Pictures claiming they had backed out of an unsigned distribution agreement. In March 2018, it was announced Wunmi Mosaku, Sope Dirisu had joined the cast of the film, with the lawsuit not proceeding and The Weinstein Company no longer attached. New Regency Pictures, BBC Films and Vertigo Entertainment were set to finance and produce. In May 2018, Matt Smith joined the cast of the film.


title: His House

text: It had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on 27 January 2020. Netflix acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released on 30 October 2020.


title: His House

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads, "Featuring genuine scares through every corridor, "His House" is a terrifying look at the specters of the refugee experience and a stunning feature debut for Remi Weekes." On Metacritic, it has a score of 72/100 based on reviews from 19 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: His House

text: Writing for "Rolling Stone", K. Austin Collins gave the film a score of 3.5/5 stars, writing that the film is "a strong debut, and exciting -- even as its horrors risk redundancy as the film wears on -- for its uncanny merging of political experience and the usual, perilous haunted-house thrills." Justin Chang of the "Los Angeles Times" described the film as "one of those return-of-the-repressed freakouts in which suspense and social conscience effectively breathe as one", and added: "it’s a calculated mix of migrant drama and B-movie thrills that can feel reminiscent of movies as different as Jacques Audiard’s "Dheepan" and especially Romola Garai’s "Amulet"".


title: Velvet Buzzsaw

text: Velvet Buzzsaw is a 2019 American satirical black comedy horror film directed and written by Dan Gilroy and starring Jake Gyllenhaal, Zawe Ashton, Rene Russo, Toni Collette, Daveed Diggs, Nitya Vidyasagar, Tom Sturridge, Natalia Dyer, Billy Magnussen, Mig Macario, and John Malkovich. The film had its world premiere at the 2019 Sundance Film Festival on January 27.


title: Velvet Buzzsaw

text: In Miami, art critic Morf Vandewalt attends an art exhibition alongside his friend Josephina, who works for Rhodora Haze, owner of the Haze Gallery and formerly a member of the punk rock band Velvet Buzzsaw. Unfulfilled in his love life with his boyfriend Ed, Morf starts a sexual relationship with Josephina.


title: Velvet Buzzsaw

text: Returning to Los Angeles, Josephina finds a dead man named Vetril Dease in her apartment building and enters his home to discover a myriad of paintings, some of which are partially destroyed. Josephina steals the paintings to show Morf and Rhodora, who become fascinated with Dease. Rhodora decides to exhibit several of his pieces in her gallery to great success. The artworks also enchant Gretchen, Morf's art curator friend, Piers, a former artist for the Haze Gallery, and Damrish, an up-and-coming artist.


title: Velvet Buzzsaw

text: To ensure the rarity of the paintings, Rhodora orders gallery worker Bryson to transport half of them to storage. En route, a painting catches fire from his cigarette ash and burns him, causing him to crash into a seemingly abandoned gas station. After he heads inside to clean the burns, Bryson is dragged into a painting by a group of monkey mechanics. Outside, his truck catches fire and burns the remaining Dease paintings.


title: Velvet Buzzsaw

text: Researching Dease, Morf discovers he suffered from an abusive childhood that culminated in the murder of his father, after which he was sent to a psychiatric hospital for human experimentation, adding to his mental illness. Jon Dondon, a rival art gallery owner, hires a private investigator to uncover the same story. He attempts to reveal Dease's story to the press but is murdered when a mysterious hand hangs him by his scarf. Coco, Rhodora's former assistant who had just begun working for Jon, discovers his body.


title: Velvet Buzzsaw

text: Morf sees a hand in a Dease painting suddenly move; his vision is cleared by his optometrist but he continues to hallucinate. That night, he visits the gallery archivist and learns Dease used blood to make his red-black paints. Rhodora, disappointed with Piers' most recent work, sends him to live at her beach house and not return until he has made art only for himself.


title: Velvet Buzzsaw

text: Gretchen negotiates the display of some Dease paintings in the city's museum alongside an interactive piece titled "Sphere", which is owned by Gretchen's primary client. Meanwhile, Gretchen also sabotages Josephina's relationship with Morf by telling her he still has feelings for Ed. The night before the exhibit's debut, Gretchen sticks her arm in one of the holes in "Sphere" which malfunctions and severs her arm, leaving her to bleed out. Coco, who had recently become Gretchen's assistant, finds her body the next morning. Despite, or perhaps because of, Gretchen's death, there is a spike in interest and demand for the Dease exhibit. Morf and Josephina break up after he finds out she is dating Damrish.


title: Velvet Buzzsaw

text: Morf's visions worsen, and he urges Rhodora to stop selling Dease's artwork. She ignores him and, knowing he will write a negative article about the artworks, tries to sell them off as fast as she can for tens of millions of dollars. Morf hires the again unemployed Coco to dispose of the artworks. At a dive bar, Damrish informs Josephina he will not display his art with Haze Gallery and they break up. Outside, Josephina is mysteriously transported to a gallery where the graffiti paintings melt around her and envelop her skin. As Morf puts the Dease artworks into his storage unit, he discovers a deactivated "Hoboman", a robotic art piece he had given a negative critique. "Hoboman" springs to life and chases Morf into a dead end where it breaks Morf's neck, despite Morf's pleas for mercy.


title: Velvet Buzzsaw

text: The next morning, Coco finds Morf's body while Josephina's terrified image is seen on a wall of graffiti. Rhodora, now believing the deaths are connected to Dease, has all the artwork in her house removed. As she sits outside her house, the buzz saw tattoo on her neck begins spinning and slashes her flesh, killing her. On the way to LAX, returning home to Michigan, Coco passes a street vendor selling Dease's paintings for five dollars apiece, having found one of the boxes from Bryson's truck. Meanwhile, Piers draws a pattern of curves on the beach sand as the waves wash over them.


title: Velvet Buzzsaw

text: Dan Gilroy conceived the project after "Superman Lives", a film which he had a hand in developing, was abruptly cancelled because Warner Bros. was not willing to produce it due to the large budget. He felt that he had wasted a year and a half on the film, but he ultimately made peace with the idea while sitting on a beach, a moment that inspired the final scene in the film. In June 2017, it was announced Jake Gyllenhaal and Rene Russo had been cast in Gilroy's then untitled film, with him writing and directing the film, while Jennifer Fox would serve as a producer, and Netflix would produce and distribute the film. Speaking with "Business Insider" in November 2017, Gilroy teased the project saying:


title: Velvet Buzzsaw

text: In January 2018, it was announced the title was "Velvet Buzzsaw". In March 2018, Zawe Ashton, Natalia Dyer, Tom Sturridge, Daveed Diggs, Toni Collette, John Malkovich and Billy Magnussen joined the cast of the film.


title: Velvet Buzzsaw

text: Marco Beltrami and Buck Sanders composed the score for the film, replacing Gilroy's frequent collaborator James Newton Howard.


