title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: After the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), the Roman authorities took measures to suppress the rebellious province of Roman Judea. Instead of a procurator, they installed a praetor as a governor and stationed an entire legion, the X "Fretensis", in the area. Tensions continued to build up in the wake of the Kitos War, the second large-scale Jewish insurrection in the Eastern Mediterranean during 115–117, the final stages of which saw fighting in Judea. Mismanagement of the province during the early 2nd century might well have led to the proximate causes of the revolt, largely bringing governors with clear anti-Jewish sentiments to run the province. Gargilius Antiques may have preceded Rufus during the 120s. The Church Fathers and rabbinic literature emphasize the role of Rufus in provoking the revolt.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Historians have suggested multiple reasons for the sparking of the Bar Kokhba revolt, long-term and proximate. Several elements are believed to have contributed to the rebellion; changes in administrative law, the diffuse presence of Romans, alterations in agricultural practice with a shift from landowning to sharecropping, the impact of a possible period of economic decline, and an upsurge of nationalism, the latter influenced by similar revolts among the Jewish communities in Egypt, Cyrenaica and Mesopotamia during the reign of Trajan in the Kitos War.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: The proximate reasons seem to centre around the construction of a new city, Aelia Capitolina, over the ruins of Jerusalem and the erection of a temple to Jupiter on the Temple mount. Until recently, some historians had tried to question the Colonia foundation event as one of the causes of the revolt, suggesting to rather time the Colonia establishment to the aftermath of the revolt as a punishment. However, the 2014 archaeological finding of the Legio Fretensis inscription in Jerusalem dedicated to Hadrian and dated to 129/130 CE, as well as identification of Colonia Aelia Capitolina struck coins have since been largely accepted as confirmation to the sequence of events depicted in Jewish traditional literature. One interpretation involves the visit in 130 CE of Hadrian to the ruins of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem. At first sympathetic towards the Jews, Hadrian promised to rebuild the Temple, but the Jews felt betrayed when they found out that he intended to build a temple dedicated to Jupiter upon the ruins of the Second Temple. A rabbinic version of this story claims that Hadrian planned on rebuilding the Temple, but that a malevolent Samaritan convinced him not to. The reference to a malevolent Samaritan is, however, a familiar device of Jewish literature.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: An additional legion, the VI "Ferrata", arrived in the province to maintain order. Works on Aelia Capitolina, as Jerusalem was to be called, commenced in 131 CE. The governor of Judea, Tineius Rufus, performed the foundation ceremony, which involved ploughing over the designated city limits. "Ploughing up the Temple", seen as a religious offence, turned many Jews against the Roman authorities. The Romans issued a coin inscribed "Aelia Capitolina".


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: A disputed tradition, based on the single source of the "Historia Augusta", regarded as 'unreliable and problematic,' states tensions rose after Hadrian banned circumcision, referred to as "mutilare genitalia " taken to mean "brit milah". Were the claim true it has been conjectured that Hadrian, as a Hellenist, would have viewed circumcision as an undesirable form of mutilation. The claim is often considered suspect.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Jewish leaders carefully planned the second revolt to avoid the numerous mistakes that had plagued the first First Jewish–Roman War sixty years earlier. In 132, the revolt, led by Simon bar Kokhba and Elasar, quickly spread from Modi'in across the country, cutting off the Roman garrison in Jerusalem. Although Rufus was in charge during the early phase of the uprising, he disappears from the record after 132 for unknown reasons. Shortly after the eruption of the revolt, Bar Kokhba's rebels inflicted heavy casualties to Legio X Fretensis, based in Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). At that point, Legio VI Ferrata was sent to reinforce the Roman position from Legio base in Yizrael Valley, fielding altogether some 20,000 Roman troops, but was unable to subdue the rebels, who nearly conquered Jerusalem.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Given the continuing inability of Legio X and Legio VI to subdue the rebels, additional reinforcements were dispatched from neighbouring provinces. Gaius Poblicius Marcellus, the Legate of Roman Syria, arrived commanding Legio III Gallica, while Titus Haterius Nepos, the governor of Roman Arabia, brought Legio III Cyrenaica. Later on it is proposed by some historians that Legio XXII Deiotariana was sent from Arabia Petraea, but was ambushed and massacred on its way to Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem), and possibly disbanded as a result. Legio II Traiana Fortis, previously stationed in Egypt, may have also arrived in Judea in this stage. By that time the number of Roman troops in Judea stood at nearly 80,000—a number still inferior to rebel forces, who were also more familiar with the terrain and occupied strong fortifications.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Many Jews from the diaspora made their way to Judea to join Bar Kokhba's forces from the beginning of the rebellion, with the Talmud recorded tradition that hard tests were imposed on recruits due to the inflated number of volunteers. Some documents seem to indicate that many of those who enlisted in Bar Kokhba's forces could only speak Greek, and it is unclear whether these were Jews or non-Jews. According to Rabbinic sources some 400,000 men were at the disposal of Bar Kokhba at the peak of the rebellion.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: The outbreak and initial success of the rebellion took the Romans by surprise. The rebels incorporated combined tactics to fight the Roman Army. According to some historians, Bar Kokhba's army mostly practiced guerrilla warfare, inflicting heavy casualties. This view is largely supported by Cassius Dio, who wrote that the revolt began with covert attacks in line with preparation of hideout systems, though after taking over the fortresses Bar Kokhba turned to direct engagement due to his superiority in numbers. Only after several painful defeats in the field did the Romans decide to avoid open conflict and instead methodically besiege individual Judean cities.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Simon Bar Kokhba took the title "Nasi Israel" and ruled over an entity named "Israel" that was virtually independent for over two and a half years. The Jewish sage Rabbi Akiva, who was the spiritual leader of the revolt, identified Simon Bar Kosiba as the Jewish messiah, and gave him the surname "Bar Kokhba" meaning "Son of a Star" in the Aramaic language, from the Star Prophecy verse from Numbers : "There shall come a star out of Jacob". The name Bar Kokhba does not appear in the Talmud but in ecclesiastical sources. The era of the redemption of Israel was announced, contracts were signed and a large quantity of Bar Kokhba Revolt coinage was struck over foreign coins.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: With the slowly advancing Roman army cutting supply lines, the rebels engaged in long-term defense. The defense system of Judean towns and villages was based mainly on hideout caves, which were created in large numbers in almost every population center. Many houses utilized underground hideouts, where Judean rebels hoped to withstand Roman superiority by the narrowness of the passages and even ambushes from underground. The cave systems were often interconnected and used not only as hideouts for the rebels but also for storage and refuge for their families. Hideout systems were employed in the Judean hills, the Judean desert, northern Negev, and to some degree also in Galilee, Samaria and Jordan Valley. As of July 2015, some 350 hideout systems have been mapped within the ruins of 140 Jewish villages.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Following a series of setbacks, Hadrian called his general Sextus Julius Severus from Britannia, and troops were brought from as far as the Danube. In 133/4, Severus landed in Judea with a massive army, bringing three legions from Europe (including Legio X Gemina and possibly also Legio IX Hispana), cohorts of additional legions and between 30 and 50 auxiliary units. He took the title of provincial governor and initiated a massive campaign to systematically subdue Judean rebel forces. Severus' arrival almost doubled the number of Roman troops facing the rebels.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: The size of the Roman army amassed against the rebels was much larger than that commanded by Titus sixty years earlier - nearly one third of the Roman army took part in the campaign against Bar Kokhba. It is estimated that forces from at least 10 legions participated in Severus' campaign in Judea, including Legio X Fretensis, Legio VI Ferrata, Legio III Gallica, Legio III Cyrenaica, Legio II Traiana Fortis, Legio X Gemina, cohorts of Legio V Macedonica, cohorts of Legio XI Claudia, cohorts of Legio XII Fulminata and cohorts of Legio IV Flavia Felix, along with 30–50 auxiliary units, for a total force of 60,000–120,000 Roman soldiers facing Bar Kokhba's rebels. It is plausible that Legio IX Hispana was among the legions Severus brought with him from Europe, and that its demise occurred during Severus' campaign, as its disappearance during the second century is often attributed to this war.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: According to some views one of the crucial battles of the war took place near Tel Shalem in the Beit She'an valley, near what is now identified as the legionary camp of Legio VI Ferrata. This theory was proposed by Werner Eck in 1999, as part of his general maximalist work which did put the Bar Kokhba revolt as a very prominent event on the course of the Roman Empire's history. Next to the camp, archaeologists unearthed the remnants of a triumphal arch, which featured a dedication to Emperor Hadrian, which most likely refers to the defeat of Bar Kokhba's army. Additional finds at Tel Shalem, including a bust of Emperor Hadrian, specifically link the site to the period. The theory for a major decisive battle in Tel Shalem implies a significant extension of the area of the rebellion, with Werner Eck suggesting the war encompassed also northern Valleys together with Galilee.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Simon bar Kokhba declared Herodium as his secondary headquarters. Its commander was Yeshua ben Galgula, likely Bar Kokhba's second or third line of command. Archaeological evidence for the revolt was found all over the site, from the outside buildings to the water system under the mountain. Inside the water system, supporting walls built by the rebels were discovered, and another system of caves was found. Inside one of the caves, burned wood was found which was dated to the time of the revolt. The fortress was besieged by the Romans in late 134 and was taken by the end of the year or early in 135.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: The last phase of the revolt is characterized by Bar Kokhba's loss of territorial control, with the exception of the surroundings of the Betar fortress, where he made his last stand against the Romans. The Roman Army had meanwhile turned to eradicate smaller fortresses and hideout systems of captured villages, turning the conquest into a campaign of annihilation.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: After losing many of their strongholds, Bar Kokhba and the remnants of his army withdrew to the fortress of Betar, which subsequently came under siege in the summer of 135. Legio V Macedonica and Legio XI Claudia are said to have taken part in the siege. According to Jewish tradition, the fortress was breached and destroyed on the fast of Tisha B'av, the ninth day of the lunar month Av, a day of mourning for the destruction of the First and the Second Jewish Temple. Rabbinical literature ascribes the defeat to Bar Kokhba killing his maternal uncle, Rabbi Elazar Hamudaʻi, after suspecting him of collaborating with the enemy, thereby forfeiting Divine protection. The horrendous scene after the city's capture could be best described as a massacre. The Jerusalem Talmud relates that the number of dead in Betar was enormous, that the Romans "went on killing until their horses were submerged in blood to their nostrils."


