title: Donna Troy

text: Following the battle, Donna alone is able to discern a message directing the group to Apokolips, where the team are witness to its destruction as they first meet the other "Countdown" characters: Jimmy Olsen, Forager, Pied Piper, Mary Marvel, Holly Robinson, Harley Quinn, Karate Kid, and Una. Witnessing Apokolips near-destruction at the hands of Brother Eye, the team are later sent to a reconstituted Earth-51 by Solomon, now a world similar to New Earth with the absence of the now much-expanded Challengers team. It is here that Karate Kid dies, and his Morticoccus virus transforms the world almost entirely to violent animal-human hybrids, losing Una to the feral natives and leaving that Earth's Buddy Blank's grandson as the Last Boy on Earth. Returned to New Earth by Jimmy Olsen via a Boom Tube, Gothamites Harley, Holly, and Jason return home while Mary Marvel is once again corrupted by Darkseid who captures Jimmy, who holds the power of all the deceased New Gods. Freed from Darkseid's control by Atom's microscopic rewiring, Jimmy and Darkseid duke it out until Orion descends from the heavens (following his interrupted battle with the killer of the New Gods in "Death of the New Gods"), and slays his father. In the aftermath of these events, the remaining party of Donna, Kyle, Ray, and Forager announce to the Monitors they will serve as bodyguards for the New Multiverse, and depart to places unknown.


title: Donna Troy

text: Returning to Earth after her adventures in the Multiverse with Kyle, Donna and other former and present Titans are targeted by a mysterious foe who is later revealed to be Trigon. The Titans reform to fend off Trigon's assault and avenge the incapacitated Titans East team.


title: Donna Troy

text: In "Final Crisis" #5, Donna Troy has been turned into a Justifier. She, among other Justifiers, attacked the Switzerland Checkmate HQ. She tried to put the Justifier helmet onto Alan Scott before being knocked away by Hawkman.


title: Donna Troy

text: The build-up to Donna's recruitment begins when she volunteers to help Mikaal Tomas and Congorilla track down the supervillain Prometheus. She accompanies them to the JLA Watchtower alongside Starfire and Animal Man, only to discover that Red Arrow has been mutilated by Prometheus. During the ensuing battle, Donna is impaled through the wrists, but frees herself. Prometheus projects a hologram around her, causing Green Arrow to shoot her in the leg, which somehow penetrates her super-tough skin and causes her to fall unconscious. She takes down Prometheus after he defeats the rest of the team, rips off his helmet, and starts beating him brutally, but the Shade stops her. Unfortunately, the villain destroys Star City via a teleportation device.


title: Donna Troy

text: During the "Blackest Night" crossover, Donna has a horrific encounter with her deceased son Robert and husband Terry, revived as undead beings by the Black Lantern Corps. She is bitten by Robert, becoming "infected" by the Black Lantern's power. Donna, along with Superboy, Kid Flash, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern (Hal Jordan) and several other resurrected heroes, began to be targeted by Nekron, the being responsible for the Black Lanterns. Donna's previous status as a deceased allowed for her to be transformed into a Black Lantern. However, unlike the other heroes, Donna was converted by being infected with the Black Lantern's power rather than having a ring forced on her. Donna is freed by the power of white light.


title: Donna Troy

text: In the aftermath of this, Donna is told by Wonder Woman that she could benefit from being a part of the JLA. To that end, she officially joins the team, even recruiting Cyborg, Dick Grayson (now Batman), and Starfire as well. Donna remains with the League and battles such foes as Superwoman, Wonder Woman's counterpart from the Crime Syndicate of Amerika, and the demonic entity Eclipso. Donna eventually resigns from the team after coming to peace with her inner turmoil, and Dick disbands the team shortly after.


title: Donna Troy

text: In 2011, following the "Flashpoint" storyline, DC revised its continuity, relaunching with a suite of new #1 comics as part of an initiative called The New 52. Donna does not initially appear in this continuity at all; the Teen Titans are first established in the present day, with Cassie Sandsmark as Wonder Girl, and Wonder Woman's new origin presents her as the natural-born daughter of Zeus and Hippolyta.


title: Donna Troy

text: Donna is reintroduced in the pages of "Wonder Woman" as an Amazon created by a sorcerer, Derinoe, as an attempt to usurp Diana's place as queen, replacing her with a new ruler. Diana defeats Donna and Donna sets about a period of soul-searching. Meanwhile, in the "Titans Hunt" storyline which seeks to retroactively reestablish the history of the Teen Titans in the New 52, Donna is shown as having been a Teen Titan, working alongside Titans co-founders such as Dick Grayson and Garth, until an encounter with the telepathic supervillain Mister Twister resulted in the Titans' memories being erased. In the "Wonder Woman" series, Donna struggles with her rage and anger and after being killed in a battle is chosen by Zeus to replace the Fates, making Donna a new embodiment of Fate. In the last issue of "Titans Hunt", Donna confirms that she is "the Fate of the Gods", but does not reconcile her history depicted in "Titans Hunt" with her creation depicted in "Wonder Woman".


title: Donna Troy

text: "Titans Hunt" led into the DC Rebirth initiative, which brought back more popular elements of past continuity after former Titan Wally West returns to the DC Universe and reunites his friends. He explains to his fellow Titans how 10 years were stolen from their lives as a result of unknown forces, partially accounting for the discrepancies. Donna and her friends then reform the Titans. On touching Wally in "Titans Rebirth" #1, Donna has her childhood memories of Wally restored. Later, the "Titans" (vol. 2) Annual #1 (May 2017) reconciles the two accounts of Donna's history — recent magical creation or longtime ally of Wonder Woman — revealing that Donna was, as in the New 52 story, created out of clay to destroy Wonder Woman, but the Amazons later gave her false memories of being an orphan rescued by Wonder Woman. This allowed Donna to be more than a living weapon, and to establish a stable life. Though Donna was heartbroken by the revelation, she was supported by her Titans colleagues, who affirmed their friendship.


title: Donna Troy

text: Donna remains a main character in the ‘‘Titans’’ series at DC after the team was broken up by the Justice League and reformed by Nightwing with supervision from the League this time. After Dick Grayson was shot in the head by KGBeast, Donna becomes leader of the team while he is recovering from his injury and amnesia.


title: Donna Troy

text: Donna Troy is often noted for having had a number of complicated revisions to her origin. Writer Marv Wolfman recounted:I wrote the original Donna Troy origin story back in the first Titans run. She had never had one and was, in fact, not a "real" character (if you can call any of them real). She was a computer simulation of Wonder Woman as a girl. That story also named her Donna Troy and set up everything that followed. Unfortunately, after "Crisis on Infinite Earths" and the Wonder Woman revamp, we had to go back and redo it again as a brand new Wonder Woman being born on Earth could not have rescued the girl from the burning building. I wish we had been able to keep it as I think it's gone insane now. I just wanted a simple origin story. I came up with the original, and then [in "Who is Donna Troy?"] George [Pérez] and I simply elaborated on what had been done, giving her real knowledge of who she was. I would love to say that everything after "Who is Donna Troy?" should be forgotten, but that's not the way continuity works, sadly.


title: Donna Troy

text: Under John Byrne, Donna was retconned to be a mirror-image duplicate of Wonder Woman, created by the Amazon sorceress Magala using a spell to give life to Diana's reflections so that the young princess would have an age-appropriate friend. This duplicate is kidnapped by WWII Wonder Woman's nemesis, Dark Angel. Dark Angel forces Donna to undergo multiple "lives" that all end in tragedy and result in her resetting back to her beginning. Hippolyta and Wonder Woman attempt to rescue Donna, but Dark Angel destroys her rather than release her from her clutches. With help from Wally West, Donna is recreated as a golem, drawing from Wally's incomplete, Pollyanna-esque memories of her. Later, Dark Angel attempts to erase all memories of Donna from the various Hypertime realities, drawing Dark Angel into conflict with Donna, the Titans, and their alternate reality counterparts from the story "Kingdom Come". During the battle, Donna is mindwiped and then reprogrammed with all of her old memories after she is made to relive her past lives.


title: Donna Troy

text: After Donna Troy is killed by a fleet of Superman androids reprogrammed by Brainiac, she is resurrected by the Titans of Myth, who seek to exploit her status as an "anomaly" from the world that existed before "Crisis on Infinite Earths" to escape the coming cataclysm of "Infinite Crisis". This story establishes Donna's status as an anomaly of the timeline, explaining that she survived the Crisis and was later subjected to multiple alternate origins as the universe tried to fit her into the new timeline created following the collapse of the Multiverse. This makes Donna in effect "a living key to the lost Multiverse". This same storyline also reveals that Dark Angel is an evil alternate universe version of Donna from Earth-Seven. Another pre-Crisis survivor, she "was saved by the Anti-Monitor, and raised to be his harbinger of doom, Dark Angel. But Dark Angel was uncontrollable, and vanished".


