title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: By the late 1960s Clinton had assembled a touring band to back up the Parliaments, the first stable lineup of which included Billy Bass Nelson (bass), Eddie Hazel (lead guitarist), Tawl Ross (guitarist), Tiki Fulwood (drums), and Mickey Atkins (keyboards). After a contractual dispute in which Clinton temporarily lost the rights to the name "The Parliaments", Clinton brought the backing musicians forward. When the band relocated to Detroit, their guitar-based, raw funk sound, with its heavy psychedelic rock influences, inspired "Billy Bass" Nelson, who coined the name "Funkadelic". Clinton signed Funkadelic to Westbound Records, and the five Parliaments singers were credited as "guests" while the five musicians were listed as the main group members. The debut album "Funkadelic" was released in 1970.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: Meanwhile, Clinton regained the rights to the name "The Parliaments" and initiated another new entity, now known as Parliament, with the same five singers and five musicians but this time as a smoother R&B-based funk ensemble that Clinton positioned as a counterpoint to the more rock-oriented Funkadelic. Parliament recorded "Osmium" for Invictus Records in 1970, and after a hiatus in which Clinton focused on Funkadelic, Parliament was signed to Casablanca Records and released its debut for that label "Up for the Down Stroke" in 1974. The two bands began to tour together under the collective name "Parliament-Funkadelic".


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: By this time the original ten-member lineup of Parliament-Funkadelic had begun to splinter, but many others joined for various album releases by either band, leading to a collective with a fluid and rapidly expanding membership. Notable members to join during this period include keyboardist Bernie Worrell, bassist Bootsy Collins, guitarist Garry Shider, bassist Cordell Mosson, and The Horny Horns.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: In the 1975-1979 period, both Parliament and Funkadelic achieved several high-charting albums and singles on both the R&B and Pop charts. Many members of the collective began to branch out into side bands and solo projects under George Clinton's tutelage, including Bootsy's Rubber Band, Parlet, and The Brides of Funkenstein, while longtime members like Eddie Hazel recorded solo albums with songwriting and studio help from the collective. The Parliament albums of this period had become concept albums with themes from science fiction and afro-futurism, elaborate political and sociological themes, and an evolving storyline with recurring fictional characters. Parliament-Funkadelic stage shows (particularly the P-Funk Earth Tour of 1976) were expanded to include imagery from science fiction and a stage prop known as the Mothership. These concepts came to be known as the P-Funk mythology.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: By the late 1970s the Parliament-Funkadelic collective became over-extended and several key members departed acrimoniously over disagreements with Clinton and his management style. Original Parliaments members Fuzzy Haskins, Calvin Simon, and Grady Thomas departed in 1977 after becoming disillusioned with the influx of new members, and later recorded an album under the name Funkadelic. Other members departed and formed new funk bands that detached themselves from P-Funk and even criticized the collective, such as Quazar (formed by guitarist Glenn Goins) and Mutiny (formed by drummer Jerome Brailey). Due to financial difficulties and the collapse of Casablanca Records (Parliament's label), Clinton dissolved Parliament and Funkadelic as separate entities. Many members of the collective continued to work for Clinton, first on his solo albums and later as Parliament-Funkadelic or the P-Funk All Stars.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: In the early 1980s George Clinton continued to record while battling with financial problems and well-publicized drug problems. The remaining members of Parliament-Funkadelic recorded the 1982 hit album "Computer Games", which was released as a George Clinton solo album. Included on this release was the much-sampled #1 hit single "Atomic Dog". The following year, Clinton formed the P-Funk All Stars, who went on to record "Urban Dancefloor Guerillas" in 1983. The P-Funk All Stars included many of the same members as the late-1970s version of the Parliament-Funkadelic collective, and was so named because of various legal issues concerning use of the names Parliament and Funkadelic after 1980. The name P-Funk All Stars is still in use to the current day, and group has included a mix of former Parliament-Funkadelic members as well as guests and new musicians.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: As the 1980s continued, P-Funk did not meet with great commercial success as the band continued to produce albums under the name of George Clinton as solo artist. P-Funk retired from touring from 1984 until 1989, except for extremely sporadic performances and TV appearances. It was at this time that hip hop music began to extensively sample P-Funk music, so remnants of the music were still heard regularly, now among fans of hip hop. By 1993, most of the Parliament and Funkadelic back catalog had been reissued. The same year saw the return of a reconstituted P-Funk All Stars, with the re-release of "Urban Dancefloor Guerrillas" under the title "Hydraulic Funk", and a new hip hop influenced album "Dope Dogs". In 1994, the group toured with the Lollapalooza festival and appeared in the film "PCU".


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: The 1996 album "T.A.P.O.A.F.O.M." (The Awesome Power of a Fully Operational Mothership), released under the name George Clinton & the P-Funk All Stars, served as a reunion album featuring contributions from the band's most noteworthy songwriters from the earlier eras, such as Bootsy Collins, Bernie Worrell, and Junie Morrison. It would be ten years before another album would be released. In the intervening time, successive tours would slowly restore some of the broken ties between the original band members, together with an accumulation of new talent. On July 23, 1999, George Clinton and Parliament-Funkadelic, including noteworthy former members Bootsy and Catfish Collins and Bernie Worrell, performed on stage at Woodstock '99. The collective continued to tour sporadically in to the 2000s, with participation from some of the children and grandchildren of the original members.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: In May 1997, George Clinton and 15 other members of Parliament-Funkadelic were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, the largest band yet inducted. In 2004, "Rolling Stone" ranked Parliament-Funkadelic #56 on their list of the "100 Greatest Artists of All Time". In February 2002, "Spin" ranked Parliament-Funkadelic #6 on their list of the "50 Greatest Bands of All Time". Besides their innovation in the entire genre of funk music, George Clinton and P-Funk are still heard often today, especially in hip-hop sampling. The Red Hot Chili Peppers video for their 2006 single "Dani California" featured a tribute to Parliament-Funkadelic. Parliament-Funkadelic's musical influence can also be heard in rhythm and blues, soul, electronica, gospel, jazz, and new wave.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: In December 2018, the Recording Academy announced that Clinton and Parliament-Funkadelic would be given Lifetime Achievement Awards. The awards will be presented on May 11, 2019.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: About the album "Mothership Connection", Clinton said "We had put black people in situations nobody ever thought they would be in, like the White House. I figured another place you wouldn't think black people would be was in outer space. I was a big fan of "Star Trek", so we did a thing with a pimp sitting in a spaceship shaped like a Cadillac, and we did all these James Brown-type grooves, but with street talk and ghetto slang." Like Sun Ra, Clinton wanted to see black people in space.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: All the sci-fi aspects of P-Funk are what situate Clinton's work in an afrofuturistic setting, but also the idea that he took the shared experience of African Americans – a negative one, at that – and gave it back, therefore giving them tremendously more agency than they’d had before.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: George Clinton has been, since its inception, the driving force behind the development of the P-Funk sound, having led the collective since forming The Parliaments as a doo-wop group in the late 1950s. The funk sound, socially conscious lyrics, and P-Funk mythology developed primarily by Clinton have been especially influential for later R&B, hip hop, and rock music.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: Bernie Worrell officially joined Funkadelic after the release of their first album and became an integral member of the Parliament-Funkadelic collective thereafter. His classical training on piano and innovative use of synthesizers has proven to be extremely influential, particularly his pioneering use of the Moog synthesizer, which replaced the conventional electric bass on songs like "Flash Light" and "Aqua Boogie". He was responsible for many P-Funk rhythm and (with trombonist Fred Wesley) horn arrangements. Worrell left the band in 1981, but continued to contribute to P-Funk studio albums and occasionally appear live with Parliament-Funkadelic as a special guest.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: Bootsy Collins was a major songwriter, rhythm arranger, and bassist for Parliament-Funkadelic during the seventies and was a major influence in the band's sound during that time. His style of bass playing has become especially influential. Collins later focused his attention on his own Bootsy's Rubber Band but continues to make occasional contributions to studio albums by members of the Parliament-Funkadelic collective.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: Eddie Hazel was the original lead guitarist for Funkadelic and was a major force on the first several albums by that group. His Hendrix-inspired style has become very influential. After the early 1970s he contributed sporadically to various Parliament-Funkadelic projects. A key early Funkadelic song that captured both the band's unique sound and Hazel's talent was the ten-minute guitar solo "Maggot Brain" from the 1971 Funkadelic album of the same title.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: Maceo joined James Brown's band with brother Melvin Parker in 1964. In 1970, Parker, his brother Melvin, and a few of Brown's band members left to establish the band Maceo & All the King's Men, which toured for two years.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: In January 1973, Parker rejoined with James Brown. He also charted a single "Parrty – Part I" (#71 pop singles) with Maceo & the Macks that year. In 1975, Parker and some of Brown's band members, including Fred Wesley, left to join George Clinton's band Parliament-Funkadelic.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: Walter "Junie" Morrison (keyboards, multi-instrumentalist, vocals, songwriter, arranger, producer; born 1954 - January 21, 2017 ).


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: Junie Morrison joined P-Funk in early 1978 as musical director after having success in the early Ohio Players and as a solo artist. Though primarily a keyboardist, Junie composed or co-wrote several of the band's hits at the height of their popularity and served as a lead vocalist, producer, and arranger on many songs for the collective. Morrison stopped touring with the band after 1981, but contributed to many subsequent albums. During his time with P-funk, some of his work was credited under the name J.S. Theracon.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: As a child, Garry Shider was a customer at the barbershop where The Parliaments rehearsed and performed, and after some time with his own group United Soul, he was recruited by George Clinton into Funkadelic in 1972. Shider became a frequent lead vocalist on several Parliament and Funkadelic albums and along with his "gospel" vocal and guitar style, was most recognized for wearing his trademark hotel-towel "diaper".


