title: Landsknecht

text: Maximilian began raising the first units in 1486, amassing 6,000–8,000 mercenaries. One of these units he gave to Eitel Friedrich II, Count of Hohenzollern, who trained them with Swiss instructors in Bruges in 1487 to become the "Black Guard" – the first . In 1488, Maximilian organized the Swabian League, creating an army of 12,000 infantry and 1,200 cavalry to deter Bavaria and Bohemia. This is considered to be the first army to be raised in Germany. Maximilian raised a strong army for the Austrian-Hungarian War of 1490, and succeeded in driving the Hungarians out of Austria. The in his army refused to serve after sacking Stuhlweissenburg (now Székesfehérvár, Hungary), citing lack of pay and stopping Maximilian's advance on Buda. To prevent a repeat of Stuhlweissenburg, Maximilian now sought to homogenize the into a fully professional, and mostly Germanic military force.


title: Landsknecht

text: In the 1490s, the well-trained managed to defeat significantly greater Frisian armies. wrote of the siege of Älvsborg Fortress in July 1502, fighting for the King of Denmark: "We were 1800 Germans, and we were attacked by 15000 Swedish farmers ... we struck most of them dead." After the Battle of Novara in 1513, the Swiss executed the hundreds of German Landsknecht mercenaries they had captured who had fought for the French. At the Battle of Bicocca and the Battle of Marignano (1515), the performed well, defeating the famed .


title: Landsknecht

text: In 1521, the Spaniards recruited German infantrymen to defend their country against the French because, as they stated "our infantry does not perform as well in its native country as abroad".


title: Landsknecht

text: The Imperial were instrumental in many of the Emperor's victories, including the decisive Battle of Pavia in 1525. The same year, they also managed to defeat the peasants' revolt in the Empire. At their peak in the early 16th century, the were considered formidable soldiers who were often brave and loyal. However, these qualities may have declined afterward. The were also employed by the Habsburg emperor and the royal Valencian authorities in the suppression of the First Revolt of Espadà of 1526, which took place in the mountains of Espadà, in modern-day Spanish Castelló province (then in the Aragonese Kingdom of Valencia), where thousands of Valencian Muslim "fellah"s took up arms against the decree of forced conversion issued that very year by the emperor.


title: Landsknecht

text: They are attested as deployed in the armies of Kings John III of Navarre and successor Henry II of Navarre during their campaigns to reconquer Navarre (1512–1524). In the same context, they are also found fighting on Charles V's side (battle for Hondarribia, 1521–1524) where they performed strongly. They also served in high numbers in the Imperial army during the campaigns of Austria (1532), France (1542), Germanic Reformed League (1547) and in of all the Italian wars. Others also fought on the Habsburg-Ottoman frontier.


title: Landsknecht

text: The army of the Holy Roman Emperor defeated the French army in Italy, but funds were not available to pay the soldiers. The 34,000 Imperial troops mutinied and forced their commander, Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, to lead them towards Rome. The Sack of Rome in 1527 was executed by some 6,000 Spaniards under the Duke, 14,000 under Georg von Frundsberg, some Italian infantry and some cavalry.


title: Landsknecht

text: Terence McIntosh comments that the expansionist, aggressive policy pursued by Maximilian I and Charles V at the inception of the early modern German nation (although not to further the aims specific to the German nation per se), mainly relying on German manpower as well as utilizing fearsome "Landsknecht" and other mercenaries (with the Battle of Pavia and atrocities like the Sack of Rome being associated with them), would affect the way neighbours viewed the German polity, although in the longue durée, Germany tended to be at peace.


title: Landsknecht

text: From the 1560s on, after the death of Frundsberg, the reputation of the steadily decreased. In the French Wars of Religion and the Eighty Years War, their bravery and discipline came under criticism, and the Spanish elements of the army of Flanders regularly deprecated the battlefield usefulness of the , somewhat unfairly. Their status also suffered from the rising reputation of the dreaded Spanish tercios who, however, were far less abundant and more expensive to train. When serving in southern Europe, were still considered elite troops. In the army of the Dutch rebels, many German mercenaries were hired but were forced to give up some traditions in order to increase their discipline in river crossing and their naval fighting abilities. Increasing ill-discipline within the ranks saw them replaced with an improved system of raising a German army, the "Kaiserlicher Fussknecht", which was far less reliant on mercenaries.


