title: Hunting

text: Varmint hunting is an American phrase for the selective killing of non-game animals seen as pests. While not always an efficient form of pest control, varmint hunting achieves selective control of pests while providing recreation and is much less regulated. Varmint species are often responsible for detrimental effects on crops, livestock, landscaping, infrastructure, and pets. Some animals, such as wild rabbits or squirrels, may be utilised for fur or meat, but often no use is made of the carcass. Which species are varmints depends on the circumstance and area. Common varmints may include various rodents, coyotes, crows, foxes, feral cats, and feral hogs. Some animals once considered varmints are now protected, such as wolves. In the US state of Louisiana, a non-native rodent, the coypu, has become so destructive to the local ecosystem that the state has initiated a bounty program to help control the population. Beavers from North America constitute an invasive species in Tierra del Fuego, where eradication attempts are ongoing.


title: Hunting

text: The principles of the fair chase have been a part of the American hunting tradition for over one hundred years. The role of the hunter-conservationist, popularised by Theodore Roosevelt, and perpetuated by Roosevelt's formation of the Boone and Crockett Club, has been central to the development of the modern fair chase tradition. "Beyond Fair Chase: The Ethic and Tradition of Hunting", a book by Jim Posewitz, describes fair chase:


title: Hunting

text: "Fundamental to ethical hunting is the idea of fair chase. This concept addresses the balance between the hunter and the hunted. It is a balance that allows hunters to occasionally succeed while animals generally avoid being taken."


title: Hunting

text: When Internet hunting was introduced in 2005, allowing people to hunt over the Internet using remotely controlled guns, the practice was widely criticised by hunters as violating the principles of fair chase. As a representative of the National Rifle Association of America (NRA) explained, "The NRA has always maintained that fair chase, being in the field with your firearm or bow, is an important element of hunting tradition. Sitting at your desk in front of your computer, clicking at a mouse, has nothing to do with hunting."


title: Hunting

text: One hunting club declares that a fair chase shall not involve the taking of animals under the following conditions:


title: Hunting

text: Animals such as blackbuck, nilgai, axis deer, fallow deer, zebras, barasingha, gazelle and many other exotic game species can now be found on game farm and ranches in Texas, where they were introduced for sport hunting. These hunters can be found paying in excess of $10,000 dollars to take trophy animals on these controlled ranches.


title: Hunting

text: The Russian imperial hunts evolved from hunting traditions of early Russian rulers—Grand Princes and Tsars—under the influence of hunting customs of European royal courts. The imperial hunts were organised mainly in Peterhof, Tsarskoye Selo, and Gatchina.


title: Hunting

text: Hunting in Australia has evolved around the hunting and eradication of various animals considered to be pests or invasive species . All native animals are protected by law, and certain species such as kangaroos and ducks can be hunted by licensed shooters but only under a special permit on public lands during open seasons. The introduced species that are targeted include European rabbits, red foxes, deers (sambar, hog, red, fallow, chital and rusa), feral cats, pigs, goats, brumbies, donkeys and occasionally camels, as well as introduced upland birds such as quails, pheasants and partridges.


title: Hunting

text: New Zealand has a strong hunting culture. When humans arrived, the only mammals present on the islands making up New Zealand were bats, although seals and other marine mammals were present along the coasts. However, when humans arrived they brought other species with them. Polynesian voyagers introduced kuri (dogs), kiore (Polynesian rats), as well as a range of plant species. European explorers further added to New Zealand's biota, particularly pigs which were introduced by either Captain Cook or the French explorer De Surville in the 1700s. During the nineteenth century, as European colonisation took place, acclimatisation societies were established. The societies introduced a large number of species with no use other than as prey for hunting. Species that adapted well to the New Zealand terrain include deer, pigs, goats, hare, tahr and chamois. With wilderness areas, suitable forage, and no natural predators, their populations exploded. Government agencies view the animals as pests due to their effects on the natural environment and on agricultural production, but hunters view them as a resource.


title: Hunting

text: Iranian tradition regarded hunting as an essential part of a prince's education, and hunting was well recorded for the education of the upper-class youths during pre-Islamic Persia. As of October 2020, a hunting licence costs $20,000. The Department of Environment although do not report the number of permits issued.


title: Hunting

text: The numbers of licensed hunters in Japan, including those using snares and guns, is generally decreasing, while their average age is increasing. , there were approximately 190,000 registered hunters, approximately 65% of whom were sixty years old or older.


title: Hunting

text: There is a very active tradition of hunting small to medium-sized wild game in Trinidad and Tobago. Hunting is carried out with firearms, slingshots and cage traps, and sometimes aided by the use of hounds. The illegal use of trap guns and snare nets also occurs. With approximately 12,000 to 13,000 hunters applying for and being granted hunting permits in recent years, there is some concern that the practice might not be sustainable. In addition there are at present no bag limits and the open season is comparatively very long (5 months – October to February inclusive). As such hunting pressure from legal hunters is very high. Added to that, there is a thriving and very lucrative black market for poached wild game (sold and enthusiastically purchased as expensive luxury delicacies) and the numbers of commercial poachers in operation is unknown but presumed to be fairly high. As a result, the populations of the five major mammalian game species (red-rumped agouti, lowland paca, nine-banded armadillo, collared peccary and red brocket deer) are thought to be relatively low when compared to less-hunted regions in nearby mainland South America (although scientifically conducted population studies are only just recently being conducted ). It appears that the red brocket deer population has been extirpated in Tobago as a result of over-hunting. By some time in the mid 20th century another extirpation due to over-hunting occurred in Trinidad with its population of horned screamer (a large game bird). Various herons, ducks, doves, the green iguana, the cryptic golden tegu, the spectacled caiman, the common opossum and the capybara are also commonly hunted and poached. There is also some poaching of 'fully protected species', including red howler monkey and capuchin monkeys, southern tamandua, Brazilian porcupine, yellow-footed tortoise, the critically endangered island endemic Trinidad piping guan and even one of the national birds, the scarlet ibis. Legal hunters pay relatively small fees to obtain hunting licences and undergo no official basic conservation biology or hunting-ethics/fair chase training, and are not assessed regarding their knowledge and comprehension of the local wildlife conservation laws. There is presumed to be relatively little subsistence hunting in the country (with most hunting for either sport or commercial profit). The local wildlife management authorities are under-staffed and under-funded, and as such little in the way of enforcement is done to uphold existing wildlife management laws, with hunting/poaching occurring both in and out of season and even in wildlife sanctuaries. There is some indication that the government is beginning to take the issue of wildlife management more seriously, with well drafted legislation being brought before Parliament in 2015. It remains to be seen if the drafted legislation will be fully adopted and financially supported by the current and future governments, and if the general populace will move towards a greater awareness of the importance of wildlife conservation and change the culture of wanton consumption to one of sustainable management.


title: Hunting

text: Hunting is claimed to give resource managers an important tool in managing populations that might exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat and threaten the well-being of other species, or, in some instances, damage human health or safety.


title: Hunting

text: In some cases, hunting actually can increase the population of predators such as coyotes by removing territorial bounds that would otherwise be established, resulting in excess neighbouring migrations into an area, thus artificially increasing the population. Hunting advocates assert that hunting reduces intraspecific competition for food and shelter, reducing mortality among the remaining animals. Some environmentalists assert that (re)introducing predators would achieve the same end with greater efficiency and less negative effect, such as introducing significant amounts of free lead into the environment and food chain.


title: Hunting

text: In the United States, wildlife managers are frequently part of hunting regulatory and licensing bodies, where they help to set rules on the number, manner and conditions in which game may be hunted.


title: Hunting

text: Management agencies sometimes rely on hunting to control specific animal populations, as has been the case with deer in North America. These hunts may sometimes be carried out by professional shooters, although others may include amateur hunters. Many US city and local governments hire professional and amateur hunters each year to reduce populations of animals such as deer that are becoming hazardous in a restricted area, such as neighbourhood parks and metropolitan open spaces.


title: Hunting

text: A large part of managing populations involves managing the number and, sometimes, the size or age of animals harvested so as to ensure the sustainability of the population. Tools that are frequently used to control harvest are bag limits and season closures, although gear restrictions such as archery-only seasons are becoming increasingly popular in an effort to reduce hunter success rates in countries that rely on bag limits per hunter instead of per area.


title: Hunting

text: Illegal hunting and harvesting of wild species contrary to local and international conservation and wildlife management laws is called poaching. Game preservation is one of the tactics used to prevent poaching. Violations of hunting laws and regulations involving poaching are normally punishable by law. Punishment can include confiscation of equipment, fines or a prison sentence.


title: Hunting

text: The right to hunt—sometimes in combination with the right to fish—is protected implicitly, as a consequence of the right of ownership, or explicitly, as a right on its own, in a number of jurisdictions. For instance, as of 2019, a total of 22 U.S. states explicitly recognize a subjective right to hunt in their constitutions.


title: Hunting

text: Bag limits are provisions under the law that control how many animals of a given species or group of species can be killed, although there are often species for which bag limits do not apply. There are also jurisdictions where bag limits are not applied at all or are not applied under certain circumstances. The phrase "bag limits" comes from the custom among hunters of small game to carry successful kills in a small basket, similar to a fishing creel.


title: Hunting

text: Where bag limits are used, there can be daily or seasonal bag limits; for example, ducks can often be harvested at a rate of six per hunter per day. Big game, like moose, most often have a seasonal bag limit of one animal per hunter. Bag limits may also regulate the size, sex, or age of animal that a hunter can kill. In many cases, bag limits are designed to allocate harvest among the hunting population more equitably rather than to protect animal populations, as protecting the population would necessitate regional density-dependent maximum bags.


title: Hunting

text: A closed season is a time during which hunting an animal of a given species is contrary to law. Typically, closed seasons are designed to protect a species when they are most vulnerable or to protect them during their breeding season. By extension, the period that is not the closed season is known as the open season.


title: Hunting

text: Historical, subsistence, and sport hunting techniques can differ radically, with modern hunting regulations often addressing issues of where, when, and how hunts are conducted. Techniques may vary depending on government regulations, a hunter's personal ethics, local custom, hunting equipment, and the animal being hunted. Often a hunter will use a combination of more than one technique. Laws may forbid sport hunters from using some methods used primarily in poaching and wildlife management.