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: Mike Hampton has been the lead guitarist for P-Funk since 1973, when he was recruited at age 17 to replace Eddie Hazel, after an impromptu performance of Hazel's signature song "Maggot Brain". Hampton is known for his advancement of rock and heavy metal guitar used by Parliament-Funkadelic and later the P-Funk All Stars, leaving the collective in 2015.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: Glenn Goins was recruited into Parliament-Funkadelic in 1975 and was an important contributor, and like bandmate Garry Shider, was known for his "gospel" singing and guitar style. In 1978, Goins and bandmate Jerome Brailey departed acrimoniously, and immediately began recording and producing his own band, Quazar_(album), featuring his younger brother Kevin Goins. Shortly after his departure, Goins died from Hodgkin's lymphoma at age 24.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: Brailey was the most prominent drummer in the Parliament-Funkadelic collective during their period of greatest success in the mid-to-late 1970s. Brailey (and bandmate Glenn Goins) left the collective acrimoniously, forming his own band Mutiny, in which he criticized George Clinton's management style.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: Tiki Fulwood was the original drummer for Funkadelic. He originally quit the band in 1971 but reappeared on several Parliament-Funkadelic releases during the remainder of the 1970s. After also working briefly for Miles Davis, Fulwood died of cancer in 1979.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: Billy Nelson was a teenage employee at George Clinton's barbershop in the 1960s and was the first musician hired to back The Parliaments in the band that would eventually become Funkadelic. Nelson then brought his friend Eddie Hazel into the band and coined the name "Funkadelic" when Clinton moved the collective to Detroit. Nelson quit Funkadelic in 1971 but contributed to P-Funk releases sporadically for the next few years. Starting in 1994, he toured with the P-Funk All Stars for ten years.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: Mosson joined Funkadelic in 1972 along with his friend and previous United Soul bandmate Garry Shider. Mosson was the primary bassist for Funkadelic starting in 1972 and Parliament starting a few years after Bootsy Collins began to focus on his solo career. Since the late 1970s, Mosson most frequently played rhythm guitar and continued to tour with the P-Funk All Stars until his death.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: Davis was the bass singer and a member of The Parliaments. His distinctive voice can be heard on "Give Up the Funk (Tear the Roof off the Sucker)" and on George Clinton's solo hit single "Atomic Dog". Aside from Clinton, he was the only original member of the Parliaments not to leave in 1977. In the eighties, Davis recorded and toured with George Clinton and the P-Funk Allstars in support of "Atomic Dog" and with Zapp in support of "I Can Make You Dance", but his vocal range made him an obvious choice as replacement bass vocalist for Melvin Franklin in the Temptations. Davis left the Temptations in 1995 (after being diagnosed with cancer), but continued to perform with former P-Funk members Fuzzy Haskins, Calvin Simon, and Grady Thomas under the name Original P.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: Haskins was a member and first tenor of The Parliaments. In addition to writing, playing drums and guitar, Haskins is known for his "gospel" singing style. He left P-Funk in 1977. In the nineties, he formed Original P with the other Parliaments (Davis, Thomas and Simon), and retired in 2011.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: Simon was an original member of The Parliaments, before leaving in 1977. In the nineties, he formed Original P with the other Parliaments (Davis, Thomas and Haskins), and retired in 2005. He was the owner of a record label.


title: Parliament-Funkadelic

text: In the late 1950s, Thomas started as bass vocalist for The Parliaments. When Parliament members moved from Newark to Plainfield, New Jersey to "conk" hair at The Silk Palace, The Parliaments began a friendly rivalry with local doo wop group Sammy Campbell and the Del-Larks, who featured bass vocalist Raymond Davis. Thomas persuaded Davis to take over as bass vocalist in the Parliaments, which enabled Thomas to move to baritone. Thomas (along with Worrell) is responsible for the addition of drummer Jerome Brailey. After Thomas, Haskins, and Simon left P-Funk in 1977, Thomas formed his own band called The Shady Bunch. Word of Thomas's drummer, Dennis Chambers, and bassist Rodney "Skeet" Curtis got back to Clinton, and Chambers and Curtis were invited, and joined Parliament-Funkadelic. After Thomas' brief return to The P-Funk Allstars in the nineties, Thomas cofounded Original P with original Parliaments (Davis, Haskins, and Simon). Thomas is the leader of Original P.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: Forgotten Realms is a campaign setting for the "Dungeons & Dragons" ("D&D") fantasy role-playing game. Commonly referred to by players and game designers alike as "The Realms", it was created by game designer Ed Greenwood around 1967 as a setting for his childhood stories. Several years later, Greenwood brought the setting to publication for the "D&D" game as a series of magazine articles, and the first Realms game products were released in 1987. Role-playing game products have been produced for the setting ever since, as have various licensed products including novels, role-playing video game adaptations (including the first massively multiplayer online role-playing game to use graphics), comic books, and .


title: Forgotten Realms

text: Forgotten Realms is a fantasy world setting, described as a world of strange lands, dangerous creatures, and mighty deities, where magic and supernatural phenomena are quite real. The premise is that, long ago, planet Earth and the world of the Forgotten Realms were more closely connected. As time passed, the inhabitants of Earth had mostly forgotten about the existence of that other world – hence the name Forgotten Realms. The original Forgotten Realms logo, which was used until 2000, had small runic letters that read "Herein lie the lost lands" as an allusion to the connection between the two worlds.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: Forgotten Realms is one of the most popular "D&D" settings, largely due to the success of novels by authors such as R. A. Salvatore and numerous role-playing video games, including "Pool of Radiance" (1988), "Eye of the Beholder" (1991), "Icewind Dale" (2000), and the "Neverwinter Nights" and "Baldur's Gate" series.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: Ed Greenwood began writing stories about the Forgotten Realms as a child, starting at the age of 8. He came up with the name from the notion of a multiverse of parallel worlds; Earth is one such world, and the Realms another. In Greenwood's original conception, the fantastic legends of Earth derive from a fantasy world that can no longer be accessed. Greenwood discovered the "Dungeons & Dragons" game in 1975, and became a serious role-playing enthusiast with the first "Advanced Dungeons & Dragons" ("AD&D") game releases in 1978. Greenwood brought his fantasy world to the new medium of role-playing games when a university student named September introduced him to "AD&D". The setting became the home of Greenwood's personal campaign. Greenwood began a Realms campaign in the city of Waterdeep before creating a group known as the Knights of Myth Drannor in the Shadowdale region. Greenwood felt that his players' thirst for detail made the Realms what it is: "They want it to seem real, and work on 'honest jobs' and personal activities, until the whole thing grows into far more than a casual campaign. Roleplaying always governs over rules, and the adventures seem to develop themselves." Greenwood has stated that his own version of the Forgotten Realms, as run in his personal campaign, is much darker than published versions.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: Starting in 1979, Greenwood published a series of articles that detailed the setting in "The Dragon" (now "Dragon") magazine, the first of which was about a monster known as the "curst". Greenwood wrote voluminous entries to "Dragon", and used the Realms as a setting for his descriptions of magic items, monsters, and spells. When Gary Gygax "lost control of TSR in 1985, the company saw an opportunity to move beyond Greyhawk and introduce a new default setting". In 1986, TSR began looking for a new campaign setting for "AD&D", and assigned Jeff Grubb to find out more about the setting used by Greenwood as portrayed in his articles in "Dragon".


title: Forgotten Realms

text: According to Greenwood, Grubb asked him "Do you just make this stuff up as you go, or do you really have a huge campaign world?"; Greenwood answered "yes" to both questions. TSR felt that the Forgotten Realms would be a more open-ended setting than its epic fantasy counterpart Dragonlance, and chose the Realms as a ready-made campaign setting upon deciding to publish "AD&D" 2nd edition. Greenwood agreed to work on the project and began working to get Forgotten Realms officially published. He sent TSR a few dozen cardboard boxes stuffed with pencil notes and maps, and sold all rights to the setting for a token fee. He noted that TSR altered his original conception of the Realms being a place that could be accessed from Earth, as "[c]oncerns over possible lawsuits (kids getting hurt while trying to 'find a gate') led TSR to de-emphasize this meaning."


title: Forgotten Realms

text: Jon Peterson, author of "Dungeons and Dragons Art and Arcana: A Visual History", said that Greenwood "was that rare obsessive DM who just seemed to have more ideas and energy to pour into his world than even the folks at TSR did. Naturally when TSR was shopping for new campaign worlds as part of their cross-media strategy, they had to get the Forgotten Realms. RA Salvatore took Greenwood's world and created characters and stories for it that made him a bestselling author and sustained TSR as a major fantasy book publisher."


title: Forgotten Realms

text: In 1985, the "AD&D" module "Bloodstone Pass" was released by TSR and is retroactively considered to be a part of the Forgotten Realms, although it was not until the module "The Bloodstone Wars" was released that it became the official setting for the module series. Douglas Niles had worked on a trilogy of Celtic-themed novels, which were modified to become the first Forgotten Realms books, beginning with "Darkwalker on Moonshae" (1987). It is the first book in "The Moonshae Trilogy", which predates the "Forgotten Realms Campaign Set" by one month.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: The "Forgotten Realms Campaign Set" was later released in 1987 as a boxed set of two source books ("Cyclopedia of the Realms" and "DM's Sourcebook of the Realms") and four large color maps, designed by Greenwood in collaboration with Grubb. The set introduced the campaign setting and explained how to use it, and reserved space on the map for SSI's Gold Box computer role-playing games set in the Forgotten Realms.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: TSR began incorporating elements by other designers into the Forgotten Realms, including the Moonshae Isles by Douglas Niles, the "Desert of Desolation" by Tracy Hickman and Laura Hickman, and Kara-Tur by Zeb Cook. The setting also gave TSR a new way to market its "Battlesystem" rules, which it had supported with the Bloodstone adventure sequence that began with "Bloodstone Pass". The last two books of this series, "The Bloodstone Wars" (1987) and "The Throne of Bloodstone" (1988), were explicitly placed in the Forgotten Realms. Some of the characters from Frank Mentzer's "Egg of the Phoenix" (1987) were incorporated into "The Savage Frontier" (1988).