title: Landsknecht

text: The "Landsknechte", often recruited from South Germany, came from a society with exploding population growth, increasing unemployment, diverse cultural factors and depleting hierarchical structure (unlike the tightly organized society of the Swiss). In addition to dispossessed craftmen and peasants, there were burghers, aristocrats and runaway serfs as well. They were also used to freedom of carrying weapons. The result was that soldiers leaned towards a libertine (and also brutal) lifestyle. Thus, the role of the regiment, leadership by example (commanders tended to dismount to fight with the troops) and harsh discipline (involving capital punishment) were emphasized to compensate.


title: Landsknecht

text: As with the , a regiment (a typical "Landsknecht" regiment consisted of 4,000 men) of was raised by a lord with a letter patent ("Bestallungsbrief") that named the unit colonel ("Obrist"). This document laid out the size and structure of the unit, the pay of its men, and contained its Articles of War ("Artikelsbriefe"). Upon accepting the commission and securing funding, either through a bank loan or a grant from the lord, the colonel assembled his chain of command. His captains, once appointed, would then go to a locality he knew with drummers and fifers. Recruits gathered at a specified place and time for the muster. There, they would parade under an arch and be inspected by the colonel and his captains, then be paid their first months' salary. The colonel next read the "Bestallungsbrief" in full to the soldiers, who then swore oaths of allegiance to cause, officers, and the Emperor. This ceremony also saw the appointing of the unit staff and its standard bearers, or "Fähnriche" (ensigns), who swore to never lose the standard.


title: Landsknecht

text: The colonel was the highest–ranking officer in a in a regiment, but if his force contained more than one regiment he could become a "Generalobrist". If it contained cavalry and artillery in addition to its infantry, then he could be a "Feldobrist" or "Generalfeldobrist". The regiment would be commanded by a lieutenant colonel in the colonel's stead. The regiment itself was formed by ten "Fähnlein", equivalent to a company and commanded by a captain. A "Fähnlein" was made up by 400 men, including 100 veterans. "Rotten", equivalent to a platoon, were the building blocks of the "Fähnlein" and contained either ten ordinary or six "Doppelsöldner", led by a "Rottmeister" elected by his unit. In totality, the regiment averaged 4,000 men; ten "Fähnlein", containing 40 "Rotten". Unit sergeant majors, called "Feldweibel", were tasked with training drill and formation. The regimental sergeant major, "Oberster-Feldweibel" was responsible for drill on the battlefield. "Rotten" sergeants, "Weibel", were charged with ensuring discipline and relaying liaisons between enlisted men and their officers. One of these men, the "Gemeinweibel", was the spokesman for the men and was elected monthly.


title: Landsknecht

text: According to Imperial law, a colonel could have a staff of 22 officers but in practice this depended on the colonel's wealth. Included in that staff were a chaplain, a scribe, a doctor, a scout, his personal quartermaster and ensign, a drummer and fifer, and a bodyguard ("Trabanten") of eight men. Captains also had a staff that included much of the same, but with additional musicians and two "Doppelsöldner" to protect him. A provost marshal and "Schultheiss" were appointed by the colonel to maintain military discipline and to prosecute the "Artikelsbriefe" respectively. The provost was unimpeachable, and feared. Harsh punishments could be expected for offenses such as mutiny or drunkenness on duty. A provost had a retinue of a jailer, bailiff, and executioner ("Freimann").


title: Landsknecht

text: Just like the , formations consisted of men trained and armed with pikes, halberds, and swords. 300 men of a "Fähnlein" would be armed with a pike, though a 's pike was generally shorter than a 's at about . Experienced and well-equipped soldiers, receiving double a normal 's pay and getting the title "Doppelsöldner", made up a quarter of each "Fähnlein". 50 of these men were armed with a halberd or with a two-handed sword called a "Zweihänder" while another fifty were arquebusiers or crossbowmen. The focus on firearms, rather than crossbows, as ordained by Maximilian, was where they were different from the Swiss. Maximilian abolished the crossbow in military use in 1517 (although other countries continued to use them).


title: Landsknecht

text: Most , regardless of primary weapon, carried a short sword called a "Katzbalger" for close combat. By the end of the 16th century, however, the number of pikemen in a "Fähnlein" had diminished to around 200.


