title: Patrick Kane

text: In the season, Kane finished with a career-high 88 points to rank ninth in the NHL in scoring. The Blackhawks finished first in the Central Division and second in the Western Conference. They advanced to the 2010 Stanley Cup Finals. On June 9, 2010, in game six of the Finals, Kane scored the overtime winner when he shot the puck under the pads of Philadelphia Flyers goaltender Michael Leighton and into the net, winning the Blackhawks the Stanley Cup. The goal ended a 49-year Stanley Cup drought for the Blackhawks. It also made Kane the youngest player in NHL history to score a Stanley Cup-winning goal in overtime; that record previously belonged to Bobby Orr in .


title: Patrick Kane

text: During the 2012–13 NHL lockout, Kane played overseas, signing a contract on October 24, 2012, to play for Swiss club EHC Biel. In 20 National League A games, Kane scored 13 goals and had 10 assists alongside Tyler Seguin, Biel's second NHL player. Kane also played for HC Davos in the 2012 Spengler Cup.


title: Patrick Kane

text: When the lockout ended and play began in the 2012–13 season in January 2013, Jonathan Toews tied Kane for the team lead in goals with 23. Kane finished the season as the team leader in assists (32) and points (55). Kane scored his second career playoff hat-trick in the 2013 playoffs against the Los Angeles Kings in double overtime of Game 5 of the Western Conference Finals on June 8, 2013. That goal (scored at 11:40 in double overtime) advanced the team to the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals against the Boston Bruins. It was Kane's second Stanley Cup Final appearance. The Blackhawks would win the Cup Finals in six games, and Kane contributed by scoring three goals (one in Game 4 and two in Game 5) to win the 2013 Conn Smythe Trophy as the Stanley Cup Playoffs MVP. In addition, Kane was the first winger since Claude Lemieux in , and the first number one overall draft pick since Mario Lemieux in , to win the Conn Smythe Trophy.


title: Patrick Kane

text: On March 19, 2014, Kane injured his left leg following a collision with Brenden Morrow in a game against the St. Louis Blues. He missed the remainder of the regular season but returned for the 2014 playoffs. During the playoffs, he recorded a team-high 20 points in 19 games with 8 goals and 12 assists. As part of that run, on May 2, in Game 1 of Blackhawks' Western Conference Semifinals, Kane scored two goals, including the game-winning goal while coining his nickname "Showtime". On July 9, 2014, the Blackhawks announced that Kane and Jonathan Toews had both signed eight-year contract extensions, set to start running on July 1, 2015, with an annual average value of $10.5 million.


title: Patrick Kane

text: During the 2014–15 season, Kane emerged as one of the NHL's leading scorers. He was elected to the 2015 NHL All-Star Game in Columbus, Ohio. He scored 64 points (27 goals and 37 assists) through the regular season. He injured his left clavicle on February 24, 2015, after he was cross-checked into the boards while stumbling towards the ice by Alex Petrovic in a game against the Florida Panthers. Kane underwent surgery and was expected to miss 12 weeks. At the time of his injury, he was leading the NHL in points. However, he recovered earlier than initially projected and returned to the Blackhawks at the start of the 2015 playoffs. Chicago head coach Joel Quenneville moved Kane to the Blackhawks' top line alongside Jonathan Toews and Brandon Saad after the Anaheim Ducks took a 3–2 game lead in the Western Conference Finals. The trio combined for nine points over the final two games and propelled the Blackhawks to the Stanley Cup Finals. Kane helped the Blackhawks defeat the Tampa Bay Lightning by assisting on Duncan Keith's game-winning goal in Game 6 and scoring an insurance goal for his third Stanley Cup championship in six years. Kane finished the playoffs with 11 goals and 12 assists, tying the Lightning's Tyler Johnson with a playoff-high 23 points.


title: Patrick Kane

text: Following the off-season departures of Saad and Brad Richards, the Blackhawks acquired rookie winger Artemi Panarin and veteran center Artem Anisimov to join Kane on the second line for the 2015–16 season. Kane recorded a 26-game point streak between October and December, during which he tallied 16 goals and 24 assists. This was the longest streak by any American-born skater, and the longest point-streak in Blackhawks history. Kane was selected to the 2016 NHL All-Star Game as the captain of the Central Division team. On April 1, 2016, Kane reached the 40-goal mark for the first time in his NHL career when he scored a late goal in the second period of a 5–4 overtime victory against the Winnipeg Jets. On April 3, Kane scored his second hat trick in a 6–4 win against the Boston Bruins, reaching 100 points and becoming the first Blackhawks player to score 100 points in a season since Jeremy Roenick in , and the first American NHL player to reach 100 points since Doug Weight in . He ended the season with a league-high 106 points, winning both the Hart Memorial Trophy and the Art Ross Trophy; he is Chicago's first winner of either award since Stan Mikita scored 87 points in and is the first American player in NHL history to capture either trophy since they have been awarded. Kane also won the Ted Lindsay Award, given to the NHL's most outstanding player as voted by the National Hockey League Players' Association (NHLPA).


title: Patrick Kane

text: Kane continued his success with Panarin during the 2016–17 season. He finished the season with 89 points, finishing second in the NHL behind Connor McDavid and tied with Sidney Crosby. Kane was selected to play on the NHL's Central Division team for the 2017 NHL All-Star Game. However, Kane and the Blackhawks were swept by the Nashville Predators during the first round of the 2017 playoffs. Kane only tallied one goal and assist during the series. During the ensuing off-season, Panarin was traded to the Columbus Blue Jackets in a four-player deal in exchange for Brandon Saad. In the off-season, Kane was named in the 100 Greatest NHL Players list for NHL's Centennial Anniversary.


title: Patrick Kane

text: Kane recorded the first five-point game of his NHL career on January 9, 2018, against the Ottawa Senators. He was selected to play in the 2018 NHL All-Star Game. On January 20, 2018, in a game against the New York Islanders, Kane recorded his 800th career point, becoming only the fifth player in franchise history to reach that milestone.


title: Patrick Kane

text: On January 19, 2020, against the Winnipeg Jets, Kane scored his 1,000th NHL career point, assisting on a goal by Brandon Saad. Kane became the fourth player in Blackhawks franchise history to reach that mark with the club, along with Stan Mikita, Bobby Hull and Denis Savard. During the season, the Blackhawks appointed Kane as an alternate captain after Brent Seabrook missed the remainder of the season due to multiple surgeries.


title: Patrick Kane

text: Kane retained his role as an alternate captain going into 2020–21 NHL season. He scored 15 goals and tallied 51 assists for a team-high 66 points. He finished with the fifth-most points among all skaters in the NHL for the season. On February 28, 2021, Kane recorded his 400th career goal against the Detroit Red Wings, becoming the 100th player in NHL history to reach 400 career goals. On March 9, Kane played in his 1,000th career game and became only the seventh player in franchise history to reach the milestone. After the season's conclusion, Kane was named the Best NHL Player at the 2021 ESPY Awards.


title: Patrick Kane

text: Kane appeared in 78 games for the Blackhawks during the 2021–22 NHL season where he recorded 26 goals and 66 assists despite playing with a persistent undisclosed injury. Kane's 92 points marked the third-highest scoring season of his career. As he approached the final season of his current contract in Chicago, Kane commented on his future with the team, stating, "I know in the game of hockey there's not many guys that have played their whole career with one team, so it would be a privilege and an honor to do that, but I guess we'll see how it all plays out."


title: Patrick Kane

text: Kane has competed internationally for the United States. He first represented the United States in the 2006 IIHF U18 Championships, in which he led the tournament in scoring with 12 points (five goals and seven assists) in only six games played. His two points per game pace led the United States to the gold medal and earned him individual all-star team honors.


title: Patrick Kane

text: The next year, he moved onto the United States' U20 team at the 2007 World Juniors. He was one of only three players on the team playing major junior hockey. He continued his international pace with five goals and four assists in seven games to finish second in tournament scoring and, once again, garner an all-star team selection. His team did not perform as well as his U18 team, but they did manage to go home with the bronze medal. After making the NHL and being unable to play in the 2008 WJC due to professional commitments with the Chicago Blackhawks, he played in the 2008 World Championships. He posted 10 points (three goals and seven assists) in seven games as the United States finished fifth.


title: Patrick Kane

text: Kane was selected to represent the United States in the 2010 Olympic Games in Vancouver, where he and the team won the silver medal. During the tournament he scored three goals and two assists in six games. Kane represented the United States again in the 2014 Olympic Games in Sochi. He missed two penalty shots in a loss against Finland in the bronze medal game.


title: Patrick Kane

text: On April 9, 2018, Kane was named the captain of Team USA for the 2018 IIHF World Championship. Kane scored two goals including a game winner in a 3–2 victory against the Czech Republic in the quarterfinals. The U.S. team finished the competition with the bronze medal after losing to Sweden in the semifinals but beating Canada. Kane finished the championships as the tournament's leading scorer with eight goals and 12 assists in 10 games. He was named the Most Valuable Player of 2018 Men's World Championship.


title: Patrick Kane

text: During the offseason, he lives in Hamburg, New York in a house on the shores of Lake Erie, which he purchased in March 2012. Kane has resided at the Trump International Hotel and Tower during the NHL season in a two-bedroom condo that he acquired in September 2008. However, Kane listed his Trump Tower condo for sale in the summer of 2016.


title: Patrick Kane

text: Kane has an endorsement deal with Bauer Hockey. He also appeared in commercials for McDonald's and Gatorade.


title: Patrick Kane

text: During his childhood, Kane was in the photo on Sylvain Turgeon's 1994-95 Pinnacle trading card, sitting with his father in the front row at the Buffalo Memorial Auditorium at a game between the Buffalo Sabres and Ottawa Senators, whom Turgeon was a member of at the time of the photo. Kane's father confirmed they were in the picture in a 2014 interview.