title: Donna Troy

text: Within a short time after 2011's "The New 52" reboot that followed the "Flashpoint" story, DC had already presented two conflicting new origins for Donna Troy in the pages of "Wonder Woman" and "Titans Hunt". In the first case, she is introduced as a new character: magical golem, ruthless warrior, and challenger to Wonder Woman's status as leader of the Amazons. She later goes on a journey of discovery. In "Titans Hunt", this same Donna, alongside other former Teen Titans, rediscovers memories of childhood heroism with the Teen Titans, which should be impossible for her. In the "DC Rebirth" relaunch, Donna has a fuller set of childhood memories restored to her after meeting the pre-"Flashpoint" Wally West. In the "DC Rebirth" relaunch of Wonder Woman, the storyline "The Lies" reveals that the savage depiction of Thymiscira and the Amazons in the New 52 "Wonder Woman" series in which Diana is made the Queen of the Amazons and the God of War and has Donna Troy reinvented as a mass-murdering villain is, in fact, an illusion by the Olympians to keep her away from the real island. A later "Titans" story clarified that Donna is still a magical golem created to destroy Wonder Woman, with fake memories granted by the Amazons.


title: Donna Troy

text: Donna's superhuman powers have changed several times over the years, but in all of her various incarnations, they have always consisted of considerable superhuman strength, endurance, speed, and the power of flight.


title: Donna Troy

text: Donna also retains her magical abilities to control darkness, the cold, and the essence of night itself. However, it is heavily implied Donna has a lot of magical potential to due being the child of magic, Amazon witches, and possibly goddesses that are tied to night and magic like Hekate, Selene, and Nyx.


title: Donna Troy

text: Donna also wields a magical sword and sometimes a shield. She carries the Lasso of Persuasion gifted to her by the gods. It glows blue and can force anyone bound by it to obey every command of the wielder. It is field by the essence of willpower and as long as Donna’s willpower overpowers the person bound by her lasso the person is forced to submit and obey. However the person is under control by Donna’s will even after they are not bound by the lasso anymore. Only until they obey will they be released mentally from the lasso’s power. The lasso can also teleport to New Chronus. The lasso is also unbreakable and go as long as what the wielder wants it be.


title: Donna Troy

text: Another version of Donna exists in the New 52 on the alternate Earth-2. In "Earth 2: Society", the character, Fury, reveals her name is Donna. This character is the daughter of the late Earth 2 Wonder Woman and the New God, Steppenwolf. This is the first time Fury is used as a doppelganger of Donna Troy and not just an analogue. In "Earth 2: Society", Fury/Donna has adopted her mother's mantle of Wonder Woman and taken over Amazonia. She is critical in helping the team recreate Earth 2 after the fall on Telos.


title: Donna Troy

text: In the reversed reality Earth 3, Donna Troy is Superwoman, a member of the Crime Syndicate. She is the princess of the Amazons and daughter of Queen Hippolyta, and hopes to one day overthrow and kill her mother. Officially she is the ambassador from Themyscira to the United States of Amerika, however her true purpose is to infiltrate and gain control over the governments and metahumans of Man's World.


title: Donna Troy

text: In the "DC Comics Bombshells" universe, Donna Troy is a Nisei Japanese American teenager from Los Angeles. During World War II, Donna and her friends Cassie, Yuki, Yuri and Emily fight to liberate Japanese American citizens who were unjustly interned by the government. After witnessing the death of Wonder Woman during a battle with Clayface, Donna and the others become a band of heroes known as the Wonder Girls, with each teen drawing power from one of Wonder Woman's magical artifacts.


title: Donna Troy

text: "IGN" placed Donna Troy as the 93rd greatest comic book hero of all time, stating that even though she might have the most unnecessarily complex backstory of all comics characters, Donna has served a major purpose in the DC universe since her inception.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why humans grow, change, and adapt across the course of their lives. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan. Developmental psychologists aim to explain how thinking, feeling, and behaviors change throughout life. This field examines change across three major dimensions, which are physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development. Within these three dimensions are a broad range of topics including motor skills, executive functions, moral understanding, language acquisition, social change, personality, emotional development, self-concept, and identity formation.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Developmental psychology examines the influences of nature "and" nurture on the process of human development, as well as processes of change in context across time. Many researchers are interested in the interactions among personal characteristics, the individual's behavior, and environmental factors. This includes the social context and the built environment. Ongoing debates in regards to developmental psychology include biological essentialism vs. neuroplasticity and stages of development vs. dynamic systems of development. Research in developmental psychology has some limitations but at the moment researchers are working to understand how transitioning through stages of life and biological factors may impact our behaviors and development"."


title: Developmental psychology

text: Developmental psychology involves a range of fields, such as educational psychology, child psychopathology, forensic developmental psychology, child development, cognitive psychology, ecological psychology, and cultural psychology. Influential developmental psychologists from the 20th century include Urie Bronfenbrenner, Erik Erikson, Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud, Jean Piaget, Barbara Rogoff, Esther Thelen, and Lev Vygotsky.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John B. Watson are typically cited as providing the foundation for modern developmental psychology. In the mid-18th century, Jean Jacques Rousseau described three stages of development: "infants" (infancy), "puer" (childhood) and "adolescence" in "". Rousseau's ideas were adopted and supported by educators at the time.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Developmental psychology generally focuses on how and why certain changes (cognitive, social, intellectual, personality) occur over time in the course of a human life. Many theorists have made a profound contribution to this area of psychology. One of them, Erik Erikson developed a model of eight stages of psychological development. He believed that humans developed in stages throughout their lifetimes and that this would affect their behaviors.


title: Developmental psychology

text: In the late 19th century, psychologists familiar with the evolutionary theory of Darwin began seeking an evolutionary description of psychological development; prominent here was the pioneering psychologist G. Stanley Hall, who attempted to correlate ages of childhood with previous ages of humanity. James Mark Baldwin, who wrote essays on topics that included "Imitation: A Chapter in the Natural History of Consciousness" and "Mental Development in the Child and the Race: Methods and Processes", was significantly involved in the theory of developmental psychology. Sigmund Freud, whose concepts were developmental, significantly affected public perceptions.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Sigmund Freud developed a theory that suggested that humans behave as they do because they are constantly seeking pleasure. This process of seeking pleasure changes through stages because people evolve. Each period of seeking pleasure that a person experiences is represented by a stage of psychosexual development. These stages symbolize the process of arriving to become a maturing adult.


title: Developmental psychology

text: The first is the "oral stage", which begins at birth and ends around a year and a half of age. During the oral stage, the child finds pleasure in behaviors like sucking or other behaviors with the mouth. The second is the "anal stage", from about a year or a year and a half to three years of age. During the anal stage, the child defecates from the anus and is often fascinated with its defecation. This period of development often occurs during the time when the child is being toilet trained. The child becomes interested with feces and urine. Children begin to see themselves as independent from their parents. They begin to desire assertiveness and autonomy.


title: Developmental psychology

text: The third is the "phallic stage", which occurs from three to five years of age (most of a person's personality forms by this age). During the phallic stage, the child becomes aware of its sexual organs. Pleasure comes from finding acceptance and love from the opposite sex. The fourth is the "latency stage", which occurs from age five until puberty. During the latency stage, the child's sexual interests are repressed.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Stage five is the "genital stage", which takes place from puberty until adulthood. During the genital stage, puberty begins to occur. Children have now matured, and begin to think about other people instead of just themselves. Pleasure comes from feelings of affection from other people.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Freud believed there is tension between the conscious and unconscious because the conscious tries to hold back what the unconscious tries to express. To explain this, he developed three personality structures: id, ego, and superego. The id, the most primitive of the three, functions according to the pleasure principle: seek pleasure and avoid pain. The superego plays the critical and moralizing role, while the ego is the organized, realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the superego.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Jean Piaget, a Swiss theorist, posited that children learn by actively constructing knowledge through hands-on experience. He suggested that the adult's role in helping the child learn was to provide appropriate materials that the child can interact with and use to construct. He used Socratic questioning to get children to reflect on what they were doing, and he tried to get them to see contradictions in their explanations.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Piaget believed that intellectual development takes place through a series of stages, which he described in his theory on cognitive development. Each stage consists of steps the child must master before moving to the next step. He believed that these stages are not separate from one another, but rather that each stage builds on the previous one in a continuous learning process. He proposed four stages: "sensorimotor", "pre-operational", "concrete operational", and "formal operational". Though he did not believe these stages occurred at any given age, many studies have determined when these cognitive abilities should take place.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Piaget claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Expanding on Piaget's work, Lawrence Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime.


title: Developmental psychology

text: He suggested three levels of moral reasoning; pre-conventional moral reasoning, conventional moral reasoning, and post-conventional moral reasoning. The pre-conventional moral reasoning is typical of children and is characterized by reasoning that is based on rewards and punishments associated with different courses of action. Conventional moral reason occurs during late childhood and early adolescence and is characterized by reasoning based on rules and conventions of society. Lastly, post-conventional moral reasoning is a stage during which the individual sees society's rules and conventions as relative and subjective, rather than as authoritative.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Kohlberg used the Heinz Dilemma to apply to his stages of moral development. The Heinz Dilemma involves Heinz's wife dying from cancer and Heinz having the dilemma to save his wife by stealing a drug. Preconventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality applies to Heinz's situation.