title: Hunting

text: Trophy hunting is the selective seeking and killing of wild game animals to take trophies for personal collection, bragging rights or as a status symbol. It may also include the controversial hunting of captive or semi-captive animals expressly bred and raised under controlled or semi-controlled conditions so as to attain trophy characteristics; this is sometimes known as canned hunts.


title: Hunting

text: In the 19th century, southern and central European sport hunters often pursued game only for a trophy, usually the head or pelt of an animal, which was then displayed as a sign of prowess. The rest of the animal was typically discarded. Some cultures, however, disapprove of such waste. In Nordic countries, hunting for trophies was—and still is—frowned upon. Hunting in North America in the 19th century was done primarily as a way to supplement food supplies, although it is now undertaken mainly for sport. The safari method of hunting was a development of sport hunting that saw elaborate travel in Africa, India and other places in pursuit of trophies. In modern times, trophy hunting persists and is a significant industry in some areas.


title: Hunting

text: According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, hunting "provides an economic incentive" for ranchers to continue to breed those species, and that hunting "reduces the threat of the species' extinction."


title: Hunting

text: A scientific study in the journal, "Biological Conservation", states that trophy hunting is of "major importance to conservation in Africa by creating economic incentives for conservation over vast areas, including areas which may be unsuitable for alternative wildlife-based land uses such as photographic ecotourism." However, another study states that less than 3% of a trophy hunters' expenditures reach the local level, meaning that the economic incentive and benefit is "minimal, particularly when we consider the vast areas of land that hunting concessions occupy."


title: Hunting

text: Financial incentives from trophy hunting effectively more than double the land area that is used for wildlife conservation, relative to what would be conserved relying on national parks alone according to "Biological Conservation", although local communities usually derive no more than 18 cents per hectare from trophy hunting.


title: Hunting

text: Trophy hunting has been considered essential for providing economic incentives to conserve large carnivores according to research studies in "Conservation Biology", "Journal of Sustainable Tourism", "Wildlife Conservation by Sustainable Use", and "Animal Conservation". Studies by the Centre for Responsible Tourism and the IUCN state that ecotourism, which includes more than hunting, is a superior economic incentive, generating twice the revenue per acre and 39 times more permanent employment. At the crosssection of trophy hunting, ecotourism and conservation is green hunting, a trophy hunting alternative where hunters pay to dart animals that need to be tranquilized for conservation projects.


title: Hunting

text: The U.S. House Committee on Natural Resources in 2016 concluded that trophy hunting may be contributing to the extinction of certain animals. Animal welfare organizations, including the International Fund for Animal Welfare, claim that trophy hunting is a key factor in the "silent extinction" of giraffes.


title: Hunting

text: According to a national survey that the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service conducts every five years, fewer people are hunting, even as population rises. National Public Radio reported, a graph shows 2016 statistics, that only about 5 percent of Americans, 16 years old and older, actually hunt, which is half of what it was 50 years ago. The decline in popularity of hunting is expected to accelerate over the next decade, which threatens how US will pay for conservation.


title: Hunting

text: Trophy hunting is most often criticised when it involves rare or endangered animals. Opponents may also see trophy hunting as an issue of morality or animal cruelty, criticising the killing of living creatures for recreation. Victorian era dramatist W. S. Gilbert remarked, "Deer-stalking would be a very fine sport if only the deer had guns."


title: Hunting

text: There is also debate about the extent to which trophy hunting benefits the local economy. Hunters pay substantial fees to the game outfitters and hunting guides which contributes to the local economy and provides value to animals that would otherwise be seen as competition for grazing, livestock, and crops. However, the argument is disputed by animal welfare organizations and other opponents of trophy hunting. It is argued that the animals are worth more to the community for ecotourism than hunting.


title: Hunting

text: A variety of industries benefit from hunting and support hunting on economic grounds. In Tanzania, it is estimated that a safari hunter spends fifty to one hundred times that of the average ecotourist. While the average photo tourist may seek luxury accommodation, the average safari hunter generally stays in tented camps. Safari hunters are also more likely to use remote areas, uninviting to the typical ecotourist. Advocates argue that these hunters allow for anti-poaching activities and revenue for local communities.


title: Hunting

text: In the United Kingdom, the game hunting of birds as an industry is said to be extremely important to the rural economy. The Cobham Report of 1997 suggested it to be worth around £700 million, and hunting and shooting lobby groups claimed it to be worth over a billion pounds less than ten years later.


title: Hunting

text: Hunting also has a significant financial impact in the United States, with many companies specialising in hunting equipment or speciality tourism. Many different technologies have been created to assist hunters. Today's hunters come from a broad range of economic, social, and cultural backgrounds. In 2001, over thirteen million hunters averaged eighteen days hunting, and spent over $20.5 billion on their sport. In the US, proceeds from hunting licences contribute to state game management programs, including preservation of wildlife habitat.


title: Hunting

text: Hunting contributes to a portion of caloric intake of people and may have positive impacts on greenhouse gas emissions by avoidance of utilization of meat raised under industrial methods.


title: Hunting

text: Lead bullets that miss their target or remain in an unretrieved carcass could become a toxicant in the environment but lead in ammunition because of its metallic form has a lower solubility and higher resistance to corrosion than other forms of lead making it hardly available to biological systems. Waterfowl or other birds may ingest the lead and poison themselves with the neurotoxicant, but studies have demonstrated that effects of lead in ammunition are negligible on animal population size and growth. Since 1991, US federal law forbids lead shot in waterfowl hunts, and 30 states have some type of restriction.


title: Hunting

text: In December 2014, a federal appeals court denied a lawsuit by environmental groups that the EPA must use the Toxic Substances Control Act to regulate lead in shells and cartridges. The groups sought EPA to regulate "spent lead", yet the court found EPA could not regulate spent lead without also regulating cartridges and shells.


title: Hunting

text: Hunters have been driving forces throughout history in the movement to ensure the preservation of wildlife habitats and wildlife for further hunting. However, excessive hunting and poachers have also contributed heavily to the endangerment, extirpation and extinction of many animals, such as the quagga, the great auk, Steller's sea cow, the thylacine, the bluebuck, the Arabian oryx, the Caspian and Javan tigers, the markhor, the Sumatran rhinoceros, the bison, the North American cougar, the Altai argali sheep, the Asian elephant and many more, primarily for commercial sale or sport. All these animals have been hunted to endangerment or extinction. Poaching currently threatens bird and mammalian populations around the world. The 2019 "Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services" lists the direct exploitation of organisms, including hunting, as the second leading cause of biodiversity loss, after land use for agriculture. In 2022, IPBES released another report which stated that unsustainable hunting, along with unsustainable logging and fishing, are primary drivers of the global extinction crisis.


title: Hunting

text: In 1937, American hunters successfully lobbied the US Congress to pass the Pittman-Robertson Wildlife Restoration Act, which placed an eleven percent tax on all hunting equipment. This self-imposed tax now generates over $700 million each year and is used exclusively to establish, restore and protect wildlife habitats. The act is named for Nevada Senator Key Pittman and Virginia Congressman Absalom Willis Robertson.


title: Hunting

text: On 16 March 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Act, which requires an annual stamp purchase by all hunters over the age of sixteen. The stamps are created on behalf of the program by the US Postal Service and depict wildlife artwork chosen through an annual contest. They play an important role in habitat conservation because ninety-eight percent of all funds generated by their sale go directly toward the purchase or lease of wetland habitat for protection in the National Wildlife Refuge System. In addition to waterfowl, it is estimated that one third of the nation's endangered species seek food and shelter in areas protected using Duck Stamp funds.


title: Hunting

text: Since 1934, the sale of Federal Duck Stamps has generated $670 million, and helped to purchase or lease of habitat. The stamps serve as a license to hunt migratory birds, an entrance pass for all National Wildlife Refuge areas, and are also considered collectors items often purchased for aesthetic reasons outside of the hunting and birding communities. Although non-hunters buy a significant number of Duck Stamps, eighty-seven percent of their sales are contributed by hunters. Distribution of funds is managed by the Migratory Bird Conservation Commission (MBCC).


title: Hunting

text: The Arabian oryx, a species of large antelope, once inhabited much of the desert areas of the Middle East. However, the species' striking appearance made it (along with the closely related scimitar-horned oryx and addax) a popular quarry for sport hunters, especially foreign executives of oil companies working in the region. The use of automobiles and high-powered rifles destroyed their only advantage: speed, and they became extinct in the wild exclusively due to sport hunting in 1972. The scimitar-horned oryx followed suit, while the addax became critically endangered. However, the Arabian oryx has now made a comeback and been upgraded from "extinct in the wild" to "vulnerable" due to conservation efforts like captive breeding.


title: Hunting

text: The markhor is an endangered species of wild goat which inhabits the mountains of Central Asia and Pakistan. The colonization of these regions by Britain gave British sport hunters access to the species, and they were hunted heavily, almost to the point of extinction. Only their willingness to breed in captivity and the inhospitability of their mountainous habitat prevented this. Despite these factors, the markhor is still endangered.


title: Hunting

text: The American bison is a large bovid which inhabited much of western North America prior to the 1800s, living on the prairies in large herds. However, the vast herds of bison attracted market hunters, who killed dozens of bison for their hides only, leaving the rest to rot. Thousands of these hunters quickly eliminated the bison herds, bringing the population from several million in the early 1800s to a few hundred by the 1880s. Conservation efforts have allowed the population to increase, but the bison remains near-threatened due to lack of habitat.


title: Hunting

text: The "Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy" cites that the legalization of white rhinoceros hunting in South Africa motivated private landowners to reintroduce the species onto their lands. As a result, the country saw an increase in white rhinos from fewer than one hundred individuals to more than 11,000, even while a limited number were killed as trophies.


title: Hunting

text: However, the illegal hunting of rhinoceros for their horns is highly damaging to the population and is currently growing globally, with 1004 being killed in South Africa alone according to the most recent estimate. The White Rhino (along with the other 4 rhino species) are poached due to beliefs that the Rhinos horns can be used to cure Cancer, Arthritis and other diseases and illnesses, even though they are scientifically proven wrong.