title: Forgotten Realms

text: The compilation module "Desert of Desolation" was reworked to fit into the Forgotten Realms. The module "Under Illefarn" published in 1987 is set in the Forgotten Realms, as is the module released in 1988, "Swords of the Iron Legion".


title: Forgotten Realms

text: R. A. Salvatore wrote his first Forgotten Realms novel in 1988, "The Crystal Shard" (1988), which was originally set in the Moonshae Islands before being moved to a new location and introduced the drow character Drizzt Do'Urden. Drizzt has since appeared in more than seventeen subsequent novels, many of which have appeared on the "New York Times" Best Seller list. In 1988, the first in a line of Forgotten Realms role-playing video games, "Pool of Radiance", was released by Strategic Simulations, Inc. The game was popular and won the Origins Award for "Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Computer Game of 1988".


title: Forgotten Realms

text: Several supplements to the original boxed set were released under the first edition rules, beginning with "Waterdeep and the North", which was followed by "Moonshae" in 1987, and "Empires of the Sands", "The Magister", "The Savage Frontier", "Dreams of the Red Wizards", and "Lords of Darkness" in 1988. The "City System" boxed set was released in 1988, and it contained several maps of the city of Waterdeep. "Ruins of Adventure", a module based on the computer game "Pool of Radiance", was also released in 1988.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: The boxed set "" was released in 1988. It gives details of the lands of Kara-Tur, and was designed to be used with the 1986 book "Oriental Adventures," which officially placed the book in the Forgotten Realms world.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: In 1989, DC Comics began publishing a series of Forgotten Realms comics written by Grubb. Each issue contains twenty-six pages, illustrated primarily by Rags Morales and Dave Simons. Twenty-five issues were published in total, with the last being released in 1991. A fifty-six page annual "Forgotten Realms Comic Annual #1: Waterdhavian Nights", illustrated by various artists, was released in 1990.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: "Curse of the Azure Bonds", a module based on the role-playing video game of the same name, was released in 1989.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: To transition the Forgotten Realms from first edition "AD&D" to the ruleset's second edition, a story of the gods being cast down was planned from the top-down by management and began in "Hall of Heroes" (1989) and spread into a three-adventure "Avatar" series (1989), a three-novel "Avatar" series (1989), and some stories in the comic book. TSR adjusted the timeline of the Forgotten Realms by advancing the calendar one year forward to 1358 DR, referring to the gap as the Time of Troubles.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: In early 1990, the hardcover "Forgotten Realms Adventures" by Grubb and Greenwood was released, which introduced the setting to "AD&D" 2nd edition; the book also detailed how the Time of Troubles had changed the setting. "The Ruins of Undermountain" (1991) was one of the first published mega-dungeons. The Al-Qadim setting by Jeff Grubb was released in 1992, and the setting was placed in the southern Forgotten Realms. The RPGA used the Forgotten Realms city of Ravens Bluff as the setting for their first living campaign. Official RPGA support for this product line included the "Living City" module series. A number of sub-settings of the Forgotten Realms were briefly supported in the early 1990s. Three more modules were produced for the Kara-Tur setting. "The Horde" boxed set, released in 1990, detailed the Hordelands, which featured a series of three modules. The "Maztica Campaign Set", released in 1991, detailed the continent of Maztica.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: The original gray boxed set was revised in 1993 to update it to "AD&D" 2nd edition, with the release of a new "Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting" boxed set containing three books ("A Grand Tour of the Realms", "Running the Realms", and "Shadowdale") and various "monster supplements". Additional material for the setting was released steadily throughout the 1990s. Forgotten Realms novels, such as the "Legacy of the Drow" series, the first three books of "The Elminster Series", and numerous anthologies were also released throughout the 1990s, which led to the setting being hailed as one of the most successful shared fantasy universes of the 1990s. By the first quarter of 1996, TSR had published sixty-four novels set in the Forgotten Realms out of the 242 novels set in "AD&D" worlds. These novels in turn sparked interest in role-playing by new gamers.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: Numerous Forgotten Realms video games were released between 1990 and 2000. The "Eye of the Beholder" PC game was released in 1990, which was followed by two sequels: the first in 1991, and the second in 1992. All three games were re-released for DOS on a single disk in 1995. Another 1991 release was "Neverwinter Nights" on America Online, the first graphical Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG). In 1998, "Baldur's Gate", the first in a line of popular role-playing video games developed by BioWare and "considered by most pundits as the hands-down best PC roleplaying game ever", was released. The game was followed by a sequel, "," in 2000 and "Icewind Dale", a separate game that utilized the same game engine as "Baldur's Gate". "" was released in 2001. Several popular Forgotten Realms characters such as Drizzt Do'Urden and Elminster made minor appearances in these games.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: When Wizards of the Coast took over publication of "Dungeons & Dragons" after purchasing TSR in 1997, they trimmed production down from six campaign settings to "Forgotten Realms" and "Dragonlance", and completed "AD&D" 2nd edition production sometime between 1998 and 1999. They later hired Rob Heinsoo as a member of the D&D Worlds team to focus on Forgotten Realms in the third edition of "Dungeons & Dragons". An official material update and a timeline advance were introduced to the "Dungeons & Dragons" 3rd edition in 2001 with the release of the hardcover book the "Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting", which won the Origins Award for "Best Role-Playing Game Supplement of 2001" in 2002. The timeline was officially advanced from 1358 DR to 1372 DR. After the adventure "City of the Spider Queen" (2002) failed to meet its projected sales targets, Wizards of the Coast cut back on production of new adventures.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: In 2002, BioWare released "Neverwinter Nights", set in the northern reaches of Faerûn and operating on the revised 3.0 rules for D&D. It was followed by two expansion packs: "" and "". A sequel using version 3.5 of the rules was produced by Obsidian Entertainment in 2006, and was followed by the expansion sets "" and "". The "Forgotten Realms Deluxe Edition" compilation was released in 2006, containing the "Baldur's Gate" series (excluding the "Dark Alliance" games), "Icewind Dale" series, and all "Neverwinter Nights" games before "Neverwinter Nights 2".


title: Forgotten Realms

text: With the release of "Dungeons & Dragons" 4th edition in 2008, Wizards opted for a publishing plan featuring a series of six books per year – three core rulebooks and three setting books – beginning with the Forgotten Realms. The company started the cycle with the "Forgotten Realms Campaign Guide" (2008), the "Forgotten Realms Player's Guide" (2008), and "Scepter Tower of Spellgard". These books updated the Forgotten Realms to the newest rules system which altered the setting drastically to make it fit into the 4th edition's "Points of Light" concept.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: The main lore change centered around an event called the Spellplague in 1385 DR. This cataclysm was unleashed when the goddess of magic Mystra was killed, "transforming whole nations and altering creatures. In addition, parts of Toril have fused with its long-lost twin world Abeir, whisking away some countries and adding new ones. The Underdark is more open to the surface. Thay has become a nightmare land of death and the Elves, sensing the newfound connection to the Feywild, have returned to Faerûn in force". The event moved the fictional world's timeline 94 years into the future to 1479 DR. The Spellplague acted as "a narrative justification for design changes."


title: Forgotten Realms

text: In 2008, the Forgotten Realms also became the setting for the RPGA's sole living campaign, Living Forgotten Realms, replacing Living Greyhawk.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: In 2011, the "Neverwinter Campaign Setting" was released which launched the 4th edition's first major multimedia release. The Forgotten Realms city setting spawned four novels by R. A. Salvatore called the Neverwinter Saga, a comic book, and a board game called "The Legend of Drizzt", as well as two video games – the Facebook game "Heroes of Neverwinter" (2011–2012) and a MMORPG called "Neverwinter" (2013). Laura Tommervik, from the Wizards of the Coast marketing team, explained the approach: "We use Neverwinter as the connective tissue across multiple product categories. The transmedia campaign is an opportunity for fans to experience the brand however they choose to".