title: Landsknecht

text: They also copied the Swiss in tactics. fought in a pike square they called the "gevierte Ordnung", forty to sixty men deep. "Doppelsöldnern" made up the formation's first two ranks. Then came the ensigns, and then the squares themselves. Pikemen, supported by halberdiers, formed the square while swordsmen made up their front and rear. The most experienced soldiers were located at the back of the formation and arquebusiers were placed on its flanks. In the attack, a band of soldiers called a forlorn hope preceded the pike square to break enemy pikes.


title: Landsknecht

text: The pikemen were supported by halberdiers, who would rush a gap in an opposing line, a tactic also copied from the Swiss. As their solidarity grew, commanders emphasized on finess and timing, rather than the head-down battering charge of the Swiss.


title: Landsknecht

text: As the "Landsknechte's" fighting techniques were developed, they no longer preferred fighting along a straight line (as exercised by even the Swiss until the end of the fifteenth century), but leaned towards a circle-wise movement that enhanced the use of the space around the combatant and allowed them to attack the opponents from different angles. The circle-wise formation described by Jean Molinet as the "snail" would become the hallmark of "Landsknechte's" combat. The new types of combat also required the maintenance of a stable bodily equilibrium. Maximilian, an innovator of these types of movements, also saw value in their effects over the maintenance of group discipline (apart from the control of centralized institutions). As Maximilian and his commanders sought to popularize these forms of movements (which only became daily practice at the end of the fifteenth century and gained dominance after Maximilian's death in 1519), he promoted them in tournaments, in fencing and in dancing as well. The courtly festivals became a playground for innovations, foreshadowing developments in military practices.


title: Landsknecht

text: The "Tross" were the camp followers or baggage train who traveled with each unit, carrying military necessities, the food, and the belongings of each soldier and his family. The "Tross" was made up of women, children and some craftsmen. Women and young boys set up camps, cooked, mended injuries, and dug and cleaned latrines. A was usually forbidden by his "Bestallungsbrief" from having more than one woman in the baggage train. The "Tross" was overseen by a "whore's sergeant" ("Hurenweibel").


title: Sebaceous gland

text: A sebaceous gland is a microscopic exocrine gland in the skin that opens into a hair follicle to secrete an oily or waxy matter, called sebum, which lubricates the hair and skin of mammals. In humans, sebaceous glands occur in the greatest number on the face and scalp, but also on all parts of the skin except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. In the eyelids, meibomian glands, also called tarsal glands, are a type of sebaceous gland that secrete a special type of sebum into tears. Surrounding the female nipple, areolar glands are specialized sebaceous glands for lubricating the nipple. Fordyce spots are benign, visible, sebaceous glands found usually on the lips, gums and inner cheeks, and genitals.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Sebaceous glands are found throughout all areas of the skin, except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. There are two types of sebaceous glands, those connected to hair follicles and those that exist independently.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Sebaceous glands are found in hair-covered areas, where they are connected to hair follicles. One or more glands may surround each hair follicle, and the glands themselves are surrounded by arrector pili muscles, forming a pilosebaceous unit. The glands have an acinar structure (like a many-lobed berry), in which multiple glands branch off a central duct. The glands deposit sebum on the hairs and bring it to the skin surface along the hair shaft. The structure, consisting of hair, hair follicle, arrector pili muscles, and sebaceous gland, is an epidermal invagination known as a "pilosebaceous unit".


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Sebaceous glands are also found in hairless areas (glabrous skin) of the eyelids, nose, penis, labia minora, the inner mucosal membrane of the cheek, and nipples. Some sebaceous glands have unique names. Sebaceous glands on the lip and mucosa of the cheek, and on the genitalia, are known as Fordyce spots, and glands on the eyelids are known as meibomian glands. Sebaceous glands of the breast are also known as Montgomery's glands.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Sebaceous glands are first visible from the 13th to the 16th week of fetal development, as bulgings off hair follicles. Sebaceous glands develop from the same tissue that gives rise to the epidermis of the skin. Overexpression of the signalling factors Wnt, Myc and SHH all increase the likelihood of sebaceous gland presence.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: The sebaceous glands of a human fetus secrete a substance called vernix caseosa, a waxy, translucent white substance coating the skin of newborns. After birth, activity of the glands decreases until there is almost no activity during ages 2–6 years, and then increases to a peak of activity during puberty, due to heightened levels of androgens.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Relative to keratinocytes that make up the hair follicle, sebaceous glands are composed of huge cells with many large vesicles that contain the sebum. These cells express Na and Cl ion channels, ENaC and CFTR (see Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 in reference).