title: Developmental psychology

text: German-American psychologist Erik Erikson and his collaborator and wife, Joan Erikson, posits eight stages of individual human development influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors throughout the lifespan."" At each stage the person must resolve a challenge, or an existential dilemma. Successful resolution of the dilemma results in the person ingraining a positive virtue, but failure to resolve the fundamental challenge of that stage reinforces negative perceptions of the person or the world around them and the person's personal development is unable to progress.


title: Developmental psychology

text: The first stage, "Trust vs. Mistrust", takes place in infancy. The positive virtue for the first stage is hope, in the infant learning whom to trust and having hope for a supportive group of people to be there for him/her.The second stage is "Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt" with the positive virtue being will. This takes place in early childhood when the child learns to become more independent by discovering what they are capable of whereas if the child is overly controlled, feelings of inadequacy are reinforced, which can lead to low self-esteem and doubt.


title: Developmental psychology

text: The third stage is "Initiative vs. Guilt." The virtue of being gained is a sense of purpose. This takes place primarily via play. This is the stage where the child will be curious and have many interactions with other kids. They will ask many questions as their curiosity grows. If too much guilt is present, the child may have a slower and harder time interacting with their world and other children in it.


title: Developmental psychology

text: The fourth stage is "Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority". The virtue for this stage is competency and is the result of the child's early experiences in school. This stage is when the child will try to win the approval of others and understand the value of their accomplishments.


title: Developmental psychology

text: The fifth stage is "Identity vs. Role Confusion". The virtue gained is fidelity and it takes place in adolescence. This is when the child ideally starts to identify their place in society, particularly in terms of their gender role.


title: Developmental psychology

text: The sixth stage is "Intimacy vs. Isolation", which happens in young adults and the virtue gained is love. This is when the person starts to share his/her life with someone else intimately and emotionally. Not doing so can reinforce feelings of isolation.


title: Developmental psychology

text: The seventh stage is "Generativity vs. Stagnation". This happens in adulthood and the virtue gained is care. A person becomes stable and starts to give back by raising a family and becoming involved in the community.


title: Developmental psychology

text: The eighth stage is "Ego Integrity vs. Despair". When one grows old, they look back on their life and contemplate their successes and failures. If they resolve this positively, the virtue of wisdom is gained. This is also the stage when one can gain a sense of closure and accept death without regret or fear.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Michael Commons enhanced and simplified Bärbel Inhelder and Piaget's developmental theory and offers a standard method of examining the universal pattern of development. The Model of Hierarchical Complexity (MHC) is not based on the assessment of domain-specific information, It divides the Order of Hierarchical Complexity of tasks to be addressed from the Stage performance on those tasks. A stage is the order hierarchical complexity of the tasks the participant's successfully addresses. He expanded Piaget's original eight stage (counting the half stages) to seventeen stages. The stages are:


title: Developmental psychology

text: The order of hierarchical complexity of tasks predicts how difficult the performance is with an R ranging from 0.9 to 0.98.


title: Developmental psychology

text: In the MHC, there are three main axioms for an order to meet in order for the higher order task to coordinate the next lower order task. Axioms are rules that are followed to determine how the MHC orders actions to form a hierarchy. These axioms are: a) defined in terms of tasks at the next lower order of hierarchical complexity task action; b) defined as the higher order task action that organizes two or more less complex actions; that is, the more complex action specifies the way in which the less complex actions combine; c) defined as the lower order task actions have to be carried out non-arbitrarily.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Ecological systems theory, originally formulated by Urie Bronfenbrenner, specifies four types of nested environmental systems, with bi-directional influences within and between the systems. The four systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Each system contains roles, norms and rules that can powerfully shape development. The microsystem is the direct environment in our lives such as our home and school. Mesosystem is how relationships connect to the microsystem. Exosystem is a larger social system where the child plays no role. Macrosystem refers to the cultural values, customs and laws of society.


title: Developmental psychology

text: The microsystem is the immediate environment surrounding and influencing the individual (example: school or the home setting). The mesosystem is the combination of two microsystems and how they influence each other (example: sibling relationships at home vs. peer relationships at school). The exosystem is the interaction among two or more settings that are indirectly linked (example: a father's job requiring more overtime ends up influencing his daughter's performance in school because he can no longer help with her homework). The macrosystem is broader taking into account social economic status, culture, beliefs, customs and morals (example: a child from a wealthier family sees a peer from a less wealthy family as inferior for that reason). Lastly, the chronosystem refers to the chronological nature of life events and how they interact and change the individual and their circumstances through transition (example: a mother losing her own mother to illness and no longer having that support in her life).


title: Developmental psychology

text: Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenner's major statement of this theory, "The Ecology of Human Development", has had widespread influence on the way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of this conceptualization of development, these environments—from the family to economic and political structures—have come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through to adulthood.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Lev Vygotsky was a Russian theorist from the Soviet era, who posited that children learn through hands-on experience and social interactions with members of their culture. Vygotsky believed that a child's development should be examined during problem-solving activities. Unlike Piaget, he claimed that timely and sensitive intervention by adults when a child is on the edge of learning a new task (called the "zone of proximal development") could help children learn new tasks. Zone of proximal development is a tool used to explain the learning of children and collaborating problem solving activities with an adult or peer. This adult role is often referred to as the skilled "master", whereas the child is considered the learning apprentice through an educational process often termed "cognitive apprenticeship" Martin Hill stated that "The world of reality does not apply to the mind of a child." This technique is called "scaffolding", because it builds upon knowledge children already have with new knowledge that adults can help the child learn. Vygotsky was strongly focused on the role of culture in determining the child's pattern of development, arguing that development moves from the social level to the individual level. In other words, Vygotsky claimed that psychology should focus on the progress of human consciousness through the relationship of an individual and their environment. He felt that if scholars continued to disregard this connection, then this disregard would inhibit the full comprehension of the human consciousness.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Constructivism is a paradigm in psychology that characterizes learning as a process of actively constructing knowledge. Individuals create meaning for themselves or make sense of new information by selecting, organizing, and integrating information with other knowledge, often in the context of social interactions. Constructivism can occur in two ways: individual and social. Individual constructivism is when a person constructs knowledge through cognitive processes of their own experiences rather than by memorizing facts provided by others. Social constructivism is when individuals construct knowledge through an interaction between the knowledge they bring to a situation and social or cultural exchanges within that content.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmental psychologist, proposed that learning is an active process because children learn through experience and make mistakes and solve problems. Piaget proposed that learning should be whole by helping students understand that meaning is constructed.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Evolutionary developmental psychology is a research paradigm that applies the basic principles of Darwinian evolution, particularly natural selection, to understand the development of human behavior and cognition. It involves the study of both the genetic and environmental mechanisms that underlie the development of social and cognitive competencies, as well as the epigenetic (gene-environment interactions) processes that adapt these competencies to local conditions.


title: Developmental psychology

text: EDP considers both the reliably developing, species-typical features of ontogeny (developmental adaptations), as well as individual differences in behavior, from an evolutionary perspective. While evolutionary views tend to regard most individual differences as the result of either random genetic noise (evolutionary byproducts) and/or idiosyncrasies (for example, peer groups, education, neighborhoods, and chance encounters) rather than products of natural selection, EDP asserts that natural selection can favor the emergence of individual differences via "adaptive developmental plasticity". From this perspective, human development follows alternative life-history strategies in response to environmental variability, rather than following one species-typical pattern of development.


title: Developmental psychology

text: EDP is closely linked to the theoretical framework of evolutionary psychology (EP), but is also distinct from EP in several domains, including research emphasis (EDP focuses on adaptations of ontogeny, as opposed to adaptations of adulthood) and consideration of proximate ontogenetic and environmental factors (i.e., how development happens) in addition to more ultimate factors (i.e., why development happens), which are the focus of mainstream evolutionary psychology.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Attachment theory, originally developed by John Bowlby, focuses on the importance of open, intimate, emotionally meaningful relationships. Attachment is described as a biological system or powerful survival impulse that evolved to ensure the survival of the infant. A threatened or stressed child will move toward caregivers who create a sense of physical, emotional, and psychological safety for the individual. Attachment feeds on body contact and familiarity. Later Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation protocol and the concept of the secure base. This tool has been found to help understand and surveillance attachment, such as the Strange Situation Test and the Adult Attachment Interview. Both of which help determine factors to certain attachment styles. The Strange Situation Test help finds "disturbances in attachment" and whether certain attributes are found to contribute to a certain attachment issue. The Adult Attachment Interview is a tool that is similar to the Strange Situation Test but instead focuses attachment issues found in adults. Both tests have helped many researchers gain more information on the risks and how to identify them.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Theorists have proposed four types of attachment styles: secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-resistant, and disorganized. Secure attachment is a healthy attachment between the infant and the caregiver. It is characterized by trust. Anxious-avoidant is an insecure attachment between an infant and a caregiver. This is characterized by the infant's indifference toward the caregiver. Anxious-resistant is an insecure attachment between the infant and the caregiver characterized by distress from the infant when separated and anger when reunited. Disorganized is an attachment style without a consistent pattern of responses upon return of the parent.