title: Forgotten Realms

text: In 2013, Wizards of the Coast announced a year-long event called the Sundering which acted as a multimedia project to transition the Forgotten Realms to the next edition of the game. This release included a weekly D&D Encounters in-store play event, a free-to-play mobile game "Arena of War" (2013), and a collaborative novel series: "The Companions" (2013) by R. A. Salvatore, "The Godborn" (2013) by Paul S. Kemp, "The Adversary" (2013) by Erin Evans, "The Reaver" (2014) by Richard Lee Byers, "The Sentinel" (2014) by Troy Denning, and "The Herald" (2014) by Ed Greenwood. Liz Schuh, Head of Publishing and Licensing for "Dungeons & Dragons", said:The Sundering is the last of a series of ground-shaking events. It really affects the whole world of the Forgotten Realms in a major way. You may remember when the Spell Plagues began, the two worlds of the Forgotten Realms, Abeir and Toril, crashed together. That created both geographic changes (the map of the Forgotten Realms and Faerûn actually changed due to that collision), and also changed the way magic works. It changed the pantheon of the gods. The Sundering is all about those two worlds separating—coming apart—and the process of that separation is really the story that we're telling over the next year. At the end of this story arc, Abeir and Toril will be separate again, and many of the things that happened when they crashed together will go back to the way they were before. So magic will be much like it was before the Spell Plague. Markings that marked spell-plagued people and animals will fade and go away. It's really about moving the Forgotten Realms forward, but also about bringing it around to the most beloved and most fondly remembered Forgotten Realms.The result of The Second Sundering, in game terms, was the transition from 4th edition rules to 5th edition rules of "Dungeons & Dragons", published in 2014.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: When "D&D" 5th edition was published in 2014, Wizards of the Coast announced that the Forgotten Realms would continue to serve as the official campaign setting for its upcoming published adventure materials. The village of Phandalin in the Forgotten Realms acted as the primary setting for the new 5th edition "Starter Set" (2014) which was published before the release of three new core rulebooks. Tyranny of Dragons was the first multimedia storyline for the new edition and included two adventure modules, "Hoard of the Dragon Queen" (2014) and "The Rise of Tiamat" (2014), and an update to the "Neverwinter" (2013) video game. The next two storylines, Elemental Evil which included "Princes of the Apocalypse" (2015) and Rage of Demons which included "Out of the Abyss" (2015), were also set in the Forgotten Realms.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: The first campaign guide for the new edition, the "Sword Coast Adventurer's Guide" (2015), was released on November 3, 2015, and only covered a fraction of the Forgotten Realms. It describes the 2013 Sundering event, referred to as the Second Sundering in the book, and its consequences in game terms and lore. The video game "Sword Coast Legends" (2015) published by Digital Extremes was also released in the same month as the tabletop campaign guide.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: 5th edition details on "the rest of Faerûn had been untouched until the "Tomb of Annihilation" (2017), an adventure that leaves the northern Savage Coast for the southern jungles of Chult". The official "Dungeons & Dragons" actual play web series "Rivals of Waterdeep", which premiered in 2018, is set in the Forgotten Realms. It has adapted adventure modules such as "" (2018) and "" (2019) which are also set in the Forgotten Realms.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: The focus of the Forgotten Realms setting is the continent of Faerûn, the western part of a continent that was roughly modeled after the Eurasian continent on Earth. The lands of the Forgotten Realms are not all ruled by the human race, with populations of many humanoids races and creatures ubiquitous in fantasy fiction works such as dwarves, elves, goblins, orcs. Technologically, the world of the Forgotten Realms is not nearly as advanced as that of Earth; it resembles the pre-industrial Earth in the 13th or 14th century. However, the presence of magic provides an additional element of power to the societies. There are several nation states and many independent cities, with loose alliances being formed for defense or conquest. Trade is performed by ship or horse-drawn vehicle, and manufacturing is based upon cottage industry.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: The Forgotten Realms is part of the fictional world of Abeir-Toril (usually just called Toril), an Earth-like planet with many real-world influences and consists of several large continents. It was first detailed in the original "Forgotten Realms Campaign Set", published in 1987 by TSR. The other continents of Toril include Kara-Tur, Zakhara, Maztica, and other yet unspecified landmasses. Kara-Tur, roughly corresponding to ancient East Asia, was later the focus of its own source book "", published in 1988. There is also a vast subterranean world called the Underdark beneath the surface.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: In early editions of the setting, The Realms shared a unified cosmology with various other campaign settings called the Great Wheel. In this way each of the "Dungeons & Dragons" campaign settings were linked together to form one interwoven world connected by various planes of existence. With the release of the 2001 "Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting", the setting was given its own distinct and separate cosmological arrangement, with unique planes not explicitly connected to those of the other settings.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: Religion plays a large part in the Forgotten Realms, with deities and their followers being an integral part of the world. Deities interact directly in mortal affairs, answer prayers, and have their own personal agendas. All deities must have worshipers to survive, and all mortals must worship a patron deity to secure a good afterlife. A huge number of diverse deities exist within several polytheistic pantheons; a large number of supplements have documented many of them, some in more detail than others. Greenwood created a pantheon of gods for his home "Dungeons & Dragons" game, in his Forgotten Realms world, which were introduced in his article "Down-to-earth divinity" from "Dragon" #54 (October 1981).


title: Forgotten Realms

text: When the Forgotten Realms was published as a setting in 1987, the pantheon added Waukeen, the goddess of trade, money, and wealth, who was created by one of Jeff Grubb's players, and added to the Forgotten Realms by Grubb. Tyche was replaced with Tymora, and the elemental lords from Melniboné were replaced by Akadi, Grumbar, Istishia, and Kossuth.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: Much of the history of the Forgotten Realms detailed in novels and source books concerns the actions of various deities and The Chosen (mortal representatives with a portion of their deities' power) such as Elminster, Fzoul Chembryl, Midnight (who later became the new embodiment of the goddess of magic, Mystra), and the Seven Sisters. Above all other deities is Ao, the Overlord, who does not sanction worshipers and distances himself from mortals. He is single-handedly responsible for the Time of Troubles, or Godswar, as seen in "The Avatar Trilogy".


title: Forgotten Realms

text: The setting is home to several noteworthy recurring characters that have gained wider reception, including:


title: Forgotten Realms

text: In his book "The Fantasy Roleplaying Gamer's Bible", Sean Patrick Fannon describes the Forgotten Realms as being "the most ambitious fantasy game setting published since Tekumel", and that it "may be the most widely played-in game setting in RPG history." Similarly, in literature, the novels written in the Forgotten Realms setting have formed one of "the industry's leading fantasy series". Over time these novels have gained "unprecedented popularity", which led, as Marc Oxoby noted in his book, "The 1990s", to the novels having an "extraordinary shelf life", remaining in print for many years. This popular reception has also been reflected in public libraries; for example, Joyce Saricks states in "The Readers' Advisory Guide to Genre Fiction" that the novels have been among the most requested books by fans of the fantasy genre.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: Brian Silliman, for SYFY Wire, described the Forgotten Realms as "a classic fantasy backdrop" and highlighted that "at one time in our history, our world and this one were connected, but over time this magical realm was, well, forgotten. It is an ideal place for any "D&D" adventure, inspiring limitless possibilities for any smirking dungeon master".


title: Forgotten Realms

text: Philip J. Clements called the Forgotten Realms "highly popular", "an unusually well-developed D&D setting" and "more-or-less the flagship setting for D&D". He also noted that it has received the greatest number of supplements.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: The 4th edition update to the Forgotten Realms brought massive lore changes which were "tied to a number of other design philosophies" and the Forgotten Realms "simultaneously had become a grittier setting, on the edge of collapse, while also becoming a more fantastic one, full of wonder and mystery". Jason Wilson, for "VentureBeat", highlighted that unlike the Time of Troubles cataclysm, the 4th edition Spellplague cataclysm was "one players never embraced in the same manner as the earlier disaster". Shannon Appelcline, author of "Designers & Dragons", wrote:


title: Forgotten Realms

text: [The 4th edition] "Forgotten Realms Campaign Guide" may be the most controversial D&D book ever produced by Wizards. That's entirely due to the large-scale destruction of the Realms. Similar updates have been tried by other companies — to reinvigorate settings, to make them more accessible to new players, or to make them more adventuresome. [...] It never seems to go well, because old fans feel left behind. With that said, some folks did love the changes, because the setting was now more playable, more accessible, more fantastic, and more PC centered. [...] Meanwhile, a series of adventures and novels called The Sundering (2013–2014) reversed many of the 4e changes to the Realms, but without rebooting the timeline. Instead, the Realms continues to evolve and advance, as it has since its earlier days.


title: Forgotten Realms

text: Salvatore was also publicly unhappy with the 4th edition changes to the Forgotten Realms. He said: [B]asically, we authors were handed a document and told how things were going to be. We were asked our opinions, but they mattered very little – the changes were being driven from a different direction. [...] To have characters that have built such a strong history, then have that upset on the orders of someone else was very disconcerting. I will admit that the abrupt changes forced me into an uncomfortable place, and from that place came some of the better things I've written, but I very much preferred the way it was done this time, with 5th Edition and the changes, where we, the authors, were told what was happening to the game and asked how we could make the world and the lore live and breathe it.Aubrey Sitterson, for "PC Magazine", included the Forgotten Realms in a 2015 roundup of the "11 Best Dungeons & Dragons Campaign Settings" and wrote "for most people, Forgotten Realms is synonymous with "Dungeons & Dragons", and with good reason: it's the setting that played home to the massively popular Baldur's Gate video game, as well as R. A. Salvatore's Drizzt books. Currently, it's the only campaign setting actively supported by "D&D" makers Wizards of the Coast, which would be restrictive if Forgotten Realms wasn't such an incredibly diverse place, housing classic European middle ages tropes, as well as a heroic fantasy take on African, Middle Eastern, and other real-world cultures".


title: Forgotten Realms

text: Christian Hoffer, for "ComicBook.com", reported that Wizards of the Coast's 5th edition publishing strategy, which focuses on the Forgotten Realms and newer intellectual property for campaign settings, has created a rift in the fan base where some "feel that this push for new players has come at the cost of keeping the game's current players sated" by not updating campaign settings that "predate the Forgotten Realms". Hoffer highlighted that Wizards of the Coast has a much slower publication schedule than with previous editions with a focus on quality and profit and "the D&D teams knows that they have plenty of great campaign settings in their back pocket and are either actively developing more settings or have ideas for them further down the line".


title: Carhartt

text: Carhartt, Inc. is an American apparel company founded in 1889, known for heavy-duty working clothes such as jackets, coats, overalls, coveralls, vests, shirts, jeans, dungarees, fire-resistant clothing and hunting apparel. Carhartt remains a family-owned company, owned by the descendants of founder Hamilton Carhartt, with its headquarters in Dearborn, Michigan.


title: Carhartt

text: Carhartt was founded by Hamilton Carhartt in 1889 in Detroit, Michigan, to make work clothing for manual laborers. The company started with two sewing machines and five workers. Carhartt's first slogan was "Honest value for an honest dollar." The company's initial expansion in the 1890s focused on railroad workers' need for strong and long-lasting work clothes. Carhartt worked closely with local railroad workers to ensure that his work bibs met their needs. Within 20 years of its founding, Carhartt had expanded its facilities into eight other cities, including locations in the United Kingdom and Canada. Carhartt downsized due to declining sales during the Great Depression, but experienced a resurgence in World War II.


title: Carhartt

text: Over the years, Carhartt clothing items evolved trademark features intended to extend durability, including the use of heavy-duty thread, reinforcing rivets at stress points, and a variety of durable, high technology materials resistant to flame, abrasion, stains, and water. Today, Carhartt clothing is commonly found on construction sites, farms and ranches, among other job sites.


title: Carhartt

text: Carhartt had total sales of $92 million in 1990. As of 1992, Carhartt sold more than two million jackets per year. As of 2013, Carhartt had sales of about $600 million per year.