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Sebaceous glands secrete the oily, waxy substance called "sebum" () that is made of triglycerides, wax esters, squalene, and metabolites of fat-producing cells. Sebum lubricates the skin and hair of mammals. Sebaceous secretions in conjunction with apocrine glands also play an important thermoregulatory role. In hot conditions, the secretions emulsify the sweat produced by the eccrine glands and this produces a sheet of sweat that is not readily lost in drops of sweat. This is of importance in delaying dehydration. In colder conditions, the nature of sebum becomes more lipid, and in coating the hair and skin, rain is effectively repelled.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Sebum is produced in a holocrine process, in which cells within the sebaceous gland rupture and disintegrate as they release the sebum and the cell remnants are secreted together with the sebum. The cells are constantly replaced by mitosis at the base of the duct.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Sebum is secreted by the sebaceous gland in humans. It is primarily composed of triglycerides (≈41%), wax esters (≈26%), squalene (≈12%), and free fatty acids (≈16%). The composition of sebum varies across species. Wax esters and squalene are unique to sebum and not produced as final products anywhere else in the body. Sapienic acid is a sebum fatty acid that is unique to humans, and is implicated in the development of acne. Sebum is odorless, but its breakdown by bacteria can produce strong odors.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Sex hormones are known to affect the rate of sebum secretion; androgens such as testosterone have been shown to stimulate secretion, and estrogens have been shown to inhibit secretion. Dihydrotestosterone acts as the primary androgen in the prostate and in hair follicles.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Sebaceous glands are part of the body's integumentary system and serve to protect the body against microorganisms. Sebaceous glands secrete acids that form the acid mantle. This is a thin, slightly acidic film on the surface of the skin that acts as a barrier to microbes that might penetrate the skin. The pH of the skin is between 4.5 and 6.2, an acidity that helps to neutralize the alkaline nature of contaminants. Sebaceous lipids help maintain the integrity of the skin barrier and supply vitamin E to the skin.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: During the last three months of fetal development, the sebaceous glands of the fetus produce vernix caseosa, a waxy white substance that coats the skin to protect it from amniotic fluid.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: The areolar glands are in the areola that surrounds the nipple in the female breast. These glands secrete an oily fluid that lubricates the nipple, and also secrete volatile compounds that are thought to serve as an olfactory stimulus for the newborn. During pregnancy and lactation these glands, also called Montgomery's glands, become enlarged.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Meibomian glands, in the eyelids, secrete a form of sebum called meibum onto the eye, that slows the evaporation of tears. They also serve to create an airtight seal when the eyes are closed, and their lipid quality also prevents the eyelids from sticking together. They attach directly to the follicles of the eyelashes, which are arranged vertically within the tarsal plates of the eyelids.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Fordyce spots, or Fordyce granules, are ectopic sebaceous glands found on the genitals and oral mucosa. They show themselves as yellowish-white milia (milk spots).


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Earwax is partly composed of sebum produced by glands in the ear canal. These secretions are viscous and have a high lipid content, which provides good lubrication.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Sebaceous glands are involved in skin problems such as acne and keratosis pilaris. In the skin pores, sebum and keratin can create a hyperkeratotic plug called a comedo.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Acne is a common occurrence, particularly during puberty in teenagers, and is thought to relate to an increased production of sebum due to hormonal factors. The increased production of sebum can lead to a blockage of the sebaceous gland duct. This can cause a comedo (commonly called a "blackhead" or a "whitehead"), which can lead to infection, particularly by the bacteria "Cutibacterium acnes". This can inflame the comedones, which then change into the characteristic acne lesions. "Comedones" generally occur on the areas with more sebaceous glands, particularly the face, shoulders, upper chest and back. Comedones may be "black" or "white" depending on whether the entire pilosebaceous unit, or just the sebaceous duct, is blocked. Sebaceous filaments—innocuous build-ups of sebum—are often mistaken for "whiteheads".