title: Hunting

text: According to Richard Conniff, Namibia is home to 1,750 of the roughly 5,000 black rhinos surviving in the wild because it allows trophy hunting of various species. Namibia's mountain zebra population has increased to 27,000 from 1,000 in 1982. Elephants, which "are gunned down elsewhere for their ivory", have gone to 20,000 from 15,000 in 1995. Lions, which were on the brink of extinction "from Senegal to Kenya", are increasing in Namibia.


title: Hunting

text: In contrast, Botswana in 2012 banned trophy hunting following a precipitous wildlife decline. The numbers of antelope plummeted across Botswana, with a resultant decline in predator numbers, while elephant numbers remained stable and hippopotamus numbers rose. According to the government of Botswana, trophy hunting is at least partly to blame for this, but many other factors, such as poaching, drought and habitat loss are also to blame. Uganda recently did the same, arguing that "the share of benefits of sport hunting were lopsided and unlikely to deter poaching or improve [Uganda's] capacity to manage the wildlife reserves." In 2020, Botswana reopened trophy hunting on public lands.


title: Hunting

text: A study published by the Wildlife Society concluded that hunting and trapping are cost effective tools that reduce wildlife damage by reducing a population below the capacity of the environment to carry it and changing the behaviors of animals to stop them from causing damage. The study furthermore states that the cessation of hunting could cause wildlife to be severely harmed, rural property values to fall, and the incentive of landowners to maintain natural habitats to diminish.


title: Hunting

text: Although deforestation and forest degradation have long been considered the most significant threats to tropical biodiversity, across Southeast Asia (Northeast India, Indochina, Sundaland, Philippines) substantial areas of natural habitat have few wild animals (>1 kg), bar a few hunting‐tolerant species.


title: Hunting

text: It has been argued by animal rights activists that killing animals for sport is unethical, cruel, and unnecessary. They note the suffering and cruelty inflicted on animals hunted for sport: "Many animals endure prolonged, painful deaths when they are injured but not killed by hunters ... Hunting disrupts migration and hibernation patterns and destroys families." Animal rights activists also comment that hunting is not needed to maintain an ecological balance, and that "nature takes care of its own". They say that hunting can be combated on public lands by "spread[ing] deer repellent or human hair (from barber shops) near hunting areas". Animal rights activists also argue that hunting is speciesist:


title: Hunting

text: Whether hunters try to justify their killing by citing human deaths caused by wild animals, by making conservationist claims, by claiming that it's acceptable to hunt as long as the animals' bodies are eaten, or simply because of the pleasure it brings them, the fact remains that hunting is morally unacceptable if we consider the interests of nonhuman animals. Hunted animals endure fear and pain, and then are deprived of their lives. Understanding the injustices of speciesism and the interests of nonhuman animals makes it clear that human pleasure cannot justify nonhuman animals' pain.


title: Brachydactyly type D

text: Brachydactyly type D, also known as short thumb or stub thumb and inaccurately referred to as clubbed thumb, is a condition clinically recognised by a thumb being relatively short and round with an accompanying wider nail bed. The distal phalanx of affected thumbs is approximately two-thirds the length of full-length thumbs. It is the most common type of brachydactyly, or shortness of digits, affecting approximately 2–3% of the population, and is associated with the "HOXD13" gene, located on chromosome 2q31.1


title: Brachydactyly type D

text: Brachydactyly type D is a skeletal condition which exhibits a 'partial fusion or premature closing of the epiphysis with the distal phalanx of the thumb', according to Goodman "et alia" (1965). J.K. Breithenbecher (1923) found that distal phalanges of stub thumbs were one-half the length of full-length thumbs, while R.M. Stecher (1957) claimed that it is approximately two-thirds. The condition may either be unilateral (affecting one thumb) or bilateral (affecting both).


title: Brachydactyly type D

text: A genetic trait, brachydactyly type D exhibits autosomal dominance and is commonly developed or inherited independently of other hereditary traits. The condition is associated with the "HOXD13" gene, which is central in digital formation and growth.


title: Brachydactyly type D

text: A 1965 scientific study in Israel found that 3.05% of Palestinians in Israel had one or two stub thumbs, compared with 1.57% among Ashkenazi as well as non-Ashkenazi Jews. However, as the survey's Arab test persons were mainly recruited from a handful of large and closely related clans living in a particular village, said percentage should be 'considered with some reservation', according to Goodman "et alia" (1965).


title: Brachydactyly type D

text: Cases of stub thumbs have also been found in Eastern Nepal for Jirel ethnic individuals from their participation in various epidemiologic studies. Some studies included taking radiographs of hands and wrists to examine their skeletal structure. Of the studied sample (which included 2,130 participants; 969 male and 1,161 female), 3.55% were found to have brachydactyly type D.


title: Brachydactyly type D

text: The condition is known under numerous names. The most commonly used name is clubbed thumb, or club thumb. American researcher R.A. Hefner used the terms "short thumb" and "brachymegalodactylism" in 1924, and "short thumb" has continued to be used in a few other studies since then, including the study that defined Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome in 1963. "Stub thumb" is the common term preferred by the online database Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man and was first used in a 1965 study. Stub thumbs have also been called murderer's thumb (allegedly among fortune tellers), bohemian thumb, toe thumb, and potter's thumb.


title: Brachydactyly type D

text: The term "clubbed thumb" should not be confused with nail clubbing, which is a clinical sign associated with a number of diseases.


title: Beckett (film)

text: Beckett is a 2021 action thriller film directed by Ferdinando Cito Filomarino and produced by Luca Guadagnino. The film stars John David Washington as an American tourist vacationing in Greece who becomes the target of a manhunt after an accident, and must reach the embassy to clear his name; Boyd Holbrook, Vicky Krieps, and Alicia Vikander also star.


title: Beckett (film)

text: "Beckett" had its world premiere at the 74th Locarno Film Festival on August 4, 2021, and was digitally released on August 13, by Netflix. The film received mixed reviews from critics.


title: Beckett (film)

text: Beckett, an American tourist, leaves Athens, Greece with his girlfriend April to escape political unrest there. While driving to their hotel, at a mountain village in the region of Epirus, Beckett falls asleep at the wheel and crashes their car into a nearby house. April is killed in the accident, but while trapped in the wreck Beckett sees a boy being hurried out of the house by a blonde woman.


title: Beckett (film)

text: The next day Xenakis, a local police officer, interviews Beckett and tells him that he was lucky that the house he crashed into was abandoned; however Beckett tells Xenakis about seeing the boy and the woman. After leaving the police station, Beckett goes back to the house with the intention of killing himself, but before he can do so the blonde woman returns and shoots at him. Xenakis arrives soon after and tells him it is safe to come out of hiding, but after he reveals himself Beckett is wounded in the arm as both the woman and Xenakis shoot at him and give chase. Beckett jumps off a cliff and escapes.


title: Beckett (film)

text: After spending the night in an abandoned truck, Beckett is found by a group of hunters who bring Beckett back to town, with one taking Beckett to his house to see to his injuries. Xenakis and the woman soon arrive and Beckett jumps out of a window to escape again. He happens upon two beekeepers who lend him a phone. He calls the U.S. embassy in Athens, but unable to wait for their help Beckett tells them he will make his own way to the embassy. He boards a train to go back to Athens, but Xenakis finds him and attempts to detain him, but Beckett pulls the train’s emergency brake and in the ensuing struggle Xenakis ends up getting shot in the foot and Beckett once again escapes.


title: Beckett (film)

text: Beckett sees posters of the boy being put up by two activists, Lena and Eleni. They tell him that the boy is Dimos Karras, the kidnapped son of a liberal politician who has been allegedly taken by a far-right organization. They drive Beckett to Athens but he is forced to part ways with them to avoid a police roadblock and takes the subway to the U.S. embassy, where he is attacked by a knife-wielding man. Managing to reach the embassy, he is taken in by embassy staffer Tynan, who informs him that April's body had been sent to the embassy, and Beckett is taken to the morgue to view her body.


title: Beckett (film)

text: Beckett tells Tynan about Dimos' kidnappers and the activists, and Tynan offers to take him to an honest cop to sort things out. However after leaving the embassy, Tynan tries to incapacitate Beckett with a taser but he is able to escape. Beckett meets up with Lena and Eleni to warn them about Tynan, but he soon arrives with the police and chases Beckett to a political rally. Shots are fired at the rally and amongst the chaos Beckett takes refuge in a basement where he is cornered by Tynan, who tells him Dimos Karras' father has just been assassinated at the rally. Tynan reveals that Karras had secretly owed an organized crime syndicate money, who then kidnapped his son in retaliation but deflected the blame onto his political enemies, also implying that the U.S. had a role to play in the deception. Fearing that Beckett had uncovered the truth behind Dimos' kidnapping, they went after him. Although Tynan assures Beckett that with Karras dead he is now free to go, Beckett knocks him out.


title: Beckett (film)

text: Beckett returns to the site of the rally to reunite with Lena and Eleni but sees the blonde woman who had kidnapped Dimos. He follows her to a parking garage, where she meets up with Xenakis with Dimos locked in the trunk of his car. Before they can escape, Beckett shoots Xenakis in the hand and struggles with the blonde woman. He is shot but manages to knock her out, then runs after Xenakis as he tries to drive away. Beckett manages to jump onto the car from the top of the parking garage and knocks out Xenakis, finally rescuing Dimos. In the final scene, Beckett looks down at his palm and notices a heart April had drawn on his hand before the crash, reflecting on how he should have died.


title: Beckett (film)

text: It was announced in April 2019 that John David Washington, Alicia Vikander, Boyd Holbrook and Vicky Krieps had been cast in the film, then titled "Born to Be Murdered", which would be produced by Luca Guadagnino. Filming had gotten underway in Athens that same month.


title: Beckett (film)

text: In October 2020, Netflix acquired distribution rights to the film, and set it for a 2021 release. In January 2021, it was announced that the film had been retitled to "Beckett". It had its world premiere at the 74th Locarno Film Festival on August 4, 2021. The film was released on August 13, 2021.