title: Carhartt

text: Carhartt is renowned for its full-cut, wind-resistant, snag-proof, heavy-duty work jackets which are popular with construction workers, miners, farmers, hunters, and outdoors people. Carhartt has also successfully expanded its appeal to general street wear. Carhartt jackets are plain and manufactured in muted colors such as mustard, khaki and navy blue. They are usually waist-length or three-quarter length. Most are made from relatively stiff 12-ounce cotton canvas with triple-stitched seams. Carhartt also makes pants and overalls with colors and materials that match its jackets. Carhartt jackets are not designed for unusually tall or slender men; they are typically cut wide around the middle to accommodate hefty men.


title: Carhartt

text: Collaborations from 2013 also include lines from Adam Kimmel × Carhartt, as well as collections through the A.P.C. × Carhartt line. Both collections used fashion designers, Adam Kimmel and Jean Touitou.


title: Carhartt

text: In 2014, Carhartt launched a craft beer in cooperation with Michigan brewery New Holland Brewing (The Carhartt Woodsman).


title: Carhartt

text: Swiss couple Edwin and Salomée Faeh, designers specializing in denim, discussed representing Carhartt in Europe when they visited the United States in 1989 (the centenary of the company's founding). They started by selling Carhartt's authentic workwear. In 1994, they were granted a license to create their own lines of clothing under the name Carhartt Work in Progress (WIP). WIP is the streetwear version of the Carhartt brand, often marketed as comparable to Stüssy or Supreme.


title: Carhartt

text: Carhartt WIP often collaborates with other streetwear brands. An example would be the line of A Bathing Ape X Carhartt WIP camouflage hoodies and jackets. There have also been collaborations with A.P.C., Comme des Garçons, Vetements, Junya Watanabe Pontus Alv's Polar Skate Co, and Gosha Rubchinskiy and Tolya Titaev's skatebrand PACCBET. The WIP founders strategy was to immerse themselves in sub-cultures that interested them and pursue marketing activities that existed in them. This included graffiti, fanzines, skateboarding, hip hop, and a BMX cycle team. Carhartt WIP have a number of stores in Europe (including Berlin, London, Barcelona and Madrid), Asia, Australia and also in the U.S. (New York City and Los Angeles).


title: Carhartt

text: In the London riots of August 2011, the Carhartt WIP outlet store in Hackney in North of the city was looted as thousands of pounds worth of stock was stolen. The brand released a T-shirt with a photo of their storefront mid-looting.


title: Carhartt

text: Carhartt is still a privately held, family-owned company, owned by the descendants of founder Hamilton Carhartt.


title: Carhartt

text: Carhartt owns and operates its manufacturing base in Mexico as well as a number of unionized factories and distribution centers in the United States. Carhartt offers a "Union-Made in USA" line of workwear through its retailers. The company has four factories in the United States. The firm also makes an effort to use domestic suppliers: in 2015, Carhartt purchased 19.5 million pounds of cotton from Georgia, 32 million buttons made in Kentucky and 1 million drawcords from Kentucky.


title: Carhartt

text: The manufacturing of many of Carhartt's non-core apparel items have been outsourced to countries including China and Mexico. Carhartt requires its international suppliers to be Worldwide Responsible Accredited Production (WRAP) certified.


title: Carhartt

text: As of 2003, Carhartt operated four factories in two Mexican states employing about 2,000 workers. In 1997, Carhartt built a plant in Pénjamo, state of Guanajuato, Mexico, and in December 2001 they opened a second plant about 30 miles away, in the city of Irapuato. In 2003, Carhartt purchased two additional facilities from the Labor Board of the state of Durango in an auction. All of Carhartt's Mexican plants have WRAP certification. In 2003 Carhartt opened another plant in Penjamo, which used to be the old Lee building.


title: Carhartt

text: Carhartt EMEA (Europe, Middle East and Africa) was formed in 2006 to provide workwear to the European market (WIP).


title: Carhartt

text: Carhartt sells via many kinds of retailers but refuses to allow discount stores such as Walmart to carry its products in order to protect its brand. Large regional farm stores like Blain's Farm & Fleet, Fleet Farm and Tractor Supply Company are among the company's most important retailers. Carhartt itself operates retail stores in the U.S. Uniquely, it celebrates the opening of its stores with a sledgehammer smashing a wall instead of a traditional ribbon-cutting ceremony. The company operates a "flagship" store in downtown Detroit in the old Cass Motor Sales building.


title: Carhartt

text: Carhartt keeps most of its advertising work in-house, a rare arrangement for a firm its size. Its ads feature actual consumers on actual work sites. In the past Carhartt focused on advertisements in magazines such as "Popular Mechanics" and "American Cowboy" with slogans like "As Rugged As The Men Who Wear Them." More recently the company has updated its style and has even partnered with actor Jason Momoa to make ads on things like surfing, hunting as a family tradition, and women making donuts while wearing suspenders.


title: Carhartt

text: Tommy Boy Records used Carhartt jackets as a promotional vehicle and had its logo embroidered on them. Tommy Boy initially gave away 800 such jackets to "tastemakers and people seen in all the right places." This effort was so successful that the record label eventually started expanding into clothing. Carhartt is now popular with hip-hoppers. In the New York hip-hop scene mustard brown and hunter green Carhartts are favored. Rappers like Tupac and Dre wore Carhartt. Carhartt jackets and their evolution as fashion items were featured prominently at the Bronx Museum of the Arts exhibition entitled "One Planet Under a Groove: Hip-Hop and Contemporary Art" in 2002.


title: Carhartt

text: Carhartt has become a part of the local culture in Alaska. The city of Talkeetna holds an annual "Carhartt Ball." The Alaska State Fair hosts a Carhartt fashion show. Carhartt capitalized on the growth of the working class in Alaska in the late 20th century due to the growth of the oil industry by having its local sales representative, Doug Tweedie, carefully cultivate relationships with the independent stores that dominate the state's relatively isolated retail market. In 2001, per capita sales of the brand's products were higher in Alaska than anywhere else in the world.


title: Carhartt

text: The main characters of "Interstellar" wear Carhartt jackets. Carhartt products were on screen for about one hour. Matthew McConaughey wore the Duck Detroit Jacket #J001. Jessica Chastain wore the Weathered Duck Quinwood Chore Coat.


title: Carhartt

text: The titular character in the Netflix series Marvel's "Luke Cage" is often seen wearing Carhartt apparel throughout the series. His signature "bulletridden hoodie" is a customized version of the Carhartt Rain Defender Rutland hooded sweatshirt.


title: Carhartt

text: Carhartt is popular with politicians trying to connect with blue-collar voters. John Fetterman, Sarah Palin, Rick Perry, and Barack Obama have all been seen prominently wearing Carhartt clothing.


title: Carhartt

text: In the United States, Carhartt sponsors blue-collar organizations and events such as the National FFA Organization, and rodeos. The company is also a vocal supporter of organized labor. Carhartt sponsors work training programs such as Helmets to Hardhats. Carhartt is also one of the main sponsors of the Detroit Jazz Festival and the Bassmaster College Series.


title: Carhartt

text: During the 9/11 World Trade Center rescue operations, the Carhartt company donated thousands of bib overalls to the rescue crew to be used on scene.


title: Carhartt

text: On April 6, 2020, Carhartt shifted U.S. production to protective masks and medical gowns in response to the COVID-19 crisis. The manufactured outcome would include 50,000 medical gowns and 2.5 million protective masks.


title: Carhartt

text: Carhartt sponsored the #17 Ford Taurus, and Ford Fusion car for Roush Fenway Racing who was driven by Matt Kenseth. While the sponsorship only lasted from 2003 to 2009, it was rarely a sponsor on the car, rarely features any special type of paint scheme. Carhartt, though, displayed a Carhartt for Women paint scheme for the 2007 Bank of America 500 at Charlotte.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Slavery in ancient Rome played an important role in society and the economy. Besides manual labour, slaves performed many domestic services and might be employed at highly skilled jobs and professions. Accountants and physicians were often slaves. Slaves of Greek origin in particular might be highly educated. Unskilled slaves, or those sentenced to slavery as punishment, worked on farms, in mines, and at mills.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Slaves were considered property under Roman law and had no legal personhood. Most slaves would never be freed. Unlike Roman citizens, they could be subjected to corporal punishment, sexual exploitation (prostitutes were often slaves), torture and summary execution. Over time, however, slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: One major source of slaves had been Roman military expansion during the Republic. The use of former enemy soldiers as slaves led perhaps inevitably to a series of "en masse" armed rebellions, the Servile Wars, the last of which was led by Spartacus. During the "Pax Romana" of the early Roman Empire (1st–2nd centuries AD), the emphasis was placed on maintaining stability, and the lack of new territorial conquests dried up this supply line of human trafficking. To maintain an enslaved workforce, increased legal restrictions on freeing slaves were put into place. Escaped slaves would be hunted down and returned (often for a reward). There were also many cases of poor people selling their children to richer neighbours as slaves in times of hardship.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: The 1st century BC Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus indicates that the Roman institution of slavery began with the legendary founder Romulus, giving Roman fathers the right to sell their own children into slavery, and kept growing with the expansion of the Roman state. Slave ownership was most widespread throughout the Roman citizenry from the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) to the 4th century AD. The Greek geographer Strabo (1st century AD) records how an enormous slave trade resulted from the collapse of the Seleucid Empire (100–63 BC).


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: The Twelve Tables, Rome's oldest legal code, has brief references to slavery, indicating that the institution was of long standing. In the tripartite division of law by the jurist Ulpian (2nd century AD), slavery was an aspect of the "ius gentium", the customary international law held in common among all peoples ("gentes"). The "law of nations" was neither considered natural law, thought to exist in nature and govern animals as well as humans, nor civil law, belonging to the emerging bodies of laws specific to a people in Western societies. All human beings are born free ("liberi") under natural law, but slavery was held to be a practice common to all nations, who might then have specific civil laws pertaining to slaves. In ancient warfare, the victor had the right under the "ius gentium" to enslave a defeated population; however, if a settlement had been reached through diplomatic negotiations or formal surrender, the people were by custom to be spared violence and enslavement. The "ius gentium" was not a legal code, and any force it had depended on "reasoned compliance with standards of international conduct".