title: Sebaceous gland

text: There are many treatments available for acne from reducing sugars in the diet, to medications that include antibiotics, benzoyl peroxide, retinoids, and hormonal treatments. Retinoids reduce the amount of sebum produced by the sebaceous glands. Should the usual treatments fail, the presence of the Demodex mite could be looked for as the possible cause.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: The word "sebaceous", meaning "consisting of sebum", was first termed in 1728 and comes from the Latin for "tallow". Sebaceous glands have been documented since at least 1746 by Jean Astruc, who defined them as "...the glands which separate the fat." He describes them in the oral cavity and on the head, eyelids, and ears, as "universally" acknowledged. Astruc describes them being blocked by "small animals" that are "implanted" in the excretory ducts and attributes their presence in the oral cavity to apthous ulcers, noting that "these glands naturally [secrete] a viscous humour, which puts on various colours and consistencies... in its natural state is very mild, balsamic, and intended to wet and lubricate the mouth". In "The Principles of Physiology" 1834, Andrew Combe noted that the glands were not present in the palms of the hands or soles of the feet.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: The preputial glands of mice and rats are large modified sebaceous glands that produce pheromones used for territorial marking. These and the scent glands in the flanks of hamsters have a similar composition to human sebaceous glands, are androgen responsive, and have been used as a basis for study. Some species of bat, including the Mexican free-tailed, have a specialized sebaceous gland occurring on the throat called a "gular gland". This gland is present more frequently in males than females, and it is hypothesized that the secretions of the gland are used for scent-marking.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Sebaceous adenitis is an autoimmune disease that affects sebaceous glands. It is mainly known to occur in dogs, particularly poodles and akitas, where it is thought to be generally autosomal recessively inherited. It has also been described in cats, and one report describes this condition in a rabbit. In these animals, it causes hair loss, though the nature and distribution of the hair loss differs greatly.


title: David Eisenhower

text: Dwight David Eisenhower II (born March 31, 1948) is an American author, public policy fellow, professor at the University of Pennsylvania, and eponym of the U.S. presidential retreat Camp David. He is the grandson of President Dwight D. Eisenhower and First Lady Mamie Eisenhower, and a son-in-law of President Richard Nixon and First Lady Pat Nixon.


title: David Eisenhower

text: Dwight David Eisenhower II, better known as David, was named after his grandfather, Ike. David was born on March 31, 1948, in West Point, New York, to Barbara (Thompson) and John Eisenhower, the only son and eldest of four children. His father was a U.S. Army officer, and his grandfather was Dwight D. Eisenhower, future president of the United States, and former Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces in Europe during World War II.


title: David Eisenhower

text: His father would go on to be a brigadier general in the U.S. Army Reserve, United States Ambassador to Belgium (1969–1971), and a renowned military historian. His grandfather would become president of Columbia University (1948–1953), and later the 34th president of the United States (1953–1961). After assuming the presidency in 1953, President Eisenhower renamed the presidential mountain retreat, formerly Camp Shangri-La, Camp David, after his grandson.


title: David Eisenhower

text: Eisenhower graduated from Phillips Exeter Academy in 1966. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in history "cum laude" from Amherst College in 1970. After college, he served for three years as an officer in the United States Naval Reserve. During this time, he was assigned to the in the Mediterranean Sea. He then earned his J.D. degree "cum laude" from The George Washington University Law School in 1976.


title: David Eisenhower

text: He was at least loosely identified with the Nixon administration, when he accepted a request to attend the funeral of Dan Mitrione in 1970, the operative whose activities in training Uruguayan police in torture techniques, when later publicized, caused profound controversy, although there has been no suggestion that Eisenhower had any knowledge of Mitrione's controversial activities.


title: David Eisenhower

text: He is today a teaching adjunct and public policy fellow at the Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Pennsylvania, author, and co-chair of the Foreign Policy Research Institute's History Institute for Teachers. From 2001 to 2003, he was editor of the journal "Orbis" published by FPRI.


title: David Eisenhower

text: Eisenhower was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize in history in 1987 for his work "Eisenhower At War, 1943-1945"—about the Allied leadership during World War II.


title: David Eisenhower

text: He is the host of a public television series called "The Whole Truth with David Eisenhower", distributed by American Public Television.