title: Beckett (film)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 47% of 75 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 5.4/10. The site's critics consensus reads: ""Beckett" brings a propulsive energy to its man-on-the-run story, but this rather thinly written thriller fails to consistently engage." According to Metacritic, which assigned a weighted average of 52 out of 100 based on 24 critics, the film received "mixed or average reviews."


title: Antlion

text: The antlions are a group of about 2,000 species of insect in the neuropteran family Myrmeleontidae. They are known for the predatory habits of their larvae, which mostly dig pits to trap passing ants or other prey. In North America, the larvae are sometimes referred to as doodlebugs because of the marks they leave in the sand. The adult insects are less well known due to their relatively short lifespans compared to the larvae. Adults, sometimes known as antlion lacewings, mostly fly at dusk or after dark and may be mistakenly identified as dragonflies or damselflies.


title: Antlion

text: Antlions have a worldwide distribution. The greatest diversity occurs in the tropics, but a few species are found in cold-temperate locations, one such being the European "Euroleon nostras". They most commonly occur in dry and sandy habitats where the larvae can easily excavate their pits, but some larvae hide under debris or ambush their prey among leaf litter.


title: Antlion

text: Antlions are poorly represented in the fossil record. Myrmeleontiformia is generally accepted to be a monophyletic group, and within the Myrmeleontoidea, the antlions' closest living relatives are thought to be the owlflies (Ascalaphidae). A 2019 study finds Myrmeleontidae to be monophyletic, aside from Stilbopteryginae and Palparinae, which form separate clades closer to Ascalaphidae. The predatory actions of the larvae have attracted attention throughout history and antlions have been mentioned in literature since classical times.


title: Antlion

text: The exact meaning of the name "antlion" is uncertain. It has been thought to refer to ants forming a large percentage of the prey of the insect, the suffix "lion" merely suggesting destroyer or hunter. In any case, the term seems to go back to classical antiquity. The antlion larva is often called a "doodlebug" in North America because of the odd winding, spiralling trails it leaves in the sand while relocating, which look as if someone has been doodling.


title: Antlion

text: The scientific name of the type genus "Myrmeleo" – and thus, the family as a whole – is derived from Ancient Greek "léon" (λέων) "lion" + "mýrmex" (μύρμηξ) "ant", in a loan translation of the names common across Europe. In most European and Middle Eastern languages, at least the larvae are known under the local term corresponding to "antlion".


title: Antlion

text: Antlions can be fairly small to very large neuropterans, with wingspans ranging from . The African genus "Palpares" contains some of the largest examples. "Acanthaclisis occitanica" is the largest European species, with an wingspan, and most North American species approach this size.


title: Antlion

text: The adult has two pairs of long, narrow, multiveined, translucent wings and a long, slender abdomen. Although they somewhat resemble dragonflies or damselflies, they belong to a different infraclass of winged insects. Antlion adults are easily distinguished from damselflies by their prominent, apically clubbed antennae which are about as long as the head and thorax combined. Also, the pattern of wing venation differs, and compared to damselflies, the adults are very feeble fliers and are normally found fluttering about at night in search of a mate. Adult antlions are typically nocturnal, and rarely seen by day.


title: Antlion

text: Males of most species have a unique structure, a bristle-bearing knob known as a "pilula axillaris", at the base of the rear wing. The abdomen in males is usually longer than in females and often has an extra lobe. The tip of the abdomen of females shows greater variation than that of males, depending perhaps on oviposition sites, and usually bears tufts of bristles for digging and a finger-like extension.


title: Antlion

text: The antlion larva has a robust fusiform body, a very plump abdomen, and a thorax bearing three pairs of walking legs. The prothorax forms a slender mobile "neck" for the large, square, flattened head, which bears an enormous pair of sickle-like jaws with several sharp, hollow projections. The jaws are formed by the maxillae and mandibles; the mandibles each contain a deep groove over which the maxilla fits neatly, forming an enclosed canal for injecting venom to immobilise the victim, and enzymes to digest its soft parts. The larva is clad in forward-pointing bristles which help it to anchor itself and exert greater traction, enabling it to subdue prey considerably larger than itself. Antlion larvae are unusual among insects in lacking an anus. All the metabolic waste generated during the larval stage is stored; some is used to spin the silk for the cocoon and the rest is eventually voided as meconium at the end of its pupal stage.


title: Antlion

text: There are about 2,000 species of antlion found in most parts of the world, with the greatest diversity being in warmer areas. The best known species are those in which the larvae dig pits to trap their prey, but not all species do this. Antlions live in a range of usually dry habitats including open woodland floors, scrub-clad dunes, hedge bases, river banks, road verges, under raised buildings and in vacant lots.


title: Antlion

text: Apart from pit-trap-forming taxa, the biology of members of the family Myrmeleontidae, to which the antlions belong, has been little studied. The life-cycle begins with oviposition (egg-laying) in a suitable location. The female antlion repeatedly taps the prospective laying site with the tip of her abdomen and then inserts her ovipositor into the substrate and lays an egg.


title: Antlion

text: Depending on the species and where it lives, the larva either conceals itself under leaves, debris or pieces of wood, hides in a crack or digs a funnel-shaped pit in loose material. As ambush predators, catching prey is risky because food arrives unpredictably and, for those species that make traps, maintaining one is costly. The larvae therefore have low metabolic rates and can survive for long periods without food. They can take several years to complete their life-cycle; they mature faster with plentiful food, but can survive for many months without feeding. In cooler climates they dig their way deeper and remain inactive during the winter.


title: Antlion

text: When the larva attains its maximum size, it pupates and undergoes metamorphosis. It makes a globular cocoon of sand or other local substrate stuck together with fine silk spun from a slender spinneret at the rear end of the body. The cocoon may be buried several centimetres deep in sand. After completing its transformation into an adult insect over the course of about one month, it emerges from the case, leaving the pupal integument behind, and works its way to the surface. After about twenty minutes, the adult's wings are fully opened and it flies off in search of a mate. The adult is considerably larger than the larva as antlions exhibit the greatest disparity in size between larva and adult of any type of holometabolous insect. This is by virtue of the fact that the exoskeleton of the adult is extremely thin and flimsy, with an exceptionally low density. The adult typically lives for about 25 days, but some insects survive for as long as 45 days.


title: Antlion

text: Antlion larvae eat small arthropods – mainly ants – while the adults of some species eat pollen and nectar, and others are predators of small arthropods. In certain species of Myrmeleontidae, such as "Dendroleon pantherinus", the larva, although resembling that of "Myrmeleon" structurally, makes no pitfall trap, but hides in detritus in a hole in a tree and seizes passing prey. In Japan, "Gatzara jezoensis" larvae lurk on the surface of rocks for several years while awaiting prey; during this time they often become coated with lichen, and have been recorded at densities of up to 344 per square metre.


title: Antlion

text: The larva is a voracious predator. Within a few minutes of seizing its prey with its jaws and injecting it with venom and enzymes, it begins to suck out the digestion products. The larva is extremely sensitive to ground vibrations, the low-frequency sounds made by an insect crawling across the ground; the larva locates the source of the vibrations by the differences in timing of the arrival of waves detected by receptors, tufts of hairs on the sides of the two hindmost thoracic segments.


title: Antlion

text: In trap-building species, an average-sized larva digs a pit about 2 in (5 cm) deep and 3 in (7.5 cm) wide at the edge. This behavior has also been observed in the Vermileonidae (Diptera), whose larvae dig the same sort of pit to feed on ants. Having marked out the chosen site by a circular groove, the antlion larva starts to crawl backwards, using its abdomen as a plough to shovel up the soil. By the aid of one front leg, it places consecutive heaps of loosened particles upon its head, then with a smart jerk throws each little pile clear of the scene of operations. Proceeding thus, it gradually works its way from the circumference towards the center. As it slowly moves round and round, the pit gradually gets deeper and deeper, until the slope angle reaches the critical angle of repose (that is, the steepest angle the sand can maintain, where it is on the verge of collapse from slight disturbance), and the pit is solely lined by fine grains. By digging in a spiral when constructing its pit, the antlion minimises the time needed to complete the pit.


title: Antlion

text: When the pit is completed, the larva settles down at the bottom, buried in the soil with only the jaws projecting above the surface, often in a wide-opened position on either side of the very tip of the cone. The steep-sloped trap that guides prey into the larva's mouth while avoiding crater avalanches is one of the simplest and most efficient traps in the animal kingdom. The fine grain lining ensures that the avalanches which carry prey are as large as possible.


title: Antlion

text: Since the sides of the pit consist of loose sand at its angle of repose, they afford an insecure foothold to any small insects that inadvertently venture over the edge, such as ants. Slipping to the bottom, the prey is immediately seized by the lurking antlion; if it attempts to scramble up the treacherous walls of the pit, it is speedily checked in its efforts and brought down by showers of loose sand which are thrown at it from below by the larva. By throwing up loose sand from the bottom of the pit, the larva also undermines the sides of the pit, causing them to collapse and bring the prey with them. Thus, it does not matter whether the larva actually strikes the prey with the sand showers.


title: Antlion

text: Antlion larvae are capable of capturing and killing a variety of insects and other arthropods, and can even subdue small spiders. The projections in the jaws of the larva are hollow and through this, the larva sucks the fluids out of its victim. After the contents are consumed, the dry carcass is flicked out of the pit. The larva readies the pit once again by throwing out collapsed material from the center, steepening the pit walls to the angle of repose.


title: Antlion

text: Antlion larvae require loose soil, not necessarily, but often, sand. Antlions can also handle larger granular material which is filtered out of the soil during pit construction. The larvae prefer dry places protected from the rain. When it first hatches, the tiny larva specialises in very small insects, but as it grows larger, it constructs larger pits, and thus catches larger prey, sometimes much larger than itself.


title: Antlion

text: Other arthropods may make use of the antlion larva's ability to trap prey. The larva of the Australian horsefly ("Scaptia muscula") lives in antlion (for example "Myrmeleon pictifrons") pit traps and feeds on the prey caught, and the female chalcid wasp ("Lasiochalcidia igiliensis") purposefully allows itself to be trapped so that it can parasitise the antlion larva by ovipositing between its head and thorax.