title: Developmental psychology

text: A child can be hindered in its natural tendency to form attachments. Some babies are raised without the stimulation and attention of a regular caregiver or locked away under conditions of abuse or extreme neglect. The possible short-term effects of this deprivation are anger, despair, detachment, and temporary delay in intellectual development. Long-term effects include increased aggression, clinging behavior, detachment, psychosomatic disorders, and an increased risk of depression as an adult.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Attachment is established in early childhood and attachment continues into adulthood. When involved in intimate relationships the way adults are able to handle relationship issues depends on their attachment styles that were formed during their childhood. An example of secure attachment continuing in adulthood would be when the person feels confident and is able to meet their own needs. Having a secure attachment allows the adult to have a healthy trusting relationship. An example of anxious attachment during adulthood is when the adult chooses a partner with anxious-avoidant attachment. Having an anxious/ ambivalent attachment style can affect an adult's trust issues in a committed relationship. By understanding what attachment style an individual formed with their caregiver when they were children, we can better understand their interpersonal relationships as adults.


title: Developmental psychology

text: A significant debate in developmental psychology is the relationship between innateness and environmental influence in regard to any particular aspect of development. This is often referred to as "nature and nurture" or nativism versus empiricism. A nativist account of development would argue that the processes in question are innate, that is, they are specified by the organism's genes. What makes a person who they are? Is it their environment or their genetics? This is the debate of nature vs nurture.


title: Developmental psychology

text: An empiricist perspective would argue that those processes are acquired in interaction with the environment. Today developmental psychologists rarely take such polarized positions with regard to most aspects of development; rather they investigate, among many other things, the relationship between innate and environmental influences. One of the ways this relationship has been explored in recent years is through the emerging field of evolutionary developmental psychology.


title: Developmental psychology

text: One area where this innateness debate has been prominently portrayed is in research on language acquisition. A major question in this area is whether or not certain properties of human language are specified genetically or can be acquired through learning. The empiricist position on the issue of language acquisition suggests that the language input provides the necessary information required for learning the structure of language and that infants acquire language through a process of statistical learning. From this perspective, language can be acquired via general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as perceptual learning.


title: Developmental psychology

text: The nativist position argues that the input from language is too impoverished for infants and children to acquire the structure of language. Linguist Noam Chomsky asserts that, evidenced by the lack of sufficient information in the language input, there is a universal grammar that applies to all human languages and is pre-specified. This has led to the idea that there is a special cognitive module suited for learning language, often called the language acquisition device. Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is regarded by many as a key turning point in the decline in the prominence of the theory of behaviorism generally. But Skinner's conception of "Verbal Behavior" has not died, perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications.


title: Developmental psychology

text: One of the major discussions in developmental psychology includes whether development is discontinuous or continuous.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Continuous development is quantifiable and quantitative, whereas discontinuous development is qualitative. Quantitative estimations of development can be measuring the stature of a child, and measuring their memory or consideration span. "Particularly dramatic examples of qualitative changes are metamorphoses, such as the emergence of a caterpillar into a butterfly."


title: Developmental psychology

text: Those psychologists who bolster the continuous view of improvement propose that improvement includes slow and progressing changes all through the life span, with behavior within the prior stages of advancement giving the premise of abilities and capacities required for the other stages. "To many, the concept of continuous, quantifiable measurement seems to be the essence of science".


title: Developmental psychology

text: Not all psychologists, be that as it may, concur that advancement could be a continuous process. A few see advancement as a discontinuous process. They accept advancement includes unmistakable and partitioned stages with diverse sorts of behavior happening in each organization. This proposes that the development of certain capacities in each arrange, such as particular feelings or ways of considering, have a definite beginning and finishing point. Be that as it may, there's no correct time at which a capacity abruptly shows up or disappears. Although some sorts of considering, feeling or carrying on could seem to seem abruptly, it is more than likely that this has been developing gradually for some time.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Stage theories of development rest on the suspicion that development may be a discontinuous process including particular stages which are characterized by subjective contrasts in behavior. They moreover assume that the structure of the stages isn't variable concurring to each person, in any case, the time of each arrangement may shift separately. Stage theories can be differentiated with ceaseless hypotheses, which set that development is an incremental process.


title: Developmental psychology

text: This issue involves the degree to which one becomes older renditions of their early experience or whether they develop into something different from who they were at an earlier point in development. It considers the extent to which early experiences (especially infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of a person's development. Stability is defined as the consistent ordering of individual differences with respect to some attribute. Change is altering someone/something.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Most human development lifespan developmentalists recognize that extreme positions are unwise. Therefore, the key to a comprehensive understanding of development at any stage requires the interaction of different factors and not only one.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Theory of mind is the ability to attribute mental states to ourselves and others. It is a complex but vital process in which children begin to understand the emotions, motives, and feelings of not only themselves but also others. Theory of mind allows people to understand that others have unique beliefs and desires that are different from our own. This enables people to engage in daily social interactions as we explain the mental state around us. If a child does not fully develop theory of mind within this crucial 5-year period, they can suffer from communication barriers that follow them into adolescence and adulthood. Exposure to more people and the availability of stimuli that encourages social-cognitive growth is a factor that relies heavily on family.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Developmental psychology is concerned not only with describing the characteristics of psychological change over time but also seeks to explain the principles and internal workings underlying these changes. Psychologists have attempted to better understand these factors by using models. A model must simply account for the means by which a process takes place. This is sometimes done in reference to changes in the brain that may correspond to changes in behavior over the course of the development.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Mathematical modeling is useful in developmental psychology for implementing theory in a precise and easy-to-study manner, allowing generation, explanation, integration, and prediction of diverse phenomena. Several modeling techniques are applied to development: symbolic, connectionist (neural network), or dynamical systems models.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Dynamic systems models illustrate how many different features of a complex system may interact to yield emergent behaviors and abilities. Nonlinear dynamics has been applied to human systems specifically to address issues that require attention to temporality such as life transitions, human development, and behavioral or emotional change over time. Nonlinear dynamic systems is currently being explored as a way to explain discrete phenomena of human development such as affect, second language acquisition, and locomotion.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Cognitive development is primarily concerned with the ways that infants and children acquire, develop, and use internal mental capabilities such as: problem-solving, memory, and language. Major topics in cognitive development are the study of language acquisition and the development of perceptual and motor skills. Piaget was one of the influential early psychologists to study the development of cognitive abilities. His theory suggests that development proceeds through a set of stages from infancy to adulthood and that there is an end point or goal.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Other accounts, such as that of Lev Vygotsky, have suggested that development does not progress through stages, but rather that the developmental process that begins at birth and continues until death is too complex for such structure and finality. Rather, from this viewpoint, developmental processes proceed more continuously. Thus, development should be analyzed, instead of treated as a product to obtain.


title: Developmental psychology

text: K. Warner Schaie has expanded the study of cognitive development into adulthood. Rather than being stable from adolescence, Schaie sees adults as progressing in the application of their cognitive abilities.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Modern cognitive development has integrated the considerations of cognitive psychology and the psychology of individual differences into the interpretation and modeling of development. Specifically, the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development showed that the successive levels or stages of cognitive development are associated with increasing processing efficiency and working memory capacity. These increases explain differences between stages, progression to higher stages, and individual differences of children who are the same-age and of the same grade-level. However, other theories have moved away from Piagetian stage theories, and are influenced by accounts of domain-specific information processing, which posit that development is guided by innate evolutionarily-specified and content-specific information processing mechanisms.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Developmental psychologists who are interested in social development examine how individuals develop social and emotional competencies. For example, they study how children form friendships, how they understand and deal with emotions, and how identity develops. Research in this area may involve study of the relationship between cognition or cognitive development and social behavior.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Emotional regulation or ER refers to an individual's ability to modulate emotional responses across a variety of contexts. In young children, this modulation is in part controlled externally, by parents and other authority figures. As children develop, they take on more and more responsibility for their internal state. Studies have shown that the development of ER is affected by the emotional regulation children observe in parents and caretakers, the emotional climate in the home, and the reaction of parents and caretakers to the child's emotions.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Music also has an influence on stimulating and enhancing the senses of a child through self-expression.


title: Developmental psychology

text: A child's social and emotional development can be disrupted by motor coordination problems, evidenced by the environmental stress hypothesis. The environmental hypothesis explains how children with coordination problems and developmental coordination disorder are exposed to several psychosocial consequences which act as secondary stressors, leading to an increase in internalizing symptoms such as depression and anxiety. Motor coordination problems affect fine and gross motor movement as well as perceptual-motor skills. Secondary stressors commonly identified include the tendency for children with poor motor skills to be less likely to participate in organized play with other children and more likely to feel socially isolated.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Social and emotional development focuses on five keys areas: Self-Awareness, Self Management, Social Awareness, Relationship Skills and Responsible Decision Making.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Physical development concerns the physical maturation of an individual's body until it reaches the adult stature. Although physical growth is a highly regular process, all children differ tremendously in the timing of their growth spurts. Studies are being done to analyze how the differences in these timings affect and are related to other variables of developmental psychology such as information processing speed. Traditional measures of physical maturity using x-rays are less in practice nowadays, compared to simple measurements of body parts such as height, weight, head circumference, and arm span.