title: David Eisenhower

text: On December 22, 1968, Eisenhower married Julie Nixon, a daughter of then President-elect Nixon, who had served as Dwight Eisenhower's vice president. The couple had known each other since meeting at the 1956 Republican National Convention. The Reverend Norman Vincent Peale officiated in the non-denominational rite at the Marble Collegiate Church in New York City. Eisenhower's best man was future "The Love Boat" actor and U.S. congressman Fred Grandy.


title: David Eisenhower

text: David Eisenhower was Julie Nixon's civilian escort when she was presented as a debutante to high society at the prestigious International Debutante Ball at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City in 1966. Many other members of the Eisenhower and Nixon families have been presented as debutantes at the International Debutante Ball, including their daughter Jennie.


title: David Eisenhower

text: Eisenhower and his wife Julie live in Berwyn, Pennsylvania. They have three children: actress Jennie Elizabeth Eisenhower (b. 1978); Alexander Richard Eisenhower (b. 1980); and Melanie Catherine Eisenhower (b. 1984). They also have three grandchildren.


title: David Eisenhower

text: Eisenhower, due to his connection with Julie and President Nixon, was one inspiration for the Creedence Clearwater Revival song "Fortunate Son" (1969). The song's author and singer, John Fogerty, wrote:


title: David Eisenhower

text: In the satirical 1976 film "Tunnel Vision", David Eisenhower is identified as President of the United States in the then-future year of 1985 (succeeding an African-American woman named Washington, who in turn took over from George Wallace).


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: The GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) is an optimizing compiler produced by the GNU Project supporting various programming languages, hardware architectures and operating systems. The Free Software Foundation (FSF) distributes GCC as free software under the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL). GCC is a key component of the GNU toolchain and the standard compiler for most projects related to GNU and the Linux kernel. With roughly 15 million lines of code in 2019, GCC is one of the biggest free programs in existence. It has played an important role in the growth of free software, as both a tool and an example.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: When it was first released in 1987 by Richard Stallman, GCC 1.0 was named the GNU C Compiler since it only handled the C programming language. It was extended to compile C++ in December of that year. Front ends were later developed for Objective-C, Objective-C++, Fortran, Ada, D and Go, among others. The OpenMP and OpenACC specifications are also supported in the C and C++ compilers.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: GCC has been ported to more platforms and instruction set architectures than any other compiler, and is widely deployed as a tool in the development of both free and proprietary software. GCC is also available for many embedded systems, including ARM-based and Power ISA-based chips.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: As well as being the official compiler of the GNU operating system, GCC has been adopted as the standard compiler by many other modern Unix-like computer operating systems, including most Linux distributions. Most BSD family operating systems also switched to GCC shortly after its release, although since then, FreeBSD, OpenBSD and Apple macOS have moved to the Clang compiler, largely due to licensing reasons. GCC can also compile code for Windows, Android, iOS, Solaris, HP-UX, AIX and DOS.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: In late 1983, in an effort to bootstrap the GNU operating system, Richard Stallman asked Andrew S. Tanenbaum, the author of the Amsterdam Compiler Kit (also known as the "Free University" "Compiler Kit") for permission to use that software for GNU. When Tanenbaum advised him that the compiler was not free, and that only the university was free, Stallman decided to work on a different compiler. His initial plan was to rewrite an existing compiler from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory from Pastel to C with some help from Len Tower and others. Stallman wrote a new C front end for the Livermore compiler, but then realized that it required megabytes of stack space, an impossibility on a 68000 Unix system with only 64 KB, and concluded he would have to write a new compiler from scratch. None of the Pastel compiler code ended up in GCC, though Stallman did use the C front end he had written.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: GCC was first released March 22, 1987, available by FTP from MIT. Stallman was listed as the author but cited others for their contributions, including Tower for "parts of the parser, RTL generator, RTL definitions, and of the Vax machine description", Jack Davidson and Christopher W. Fraser for the idea of using RTL as an intermediate language, and Paul Rubin for writing most of the preprocessor. Described as the "first free software hit" by Peter H. Salus, the GNU compiler arrived just at the time when Sun Microsystems was unbundling its development tools from its operating system, selling them separately at a higher combined price than the previous bundle, which led many of Sun's users to buy or download GCC instead of the vendor's tools. While Stallman considered GNU Emacs as his main project, by 1990, GCC supported thirteen computer architectures, was outperforming several vendor compilers, and was used commercially by several companies.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: As GCC was licensed under the GPL, programmers wanting to work in other directions—particularly those writing interfaces for languages other than C—were free to develop their own fork of the compiler, provided they meet the GPL's terms, including its requirements to distribute source code. Multiple forks proved inefficient and unwieldy, however, and the difficulty in getting work accepted by the official GCC project was greatly frustrating for many, as the project favored stability over new features. The FSF kept such close control on what was added to the official version of GCC 2.x (developed since 1992) that GCC was used as one example of the "cathedral" development model in Eric S. Raymond's essay "The Cathedral and the Bazaar".