title: Velvet Buzzsaw

text: Director Dan Gilroy has stated that he wrote the Morf Vandewalt character to be sexually fluid because he "believe[s] that sexuality is far more fluid than society does."


title: Velvet Buzzsaw

text: "Velvet Buzzsaw" had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 27, 2019. It was released by Netflix on February 1, 2019.


title: Velvet Buzzsaw

text: Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of based on reviews, and an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads: "If you only watch one art-world satire with horror overtones this year — or most others — it should probably be "Velvet Buzzsaw"." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 61 out of 100 based on 29 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Velvet Buzzsaw

text: Brian Tallerico of RogerEbert.com gave the film two and a half out of four stars, writing: "It's a wildly inconsistent film, sometimes disappointingly clunky and as superficial as the world it's mocking, but it's also an ambitious piece of work with unforgettable imagery and an ace ensemble." Emily Yoshida of "Vulture" wrote: "Writer and director Dan Gilroy is drawing from the same well of a bitter, morally compromised Los Angeles that he did for 2014's "Nightcrawler", but "Velvet Buzzsaw", as gleaming and sun-drenched as "Nightcrawler" is dark, is even more of an invective, and even more operatically heightened." Peter Debruge of "Variety" called it "[Gilroy's] most cynical movie yet, with most of the venom concentrated in the character of the critic." David Ehrlich of "IndieWire" gave the film a grade of C, writing "Gilroy's film needed to be 60% better or 20% worse in order to transcend the forgettable silliness of its existence, but it could stand the test of time as a lasting monument to the idea that our own personal taste is the only real thing we ever had."


title: Michael LeMoyne Kennedy

text: Michael LeMoyne Kennedy (February 27, 1958 – December 31, 1997) was an American lawyer, businessman, and activist in Massachusetts. He was the sixth of eleven children to Robert F. Kennedy and Ethel Skakel. Kennedy also served as the head of the non-profit organization Citizens Energy. He died in Aspen, Colorado, in 1997 after skiing into a tree.


title: Michael LeMoyne Kennedy

text: Michael LeMoyne Kennedy was born on February 27, 1958, in Washington, D.C. He was named after an Irish priest and a long-standing family friend, Michael Kennedy of Dungarvan in County Waterford, and Kirk LeMoyne Billings, the prep school roommate of his paternal uncle, John F. Kennedy, and a close Kennedy family friend. He was five years old when his uncle was assassinated and ten years old when his father was assassinated.


title: Michael LeMoyne Kennedy

text: He graduated with a B.S. degree from Harvard College in 1980 and subsequently earned his Juris Doctor from the University of Virginia School of Law in 1984.


title: Michael LeMoyne Kennedy

text: Kennedy was the head of his brother Joe's non-profit organization, Citizens Energy Corporation, which provides heating oil and services to elderly and low-income households in Massachusetts and other cold-weather states.


title: Michael LeMoyne Kennedy

text: Kennedy co-chaired the Walden Woods Project, a non-profit organization to preserve Walden Pond in Concord, Massachusetts. In 1994, he co-founded Stop Handgun Violence, a group that raises public awareness about handguns. That same year, he helped organize his uncle Ted Kennedy's successful re-election campaign for the U.S. Senate against Republican Mitt Romney, later a governor of Massachusetts and United States Senator from Utah.


title: Michael LeMoyne Kennedy

text: Kennedy married Victoria Denise Gifford, daughter of former pro football player and sportscaster Frank Gifford and Maxine Avis Ewart, on March 14, 1981, in New York City.


title: Michael LeMoyne Kennedy

text: They had one son, Michael LeMoyne Kennedy Jr. (born January 9, 1983), and two daughters, Kyle Francis Kennedy (born July 1984) and Rory Gifford Kennedy (born November 14, 1987). The family resided in Cohasset, Massachusetts, until his death in December 1997. His son Michael Jr. and his wife, Mary Campbell, had one son, Michael LeMoyne Kennedy III, in 2014 and a daughter, Quinn Elizabeth Kennedy, in 2016. Kyle and her husband Liam Kerr were married on August 18, 2012, and had sons Conor Kennedy Kerr (2014) and Declan Francis Kerr (2016). A daughter, Conor's twin sister, Josephine Ethel Kerr, died in infancy in 2014. His youngest daughter, Rory, married David DiCamillo on September 30, 2016. They welcomed their first child, Jack Kennedy DiCamillo, on September 20, 2018.


title: Michael LeMoyne Kennedy

text: In 1997, the news broke that Kennedy was having an affair with the family's underage former babysitter. Allegations were reported that the affair had begun three years earlier, when the babysitter was 14 years old. Kennedy took and passed three polygraph tests conducted by companies employed and directed by the Kennedy family, claiming he had not had sex with the Cohasset teen until she was 16, the legal age of consent in Massachusetts at the time. Kennedy was placed under investigation for statutory rape. Shortly after the scandal surfaced, Kennedy and his wife separated.


title: Michael LeMoyne Kennedy

text: Kennedy died on December 31, 1997, in a skiing accident in Aspen Mountain, Colorado. He was playing football while on skis with several other members of the Kennedy family when, at approximately 4:15 p.m., he hit a tree. Kennedy was not wearing a helmet or other safety equipment. The family had been admonished by the ski patrol to cease the activity. Following the accident, Kennedy was taken to Aspen Valley Hospital, where he was pronounced dead at 5:50 p.m.


title: Michael LeMoyne Kennedy

text: He was interred on January 3, 1998, in the family plot at Holyhood Cemetery in Brookline, Massachusetts.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: The Mongol Empire invaded and conquered Kievan Rus' in the 13th century, destroying numerous southern cities, including the largest cities, Kiev (50,000 inhabitants) and Chernihiv (30,000 inhabitants), with the only major cities escaping destruction being Novgorod and Pskov, located in the north.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: The campaign was heralded by the Battle of the Kalka River in May 1223, which resulted in a Mongol victory over the forces of several Rus' principalities as well as the remnants of the Cumans under Köten. The Mongols retreated, having gathered their intelligence, which was the purpose of the reconnaissance-in-force. A full-scale invasion of Rus' by Batu Khan followed, from 1237 to 1242. The invasion was ended by the Mongol succession process upon the death of Ögedei Khan. All Rus' principalities were forced to submit to Mongol rule and became vassals of the Golden Horde, some of which lasted until 1480.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: The invasion, facilitated by the beginning of the breakup of Kievan Rus' in the 13th century, had profound ramifications for the history of Eastern Europe, including the division of the East Slavic people into three separate nations: modern-day Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, and the rise of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Moscow started its independence struggle from the Mongols by the 14th century, ending the Mongol rule (the so-called "Mongol yoke") in 1480, and eventually growing into the Tsardom of Russia.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: As it was undergoing fragmentation, Kievan Rus' faced the unexpected invasion of a foreign foe coming from the mysterious regions of the Far East. "For our sins", writes the Rus' chronicler of the time, "unknown nations arrived. No one knew their origin or whence they came, or what religion they practiced. That is known only to God, and perhaps to wise men learned in books".