title: Antlion

text: Recent research has found that antlion larvae often "play dead" for a variable amount of time (from a few minutes up to an hour) when disturbed to hide from predators. The method is effective; it increased survival rates in patches that use it by 20%. Furthermore, they appear to have maximized its usefulness—further increasing the duration is not likely to convey substantial survival benefits to the larvae.


title: Antlion

text: The closest living relatives of antlions within the Myrmeleontoidea are the owlflies (Ascalaphidae); the Nymphidae are more distantly related. The extinct Araripeneuridae and Babinskaiidae are considered likely to be stem groups in the Myrmeleontiformia clade. The phylogeny of the Neuroptera has been explored using mitochondrial DNA sequences, and while issues remain for the group as a whole (the "Hemerobiiformia" being paraphyletic), the Myrmeleontiformia is generally agreed to be monophyletic, giving the following cladogram:


title: Antlion

text: The subfamilies are shown below; a few genera, mostly fossil, are of uncertain or basal position. The fossil record of antlions is very small by neuropteran standards. However, some Mesozoic fossils attest to the antlions' origin more than 150 million years ago. These were at one time separated as the Palaeoleontidae, but are now usually recognized as early antlions.


title: Antlion

text: There is little consensus regarding the supra-generic classification within the Myrmeleontidae, but the following four subfamilies (with select genera) are accepted by many researchers:


title: Antlion

text: In popular folklore in the southern United States, people recite a poem or chant to make the antlion come out of its hole. Similar practices have been recorded from Africa, the Caribbean, China and Australia.


title: Antlion

text: The Myrmecoleon was a mythical ant–lion hybrid written about in the 2nd century AD "Physiologus", where animal descriptions were paired with Christian morals. The ant-lion as described was said to starve to death because of its dual nature – the lion nature of the father could only eat meat, but the ant half from the mother could only eat grain chaff, thus the offspring could not eat either and would starve. It was paired with the Biblical verse . The fictional ant-lion of "Physiologus" is probably derived from a misreading of Job 4:11.


title: Antlion

text: The French naturalist Jean-Henri Fabre wrote that "The Ant-lion makes a slanting funnel in the sand. Its victim, the Ant, slides down the slant and is then stoned, from the bottom of the funnel, by the hunter, who turns his neck into a catapult."


title: Antlion

text: Antlions appear as antagonists in the 1991 life simulation video game, "SimAnt", and (in a giant form) in the "Final Fantasy" series, "Grounded", "Terraria", "Don’t Starve Together", "Monster Rancher 2", "Mother 3" and the "Half-Life 2" video game series. The Trapinch, Vibrava, and Flygon Pokémon evolution line is based on an antlion. The fictional sarlacc from the "Star Wars" franchise is often compared to the real-life antlion. It also appears as a predator in the film "Enemy Mine".


title: Antlion

text: In the third book of Tove Jansson's Moomins series, "Finn Family Moomintroll", a rather large and fanciful antlion appears in the second chapter, depicted as a sand-dwelling predator with the literal head of a lion.


title: Ocarina

text: The ocarina is a wind musical instrument; it is a type of vessel flute. Variations exist, but a typical ocarina is an enclosed space with four to twelve finger holes and a mouthpiece that projects from the body. It is traditionally made from clay or ceramic, but other materials are also used, such as plastic, wood, glass, metal, or bone.


title: Ocarina

text: The ocarina belongs to a very old family of instruments, believed to date back over 12,000 years. Ocarina-type instruments have been of particular importance in Chinese and Mesoamerican cultures. For the Chinese, the instrument played an important role in their long history of song and dance. The ocarina has similar features to the Xun (塤), another important Chinese instrument (but is different in that the ocarina uses an internal duct, whereas the Xun is blown across the outer edge). In Japan, the traditional ocarina is known as the "tsuchibue" (kanji: 土笛; literally "earthen flute"). Different expeditions to Mesoamerica, including the one conducted by Cortés, resulted in the introduction of the ocarina to the courts of Europe. Both the Mayans and Aztecs produced versions of the ocarina, but it was the Aztecs who brought to Europe the song and dance that accompanied the ocarina. The ocarina went on to become popular in European communities as a toy instrument.


title: Ocarina

text: One of the oldest ocarinas found in Europe is from Runik, Kosovo. The Runik ocarina is a Neolithic flute-like wind instrument, and is the earliest prehistoric musical instrument ever recorded in Kosovo.


title: Ocarina

text: The modern European ocarina dates back to the 19th century, when Giuseppe Donati from Budrio, a town near Bologna, Italy, transformed the ocarina from a toy, which played only a few notes, into a more comprehensive instrument (known as the first "classical" ocarina). The word "ocarina" derives from "ucaréṅna", which in the Bolognese dialect means "little goose". The earlier form was known in Europe as a gemshorn, which was made from animal horns of the chamois ().


title: Ocarina

text: In 1964, John Taylor, an English mathematician, developed a fingering system that allowed an ocarina to play a full chromatic octave using only four holes. This is now known as the English fingering system, and is used extensively for pendant ocarinas. It is also used in several multi-chamber ocarinas, especially in ones that are designed to play more than one note at a time.


title: Ocarina

text: The ocarina features prominently in the Nintendo 64 games "" and "", as well as the NES game "EarthBound Beginnings." The games have been credited for increasing the popularity of ocarinas and the sale of them. In the 1953 Finnish children's book "Tirlittan", the title character also plays an ocarina.


title: Ocarina

text: Hungarian-Austrian composer György Ligeti (1923–2006) called for four ocarinas (to be performed by woodwind players doubling their own instruments) in his Violin Concerto, completed in 1993. In 1974, the Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki (1933–2020) incorporated 12 ocarinas in his composition "The Dream of Jacob". Later, he incorporated 50 in the final section of his Symphony No. 8, completed in 2008, where they are meant to be played by members of the choir.


title: Ocarina

text: The airstream is directed on the labium by a fipple or internal duct, which is a narrowing rectangular slot in the mouthpiece, rather than relying on the player's lips as in a transverse flute. Like other flutes, the airstream alternates quickly between the inner and outer face of the labium as the pressure in the ocarina chamber oscillates.


title: Ocarina

text: At first, the sound is a broad-spectrum "noise" (i.e. "chiff"), but those frequencies that are identical with the fundamental frequency of the resonating chamber (which depends on the fingering), are selectively amplified. A Helmholtz resonating chamber is unusually selective in amplifying a single frequency. Most resonators also amplify more overtones. As a result, ocarinas and other vessel flutes have a distinctive overtoneless sound.


title: Ocarina

text: Unlike many flutes, ocarinas do not rely on pipe length to produce a particular tone. Instead, the tone is dependent on the ratio of the total surface area of opened holes to the total cubic volume enclosed by the instrument. This means that, unlike a transverse flute or recorder, sound is created by resonance of the entire cavity and the placement of the holes on an ocarina is largely irrelevant – their size is the most important factor. Instruments that have toneholes close to the voicing/embouchure should be avoided, however; as an ocarina is a Helmholtz resonator, this weakens tonal production.


title: Ocarina

text: The resonator in the ocarina can create overtones, but because of the common "egg" shape, these overtones are many octaves above the keynote scale. In similar Helmholtz resonator instruments with a narrow cone shape, like the Gemshorn or Tonette, some partial overtones are available. The technique of overblowing to get a range of higher-pitched notes is possible with the ocarina but not widely used because the resulting note is not "clean" enough, so the range of pitches available is limited by the total area of the holes.


title: Ocarina

text: Some ocarina makers bypass these physical limitations by creating ocarinas that have two or three resonating chambers, each with their own windway and labium. There are two main systems that dictate how these additional chambers are tuned: the Asian system and the Pacchioni system. The Asian system maximizes range by beginning each chamber one semitone higher than the highest note of the previous chamber. The Pacchioni system instead focuses on smoothing the transition between chambers by overlapping their ranges slightly, thereby making it easier to play melodies that fall in that range.


title: Ocarina

text: Ocarina music is written in three main ways. The most apparent is the use of sheet music. There are archives of sheet music either specifically written for ocarinas, or adapted from piano sheet music. Since some ocarinas are fully chromatic and can be played in professional musical situations, including classical and folk, sheet music is an ideal notation for ocarinas.


title: Ocarina

text: Second is the use of numerical tablature, which expresses the musical notes as numbers. Some makers have developed their own system of numerical tablature for their ocarinas, while others follow a more universal system where numbers correspond to different notes on the scale. This method is typically used by beginners who have not learned to read sheet music.


title: Ocarina

text: A third method uses a pictorial tablature similar to the ocarina's finger hole pattern, with blackened holes that represent holes to cover. The tablature represents the holes on the top of the ocarina, and, where necessary, the holes on the underside. This enables easy playing, particularly for beginners. The two most popular tablature systems are:


title: Ocarina

text: Depending on the artist, some may write a number or figure over the picture to depict how many beats to hold the note.


title: Ocarina

text: Due to its lack of keys, the ocarina shares many articulations with the tin whistle, such as cuts, strikes, rolls, and slides. However, tonguing is used more often on ocarina than on tin whistle, and vibrato is always achieved through adjusting breath pressure instead of with the fingers.


title: Ocarina

text: Other vessel flutes include the Chinese xun and African globe flutes. The xun (simplified Chinese: 埙; traditional: 塤; pinyin: xūn) is a Chinese vessel flute made of clay or ceramic. It is one of the oldest Chinese instruments. Shaped like an egg, it differs from the ocarina in being side-blown, like the Western concert flute, rather than having a recorder-like mouthpiece (a fipple or beak). Similar instruments exist in Korea (the "hun") and Japan (the "tsuchibue").


title: Ocarina

text: A related family of instruments is the closed-pipe family, which includes the panpipes and other instruments that produce their tone by vibrating a column of air within a stopped cylinder.


title: Ocarina

text: The traditional German gemshorn works nearly the same way as an ocarina. The only difference is the material it is made from: the horn of a chamois, goat, or other suitable animal.