title: Patrick Kane

text: Kane and girlfriend, Amanda Grahovec, have one child together, a son also named Patrick, born in November 2020.


title: Patrick Kane

text: Kane participated in the Denis Savard Charity Golf Tournament in 2016. He played in an ice hockey game, Champs for Charity, which raised $323,000 for the Ronald McDonald House Charities of Chicagoland and Northwest Indiana in 2012.


title: Patrick Kane

text: On August 9, 2009, Kane and his cousin, James M. Kane, were arrested in Buffalo. According to a police report, Kane was apprehended around 5:00 a.m. after allegedly punching cab driver Jan Radecki when he claimed to not have proper change for their trip fare. Kane and his cousin's cab fare came out to be $14.80, and they gave him $15.00.


title: Patrick Kane

text: Kane was charged with second-degree robbery, fourth-degree criminal mischief, and theft of services. He pleaded not guilty. On August 17, Kane apologized for the distress he caused, saying he had been "at the wrong place at the wrong time," and mentioned his family, the Chicago Blackhawks organization, and their fan base—but not Radecki. Kane and his cousin appeared before a grand jury on August 19. While they were cleared of any felony charges, the two were still indicted on less severe misdemeanor assault, theft, and harassment charges. Kane and his cousin reiterated their not guilty pleas when appearing in court the next day. On August 27, Kane and cousin pleaded guilty to noncriminal disorderly conduct charges, and were both given conditional discharges, avoiding any penalties if they stayed out of trouble for a year, and also ordered to apologize to Radecki.


title: Patrick Kane

text: On August 6, 2015, the Buffalo News reported that Kane was the subject of a sexual assault investigation by police in Hamburg, New York in connection with an incident that allegedly occurred the previous weekend. The Erie County District Attorney's Office later declined to press charges against him, stating that the complainant's allegation was not sufficiently substantiated by credible evidence. It later came to light that the complainant's mother had orchestrated a hoax in which she attempted to make it appear as if critical evidence had been tampered with.


title: Dal

text: In Indian cuisine, dal (also spelled daal or dhal; pronunciation: , Hindi: दाल, Urdu: ) are dried, split pulses (e.g., lentils, peas, and beans) that do not require soaking before cooking. India is the largest producer of pulses in the world. The term is also used for various soups prepared from these pulses. These pulses are among the most important staple foods in South Asian countries, and form an important part of the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent.


title: Dal

text: The most common way of preparing dal is in the form of a soup to which onions, tomatoes and various spices may be added.


title: Dal

text: The outer hull may or may not be stripped off. Almost all types of dal come in three forms: (1) unhulled or "sabut" (meaning whole in Hindi), e.g., "sabut urad dal" or "mung sabut"; (2) split with hull left on the split halves is described as "chilka" (which means shell in Hindi), e.g. "chilka urad dal", "mung dal chilka"; (3) split and hulled or "dhuli" (meaning washed), e.g., "urad dhuli" or "mung dhuli" in Hindi.


title: Dal

text: Dal is frequently eaten with flatbreads such as "rotis" or "chapatis," or with rice. The latter combination is called "dal bhat" in Nepali, Bengali and Marathi. In addition, certain types of dal are fried and salted and eaten as a dry snack, and a variety of savory snacks are made by frying a paste made from soaked and ground dals in different combinations, to which other ingredients such as spices and nuts (commonly cashews) may be added.


title: Dal

text: The word "dāl" (dal) derives from the Sanskrit verbal root "dal-" "to split", which is inherited from Proto-Indo-European "*delh₁-" “to split, divide”.


title: Dal

text: Dal preparations are eaten with rice, chapati and naan on the Indian subcontinent. The manner in which it is cooked and presented varies by region. In South India, dal is often called "paruppu". It is primarily used to make the dish called sambar. It is also used to make paruppu that is mixed with charu and rice.


title: Dal

text: Cooked (boiled) dal contains 9% protein, 70% water, 20% carbohydrates (includes 8% fiber), and 1% fat. It also supplies a rich content (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of the B vitamin, folate (45% DV) and manganese (25% DV), with moderate amounts of thiamine (11% DV) and several dietary minerals, such as iron (19% DV) and phosphorus (18% DV).


title: Dal

text: Note: All nutrient values including protein are in %DV per 100 grams of the food item. Significant values are highlighted in light gray color and bold letters.


title: Dal

text: Cooking reduction = % Maximum typical reduction in nutrients due to boiling without draining for ovo-lacto-vegetables group.


title: Dal

text: Although dal generally refers to split pulses, whole pulses can be referred to as "sabut dhal" and split pulses as "dhuli dhal". The hulling of a pulse is intended to improve digestibility and palatability, but, as milling of whole grains into refined grains, affects the nutrition provided by the dish, reducing dietary fibre content. Pulses with their outer hulls intact are also quite popular in the Indian subcontinent as the main cuisine. Over 50 different varieties of pulses are known in the Indian subcontinent.


title: Dal

text: Most dal recipes are quite simple to prepare. The standard preparation begins with boiling a variety of dal (or a mix) in water with some turmeric, salt to taste, and then adding a fried garnish at the end of the cooking process. In some recipes, tomatoes, kokum, unripe mango, jaggery, or other ingredients are added while cooking the dal, often to impart a sweet-sour flavour.


title: Dal

text: The fried garnish for dal goes by many names, including "chaunk", "tadka/tarka", "bagar", "fodni", and "phoran". The ingredients in the "chaunk" for each variety of dal vary by region and individual tastes. The raw spices (more commonly cumin seeds, mustard seeds, asafoetida, and sometimes fenugreek seeds and dried red chili pepper) are first fried for a few seconds in the hot oil on medium/low heat. This is generally followed by ginger, garlic, and onion, which are generally fried for 10 minutes. After the onion turns golden brown, ground spices (turmeric, coriander, red chili powder, "garam masala", etc.) are added. The "chaunk" is then poured over the cooked dal.


title: Mothball

text: Mothballs are small balls of chemical pesticide and deodorant, sometimes used when storing clothing and other materials susceptible to damage from mold or moth larvae (especially clothes moths like "Tineola bisselliella").


title: Mothball

text: Older mothballs consisted primarily of naphthalene, but due to naphthalene's flammability, many modern mothball formulations instead use 1,4-dichlorobenzene. The latter formulation may be somewhat less flammable, although both chemicals have the same NFPA 704 rating for flammability. The latter chemical is also variously labeled as para-dichlorobenzene, p-dichlorobenzene, pDCB, or PDB, making it harder to identify unless all these acronyms are known to a potential purchaser. Both of these formulations have the strong, pungent, sickly-sweet odor often associated with mothballs. Both naphthalene and 1,4-dichlorobenzene undergo sublimation, meaning that they transition from a solid state directly into a gas; this gas is toxic to moths and moth larvae.


title: Mothball

text: Due to the health risks of 1,4-dichlorobenzene, and flammability of naphthalene, other substances like camphor are sometimes used.


title: Mothball

text: Mothballs are stored in air-tight bags made of a non-reactive plastic such as polyethylene or polypropylene (other plastics may be degraded or softened). The clothing to be protected should be sealed within airtight containers; otherwise the vapors will tend to escape into the surrounding environment. Manufacturer's instructions regularly warn against using mothballs for any purpose other than those specified by the packaging, as such uses are not only harmful and noxious, they are also frequently considered illegal.


title: Mothball

text: Although occasionally used as snake repellent, mothball use as a rodent, squirrel, or bat repellent is illegal in many areas, and tends to cause more annoyance and hazard to humans than to the target pest. However, mothballs continue to be advertised as squirrel repellent and are an ingredient in some commercial vermin and snake repellent products.


title: Mothball

text: The US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) has determined that 1,4-dichlorobenzene "may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen". This has been indicated by animal studies, although a full-scale human study has not been done. The National Toxicology Program (NTP), the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and the state of California consider 1,4-dichlorobenzene a carcinogen.


title: Mothball

text: Exposure to naphthalene mothballs can cause acute hemolysis (anemia) in people with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. IARC classifies naphthalene as possibly carcinogenic to humans and other animals (see also Group 2B). IARC points out that acute exposure causes cataracts in humans, rats, rabbits, and mice. Chronic exposure to naphthalene vapors is reported to also cause cataracts and retinal hemorrhage. Under California's Proposition 65, naphthalene is listed as "known to the State to cause cancer".


title: Mothball

text: Research at the University of Colorado at Boulder revealed a probable mechanism for the carcinogenic effects of mothballs and some types of air fresheners.


title: Mothball

text: 1,4-Dichlorobenzene is a neurotoxin. It has been abused as an inhalant, causing a variety of neurotoxic effects.


title: Mothball

text: As discussed in more detail at "Tineola bisselliella", alternatives to mothballs to control clothes moths include dry cleaning, freezing, thorough vacuuming, and washing in hot water. Camphor is also used as a moth repellent, particularly in China. Unlike naphthalene and dichlorobenzene, camphor has medicinal applications and is not regarded as a carcinogen, though it is toxic in large doses. Red cedar wood and oil is also used as an alternative moth repellent.


title: Mothball

text: Pheromone traps are also an effective diagnostic tool and can sometimes be an effective control tool to protect valuable clothing.


title: Mothball

text: As a verb, "mothball" has a metaphorical usage, meaning "to stop work on an idea, plan, or job, but leaving it in such a way that work can continue in the future". "Mothballed" is a common adjective to describe ships or aircraft which are stored for long periods, but not sent for scrapping.


title: Holidate

text: Holidate is a 2020 American romantic comedy film directed by John Whitesell, from a screenplay by Tiffany Paulsen. It stars Emma Roberts, Luke Bracey, Jake Manley, Jessica Capshaw, Andrew Bachelor, Frances Fisher, Manish Dayal and Kristin Chenoweth. The film was released on Netflix on October 28, 2020.