title: Developmental psychology

text: A few other studies and practices with physical developmental psychology are the phonological abilities of mature 5- to 11-year-olds, and the controversial hypotheses of left-handers being maturationally delayed compared to right-handers. A study by Eaton, Chipperfield, Ritchot, and Kostiuk in 1996 found in three different samples that there was no difference between right- and left-handers.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Researchers interested in memory development look at the way our memory develops from childhood and onward. According to fuzzy-trace theory, a theory of cognition originally proposed by Valerie F. Reyna and Charles Brainerd, people have two separate memory processes: verbatim and gist. These two traces begin to develop at different times as well as at a different pace. Children as young as four years old have verbatim memory, memory for surface information, which increases up to early adulthood, at which point it begins to decline. On the other hand, our capacity for gist memory, memory for semantic information, increases up to early adulthood, at which point it is consistent through old age. Furthermore, one's reliance on gist memory traces increases as one ages.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Developmental psychology employs many of the research methods used in other areas of psychology. However, infants and children cannot be tested in the same ways as adults, so different methods are often used to study their development.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Developmental psychologists have a number of methods to study changes in individuals over time. Common research methods include systematic observation, including naturalistic observation or structured observation; self-reports, which could be clinical interviews or structured interviews; clinical or case study method; and ethnography or participant observation. These methods differ in the extent of control researchers impose on study conditions, and how they construct ideas about which variables to study. Every developmental investigation can be characterized in terms of whether its underlying strategy involves the "experimental", "correlational", or "case study" approach. The experimental method involves "actual manipulation of various treatments, circumstances, or events to which the participant or subject is exposed; the "experimental design" points to cause-and-effect relationships. This method allows for strong inferences to be made of causal relationships between the manipulation of one or more independent variables and subsequent behavior, as measured by the dependent variable. The advantage of using this research method is that it permits determination of cause-and-effect relationships among variables. On the other hand, the limitation is that data obtained in an artificial environment may lack generalizability. The correlational method explores the relationship between two or more events by gathering information about these variables without researcher intervention. The advantage of using a correlational design is that it estimates the strength and direction of relationships among variables in the natural environment; however, the limitation is that it does not permit determination of cause-and-effect relationships among variables. The case study approach allows investigations to obtain an in-depth understanding of an individual participant by collecting data based on interviews, structured questionnaires, observations, and test scores. Each of these methods have its strengths and weaknesses but the experimental method when appropriate is the preferred method of developmental scientists because it provides a controlled situation and conclusions to be drawn about cause-and-effect relationships.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Recently, scientists started relying on deep learning, a form of artificial intelligence to train deep neural networks on biological and psychological data.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Most developmental studies, regardless of whether they employ the experimental, correlational, or case study method, can also be constructed using research designs. Research designs are logical frameworks used to make key comparisons within research studies such as:


title: Developmental psychology

text: In a longitudinal study, a researcher observes many individuals born at or around the same time (a cohort) and carries out new observations as members of the cohort age. This method can be used to draw conclusions about which types of development are universal (or normative) and occur in most members of a cohort. As an example a longitudinal study of early literacy development examined in detail the early literacy experiences of one child in each of 30 families.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Researchers may also observe ways that development varies between individuals, and hypothesize about the causes of variation in their data. Longitudinal studies often require large amounts of time and funding, making them unfeasible in some situations. Also, because members of a cohort all experience historical events unique to their generation, apparently normative developmental trends may, in fact, be universal only to their cohort.


title: Developmental psychology

text: In a cross-sectional study, a researcher observes differences between individuals of different ages at the same time. This generally requires fewer resources than the longitudinal method, and because the individuals come from different cohorts, shared historical events are not so much of a confounding factor. By the same token, however, cross-sectional research may not be the most effective way to study differences between participants, as these differences may result not from their different ages but from their exposure to "different" historical events.


title: Developmental psychology

text: A third study design, the sequential design, combines both methodologies. Here, a researcher observes members of different birth cohorts at the same time, and then tracks all participants over time, charting changes in the groups. While much more resource-intensive, the format aids in a clearer distinction between what changes can be attributed to an individual or historical environment from those that are truly universal.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Because every method has some weaknesses, developmental psychologists rarely rely on one study or even one method to reach conclusions by finding consistent evidence from as many converging sources as possible.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Prenatal development is of interest to psychologists investigating the context of early psychological development. The whole prenatal development involves three main stages: germinal stage, embryonic stage and fetal stage. Germinal stage begins at conception until 2 weeks; embryonic stage means the development from 2 weeks to 8 weeks; fetal stage represents 9 weeks until birth of the baby. The senses develop in the womb itself: a fetus can both see and hear by the second trimester (13 to 24 weeks of age). The sense of touch develops in the embryonic stage (5 to 8 weeks). Most of the brain's billions of neurons also are developed by the second trimester. Babies are hence born with some odor, taste and sound preferences, largely related to the mother's environment.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Some primitive reflexes too arise before birth and are still present in newborns. One hypothesis is that these reflexes are vestigial and have limited use in early human life. Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggested that some early reflexes are building blocks for infant sensorimotor development. For example, the tonic neck reflex may help development by bringing objects into the infant's field of view.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Other reflexes, such as the walking reflex, appear to be replaced by more sophisticated voluntary control later in infancy. This may be because the infant gains too much weight after birth to be strong enough to use the reflex, or because the reflex and subsequent development are functionally different. It has also been suggested that some reflexes (for example the moro and walking reflexes) are predominantly adaptations to life in the womb with little connection to early infant development. Primitive reflexes reappear in adults under certain conditions, such as neurological conditions like dementia or traumatic lesions.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Ultrasound has shown that infants are capable of a range of movements in the womb, many of which appear to be more than simple reflexes. By the time they are born, infants can recognize and have a preference for their mother's voice suggesting some prenatal development of auditory perception. Prenatal development and birth complications may also be connected to neurodevelopmental disorders, for example in schizophrenia. With the advent of cognitive neuroscience, embryology and the neuroscience of prenatal development is of increasing interest to developmental psychology research.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Several environmental agents—teratogens—can cause damage during the prenatal period. These include prescription and nonprescription drugs, illegal drugs, tobacco, alcohol, environmental pollutants, infectious disease agents such as the rubella virus and the toxoplasmosis parasite, maternal malnutrition, maternal emotional stress, and Rh factor blood incompatibility between mother and child. There are many statistics which prove the effects of the aforementioned substances. A leading example of this would be that, in America alone, approximately 100,000-375,000 'cocaine babies' are born on an annual basis. This is a result of an expectant mother abusing the drug while pregnant. 'Cocaine babies' are proven to have quite severe and lasting difficulties which persist throughout infancy and right throughout childhood. The drug also encourages behavioural problems in the affected children and defects of various vital organs.


title: Developmental psychology

text: From birth until the first year, the child is referred to as an infant, in this case an infant is typically defined as a young kid especially a child on the first years. Although they are normally grouped together as infants, each of the kids have their own way of doing and responding to things as they grow up, hence considered different. Developmental psychologists vary widely in their assessment of infant psychology, and the influence the outside world has upon it.


title: Developmental psychology

text: The majority of a newborn infant's time is spent in sleep. At first, this sleep is evenly spread throughout the day and night, but after a couple of months, infants generally become diurnal. In a human and rodent infant there is always the observation of a diurnal cortisol rhythm which is sometimes typically entrained with a maternal substance. Nevertheless the circadian rhythm stats to take shape, and a 24 hour rhythm is observed on the kid in just some few months after birth.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Infant perception is what a newborn can see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. These five features are considered as the "five senses". Because of these different senses, infants respond to stimuli differently.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Babies are born with the ability to discriminate virtually all sounds of all human languages. Infants of around six months can differentiate between phonemes in their own language, but not between similar phonemes in another language. Notably, infants are able to differentiate between various durations and sound levels and can easily differentiate all the languages they have encountered, hence easy for infants to understand a certain language compared to an adult.


title: Developmental psychology

text: At this stage infants also start to babble, whereby they start making vowel consonant sound as they try to understand the true meaning of language and copy whatever they are hearing in their surrounding producing their own phonemes.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Piaget suggested that an infant's perception and understanding of the world depended on their motor development, which was required for the infant to link visual, tactile and motor representations of objects. According to this theory, infants develop object permanence through touching and handling objects. Infants also learn the understanding that objects are solid and permanent and continue to exist when out of sight.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Piaget's sensorimotor stage comprised six sub-stages (see sensorimotor stages for more detail). In the early stages, development arises out of movements caused by primitive reflexes. Discovery of new behaviors results from classical and operant conditioning, and the formation of habits. From eight months the infant is able to uncover a hidden object but will persevere when the object is moved.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Piaget came to his conclusion that infants lacked a complete understanding of object permanence before 18 months after observing infants' failure before this age to look for an object where it was last seen. Instead, infants continue to look for an object where it was first seen, committing the "A-not-B error". Some researchers have suggested that before the age of eight to nine months, infants' inability to understand object permanence extends to people, which explains why infants at this age do not cry when their mothers are gone ("Out of sight, out of mind").