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: The princes of Rus' first heard of the coming Mongol warriors from the nomadic Cumans. The historical accounts after the initial invasion call them by the name Tartars. They were previously known for pillaging settlers on the frontier, the nomads now preferred peaceful relations, warning their neighbors: "These terrible strangers have taken our country, and tomorrow they will take yours if you do not come and help us". In response to this call, Mstislav the Bold and Mstislav Romanovich the Old joined forces and set out eastward to meet the foe, only to be routed on April 1, 1223, at the Battle of the Kalka River.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: Although this defeat left the Rus' principalities at the mercy of invaders, the Mongol or Tartar forces retreated and did not reappear for thirteen years, during which time the princes of Rus' went on quarreling and fighting as before, until they were startled by a new and much more formidable invading force. In The Secret History of the Mongols, the only reference to this early battle is:


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: The vast Mongolian Great Khanate army of around 40,000 mounted archers, commanded by Batu Khan and Subutai, crossed the Volga River and invaded Volga Bulgaria in late 1236. It took them only a month to extinguish the resistance of the Volga Bulgars, the Cumans-Kipchaks and the Alans.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: Immediately prior to the invasion, Friar Julian from Hungary had travelled to the eastern border of the Rus' and learned of the Mongol army, which was waiting for the onset of winter so that they could cross the frozen rivers and swamps. In his letter to the Pope's legate in Hungary, Julian described meeting Mongol messengers who had been detained by Yuri II of Vladimir-Suzdal on their way to Hungary. Yuri II gave their letter to Julian.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: In November 1237, Batu Khan sent his envoys to the court of Yuri II and demanded his submission. According to the Laurentian Codex, the Mongols actually came seeking peace, but Yuri II treated them with disdain:


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: Regardless of what impression Yuri II may have given the Mongol delegations, of which several are mentioned, he did his best to avoid direct conflict. He sent them away with what were described as gifts, which were essentially tribute or bribes to keep them from invading.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: The Mongols attacked from several directions. One section attacked Suzdal, one from the Volga, and another from the south towards Ryazan. According to Rashid al-Din Hamadani, the Siege of Ryazan was conducted by Batu, Orda, Güyük, Mengu Qa'an, Kulkan, Kadan, and Buri. The city fell after three days. Alarmed by the news, Yuri II sent his sons to detain the invaders, but they were defeated and ran for their lives. Yuri II also fled Vladimir for Yaroslavl.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: Having burnt down Kolomna and Moscow, the horde laid siege to Vladimir on February 4, 1238. Three days later, the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal was taken and burnt to the ground. The royal family perished in the fire, while the grand prince retreated northward. Crossing the Volga, Vladimir mustered a new army, which was encircled and totally annihilated by the Mongols in the Battle of the Sit River on March 4.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: Thereupon Batu Khan divided his army into smaller units, which ransacked fourteen cities of modern-day Russia: Rostov, Uglich, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Kashin, Ksnyatin, Gorodets, Galich, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Yuriev-Polsky, Dmitrov, Volokolamsk, Tver, and Torzhok. Chinese siege engines were used by the Mongols under Tului to raze the walls of Rus' cities. The most difficult to take was the small town of Kozelsk, whose boy-prince Vasily, son of Titus, and inhabitants resisted the Mongols for seven weeks, killing 4,000. As the story goes, at the news of the Mongol approach, the whole town of Kitezh with all its inhabitants was submerged into a lake, where, as legend has it, it may be seen to this day. The only major cities to escape destruction were Novgorod and Pskov. The Mongols planned to advance on Novgorod, but the principality was spared the fate of its brethren by the decision to preemptively surrender.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: In mid-1238, Batu Khan devastated the Crimea and pacified Mordovia. In the winter of 1239, he sacked Chernihiv and Pereiaslav. After many days of siege, the horde stormed Kiev in December 1240. Despite the resistance of Danylo of Halych, Batu Khan managed to take two of his principal cities, Halych and Volodymyr. The Mongol Tartars then resolved to "reach the ultimate sea", where they could proceed no further and invaded Hungary (under Batu Khan) and Poland (under Baidar and Kaidu). Batu Khan captured Pest, and then on Christmas Day 1241, Esztergom.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: The former Rus' principalities became part of the Jochid appanage ruled by Batu. Batu sited a semi-nomadic capital, called Sarai or Sarai Batu (Batu's Palaces), on the lower Volga. The Jochid appanage came to be known as the Golden Horde. For the next three hundred years, all of the Rus' states, including Novgorod, Smolensk, Galich and Pskov, submitted to Mongol rule.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: After Mongol and Turco-Mongol suzerainty was fought off, this period of rule by the Golden Horde is commonly referred to negatively by Russian historiography as the Mongol or Tatar "yoke". The Golden Horde Tartars instituted census, taxes, and tributes on the conquered lands, which were usually collected by local princes and brought to Sarai.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: In the 14th and 15th centuries, with the rise of the Tatar khanates, the slave raids on the Slavic population became significant, with the purpose of trading slaves with the Ottoman Empire. The raids were catastrophic for both Muscovy and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and they largely prevented the settlement of the "Wild Fields" – the steppes extending from about south of Moscow to the Black Sea – and contributed to the development of the Cossacks.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: Giovanni de Plano Carpini, the pope's envoy to the Mongol great khan, traveled through Kiev in February 1246 and wrote:


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: The influence of the Mongol invasion on the territories of Kievan Rus' was uneven. Colin McEvedy ("Atlas of World Population History, 1978") estimates the population of Kievan Rus' dropped from 7.5 million prior to the invasion to 7 million afterwards. Centres such as Kiev took centuries to rebuild and recover from the devastation of the initial attack. The Novgorod Republic continued to prosper, and new entities, the rival cities of Moscow and Tver, began to flourish under the Mongols.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: Moscow's eventual dominance of northern and eastern Rus' was in large part attributable to the Mongols. After the prince of Tver joined a rebellion against the Mongols in 1327, his rival prince Ivan I of Moscow joined the Mongols in crushing Tver and devastating its lands. By doing so he eliminated his rival, allowed the Russian Orthodox Church to move its headquarters to Moscow, and was granted the title of Grand Prince by the Mongols.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: As such, the Muscovite prince became the chief intermediary between the Mongol overlords and the Rus' lands, which paid further dividends for Moscow's rulers. While the Mongols often raided other areas of Rus', they tended to respect the lands controlled by their principal collaborator. This, in turn, attracted nobles and their servants who sought to settle in the relatively secure and peaceful Moscow lands.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: Although Rus' forces defeated the Golden Horde at the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380, Mongol domination of parts of Rus' territories, with the requisite demands of tribute, continued until the Great stand on the Ugra river in 1480.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: Historians argued that without the Mongol destruction of Kievan Rus', the Rus' would not have unified into the Tsardom of Russia and, subsequently, the Russian Empire would not have risen. Trade routes with the East went through Rus' territory, making them a center of trade between east and west. Mongol influence, while destructive to their enemies, had a significant long-term effect on the rise of modern Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: The Mongol conquest of Rus' left a deep mark on Russian historiography. The ability of pagan nomads from inner Asia to subjugate parts of Russia is according to Charles J. Halperin a source of embarrassment among the "educated Russian society". This embarrassment is thought to be a contributing cause to the emergence of New Chronology, a pseudohistory that claims the conquest is a forgery.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: Historians have debated the long-term influence of Mongol rule on Rus' society. The Mongols have been blamed for the destruction of Kievan Rus', the breakup of the ancient Rus' nationality into three components and the introduction of the concept of "oriental despotism" into Russia. Historians also credit the Mongol regime with an important role in the development of Muscovy as a state. Under Mongol occupation, for example, Muscovy developed its mestnichestvo hierarchy, postal road network (based on Mongolian "ortoo" system, known in Russian as "yam", hence the terms "yamshchik", "Yamskoy Prikaz", etc.), census, fiscal system and military organization.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: The period of Mongol rule over the former Rus' polities included significant cultural and interpersonal contacts between the Slavic and Mongolian ruling classes. By 1450, the Tatar language had become fashionable in the court of the Grand Prince of Moscow, Vasily II, who was accused of excessive love of the Tatars and their speech, and many Russian noblemen adopted Tatar surnames (for example, a member of the Veliamanov family adopted the Turkic name "Aksak" and his descendants were the Aksakovs).


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: Many Russian boyar (noble) families traced their descent from the Mongols or Tatars, including Veliaminov-Zernov, Godunov, Arseniev, Bakhmetev, Bulgakov (descendants of Bulgak) and Chaadaev (descendants of Genghis Khan's son Chagatai Khan). In a survey of Russian noble families of the 17th century, over 15% of the Russian noble families had Tatar or Oriental origins.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: The Mongols brought about changes in the economic power of states and overall trade. In the religious sphere, St. Paphnutius of Borovsk was the grandson of a Mongol baskak, or tax collector, while a nephew of Khan Bergai of the Golden Horde converted to Christianity and became known as the monk St. Peter Tsarevich of the Horde.


title: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

text: In the judicial sphere, under Mongol influence capital punishment, which during the times of Kievan Rus' had only been applied to slaves, became widespread, and the use of torture became a regular part of criminal procedure. Specific punishments introduced in Moscow included beheading for alleged traitors and branding of thieves (with execution for a third arrest).


title: Gary Cahill

text: Gary James Cahill (born 19 December 1985) is an English former professional footballer who played as a centre-back.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill began his career playing for the AFC Dronfield youth system in Derbyshire. In 2000, he joined the Aston Villa Academy and continued his development. In 2004, he joined Burnley on a season-long loan, where he performed well before returning to make his Aston Villa debut. Later, he signed for hometown club Sheffield United on a three-month loan deal. On 30 January 2008, he signed for Bolton Wanderers for approximately £5 million. Cahill performed well for Bolton through the years, cementing a place in the first team. He made 130 league appearances and scored 13 league goals for Bolton. In January 2012, Cahill signed for Chelsea for approximately £7 million. He won the UEFA Champions League in his debut season at Chelsea, and went on to win the UEFA Europa League twice, the Premier League twice, the FA Cup and the League Cup. Following his release in 2019, Cahill joined fellow London club Crystal Palace on a free transfer. He left the club after two seasons in 2021.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill is a former England international with over 60 caps, and represented the nation in England tournament squads for the FIFA World Cups of 2014 and 2018, and the UEFA European Championship in 2012 and 2016, though he withdrew injured from the 2012 event. He was eligible to play for either England or the Republic of Ireland, but chose to play for England. In June 2009, Cahill was called up to the England squad for the match against Kazakhstan; however, he only made his debut on 3 September 2010, coming on as a substitute against Bulgaria. He made his first start for the national team on 29 March 2011, in the friendly against Ghana. He scored his first international goal against Bulgaria, in a UEFA Euro 2012 qualifier.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill was born and raised in Dronfield, Derbyshire, and attended Dronfield Henry Fanshawe School. He was a boyhood Sheffield Wednesday supporter and "grew up watching Sheffield Wednesday, and points to Des Walker as his childhood hero."


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill began his career with AFC Dronfield, a Sunday league team, where he played until he was 15. During his time there, he was scouted by a number of clubs, including Barnsley, Sheffield Wednesday, Derby County and Aston Villa, the last of which he signed for as a member of the club's Academy. "All my friends played for the local side, AFC Dronfield, so I went along and started playing centre half and in centre midfield for them", said Cahill in an interview with the "Manchester Evening News". Cahill started his career as central midfielder, but moved to centre-back after rapidly increasing in height within the space of a year when he was about 15 or 16, just when he was looking to get his first YTS contract.


title: Gary Cahill

text: On 8 November 2004, Cahill was loaned to Burnley. He made his first-team debut the following day in the fourth round of the League Cup, playing the full 90 minutes as they lost 0–3 to Tottenham Hotspur at Turf Moor. On 13 November, he made his debut in the Football League, in the Clarets' 1–0 home Championship win over Nottingham Forest. He made 32 appearances on loan, 27 of which were in the league, scoring once on 3 January 2005, the only goal against Stoke City at the Britannia Stadium. Eighteen-year-old Cahill was handed the accolades of Burnley's Player of the Year and Young Player of the Year.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill made his Villa debut on 20 September 2005 in the second round of the League Cup, playing the entirety of an 8–3 win over Wycombe Wanderers away at Adams Park. On the following 1 April, he made his Premier League debut as a 52nd-minute replacement for Ulises de la Cruz in the 5–0 defeat at Arsenal. Fifteen days later, he scored his first goal, an overhead kick against rivals Birmingham City, to put Villa back into the lead as they went on to win the match 3–1.


title: Gary Cahill

text: On 19 September 2007, Cahill joined Championship team Sheffield United on a three-month loan deal. He made his debut in a 3–2 away defeat at Crystal Palace three days later, and scored his first goal for the Blades as the only one of a win at Stoke City on 10 November. On 27 November, he scored again in a 0–3 win at Charlton Athletic. Under the terms of his loan agreement, Cahill returned to Villa Park in mid-December 2007 having made 16 appearances and scoring two goals.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Speculation surrounded Cahill's future in the January 2008 transfer window, with Birmingham City, Bolton Wanderers and Turkish club Beşiktaş all reportedly showing an interest.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Bolton scout Colin Harvey was impressed by Cahill and on 30 January 2008, Cahill joined them on a three-and-a-half-year deal. Three days later, he made his debut for Bolton in their 0–2 victory over Reading away at the Madejski Stadium.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill was sent off on 26 August 2008 in the second round of the League Cup, receiving a straight red card in the 38th minute for a foul on Giles Coke as the team lost 1–2 at home to Northampton Town. On 5 October, Cahill scored his first Bolton goal in a 1–3 victory at West Ham United, and he added two more over the campaign in 4–1 wins over Sunderland and Middlesbrough.