title: Holidate

text: Sloane Benson is a young woman who hates the holidays due to the judgement she receives from her family for being single. Having recently broken up with her boyfriend, her mother Elaine is constantly trying to set her up with a new man, much to Sloane's annoyance. At her family's Christmas dinner her younger brother, York gets engaged to his girlfriend of three months, Liz, and Sloane is now the only single person left in the family. Meanwhile, Jackson, an Australian golfer, is stuck spending the holidays with a woman he has no interest in. His date becomes angry with him for not getting her a Christmas present, and he leaves in frustration.


title: Holidate

text: After Christmas, Sloane and Jackson have a chance encounter when both are returning presents they received. Jackson offers to avoid bad holiday dates by dating specifically on these dates. Though initially reluctant, she decides to take Jackson up on his offer and the two end up spending New Year's Eve together, but have no further contact. However, on Valentine's Day, both have another chance encounter where Jackson pretends to be her boyfriend in front of her ex. They become friends over spending various holidays together.


title: Holidate

text: After both become closer when Jackson loses a finger, he fears he is not good enough for her and tries to set her up with a better date, which leads to a fight at her brother‘s wedding. While at a Halloween costume party together, Sloane becomes unwell after accidentally swallowing laxatives. Jackson takes care of her until they end up falling asleep and having sex the morning after. Sloane's sister arrives freaking out about kissing somebody else and Sloane uses it as an excuse to shove Jackson out, much to his dismay.


title: Holidate

text: At Thanksgiving, both have a fight after Jackson opens up to Sloane and tells her how he feels about them. Both break off contact afterwards. In the days leading to Christmas, Sloane visits Jackson's place but she is still reluctant to speak to him. When shopping at the mall, they have another chance encounter. In front of hundreds of people, she confesses her love for Jackson and the two embrace.


title: Holidate

text: The end credits reveal that all of the couples were still together. With Sloane and Jackson travelling to Australia for the holidays, Aunt Susan being engaged to Farooq, Wally and Sloane’s mother dating, just like Neil and Carly (Jackson's date from the beginning of the film).


title: Holidate

text: In March 2019, it was announced Emma Roberts had joined the cast of the film, with John Whitesell directing from a screenplay by Tiffany Paulsen. McG and Mary Viola would serve as producers on the film under their Wonderland Sound and Vision banner, while Netflix would distribute. In May 2019, Luke Bracey, Jake Manley, Jessica Capshaw, Andrew Bachelor, Frances Fisher, Manish Dayal and Kristin Chenoweth joined the cast of the film. In June 2019, Alex Moffat joined the cast of the film.


title: Holidate

text: "Holidate" was digitally released by Netflix on October 28, 2020. It was the top-streamed item in its debut weekend. On November 4, "Variety" reported the film was the 25th-most watched straight-to-streaming title of 2020 up to that point. In January 2021, Netflix reported 68 million households had watched the film.


title: Holidate

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads, ""Holidate" self-aware approach to rom-com formula is refreshing, but it's offset by a questionable premise and unnecessarily vulgar jokes." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 44 out of 100, based on 15 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Stuttering

text: Stuttering, also known as stammering, is a speech disorder in which the flow of speech is disrupted by involuntary repetitions and prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases as well as involuntary silent pauses or blocks in which the person who stutters is unable to produce sounds. The term "stuttering" is most commonly associated with involuntary sound repetition, but it also encompasses the abnormal hesitation or pausing before speech, referred to by people who stutter as "blocks", and the prolongation of certain sounds, usually vowels or semivowels. According to Watkins et al., stuttering is a disorder of "selection, initiation, and execution of motor sequences necessary for fluent speech production". For many people who stutter, repetition is the main concern. The term "stuttering" covers a wide range of severity, from barely perceptible impediments that are largely cosmetic to severe symptoms that effectively prevent oral communication. Almost 70 million people worldwide stutter, about 1% of the world's population.


title: Stuttering

text: The impact of stuttering on a person's functioning and emotional state can be severe. This may include fears of having to enunciate specific vowels or consonants, fears of being caught stuttering in social situations, self-imposed isolation, anxiety, stress, shame, low self-esteem, being a possible target of bullying (especially in children), having to use word substitution and rearrange words in a sentence to hide stuttering, or a feeling of "loss of control" during speech. Stuttering is sometimes popularly seen as a symptom of anxiety, but there is no direct correlation in that direction.


title: Stuttering

text: Stuttering is generally not a problem with the physical production of speech sounds or putting thoughts into words. Acute nervousness and stress are not thought to cause stuttering, but they can trigger stuttering in people who have the speech disorder, and living with a stigmatized disability can result in anxiety and high allostatic stress load (chronic nervousness and stress) that increase the amount of acute stress necessary to trigger stuttering in any given person who stutters, worsening the situation in the manner of a positive feedback system; the name 'stuttered speech syndrome' has been proposed for this condition. Neither acute nor chronic stress, however, itself creates any predisposition to stuttering.


title: Stuttering

text: The disorder is also "variable", which means that in certain situations, such as talking on the telephone or in a large group, the stuttering might be more severe or less, depending on whether or not the person who stutters is self-conscious about their stuttering. People who stutter often find that their stuttering fluctuates and that they have "good" days, "bad" days and "stutter-free" days. The times in which their stuttering fluctuates can be random. Although the exact etiology, or cause, of stuttering is unknown, both genetics and neurophysiology are thought to contribute. There are many treatments and speech therapy techniques available that may help decrease speech disfluency in some people who stutter to the point where an untrained ear cannot identify a problem; however, there is essentially no cure for the disorder at present. The severity of the person's stuttering would correspond to the amount of speech therapy needed to decrease disfluency. For severe stuttering, long-term therapy and hard work is required to decrease disfluency.


title: Stuttering

text: Common stuttering behaviors are observable signs of speech disfluencies, for example: repeating sounds, syllables, words or phrases, silent blocks and prolongation of sounds. These differ from the normal disfluencies found in all speakers in that stuttering disfluencies may last longer, occur more frequently, and are produced with more effort and strain. Stuttering disfluencies also vary in quality: common disfluencies tend to be repeated movements, fixed postures, or superfluous behaviors. Each of these three categories is composed of subgroups of stutters and disfluencies.


title: Stuttering

text: The severity of a stutter is often not constant even for people who severely stutter. Stutterers commonly report dramatically increased fluency when talking in unison with another speaker, copying another's speech, whispering, singing, and acting or when talking to pets, young children, or themselves. Other situations, such as public speaking and speaking on the telephone, are often greatly feared, and increased stuttering is reported.


title: Stuttering

text: Stuttering could have a significant negative cognitive and affective impact on the person who stutters. It has been described in terms of the analogy to an iceberg, with the immediately visible and audible symptoms of stuttering above the waterline and a broader set of symptoms such as negative emotions hidden below the surface. Feelings of embarrassment, shame, frustration, fear, anger, and guilt are frequent in people who stutter, and may actually increase tension and effort, leading to increased stuttering. With time, continued exposure to difficult speaking experiences may crystallize into a negative self-concept and self-image. Many perceive stutterers as less intelligent due to their disfluency; however, as a group, individuals who stutter tend to be of above average intelligence. People who stutter may project their attitudes onto others, believing that the others think them nervous or stupid. Such negative feelings and attitudes may need to be a major focus of a treatment program.


title: Stuttering

text: Many people who stutter report a high emotional cost, including jobs or promotions not received, as well as relationships broken or not pursued.


title: Stuttering

text: Linguistic tasks can invoke speech disfluency. People who stutter may experience varying disfluency. Tasks that trigger disfluency usually require a controlled-language processing, which involves linguistic planning. In stuttering, it is seen that many individuals do not demonstrate disfluencies when it comes to tasks that allow for automatic processing without substantial planning. For example, singing "Happy Birthday" or other relatively common, repeated linguistic discourses, could be fluid in people who stutter. Tasks like this reduce semantic, syntactic, and prosodic planning, whereas spontaneous, "controlled" speech or reading aloud requires thoughts to transform into linguistic material and thereafter syntax and prosody. Some researchers hypothesize that controlled-language activated circuitry consistently does not function properly in people who stutter, whereas people who do not stutter only sometimes display disfluent speech and abnormal circuitry.


title: Stuttering

text: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A disorder characterized by problems sustaining attention, hyperactivity, or acting impulsively. The prevalence of ADHD in school-aged children who stutter is .


title: Stuttering

text: Dyslexia: A disorder involving difficulties with reading and spelling. The prevalence rate of childhood stuttering in dyslexia is around 30-40%, while in adults the prevalence of dyslexia in adults who stutter is around 30-50%.


title: Stuttering

text: No single, exclusive cause of developmental stuttering is known. A variety of hypotheses and theories suggest multiple factors contributing to stuttering. Among these is the strong evidence that stuttering has a genetic basis. Children who have first-degree relatives who stutter are three times as likely to develop a stutter. However, twin and adoption studies suggest that genetic factors interact with environmental factors for stuttering to occur, and many stutterers have no family history of the disorder.


title: Stuttering

text: There is evidence that stuttering is more common in children who also have concurrent speech, language, learning or motor difficulties. Robert West, a pioneer of genetic studies in stuttering, has suggested that the presence of stuttering is connected to the fact that articulated speech is the last major acquisition in human evolution.


title: Stuttering

text: Another view is that a stutter or stammer is a "complex tic". This view is held for the following reasons. It always arises from repetition of sounds or words. Young children like repetition and the more tense they are feeling, the more they like this outlet for their tension – an understandable and quite normal reaction. They are capable of repeating all types of behaviour. The more tension that is felt, the less one likes change. The more change, the greater can be the repetition. So, when a three-year-old finds he has a new baby brother or sister he may start repeating sounds. The repetitions can become conditioned and automatic and ensuing struggles against the repetitions result in prolongations and blocks in his speech. More boys stammer than girls, in the ratio of 3–4 boys : 1 girl. This is because the male hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is more active. As males produce more cortisol than females under the same provocation, they can be tense or anxious and become repetitive.