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: "Vernae" (singular "verna") were slaves born within a household ("familia") or on a family farm or agricultural estate ("villa"). There was a stronger social obligation to care for "vernae," whose epitaphs sometimes identify them as such, and at times they would have been the children of free males of the household. The general Latin word for slave was "servus."


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Throughout the Roman period, many slaves for the Roman market were acquired through warfare. Many captives were either brought back as war booty or sold to traders, and ancient sources cite anywhere from hundreds to tens of thousands of such slaves captured in "each" war. These wars included every major war of conquest from the Monarchical period to the Imperial period, as well as the Social and Samnite Wars. The prisoners taken or retaken after the three Roman Servile Wars (135–132, 104–100, and 73–71 BC, respectively) also contributed to the slave supply. While warfare during the Republic provided the largest figures for captives, warfare continued to produce slaves for Rome throughout the imperial period.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Piracy has a long history of adding to the slave trade, and the period of the Roman Republic was no different. Piracy was particularly lucrative in Cilicia where pirates operated with impunity from a number of strongholds. Pompey was credited with effectively eradicating piracy from the Mediterranean in 67 BC. Although large-scale piracy was curbed under Pompey and controlled under the Roman Empire, it remained a steady institution, and kidnapping through piracy continued to contribute to the Roman slave supply. Augustine lamented the wide-scale practice of kidnapping in North Africa in the early 5th century AD.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: During the period of Roman imperial expansion, the increase in wealth amongst the Roman elite and the substantial growth of slavery transformed the economy. Although the economy was dependent on slavery, Rome was not the most slave-dependent culture in history. Among the Spartans, for instance, the slave class of helots outnumbered the free by about seven to one, according to Herodotus. In any case, the overall role of slavery in Roman economy is a discussed issue among scholars.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Delos in the eastern Mediterranean was made a free port in 166 BC and became one of the main market venues for slaves. Multitudes of slaves who found their way to Italy were purchased by wealthy landowners in need of large numbers of slaves to labour on their estates. Historian Keith Hopkins noted that it was land investment and agricultural production which generated great wealth in Italy, and considered that Rome's military conquests and the subsequent introduction of vast wealth and slaves into Italy had effects comparable to widespread and rapid technological innovations.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Augustus imposed a 2 percent tax on the sale of slaves, estimated to generate annual revenues of about 5 million sesterces—a figure that indicates some 250,000 sales. The tax was increased to 4 percent by 43 AD. Slave markets seem to have existed in every city of the Empire, but outside Rome the major center was Ephesus.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Estimates for the prevalence of slavery in the Roman Empire vary. Estimates of the percentage of the population of Italy who were slaves range upwards of one to two million slaves in Italy by the end of the 1st century BC, about 20% to 30% of Italy's population. For the empire as a whole during the period 260–425 AD, according to a study by Kyle Harper, the slave population has been estimated at just under five million, representing 10–15% of the total population of 50–60 million inhabitants. An estimated 49% of all slaves were owned by the elite, who made up less than 1.5% of the empire's population. About half of all slaves worked in the countryside where they were a small percentage of the population except on some large agricultural, especially imperial, estates; the remainder of the other half were a significant percentage – 25% or more – in towns and cities as domestics and workers in commercial enterprises and manufacturers.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Roman slavery was not based on ideas of race. Slaves were drawn from all over Europe and the Mediterranean, including Gaul, Hispania, North Africa, Syria, Germany, Britannia, the Balkans, Greece, etc. Those from outside of Europe were predominantly of Greek descent, while Jews never fully assimilated into Roman society, remaining an identifiable minority. The slaves (especially the foreigners) had higher mortality rates and lower birth rates than natives and were sometimes even subjected to mass expulsions. The average recorded age at death for the slaves of the city of Rome was extraordinarily low: seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females). By comparison, life expectancy at birth for the population as a whole was in the mid-twenties.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: New slaves were primarily acquired by wholesale dealers who followed the Roman armies. Many people who bought slaves wanted strong slaves, mostly men. Child slaves cost less than adults although other sources state their price as higher. Julius Caesar once sold the entire population of a conquered region in Gaul, no fewer than 53,000 people, to slave dealers on the spot.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Within the empire, slaves were sold at public auction or sometimes in shops, or by private sale in the case of more valuable slaves. Slave dealing was overseen by the Roman fiscal officials called quaestors.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Sometimes slaves stood on revolving stands, and around each slave for sale hung a type of plaque describing their origin, health, character, intelligence, education, and other information pertinent to purchasers. Prices varied with age and quality, with the most valuable slaves fetching high prices. Because the Romans wanted to know "exactly" what they were buying, slaves were presented naked. The dealer was required to take a slave back within six months if the slave had defects that were not manifest at the sale, or make good the buyer's loss. Slaves to be sold with no guarantee were made to wear a cap at the auction.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: "Nexum" was a debt bondage contract in the early Roman Republic. Within the Roman legal system, it was a form of "mancipatio". Though the terms of the contract would vary, essentially a free man pledged himself as a bond slave ("nexus") as surety for a loan. He might also hand over his son as collateral. Although the bondsman could expect to face humiliation and some abuse, as a legal citizen he was supposed to be exempt from corporal punishment. "Nexum" was abolished by the "Lex Poetelia Papiria" in 326 BC, in part to prevent abuses to the physical integrity of citizens who had fallen into debt bondage.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Roman historians illuminated the abolition of "nexum" with a traditional story that varied in its particulars; basically, a "nexus" who was a handsome but upstanding youth suffered sexual harassment by the holder of the debt. In one version, the youth had gone into debt to pay for his father's funeral; in others, he had been handed over by his father. In all versions, he is presented as a model of virtue. Historical or not, the cautionary tale highlighted the incongruities of subjecting one free citizen to another's use, and the legal response was aimed at establishing the citizen's right to liberty ("libertas"), as distinguished from the slave or social outcast ("infamis").


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Cicero considered the abolition of "nexum" primarily a political maneuver to appease the common people ("plebs"): the law was passed during the Conflict of the Orders, when plebeians were struggling to establish their rights in relation to the hereditary privileges of the patricians. Although "nexum" was abolished as a way to secure a loan, debt bondage might still result after a debtor defaulted.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Slaves worked in a wide range of occupations that can be roughly divided into five categories: household or domestic, imperial or public, urban crafts and services, agriculture, and mining.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Epitaphs record at least 55 different jobs a household slave might have, including barber, butler, cook, hairdresser, handmaid ("ancilla"), wash their master's clothes, wet nurse or nursery attendant, teacher, secretary, seamstress, accountant, and physician. A large elite household (a "domus" in town, or a "villa" in the countryside) might be supported by a staff of hundreds. The living conditions of slaves attached to a "domus" (the "familia urbana"), while inferior to those of the free persons they lived with, were sometimes superior to that of many free urban poor in Rome. Household slaves likely enjoyed the highest standard of living among Roman slaves, next to publicly owned slaves, who were not subject to the whims of a single master. Imperial slaves were those attached to the emperor's household, the "familia Caesaris".