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: According to a rabbinic midrash, the Romans executed eight leading members of the Sanhedrin (The list of Ten Martyrs include two earlier rabbis): Rabbi Akiva; Rabbi Hanania ben Teradion; the interpreter of the Sanhedrin, Rabbi Huspith; Rabbi Eliezer ben Shamua; Rabbi Hanina ben Hakinai; Rabbi Jeshbab the Scribe; Rabbi Yehuda ben Dama; and Rabbi Yehuda ben Baba. The precise date of Akiva's execution is disputed, some suggesting to date it to the beginning of the revolt based on the midrash, while others link it to final phases. The rabbinic account describes agonizing tortures: Akiva was flayed with iron combs, Rabbi Ishmael had the skin of his head pulled off slowly, and Rabbi Hanania was burned at a stake, with wet wool held by a Torah scroll wrapped around his body to prolong his death. Bar Kokhba's fate is not certain, with two alternative traditions in the Babylonian Talmud ascribing the death of Bar Kokhba either to a snakebite or other natural causes during the Roman siege or possibly killed on the orders of the Sanhedrin, as a false messiah. According to Lamentations Rabbah, the head of Bar Kokhba was presented to Emperor Hadrian after the Siege of Betar.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Following the Fall of Betar, the Roman forces went on a rampage of systematic killing, eliminating all remaining Jewish villages in the region and seeking out the refugees. Legio III Cyrenaica was the main force to execute this last phase of the campaign. Historians disagree on the duration of the Roman campaign following the fall of Betar. While some claim further resistance was broken quickly, others argue that pockets of Jewish rebels continued to hide with their families into the winter months of late 135 and possibly even spring 136. By early 136 however, it is clear that the revolt was defeated.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Modern historians view the Bar Kokhba Revolt as having decisive historic importance. They note that, unlike in the aftermath of the First Jewish–Roman War, the Jewish population of Judea was devastated after the revolt, with many Jews being killed, exiled, or sold into slavery. Jewish religious and political authority was suppressed far more brutally than before. In his account of the revolt, Roman historian Cassius Dio (–235) wrote that:In 1981, Schäfer suggested that Dio exaggerated his numbers. On the other hand, in 2003 Cotton considered Dio's figures highly plausible, in light of accurate Roman census declarations. The ethno-archaeological comparison analysis by Dvir Raviv and Chaim Ben David, published in 2021, asserts of sufficient accuracy in Dio's depopulation claims as a "reliable account, which he based on contemporaneous documentation". As of today, no village in the region of Judea whose remains have been excavated so far has not been destroyed in the revolt. Some scholars describe the destruction of the Jewish communities in Judea as a genocide.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Sources indicate that Jewish captives were sold into slavery and sent to various parts of the empire. A chronicle written in the 7th century CE, which was based on lost ancient sources, states that "Jewish captives were sold for the price of one ration of food for a horse." This number indicates that the slave market was flooded with new slaves.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Captives who were not sold as slaves were deported to Gaza, Egypt and elsewhere, greatly adding to the Jewish diaspora. Rabbinic Judaism had already become a portable religion, centered on synagogues.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Nevertheless, there was a continuous small Jewish presence and Galilee became its religious center. Some of the Judean survivors resettled in Galilee, with some rabbinical families gathering in Sepphoris. The Mishnah and part of the Talmud, central Jewish texts, were composed during the 2nd to 4th centuries CE in Galilee. Jewish communities were still present on the edges of Judea, including Eleutheropolis, Ein Gedi and the southern Hebron Hills. There were also Jewish communities along the coastal plain, in Caesarea, Beit She'an and on the Golan Heights. In the aftermath of the defeat, the maintenance of Jewish settlement in Palestine became a major concern of the rabbinate. The Sages endeavoured to halt Jewish dispersal, and even banned emigration from Palestine, branding those who settled outside its borders as idolaters.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Cassius Dio wrote that "Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war. Therefore, Hadrian, in writing to the Senate, did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors: 'If you and your children are in health, it is well; I and the army are in health.'" Some argue that the exceptional number of preserved Roman veteran diplomas from the late 150s and 160 CE indicate an unprecedented conscription across the Roman Empire to replenish heavy losses within military legions and auxiliary units between 133 and 135, corresponding to the revolt.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: As noted above, XXII "Deiotariana" may have been disbanded after serious losses. In addition, some historians argue that Legio IX Hispana's disbandment in the mid-2nd century could have been a result of this war. Previously it had generally been accepted that the Ninth disappeared around 108 CE, possibly suffering its demise in Britain, according to Mommsen; but archaeological findings in 2015 from Nijmegen, dated to 121 CE, contained the known inscriptions of two senior officers who were deputy commanders of the Ninth in 120 CE, and lived on for several decades to lead distinguished public careers. It was concluded that the Legion was disbanded between 120 and 197 CE—either as a result of fighting the Bar Kokhba revolt, or in Cappadocia (161), or at the Danube (162). Legio X Fretensis sustained heavy casualties during the revolt.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: The revolt was led by the Judean Pharisees, with other Jewish and non-Jewish factions also playing a role. Jewish communities of Galilee who sent militants to the revolt in Judea were largely spared total destruction, though they did suffer persecutions and massive executions. Samaria partially supported the revolt, with evidence accumulating that notable numbers of Samaritan youths participated in Bar Kokhba's campaigns; though Roman wrath was directed at Samaritans, their cities were also largely spared from the total destruction unleashed on Judea. Eusebius of Caesarea wrote that Jewish Christians were killed and suffered "all kinds of persecutions" at the hands of rebel Jews when they refused to help Bar Kokhba against the Roman troops. The Greco-Roman population of the region also suffered severely during the early stage of the revolt, persecuted by Bar Kokhba's forces.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: After the suppression of the revolt, Hadrian promulgated a series of religious edicts aimed at uprooting the Jewish nationalism in Judea. He prohibited Torah law and the Hebrew calendar, and executed Judaic scholars. The sacred scrolls of Judaism were ceremonially burned at the large Temple complex for Jupiter which he built on the Temple Mount. At this Temple, he installed two statues, one of Jupiter, another of himself. These proclamations remained in effect until Hadrian’s death in 138, which marked a significant relief to the surviving Jewish communities.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: A further, more lasting punishment was also implemented by the Romans. In an attempt to erase any memory of Judea or Ancient Israel, the name Judaea was dropped from the provincial name, and Provincia Iudaea was renamed Syria Palaestina. Despite such name changes taking place elsewhere, rebellions have never resulted in a nation's name being expunged. Similarly, under the argument to ensure the prosperity of the newly founded Roman colony of Aelia Capitolina, Jews were forbidden to enter, except on the day of Tisha B'Av. By destroying the association of Jews with Judea and forbidding the practice of the Jewish faith, Hadrian aimed to root out a nation that had inflicted heavy casualties on the Roman Empire.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Relations between the Jews in the region and the Roman Empire continued to be complicated. Constantine I allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on Tisha B'Av at the Western Wall. In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched yet another revolt, provoking heavy retribution. The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the Constantinian dynasty. In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor Julian, the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who, unlike his predecessors, defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sassanian Persia, he ordered the Jewish Temple rebuilt in his effort to foster religions other than Christianity. The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic Galilee earthquake of 363, and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire, though Christian historians of the time ascribed it to divine intervention. Julian's support of Judaism caused Jews to call him "Julian the Hellene". Julian's fatal wound in the Persian campaign put an end to Jewish aspirations, and Julian's successors embraced Christianity through the entirety of Byzantine rule of Jerusalem, preventing any Jewish claims.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: In 438 CE, when the Empress Eudocia removed the ban on Jews' praying at the Temple site, the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call "to the great and mighty people of the Jews" which began: "Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!" However the Christian population of the city saw this as a threat to their primacy, and a riot erupted which chased Jews from the city.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of Samaritan revolts broke out across the Palaestina Prima province. Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in near annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan revolt of 556 was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered brutal suppression of their religion under Emperor Justinian.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an alliance with the Persians, joining the Persian invasion of Palaestina Prima in 614 to overwhelm the Byzantine garrison, and gaining autonomous rule over Jerusalem. However, their autonomy was brief: the Jewish leader was shortly assassinated during a Christian revolt and, though Jerusalem was reconquered by Persians and Jews within 3 weeks, it fell into anarchy. With the subsequent withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to the Byzantines in 625 CE or 628 CE. Byzantine control of the region was finally lost to Muslim Arab armies in 637 CE, when Umar ibn al-Khattab completed the conquest of Akko.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: The disastrous end of the revolt occasioned major changes in Jewish religious thought. Jewish messianism was abstracted and spiritualized, and rabbinical political thought became deeply cautious and conservative. The Talmud, for instance, refers to Bar Kokhba as "Ben-Kusiba", a derogatory term used to indicate that he was a false Messiah. The deeply ambivalent rabbinical position regarding Messianism, as expressed most famously in Maimonides "Epistle to Yemen," would seem to have its origins in the attempt to deal with the trauma of a failed Messianic uprising.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: In the post-rabbinical era, the Bar Kokhba Revolt became a symbol of valiant national resistance. The Zionist youth movement Betar took its name from Bar Kokhba's traditional last stronghold, and David Ben-Gurion, Israel's first prime minister, took his Hebrew last name from one of Bar Kokhba's generals.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: A popular children's song, included in the curriculum of Israeli kindergartens, has the refrain "Bar Kokhba was a Hero/He fought for Liberty," and its words describe Bar Kokhba as being captured and thrown into a lion's den, but managing to escape riding on the lion's back.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Over the years, two schools formed in the analysis of the Revolt. One of them is "maximalists", who claim that the revolt spread through the entire Judea Province and beyond it into neighboring provinces. The second one is that of the "minimalists", who restrict the revolt to the area of the Judaean hills and immediate environs.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: It is generally accepted that the Bar Kokhba revolt encompassed all of Judea, namely the villages of the Judean hills, the Judean desert, and northern parts of the Negev desert. It is not known whether the revolt spread outside of Judea.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Until 1951, Bar Kokhba Revolt coinage was the sole archaeological evidence for dating the revolt. These coins include references to "Year One of the redemption of Israel", "Year Two of the freedom of Israel", and "For the freedom of Jerusalem". Despite the reference to Jerusalem, as of early 2000s, archaeological finds, and the lack of revolt coinage found in Jerusalem, supported the view that the revolt did not capture Jerusalem.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: In 2020, the fourth Bar Kokhba minted coin and the first inscribed with the word "Jerusalem" was found in Jerusalem Old City excavations. Despite this discovery, the Israel Antiques Authority still maintained the opinion that Jerusalem was not taken by the rebels, due to the fact that of thousands of Bar Kokhba coins had been found outside Jerusalem, but only four within the city (out of more than 22,000 found within the city). The Israel Antiques Authority's archaeologists Moran Hagbi and Dr. Joe Uziel speculated that "It is possible that a Roman soldier from the Tenth Legion found the coin during one of the battles across the country and brought it to their camp in Jerusalem as a souvenir."