title: Stuttering

text: In a 2010 article, three genes were found by Dennis Drayna and team to correlate with stuttering: GNPTAB, GNPTG, and NAGPA. Researchers estimated that alterations in these three genes were present in 9% of those who have a family history of stuttering.


title: Stuttering

text: For some people who stutter, congenital factors may play a role. These may include physical trauma at or around birth, learning disabilities, and cerebral palsy. In others, there could be added impact due to stressful situations such as the birth of a sibling, moving, or a sudden growth in linguistic ability.


title: Stuttering

text: There is clear empirical evidence for structural and functional differences in the brains of stutterers. Research is complicated somewhat by the possibility that such differences could be the consequences of stuttering rather than a cause, but recent research on older children confirms structural differences thereby giving strength to the argument that at least some of the differences are not a consequence of stuttering.


title: Stuttering

text: Auditory processing deficits have also been proposed as a cause of stuttering. Stuttering is less prevalent in deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals, and stuttering may be reduced when auditory feedback is altered, such as by masking, delayed auditory feedback (DAF), or frequency altered feedback. There is some evidence that the functional organization of the auditory cortex may be different in people who stutter.


title: Stuttering

text: There is evidence of differences in linguistic processing between people who stutter and people who do not. Brain scans of adult stutterers have found greater activation of the right hemisphere, which is associated with emotions, than of the left hemisphere, which is associated with speech. In addition, reduced activation in the left auditory cortex has been observed.


title: Stuttering

text: The "capacities and demands" model has been proposed to account for the heterogeneity of the disorder. In this approach, speech performance varies depending on the "capacity" that the individual has for producing fluent speech, and the "demands" placed upon the person by the speaking situation. Capacity for fluent speech may be affected by a predisposition to the disorder, auditory processing or motor speech deficits, and cognitive or affective issues. Demands may be increased by internal factors such as lack of confidence or self esteem or inadequate language skills or external factors such as peer pressure, time pressure, stressful speaking situations, insistence on perfect speech, and the like. In stuttering, the severity of the disorder is seen as likely to increase when demands placed on the person's speech and language system exceed their capacity to deal with these pressures. However, the precise nature of the capacity or incapacity has not been delineated.


title: Stuttering

text: Though neuroimaging studies have not yet found specific neural correlates, there is much evidence that the brains of adults who stutter differ from the brains of adults who do not stutter. Several neuroimaging studies have emerged to identify areas associated with stuttering. In general, during stuttering, cerebral activities change dramatically in comparison to silent rest or fluent speech between people who stutter and people who do not. There is evidence that people who stutter activate motor programs before the articulatory or linguistic processing is initiated. Brain imaging studies have primarily been focused on adults. However, the neurological abnormalities found in adults does not determine whether childhood stuttering caused these abnormalities or whether the abnormalities cause stuttering.


title: Stuttering

text: Studies utilizing positron emission tomography (PET) have found during tasks that invoke disfluent speech, people who stutter show hypoactivity in cortical areas associated with language processing, such as Broca's area, but hyperactivity in areas associated with motor function. One such study that evaluated the stutter period found that there was overactivation in the cerebrum and cerebellum, and relative deactivation of the left hemisphere auditory areas and frontal temporal regions.


title: Stuttering

text: Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has found abnormal activation in the right frontal operculum (RFO), which is an area associated with time-estimation tasks, occasionally incorporated in complex speech.


title: Stuttering

text: Researchers have explored temporal cortical activations by utilizing magnetoencephalography (MEG). In single-word-recognition tasks, people who did not stutter showed cortical activation first in occipital areas, then in left inferior-frontal regions such as Broca's area, and finally, in motor and premotor cortices. The stutterers also first had cortical activation in the occipital areas but the left inferior-frontal regions were activated only after the motor and premotor cortices were activated.


title: Stuttering

text: During speech production, people who stutter show overactivity in the anterior insula, cerebellum and bilateral midbrain. They show underactivity in the ventral premotor, Rolandic opercular and sensorimotor cortex bilaterally and Heschl's gyrus in the left hemisphere. Additionally, speech production yields underactivity in cortical motor and premotor areas.


title: Stuttering

text: Much evidence from neuroimaging techniques has supported the theory that the right hemisphere of people who stutter interferes with left-hemisphere speech production.


title: Stuttering

text: Adults who stutter have anatomical differences in gyri within the perisylvian frontotemporal areas. A large amount of white matter is found in the right hemisphere of the brain, including the region of the superior temporal gyrus. This was discovered using voxel-based morphometry (VBM). On the other hand, lesser amounts of white matter are found in the left inferior arcuate fasciculus connecting the temporal and frontal areas in stuttering adults.


title: Stuttering

text: Results have shown that there is less coordination between the speech motor and planning regions in the brain's left hemisphere of men and women who stutter, when compared to a non-stuttering control group. Anatomical connectivity of the speech motor and planning regions is less vigorous in adults who stutter, especially women. Men who stutter seem to have more right-sided motor connectivity. On the other hand, stuttering women have less connectivity with the right motor regions.


title: Stuttering

text: In non-stuttering, normal speech, PET scans show that both hemispheres are active but that the left hemisphere may be more active. By contrast, people who stutter yield more activity on the right hemisphere, suggesting that it might be interfering with left-hemisphere speech production. Another comparison of scans anterior forebrain regions are disproportionately active in stuttering subjects, while post-rolandic regions are relatively inactive.


title: Stuttering

text: Bilateral increases and unusual right-left asymmetry has been found in the planum temporale when comparing people who stutter and people who do not. These studies have also found that there are anatomical differences in the Rolandic operculum and arcuate fasciculus.


title: Stuttering

text: Denis Drayna suggests that brain imaging studies of people who stutter do not tell if the differences in the brain anatomy caused stuttering or if they are the effect of stuttering;In the mouse model for stuttering created by Drayna and team, they noticed significant similarities between the vocalizations in mice (carrying GNPTAB mutation) and human stuttering. Researchers investigated the brain tissue from the mice mutants and reported a significant decrease in the number and density of astrocytes in their corpus callosum.


title: Stuttering

text: Astrocyte is a star-shaped cell in the brain that supports the nerve cells by supplying oxygen and nutrients, and taking away the waste.  The corpus callosum enables the communication between the left and right hemispheres of the brain. Follow-up experiments with the GNPTAB mutation introduced to brain cell types showed that the vocalization defects in mice were specific to the loss of astrocytes. Mice did not show stuttering-like vocalization defects when the mutation is engineered to other brain cell types.


title: Stuttering

text: The corpus callosum transfers information between the left and right cerebral hemispheres. The corpus callosum, rostrum, and the anterior mid-body sections are larger in adults who stutter as compared to normally fluent adults. This difference may be due to unusual functions of brain organization in stuttering adults and may be a result of how the stuttering adults performed language-relevant tasks. Furthermore, previous research has found that adults who stutter show cerebral hemispheres that contain uncommon brain proportions and allocations of gray and white matter tissue.


title: Stuttering

text: Recent studies have found that adults who stutter have elevated levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine, and have thus found dopamine antagonists that reduce stuttering (see anti-stuttering medication below). Overactivity of the midbrain has been found at the level of the substantia nigra extended to the red nucleus and subthalamic nucleus, which all contribute to the production of dopamine. However, increased dopamine does not imply increased excitatory function since dopamine's effect can be both excitatory or inhibitory depending upon which dopamine receptors (labelled D1–D5) have been stimulated.


title: Stuttering

text: Some characteristics of stuttered speech are not as easy for listeners to detect. As a result, diagnosing stuttering requires the skills of a certified speech–language pathologist (SLP). Diagnosis of stuttering employs information both from direct observation of the individual and information about the individual's background, through a case history. Information from both sources should consider things such as age, the various times it has occurred, and other impediments. The SLP may collect a case history on the individual through a detailed interview or conversation with the parents (if client is a child). They may also observe parent-child interactions and observe the speech patterns of the child's parents. The overall goal of assessment for the SLP will be (1) to determine whether a speech disfluency exists, and (2) assess if its severity warrants concern for further treatment.


title: Stuttering

text: During direct observation of the client, the SLP will observe various aspects of the individual's speech behaviors. In particular, the therapist might test for factors including the types of disfluencies present (using a test such as the Disfluency Type Index (DTI)), their frequency and duration (number of iterations, percentage of syllables stuttered (%SS)), and speaking rate (syllables per minute (SPM), words per minute (WPM)). They may also test for naturalness and fluency in speaking (naturalness rating scale (NAT), test of childhood stuttering (TOCS)) and physical concomitants during speech ("Riley's Stuttering Severity Instrument Fourth Edition (SSI-4)"). They might also employ a test to evaluate the severity of the stuttering and predictions for its course. One such test includes the stuttering prediction instrument for young children (SPI), which analyzes the child's case history, part-word repetitions and prolongations, and stuttering frequency in order to determine the severity of the disfluency and its prognosis for chronicity for the future.


title: Stuttering

text: Stuttering is a multifaceted, complex disorder that can impact an individual's life in a variety of ways. Children and adults are monitored and evaluated for evidence of possible social, psychological or emotional signs of stress related to their disorder. Some common assessments of this type measure factors including: anxiety (Endler multidimensional anxiety scales (EMAS)), attitudes (personal report of communication apprehension (PRCA)), perceptions of self (self-rating of reactions to speech situations (SSRSS)), quality of life (overall assessment of the speaker's experience of stuttering (OASES)), behaviors (older adult self-report (OASR)), and mental health (composite international diagnostic interview (CIDI)).


title: Stuttering

text: The SLP will then attempt to combine the information garnered from the client's case study along with the information acquired from the assessments in order to make a final decision regarding the existence of a fluency disorder and determine the best course of treatment for the client.