title: Gary Cahill

text: In August 2009, 18 months after joining Bolton, Cahill signed a new three-year contract with the club. He suffered a blood clot in his left arm after a training injury which forced him to pull out of the home match against Fulham on 6 February 2010; he spent the weekend in hospital. The treatment for the ailment meant that Cahill could not play for a number of months. He nonetheless cemented his place at the heart of the Bolton defence in the 2010–11 season, making 36 Premier League appearances and scoring three goals, all of which came at home.


title: Gary Cahill

text: On 13 August 2011, Cahill scored on the opening day of the 2011–12 Premier League season against Queens Park Rangers at Loftus Road in a 4–0 victory from 25 yards out in the 45th minute. In December 2011, before the January transfer window, Bolton manager Owen Coyle admitted that Cahill may be sold as his contract will expire at the end of the 2011–12 season. Coyle said, "If he [Cahill] does move, there is no doubt there will be top clubs clamouring for Gary." This led much speculation that Cahill could move to higher-placed clubs like Arsenal, Chelsea, Manchester United or Tottenham Hotspur, all of which showed interest. On 23 December, Coyle confirmed that they had started negotiations with Chelsea about a possible transfer, and a week later a transfer fee was agreed. Despite being on the brink of joining Chelsea, Cahill continued to play for Bolton, scoring the crucial goal in the 1–2 away win against Everton at Goodison Park on 4 January 2012. Two days after that, Coyle said that Cahill was not going to play in their FA Cup clash against Macclesfield Town, as it would leave him cup-tied for Chelsea.


title: Gary Cahill

text: After more than two weeks, the clubs had agreed a fee for him, and on 16 January 2012 Cahill signed for Chelsea for what was believed to be around the region of £7 million, and the negotiating of personal terms. Cahill told the club's official website, "Chelsea is a massive club, it is a club that looks to win trophies season in season out and it is a big opportunity for me to be a part of that. Opportunities like this you can't turn down." He also thanked his former club and their fans, saying, "This is the right move for me at the right time and I would like to thank everyone at Bolton because I've had a great four years at the football club. My spell with Wanderers has enabled me to break into the England squad, and I would particularly like to thank the fans for their support along the way. I always appreciated their backing." He was one of Chelsea's unused substitutes in their 1–0 away victory in the 2011–12 FA Cup against West London rivals Queens Park Rangers on 28 January 2012. On 5 February, Cahill made his debut for Chelsea in the 3–3 draw against Manchester United at Stamford Bridge. On 18 March 2012, he scored his first goal in a Chelsea shirt against Leicester City in the FA Cup, a 5–2 win. Cahill scored when he rose above Wes Morgan to head the ball from six yards from a Juan Mata corner, before unveiling the word's "PRAY 4 MUAMBA" on his inner T-shirt, in support of his former Bolton teammate Fabrice Muamba, who had collapsed in a match the day before. He scored his first league goal for the club in the following match, opening the scoring in a 2–1 away defeat to Manchester City. He made a substitute appearance in a 5–1 victory in the FA Cup semi-final against Tottenham Hotspur, after David Luiz was taken off injured.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill started Chelsea's UEFA Champions League semi-final first leg against Barcelona because of the injury picked up by David Luiz in the FA Cup semi-final. The match finished 1–0, with Cahill making some crucial tackles in the second half. In the sixth minute of the second leg, Cahill stretched to win the ball and went down with a hamstring injury. Although he tried to run it off, he eventually had to be replaced by José Bosingwa in the 13th minute. Chelsea went on to win 3–2 on aggregate and set up a meeting with Bayern Munich at the Allianz Arena in the 2012 UEFA Champions League Final. Chelsea went on to win the season's FA Cup, beating Liverpool 2–1 at Wembley Stadium in the final, although Cahill missed the match with a hamstring injury. With the suspensions of both defenders John Terry and Branislav Ivanović, questions arose whether Cahill, along with David Luiz, would be fit for the UEFA Champions League Final to fill the gap. On 15 May 2012, he completed his first full training session after three weeks. "We've worked really hard, all day, afternoons, and I'm fortunate enough to be back," he said. "Hopefully, I'll be fit, I will be fit, and hopefully I'll be out there if selected." He started the match and was part of the squad that defeated Bayern on penalties in the 2012 UEFA Champions League Final, giving Chelsea their first ever UEFA Champions League title. He received praise for his performance especially, as he was still suffering from the injury sustained during the semi-final's second leg. During his first half-season at Stamford Bridge, Cahill appeared in 19 matches, scoring two goals and providing one assist in 1,596 minutes on the pitch.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill scored on his first appearance of the season in a 4–2 win against Reading on 22 August 2012. On 31 August, he scored in the 2012 UEFA Super Cup against Atlético Madrid, which Chelsea lost 4–1. On 5 December 2012, Cahill scored his first UEFA Champions League goal, coming against Nordsjælland in a 6–1 home rout. On 16 December 2012, Cahill was sent-off against Corinthians in Chelsea's 1–0 2012 FIFA Club World Cup Final defeat after a clash with Emerson. In January 2013, Cahill did not feature in the league match against Stoke City due to the birth of his son, Leo. On 15 May, he started the 2013 UEFA Europa League Final against Benfica and made a vital last-ditch tackle in the final moments to ensure that Chelsea won the match 2–1.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill made his season debut in José Mourinho's first match back as Chelsea manager, helping them keep a clean sheet in a 2–0 victory over newly promoted Hull City on 18 August 2013. Twelve days later, Cahill picked up his first yellow card of the season as Chelsea fell to Bayern Munich on penalty kicks after the teams played out a 2–2 draw in the 2013 UEFA Super Cup, held at the Eden Arena in Prague.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill headed in Chelsea's equaliser in their 3–1 comeback win over Southampton on 1 December 2013, moving within four points of 2013–14 Premier League leaders Arsenal. On 18 March 2014, Cahill scored on a rebound of a John Terry header, giving Chelsea a 2–0 win over Galatasaray and a spot in the last eight of the 2013–14 UEFA Champions League. This match also marked Cahill's 100th appearance in a Chelsea shirt since his January 2012 move to Stamford Bridge. At the PFA Awards ceremony on 27 April 2014, Cahill was unveiled as a member of the 2013–14 PFA Team of the Year along with Chelsea teammates Petr Čech and Eden Hazard.