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Among those findings are the rebel hideout systems in the Galilee, which greatly resemble the Bar Kokhba hideouts in Judea, and though are less numerous, are nevertheless important. The fact that Galilee retained its Jewish character after the end of the revolt has been taken as an indication by some that either the revolt was never joined by Galilee or that the rebellion was crushed relatively early there compared to Judea.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Several historians, notably W. Eck of the U-ty of Cologne, theorized that the Tel Shalem arch depicted a major battle between Roman armies and Bar Kokhba's rebels in Bet Shean valley, thus extending the battle areas some 50 km northwards from Judea. The 2013 discovery of the military camp of Legio VI Ferrata near Tel Megiddo, and ongoing excavations there may shed light to extension of the rebellion to the northern valleys. However, Eck's theory on battle in Tel Shalem is rejected by M. Mor, who considers the location implausible given Galilee's minimal (if any) participation in the Revolt and distance from the main conflict flareup in Judea proper.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: A 2015 archaeological survey in Samaria identified some 40 hideout cave systems from the period, some containing Bar Kokhba's minted coins, suggesting that the war raged in Samaria at high intensity.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Bowersock suggested of linking the Nabateans to the revolt, claiming "a greater spread of hostilities than had formerly been thought... the extension of the Jewish revolt into northern Transjordan and an additional reason to consider the spread of local support among Safaitic tribes and even at Gerasa."


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: The revolt is mostly still shrouded in mystery, and only one brief historical account of the rebellion survives.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: The best recognized source for the revolt is Cassius Dio, "Roman History" (book 69), even though the writings of the Roman historian concerning the Bar Kokhba revolt survived only as fragments. The account extends on about two pages and is largely an historical perspective with the general course of the rebellion and its disastrous results, without mentioning specific names and locations. Notably, the name of the Jewish leader doesn't even appear in this account.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: The Christian author Eusebius of Caesarea wrote a brief account of the revolt within the Church History (Eusebius) compilation, notably mentioning Bar Chochebas (which means “star” according to Eusebius) as the leader of the Jewish rebels and their last stand at Beththera (i.e. Betar). Though Eusebius lived one and a half centuries after the revolt and wrote the brief account from the Christian theological perspective, his account provides important details on the revolt and its aftermath in Judea. Eusebius does also describe what had remained of Jewish population of Judea at his time—naming seven Jewish communities in Roman Palaestina (former Judaea).


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: The Jerusalem Talmud contains descriptions of the results of the rebellion, including the Roman executions of Judean leaders and religious persecution. The material however is lacking context and detail, though does contain reference to the Roman Governor Rufus (as Tinusrufus) and names the Jewish leader as Ben Kuziba.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: The discovery of the Cave of Letters in the Dead Sea area, dubbed as "Bar Kokhba archive", which contained letters actually written by Bar Kokhba and his followers, has added much new primary source data, indicating among other things that either a pronounced part of the Jewish population spoke only Greek or there was a foreign contingent among Bar Kokhba's forces, accounted for by the fact that his military correspondence was, in part, conducted in Greek. Close to the Cave of Letters is the Cave of Horror, where the remains of Jewish refugees from the rebellion were discovered along with fragments of letters and writings. Several more brief sources have been uncovered in the area over the past century, including references to the revolt from Nabatea and Roman Syria. Roman inscriptions in Tel Shalem, Betar fortress, Jerusalem and other locations also contribute to the current historical understanding of the Bar Kokhba War.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Several archaeological surveys have been performed during the 20th and 21st centuries in ruins of Jewish villages across Judea and Samaria, as well in the Roman-dominated cities on the Israeli coastal plain.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Herodium was excavated by archaeologist Ehud Netzer in the 1980s, publishing results in 1985. According to findings, during the later Bar-Kokhba revolt, complex tunnels were dug, connecting the earlier cisterns with one another. These led from the Herodium fortress to hidden openings, which allowed surprise attacks on Roman units besieging the hill. As opposed to the narrow and restricted tunnel complexes from the Judean plain, the Herodium tunnels were broad, with high ceilings, allowing for rapid movement of armed soldiers.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: The ruins of Betar, the last fortress of Bar Kokhba, destroyed by Hadrian's legions in 135 CE, is located in the vicinity of the towns of Battir and Beitar Illit. A stone inscription bearing Latin characters and discovered near Betar shows that the Fifth Macedonian Legion and the Eleventh Claudian Legion took part in the siege.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: The Cave of Letters was surveyed in explorations conducted in 1960–1961, when letters and fragments of papyri were found dating back to the period of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Some of these were personal letters between Bar Kokhba and his subordinates, and one notable bundle of papyri, known as the Babata or Babatha cache, revealed the life and trials of a woman, Babata, who lived during this period.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: Cave of Horror is the name given to Cave 8 in the Judaean Desert of Israel, where the remains of Jewish refugees from the Bar Kokhba revolt were found. The nickname "Cave of Horror" was given after the skeletons of 40 men, women and children were discovered. Three potsherds with the names of three of the deceased were also found alongside the skeletons in the cave.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: A number of locations have been identified with Roman Legionary camps in the time of the Bar Kokhba War, including in Tel Shalem, Jerusalem, Lajjun and more.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: In 2014, one half of a Latin inscription was discovered in Jerusalem during excavations near the Damascus Gate. It was identified as the right half of a complete inscription, the other part of which was discovered nearby in the late 19th century and is currently on display in the courtyard of Jerusalem's Studium Biblicum Franciscanum Museum. The complete inscription was translated as follows:


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: The inscription was dedicated by Legio X Fretensis to the emperor Hadrian in the year 129/130 CE. The inscription is considered to greatly strengthen the claim that indeed the emperor visited Jerusalem that year, supporting the traditional claim that Hadrian's visit was among the main causes of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, and not the other way around.


title: Bar Kokhba revolt

text: The location was identified as a Roman military post during the 20th century, with archaeological excavation performed in the late 20th century following an accidental discovery of Hadrian's bronze statue in the vicinity of the site in 1975. Remains of a large Roman military camp and fragments of a triumphal arc dedicated to Emperor Hadrian were consequently discovered at the site.


title: Agni

text: Agni (, ) is a Sanskrit word meaning fire and connotes the Vedic fire deity of Hinduism. He is also the guardian deity of the southeast direction and is typically found in southeast corners of Hindu temples. In the classical cosmology of the Indian religions, Agni as fire is one of the five inert impermanent elements ("pañcabhūtá") along with space ("ākāśa"), water ("ap"), air ("vāyu") and earth ("pṛthvī"), the five combining to form the empirically perceived material existence ("Prakṛti").


title: Agni

text: In Vedic literature, Agni is a major and oft-invoked god along with Indra and Soma. Agni is considered the mouth of the gods and goddesses and the medium that conveys offerings to them in a "homa" (votive ritual). He is conceptualized in ancient Hindu texts to exist at three levels, on earth as fire, in the atmosphere as lightning, and in the sky as the sun. This triple presence accords him as the messenger between the deities and human beings in the Vedic scriptures. The relative importance of Agni declined in the post-Vedic era, as he was internalised and his identity evolved to metaphorically represent all transformative energy and knowledge in the Upanishads and later Hindu literature. Agni remains an integral part of Hindu traditions, such as being the central witness of the rite-of-passage ritual in traditional Hindu weddings called "Saptapadi" or "Agnipradakṣiṇam" (seven steps and mutual vows), in the Upanayana ceremony of rite of passage, as well being part of the "diyā" (lamp) in festivals such as Deepavali and "Aarti" in Puja.


title: Agni

text: Agni (Pali: "Aggi") is a term that appears extensively in Buddhist texts and in the literature related to the Senika heresy debate within the Buddhist traditions. In the ancient Jainism thought, Agni (fire) contains soul and fire-bodied beings, additionally appears as "Agni-kumara" or "fire princes" in its theory of rebirth and a class of reincarnated beings and is discussed in its texts with the equivalent term Tejas.


title: Agni

text: Sanskrit अग्नि ("Agni") continues one of two core terms for fire reconstructed to Proto-Indo-European, "*h₁n̥gʷnís", other reflexes of which include *En or "*Enji" () is the reconstructed name of the fire god in the Albanian pagan mythology, which continues to be used in the modern Albanian language to refer to Thursday ("e enjte")


title: Agni

text: Latin "ignis" (the root of English "ignite"), Lithuanian "ugnis", Kurdish agir, Old Slavonian огнь ("ognĭ") and its descendants: Russian огонь ("ogon"'), Serbian oganj, Polish "ogień", etc., all meaning "fire".


title: Agni

text: In the early Vedic literature, Agni primarily connotes the fire as a god, one reflecting the primordial powers to consume, transform and convey. Yet the term is also used with the meaning of a "Mahabhuta" (constitutive substance), one of five that the earliest Vedic thinkers believed to constitute material existence, and that later Vedic thinkers such as Kanada and Kapila expanded widely, namely Akasha (ether, space), Vayu (air), Ap (water), Prithvi (earth) and Agni (fire).


title: Agni

text: The word Agni is used in many contexts, ranging from fire in the stomach, the cooking fire in a home, the sacrificial fire in an altar, the fire of cremation, the fire of rebirth, the fire in the energetic saps concealed within plants, the atmospheric fire in lightning and the celestial fire in the sun. In the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas, such as in section 5.2.3 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Agni represents all the gods, all concepts of spiritual energy that permeates everything in the universe. In the Upanishads and post-Vedic literature, Agni additionally became a metaphor for immortal principle in man, and any energy or knowledge that consumes and dispels a state of darkness, transforms and procreates an enlightened state of existence.


title: Agni

text: There are many theories about the origins of the god Agni, some tracing it to Indo-European mythologies, others tracing to mythologies within the Indian tradition.


title: Agni

text: The origin myth found in many Indo-European cultures is one of a bird, or bird like being, that carries or brings fire from the gods to mankind. Alternatively, this messenger brings an elixir of immortality from heaven to earth. In either case, the bird returns everyday with sacrificial offerings for the gods, but sometimes the bird hides or disappears without trace. Agni is molded in similar mythical themes, in some hymns with the phrase the "heavenly bird that flies".