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: In urban workplaces, the occupations of slaves included fullers, engravers, shoemakers, bakers, mule drivers, and prostitutes. Farm slaves ("familia rustica") probably lived in more healthful conditions. Roman agricultural writers expect that the workforce of a farm will be mostly slaves, managed by a "vilicus", who was often a slave himself.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Slaves numbering in the tens of thousands were condemned to work in the mines or quarries, where conditions were notoriously brutal. "Damnati in metallum" ("those condemned to the mine") were convicts who lost their freedom as citizens ("libertas"), forfeited their property ("bona") to the state, and became "servi poenae", slaves as a legal penalty. Their status under the law was different from that of other slaves; they could not buy their freedom, be sold, or be set free. They were expected to live and die in the mines. Imperial slaves and freedmen (the "familia Caesaris)" worked in mine administration and management.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: In the Late Republic, about half the gladiators who fought in Roman arenas were slaves, though the most skilled were often free volunteers. Successful gladiators were occasionally rewarded with freedom. However gladiators, being trained warriors and having access to weapons, were potentially the most dangerous slaves. At an earlier time, many gladiators had been soldiers taken captive in war. Spartacus, who was a rebel gladiator, led the great slave rebellion of 73–71 BC.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: A "servus publicus" was a slave owned not by a private individual, but by the Roman people. Public slaves worked in temples and other public buildings both in Rome and in the municipalities. Most performed general, basic tasks as servants to the College of Pontiffs, magistrates, and other officials. Some well-qualified public slaves did skilled office work such as accounting and secretarial services. They were permitted to earn money for their personal use.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Because they had an opportunity to prove their merit, they could acquire a reputation and influence, and were sometimes deemed eligible for manumission. During the Republic, a public slave could be freed by a magistrate's declaration, with the prior authorization of the senate; in the Imperial era, liberty would be granted by the emperor. Municipal public slaves could be freed by the municipal council.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: According to Marcel Mauss, in Roman times the "persona" gradually became "synonymous with the true nature of the individual" but "the slave was excluded from it. "servus non habet personam" ('a slave has no persona'). He has no personality. He does not own his body; he has no ancestors, no name, no cognomen, no goods of his own." The testimony of a slave could not be accepted in a court of law unless the slave was tortured—a practice based on the belief that slaves in a position to be privy to their masters' affairs would be too virtuously loyal to reveal damaging evidence unless coerced.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Rome differed from Greek city-states in allowing freed slaves to become citizens. After manumission, a male slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed not only passive freedom from ownership, but active political freedom ("libertas"), including the right to vote. A slave who had acquired "libertas" was thus a "libertus" ("freed person", feminine "liberta") in relation to his former master, who then became his patron ("patronus"). As a social class, freed slaves were "libertini", though later writers used the terms "libertus" and "libertinus" interchangeably. "Libertini" were not entitled to hold public office or state priesthoods, nor could they achieve senatorial rank. During the early Empire, however, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, so much so that Hadrian limited their participation by law. Any future children of a freedman would be born free, with full rights of citizenship.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Although in general freed slaves could become citizens, with the right to vote if they were male, those categorized as "dediticii" suffered permanent disbarment from citizenship. The "dediticii" were mainly slaves whose masters had felt compelled to punish them for serious misconduct by placing them in chains, branding them, torturing them to confess a crime, imprisoning them or sending them involuntarily to a gladiatorial school ("ludus"), or condemning them to fight with gladiators or wild beasts. "Dediticii" were regarded as a threat to society, regardless of whether their master's punishments had been justified, and if they came within a hundred miles of Rome, they were subject to reenslavement.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Roman slaves could hold property which, despite the fact that it belonged to their masters, they were allowed to use as if it were their own. Skilled or educated slaves were allowed to earn their own money, and might hope to save enough to buy their freedom. Such slaves were often freed by the terms of their master's will, or for services rendered. A notable example of a high-status slave was Tiro, the secretary of Cicero. Tiro was freed before his master's death, and was successful enough to retire on his own country estate, where he died at the age of 99. However, the master could arrange that slaves would only have enough money to buy their freedom when they were too old to work. They could then use the money to buy a new young slave while the old slave, unable to work, would be forced to rely on charity to stay alive.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Several emperors began to grant more rights to slaves as the empire grew. Claudius announced that if a slave was abandoned by his master, he became free. Nero granted slaves the right to complain against their masters in a court. And under Antoninus Pius, a master who killed a slave without just cause could be tried for homicide. Legal protection of slaves continued to grow as the empire expanded. It became common throughout the mid to late 2nd century AD to allow slaves to complain of cruel or unfair treatment by their owners. Attitudes changed in part because of the influence among the educated elite of the Stoics, whose egalitarian views of humanity extended to slaves.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: There are reports of abuse of slaves by Romans, but there is little information to indicate how widespread such harsh treatment was. Cato the Elder was recorded as expelling his old or sick slaves from his house. Seneca in his Letter 47 expressed the view that a slave who was treated well would perform a better job than a poorly treated slave. As most slaves in the Roman world could easily blend into the population if they escaped, it was normal for the masters to discourage slaves from running away by putting a tattoo reading "Stop me! I am a runaway!" or "tax paid" if the slaves were owned by the Roman state on the foreheads of their slaves. For this reason, slaves usually wore headbands to cover up their disfiguring tattoos and at the Temple of Asclepius, the Greek god of healing, in Ephesus, archeologists have found thousands of tablets from escaped slaves asking Asclepius to make the tattoos on their foreheads disappear. Crucifixion was the capital punishment meted out specifically to slaves, traitors, and bandits. Marcus Crassus was supposed to have concluded his victory over Spartacus in the Third Servile War by crucifying 6,000 of the slave rebels along the Appian Way.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Moses Finley remarked, "fugitive slaves are almost an obsession in the sources". Rome forbade the harbouring of fugitive slaves, and professional slave-catchers were hired to hunt down runaways. Advertisements were posted with precise descriptions of escaped slaves, and offered rewards. If caught, fugitives could be punished by being whipped, burnt with iron, or killed. Those who lived were branded on the forehead with the letters FUG, for "fugitivus". Sometimes slaves had a metal collar riveted around the neck. One such collar is preserved at Rome and states in Latin, "I have run away. Catch me. If you take me back to my master Zoninus, you'll be rewarded."


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: There was a constant danger of servile insurrection, which had more than once seriously threatened the republic. The 1st century BC Greek historian Diodorus Siculus wrote that slaves sometimes banded together to plot revolts. He chronicled the three major slave rebellions: in 135–132 BC (the First Servile War), in 104–100 BC (the Second Servile War), and in 73–71 BC (the Third Servile War).


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: In addition to slavery, the Romans also practiced serfdom. By the 3rd century AD, the Roman Empire faced a labour shortage. Large Roman landowners increasingly relied on Roman freemen, acting as tenant farmers, instead of slaves to provide labour. The status of these tenant farmers, eventually known as coloni, steadily eroded. Because the tax system implemented by Diocletian assessed taxes based on both land and the inhabitants of that land, it became administratively inconvenient for peasants to leave the land where they were counted in the census. In 332 AD Emperor Constantine issued legislation that greatly restricted the rights of the coloni and tied them to the land. Some see these laws as the beginning of medieval serfdom in Europe.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: The religious holiday most famously celebrated by slaves at Rome was the Saturnalia, a December festival of role reversals during which time slaves enjoyed a rich banquet, gambling, free speech and other forms of license not normally available to them. To mark their temporary freedom, they wore the "pilleus", the cap of freedom, as did free citizens, who normally went about bareheaded. Some ancient sources suggest that master and slave dined together, while others indicate that the slaves feasted first, or that the masters actually served the food. The practice may have varied over time. Macrobius (5th century AD) describes the occasion thus:


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Meanwhile, the head of the slave household, whose responsibility it was to offer sacrifice to the Penates, to manage the provisions and to direct the activities of the domestic servants, came to tell his master that the household had feasted according to the annual ritual custom. For at this festival, in houses that keep to proper religious usage, they first of all honor the slaves with a dinner prepared as if for the master; and only afterwards is the table set again for the head of the household. So, then, the chief slave came in to announce the time of dinner and to summon the masters to the table.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Saturnalian license also permitted slaves to enjoy a pretense of disrespect for their masters, and exempted them from punishment. The Augustan poet Horace calls their freedom of speech "December liberty" ("libertas Decembri"). In two satires set during the Saturnalia, Horace portrays a slave as offering sharp criticism to his master. But everyone knew that the leveling of the social hierarchy was temporary and had limits; no social norms were ultimately threatened, because the holiday would end.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Another slaves' holiday ("servorum dies festus") was held August 13 in honor of Servius Tullius, the legendary sixth king of Rome who was the child of a slave woman. Like the Saturnalia, the holiday involved a role reversal: the matron of the household washed the heads of her slaves, as well as her own.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: The temple of Feronia at Terracina in Latium was the site of special ceremonies pertaining to manumission. The goddess was identified with Libertas, the personification of liberty, and was a tutelary goddess of freedmen ("dea libertorum"). A stone at her temple was inscribed "let deserving slaves sit down so that they may stand up free."


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: At the Matralia, a women's festival held June 11 in connection with the goddess Mater Matuta, free women ceremonially beat a slave girl and drove her from the community. Slave women were otherwise forbidden from participation.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Slave women were honored at the "Ancillarum Feriae" on July 7. The holiday is explained as commemorating the service rendered to Rome by a group of "ancillae" (female slaves or "handmaids") during the war with the Fidenates in the late 4th century BC. Weakened by the Gallic sack of Rome in 390 BC, the Romans next had suffered a stinging defeat by the Fidenates, who demanded that they hand over their wives and virgin daughters as hostages to secure a peace. A handmaid named either Philotis or Tutula came up with a plan to deceive the enemy: the "ancillae" would put on the apparel of the free women, spend one night in the enemy camp, and send a signal to the Romans about the most advantageous time to launch a counterattack. Although the historicity of the underlying tale may be doubtful, it indicates that the Romans thought they had already had a significant slave population before the Punic Wars.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: The Mithraic mysteries were open to slaves and freedmen, and at some cult sites most or all votive offerings are made by slaves, sometimes for the sake of their masters' wellbeing. The cult of Mithras, which valued submission to authority and promotion through a hierarchy, was in harmony with the structure of Roman society, and thus the participation of slaves posed no threat to social order.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: The Stoics taught that all men were manifestations of the same universal spirit, and thus by nature equal. Stoicism also held that external circumstances (such as being enslaved) did not truly impede a person from practicing the Stoic ideal of inner self-mastery: It has been said that one of the more important Roman stoics, Epictetus, spent his youth as a slave.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Both the Stoics and some early Christians opposed the ill treatment of slaves, rather than slavery itself. Advocates of these philosophies saw them as ways to live within human societies as they were, rather than to overthrow entrenched institutions. In the Christian scriptures, equal pay and fair treatment of slaves was enjoined upon slave masters, and slaves were advised to obey their earthly masters, even if their masters are unfair, and lawfully obtain freedom if possible.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Certain senior Christian leaders (such as Gregory of Nyssa and John Chrysostom) called for good treatment for slaves and condemned slavery, while others supported it. Christianity gave slaves an equal place within the religion, allowing them to participate in the liturgy. According to tradition, Pope Clement I (term c. 92–99), Pope Pius I (158–167) and Pope Callixtus I (c. 217–222) were former slaves.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Writing after the legalization of Christianity by Roman authorities, Saint Augustine, who came from an aristocratic background and likely grew up in home where slave labor was utilized, described slavery as being against God's intention and resulting from sin. By the early 4th century, the manumission within the church, was incorporated into Roman law. Slaves could be freed by a ritual in a church, officiated by an ordained bishop or priest. Subsequent laws, such as the "Novella 142" of Justinian in the sixth century, gave to the bishops the power to free slaves.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: The early Christian Church never renounced slavery as an institution outright, choosing instead to promote more humane treatment for slaves who according to the Church were commanded by God to obey their earthly masters. In contrast to the pagan Roman viewpoint, Roman Christians, even those who were not abolitionists, preached that slaves were still human and not property. Overall Roman attitudes towards slavery generally emphasized more humane treatment of slaves and promoted manumission. Sexual slavery was strictly forbidden by the Church and institutions as gladiator matches, would come to be outlawed due to Christian pressure.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Although ancient authors rarely discussed slavery in terms of morals, because their society did not view slavery as the moral dilemma we do today, they included slaves and the treatment of slaves in works in order to shed light on other topics—history, economy, an individual's character—or to entertain and amuse. Texts mentioning slaves include histories, personal letters, dramas, and satires, including Petronius' "Banquet of Trimalchio", in which the eponymous freedman asserts "Slaves too are men. The milk they have drunk is just the same even if an evil fate has oppressed them." Many literary works may have served to help educated Roman slave owners navigate acceptability in the master-slave relationships in terms of slaves' behavior and punishment. To achieve this navigation of acceptability, works often focus on extreme cases, such as the crucifixion of hundreds of slaves for the murder of their master. We must be careful to recognize these instances as exceptional and yet recognize that the underlying problems must have concerned the authors and audiences. Examining the literary sources that mention ancient slavery can reveal both the context for and contemporary views of the institution. The following examples provide a sampling of different genres and portrayals.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Plutarch mentioned slavery in his biographical history in order to pass judgement on men's characters. In his "Life of Cato the Elder", Plutarch revealed contrasting views of slaves. He wrote that Cato, known for his stringency, would resell his old servants because "no useless servants were fed in his house", but that he himself believes that "it marks an over-rigid temper for a man to take the work out of his servants as out of brute beasts".