title: Stuttering

text: Stuttering can also be diagnosed per the DSM-5 diagnostic codes by clinical psychologists with adequate expertise. The most recent version of the DSM-5 describes this speech disorder as "Childhood-Onset Fluency Disorder (Stuttering)" for developmental stuttering, and "Adult-onset Fluency Disorder". However, the specific rationale for this change from the DSM-IV is ill-documented in the APA's published literature, and is felt by some to promote confusion between the very different terms "fluency" and "disfluency".


title: Stuttering

text: Preschool aged children often have difficulties with speech concerning motor planning and execution; this often manifests as disfluencies related to speech development (referred to as normal dysfluency or "other disfluencies"). This type of disfluency is a normal part of speech development and temporarily present in preschool aged children who are learning to speak. These normal disfluencies can present as interjections ("Um"), multisyllable repetitions ("I want I want to do that"), or revised or abandoned utterances ("I want—hey what's that?"). Normal disfluency should be ruled out before diagnosing stuttering.


title: Stuttering

text: Developmental stuttering (also known as childhood onset fluency disorder) is stuttering that originates when a child is learning to speak and may persist as the child matures into adulthood. Stuttering that persists after the age of seven is classified as persistent stuttering.


title: Stuttering

text: Other much less common causes of stuttering include neurogenic stuttering (stuttering that occurs secondary to brain damage, such as after a stroke) and psychogenic stuttering (stuttering related to a psychological condition).


title: Stuttering

text: Other disorders with symptoms resembling stuttering include autism, cluttering, Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, palilalia, spasmodic dysphonia, selective mutism, and social anxiety.


title: Stuttering

text: Stuttering is typically a developmental disorder beginning in early childhood and continuing into adulthood in at least 20% of affected children. The mean onset of stuttering is 30 months. Although there is variability, early stuttering behaviours usually consist of word or syllable repetitions, while secondary behaviours such as tension, avoidance or escape behaviours are absent. Most young children are unaware of the interruptions in their speech. With young stutterers, disfluency may be episodic, and periods of stuttering are followed by periods of relatively decreased disfluency.


title: Stuttering

text: Though the rate of early recovery is very high, with time a young person who stutters may transition from easy, relaxed repetition to more tense and effortful stuttering, including blocks and prolongations. Some propose that parental reactions may affect the development of a chronic stutter. Recommendations to "slow down", "take a breath", "say it again", etc., may increase the child's anxiety and fear, leading to more difficulties with speaking and, in the "cycle of stuttering," to yet more fear, anxiety and expectation of stuttering. With time secondary stuttering, including escape behaviours such as eye blinking and lip movements, may be used, as well as fear and avoidance of sounds, words, people, or speaking situations. Eventually, many become fully aware of their disorder and begin to identify themselves as stutterers. With this may come deeper frustration, embarrassment and shame. Other, rarer patterns of stuttering development have been described, including sudden onset with the child being unable to speak, despite attempts to do so. The child usually is unable to utter the first sound of a sentence, and shows high levels of awareness and frustration. Another variety also begins suddenly with frequent word and phrase repetition, and does not include the development of secondary stuttering behaviours.


title: Stuttering

text: Stuttering is also believed to be caused by neurophysiology. Neurogenic stuttering is a type of fluency disorder in which a person has difficulty in producing speech in a normal, smooth fashion. Individuals with fluency disorders may have speech that sounds fragmented or halting, with frequent interruptions and difficulty producing words without effort or struggle. Neurogenic stuttering typically appears following some sort of injury or disease to the central nervous system. Injuries to the brain and spinal cord, including cortex, subcortex, cerebellar, and even the neural pathway regions.


title: Stuttering

text: In rare cases, stuttering may be acquired in adulthood as the result of a neurological event such as a head injury, tumour, stroke, or drug use. The stuttering has different characteristics from its developmental equivalent: it tends to be limited to part-word or sound repetitions, and is associated with a relative lack of anxiety and secondary stuttering behaviors. Techniques such as altered auditory feedback (see below), which may promote decreasing disfluency in those with the developmental condition, are not effective with the acquired type.


title: Stuttering

text: Psychogenic stuttering may also arise after a traumatic experience such as a grief, the breakup of a relationship or as the psychological reaction to physical trauma. Its symptoms tend to be homogeneous: the stuttering is of sudden onset and associated with a significant event, it is constant and uninfluenced by different speaking situations, and there is little awareness or concern shown by the speaker.


title: Stuttering

text: Before beginning treatment, an assessment is needed, as diagnosing stuttering requires the skills of a certified speech–language pathologist (SLP).


title: Stuttering

text: While there is no complete cure for stuttering, several treatment options exist that help individuals to better control their speech. Many of the available treatments focus on learning strategies to minimize stuttering through speed reduction, breathing regulation, and gradual progression from single-syllable responses to longer words, and eventually more complex sentences. Furthermore, some stuttering therapies help to address the anxiety that is often caused by stuttering, and consequently worsens stuttering symptoms. This method of treatment is referred to as a comprehensive approach, in which the main emphasis of treatment is directed toward improving the speaker's attitudes toward communication and minimizing the negative impact stuttering can have on the speaker's life. Treatment from a qualified S-LP can benefit stutterers of any age.


title: Stuttering

text: Speech language pathologists teach people who stutter to control and monitor the rate at which they speak. In addition, people may learn to start saying words in a slightly slower and less physically tense manner. They may also learn to control or monitor their breathing. When learning to control speech rate, people often begin by practising smooth, fluent speech at rates that are much slower than typical speech, using short phrases and sentences. Over time, people learn to produce smooth speech at faster rates, in longer sentences, and in more challenging situations until speech sounds both fluent and natural. When treating stuttering in children, some researchers recommend that an evaluation be conducted every three months in order to determine whether or not the selected treatment option is working effectively. "Follow-up" or "maintenance" sessions are often necessary after completion of formal intervention to prevent relapse.


title: Stuttering

text: Fluency shaping therapy, also known as "speak more fluently", "prolonged speech", or "connected speech", trains people who stutter to speak less disfluently by controlling their breathing, phonation, and articulation (lips, jaw, and tongue). It is based on operant conditioning techniques.


title: Stuttering

text: People who stutter are trained to reduce their speaking rate by stretching vowels and consonants, and using other disfluency-reducing techniques such as continuous airflow and soft speech contacts. The result is very slow, monotonic, but fluent speech, used only in the speech clinic. After the person who stutters masters these skills, the speaking rate and intonation are increased gradually. This more normal-sounding, fluent speech is then transferred to daily life outside the speech clinic, though lack of speech naturalness at the end of treatment remains a frequent criticism. Fluency shaping approaches are often taught in intensive group therapy programs, which may take two to three weeks to complete.


title: Stuttering

text: The goal of stuttering modification therapy is not to eliminate stuttering but to modify it so that stuttering is easier and less effortful. The rationale is that since fear and anxiety causes increased stuttering, using easier stuttering and with less fear and avoidance, stuttering will decrease. The most widely known approach was published by Charles Van Riper in 1973 and is also known as block modification therapy. However, depending on the patient, speech therapy may be ineffective.


title: Stuttering

text: Altered auditory feedback, so that people who stutter hear their voice differently, has been used for over 50 years in the treatment of stuttering. Altered auditory feedback effect can be produced by speaking in chorus with another person, by blocking out the person who stutters' voice while talking (masking), by delaying slightly the voice of the person who stutters (delayed auditory feedback) or by altering the frequency of the feedback (frequency altered feedback). Studies of these techniques have had mixed results, with some people who stutter showing substantial reductions in stuttering, while others improved only slightly or not at all. In a 2006 review of the efficacy of stuttering treatments, none of the studies on altered auditory feedback met the criteria for experimental quality, such as the presence of control groups.


title: Stuttering

text: There are specialized mobile applications and PC programs for stutter treatment. The goal pursued by the applications of this kind is speech cycle restoration: "I say", "I hear", "I build a phrase", "I say", and so on, using various methods of stutter correction.


title: Stuttering

text: The user interacts with the application through altered auditory feedback: they say something into the headset's microphone and listen to their own voice in the headphones processed by a certain method.


title: Stuttering

text: Although no medication is FDA approved for stuttering, several studies have shown certain medications to have beneficial effects on reducing the severity of stuttering symptoms. Although different classes of medications have been investigated, those with dopamine blocking activity have been shown in numerous trials to have positive effects on stuttering. These medications are FDA approved in the United States and hold similar approval in most countries for other conditions and their safety profiles are well established in these disorders.


title: Stuttering

text: The best studied medication in stuttering is olanzapine whose effectiveness has been established in replicated trials. Olanzapine acts as a dopamine antagonist to D2 receptors in the mesolimbic pathway, and works similarly on serotonin 5HT2A receptors in the frontal cortex. At doses between 2.5 and 5 mg, olanzapine has been shown to be more effective than placebo at reducing stuttering symptoms, and may serve as a first-line pharmacological treatment for stuttering based on the preponderance of its efficacy data. However, other medications are generally better tolerated with less weight gain and less risk of metabolic effects than olanzapine.


title: Stuttering

text: Risperidone and haloperidol have also shown effectiveness in the treatment of stuttering. However, haloperidol in particular often result in poor long-term compliance due to concerning side effects such as movement disorders and prolactin elevation, which can also occur with risperidone. Other dopamine active medications reported to positively treat stuttering include aripiprazole, asenapine, lurasidone, which tend to be better tolerated than olanzapine with less weight gain. All these medications as well as olanzapine can carry the potential risk of a long-term movement disorder known as tardive dyskinesia.