title: Agni

text: The earliest layers of the Vedic texts of Hinduism, such as section 6.1 of "Kaṭhaka Saṃhitā" and section 1.8.1 of "Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā" state that the universe began with nothing, neither night nor day existed, what existed was just Prajāpati (also referred to as Brahman). Agni originated from the forehead of Prajāpati, assert these texts. With the creation of Agni came light, and with that were created day and night. Agni, state these "Saṃhitā"s, is the same as the Brahman, the truth, the eye of the manifested universe. These mythologies develop into more complex stories about Agni's origins in the later layers of Vedic texts, such as in section 2.1.2 of the "Taittiriya Brahmana" and sections 2.2.3–4 of "Shatapatha Brahmana".


title: Agni

text: Agni is originally conceptualized as the ultimate source of the "creator-maintainer-destroyer" triad, then one of the trinities, as the one who ruled the earth. His twin brother Indra ruled the atmosphere as the god of storm, rain and war, while Sūrya ruled the sky and heavens. His position and importance evolves over time, in the "creator-maintainer-destroyer" aspects of existence in Hindu thought.


title: Agni

text: The Shatapatha Brahmana mentions there have been three previous Agnis and current one is the fourth in the series.


title: Agni

text: In the Vedic pantheon, Agni occupies, after Indra, the most important position. Agni is prominent in the hymns of the Vedas and particularly the Brahmanas. In the "ṚgVeda" there are over 200 hymns that praise Agni. His name or synonyms appear in nearly a third of 1,028 hymns in the "ṚgVeda". The "ṚgVeda" opens with a hymn inviting Agni, who is then addressed later in the hymn as the guardian of Ṛta (Dharma).


title: Agni

text: The Vedas describe the parents of Agni as two kindling fire sticks, whose loving action creates him. Just born, he is poetically presented as a tender baby, who needs loving attention lest he vanishes. With care, he sparks and smokes, then flames and grows stronger than his parents, finally so strong that he devours what created him.


title: Agni

text: The hymns in these ancient texts refer to Agni with numerous epithets and synonyms, such as "Jātavedas" (he who knows all generations), "Vaiśvānara" (relating to all men), "Tanūnapāt" (son of himself, self-made), "Narāśaṃsa" (who embodies men's praise), "Tripatsya" (with three dwellings), and many others. In Vedic mythologies, Agni is also presented as one who is mysterious with a tendency to play hide and seek, not just with humans but with the gods. He hides in strange places such as waters where in one myth he imbues life force into living beings that dwell therein, and in another where the fishes report his presence to the gods.


title: Agni

text: Agni is in hymn 10.124 of the "ṚgVeda", a Rishi (sage-poet-composer) and along with Indra and Sūrya makes up the Vedic triad of deities.


title: Agni

text: Agni is considered equivalent to and henotheistically identified with all the gods in the Vedic thought, which formed the foundation for the various non-dualistic and monistic theologies of Hinduism. These theme of equivalence is repeatedly presented in the Vedas, such as with the following words in the Maṇḍala 1 of the "ṚgVeda":


title: Agni

text: Agni features prominently in the major and minor Upanishads of Hinduism. Among the earliest mention is the legend of a boy named Satyakāma Jābāla, of uncertain parentage from an unwed mother, in chapter 4 of the "Chhāndogya Upanishad" (~700 BCE). He honestly admits his poverty and that his mother does not know who his father was, an honesty that earns him a spot in a Vedic school ("gurukul"). During his studies, the boy meets Agni, who then becomes the metaphor for him as a cardinal direction, world body, eye and knowledge, and the abstract principle of Brahman which the Upanishad states is in everything and is everywhere. Agni appears in section 1.13 of "Chandogya Upanishad" as well.


title: Agni

text: In verse 18 of the "Isha Upanishad", Agni is invoked with, "O Agni, you know all the paths, lead me on to success by the good path, keep me away from the wrong path of sin". In sections 4.5–6 of the "Maitri Upanishad", students ask their Vedic Guru (teacher) about which god is best among gods they name, a list that includes Agni. The Guru replies that they are all supreme, all merely forms of the Brahman, the whole world is Brahman. So pick anyone, suggests the Upanishad, meditate and adore that one, then meditate over them all, then deny and discard the individuality of every one of these gods including of Agni, thus journey unto the universal, for a communion with the Purusha, the Ātman.


title: Agni

text: Sections 3 and 4 of "Kena Upanishad", another major ancient Upanishad, present an allegorical story which includes gods Agni, Vāyu, Indra and goddess Umā. After a battle between good gods and evil demons, where Brahman helps the good gain victory, the gods wonder, "what is this Brahman, a wonderful being?" Agni goes first to find out, but fails. Vāyu too fails. Then Indra tries, but meets the goddess who already understands Brahman, explains what Brahman is and how the good reached victory through the nature of Brahman. Indra shares this knowledge with Agni and Vayu. The "Kena Upanishad" closes these sections by stating that "Agni, Vāyu and Indra" are revered first because they were the first among gods to realize Brahman. The allegorical legend, states Paul Deussen, aims to teach that all the Vedic gods and natural phenomenon have their basis in the timeless, universal monistic principle called Brahman.


title: Agni

text: Another ancient major Hindu scripture named "Prashna Upanishad" mentions Agni in its second Prashna (question section). The section states that Agni and other deities manifest as five gross constituents that combine to make the entire universe, and that all the deities are internalized in the temple of a living body with Agni as the eyes.


title: Agni

text: Agni is mentioned in many minor Upanishads, such as the "Pranagnihotra Upanishad", the "Yogatattva Upanishad", the "Yogashikha Upanishad", the "Trishikhibrahmana Upanishad" and others. The syncretic and monistic Shaivism text, namely "Rudrahridaya Upanishad" states that Rudra is same as Agni, and Uma is same as Svaha.


title: Agni

text: Mundaka Upanishad (2.4) mentioned the seven tongues of Agni as "kālī", "karālī", "manojavā", "sulohita", "sudhāmravarṇā", "sphuliṅginī" and "visvarucī".


title: Agni

text: Vedic rituals involve Agni. He is a part of many Hindu rites-of-passage ceremonies such as celebrating a birth (lighting a lamp), prayers (aarti lamp), at weddings (the yajna where the bride and groom circle the fire seven times) and at death (cremation). According to "Atharvaveda", it is Agni that conveys the soul of the dead from the pyre to be reborn in the next world or life. However, this role was in post-Vedic texts subsumed in the role of god Yama. Agni has been important in temple architecture, is typically present in the southeast corner of a Hindu temple.


title: Agni

text: The most important ritual of Hindu weddings is performed around Agni. It is called the "Saptapadi" (Sanskrit for "seven steps/feet") or Sat Phere, and it represents the legal part of Hindu marriage. The ritual involves a couple completing seven actual or symbolic circuits around the "Agni", which is considered a witness to the vows they make to each other. Each circuit of the consecrated fire is led by either the bride or the groom, varying by community and region. With each circuit, the couple makes a specific vow to establish some aspect of a happy relationship and household for each other, with Agni as the divine witness to those mutual vows. In Central India and Suriname, the bride leads the first three or four circuits.


title: Agni

text: The "Agnihotra" involves fire, and the term refers to the ritual of keeping fire at home, and in some cases making "sacrificial offerings" such as milk and seeds to this fire. The Srauta texts state that it is the duty of man to perform "Agnihotra". A wide range of Agnihotra procedures are found in the Brahmana layer of the Vedas, ranging from the most common simple keeping of sacred fire and its symbolism, to more complicated procedures for the expiation of guilt, to rituals claimed to grant immortality to the performer. According to the "Jaiminiya Brahmana", for example, an "Agnihotra" sacrifice frees the performer from evil and death. In contrast, states the Shatapatha Brahmana, "Agnihotra" is a symbolic reminder and equivalent to the Sun, where the fire keeper is reminded of the heat that creates life, the fire in beings, the heat in the womb behind the cycle of life.


title: Agni

text: Two major festivals in Hinduism, namely Holi (festival of colors) and Diwali (festival of lights) incorporate Agni in their ritual grammar, as a symbol of divine energy. During the autumn celebrations of Diwali, traditional small fire lamps called "Diya" are included to mark the festivities. For Holi, Hindus burn bonfires as Holika, on the night before the spring festival. The bonfire marks god Agni, and in rural India mothers carry their babies around the fire clockwise on Holika in Agni's remembrance.


title: Agni

text: Agni is symbolism for psychological and physiological aspects of life, states Maha Purana section LXVII.202–203. There are three kinds of Agni inside every human being, states this text, the "krodha-agni" or "fire of anger", the "kama-agni" or "fire of passion and desire", and the "udara-agni" or "fire of digestion". These respectively need introspective and voluntary offerings of forgiveness, detachment and fasting, if one desires spiritual freedom and liberation.


title: Agni

text: Agni variously denotes the natural element fire, the supernatural deity symbolized by fire and the inner natural will aspiring for the highest knowledge.


title: Agni

text: Heat, combustion and energy is the realm of Agni which symbolizes the transformation of the gross to the subtle; Agni is the life-giving energy. "Agnibija" is the consciousness of "tapas" (proto-cosmic energy); "agni" (the energizing principle); the sun, representing the Reality (Brahman) and the Truth (Satya), is "Rta", the order, the organizing principle of everything that is.


title: Agni

text: Agni, who is addressed as "Atithi" ('guest'), is also called "Jatavedasam" (जातवेदसम्), meaning "the one who knows all things that are born, created or produced". He symbolizes will-power united with wisdom.


title: Agni

text: Agni is the essence of the knowledge of Existence. Agni destroys ignorance and all delusions, removes nescience. The Kanvasatpathabrahmanam (SB.IV.i.iv.11) calls Agni "wisdom" (मेधायैमनसेऽग्नये स्वाहेति). Agni is symbolism for "the mind swiftest among (all) those that fly".


title: Agni

text: The iconography of Agni varies by region. The design guidelines and specifications of his iconography are described in the Hindu Agama texts. He is shown with one to three heads, two to four arms, is typically red-complexioned or smoky-grey complexioned standing next to or riding a ram, with a characteristic dramatic halo of flames leaping upwards from his crown. He is shown as a strong looking man, sometimes bearded, with a large belly because he eats everything offered into his flames, with golden brown hair, eyes and mustache to match the color of fire.