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: A prolific letter writer, Cicero even wrote letters to one of his administrative slaves, one Marcus Tullius Tiro. Even though Cicero himself remarked that he only wrote to Tiro "for the sake of keeping to [his] established practice", he occasionally revealed personal care and concern for his slave. Indeed, just the fact that Tiro had enough education and freedom to express his opinions in letters to his master is exceptional and only allowed through his unique circumstances. First, as an administrative slave, Tiro would have enjoyed better living and working conditions than the majority of slaves working in the fields, mines, or workhouses. Also, Cicero was an exceptional owner, even taking Tiro's education into his own hands. While these letters suggest a familiarity and connection between master and slave, each letter still contains a direct command, suggesting that Cicero calculatingly used familiarity in order to ensure performance and loyalty from Tiro.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: In Roman comedy, "servi" or slaves make up the majority of the stock characters, and generally fall into two basic categories: loyal slaves and tricksters. Loyal slaves often help their master in their plan to woo or obtain a lover (the most popular plot-driving element in Roman comedy). They are often dim, timid, and worried about what punishments may befall them. Trickster slaves are more numerous and often use their masters' unfortunate situation to create a "topsy-turvy" world in which they are the masters and their masters are subservient to them. The master will often ask the slave for a favor and the slave only complies once the master has made it clear that the slave is in charge, beseeching him and calling him lord, sometimes even a god. These slaves are threatened with numerous punishments for their treachery, but always escape the fulfillment of these threats through their wit.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Depictions of slaves in Roman comedies can be seen in the work of Plautus and Publius Terentius Afer. Dartmouth associate professor Roberta Stewart has stated that Plautus’ plays represent slavery "as a complex institution that raised perplexing problems in human relationships involving masters and slaves". Terence added a new element to how slaves were portrayed in his plays, due to his personal background as a former slave. In the work "Andria", slaves are central to the plot. In this play, Simo, a wealthy Athenian wants his son, Pamphilius, to marry one girl but Pamphilius has his sights set on another. Much of the conflict in this play revolves around schemes with Pamphilius's slave, Davos, and the rest of the characters in the story. Many times throughout the play, slaves are allowed to engage in activity, such as the inner and personal lives of their owners, that would not normally be seen with slaves in every day society. This is a form of satire by Terence due to the unrealistic nature of events that occurs between slaves and citizens in his plays.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Freeing a slave was called "manumissio", which literally means "sending out from the hand". The freeing of the slave was a public ceremony, performed before some sort of public official, usually a judge. The owner touched the slave on the head with a staff and he was free to go. Simpler methods were sometimes used, usually with the owner proclaiming a slave's freedom in front of friends and family, or just a simple invitation to recline with the family at dinner.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Slaves were freed for a variety of reasons; for a particularly good deed toward the slave's owner, or out of friendship or respect. Sometimes, a slave who had enough money could buy his freedom and the freedom of a fellow slave, frequently a spouse. However, few slaves had enough money to do so, and many slaves were not allowed to hold money. Slaves were also freed through testamentary manumission, by a provision in an owner's will at his death. In 2 BCE, Augustus restricted the number of slaves that could be freed at once from a single household, depending on the number of slaves belonging to the household; in a household with three to ten slaves, no more than half could be freed; in a household with ten to thirty slaves, no more than a third could be freed; in a household with thirty to one hundred slaves, no more than a quarter could be freed; in a household with over one hundred slaves, no more than one-fifth could be freed, and under no circumstances was it permitted to free more than one hundred slaves at a time. In 4 AD, another law prohibited the manumission of slaves younger than thirty years of age, with some exceptions.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: The sight of a freedman was a more common one in Rome than other civilization. Former slaves became "liberties/a" to their former patrons ("patrons/a)" and "libertinus/a" to the rest of society. Both freedman and former patrons had mutual obligations to each other within the traditional patronage network but freedmen also had the ability to “network” with other patrons as well.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Under their new social status, freedmen would take their former patron's name and start their own lineage. Men could vote and participate in politics, with some limitations. This included not being able to run for office, nor be admitted to the senatorial class. The children of former slaves, however, enjoyed the full privileges of Roman citizenship without restrictions.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Some freedmen became very powerful. They held important roles in the Roman government. Those who were part of the Imperial families often were the main functionaries in the Imperial administration. Some rose to positions of great influence, such as Narcissus, a former slave of the Emperor Claudius.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Other freedmen became wealthy. The brothers who owned House of the Vettii, one of the biggest and most magnificent houses in Pompeii, are thought to have been freedmen. Most demonstrated their new economic status by building intricate tombs and monuments for themselves and their families.


title: Slavery in ancient Rome

text: Despite the fact many freedmen became rich and influential, they might still be looked down on by the traditional aristocracy as a vulgar "nouveau riche". Trimalchio, a character in the "Satyricon", is a caricature of such a freedman.


title: Park Ju-hyun

text: Park Ju-hyun ("Korean": 박주현; born October 5, 1994) is a South Korean actress. She debuted in the film "The Dude In Me" (2019) followed by "tvN" 's television film "Drama Stage Season 3": "My Wife's Bed". She gained recognition with her appearance in the drama series "A Piece of Your Mind" (2020) and starred in her first lead role as Bae Gyu-ri in Netflix original series "Extracurricular" (2020).


title: Park Ju-hyun

text: Park Ju-hyun was born on 5 October 1994 in Busan, South Korea. She gained an interest in acting after seeing the musical "Cats" in her first year of high school. She majored in acting at the Korea National University of Arts and appeared in short films and plays as a student; she graduated in July 2020.


title: Budesonide

text: Budesonide, sold under the brand name Pulmicort among others, is a medication of the corticosteroid type. It is available as an inhaler, nebulization solution, pill, nasal spray, and rectal forms. The inhaled form is used in the long-term management of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The nasal spray is used for allergic rhinitis and nasal polyps. The pills in a delayed release form and rectal forms may be used for inflammatory bowel disease including Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and microscopic colitis.


title: Budesonide

text: Common side effects with the inhaled form include respiratory infections, cough, and headaches. Common side effects with the pills include feeling tired, vomiting, and joint pains. Serious side effects include an increased risk of infection, loss of bone strength, and cataracts. Long-term use of the pill form may cause adrenal insufficiency. Stopping the pills suddenly following long-term use may therefore be dangerous. The inhaled form is generally safe in pregnancy. Budesonide chiefly acts as a glucocorticoid.


title: Budesonide

text: Budesonide was initially patented in 1973. Commercial use as an asthma medication began in 1981. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Some forms are available as a generic medication. In 2019, generic budesonide was listed as involved in Teva's price fixing scheme in the United States. In 2020, it was the 207th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 2million prescriptions.


title: Budesonide

text: Budesonide is given by metered-dose inhaler or nebulizer for maintenance and prophylactic treatment of asthma, including patients who require oral corticosteroids and those who may benefit from a systemic dose reduction.


title: Budesonide

text: Formulations of delayed-release budesonide are an effective treatment for mild-to-moderately active Crohn's disease involving the ileum and/or ascending colon. A Cochrane review found evidence for up to three months (but not longer) of maintenance of remission in Crohn's disease.


title: Budesonide

text: Budesonide is highly effective and recommended as the drug of choice in microscopic colitis, for induction and maintenance of remission, and for both the lymphocytic colitis and collagenous colitis forms.


title: Budesonide

text: Topical budesonide has considerable effects in eosinophilic esophagitis. For this use, it is formulated as a tablet that disperses in the mouth, and sold under the trade name "Jorveza".


title: Budesonide

text: Budesonide (Tarpeyo) is indicated to reduce proteinuria (increased protein levels in the urine) in adults with primary immunoglobulin A (IgA) nephropathy (Berger's disease) at risk of rapid disease progression.


title: Budesonide

text: Nasal budesonide inhalers have been associated with a number of side effects. These include nose irritation or burning, bleeding or sores in the nose, lightheadedness, upset stomach, cough, hoarseness, dry mouth, rash, sore throat, bad taste in mouth, change in mucus, and blurred vision. Other symptoms which should be reported immediately include difficulty in breathing, swelling of the face, white patches in the throat, mouth, or nose, irregular menstrual periods, severe acne, and on rare occasions, behavioral changes (mostly affecting children)


title: Budesonide

text: Budesonide is contraindicated as a primary treatment of status asthmaticus or other acute episode of asthma where intensive measures are required. It is also contraindicated for patients who have hypersensitivity to budesonide.


title: Budesonide

text: Budesonide, also known as 11β,21-dihydroxy-16α,17α-(butylidenebis(oxy))pregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione, is a synthetic pregnane steroid and non-halogenated cyclic ketal corticosteroid. It is the C16α hydroxyl, C16α,17α cyclic ketal with butyraldehyde derivative of prednisolone (11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione).


title: Budesonide

text: On 19 May 2022, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) adopted a positive opinion, recommending the granting of a conditional marketing authorization for the medicinal product Kinpeygo, intended for the treatment of primary immunoglobulin A nephropathy. The applicant for this medicinal product is Calliditas Therapeutics AB. Kinpeygo is a hybrid medicine of Entocort which has been authorised in the EU since 2 April 1992. Kinpeygo contains the same active substance as Entocort but has a different formulation and a different indication.