title: Ocarina

text: The borrindo is a simple hollow clay ball with three to four fingering holes, one hole slightly larger than the other three, which are smaller and of equal size to one another. The holes are arranged in an isosceles triangular form. The borrindo is made out of soft alluvial clay available in plenty everywhere in the central Indus Valley. Being of the simplest design, it is made even by children. Some adults make fine borrindos of larger size, put pottery designs on them, and bake them. These baked borrindos, with pottery designs, are the later evolved forms of this musical instrument, which appears to have previously been used in its simple unbaked form for a long time. The sound notes are produced by blowing somewhat horizontally into the larger hole. Finger tips are placed on smaller holes to regulate the notes. Its ease of play makes it popular among children and the youth.


title: Pie chart

text: A pie chart (or a circle chart) is a circular statistical graphic, which is divided into slices to illustrate numerical proportion. In a pie chart, the arc length of each slice (and consequently its central angle and area) is proportional to the quantity it represents. While it is named for its resemblance to a pie which has been sliced, there are variations on the way it can be presented. The earliest known pie chart is generally credited to William Playfair's "Statistical Breviary" of 1801.


title: Pie chart

text: Pie charts are very widely used in the business world and the mass media. However, they have been criticized, and many experts recommend avoiding them, as research has shown it is difficult to compare different sections of a given pie chart, or to compare data across different pie charts. Pie charts can be replaced in most cases by other plots such as the bar chart, box plot, dot plot, etc.


title: Pie chart

text: The earliest known pie chart is generally credited to William Playfair's "Statistical Breviary" of 1801, in which two such graphs are used. Playfair presented an illustration, which contained a series of pie charts. One of those charts depicted the proportions of the Turkish Empire located in Asia, Europe and Africa before 1789. This invention was not widely used at first.


title: Pie chart

text: Florence Nightingale may not have invented the pie chart, but she adapted it to make it more readable, which fostered its wide use, still today. Indeed, Nightingale reconfigured the pie chart making the length of the wedges variable instead of their width. The graph, then, resembled a cock's comb. She was later assumed to have created it due to the obscurity and lack of practicality of Playfair's creation. Nightingale's polar area diagram, or occasionally the Nightingale rose diagram, equivalent to a modern circular histogram, to illustrate seasonal sources of patient mortality in the military field hospital she managed, was published in Notes on Matters Affecting the Health, Efficiency, and Hospital Administration of the British Army and sent to Queen Victoria in 1858. According to the historian Hugh Small, "she may have been the first to use [pie charts] for persuading people of the need for change."


title: Pie chart

text: The French engineer Charles Joseph Minard also used pie charts, in 1858. A map of his from 1858 used pie charts to represent the cattle sent from all around France for consumption in Paris.


title: Pie chart

text: A 3d pie chart, or perspective pie chart, is used to give the chart a 3D look. Often used for aesthetic reasons, the third dimension does not improve the reading of the data; on the contrary, these plots are difficult to interpret because of the distorted effect of perspective associated with the third dimension. The use of superfluous dimensions not used to display the data of interest is discouraged for charts in general, not only for pie charts.


title: Pie chart

text: A doughnut chart (also spelled donut) is a variant of the pie chart, with a blank center allowing for additional information about the data as a whole to be included.


title: Pie chart

text: A chart with one or more sectors separated from the rest of the disk is known as an "exploded pie chart". This effect is used to either highlight a sector, or to highlight smaller segments of the chart with small proportions.


title: Pie chart

text: The polar area diagram is similar to a usual pie chart, except sectors have equal angles and differ rather in how far each sector extends from the center of the circle.


title: Pie chart

text: For example, if the counts of deaths in each month for a year are to be plotted then there will be 12 sectors (one per month) all with the same angle of 30 degrees each. The radius of each sector would be proportional to the square root of the death rate for the month, so the area of a sector represents the rate of deaths in a month.


title: Pie chart

text: If the death rate in each month is subdivided by cause of death, it is possible to make multiple comparisons on one diagram, as is seen in the polar area diagram famously developed by Florence Nightingale.


title: Pie chart

text: The first known use of polar area diagrams was by André-Michel Guerry, which he called (circular curves), in an 1829 paper showing seasonal and daily variation in wind direction over the year and births and deaths by hour of the day. Léon Lalanne later used a polar diagram to show the frequency of wind directions around compass points in 1843. The wind rose is still used by meteorologists. Nightingale published her rose diagram in 1858. Although the name "coxcomb" has come to be associated with this type of diagram, Nightingale originally used the term to refer to the publication in which this diagram first appeared—an attention-getting book of charts and tables—rather than to this specific type of diagram.


title: Pie chart

text: A ring chart, also known as a sunburst chart or a multilevel pie chart, is used to visualize hierarchical data, depicted by concentric circles. The circle in the center represents the root node, with the hierarchy moving outward from the center. A segment of the inner circle bears a hierarchical relationship to those segments of the outer circle which lie within the angular sweep of the parent segment.


title: Pie chart

text: The design superimposes a normal pie chart with a modified polar area chart to permit the comparison of two sets of related data.


title: Pie chart

text: The base pie chart represents the first data set in the usual way, with different slice sizes. The second set is represented by the superimposed polar area chart, using the same angles as the base, and adjusting the radii to fit the data. For example, the base pie chart could show the distribution of age and gender groups in a population, and the overlay their representation among road casualties. Age and gender groups that are especially susceptible to being involved in accidents then stand out as slices that extend beyond the original pie chart.


title: Pie chart

text: Square charts, also called waffle charts, are a form of pie charts that use squares instead of circles to represent percentages. Similar to basic circular pie charts, square pie charts take each percentage out of a total 100%. They are often 10 by 10 grids, where each cell represents 1%. Despite the name, circles, pictograms (such as of people), and other shapes may be used instead of squares. One major benefit to square charts is that smaller percentages, difficult to see on traditional pie charts, can be easily depicted.


title: Pie chart

text: The following example chart is based on preliminary results of the election for the European Parliament in 2004. The table lists the number of seats allocated to each party group, along with the derived percentage of the total that they each make up. The values in the last column, the derived central angle of each sector, Is found by multiplying the percentage by 360°.


title: Pie chart

text: The size of each central angle is proportional to the size of the corresponding quantity, here the number of seats. Since the sum of the central angles has to be 360°, the central angle for a quantity that is a fraction "Q" of the total is 360"Q" degrees.


title: Pie chart

text: In the example, the central angle for the largest group (European People's Party (EPP)) is 135.7° because 0.377 times 360, rounded to one decimal place, equals 135.7.


title: Pie chart

text: A flaw exhibited by pie charts is that they cannot show more than a few values without separating the visual encoding (the “slices”) from the data they represent (typically percentages). When slices become too small, pie charts have to rely on colors, textures or arrows so the reader can understand them. This makes them unsuitable for use with larger amounts of data. Pie charts also take up a larger amount of space on the page compared to the more flexible bar charts, which do not need to have separate legends, and can display other values such as averages or targets at the same time.


title: Pie chart

text: Statisticians generally regard pie charts as a poor method of displaying information, and they are uncommon in scientific literature. One reason is that it is more difficult for comparisons to be made between the size of items in a chart when area is used instead of length and when different items are shown as different shapes.


title: Pie chart

text: Further, in research performed at AT&T Bell Laboratories, it was shown that comparison by angle was less accurate than comparison by length. Most subjects have difficulty ordering the slices in the pie chart by size; when an equivalent bar chart is used the comparison is much easier. Similarly, comparisons between data sets are easier using the bar chart. However, if the goal is to compare a given category (a slice of the pie) with the total (the whole pie) in a single chart and the multiple is close to 25 or 50 percent, then a pie chart can often be more effective than a bar graph.


title: Pie chart

text: In a pie chart with many section, several values may be represented with the same or similar colors, making interpretation difficult.


title: Pie chart

text: Several studies presented at the "European Visualization Conference" analyzed the relative accuracy of several pie chart formats, reaching the conclusion that pie charts and doughnut charts produce similar error levels when reading them, and square pie charts provide the most accurate reading.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The straight-six engine (also referred to as an inline-six engine; abbreviated I6 or L6) is a piston engine with six cylinders arranged in a straight line along the crankshaft. A straight-six engine has perfect primary and secondary engine balance, resulting in fewer vibrations than other designs of six or less cylinders.


title: Straight-six engine

text: Until the mid-20th century, the straight-six layout was the most common design for engines with six cylinders. However, V6 engines became more common from the 1960s and by the 2000s most straight-six engines had been replaced by V6 engines. An exception to this trend is BMW which has produced automotive straight-six engines from 1933 to the present day.


title: Straight-six engine

text: In terms of packaging, straight-six engines are almost always narrower than a V6 engine or V8 engine, but longer than straight-four engines, V6s, and most V8s.


title: Straight-six engine

text: Straight-six engines are typically produced in displacements ranging from , however engines ranging in size from the Benelli 750 Sei motorcycle engine to the Cummins B Series engine pickup truck engine have also been produced. Due to its well balanced configuration, the straight-six can be scaled up to very large sizes for heavy trucks, locomotives, industrial and marine use.


title: Straight-six engine

text: If an appropriate firing order is used, a straight-six engine has perfect primary and secondary engine balance. The primary balance is due to the front and rear trio of cylinders move in pairs (albeit 360° out of phase), thus cancelling out the rocking motion present in a straight-three engine. The secondary balance is due to the crank throws being arranged in three planes offset at 120°, which results in the non-sinusoidal forces summing to zero for all free forces up until the sixth order.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The engine balance characteristics of a straight-six engine compare favourably with the more common straight-four engines and V6 engines, which experience significant secondary dynamic imbalance, resulting in engine vibration. As engine reciprocating forces increase with the cube of piston bore, the straight-six is a preferred configuration for large truck engines.


title: Straight-six engine

text: An even-firing six cylinder two-stroke engine requires ignitions at 60° intervals or else it would run with simultaneous ignitions and be no smoother than a triple in power delivery. As such, it also requires crank throws at 60° such designs appear to have been limited to diesel engines such as the Detroit 71 series and some marine engines, as well as outboard motors.