title: Agni

text: Agni holds a rosary in one hand to symbolize his prayer-related role, and a sphere in another hand in eastern states of India. In other regions, his four arms hold an ax, torch, spoon (or fan) and a flaming spear (or rosary).


title: Agni

text: Seven rays of light or flames emit from his body. One of his names is "Saptajihva", "the one having seven tongues", to symbolize how rapidly he consumes sacrificial butter. Occasionally, Agni iconography is shown in "Rohitasva" form, which has no ram as his vahana, but where he is pulled in a chariot with seven red horses, and the symbolic wind that makes fire move as the wheels of the chariot. In Khmer art, Agni has been depicted with a rhinoceros as his vahana. The number seven symbolizes his reach in all seven mythical continents in ancient Hindu cosmology or colors of a rainbow in his form as the sun.


title: Agni

text: Agni has three forms, namely fire, lightning, and the Sun, forms sometimes symbolized by giving his icon three heads or three legs. He sometimes is shown wearing a garland of fruits or flowers, symbolic of the offerings made into the fire.


title: Agni

text: The earliest surviving artwork of Agni have been found at archaeological sites near Mathura (Uttar Pradesh), and these date from 1st-century BCE. In the collection at Bharat Kalā Bhavan, there is a red sandstone sculpture from around the start of the common era but no later than 1st-century CE, identifiable as Agni shown in the garb of a Brahmin, very much like sage Kashyapa. In the Panchala coins of Agnimitra, a deity is always present with a halo of flames. In Gupta sculptures, Agni is found with a halo of flames round the body, the sacred thread across his chest, a beard, pot-bellied and holding in his right hand a "amrtaghata" (nectar-pot). Many of these early carvings and early statues show just one head, but elaborate details such as ear-rings made of three fruits, a detailed necklace, a slightly smiling face wearing a crown, and flames engraved into the hairs at the back of Agni's statue.


title: Agni

text: The iconographic statues and reliefs of god Agni are typically present in the southeast corners of a Hindu temple. However, in rare temples where Agni is envisioned as a presiding astrological divinity, according to texts such as the "Samarangana Sutradhara", he is assigned the northeast corner.


title: Agni

text: Agni is historically considered to be present in every grihastha (home), and therein presented in one of three forms – "gārhapatya" (for general domestic usage), "āhavaniya" (for inviting and welcoming a personage or deity) and "dakshinagni" (for fighting against all evil). Yāska states that his predecessor Sākapuṇi regarded the threefold existence of Agni as being in earth, air and heaven as stated by the Rig Veda, but a Brāhmana considered the third manifestation to be the Sun.


title: Agni

text: Offended by Agni, Bhṛgu had cursed Agni to become the devourer of all things on this earth, but Brahma modified that curse and made Agni the purifier of all things he touched.


title: Agni

text: In the "Khāṇḍava-daha Parva" (Mahābhārata CCXXV), Agni in disguise approaches Krishna and Arjuna seeking sufficient food for gratification of his hunger; and on being asked about the kind of food which would gratify, Agni expressed the desire to consume the forest of Khāṇḍava protected by Indra for the sake of Takṣaka, the chief of the "Nāga"s. Aided by Krishna and Arjuna, Agni consumes the "Khāṇḍava Forest", which burnt for fifteen days, sparing only Aswasena, Maya, and the four birds called "sarangakas"; later, as a boon Arjuna got all his weapons from Indra and also the bow, "Gāṇḍīva", from Varuṇa.


title: Agni

text: There is the story about King Shibi who was tested by Agni assuming the form of a pigeon and by Indra assuming the form of a hawk; Shibi offered his own flesh to the hawk in exchange of pigeon's life. The pigeon which had sought Shibi's shelter was thus saved by the king's sacrifice.


title: Agni

text: "Agniparīkṣā" or 'the Fire test' has Agni as the witness. In the Rāmāyaṇa, Sītā voluntarily goes through this ordeal to prove her virtue.


title: Agni

text: Agni is the eldest son of Brahma. In the Viṣṇu Purāṇa, Agni, called "Abhimāni" is said to have sprung from the mouth of the "Virāt Puruṣa", the Cosmic Man. In another version, Agni emerged from the ritual fire produced by the wife of Dharma (eternal law) named Vasubhāryā (literally, "daughter of Light").


title: Agni

text: According to the Puranic mythology, Agni married Svāhā (invocation offering) and fathered three sons – Pāvaka (purifier), Pāvamāna (purifying) and Śuchi (purity). From these sons, he has forty-five grandchildren which are symbolic names of different aspects of a fire. In some texts, Medhā (intelligence) is Agni's sister.


title: Agni

text: Goddess Svāhā is Agni's wife. Her name is pronounced with offerings such as butter and seeds poured into the fire during ceremonies. However, like many names in Hindu traditions, the name Svāhā embeds symbolic meanings, through its relationship with the Vedic word "Svadhā" found in the hymns of the ṚgVeda. Thomas Coburn states that the term "Svadhā" refers to "one's own particular nature or inclination", and the secondary sense of "a customary pleasure or enjoyment, a refreshment that nourishes". "Svāhā" is also found in the hymns of the Vedic literature, in the sense of "welcome, praise to you". This salutation is a remembrance of Agni, as an aspect of that which is "the source of all beings". As a goddess and wife of Agni, Svāhā represents this Shakti.


title: Agni

text: In the text "Devi Māhātmya" of the goddess tradition of Hinduism (Shaktism), and in the Hindu mythologies, Svāhā is the daughter of Daksha, Svāhā has a crush for Agni. She seduces him by successively impersonating six of seven women at a "gurukul" (school) that Agni desired for, and thus with him has a baby who grows to become god Skanda – the god of war. Other chapters suggest he was the son of the god Shiva.


title: Agni

text: The Mahābhārata also mentions that when Agni was residing at Mahishmati he fell in love with the daughter of king Nila. In the guise of a Brahmana, he asked for the hand of the princess, but the king refused and was about to punish him. Agni revealed his true form and flamed up in wrath. The frightened king apologized and bestowed his daughter on Agni. In return, Agni promised protection of the city during any invasion.


title: Agni

text: Agni is identified with same characteristics, equivalent personality or stated to be identical as many major and minor gods in different layers of the Vedic literature, including Vāyu, Soma, Rudra (Shiva), Varuṇa and Mitra. In hymn 2.1 of the "ṚgVeda", in successive verses, Agni is identified to be the same as twelve gods and five goddesses.


title: Agni

text: "Agni" (Sanskrit; Pali; "Aggi") appears in many Buddhist canonical texts, as both a god as well as a metaphor for the element of heart or fire. In Pali literature, he is also called "Aggi-Bhagavā", "Jātaveda", and "Vessānara."


title: Agni

text: The "Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta", presents a philosophical exchange between Buddha and a wandering ascetic named "Śreṇika Vatsagotra" (Sanskrit; Pali: Senika Vacchagotta). The conversation between Buddha and Śreṇika have remained a part of a debate that continues in modern Buddhism. It is called the Śreṇika heresy (Traditional Chinese: 先尼外道; Pinyin: Xiānní wàidào; Romaji: "Sennigedō" 先尼外道).


title: Agni

text: Śreṇika suggested that there is an eternal Self (Atman) that lives in a temporary physical body and is involved in rebirth. In the Buddhist traditions, the Buddha taught there is rebirth and Anātman, or that there is no eternal Self. The Pali texts state that Śreṇika disagreed and asked the Buddha many questions, which the Buddha refused to answer, calling his questions as indeterminate. The Buddha clarified that were he to answer Śreṇika's questions, it would "entangle" him. The Buddha explains the Dharma with Agni as a metaphor, stating that just like fire is extinguished and no longer exists after it is extinguished, in the same way all "skandha" that constitute a human being are extinguished after death. Different versions of this debate appear throughout scripture across traditions, such as the "Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta", and the "Mahāprajñāpāramitōpadeśa." In some versions, Śreṇika offers his own simile of Agni to further his views. Scholars such as Nagarjuna have extensively commented on the Śreṇika heresy.


title: Agni

text: In a manner similar to the Hindu texts, the Buddhist texts also treat Agni (referred to as the fire element "Tejas") as a fundamental material and building block of nature. For example, in section 11.31 of the "Visuddhimagga" as well as the Rūpakaṇḍa section of the "Dhammasangani", Agni and Tejas are credited as that which warms, ages, burns and digests food and life processes.


title: Agni

text: In Tibet, he is one of the fifty-one Buddhist deities found in the mandala of medicine Buddha. He appears in Tibetan Manjushri's mandalas as well, where he is depicted with Brahma and Indra. The Tibetan iconography for Agni strongly resembles that found in the Hindu tradition, with elements such as red-colored skin, a goat vehicle, conical hair and crown, a beard, and wielding a pot of water or fire in one hand, and rosary beads in the other. Such art will often include Buddhist themes such as the dharma wheel, white conch, golden fish, elephant, the endless knot.


title: Agni

text: In Theravada traditions, such as that found in Thailand, Agni is a minor deity. Agni is called "Phra Phloeng" (also spelled "Phra Plerng", literally, "holy flames"). He is commonly depicted with two faces, eight arms, red in color, wearing a headdress in the shape of a gourd, and emitting flames. Medieval era Thai literature describes him as a deity with seven tongues, a purple crown of smoke, and fiery complexion. He rides a horse chariot, a rhinoceros or a ram. Phra Phloeng's wife in these texts is stated to be "Subanee", "Garudee", or "Swaha". Some Thai texts state Nilanon to be their son.


title: Agni

text: In East Asian Buddhism, Agni is a dharmapāla and often classed as one of a group of twelve deities (Japanese: , 十二天) grouped together as directional guardians.


title: Agni

text: In Japan, he is called "Katen" (火天). He is included with the other eleven devas, which include Taishakuten (Śakra/Indra), Fūten (Vāyu), Emmaten (Yama), Rasetsuten (Nirṛti/Rākṣasa), Ishanaten (Īśāna), Bishamonten (Vaiśravaṇa/Kubera), Suiten (Varuṇa) Bonten (Brahmā), Jiten (Pṛthivī), Nitten (Sūrya/Āditya), and Gatten (Candra). While iconography varies, he is often depicted as an elderly mountain ascetic with two or three legs, and two or four arms.


title: Agni

text: The word Agni in Jainism refers to fire, but not in the sense of Vedic ideas. Agni appears in Jain thought, as a guardian deity and in its cosmology. He is one of the eight "dikpalas", or directional guardian deities in Jain temples, along with these seven: Indra, Yama, Nirrti, Varuna, Vayu, Kubera and Isana. They are typically standing, with their iconography is similar to those found in Hindu and Buddhist temple pantheon.