title: Developmental psychology

text: In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers developed new methods of assessing infants' understanding of the world with far more precision and subtlety than Piaget was able to do in his time. Since then, many studies based on these methods suggest that young infants understand far more about the world than first thought.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Based on recent findings, some researchers (such as Elizabeth Spelke and Renee Baillargeon) have proposed that an understanding of object permanence is not learned at all, but rather comprises part of the innate cognitive capacities of our species.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Other research has suggested that young infants in their first six months of life may possess an understanding of numerous aspects of the world around them, including:


title: Developmental psychology

text: There are critical periods in infancy and childhood during which development of certain perceptual, sensorimotor, social and language systems depends crucially on environmental stimulation. Feral children such as Genie, deprived of adequate stimulation, fail to acquire important skills and are unable to learn in later childhood. In this case, Genie is used to represent the case of a feral child because she was socially neglected and abused while she was just a young girl. She underwent abnormal child psychology which involved problems with her linguistics. This happened because she was neglected while she was very young with no one to care about her and had less human contact. The concept of critical periods is also well-established in neurophysiology, from the work of Hubel and Wiesel among others. Neurophysiology in infants generally provides correlating details that exists between neurophysiological details and clinical features and also focuses on vital information on rare and common neurological disorders that affect infants.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Studies have been done to look at the differences in children who have developmental delays versus typical development. Normally when being compared to one another, mental age (MA) is not taken into consideration. There still may be differences in developmentally delayed (DD) children vs. typical development (TD) behavioral, emotional and other mental disorders. When compared to MA children there is a bigger difference between normal developmental behaviors overall. DDs can cause lower MA, so comparing DDs with TDs may not be as accurate. Pairing DDs specifically with TD children at similar MA can be more accurate. There are levels of behavioral differences that are considered as normal at certain ages. When evaluating DDs and MA in children, consider whether those with DDs have a larger amount of behavior that is not typical for their MA group. Developmental delays tend to contribute to other disorders or difficulties than their TD counterparts.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Infants shift between ages of one and two to a developmental stage known as toddlerhood. In this stage, an infant's transition into toddlerhood is highlighted through self-awareness, developing maturity in language use, and presence of memory and imagination.


title: Developmental psychology

text: During toddlerhood, babies begin learning how to walk, talk, and make decisions for themselves. An important characteristic of this age period is the development of language, where children are learning how to communicate and express their emotions and desires through the use of vocal sounds, babbling, and eventually words. Self-control also begins to develop. At this age, children take initiative to explore, experiment and learn from making mistakes. Caretakers who encourage toddlers to try new things and test their limits, help the child become autonomous, self-reliant, and confident. If the caretaker is overprotective or disapproving of independent actions, the toddler may begin to doubt their abilities and feel ashamed of the desire for independence. The child's autonomic development is inhibited, leaving them less prepared to deal with the world in the future. Toddlers also begin to identify themselves in gender roles, acting according to their perception of what a man or woman should do.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Socially, the period of toddler-hood is commonly called the "terrible twos". Toddlers often use their new-found language abilities to voice their desires, but are often misunderstood by parents due to their language skills just beginning to develop. A person at this stage testing their independence is another reason behind the stage's infamous label. Tantrums in a fit of frustration are also common.


title: Developmental psychology

text: In the earliest years, children are "completely dependent on the care of others". Therefore, they develop a "social relationship" with their care givers and, later, with family members. During their preschool years (3-5), they "enlarge their social horizons" to include people outside the family.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Preoperational and then operational thinking develops, which means actions are reversible, and egocentric thought diminishes.


title: Developmental psychology

text: The motor skills of preschoolers increase so they can do more things for themselves. They become more independent. No longer completely dependent on the care of others, the world of this age group expands. More people have a role in shaping their individual personalities. Preschoolers explore and question their world. For Jean Piaget, the child is ""a little scientist" exploring and reflecting on these explorations to increase competence" and this is done in "a very independent way".


title: Developmental psychology

text: Play is a major activity for ages 3–5. For Piaget, through play "a child reaches higher levels of cognitive development."


title: Developmental psychology

text: In their expanded world, children in the 3–5 age group attempt to find their own way. If this is done in a socially acceptable way, the child develops the initiative. If not, the child develops guilt. Children who develop "guilt" rather than "initiative" have failed Erikson's psychosocial crisis for the 3–5 age group.


title: Developmental psychology

text: For Erik Erikson, the psychosocial crisis during middle childhood is Industry vs. Inferiority which, if successfully met, instills a sense of Competency in the child.


title: Developmental psychology

text: In all cultures, middle childhood is a time for developing "skills that will be needed in their society." School offers an arena in which children can gain a view of themselves as "industrious (and worthy)". They are "graded for their school work and often for their industry". They can also develop industry outside of school in sports, games, and doing volunteer work. Children who achieve "success in school or games might develop a feeling of competence."


title: Developmental psychology

text: The "peril during this period is that feelings of inadequacy and inferiority will develop. Parents and teachers can "undermine" a child's development by failing to recognize accomplishments or being overly critical of a child's efforts.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Children who are "encouraged and praised" develop a belief in their competence. Lack of encouragement or ability to excel lead to "feelings of inadequacy and inferiority".


title: Developmental psychology

text: The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) divides Middle Childhood into two stages, 6–8 years and 9–11 years, and gives "developmental milestones for each stage".


title: Developmental psychology

text: Entering elementary school, children in this age group begin to thinks about the future and their "place in the world". Working with other students and wanting their friendship and acceptance become more important. This leads to "more independence from parents and family". As students, they develop the mental and verbal skills "to describe experiences and talk about thoughts and feelings". They become less self-centered and show "more concern for others".


title: Developmental psychology

text: For children ages 9–11 "friendships and peer relationships" increase in strength, complexity, and importance. This results in greater "peer pressure". They grow even less dependent on their families and they are challenged academically. To meet this challenge, they increase their attention span and learn to see other points of view.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Adolescence is the period of life between the onset of puberty and the full commitment to an adult social role, such as worker, parent, and/or citizen. It is the period known for the formation of personal and social identity (see Erik Erikson) and the discovery of moral purpose (see William Damon). Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts and formal reasoning. A return to egocentric thought often occurs early in the period. Only 35% develop the capacity to reason formally during adolescence or adulthood. (Huitt, W. and Hummel, J. January 1998)


title: Developmental psychology

text: The adolescent unconsciously explores questions such as "Who am I? Who do I want to be?" Like toddlers, adolescents must explore, test limits, become autonomous, and commit to an identity, or sense of self. Different roles, behaviors and ideologies must be tried out to select an identity. Role confusion and inability to choose vocation can result from a failure to achieve a sense of identity through, for example, friends.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Early adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 18 to 29, and according to theorists such as Erik Erikson, is a stage where development is mainly focused on maintaining relationships. Examples include creating bond of intimacy, sustaining friendships, and starting a family. Some theorists state that development of intimacy skills rely on the resolution of previous developmental stages. A sense of identity gained in the previous stages is also necessary for intimacy to develop. If this skill is not learned the alternative is alienation, isolation, a fear of commitment, and the inability to depend on others.


title: Developmental psychology

text: A related framework for studying this part of the lifespan is that of emerging adulthood. Scholars of emerging adulthood, such as Jeffrey Arnett, are not necessarily interested in relationship development. Instead, this concept suggests that people transition after their teenage years into a period not characterized as relationship building and an overall sense of constancy with life, but with years of living with parents, phases of self-discovery, and experimentation.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Middle adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 29 to 59. During this period, middle-aged adults experience a conflict between generativity and stagnation. They may either feel a sense of contributing to society, the next generation, or their immediate community; or develop a sense of purposelessness.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Physically, the middle-aged experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output. Also, women experience menopause at an average age of 48.8 and a sharp drop in the hormone estrogen. Men experience an equivalent endocrine system event to menopause. Andropause in males is a hormone fluctuation with physical and psychological effects that can be similar to those seen in menopausal females. As men age lowered testosterone levels can contribute to mood swings and a decline in sperm count. Sexual responsiveness can also be affected, including delays in erection and longer periods of penile stimulation required to achieve ejaculation.


title: Developmental psychology

text: The important influence of biological and social changes experienced by women and men in middle adulthood is reflected in that fact that depression is highest at age 48.5 around the world.


title: Developmental psychology

text: The World Health Organization finds "no general agreement on the age at which a person becomes old." Most "developed countries" set the age as 60 or 65. However, in developing countries inability to make "active contribution" to society, not chronological age, marks the beginning of old age. According to Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, old age is the stage in which individuals assess the quality of their lives. In reflecting on their lives, people in this age group develop a feeling of integrity if deciding that their lives were successful or a feeling of despair if evaluation of one's life indicates a failure to achieve goals.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Physically, older people experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, stamina, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell. They also are more susceptible to diseases such as cancer and pneumonia due to a weakened immune system. Programs aimed at balance, muscle strength, and mobility have been shown to reduce disability among mildly (but not more severely) disabled elderly.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Sexual expression depends in large part upon the emotional and physical health of the individual. Many older adults continue to be sexually active and satisfied with their sexual activity.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Mental disintegration may also occur, leading to dementia or ailments such as Alzheimer's disease. The average age of onset for dementia in males is 78.8 and 81.9 for women. It is generally believed that crystallized intelligence increases up to old age, while fluid intelligence decreases with age. Whether or not normal intelligence increases or decreases with age depends on the measure and study. Longitudinal studies show that perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, and spatial orientation decline. An article on adult cognitive development reports that cross-sectional studies show that "some abilities remained stable into early old age".