title: Straight-six engine

text: Some of the 120 possible crankshaft configurations have useful properties, but all of them have a rocking imbalance of some kind which may or may not require a balance shaft, depending on the application. This is because the six pistons with six unique phases cannot be "paired" as in the four-stroke case. The Detroit engines used a configuration that, once the primary rocking couple was balanced out, was also perfectly balanced at all other rocking couples until 6th-order. Mercury came to use a configuration that canceled only the primary rocking couple and was run without a balancer.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The reciprocating masses of all configurations are still imbalanced at only 6th-order and up in their plane of motion, but the balance of kinetic energy exchange between pistons has improved to a residual 6th-order-and-up inertial torque oscillation compared with the four-stroke design being imbalanced at 3rd-order and up.


title: Straight-six engine

text: Crankshafts for straight-six engines usually have either four main bearings (i.e. a bearing in between each pair of crankpins and one at each end) or seven main bearings (i.e. a bearing between every crankpin):


title: Straight-six engine

text: The first production straight-six engine was introduced in the Dutch "Spyker 60 HP" racing car in 1903. Straight-six engines increased in popularity in the years after and by 1909, there were approximately 80 manufacturers using it (including 62 in the United Kingdom). Prior to the 1950s, V6 engines were rarely used, due to the poorer engine balance of V6 engines compared to straight-six engines. Since the 1980s, however, the shorter length of V6 engines has seen most manufacturers replace straight-six engines with V6 engines. An exception to this trend is German brand BMW, which has always used a straight-six layout for its six-cylinder engines.


title: Straight-six engine

text: Since 2017, a small reversal of the trend of switching to V6 engines has occurred, due to the ability to create a modular engine family of straight-four and straight-six engines sharing many components. Examples include the 2017–present Mercedes-Benz M256 engine, the 2019–present Jaguar Land Rover Ingenium engines (AJ300 and AJ300D versions), the 2021–present Stellantis Hurricane engine and the 2022–present Mazda Skyactiv-X and Skyactiv-D engines.


title: Straight-six engine

text: Alfa Romeo's first production straight-six engine - 6.3 litre flathead petrol engine - was introduced in 1921 in the Alfa Romeo G1 luxury car. A overhead valve design was introduced in the 1922 Alfa Romeo RL sports car and an overhead camshaft design was used in the 1927 Alfa Romeo 6C sports car and various racing cars from 1927-1954. The last Alfa Romeo model using a straight-six was the 1961-1969 Alfa Romeo 2600 executive car, before the company switched to V6 engines.


title: Straight-six engine

text: Mercedes-Benz's history of straight-six engines began with the 1913 Mercedes D.I aircraft engine. The first automotive straight-six engine was the 1924-1929 "Daimler M836" 3.9 litre petrol engine. Following World War 2, Mercedes resumed production of straight-six engines with the 1951 introduction of the Mercedes-Benz M180 overhead camshaft engine. In 1985, the Mercedes-Benz OM603 3.0 litre diesel straight-six engine was introduced. In 1996, the company replaced its petrol straight-sixes with a series V6 engines, although the company continued to produce diesel straight-six engines. Production of petrol straight-six engines resumed in 2017 with the introduction of the Mercedes-Benz M256 turbocharged DOHC engine.


title: Straight-six engine

text: Opel began production of straight-six engines in 1927 with a 1.8 litre flathead petrol engine used by the Opel 8/40 PS. The displacement of this engine was expanded as it was used in later models such as the Opel Kapitän and Opel Admiral, with later versions switching to an overhead valve (pushrod) design. In 1968, the straight-six versions of the Opel CIH engine were introduced, initially using a single overhead camshaft (SOHC) with some later versions using double overhead camshafts (DOHC). Production of the Opel CIH engine continued until 1993, when it was replaced by a V6 engine.


title: Straight-six engine

text: Volvo began production of straight-six engines with the 1929-1958 Penta DB flathead petrol engines. The company resumed production in 1969 with the Volvo B30 overhead valve petrol engine, followed by the straight-six versions of the Volvo Modular Engine introduced in 1995 and then the Volvo SI6 engine introduced in 2006. Several models (such as the 1998-2006 Volvo S80) used the uncommon design of a transversely-mounted straight-six engine. Production of Volvo straight-six engines ceased in 2015.


title: Straight-six engine

text: BMW's first product was the 1917 BMW IIIa straight-six aircraft engine. The company began production of automotive straight-six engines in 1933 with the BMW M78 petrol engine, a 1.2 litre overhead valve design which evolved over the years into the BMW M337 (produced until 1958). Production of straight-six engines resumed in 1968 with the BMW M30 single overhead camshaft engine, which was produced for 27 years and used in various models. The 1978-1989 BMW M88 engine was a double overhead camshaft design which was introduced in the BMW M1 mid-engine sport car. BMW's introduction of turbocharged straight-six engines (aside from the low-volume variants of the M30 engine in the 1980s) was the 2006 BMW N54 and production of naturally aspirated engines ceased in 2015. , the BMW B58 turbocharged straight-six engine remains in production, along with its higher performance BMW S58 variants.


title: Straight-six engine

text: Rolls-Royce's first straight-six engine was a 6.0 litre IOE petrol engine which was used in the 1905 Rolls-Royce 30 hp luxury car. This car was replaced by the 1906-1926 Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost, which switched to a flathead (side-valve) design for its straight-six engine.


title: Straight-six engine

text: In 1906, the "Standard Six" luxury car was introduced, powered by a 20 hp straight-six petrol engine. Standard's engines were also used in several cars built by SS Cars and its successor Jaguar, such as the 1932 SS 1 sports car, the 1936 SS Jaguar 100 and the 1938 Jaguar 3½ Litre sports saloon/coupe and the 1948 Jaguar Mark V luxury car.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The 1927 Rover Two-litre luxury car introduced the company's IOE straight-six petrol engine. This engine was used in various Rover models until the Rover P5 was discontinued in 1973, and in various Land Rover models from the 1961 Land Rover Series IIA until 1980 Land Rover Series III.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The 1928 Austin 20/6 luxury car introduced Austin's flathead straight-six petrol engine. The 1938-1939 Austin Twenty-Eight used an enlarged version of this engine. This was replaced by the Austin D-Series engine, an overhead valve engine initially designed for trucks, which was used in passenger cars from 1947-1968 (along with several Jensen Motors models from 1946-1962). The overhead valve BMC C-Series was used by various BMC brands from 1954-1971, followed by the 2.2 litre version of the BMC E-Series overhead camshaft engine, which was produced from 1970-1982.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The 1930-1936 Wolseley Hornet six lightweight car was powered by a 1.3-1.6 litre overhead camshaft straight-six petrol engine.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The 1931-1932 MG F-type tourers, 1932-1934 MG K-type sports cars and 1934-1936 MG N-type sports cars were powered by an overhead camshaft straight-six petrol engine.


title: Straight-six engine

text: During the mid-1930s, the Riley MPH sports car and "Riley Kestrel 6" saloon were produced in small numbers and were powered by dual overhead camshaft straight-six petrol engine.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The 1947 Bristol 400 luxury car was powered by an overhead valve straight-six petrol engine based on the design of the BMW M328 engine. This engine remained in use until the Bristol 406 was discontinued in 1961.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The dual overhead camshaft Jaguar XK6 engine petrol engine was produced from 1948-1992 in the Jaguar XK120 sports car. Introduced as a 3.4-litre, it was used both in passenger cars and racing cars, being produced in displacements of 2.4 to 4.2-litres. The XK6 engine was followed by the AJ6 and AJ16 engines, which were produced from 1984-1996, before being replaced by a Ford-derived V6 engine.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The 1948-1959 Lagonda straight-6 dual overhead camshaft petrol engine was used in various cars from Aston Martin and Lagonda. This engine's successor was the Tadek Marek-designed straight-six used in the DB4 (1958), DB5 (1963), DB6 (1965) and DBS (1967).


title: Straight-six engine

text: The Ford Zephyr 6 overhead valve engine was used in the "Ford Zephyr" executive car and several other models from 1951-1966.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The Triumph I6 overhead valve straight-six petrol engine was produced from 1960-1977 and debuted in the Triumph TR5 sports car. The Leyland PE166 engine was loosely based on the Triumph design and was produced from 1977-1986.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The 1972-1977 TVR 2500M sports car was powered by the aforementioned Triumph I6 engine. Then from 1999-2007, TVR's own TVR Speed Six dual overhead camshaft engine was used in several of the company's sports cars.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The 1906-1908 Ford Model K luxury car used a straight-six petrol engine and was the only Ford six-cylinder passenger car engine until to the 1940s. The Ford flathead I6 was produced from 1941-1951, followed by the Ford OHV I6 overhead valve engine from 1952-1964, then the Ford Thriftpower Six overhead valve engine from 1960-1982 and the Ford 240 I6 from 1965-1972. The Ford straight-sixes were replaced by V6 engines for passenger cars in the mid 1970s, however a version of the straight-six engine remained in production for SUVs, vans and trucks until 1996.


title: Straight-six engine

text: In 1908, the Oldsmobile Model Z was powered a flathead straight-six petrol engine, which was produced until 1912 (in the Oldsmobile Limited luxury car) in displacements of , and . Oldsmobile's next straight-six engine was introduced in the 1913 Oldsmobile Six luxury car, initially with a displacement of , followed by a displacement of for the 1917-1921 Oldsmobile Model 37 luxury car. The later generations of the Oldsmobile Straight-6 also used a flathead design, from its introduction in the 1923 Oldsmobile Model 30 luxury car until it was replaced in 1950 by Oldsmobile's V8 engine.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The 1913-1929 Oakland Six luxury car was powered by a flathead petrol engine produced in displacements of and . In 1926, the Pontiac Six was introduced as a lower cost version of the Oakland six, powered by the Pontiac Split-Head Six flathead engine, which used two cylinder heads. This engine was replaced by the 1941-1954 Pontiac flathead six. The unrelated Pontiac OHV 6 overhead valve engine was produced in 1964-1965, based on a Chevrolet design. Pontiac's final straight-six engine was the 1966-1969 Pontiac OHC 6 overhead camshaft engine, which was replaced by Chevrolet's straight-six engine and Buick's V6 engine.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The overhead valve Buick Straight-6 petrol engine was introduced in the 1914 Buick Six luxury car and was produced until 1930. Buick did not produce another six-cylinder engine until they introduced a V6 engine in 1962.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The 1916-1926 Hudson Super Six was powered by a straight-six petrol engine. This was followed by an IOE version in 1916. The 1951 Hudson Hornet introduced a flathead straight-six engine, which remained in production until Hudson was shuttered in 1957.