title: Agni

text: In ancient Jain thought, living beings have souls and exist in myriad of realms, and within the earth realm shared by human beings, there are two kinds of beings: mobile and immobile. The mobile beings – which includes tiny insects, birds, aquatic life, animals and human beings – have two or more senses, while the immobile beings have only a single sense ("ekenderiya"). Among the single sense beings are plant beings, air beings (whirlwind), earth beings (clay), water beings (dew drop) and fire beings (burning coal, meteor, lightning). The last class of beings are Agni-bodies, and these are believed to contain soul and fire-bodied beings. Ahimsa, or non-violence, is the highest precept in Jainism. In their spiritual pursuits, Jain monks go to great lengths to practice Ahimsa; they neither start Agni nor extinguish Agni because doing so is considered violent to "fire beings" and an act that creates harmful Karma.


title: Agni

text: "Agni-kumara" or "fire princes" are a part of Jain theory of rebirth and a class of reincarnated beings. Agni or Tejas are terms used to describe substances and concepts that create beings, and in which transmigrating soul gets bound according to Jainism theology.


title: Agni

text: Agni, as constitutive principle of fire or heat, was incorporated in Hindu texts of ancient medicine such as the "Charaka Samhita" and "Sushruta Samhita". It is, along with Soma, the two classification premises in the pre-4th century CE medical texts found in Hinduism and Buddhism. Agni-related category, states Dominik Wujastyk, included that of "hot, fiery, dry or parched" types, while Soma-related category included "moist, nourishing, soothing and cooling" types. This classification system was a basis of grouping medicinal herbs, seasons of the year, tastes and foods, empirical diagnosis of human illnesses, veterinary medicine, and many other aspects of health and lifestyle.


title: Agni

text: Agni was viewed as the life force in a healthy body, the power to digest foods, and innate in food. In Ayurveda, states Fleischman, "the amount of Agni determines the state of health".


title: Agni

text: Agni is an important entity in Ayurveda. Agni is the fiery metabolic energy of digestion, allows assimilation of food while ridding the body of waste and toxins, and transforms dense physical matter into subtle forms of energy the body needs. "Jathar-agni" determines the production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach, "Bhuta-agni" determines the production of bile in the liver, "Kloma-agni" determines the production of sugar-digesting pancreatic enzymes and so forth. The nature and quality of these "agnis" depend on one's "dosha" which can be – "vata", "pitta" or "kapha".


title: Agni

text: Agni is also known as "Vaisvanara". Just as the illuminating power in the fire is a part of Agni's own effulgence, even so the heating power in the foods digestive and appetizing power is also a part of Agni's energy or potency.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: The Yakovlev Yak-130 (NATO reporting name: Mitten) is a subsonic two-seat advanced jet trainer and light combat aircraft originally developed by Yakovlev and Aermacchi as the "Yak/AEM-130". It has also been marketed as a potential light attack aircraft. Development of the aircraft began in 1991 and the maiden flight was conducted on 25 April 1996. In 2002, it won a Russian government tender for training aircraft and in 2010 the aircraft entered service with the Russian Air Force. As an advanced training aircraft, the Yak-130 is able to replicate the characteristics of several 4+ generation fighters as well as the fifth-generation Sukhoi Su-57. It can also perform light-attack and reconnaissance duties, carrying a combat load of .


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: In the early 1990s, the Soviet government asked the industry to develop a new aircraft to replace the Czech-made Aero L-29 Delfín and Aero L-39 Albatros jet trainers. Five design bureaus put forward proposals. Among them were the Sukhoi S-54, Myasishchev M-200, Mikoyan MiG-AT, and Yakovlev Yak-UTS. In 1991, the other proposals were dropped and only the MiG-AT and Yak-UTS remained. The air forces of the newly independent Russia estimated that its requirement would be about 1,000 aircraft.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: Development of Yak-UTS started in 1991 and the design was completed in September 1993. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, however, Yakovlev was compelled to look for a foreign partner. After having entered discussions in 1992, in 1993 it agreed with the Italian company Aermacchi to jointly develop the plane, which now became Yak/AEM-130; Aermacchi would be responsible for the project's financial and technical support. The first prototype, dubbed Yak-130D, was built by Sokol at Nizhny Novgorod, Russia, and was publicly unveiled in June 1995. The aircraft made its first flight on 25 April 1996 from Zhukovsky Airport at the hands of Yakovlev chief test pilot Andrey Sinitsyn.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: In 2000, differences in priorities between the two firms had brought about an end to the partnership, with each developing the aircraft independently. The Italian version was named M-346; Yakovlev received US$77 million for technical documents of the aircraft. Yakovlev would be able to sell the aircraft to countries such those in the Commonwealth of Independent States, India, Slovakia and Algeria. Aermacchi would be able to sell to NATO countries, among others.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: In March 2002, Commander-in-Chief Vladimir Mikhailov said that the Yak-130 and the MiG-AT had been chosen as the Russian Air Force's new trainers. The Yak-130, however, was said to be superior as it could serve the dual role of a trainer and combat jet. On 10 April 2002, it was announced that Yak-130 had been chosen as the winner of the tender for trainer aircraft for basic and advanced pilot training, beating the MiG-AT. By then, the Russian Air Force had ordered 10 Yak-130s, and the total cost of research and development, which included the construction and testing of the four pre-production aircraft, had amounted to some $200 million, 84% of which was financed by Yakovlev and the rest by the Russian government. However, it was reported that as much as $500 million had been spent in as early as 1996.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: Plans to develop a light-attack aircraft based on the Yak-130 came to a halt in the late 2011. Dubbed Yak-131, the aircraft failed to meet critical pilot safety requirements put forward by the Russian Air Force. The air force had instead shifted focus to a replacement based on the Sukhoi Su-25, which was slated to enter service by 2020.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: Yak-130 is an advanced pilot training aircraft, able to replicate characteristics of Russian 4th and 5th generation fighters. This is possible through the use of open architecture digital avionics compliant with a 1553 Databus, a full digital glass cockpit, four-channel digital Fly-By-Wire System (FBWS) and Instructor controlled and variable FBWS handling characteristics and embedded simulation. The type also has a Head-up display (HUD) and a Helmet-Mounted-Sighting-System (HMSS), with a double GPS/GLONASS receiver updating an Inertial Reference System (IRS) for highly accurate navigation and precision targeting. The developer estimates that the plane can cover up to 80% of the entire pilot flight training program.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: In addition to its training role, the aircraft is capable of fulfilling Light Attack and Reconnaissance duties. It can carry a combat load of , consisting of various guided and un-guided weapons, auxiliary fuel tanks and electronic pods. According to its chief designer Konstantin Popovich, during a testing phase that ended in December 2009, the plane was tested with "all airborne weapons with a weight of up to 500 kg that are in service in the Russian Air Force". Yak-130 has nine hard points: two wingtip, six under-wing and one under-fuselage.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: The aircraft's twin engines are mounted under extended wing roots, which reach as far forward as the windscreen. Two Ivchenko Progress AI-222-25 Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) produce a combined total of 49 kilonewtons (11,000 pound-force) of thrust. An upgraded, "-28" engine is also on offer, increasing the thrust to . At a normal Take-Off Weight of , a Thrust-to-Weight ratio of 0.70 is achieved with the "-25", or 0.77 with the "-28" engines. This compares with 0.65 for the BAE Systems Hawk 128 and 0.49 for the Aero Vodochody L-159B.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: Maximum internal fuel capacity is . With two external combat fuel tanks the figure increases to . Maximum true airspeed is Mach 0.93 (572 knots), service ceiling is 12,500 metres (41,000 feet) and load factors are from −3 to +9 g. Typical Take-Off speed and distance in a "clean" configuration are and 550 m (1,800 ft), whilst landing figures are and , respectively. Cross wind limit is .


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: The Yakovlev Yak-130 is equipped with the FBWS controlled engine intake blanking doors, in order to prevent the aircraft's engines from sustaining Foreign object damage when operating from unpaved runways and grass strips.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: Combat training suite on the Yak-130 includes simulated and real firing systems with air-to-air and air-to-surface missiles, bomb dropping, gun firing and on-board self-protection systems.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: In 2005, the Russian Air Force passed its first order for 12 Yak-130s. The Russian Air Force intends to buy at least 72 Yak-130s, enough to equip four training regiments. Its Commander-in-Chief, Colonel General Aleksandr Zelin, announced on 8 November 2011 that the Russian Defence Ministry was to sign a contract within two weeks with Irkut Corporation for 65 additional aircraft – 55 firm orders plus 10 options. Zelin stated that deliveries were expected to be completed by 2017.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: The first serial aircraft was handed to a training center in Lipetsk on 19 February 2010. Once the 2005 contract for 12 Sokol plant-made Yak-130s for the Russian Defence Ministry was fulfilled in June 2011, a decision was made that all subsequent Yak-130 orders, both domestic and export ones, would be handled by the Irkutsk Aviation Plant of the Irkut Corporation. However, the Russian Air Force only took delivery of the first Yak-130 built by the Irkutsk plant in October 2012.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: In February 2014 Irkut Corporation revealed a contract with the Russian Ministry of Defense (MoD) to supply additional Yakovlev Yak-130 advanced jet trainers to the air force. According to Irkut president Oleg Demchenko, the company in December signed a contract with the Defense Ministry on the delivery of 12 Yak-130s to form a new aerobatics team. At the same time, a second contract for 10 more aircraft for the Russian Naval Aviation was signed.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: Algeria was the first export customer for the Yak-130, ordering 16 aircraft in March 2006. Their delivery started only a few months after the arrival of the first Yak-130s in the Russian Air Force, in 2011, and the order was completed the next year.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: In January 2014, Bangladesh ordered 24 Yak-130s. The aircraft are bought with an extended loan from Russia. Later the order has been reduced to 16 aircraft. The first batch of 6 aircraft was delivered on 20 September 2015. The second batch of five aircraft was delivered on 29 December 2015, while the next five were delivered by the first quarter of 2016.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: In December 2012, the Government of Belarus signed an agreement with Russia to provide four Yak-130s to Belarus by April 2015. Another order for four aircraft was passed in August 2015, and these were delivered in November 2016. A further four aircraft were delivered in 2019, bringing the total up to 12 aircraft. All were delivered to the 206th Flight Training Centre.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: Myanmar ordered six Yak-130s in June 2015. All six aircraft were delivered in December 2017. Six additional aircraft were ordered later. Following the 2021 coup, Myanmar received a further six jets which were revealed at the 74th anniversary ceremony of Myanmar’s Air Force.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: In April 2012, Irkut Corporation president Alexey Fedorov claimed that there were "more than ten potential customers".