title: Stuttering

text: The investigational compound, ecopipam is unique from other dopamine antagonists in that it acts on D1 receptors instead of D2, owing little, if any risk, of movement disorders. An open label study of ecopipam in adults demonstrated significantly improved stuttering symptoms with no reports of parkinsonian-like movement disorders or tardive dyskinesia which can be seen with D2 antagonists. In addition, ecopipam had no reported weight gain, but instead has been reported to lead to weight loss. In a preliminary study, it was well tolerated in subjects, effectively reduced stuttering severity, and was even associated in a short-term study with improved quality of life in persons who stutter. Further research is still warranted, but this novel mechanism is showing promise in the pharmacologic treatment of stuttering.


title: Stuttering

text: One should always consult with a medical doctor before considering medication treatment of stuttering to review potential risks and benefits.


title: Stuttering

text: With existing behavioral and prosthetic treatments providing limited relief and pharmacologic treatments in need of FDA approval for widespread use, support groups and the self-help movement continue to gain popularity and support from professionals and from people who stutter. Self-help groups provide people who stutter a shared forum within which they can access resources and support from others facing the same challenges of stuttering. One of the basic tenets behind the self-help movement is that since a cure does not exist, quality of life can be improved by not thinking about the stammer for prolonged periods. Psychoanalysis has claimed success in the treatment of stuttering. Hypnotherapy has also been explored as a management alternative. Support groups further focus on the fact that stuttering is not a physical impediment but a psychological one.


title: Stuttering

text: Cognitive behavior therapy has been used to treat stuttering. Also sociological approaches has been explored regarding how social groups maintain stuttering through social norms.


title: Stuttering

text: Several treatment initiatives, for example the McGuire programme and the Starfish Project, advocate diaphragmatic breathing (or "costal breathing") as a means by which stuttering can be controlled.


title: Stuttering

text: Among preschoolers with stuttering, the prognosis for recovery is good. Based on research, about 65% to 87.5% of preschoolers who stutter recover spontaneously by 7 years of age or within the first 2 years of stuttering, and about 74% recover by their early teens. In particular, girls seem to recover well. For others, early intervention is effective in helping the child overcome disfluency.


title: Stuttering

text: Once stuttering has become established, and the child has developed secondary behaviors, the prognosis is more guarded, and only 18% of children who stutter after five years recover spontaneously. Stuttering that persists after the age of seven is classified as persistent stuttering, and is associated with a much lower chance of recovery. However, with treatment young children may be left with little evidence of stuttering.


title: Stuttering

text: For adults who stutter, there is no known cure, though they may make partial recovery or even complete recovery with intervention. People who stutter often learn to stutter less severely, though others may make no progress with therapy.


title: Stuttering

text: Emotional sequelae associated with stuttering primarily relates to state-dependent anxiety related to the speech disorder itself. However, this is typically isolated to social contexts that require speaking, is not a trait anxiety, and this anxiety does not persist if stuttering remits spontaneously. Research attempting to correlate stuttering with generalized or state anxiety, personality profiles, trauma history, or decreased IQ have failed to find adequate empirical support for any of these claims.


title: Stuttering

text: The lifetime prevalence, or the proportion of individuals expected to stutter at one time in their lives, is about 5%, and overall males are affected two to five times more often than females. However, there is not much information known about the underlying cause for such a skewed sex ratio. Most stuttering begins in early childhood, and studies suggest that 2.5% of children under the age of 5 stutter. As seen in children who have just begun stuttering, there is an equivalent number of boys and girls who stutter. Still, the sex ratio appears to widen as children grow: among preschoolers, boys who stutter outnumber girls who stutter by about a two to one ratio, or less. This ratio widens to three to one during first grade, and five to one during fifth grade, as girls have higher recovery rates. Due to high (approximately 65–75%) rates of early recovery, the overall prevalence of stuttering is generally considered to be approximately 1%.


title: Stuttering

text: Cross-cultural studies of stuttering prevalence were very active in early and mid-20th century, particularly under the influence of the works of Wendell Johnson, who claimed that the onset of stuttering was connected to the cultural expectations and the pressure put on young children by anxious parents. Johnson claimed there were cultures where stuttering, and even the word "stutterer", were absent (for example, among some tribes of American Indians). Later studies found that this claim was not supported by the facts, so the influence of cultural factors in stuttering research declined. It is generally accepted by contemporary scholars that stuttering is present in every culture and in every race, although the attitude towards the actual prevalence differs. Some believe stuttering occurs in all cultures and races at similar rates, about 1% of general population (and is about 5% among young children) all around the world. A US-based study indicated that there were no racial or ethnic differences in the incidence of stuttering in preschool children. At the same time, there are cross-cultural studies indicating that the difference between cultures may exist. For example, summarizing prevalence studies, E. Cooper and C. Cooper conclude: "On the basis of the data currently available, it appears the prevalence of fluency disorders varies among the cultures of the world, with some indications that the prevalence of fluency disorders labeled as stuttering is higher among black populations than white or Asian populations" (Cooper & Cooper, 1993:197). In his "Stuttering and its Treatment: Eleven lectures" Mark Onslow remarked that "one recent study with many participants (N=119,367) convincingly reported more stuttering among African Americans than other Americans. Why this could be the case is challenging to explain ..."


title: Stuttering

text: Different regions of the world are researched very unevenly. The largest number of studies has been conducted in European countries and in North America, where the experts agree on the mean estimate to be about 1% of the general population (Bloodtein, 1995. A Handbook on Stuttering). African populations, particularly from West Africa, might have the highest stuttering prevalence in the world—reaching in some populations 5%, 6% and even over 9%. Many regions of the world are not researched sufficiently, and for some major regions there are no prevalence studies at all (for example, in China). Some claim the reason for this might be a lower incidence in the general population in China.


title: Stuttering

text: Because of the unusual-sounding speech that is produced and the behaviors and attitudes that accompany a stutter, it has long been a subject of scientific interest and speculation as well as discrimination and ridicule. People who stutter can be traced back centuries to the likes of Demosthenes, who tried to control his disfluency by speaking with pebbles in his mouth. The Talmud interprets Bible passages to indicate Moses was also a person who stuttered, and that placing a burning coal in his mouth had caused him to be "slow and hesitant of speech" (Exodus 4, v.10).


title: Stuttering

text: Galen's humoral theories were influential in Europe in the Middle Ages for centuries afterward. In this theory, stuttering was attributed to imbalances of the four bodily humors—yellow bile, blood, black bile, and phlegm. Hieronymus Mercurialis, writing in the sixteenth century, proposed methods to redress the imbalance including changes in diet, reduced libido (in men only), and purging. Believing that fear aggravated stuttering, he suggested techniques to overcome this. Humoral manipulation continued to be a dominant treatment for stuttering until the eighteenth century. Partly due to a perceived lack of intelligence because of his stutter, the man who became the Roman emperor Claudius was initially shunned from the public eye and excluded from public office.


title: Stuttering

text: In and around eighteenth and nineteenth century Europe, surgical interventions for stuttering were recommended, including cutting the tongue with scissors, removing a triangular wedge from the posterior tongue, and cutting nerves, or neck and lip muscles. Others recommended shortening the uvula or removing the tonsils. All were abandoned due to the high danger of bleeding to death and their failure to stop stuttering. Less drastically, Jean Marc Gaspard Itard placed a small forked golden plate under the tongue in order to support "weak" muscles.


title: Stuttering

text: Italian pathologist Giovanni Morgagni attributed stuttering to deviations in the hyoid bone, a conclusion he came to via autopsy. Blessed Notker of St. Gall ( – 912), called Balbulus ("The Stutterer") and described by his biographer as being "delicate of body but not of mind, stuttering of tongue but not of intellect, pushing boldly forward in things Divine," was invoked against stammering.


title: Stuttering

text: A famous Briton who stammered was King George VI. George VI went through years of speech therapy, most successfully under Australian speech therapist Lionel Logue, for his stammer. This is dealt with in the Academy Award-winning film "The King's Speech" (2010) in which Colin Firth plays George VI. The film is based on an original screenplay by David Seidler, who also stuttered until age 16.


title: Stuttering

text: Another notable case was that of British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Churchill claimed, perhaps not directly discussing himself, that "[s]ometimes a slight and not unpleasing stammer or impediment has been of some assistance in securing the attention of the audience ..." However, those who knew Churchill and commented on his stutter believed that it was or had been a significant problem for him. His secretary Phyllis Moir commented that "Winston Churchill was born and grew up with a stutter" in her 1941 book "I was Winston Churchill's Private Secretary". She also noted about one incident, "'It's s-s-simply s-s-splendid,' he stuttered—as he always did when excited." Louis J. Alber, who helped to arrange a lecture tour of the United States, wrote in Volume 55 of "The American Mercury" (1942) that "Churchill struggled to express his feelings but his stutter caught him in the throat and his face turned purple" and that "born with a stutter and a lisp, both caused in large measure by a defect in his palate, Churchill was at first seriously hampered in his public speaking. It is characteristic of the man's perseverance that, despite his staggering handicap, he made himself one of the greatest orators of our time."


title: Stuttering

text: For centuries "cures" such as consistently drinking water from a snail shell for the rest of one's life, "hitting a stutterer in the face when the weather is cloudy", strengthening the tongue as a muscle, and various herbal remedies were used. Similarly, in the past people have subscribed to theories about the causes of stuttering which today are considered odd. Proposed causes of stuttering have included tickling an infant too much, eating improperly during breastfeeding, allowing an infant to look in the mirror, cutting a child's hair before the child spoke his or her first words, having too small a tongue, or the "work of the devil".


title: Stuttering

text: Some people who stutter, who are part of the disability rights movement, have begun to embrace their stuttering voices as an important part of their identity. In July 2015 the UK Ministry of Defence (MOD) announced the launch of the Defence Stammering Network to support and champion the interests of British military personnel and MOD civil servants who stammer and to raise awareness of the condition.