title: Developmental psychology

text: Parenting variables alone have typically accounted for 20 to 50 percent of the variance in child outcomes.


title: Developmental psychology

text: All parents have their own parenting styles. Parenting styles, according to Kimberly Kopko, are "based upon two aspects of parenting behavior; control and warmth. Parental control refers to the degree to which parents manage their children's behavior. Parental warmth refers to the degree to which parents are accepting and responsive to their children's behavior."


title: Developmental psychology

text: Parenting roles in child development have typically focused on the role of the mother. Recent literature, however, has looked toward the father as having an important role in child development. Affirming a role for fathers, studies have shown that children as young as 15 months benefit significantly from substantial engagement with their father. In particular, a study in the U.S. and New Zealand found the presence of the natural father was the most significant factor in reducing rates of early sexual activity and rates of teenage pregnancy in girls. Furthermore, another argument is that neither a mother nor a father is actually essential in successful parenting, and that single parents as well as homosexual couples can support positive child outcomes. According to this set of research, children need at least one consistently responsible adult with whom the child can have a positive emotional connection. Having more than one of these figures contributes to a higher likelihood of positive child outcomes.


title: Developmental psychology

text: Another parental factor often debated in terms of its effects on child development is divorce. Divorce in itself is not a determining factor of negative child outcomes. In fact, the majority of children from divorcing families fall into the normal range on measures of psychological and cognitive functioning. A number of mediating factors play a role in determining the effects divorce has on a child, for example, divorcing families with young children often face harsher consequences in terms of demographic, social, and economic changes than do families with older children. Positive coparenting after divorce is part of a pattern associated with positive child coping, while hostile parenting behaviors lead to a destructive pattern leaving children at risk. Additionally, direct parental relationship with the child also affects the development of a child after a divorce. Overall, protective factors facilitating positive child development after a divorce are maternal warmth, positive father-child relationship, and cooperation between parents.


title: Matthew Barney

text: Matthew Barney (born March 25, 1967) is an American contemporary artist and film director who works in the fields of sculpture, film, photography and drawing. His works explore connections among geography, biology, geology and mythology as well as themes of conflict and failure. His early pieces were sculptural installations combined with performance and video. Between 1994 and 2002, he created "The Cremaster Cycle", a series of five films described by Jonathan Jones in "The Guardian" as "one of the most imaginative and brilliant achievements in the history of avant-garde cinema." He is also known for his projects "Drawing Restraint 9" (2005), "River of Fundament" (2014) and "Redoubt" (2018).


title: Matthew Barney

text: Matthew Barney was born March 25, 1967, as the younger of two children in San Francisco, California, where he lived until he was 7. He lived in Boise, Idaho from 1973 to 1985, where his father got a job administering a catering service at Boise State University and where he attended elementary, middle, and high school. His parents divorced and his mother, an abstract painter, moved to New York City, where he would frequently visit. It was there where he was first introduced to the art scene.


title: Matthew Barney

text: Barney was recruited by Yale University in 1985 to play football and planned to go into pre-med, but he also intended to study art. In 1989, he graduated from Yale. His earliest works, created at Yale, were staged at the university's Payne Whitney Gymnasium. In the 1990s Barney moved to New York, where he worked as a catalog model, a career that helped him finance his early work as an artist. In 2002, Barney had a daughter with his then partner, the singer Björk, with whom he lived in a penthouse co-op in Brooklyn Heights. By September 2013, Barney and Björk were no longer a couple; Björk chronicled the breakup in her 2015 album "Vulnicura".


title: Matthew Barney

text: The "Drawing Restraint" series began in 1987 as a series of studio experiments, drawing upon an athletic model of development in which growth occurs only through restraint: the muscle encounters resistance, becomes engorged and is broken down, and in healing becomes stronger. In literally restraining the body while attempting to make a drawing, "Drawing Restraint 1–6" (1987–89) were documentations made using video and photography. "Drawing Restraint 7" marks the influx of narrative and characterization, resulting in a three channel video and a series of drawings and photographs, for which Barney was awarded the Aperto Prize in the 1993 Venice Biennale.


title: Matthew Barney

text: A series of ten vitrines containing drawings, "Drawing Restraint 8" was included in the 2003 Venice Biennale and prefigured the narrative development for "Drawing Restraint 9" (2005). A major project consisting of a feature-length film and soundtrack composed by Björk, large-scale sculptures, photographs and drawings, "Drawing Restraint 9" was built upon themes such as the Shinto religion, the tea ceremony, the history of whaling, and the supplantation of blubber with refined petroleum for oil. A full-scale survey of Barney's work through "Drawing Restraint 9" was held at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art in 2006 and included over 150 objects of varying media. "Drawing Restraint 10 – 16" (2005–07) are site-specific performances that recall the earlier Yale pieces.


title: Matthew Barney

text: "Drawing Restraint 17" and "18" were performed at the Schaulager in Basel in 2010 in conjunction with the exhibition "Prayer Sheet with the Wound and the Nail," a survey of the "Drawing Restraint" series through "Drawing Restraint 18".


title: Matthew Barney

text: "Drawing Restraint 19" employs a skateboard as a drawing tool. A block of graphite is mounted beneath the skateboard deck on the front end of the board. A skater performs a nose manual (a wheelie on the nose of the board, leaning in the direction of movement) across a smooth surface, tipping the nose of the board forward and leaving behind a drawn graphite line. The piece was part of a benefit art show and auction titled "Good Wood", raising awareness and funds for Power House Productions' "Ride It Sculpture Park" in Detroit, Michigan. The riding was performed on site by skateboarder Lance Mountain, documented by photographer Joe Brook and published by Juxtapoz Magazine in their February 2013 issue. The board was purchased by People Skate and Snowboard and it is displayed at their only location in Keego Harbor, Michigan.


title: Matthew Barney

text: Matthew Barney’s epic "Cremaster" cycle (1994–2002) is a self-enclosed aesthetic system consisting of five feature-length films that explore processes of creation. The cycle unfolds not just cinematically, but also through the photographs, drawings, sculptures, and installations the artist produces in conjunction with each episode. Its conceptual departure point is the male cremaster muscle, which controls testicular contractions in response to external stimuli. Barney's long-time collaborator Jonathan Bepler composed and arranged the films’ soundtracks.


title: Matthew Barney

text: The project is rife with anatomical allusions to the position of the reproductive organs during the embryonic process of sexual differentiation: "Cremaster 1" represents the most "ascended" or undifferentiated state, "Cremaster 5" the most "descended" or differentiated. The cycle repeatedly returns to those moments during early sexual development in which the outcome of the process is still unknown. In Barney's metaphoric universe, these moments represent a condition of pure potentiality. As the cycle evolved over eight years, Barney looked beyond biology as a way to explore the creation of form, employing narrative models from other realms, such as biography, mythology, and geology. The photographs, drawings, and sculptures radiate outward from the narrative core of each film installment. Barney's photographs—framed in plastic and often arranged in diptychs and triptychs that distill moments from the plot—often emulate classical portraiture. His graphite and petroleum jelly drawings represent key aspects of the project's conceptual framework.


title: Matthew Barney

text: "River of Fundament" takes the form of a three-act opera and is loosely based on Norman Mailer’s novel "Ancient Evenings". In collaboration with composer Jonathan Bepler, Barney combines traditional modes of narrative cinema with filmed elements of performance, sculpture, and opera, reconstructing Mailer’s hypersexual story of Egyptian gods and the seven stages of reincarnation, alongside the rise and fall of the American car industry.


title: Matthew Barney

text: Barney replaced the human body with the body of the 1967 Chrysler Imperial that was the central motif from his earlier film "Cremaster 3". The film’s central scene is an abstraction of Mailer’s wake, set in a replica of the late author’s apartment in Brooklyn Heights and featuring Maggie Gyllenhaal, Paul Giamatti, Elaine Stritch, Ellen Burstyn, Peter Donald Badalamenti II, Joan La Barbara, and jazz percussionist Milford Graves.


title: Matthew Barney

text: Barney began producing a new two-hour film, "Redoubt", in 2017, which premiered in March 2019. It is set in the Sawtooth Range of Idaho, United States, and uses multiple layers of myths, including the myth of Diana and Actaeon, as well as references to the controversial reintroduction of wolves into the Sawtooth Mountains and metallurgy, to discuss "humanity's place in the natural world". The Yale University Art Gallery debuted "Redoubt" on March 1, 2019, alongside an exhibition of large bronze and brass sculptures and electroplated engravings inspired by the film. The show traveled afterward to UCCA Beijing (2019-2020), then Hayward Gallery in London (2020- 2021).


title: Matthew Barney

text: Barney has explored live performance before an audience. The pieces "REN" and "Guardian of the Veil" revisit the language of the "Cremaster Cycle", via a ritualistic exploration of Egyptian symbolism inspired by Norman Mailer's novel "Ancient Evenings". "Guardian of the Veil" took place on July 12, 2007 at the Manchester International Festival in England. "REN" took place on May 18, 2008 in Los Angeles. His October 2, 2010 performance, "KHU", the second part in his seven-part performance series in collaboration with Jonathan Bepler inspired by "Ancient Evenings," took place in Detroit.