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: In 2021 Russia offered the Argentine Air Force a batch of 15 MiG-29 fighters and another batch of 12 Su-30 fighters and seeks also the sale of Yak-130 training jet and Mil Mi-17 helicopters.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: Two rounds of negotiations with Russia regarding a potential order for Yak-130s took place in 2010 and 2012 respectively. No firm orders came out of it, but the Yak-130 may be bought to replace Kazakhstan's current Aero L-39C trainers, when they will run out of service life.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: In November 2012, Sergey Kornev, a representative of Rosoboronexport (Russia's state intermediary agency for exports/imports of defense-related products), said Malaysia and several other countries were also interested in the Yak-130. He was speaking at the China Airshow at Zhuhai.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: The Uruguayan Air Force is considering the aircraft for the future replacement of the A-37 with presumably used examples of the F-5 Freedom Fighter as another possible candidate.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: Libya put an order for six planes. Deliveries were expected in 2011–2012, but the Libyan National Transitional Council cancelled the order for Yak-130s in September 2011 as part of a review of all existing arms contracts.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: Syria has agreed to purchase 36 aircraft, but delivery of these has been postponed by Russia due to the conflict in Syria. In May 2014 Russia announced that it would supply Syria with Yakovlev Yak-130s. Syria was expected to receive nine aircraft by the end of 2014, 12 in 2015 and 15 in 2016, for a total of 36 airplanes. However, as of 2019, no deliveries had taken place.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: The first prototype, designated Yak-130D and registered as RA-43130, made its maiden flight on 25 April 1996 at Zhukovsky.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: On 30 April 2004, the first pre-series Yak-130, assembled at the Sokol plant in Nizhny Novgorod, performed its maiden flight. The plane was put on display for the first time at the Paris Air Show in June 2005. It was followed by three more pre-series aircraft.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: In December 2009, the aircraft completed state trials and was accepted for service in the Russian Air Force.


title: Yakovlev Yak-130

text: The Yak-130 has been used in combat in the internal conflict in Myanmar, at least since 2020. Its use has been criticised after verifiable evidence of military air strikes against civilians emerged online.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Randolph Mantooth (born Randy DeRoy Mantooth, September 19, 1945) is an American actor who has worked in television, documentaries, theater, and film for more than 40 years. A graduate of the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, he was discovered in New York by a Universal Studios talent agent while performing the lead in the play "Philadelphia, Here I Come". After signing with Universal and moving to California, he slowly built up his resume with work on such dramatic series as "Adam-12" (1968), "Marcus Welby, M.D." (1969), "McCloud" (1970) and "Alias Smith and Jones" (1971).


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: He portrayed paramedic John Gage in the 1970s medical drama, "Emergency!". Randolph Mantooth has spoken regularly at Firefighter and EMS conferences and symposia across the United States while maintaining an active acting career. He is a spokesperson for both the International Association of Firefighters [IAFF] and the International Association of Fire Chiefs [IAFC] for firefighter health and safety, and honored over the years with numerous awards and recognition.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Mantooth has appeared in numerous films and television series in lead and supportive roles including miniseries adaptations of "Testimony of Two Men" (1977) and a starring role as Abraham Kent in "The Seekers" (1979). Through the 1990s and 2000s, he appeared in daytime soap operas, earning him four Soap Opera Digest Award nominations. He frequently returns to performing in theatrical productions. He serves as an associate artist at Jeff Daniels' Purple Rose Theatre. His performances includes Mark Kaufman's "Evil Little Thoughts", "Black Elk Speaks", Carey Crim's "Morning after Grace", Lanford Wilson's "Rain Dance", and innumerable works by Native American playwrights including William S. Yellow Robe, Jr.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Mantooth, the oldest of four children, was born as Randy DeRoy Mantooth in Sacramento, California, in 1945, to Sadie (née Neddenreip) and Donald "Buck" Mantooth. He is of Seminole, Cherokee, Potawatomi, Scottish, and German descent. His siblings are Don, Nancy and Tonya.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Mantooth attended San Marcos High School and participated in school plays. Following his studies at Santa Barbara City College, he received a scholarship to the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York. It was there that he chose to change his first name from "Randy" to stage name "Randolph", keeping his last name.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: His performance as "Gar" in the play "Philadelphia, Here I Come" earned him the Charles Jehlenger Award for Best Actor, an honor he shared with fellow actor Brad Davis.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Mantooth's earlier jobs included work as an elevator operator at the Madison Avenue Baptist Church and as a page at NBC Studios at Rockefeller Center in New York City. His very first paying job in life was as a newspaper boy for the local paper, the "Coatesville Record", in Coatesville, Pennsylvania.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: On April 2, 2013, Mantooth's mother, Sadie Mantooth, died at age 90 at Cottage Hospital in Santa Barbara, California. The Los Angeles County Fire Museum received a special donation from him dedicated to the memory of his mother.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: In 2015, he revealed that he was diagnosed with cancer earlier that year and had completed treatment, heading towards a recovery.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Mantooth was discovered in New York City by Universal Studios' talent agent Eleanor Kilgallen (sister of Dorothy Kilgallen) while playing the lead in the play "Philadelphia, Here I Come". After signing with Universal and moving back to California, he slowly built up his resume with work on such dramatic series as "Adam-12" (1968), "Marcus Welby, M.D." (1969), "McCloud" (1970) and "Alias Smith and Jones" (1971).


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: This led to television stardom on the popular "Emergency!" series in 1972 which aired on NBC for six seasons. He earned further roles in two series. Mantooth portrayed Lt. Mike Bender on "Operation Petticoat" (1977) and as Eddie Dawkins on "Detective School" (1979). He was featured as a guest performer on episodic television. He appeared on several programs including "Sierra", "Cos", "The Love Boat", "Battlestar Galactica" and "Vega$".


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Producer Robert A. Cinader saw Randolph Mantooth in a small role on "The Bold Ones" opposite Hal Holbrook that led to his decision to cast him as paramedic John Gage on "Emergency!" Randolph Mantooth and Kevin Tighe were part of a paramedic team assigned to Squad 51 of the Los Angeles County Fire Department. Responding to accidents or dangerous rescues in an "emergency room on wheels" with directions via biophone from medical personnel back at the hospital, the paramedics performed Advanced Life Support (ALS) techniques to stabilize injured, ill, and dying patients before transporting them to a medical facility.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: To train for their parts, the actors, Randolph Mantooth along with Kevin Tighe, "...sat in on paramedic classes" (although they never took any written exams) "and rode out on extensive ride-a-longs with LACoFD". In an interview with Tom Blixa of WTVN, Mantooth said that the producer wanted them to train so that they would at least know the fundamentals and look like they knew what they were doing on camera. Mantooth mentioned that unless you take the written course you are not a paramedic and that "if anyone has a heart attack, I'll call 911 with the best of them". According to authors Richard Yokley and Roxane Sutherland who wrote the book, "Emergency! Behind the Scenes", the show "Emergency!" is an important chapter in television history.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: At the time of the series' world premiere in 1972, there were only 12 paramedical units in North America located in four municipalities. Ten years later, more than half of all Americans were within ten minutes of a paramedic rescue or ambulance unit, due to the influence of the show. The program introduced audiences from all over the world to the concept of pre-hospital care, along with fire prevention and CPR.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: The show ran six seasons (129 episodes) with seven two-hour television movie specials including the pilot film ("The Wedsworth-Townsend Act"). with a national audience that averaged 30 million viewers each week. Mantooth directed two episodes of "Emergency!"; "The Nuisance" (1976) and "Insanity Epidemic" (1977), and also directed the television movie "Greatest Rescues of Emergency" (1978). Mantooth and Tighe did many of their own stunts in the early years with the rule of thumb, "if you could see our faces, it was us doing the stunts; if you couldn't, it was our stunt doubles." He was offered an opportunity after "Emergency!" went off the air to be an actual firefighter, but decided to continue with acting.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Nearly 30 years after "Emergency!" debuted, the Smithsonian Institution accepted "Emergency!" memorabilia into its American History Museum in the public service division and not entertainment on May 16, 2000. Items inducted at the Smithsonian included their uniforms, scripts, helmets, turnouts, biophone, and defibrillator.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: In conjunction to the induction of the equipment from "Emergency!" at the Smithsonian, Project 51 was created in an effort to raise funds for a children's burn charity, and exhibit the restored squad around the country. Mantooth, along with Marco Lopez, Tim Donnelly, Ron Pinkard and Mike Stoker embarked on a 10-city tour with the squad to raise funds for charity on their way to Washington, D.C. with their final destination being the Smithsonian. Project 51 folded after the equipment was inducted into the Smithsonian and the funds were distributed to burn centers, fire education projects, and museums.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: In 2012, Mantooth and Tighe were presented with the traditional white leather cairns helmets by the Los Angeles County Fire Department as Honorary Fire Chiefs of the department. The honor was bestowed on the men for their contributions to the fire service and emergency medicine through educating and inspiring kids and adults to be firefighters, EMTs, or paramedics. The series contributed to the revolution in emergency medicine and mobile health across the country.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: The series was placed into syndication in 1977 as "Emergency! One" to some local stations in the late 1970s. It was called "Emergency! One" because the show was still filming new episodes in the United States. After the show ended, the name reverted to "Emergency!" The show was sold overseas and aired in a number of countries, including Germany where it was renamed "Notruf California", in addition to being dubbed in Spanish in the United States.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: In the late 1990s and 2000s, "Emergency!" began airing on cable and digital sub-channels networks that included TV Land, RTV, MeTV, and Cozi TV. "Emergency!" spun off an animated version called "Emergency +4" aired on NBC Saturday mornings from 1973 to 1976, with Mantooth and Kevin Tighe voicing the animated characters of John Gage and Roy DeSoto. "Starship Rescue" aired in 1973 to promote NBC's fall lineup of Saturday morning programs focusing on "Emergency!" and "" and it was hosted by Mantooth and Tighe. Tighe and Mantooth also presented the work of firefighters and paramedics from the Los Angeles County Fire Department on the NBC Saturday morning children's series "Go!".