title: Stuttering

text: Bilingualism is the ability to speak two languages. Many bilingual people have been exposed to more than one language since birth and throughout childhood. Since language and culture are relatively fluid factors in a person's understanding and production of language, bilingualism may be a feature that impacts speech fluency. There are several ways during which stuttering may be noticed in bilingual children including the following.


title: Stuttering

text: Stuttering may present differently depending on the languages the individual uses. For example, morphological and other linguistic differences between languages may make presentation of disfluency appear to be more or less of a problem depending on the individual case.


title: Stuttering

text: Much research is being conducted to look at the prevalence of stuttering in bilingual populations and the differences between languages. For instance, one study concluded that bilingual children who spoke English and another language had an increased risk of stuttering and a lower chance of recovery from stuttering than monolingual speakers and speakers who spoke solely a language other than English. Another study, though methodologically weak, showed relatively indistinguishable percentages of monolingual and bilingual people who stutter. Due to so much conflicting data, the relationship between bilingualism and stuttering has been called enigmatic, which can demonstrate the intricacies of the topic and encourages more research to be conducted in order to sway the belief of impact the relationship between bilingualism and stuttering has.


title: Stuttering

text: Jazz and Eurodance musician Scatman John wrote the song "Scatman (Ski Ba Bop Ba Dop Bop)" to help children who stutter overcome adversity. Born John Paul Larkin, Scatman spoke with a stutter himself and won the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association's Annie Glenn Award for outstanding service to the stuttering community.


title: Stuttering

text: Arkwright, the main protagonist in the BBC sitcom "Open All Hours", had a severe stutter that was used for comic effect.


title: Stuttering

text: Stuttering pride (or stuttering advocacy) is a social movement repositioning stuttering as a valuable and respectable way of speaking. The movement seeks to counter the societal narratives in which temporal and societal expectations dictate how communication takes place. In this sense, the stuttering pride movement challenges the pervasive societal narrative of stuttering as a defect and instead positions stuttering as a valuable and respectable way of speaking in its own right. The movement encourages stutterers to take pride in their unique speech patterns and in what stuttering can tell us about the world. It also advocates for societal adjustments to allow stutterers equal access to education and employment opportunities.


title: Stuttering

text: Stuttering pride has drawn ideas and inspiration from disability rights, in particular the development of the social model of disability and the neurodiversity paradigm. For instance, the neurodiversity movement has led some in the stuttering community to advocate for what can be gained from the experience of stuttering. Thus, stuttering pride activists advocate for celebration and respect of stuttered speech.


title: Stuttering

text: In terms of stuttering therapies, some stuttering pride activists have suggested therapy approaches that focus on fluent speech as the goal can be unhelpful and damaging to those who stammer. Other activists suggest "it is important that a social or cultural model does not entirely exclude medicine or speech therapy”, but is used “to ask critical questions about how some of the assumptions of a curative model of speech might injure dysfluent individuals".


title: Stuttering

text: Stammering pride foregrounds an emerging stammering culture. Crucially, stuttering culture highlights the power of creative writers, artists, and musicians to subvert concepts of 'normative' speech through the power of expressive and generative dysfluency. Stuttering pride activists propose stuttering as a form of vocal and linguistic diversity that enriches our language, ideas, and art forms. For instance, the cultural enrichment of stuttering is apparent in musical elements that take the shape of the physical nature of stuttering, including turntablism and scratching. Stuttering has been integral to many popular songs, such as My Generation by The Who, Changes by David Bowie and Ride on Time by Black Box. Parallel forms of creativity inspired by stuttering can also be seen in repeated motifs featured in fine art or graphic design.


title: Alida Morberg

text: Alida Morberg is the daughter of actor Per Morberg and she grew up in Lilla Edet. She is in a relationship with actor Bill Skarsgård, with whom she has a daughter.


title: Adult

text: An adult is a human or other animal that has reached full growth. In human context, the term "adult" has meanings associated with social and legal concepts. In contrast to a "minor", a legal adult is a person who has attained the age of majority and is therefore regarded as independent, self-sufficient, and responsible. They may also be regarded as a "major". The typical age of attaining legal adulthood is 18, although definition may vary by legal rights, country, and psychological development.


title: Adult

text: Human adulthood encompasses psychological adult development. Definitions of adulthood are often inconsistent and contradictory; a person may be biologically an adult, and have adult behavior, but still be treated as a child if they are under the legal age of majority. Conversely, one may legally be an adult but possess none of the maturity and responsibility that may define an adult character.


title: Adult

text: In different cultures there are events that relate passing from being a child to becoming an adult or coming of age. This often encompasses the passing a series of tests to demonstrate that a person is prepared for adulthood, or reaching a specified age, sometimes in conjunction with demonstrating preparation. Most modern societies determine legal adulthood based on reaching a legally specified age without requiring a demonstration of physical maturity or preparation for adulthood.


title: Adult

text: Historically and cross-culturally, adulthood has been determined primarily by the start of puberty (the appearance of secondary sex characteristics such as menstruation and the development of breasts in women, ejaculation, the development of facial hair, and a deeper voice in men, and pubic hair in both sexes). In the past, a person usually moved from the status of child directly to the status of adult, often with this shift being marked by some type of coming-of-age test or ceremony. During the Industrial Revolution, children went to work as soon as they could in order to help provide for their family. There was not a huge emphasis on school or education in general. Many children could get a job and were not required to have experience as adults are nowadays.


title: Adult

text: After the social construct of adolescence was created, adulthood split into two forms: "biological adulthood" and "social adulthood." Thus, there are now two primary forms of adults: biological adults (people who have attained reproductive ability, are fertile, or who evidence secondary sex characteristics) and social adults (people who are recognized by their culture or law as being adults). Depending on the context, "adult" can indicate either definition. Another aspect of adulthood that is relatively new is psychological functioning. According to Jeffrey Arnett, adults can make financial decisions on their own, are financially independent, and are able to make difficult life decisions on their own.


title: Adult

text: Although few or no established dictionaries provide a definition for the two-word term "biological adult", the first definition of "adult" in multiple dictionaries includes "the stage of the life cycle of an animal after reproductive capacity has been attained". Thus, the base definition of the word "adult" is the period beginning at physical sexual maturity, which occurs sometime after the onset of puberty. Although this is the primary definition of the base word "adult", the term is also frequently used to refer to social adults. The two-word term "biological adult" stresses or clarifies that the original definition, based on physical maturity (i.e. having reached reproductive competency), is being used.


title: Adult

text: The time of puberty varies from child to child, but usually begins between 10 to 12 years old. Girls typically begin the process of puberty at age 10 or 11, and boys at age 11 or 12. Girls generally complete puberty by 15–17, and boys by age 16 or 17. Nutrition, genetics and environment also usually play a part in the onset of puberty. Girls will go through a growth spurt and gain weight in several areas of their body. Boys will go through similar spurts in growth, though it is usually not in a similar style or time frame. This is due to the natural processes of puberty, but genetics also plays a part in how much weight they gain or how much taller they get.


title: Adult

text: One recent area of debate within the science of brain development is the most likely chronological age for full mental maturity, or indeed, if such an age even exists. Common claims repeated in the media since 2005 (based upon interpretations of imaging data) have commonly suggested an "end-point" of 25, referring to the prefrontal cortex as one area that is not yet fully mature at the age of 18. However, this is based on an interpretation of a brain imaging study by Jay Giedd, dating back to 2004 or 2005, where the only participants were aged up to 21 years, and Giedd assumed this maturing process would be done by the age of 25 years, whereas more recent studies show prefrontal cortex maturation continuing well past the age of 30 years, marking this interpretation as incorrect and outdated.


title: Adult

text: Legally, "adulthood" typically means that one has reached the age of majority – when parents lose parental rights and responsibilities regarding the person concerned. Depending on one's jurisdiction, the age of majority may or may not be set independently of and should not be confused with the minimum ages applicable to other activities, such as engaging in a contract, marriage, voting, having a job, serving in the military, buying/possessing firearms, driving, traveling abroad, involvement with alcoholic beverages, smoking, sexual activity, gambling, being a model or actor in pornography, running for President, etc. Admission of a young person to a place may be restricted because of danger for that person, concern that the place may lead the person to immoral behavior, or because of the risk that the young person causes damage (for example, at an exhibition of fragile items).


title: Adult

text: One can distinguish the legality of acts of a young person, or of enabling a young person to carry out that act, by selling, renting out, showing, permitting entrance, allowing participation, etc. There may be distinction between commercially and socially enabling. Sometimes there is the requirement of supervision by a legal guardian, or just by an adult. Sometimes there is no requirement, but rather a recommendation.


title: Adult

text: The age of majority ranges internationally from ages 15 to 21, with 18 being the most common age. Nigeria, Mali, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon define adulthood at age 15, but marriage of girls at an earlier age is common.


title: Adult

text: In most of the world, the legal adult age is 18 (historically 21) for most purposes, with some notable exceptions:


title: Adult

text: Prior to the 1970s, young people were not classed as adults until 21 in most western nations. For example, in the United States, young citizens could not vote in any election until 21 until July 1971 when the 26th Amendment passed mandating that the right to vote cannot be abridged for anyone 18 or older. The voting age was lowered in response to the fact that young men between the ages of 18 and 21 were drafted into the army to fight in the Vietnam War, hence the popular slogan "old enough to fight, old enough to vote"


title: Adult

text: Young people under 21 in the US could also not purchase alcohol, purchase handguns, sign a binding contract, or marry without permission from parents. After the voting age was lowered, many states also moved to lower the drinking age (with most states having a minimum age of 18 or 19) and also to lower the age of legal majority (adulthood) to 18. However, there are legal activities where 18 is not the default age of adulthood. There are still some exceptions where 21 (or even higher) is still the benchmark for certain rights or responsibilities. For example, in the US the Gun Control Act of 1968 prohibits those under 21 from purchasing a handgun from a federally licensed dealer (although federal law makes an exception for individuals between the ages of 18 and 20 to obtain one from a private dealer if state law permits.)