title: Straight-six engine

text: In 1924, Chrysler began production of a straight six version of the Chrysler flathead petrol engine. This was replaced by the 1959-2000 Chrysler Slant-6 overhead valve straight-six petrol engine, which was so named due to the 30-degree angle used to reduce the height of the engine (with the trade-off of a wider engine). The Slant-6 was released in the Dodge Dart economy car and used in many models until it was replaced by a V6 engine after 30 years in production.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The Chevrolet Stovebolt overhead valve straight-six petrol engine was introduced in 1929 as a replacement for the brand's straight-four engines and was produced in displacements of , and . The second generation of this engine family - often referred to as the engine - was produced from 1937-1962 in displacements of , and . This was followed by the 1962-1988 Chevrolet Turbo-Thrift engine (also using an overhead valve design), which was replaced by various General Motors V6 engines.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The 1952-2006 AMC Straight-6 petrol engine initially used a flathead design, before being upgraded to an overhead valve design in 1956. The engine blocks were noted for their sturdiness and used in some racing cars; a turbocharged racing engine based on the AMC Straight-6 engine block produced and competed in the 1978 Indianapolis 500 race. The final application for the AMC Straight-6 engine was the 2006 Jeep Wrangler (TJ), after which it was replaced by a V6 engine.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The 1962-1973 Jeep Tornado overhead camshaft straight-six engine was introduced in the Willys Jeep Station Wagon. At the time of its introduction, the Tornado engine had the lowest specific fuel consumption of an American gasoline (petrol) engine. The Tornado engine was replaced by the AMC Straight-6 engine.


title: Straight-six engine

text: In 2001, General Motors resumed production of straight-six engines with the Vortec 4200 dual overhead camshaft petrol engine. This engine was used in various SUV models until 2009. Also, the Duramax Straight-6 turbocharged diesel engine has been available in several General Motors SUV and light truck models since 2020.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The Toyota Type A was an overhead valve petrol engine which was based on the "Chevrolet Stovebolt" engine and produced from 1935-1947. This was followed by the first generation Toyota F overhead valve engine, which was produced from 1949-1975, which in turn was followed by the 2F version from 1975-1988 and the fuel-injected 3F / 3FE version from 1988-1992. This was replaced by the dual overhead camshaft Toyota FZ engine, which was produced from 1993-2008. Produced alongside these engines was the single overhead camshaft Toyota M engine, which was introduced in 1965 and produced over seven generations (the final being the "7M-GTE" version) until 1993. The M engine was replaced by the dual overhead camshaft Toyota JZ engine, which was produced from 1990-2007 and is arguably Toyota's best-known straight-six engine. Toyota's third line of straight-six engines was the 2.0 litre Toyota G engine, which was released as a single overhead camshaft engine in 1979 and upgraded to dual overhead camshafts before production ended in 2008.


title: Straight-six engine

text: Nissan's first straight-six engine was the 1950-1952 Nissan NAK flathead petrol engine, which continued in various forms until production of the Nissan P engine ended in 2003. The 1963-1965 Nissan K overhead valve petrol engine was used in the Nissan Cedric Special 50 luxury car. Using a similar design, the Nissan H30 engine was used in several luxury cars form 1965-1989. In 1966, Nissan began production of the six-cylinder versions of the Nissan L single overhead camshaft engine, which was produced until 2009. The 1985-2004 Nissan RB engine, used in the Nissan Skyline and several other cars, was produced in single overhead camshaft and dual overhead camshaft configurations until it was replaced by a V6 engine. The Nissan TB overhead valve engine was introduced in 1987 and produced alongside the other straight-six engines.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The six-cylinder versions of the Prince G engine were introduced in 1963 and remained in production until 1969, three years after Prince's merger with Nissan. The 1969-1973 Nissan S20 dual overhead camshaft engine (used in the Nissan Fairlady and first generation of the Nissan Skyline GT-R) was based on the Prince G engine.


title: Straight-six engine

text: Mitsubishi produced six-cylinder versions of the Mitsubishi KE engine from 1963-1970, as well as the rare six-cylinder versions of the Mitsubishi 6G34 version of the single overhead camshaft "Saturn" engine from 1970-1976.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The 2000-2006 Daewoo Magnus (also called the Chevrolet Evanda, Chevrolet Epica, Holden Epica or Suzuki Verona) was powered by the "Daewoo XK6" straight-six petrol engine, which is one of few straight-six engines to be used in a transverse engine front-wheel drive car.


title: Straight-six engine

text: Holden's first car, the 1948 Holden 48-215 sedan, was powered by the Holden 'grey' motor, an overhead valve petrol engine. This engine was replaced by the Holden 'red' motor, which was produced from 1963-1980 and in turn followed by the 1980-1984 Holden 'blue' motor. The final locally-produced Holden straight-six was the 1984-1986 Holden 'black' motor, which was initially replaced by the Japanese-built Nissan RB30 engine, before Holden switched to a locally-built V6 engine.


title: Straight-six engine

text: Ford produced straight-six engines for the longest time of any Australian manufacturer. In 1960, the Ford Falcon large sedan was introduced with a locally-built version of the American Ford Straight-6 overhead valve engine. In 1998, these engines were upgraded to a single overhead camshaft design. This was followed in 2002 by the Ford Barra dual overhead camshaft engine in 2002, which was produced in both naturally aspirated and turbocharged versions. The Ford Barra engine remained in use until Ford Australia ceased local production in 2016.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The Chrysler Valiant was introduced in 1962, powered by the American Chrysler Slant 6. In 1970, the Valiant switched over to the Chrysler Hemi-6 overhead valve engine, an Australia-only engine that was produced until Chrysler Australia ceased production of large cars in 1981.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The 1962-1965 Austin Freeway and Wolseley 24/80 large sedans were powered by BMC Australia's "Blue Streak" overhead valve petrol engine. This was followed by the six-cylinder versions of the BMC E-series overhead camshaft engines, which were introduced in the 1970 Austin Kimberley / Austin Tasman front-wheel drive sedans, which were produced until 1972. This engine was upsized to a 2.6 L displacement in 1973 and used Leyland P76 and the Morris Marina large cars until 1975.


title: Straight-six engine

text: From 1964-1967, Honda produced several Grand Prix motorcycle racing motorcycles powered by straight-six versions of the Honda RC petrol racing engine; these versions were designated the '3RC164', 'RC165', 'RC166' and Honda RC174. The unrelated road-use Honda CBX was produced from 1978-1982 and was powered by a dual overhead camshaft petrol engine.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The 1973-1989 Benelli Sei series was the first road-use motorcycle to use a straight-six engine. Initially released with a single overhead camshaft petrol engine, in 1979 it was upgraded to a engine.


title: Straight-six engine

text: The 1979-1989 Kawasaki Z1300 roadster motorcycle was powered by a dual overhead camshaft petrol engine.


title: Straight-six engine

text: From 2011–present, the BMW K1600 series of touring motorcycles have been powered by a dual overhead camshaft petrol engine.


title: The Seven Year Itch

text: The Seven Year Itch is a 1955 American romantic comedy film directed by Billy Wilder, from a screenplay he co-wrote with George Axelrod from the 1952 three-act play. The film stars Marilyn Monroe and Tom Ewell, who reprised his stage role. It contains one of the most iconic pop-culture images of the 20th century – Monroe standing on a subway grate as her white dress is blown upwards by a passing train. The titular phrase, which refers to a waning interest in monogamous relationship after seven years of marriage, has been used by psychologists.


title: The Seven Year Itch

text: Richard Sherman is a middle-aged publishing executive in New York City with an overactive imagination, whose wife, Helen, and son, Ricky, are spending the summer in Maine. When he returns home from the train station with the kayak paddle Ricky accidentally left behind, he meets an unnamed woman, who is a commercial actress and former model. She rents the apartment upstairs while in town to make television spots for a brand of toothpaste. That evening, he works on reading the manuscript of a book in which psychiatrist Dr. Brubaker claims that almost all men are driven to have extra-marital affairs in the seventh year of marriage. Sherman has an imaginary conversation with Helen, trying to convince her, in three fantasy sequences, that he is irresistible to women, including his secretary, a nurse, and Helen's bridesmaid, but she laughs it off. A potted tomato plant falls onto his lounge chair; the woman upstairs apologizes for accidentally knocking it off her balcony, and Richard invites her down for a drink.


title: The Seven Year Itch

text: While waiting for her to arrive, he vacillates between a fantasy of her as a femme fatale overcome by his playing of Rachmaninoff's Second Piano Concerto, and guilt at betraying his wife. When she does come down, she is wearing pink pajamas and turns out to be a naïve and innocent young woman. On his suggestion, she brings back a bottle of champagne from her apartment and returns in a white dress. Richard, overcome by his fantasies, awkwardly grabs at her while they are playing "Chopsticks" together on the piano, causing them to fall off the piano bench. He apologizes, but she says it happens to her all the time. Guilt-ridden, he asks her to leave.


title: The Seven Year Itch

text: The next day at work, Richard is distracted by the fear Helen will find out about his indiscretion, though she is none the wiser and just wants Richard to send Ricky his paddle so he can use the kayak. Richard's waning resolve to resist temptation fuels his fear that he is succumbing to the "Seven Year Itch". He visits Dr. Brubaker, who arrives at the office to discuss the book, to no avail. When he keeps hearing of his wife spending time with her writer friend McKenzie in Maine, Richard imagines they are carrying on an affair, and he decides to invite the young woman out to dinner and a film. They go to an air-conditioned theater, seeking respite from the oppressive heat, and see "The Creature from the Black Lagoon". As the two are talking while walking home, she briefly stands over a subway grate to experience the updraft – Monroe in the iconic scene in her pleated white halterneck dress, blowing her skirt up in the breeze. The two then spend the night (platonicly) at his air-conditioned apartment (as her apartment is uncooled) so she can rest for her television appearance.


title: The Seven Year Itch

text: The next morning, Richard comes to his senses, and fearing his wife's retribution (within his dream), he tells the woman she can stay in his apartment, and leaves to catch the train to Maine.