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Mantooth's and Tighe's likeness were used for games, puzzles, lunch boxes, action figures, and comic books connected to the series. The comic books for Emergency focused on the primary actors from Rampart Hospital, along with Johnny and Roy. The four comic books, and four magazines, were issued by Charlton Comics in 1976. Some of the issues were drawn by John Byrne and Neal Adams. "Emergency! +4" and "Emergency!" both had coloring books that were created to promote the series to young viewers using the likenesses of the five principal characters. Viewmaster released a series of reels that had film stills of the show arranged in a story or photo montage.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Mantooth and Kevin Tighe's characters John Gage and Roy DeSoto appeared on another Robert A. Cinader created series, "Sierra". The series focused on National Park Service Rangers stationed in the Sierras. Mantooth and Tighe appeared in the episode, "Urban Rangers". Mantooth's character appeared on a crossover episode of "Adam-12" called "Lost and Found".


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: The on-screen camaraderie between Mantooth and Tighe, as well as their friendship with both London and Troup, carried over to real life as well. Before London's and Troup's deaths, all four remained close friends after the series came to a close, and Tighe served as best man at Mantooth's second wedding in 2002.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: While talking with Tom Blixa of WTVN, Mantooth said that at first it was a little intimidating working with Robert Fuller, Bobby Troup and Julie London, because they were all big stars but after doing a series with them for seven years they all became like family. In the same interview while discussing happenings behind the scenes and blooper reels, Mantooth said there was "a lot of salty language though"..."and we learned every bad word from Julie London"...”I love her to death but she herself said 'I'm a broad'". In a 2013 interview with "The Tolucan Times", Mantooth said of his decades-long colleague, "Julie London was a mentor to all of us. She let the words work for her, rather than emoting; that’s all anybody needed."


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: In addition to Mantooth working as an actor for over forty years, he has remained an advocate of firefighters, paramedics, EMTs, and other emergency medical services providers. He does speeches and personal appearances each year at events across the country, discussing the "inside story of the development of the television series "Emergency!" and its impact on the EMS system development". Having worked closely with the nation's first certified firefighter/paramedics, who served as technical advisors on the set of "Emergency!". Mantooth brings a perspective and insight into the startup and history of pre-hospital treatment in the field. He worked alongside influential men who made a difference ... men he greatly admired ... the late Robert A. Cinader, creator and executive producer of "Emergency!", and the man known as the Father of Modern Emergency Medical Services, close friend and mentor, the late James O. Page. According to A.J. Heightman, Editor-in-Chief, Journal of Emergency Medical Services (JEMS), "Randy Mantooth is one of the strongest reminders of how America turned the dedicated delivery of basic emergency care into a systematic approach to EMS and Advanced Life Support".


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Mantooth's dedication to promoting and advocating for the fire service and EMS is shown through personal reasons, "I owe an incredible debt to firefighters, EMTs, and paramedics... so that's a debt that no one can really payback, but you can try. That's why it's so important for me to do what I do." Mantooth references his own life being saved from carbon monoxide poisoning at home during the run of "Emergency!", in addition to paramedics and a flight nurse saving his sister's life after she was involved in a car accident.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: He serves as a spokesperson for the International Association of Firefighters (IAFF) on Health and Safety. He has been honored over the years with numerous awards and recognition, most recently the James O. Page Award of Excellence from the International Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC), EMS section. He is a lifetime member of the National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians (NAEMT) and a lifetime member of the Washington D.C.-based Advocates for EMS. He "accepts the accolades with gracious deference to those he considers our true heroes". Mantooth serves as honorary chairman and spokesperson for the non-profit County of Los Angeles Fire Museum Association.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Mantooth's work as an advocate for firefighters and EMT also extended to the Native peoples. In May 2012, he filmed an Emergency Preparedness video to be distributed to tribal leaders with Monte Fronk in Minnesota at the Mille Lacs Ojibwe Reservation. The project was funded through a public health education grant through the University of Minnesota. Mantooth served as a moderator recently in a project done in conjunction with the Los Angeles County Fire Museum, "Pioneers of Paramedicine", and is an effort to document and record the history of the paramedicine program. Originally filmed in 2001, with additional scenes filmed in 2013, this features discussions with four doctors: Eugene Nagel, M.D. from Miami; Leonard Cobb, M.D., Seattle; J. Michael Criley, M.D., Los Angeles; and Walter Graf, M.D., in Los Angeles. These doctors pioneered the idea of mobile medicine and paramedics based on early ideas in Northern Ireland and Russia.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Mantooth appeared in the miniseries adaptations of Taylor Caldwell's 1968 novel "Testimony of Two Men" (1977) and John Jakes' novel "The Seekers" (1979–80). The adaptation of "The Seekers" featured Mantooth in the starring role as Abraham Kent.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Through the 1980s, Mantooth made guest-star appearances on a number of televisions series including "Charlie's Angels", "Fantasy Island", three appearances on "The Fall Guy", "Dallas", "Murder, She Wrote" and "L.A. Law".


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: He moved back to New York where he explored a new direction in his career with daytime soap operas, earning him four Soap Opera Digest Award nominations. He played Clay Alden on "Loving" from 1987–1990. It was during this time, that the character, Clay Alden, was actually Alex Masters. Mantooth described the character as a "good guy with an edge."


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Mantooth left "Loving" for personal reasons in 1990, before returning to the show in 1993, this time in the role of Alex Masters. The series was later revamped and titled "The City", lasting for two more years before folding in 1997. His character, Alex Masters, did several crossover episodes on "One Life to Live" in 1997.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: He appeared on "General Hospital", "One Life to Live" and "As the World Turns", where he played both good guys and villains. In 2003, Mantooth joined the cast of "As the World Turns" as a temporary replacement for Benjamin Hendrickson in the role of Hal Munson. When Hendrickson left the series in 2004, Mantooth returned to the series as Munson, in a recurring position until Hendrickson returned to the program in 2005. In 2007, Mantooth landed the recurring role of Kirk Harmon on "One Life to Live".


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Besides his work on daytime in the 1990s, Mantooth starred in television movies such as "White Cobra Express" and portrayed Bing Tupper in both the movie "Before the Storm" and the series "Under Cover". He starred in a "CBS Schoolbreak Special" as Mr. Leland in "Please, God, I'm Only Seventeen". In 1999, he played Solonsky in the feature film "Enemy Action". Mantooth also made guest appearances on series such as "China Beach", "MacGyver", "Baywatch", "", "JAG", "Promised Land" and "Walker, Texas Ranger" during the 1990s.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: In 2000, Mantooth played Ken Crandall in the television movie "Bitter Suite" (original title "Time Share"), and in 2007, he played Dutch Fallon in the television movie "Fire Serpent". Feature film roles include Admiral Edwards in "Agent Red" (2000), Dr. Willis in "He Was a Quiet Man" (2007), Ambassador Cartwright in "Scream of the Bikini" (2009), Richard Cranehill in "Bold Native" (2010), and Detective Bodrogi in "Killer Holiday" (2013). Mantooth also starred on series such as "ER", "Criminal Minds", "Ghost Whisperer", and most recently as Charlie Horse in "Sons of Anarchy" in 2011. Mantooth is marketing a screenplay that focuses on Indian gambling, called "The Bone Game".


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Since 2012, the actor has represented the Seminole Nation on the "American Indian Advisory Board" at the San Diego International Film Festival. His sister Tonya is the CEO and artistic director of the Festival.


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Mantooth has frequently returned to his theatre roots in such productions as "Arsenic and Old Lace" at the Alhambra Dinner Theatre in 1983, and "The Man With The Dirty Mind" with Don Knotts and Rue McClanahan. In 1984, Mantooth worked with David Carradine and Will Sampson, along with other Native actors, in a production of "Black Elk Speaks" for the American Indian Theatre Company in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Mantooth continued to do theatre with roles in a variety of plays including Edith Villareal's "Crazy from the Heart" at the Yale Repertory Theatre in 1986, and Mark Kaufman's "Evil Little Thoughts" at the Denver Center Theatre in 1991, Mantooth, along with James Van Der Beek performed Lanford Wilson's "Rain Dance" off-Broadway at the Signature Theatre. Mantooth has also performed in three works written by William S. Yellow Robe, Jr.: "The Pendleton Blanket", "Wink-Dah" and "The Independence of Eddie Rose".


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Mantooth performed with Donne Coteau in "Footprints in Blood" for the American Indian Theatre Company (AITCO) at the Old Lady of Brady Theatre in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Mantooth portrayed Dr. Charles Western in Gary Leon Hill's "Back to the Blankets" at the Denver Center Theatre in 1991. Mantooth performed in two additional plays: "The Paper Crown" and "The Inuit".


title: Randolph Mantooth

text: Mantooth is an Associate Artist of The Purple Rose Theatre Company in Chelsea, Michigan, founded by Jeff Daniels, since 2003. Mantooth completed a three-month run of Tracy Letts' "Superior Donuts" in 2012 at the theater. Mantooth performed in Carey Crim's "Morning after Grace" at the Purple Rose Theatre in the Fall 2016.


title: Liposuction

text: Liposuction, or simply lipo, is a type of fat-removal procedure used in plastic surgery. Evidence does not support an effect on weight beyond a couple of months and does not appear to affect obesity-related problems. In the United States, liposuction is the most common cosmetic surgery.


title: Liposuction

text: The procedure may be performed under general, regional, or local anesthesia. It involves using a cannula and negative pressure to suck out fat. As a cosmetic procedure it is believed to work best on people with a normal weight and good skin elasticity.


title: Liposuction

text: While the suctioned fat cells are permanently gone, after a few months overall body fat generally returns to the same level as before treatment. This is despite maintaining the previous diet and exercise regimen. While the fat returns somewhat to the treated area, most of the increased fat occurs in the abdominal area. Visceral fat—the fat surrounding the internal organs—increases, and this condition has been linked to life-shortening diseases such as diabetes, stroke, and heart attack.


title: Liposuction

text: There are two different uses for liposuction: cosmetic liposuction to change the body's contour or shape and reconstructive, medically necessary liposuction. Reconstructive uses include treatment of lipedema, to remove excess fat in the chronic medical condition lymphedema, and to remove lipomas from areas of the body.


title: Liposuction

text: Cosmetic liposuction should not be used as a weight-loss plan but to aesthetically improve the appearance of body parts and contour. Benefits from cosmetic liposuction appears to be of a short-term nature with little long-term effect. After a few months fat typically returns and redistributes. Liposuction does not help obesity-related metabolic disorders like insulin resistance.