title: Matthew Barney

text: In June 2009, a collaboration between Barney and Elizabeth Peyton, titled "Blood of Two", was performed for the opening of the Deste Foundation's exhibition space, the Slaughterhouse, located on the Greek island Hydra. The two-hour performance involved divers retrieving from a nearby cove a vitrine containing drawings which had been submerged for months. A funeral-like procession of fishermen carried the case up a winding set of stairs. At one point, a dead shark was laid on the case, and the fishermen proceeded to the gallery space, carrying the case and shark, accompanied by the onlookers and a herd of goats. At the Slaughterhouse, the case was opened, water poured out, and the drawings revealed. The shark was eventually cooked and fed to the guests.


title: Matthew Barney

text: In June 2017, Barney, local art curator Brandon Stosuy, and other artists installed "Remains Board" on his studio in Long Island City. The board is a large seven-segment digital clock, visible from the United Nations and midtown Manhattan, counting down the days, hours, and minutes remaining in the U.S. president Donald Trump's first term. The "Remains Board" was initially illuminated during a durational performance of physical comedy by Josh Fadem. On inauguration day in 2021, at 12:00 p.m., Hunter Hunt-Hendrix of Liturgy performed a guitar solo beneath the "Remains Board" as the clock began to approach 00:00:00.


title: Matthew Barney

text: Following his inclusion in two group shows at Althea Viafora gallery in New York in 1990, Barney's solo debut in 1991 at the Barbara Gladstone Gallery was hailed by "The New York Times" as "an extraordinary first show". That same year, at the age of twenty-four, he had a solo exhibition at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art. The Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam, organized a solo exhibition of his work that toured Europe throughout 1995 and 1996. Barney was subsequently included in many international exhibitions, such as documenta 9 in Kassel (1992); the 1993 and 1995 Biennial exhibitions at the Whitney Museum of American Art, New York; and Aperto ’93 at the 48th Venice Biennale, for which he was awarded the Europa 2000 Prize. For the season 2000/2001 in the Vienna State Opera, Barney designed a large scale picture (176 sqm) as part of the exhibition series "Safety Curtain", conceived by museum in progress.


title: Matthew Barney

text: "Matthew Barney: The Cremaster Cycle", an exhibition of artwork from the entire cycle organized by the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, premiered at the Museum Ludwig, Cologne, in June 2002 and subsequently traveled to the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris and the Guggenheim Museum in New York. A large-scale exhibition of the entire “Drawing Restraint” series was organized by the 21st Century Museum for Contemporary Art, Kanazawa, in 2005 and traveled to Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art, Seoul; San Francisco Museum of Modern Art; Serpentine Gallery, London; and Kunsthalle Wien, Vienna. Barney has also had major solo exhibitions organized by Astrup Fearnley Museum of Modern Art in Oslo (2003), Living Art Museum in Reykjavik (2003), Sammlung Goetz in Munich (2007), and Fondazione Merz in Turin (2008). His work has been included in major group exhibitions including "Moving Pictures" at Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York and Guggenheim Bilbao (2002), Venice Biennale (2003), "Quartet: Barney, Gober, Levine, Walker" at Walker Art Center in Minneapolis (2005), Biennial of Moving Images at Centre pour l’Image Contemporaine in Paris (2005), and "All in the Present Must Be Transformed: Matthew Barney and Joseph Beuys" at Deutsche Guggenheim in Berlin (2006).


title: Matthew Barney

text: In 2013, the Morgan Library & Museum mounted “Subliming Vessel: The Drawings of Matthew Barney”, the first museum retrospective devoted to the artist's drawings, later traveling to the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris. In 2014, Barney exhibited "River of Fundament" at Haus der Kunst, Munich. The exhibition later traveled to the Museum of Old and New Art, Hobart, Tasmania and the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles. "River of Fundament" was considered the largest filmic project since the Cremaster Cycle and first major museum solo exhibition in Los Angeles. In 2019, the Yale University Art Gallery exhibited "Matthew Barney: Redoubt," the first solo museum exhibition in the U.S. since the presentation of "River of Fundament" at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, in 2015–16.


title: Matthew Barney

text: Barney's work has provoked strong critical reaction, both positive and negative. Barney's work has been compared to performance artists Chris Burden and Vito Acconci, and some critics have argued that Barney's art is simultaneously a critique and a celebration of commercialism and blockbuster filmmaking. Commenting on the "Cremaster" series' enigmatic nature, Alexandra Keller and Frazer Ward write:


title: Matthew Barney

text: The philosopher Arthur C. Danto, well known for his work on aesthetics, has praised Barney's work, noting the importance of Barney's use of sign systems such as Masonic symbology.


title: Matthew Barney

text: Others have asserted Barney's works are contemporary expressions of surrealism. In the words of Chris Chang, Barney's "Cremaster" films, though "completely arcane, hermetic and solipsistic ... nevertheless periodically provide some of the most enigmatically beautiful experimental film imagery you'll ever see."


title: Matthew Barney

text: "Is Barney's work a new beginning for a new century?", asks Richard Lacayo, writing in "Time". "It feels more like a very energetic longing for a beginning, in which all kinds of imagery have been put to the service of one man's intricate fantasy of return to the womb. Something lovely and exasperating is forever in formation there. Will he ever give birth?"


title: Matthew Barney

text: "Barney is the real thing. When he brings his boundless imagination to a subject he goes down to its depths to create images and implant ideas that stay in your mind for ever" writes art historian Richard Dorment in "The Daily Telegraph".


title: Matthew Barney

text: Kanye West also admires Barney's work and credited him as an influence on the music video for West's song "Famous".


title: Ali Wentworth

text: Alexandra "Ali" Wentworth (born January 12, 1965) is an American actress, comedian, author, and producer.


title: Ali Wentworth

text: Wentworth's mother, Muffie Cabot (née Mabel Bryant Hobart), was Nancy Reagan's White House social secretary from 1981 to 1983. Her father, Eric Wentworth, was a reporter for "The Washington Post." Her stepfather, Henry Brandon, was the Washington correspondent for "The Sunday Times" of London, and her maternal grandmother was Janet Elliott Wulsin, an explorer.


title: Ali Wentworth

text: Wentworth attended the Dana Hall School for Girls in Wellesley, Massachusetts, and studied drama at Bard College in Annandale-on-Hudson, New York before she graduated from New York University.


title: Ali Wentworth

text: Wentworth debuted as a cast member on the Fox sketch comedy series "In Living Color" from 1992 to 1994. On the program she was known for performing impressions of Cher, Amy Fisher, Hillary Clinton, Princess Diana, Brooke Shields, Lisa Marie Presley, Sharon Stone, and other characters. Her recurring characters included Candy Cane, a deranged kids' show host who had had a string of bad relationships with her male coworkers, and the promiscuous teenage daughter of Grandpa Jack McGee (Jim Carrey) on "The Dysfunctional Home Show".


title: Ali Wentworth

text: Wentworth made appearances as a correspondent on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno" and "The Oprah Winfrey Show". In 1995, she played Jerry Seinfeld's girlfriend Sheila ("Schmoopie") in the memorable "Soup Nazi" episode of "Seinfeld." She had a recurring role as the boss of the title character on the WB series "Felicity."


title: Ali Wentworth

text: In 2003, she co-hosted the syndicated talk show "Living It Up! with Ali & Jack" with Jack Ford. Since that show's cancellation and before, she has been a regular part of the guest host rotation for "Live with Kelly and Ryan" when Kelly Ripa is on vacation or has other commitments.


title: Ali Wentworth

text: Wentworth starred in the comedy "Head Case" on the Starz television network. She guest starred on the NBC show "The Marriage Ref." She hosted "Daily Shot", a short daily talk show segment on Yahoo! Shine.


title: Ali Wentworth

text: In 2016, Wentworth created and starred in "Nightcap" as the lead character Staci Cole. The series was broadcast for two seasons.


title: Ali Wentworth

text: Wentworth appeared on the July 23, 2017 episode (S2 E07) of the "$100,000 Pyramid" ("The $100,000 Pyramid") as a celebrity guest opposite Kathy Najimy, helping her contestant partner win the $150,000 grand prize. In 2020, Wentworth launched a podcast "Go Ask Ali" in partnership with shondaland audio. In 2022, she published a book, "Ali's Well That Ends Well", about finding humor in the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Ali Wentworth

text: Wentworth is married to George Stephanopoulos, ABC News chief anchor, correspondent and former political adviser to the Clinton administration. They met on a blind date in April 2001 and were engaged two months later. They married on November 20, 2001, at the Archdiocesan Cathedral of the Holy Trinity on New York City's Upper East Side in a lengthy service. They have two daughters: Elliott Anastasia Stephanopoulos (born September 9, 2002) and Harper Andrea Stephanopoulos (born June 2, 2005).


title: Ali Wentworth

text: In an episode of "Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee", Wentworth said a "well-known writer" once offered $40,000 to spend a night with her.