title: Gary Cahill

text: By 18 October 2014, Cahill was the only Chelsea player to play every minute of their 2014–15 campaign so far. On 8 November, he scored his first Premier League goal of the season against Liverpool, the equaliser in Chelsea's 2-1 win at Anfield. On 24 January 2015, Cahill scored the opener against Bradford City in an FA Cup match, but in the end Chelsea crashed out of the tournament after a 4–2 defeat, which ended their hopes of winning a quadruple this season.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill started for Chelsea as they beat rivals Tottenham Hotspur 2–0 at Wembley Stadium in the 2015 League Cup Final. He won the Premier League title with Chelsea that season, as they finished first with 87 points. He was one of six Chelsea players named in the 2014–15 PFA Team of the Year.


title: Gary Cahill

text: On 2 August 2015, Cahill made his first appearance of the season in Chelsea's 1–0 defeat at Wembley Stadium in the 2015 FA Community Shield against London rivals Arsenal. On 24 October 2015, Cahill scored his first goal of the season against West Ham United in a 2–1 defeat as Chelsea suffered their fifth defeat in ten matches. On 2 December 2015, Cahill signed a new four-year deal at Chelsea, keeping him at the club until 2019.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Under new management in Antonio Conte, Cahill continued his partnership with John Terry in defence at the start of the season. On 27 August 2016, Cahill made his 200th appearance for Chelsea at home against Burnley, helping his team to earn a clean-sheet for this first time during the season in a 3–0 victory. On 20 September 2016, with Terry injured and Ivanović being rested, Cahill captained Chelsea for the first time that season, and scored his first goal of the season in a 4–2 win over Leicester City during the third round of the EFL Cup.


title: Gary Cahill

text: On 23 October 2016, Cahill continued to serve as captain with Terry on the bench. He scored his second goal of the season and the second goal of the match in a 4–0 win over former manager José Mourinho's Manchester United at Stamford Bridge. On 26 October 2016, Chelsea lost 2–1 to West Ham United in an EFL Cup match, with Cahill scoring a consolation goal for the Blues in the 94th minute. On 31 December 2016, Cahill headed in Chelsea's first goal in a 4–2 Premier League win against Stoke City, in the process helping Chelsea to a 13th consecutive league win, a club record for the Blues.


title: Gary Cahill

text: On 18 March 2017, Cahill scored the winning goal in a 2–1 away victory at Stoke City, having also scored in the reverse fixture against Stoke earlier in the season. The win sent Chelsea 13 points clear at the top of the table, with 10 fixtures remaining. On 20 April 2017, Cahill was named in the PFA Team of the Year for the third time in his career. On 25 April 2017, Cahill scored Chelsea's second goal in a 4–2 Premier League win over Southampton, at Stamford Bridge, to help maintain Chelsea's seven-point lead at the top of the Premier League.


title: Gary Cahill

text: On 26 July 2017, Cahill was appointed as the Chelsea club captain ahead of the 2017–18 season, following John Terry's departure. On 12 August 2017, in the first match of Chelsea's 2017–18 season against Burnley at Stamford Bridge, Cahill was sent off in the 13th minute of the match for a reckless studs-up challenge on Burnley midfielder Steven Defour, culminating in a sequence of events that saw Chelsea begin their title defence with a shock 3–2 defeat to a Burnley team that had only won once away from home in the previous season. Cahill was suspended for Chelsea's league matches against rivals Tottenham Hotspur, Everton and Leicester City. He captained Chelsea to victory at Wembley Stadium in the 2018 FA Cup Final, his team beating Manchester United 1–0.


title: Gary Cahill

text: After making just nine first-team appearances all season under new manager Maurizio Sarri, Cahill confirmed he would leave Chelsea at the end of the campaign. He made his last appearance in the last home match of the season, coming on as an 88th-minute substitute against Watford in the Premier League, a game Chelsea won 3–0.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill signed for Premier League club Crystal Palace on 5 August 2019 on a two-year contract, re-uniting him with his former England manager Roy Hodgson. He made his debut in an away 2–1 victory over Manchester United on 24 August. On 2 February 2021, he scored his first goal for Crystal Palace with the winner against Newcastle United. On 1 August 2021, Cahill announced via social media that he had left the club following the expiration of his contract. He made 45 league appearances across two seasons for the club, scoring once.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill signed for Championship club AFC Bournemouth on 20 August 2021 on a one-year contract. He was part of a backline conceding just twice in September 2021, winning him the club's player of the month award. Having not appeared since a red card at the end of January 2022 due to the loan signing of Nathaniel Phillips, Cahill was released at the end of the season following promotion to the Premier League. He announced his retirement from football on 16 November 2022.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Capped thrice by England under-20s, Cahill was one of a number of players in Stuart Pearce's first squad as England U21 coach to receive their first U21 call-up, though he did not feature in the match, which was played on 6 February 2007, against Spain. His first under-21 cap for England was the first match at the new Wembley Stadium, where he partnered Anton Ferdinand at the centre of the England defence. His final of three caps came in the 2007 UEFA European Under-21 Championship, where he made one appearance.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill was called up to the England squad for the match against Kazakhstan on 4 June 2009 following the withdrawal of Rio Ferdinand, but had to wait over a year for his first cap, until he came on as a second-half substitute for Michael Dawson on 3 September 2010 against Bulgaria in a 4–0 win at Wembley Stadium. In doing so, he became the first Bolton Wanderers player to play for England since Michael Ricketts in 2002. On 29 March 2011, Cahill made his first start for the national team against Ghana in a friendly that ended 1–1.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Until Cahill played for England, he was also eligible to play for the Republic of Ireland through an Irish grandparent. However, his manager at Bolton and former Ireland international, Owen Coyle, said that Cahill only wanted to represent England.


title: Gary Cahill

text: On 2 September 2011, in his first competitive start, Cahill scored his first international goal for England against Bulgaria in the qualifying rounds of UEFA Euro 2012 in the 13th minute. In netting the opening goal, Cahill became the first Bolton player to score for England since Ray Parry against Northern Ireland in 1959.


title: Gary Cahill

text: On 29 February 2012, Cahill scored a goal at Wembley Stadium against the Netherlands to make the score 1–2, with England eventually losing 2–3.


title: Gary Cahill

text: On 16 May 2012, he was named in new England manager Roy Hodgson's UEFA Euro 2012 squad. On 2 June, during a 1–0 friendly win against Belgium at Wembley Stadium, he was pushed by Belgium player Dries Mertens and collided with England goalkeeper Joe Hart, and was ruled out of Euro 2012 with a broken jaw. He was replaced by Liverpool defender Martin Kelly.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill headed in Leighton Baines' corner to score his third international goal in a 3–0 win over Peru on 30 May 2014 at Wembley Stadium.