title: Adult

text: As of July 1984, the National Minimum Drinking Age Act mandated that all states raise their respective drinking ages to 21 to create a uniform standard for legally purchasing, drinking, or publicly possessing alcohol with exceptions made for consumption only in private residences under parental supervision and permission. This was done in response to reduce the number of drunk driving fatalities prevalent among young drivers. States that choose not to comply can lose up to 10% of highway funding.


title: Adult

text: The Credit Card Act of 2009 imposed tougher safeguards for young adults between the ages of 18 and 20 obtaining a credit card. Young adults under the age of 21 must either have a co-signer 21 or older or show proof (usually a source of income) that they can repay their credit card balance. Unless that requirement is met, one must wait until 21 to be approved for a credit card on their own.


title: Adult

text: The Affordable Care Act of 2010 expands the age that young adults can remain on their parent's health insurance plan up to age 26.


title: Adult

text: , the federal government raised the legal age to purchase tobacco and vaping products from 18 to 21. In states where recreational marijuana is legalized, the default age is also 21, though those younger may be able to obtain medical marijuana prescriptions or cards upon seeing a physician.


title: Adult

text: Gambling also varies from 18 to 21 depending on the state and many rental car companies do not rent cars to those under 21 and have surcharges for drivers under 25 (although this is not codified, and is company policy).


title: Adult

text: In Quebec, Canada the Quebec legislature in 2020 raised the age one could purchase recreational marijuana from 18 to 21 stepping out of line with most of the country that set a minimum age of 19 (except Alberta, which is 18.) The Quebec government cited the risk that marijuana poses to the brain development of people under 21 as justification for the age raise.


title: Adult

text: In March 2021, the state of Washington in a 5–4 decision, justices in the Supreme Court of the State of Washington tossed the life without parole sentences of a 19-year-old and a 20-year-old convicted in separate cases of first-degree aggravated murder decades ago, saying, as with juveniles, the court must first consider the age of those under 21 before sentencing them to die behind bars. This comes at a time where there are ongoing debates about whether those between 18 and 20 should be exempted from the death penalty.


title: Adult

text: In Germany, courts largely sentence defendants under the age of 21 according to juvenile law in a bid to help them reintegrate into society and mete out punishments that fit the crime as well as the offender.


title: Adult

text: In May 2021, the state of Texas raised the age that one can be an exotic dancer and work and patronize sexually oriented businesses from 18 to 21.


title: Adult

text: In the UK, there have been many proposals to raise the age that one can buy tobacco from 18 to 21 in an attempt to curb teen and young adult use to get to a "smoke-free" UK by 2030.


title: Adult

text: All of these laws made over the years reflect the growing awareness that young adults, while not children, are still in a transitional stage between adolescence and full adulthood and that there should be policy adjustments or restrictions where necessary, especially where it pertains to activities that carry certain degrees of risk or harm to themselves or others.


title: Adult

text: At the same time, however, even though the generally accepted age of majority is 18 in most nations, there are rights or privileges afforded to adolescents who have not yet reached legal adulthood. In the United States, youth are able to get a part-time job at 14 provided they have a work permit. At 16, one is able to obtain a driver's permit or license depending on state laws and is able to work most jobs (except ones requiring heavy machinery) and consent to sexual activity (depending on the state). At 17, one is able to enlist in the armed forces with parental consent although they cannot be deployed to be in combat roles until age 18.


title: Adult

text: The voting age for local elections in most American cities is 18. But in five localities nationwide — four of which are in Maryland — 16 and 17-year-olds are eligible to vote. The cities are Takoma Park, Riverdale, Greenbelt, and Hyattsville.


title: Adult

text: In 2020, students 16 or older in Oakland, California gained the right to vote in school board elections. There is a growing movement to lower the voting age in the US and many other countries from 18 to 16 in hopes of engaging the youth vote and encouraging greater electoral participation. Some countries already have a voting age of 16 which include Austria, Scotland, Argentina, Brazil, Wales, Cuba, and Ecuador.


title: Adult

text: In Germany, one can purchase beer and wine at the age of 16 although they cannot purchase spirits or hard liquor until 18. The age of consent in Germany is 14 if both partners are under 18 but at least 14. Sexual activity with a person under 18 is punishable if the adult is a person of authority over the minor in upbringing, education, care, or employment.


title: Adult

text: In contrast to biological perspectives of aging and adulthood, social scientists conceptualize adulthood as socially constructed. While aging is an established biological process, the attainment of adulthood is social in its criteria. In contrast to other perspectives that conceptualize aging and the attainment of adulthood as a largely universal development, regardless of context, nation, generation, gender, race, or social class. Social scientists regard these aspects as paramount in cultural definitions of adulthood.


title: Adult

text: Further evidence of adulthood as a social construction is illustrated by the changing criteria of adulthood over time. Historically, adulthood in the U.S. has rested on completing one's education, moving away from the family of origin, and beginning one's career. Other key historical criteria include entering a marriage and becoming a parent. These criteria are social and subjective; they are organized by gender, race, ethnicity, social class, among other key identity markers. As a result, particular populations feel adult earlier in the life course than do others.


title: Adult

text: Contemporary experiences of and research on young adults today substitute more seemingly subjective criteria for adulthood which resonate more soundly with young adults' experiences of aging. The criteria are marked by a growing "importance of individualistic criteria and the irrelevance of the demographic markers of normative conceptions of adulthood." In particular, younger cohorts' attainment of adulthood centers on three criteria: gaining a sense of responsibility, independent decision-making, and financial independence.


title: Adult

text: Jeffrey Arnett, a psychologist and professor at Clark University in Massachusetts, studied the development of adults and argues that there is a new and distinct period of development in between adolescence and adulthood. This stage, which he calls "emerging adulthood," occurs between the ages of 18 and 25. Arnett describes these individuals as able to take some responsibility for their lives, but still not completely feeling like an adult. Arnett articulates five distinct features that are unique to this period of development: identity exploration, feeling in between, instability, self-focus, and having possibilities.


title: Adult

text: The first feature, identity exploration, describes emerging adults making decisions for themselves about their career, education, and love life. This is a time of life when a young person has yet to finalize these decisions but are pondering them, making them feel somewhere in between adolescent and adult. This leads into a second feature of this phase of life—feeling in between. Emerging adults feel that they are taking on responsibilities but do not feel like a 'full' adult quite yet. Next, the instability feature notes that emerging adults often move around after their high school years whether that is to college, friends' houses, or living with a romantic partner. This moving around often ends once the individual's family and career have been set. Tagging along with the instability feature is having self-focus. Emerging adults, being away from their parental and societal routines, are now able to do what they want when they want and where they want before they are put back into a routine when they start a marriage, family, and career. Arnett's last feature of emerging adulthood, an age of possibilities, characterizes this stage as one where "optimism reigns". These individuals believe they have a good chance of turning out better than their parents did.


title: Adult

text: According to Jewish tradition, adulthood is reached at age 13 for Jewish boys and 12 for Jewish girls in accordance with the Bar or Bat Mitzvah; they are expected to demonstrate preparation for adulthood by learning the Torah and other Jewish practices. The Christian Bible and Jewish scripture contain no age requirement for adulthood or marrying, which includes engaging in sexual activity.


title: Adult

text: The 1983 Code of Canon Law states, "A man before he has completed his sixteenth year of age, and likewise a woman before she has completed her fourteenth year of age, cannot enter a valid marriage". According to "The Disappearance of Childhood" by Neil Postman, the Christian Church of the Middle Ages considered the age of accountability, when a person could be tried and even executed as an adult, to be age 7. While certain religions have their guidelines on what it means to be an adult, generally speaking, there are trends that occur regarding religiosity as individuals transition from adolescence to adulthood. The role of religion in one's life can impact development during adolescence. The National Library of Medicine (NCBI) highlights some studies that show rates of religiosity declining as people move out of the house and live on their own. Oftentimes when people live on their own, they change their life goals and religion tends to be less important as they discover who they are. Other studies from the NCBI show that as adults get married and have children they settle down, and as they do, there tends to be an increase in religiosity. Everyone's level of religiosity builds at a different pace, meaning that religion relative to adult development varies across cultures and time.


title: Sirloin steak

text: In American butchery, the sirloin steak (called the "rump steak" in British butchery) is cut from the sirloin, the subprimal posterior to the short loin where the T-bone, porterhouse, and club steaks are cut. The sirloin is actually divided into several types of steak. The top sirloin is the most prized of these and is specifically marked for sale under that name. The bottom sirloin, which is less tender and much larger, is typically marked for sale simply as "sirloin steak". The bottom sirloin, in turn, connects to the sirloin tip roast.


title: Sirloin steak

text: In a common British, South African, and Australian butchery, the word "sirloin" refers to cuts of meat from the upper middle of the animal, similar to the American short loin, while the American "sirloin" is called the rump. Because of this difference in terminology, in these countries, the T-bone steak is regarded as a cut of the sirloin.


title: Sirloin steak

text: The word "sirloin" derives from the Middle English "surloine", itself derived from the Old French word "surloigne" (variant of "surlonge"), that is, "sur" for 'above' and "longe" for 'loin'. In Modern French, the cut of meat is called "aloyau" or "faux-filet".


title: Sirloin steak

text: A fictitious etymology explains the name as being derived from an occasion when a king of England knighted the loin of beef as "Sir loin". In fact, though the pun is reported as early as 1630, and the notion of a king knighting it dates to 1655, the name predates any of the kings who are mentioned. The story at most influenced the spelling "sir" rather than "sur".


title: 98 Degrees

text: 98 Degrees (stylized as 98°) is an American pop and R&B vocal group consisting of four vocalists: the group's founding member Jeff Timmons, brothers Nick and Drew Lachey, and Justin Jeffre. The group was formed by Timmons in Los Angeles, California, although all of its members originate from Ohio.