title: Gary Cahill

text: On 12 May 2014, Cahill was named in the 23-man England squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. He started all three matches as England were eliminated at the group stage. In September 2014, he was named England's vice-captain to Wayne Rooney, after the international retirements of Steven Gerrard and Frank Lampard. On 9 October 2015, with the team already qualified, he captained England for the first time in a 2–0 home win over Estonia in UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill was called up to the 23-man cohort for UEFA Euro 2016. He played every minute of their campaign, skippering the side in the final Group B match, against Slovakia.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill was named in the 23-man England squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. He made one appearance in the tournament, in the dead rubber match against Belgium in Group G.


title: Gary Cahill

text: On 28 August 2018, Cahill "stepped aside" from the England national team, telling manager Gareth Southgate that he did not want to be considered for selection unless there was an injury crisis.


title: Gary Cahill

text: Cahill was known for his technical ability, powerful heading in defence and attack, volleying, and good tackling. The centre-back also had an impressive goal-scoring record from defence. Former Chelsea manager André Villas-Boas said of Cahill, "I think his technical attributes are immense and his pace is fantastic." Despite being a defender, Cahill was noted for his technical ability and distribution, and occasionally, for his finishing prowess, and strength with his head. A quick, consistent and reliable centreback, Cahill was also known for his positioning and his ability to read the game.


title: Nainital

text: Nainital (Kumaoni: "Naintāl"; ) is a city and headquarters of Nainital district of Kumaon division, Uttarakhand, India. It is the judicial capital of Uttarakhand, the High Court of the state being located there and is the headquarters of an eponymous district. It also houses the Governor of Uttarakhand, who resides in the Raj Bhavan. Nainital was the summer capital of the United Provinces.


title: Nainital

text: Nainital is located in the Kumaon foothills of the Jagbeer Himalayas at a distance of from the state capital Dehradun and from New Delhi, the capital of India. Situated at an altitude of above sea level, the city is set in a valley containing an eye-shaped lake, approximately two miles in circumference, and surrounded by mountains, of which the highest are Naina Peak () on the north, Deopatha () on the west, and Ayarpatha () on the south. From the tops of the higher peaks, "magnificent views can be obtained of the vast plain to the south, or of the mass of tangled ridges lying north, bound by the great snowy range which forms the central axis of the Himalayas." The hill station attracts tourists round the year.


title: Nainital

text: The town of Nainital covers a total area of , and is located at , at an average elevation of above sea level. The slopes of the nearby mountains are most populated, with an altitude ranging from . The highest point nearby is the Naina Peak, with an height of . The town is located in the Kumaon foothills of the outer Himalayas at a distance of from the state capital Dehradun and from New Delhi, the capital of India.


title: Nainital

text: The town is set in a valley around the Nainital Lake - an eye-shaped lake, which is located at an altitude of from sea level. The lake is long and wide, and is approximately two miles in circumference. The bed of the lake is at a depth of near Pashandevi, the deepest point of the lake. The lake is deduced to have been formed tectonically. Balia Nala, which is the main stream feeding the lake is along a fault line and the subsequent streams align parallel to major joints and faults. 26 major drains feed the lake including the 3 perennial drains.


title: Nainital

text: Nainital is surrounded by the mountains of Ayarpata (), Devpata (), Handibandi (), Chini, (), Alma (), Lariya Kanta () and Sher ka Danda ().


title: Nainital

text: The Krol group of rocks, comprising slates, marls, sandstones, limestones and dolomites with a few small dykes intrusives, is the dominant geological formation of Nainital's surroundings, although, Nodules, laminae and stringers of phosphatic material, followed upward by the purple-green shales intercalated with muddy fine-grained sandstone and siltstone; recognised as the Tal Formation; are also prevalent. The region has a complex geological framework; the rocks are fragile and newly formed. The town is completely located in the catchment area of the Nainital lake, which has highly folded and faulted rocks due to polyphase deformation.


title: Nainital

text: Landslides are a frequent occurrence in the hill slopes surrounding the lake, which are steep. The slopes are highly vulnerable to landslides and mass movement due to various geological and human factors. The first known landslip occurred in Nainital in 1866 on Alma hill, and in 1879 there was a larger one at the same spot. The greatest landslide in Nainital occurred on 18 September 1880, on the slope which rising from the north of the flats ends at Alma peak, and resulted in 151 people being buried under the debris. Another heavy landslip occurred on 17 August 1898 outside the Nainital valley.


title: Nainital

text: Nainital experiences a subtropical highland climate ("Cwb") according to Köppen–Geiger climate classification system as the town's climate is influenced by the elevation. The town is a bit dry during winter and very wet during summer due to South Asian monsoon system. The lowest precipitation total occurs in November with total , while the highest precipitation total occurs in July with total . Like most places in temperate region, Nainital has relatively cool summer. The hottest month is July with temperature ranging from to , while the coldest month is January with temperature ranging from to . The highest temperature ever recorded in Nainital was recorded on 18 June 1972, while the lowest temperature was recorded on 17 January 1953.


title: Nainital

text: The winter season in Nainital commences by mid-November and lasts till mid-March. The temperature gradually declines from the month of November onwards and January is the coldest month. Frost and mist are common features in the months of December and January. Occasionally widespread rainfall also occurs due to western disturbance, with snow occurring on peaks higher than 2000m. The winter rainfall is sometimes associated with cyclonic activities. The temperature, however, shows an increasing trend by the end of February or the first half of March. By mid-March, there is a progressive rise in temperature, which indicates the onset of the summer season. While days get slightly warmer; the nights continue to be cool. There is a constant increase in temperature during May and early June when the highest temperature is recorded. The months of March and April are also associated with the occurrence of hailstorms, which brings a short spell of cold.


title: Nainital

text: The onset of the summer in the hills is relatively earlier than the plains and is also very lengthy and humid. The mean temperature in July and August goes down and humidity rises abruptly during this season. The monsoon usually begins by mid-May when the rain strikes and continue until mid-October. Nainital, due to its proximity to the outermost high ranges of the Himalaya, receives high annual rainfall. Generally, by mid-September, the monsoon gets weakened and rain occurs generally after long intervals. With the retreat of the monsoon, the winds blow in a reverse direction. The weather during the post-monsoon months is characterized by bright skies. It is in fact a transition between the rains and the winters and with reduced rainfall, the monthly temperature records a progressive decline till mid-January.


title: Nainital

text: The areas around Nainital (in the middle Himalayan ranges up to , a temperate zone), is rich in flora (typical temperate climate plants) and fauna. The trees and bushes grown in the region (lake's basin) with their botanical and common Indian names (in parenthesis) are : "Quercus leucotrichophora" Oak (Banj), "Aesculus indica" (Pangar or Horse chestnuts), "Juglans regia" (Akhrot or walnut), "Populus ciliata" (Hill Pipal, a sacred tree), "Fraxinus micrantha" (Ash tree or Angu), "Platanus orientalis" (Chinar), "Rubus lasiocarpus" (Hisalu), "Rosa moschata" (Kunj or Musk rose), "Berberis asiatica" (Kilmora), "Cupressus torulosa" (Surai or Himalayan cypress), "Rhododendron arboreum" (Buruns), "Cedrus deodara" (Deodar), "Salix acmophylla" (Weeping Willow), and "Pinus" (Pine).


title: Nainital

text: Several species of medicinal flora and horticulture plants have also been found in the lake. The Aquatic Macrophytic vegetation include "Potamogeton pectinatus", "Potamogeton crispus", "Polygonum glabrum", "Polygonum amphibium" and "Polygonum hydropiper" (Water pepper). The fishes found in the lake are generally carps Mahseer, and the mirror carp which breed several times during one spawning season during May to September. Two species of Mahaseer fish viz., Tor tor: The red finned mahseer and the "Tor putitora": The yellow finned mahseer, a food fish which grows to varying sizes from 20 to 60 cm (7.87 to 23.62 inches) are found. Three species of Hill Trout are found in the lake: the "Schizothorax sinuatus", "Schizothorax richardsoni" and "Schizothorax plagiostornus". The imported fish bred in the lake is Mirror carp or "Cyprinus carpio". "Gambusia affinis" also called Mosquitofish has been introduced in the lake as a biocontrol measure to control Mosquito larvae.


title: Nainital

text: As of the 2011 Indian census, Nainital had a population of 41,377. Males constitute 52.3% of the population and females 47.7%, which gives the town a sex ratio of 911 women per every 1000 men, which is less than the Uttarakhand state average of 963 women per every 1000 men. The population density was 3527.45 people per square km. There were 9,329 housing units in the town at an average density of 795.31 households per square km. 9.54% of the population is under 6 years of age. In 2011, Nainital had an average literacy rate of 92.93%, higher than the Uttarakhand state average of 78.82% - around 96.09% males and 89.47% females in the town are literate.


title: Nainital

text: A special Census taken in September 1880, at the height of the tourism season, returned a total population of 10,054 for the town. However, the official Census in February 1881 returned the population, then at its lowest, at 6,576. The population slightly rose in the following decade, rising to 8,455 in 1891. After dropping to 7,609 in 1901, it remained steady in the coming two decades; 10,270 in 1911 and 11,230 in 1921. The population took another drop, when the 1931 and 1941 censuses returned a population of 9,741 and 9,539 respectively, but has seen a continuous rise since then, with subsequent census reports returning a population of 12350 in 1951, 14495 in 1961, 23986 in 1971, 24835 in 1981, 29837 in 1991, 38630 in 2001, and 41377 in 2011.


title: Nainital

text: Hinduism is the largest religion in Nainital, with 85.61% of residents identifying as Hindus in the 2011 Census. The town's religious profile is highly diverse, Nainital has a significant number of people from Muslim, Sikh and Christian communities. Islam is second most popular religion in town of Nainital with approximately 11.91% following it. Christianity is followed by 0.92%, Jainism by 0.01%, Sikhism by 0.75% and Buddhism by 0.77%. Approximately 0.02% of the population were either atheists or followed 'no particular religion'. Nainital in 1880 had a population of 10,054, which consisted of 6,862 Hindus, 1,748 Muslims, 1,348 Europeans, 34 Eurasians, 57 Native Christians and 5 ‘others’. Kumaonis form the major part of the town's population along with people from all over India.


title: Nainital

text: Kumaoni is the native language and is the most spoken language in the town. Hindi and English also serve as lingua franca between locals and tourists/outsiders.


title: Nainital

text: It is believed that the Naini Lake is one of the 51 "Shakti Peeths, based on the story of the death of the goddess Sati. Out of grief and sorrow, Shiva carried Sati's body, reminiscing about their moments as a couple, and roamed around the universe with it. Vishnu had cut her body into 52 body parts, using his Sudarshana Chakra, which fell on Earth to become sacred sites where all the people can pay homage to the Goddess. The spot where Sati's right eye (or "Nain") fell, came to be called Nain-tal or lake of the eye. The goddess Shakti is worshiped at the Naina Devi Temple, known by locals as Naini Mata Temple on the north shore of the present day lake.


title: Nainital

text: Nainital has historically been a part of the Kumaon region. After the fall of Katyuri Dynasty in 10th century, Kumaon was divided into several small princely states, and the region around Nainital was under various branches of a Khasiya family. The first dynasty to achieve consolidated dominance over Kumaon after the Katyuris was the Chand dynasty, but it took many centuries and Nainital and its surroundings were one of the last areas to be absorbed. Trilok Chand had built a fort at Bhimtal in the thirteenth century, But at that time, Nainital itself was not under the Chand rule, and was situated near the western border of the Kingdom. During the reign of Udyan Chand, the western boundary of the Chand kingdom extended to the Koshi and Suyal rivers, but Ramgarh and Kota were still under the former Khasia rule. Kirat Chand, who ruled from 1488 to 1503 was finally able to establish authority over Nainital and the surrounding region. The Khasia chiefs made an attempt to regain their independence in 1560, when they enjoyed a brief moment of success under the leadership of a Khasiya of Ramgarh, but were later subdued with ruthlessness by Balo Kalyan Chand.


title: Nainital

text: The Kumaon Hills came under British rule after the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–16). The hill station town of Naini Tal was founded only in 1841, with the construction of the first European house (Pilgrim Lodge) by P. Barron, a sugar trader from Shahjahanpur. In his memoir, he wrote: "It is by far the best site I have witnessed in the course of a trek in the Himalayas." In 1846, when a Captain Madden of the Bengal Artillery visited Naini Tal, he recorded that "houses were rapidly springing up in most parts of the settlement: some towards the crest of the military ranges were nearly above sea level: the rugged and woody Anyarpatta


title: Nainital

text: (Anyar-patt – in Kumaoni means – complete blackout. The reason for this nomenclature by the locals was because there were minimal sun rays due to its location and dense forests) was being gradually planted and that the favourite sites were on the undulating tract of forest land which stretched back from the head of the lake to the base of China and Deopatta (Camel's Hump). The church, St. John(1846) in the Wilderness, was one of the earliest buildings in Nainital, followed by Belvedere, Alma lodge, Ashdale Cottage(1860)..." Soon, the town became a health resort favoured by British soldiers and by colonial officials and their families trying to escape the heat of the plains. Later, the town became the summer residence of the governor of the United Provinces.


title: Nainital

text: On 18 September 1880 a landslide ('the landslip of 1880') occurred at the north end of the town, burying 151 people. The first known landslide had occurred in 1866(old Victoria hotel was destroyed), and in 1869 there was a larger one at the same spot, Alma Hill, but "the "great slip"" occurred on "Saturday 18 September 1880."