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: In 1997, a group of developers formed the "Experimental/Enhanced GNU Compiler System (EGCS)" to merge several experimental forks into a single project. The basis of the merger was a development snapshot of GCC (taken around the 2.7.2 and later followed up to 2.8.1 release). Mergers included g77 (Fortran), PGCC (P5 Pentium-optimized GCC), many C++ improvements, and many new architectures and operating system variants.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: While both projects followed each other's changes closely, EGCS development proved considerably more vigorous, so much so that the FSF officially halted development on their GCC 2.x compiler, blessed EGCS as the official version of GCC, and appointed the EGCS project as the GCC maintainers in April 1999. With the release of GCC 2.95 in July 1999 the two projects were once again united. GCC has since been maintained by a varied group of programmers from around the world under the direction of a steering committee.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: Before version 4.0 the Fortran front end was codice_1, which only supported FORTRAN 77, but later was dropped in favor of the new GNU Fortran front end that supports Fortran 95 and large parts of Fortran 2003 and Fortran 2008 as well.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: GCC has been ported to a wide variety of instruction set architectures, and is widely deployed as a tool in the development of both free and proprietary software. GCC is also available for many embedded systems, including Symbian (called "gcce"), ARM-based, and Power ISA-based chips. The compiler can target a wide variety of platforms, including video game consoles such as the PlayStation 2, Cell SPE of PlayStation 3, and Dreamcast. It has been ported to more kinds of processors and operating systems than any other compiler.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: , the recent 11.1 release of GCC includes front ends for C (codice_2), C++ (codice_3), Objective-C, Fortran (codice_4), Ada (GNAT), Go (codice_5) and D (codice_6, since 9.1) programming languages, with the OpenMP and OpenACC parallel language extensions being supported since GCC 5.1. Versions prior to GCC 7 also supported Java (codice_7), allowing compilation of Java to native machine code. Modula-2 support, previously offered by third parties, will be merged into GCC 13.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: Regarding language version support for C++ and C, since GCC 11.1 the default target is "gnu++17", a superset of C++17, and "gnu11", a superset of C11, with strict standard support also available. GCC also provides experimental support for C++20 and upcoming C++23.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: Third-party front ends exist for many languages, such as Pascal (codice_8), Modula-3, and VHDL (codice_9). A few experimental branches exist to support additional languages, such as the GCC UPC compiler for Unified Parallel C or Rust.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: GCC's external interface follows Unix conventions. Users invoke a language-specific driver program (codice_2 for C, codice_3 for C++, etc.), which interprets command arguments, calls the actual compiler, runs the assembler on the output, and then optionally runs the linker to produce a complete executable binary.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: Each of the language compilers is a separate program that reads source code and outputs machine code. All have a common internal structure. A per-language front end parses the source code in that language and produces an abstract syntax tree ("tree" for short).


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: These are, if necessary, converted to the middle end's input representation, called "GENERIC" form; the middle end then gradually transforms the program towards its final form. Compiler optimizations and static code analysis techniques (such as FORTIFY_SOURCE, a compiler directive that attempts to discover some buffer overflows) are applied to the code. These work on multiple representations, mostly the architecture-independent GIMPLE representation and the architecture-dependent RTL representation. Finally, machine code is produced using architecture-specific pattern matching originally based on an algorithm of Jack Davidson and Chris Fraser.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: GCC was written primarily in C except for parts of the Ada front end. The distribution includes the standard libraries for Ada and C++ whose code is mostly written in those languages. On some platforms, the distribution also includes a low-level runtime library, libgcc, written in a combination of machine-independent C and processor-specific machine code, designed primarily to handle arithmetic operations that the target processor cannot perform directly.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: GCC uses many additional tools in its build, many of which are installed by default by many Unix and Linux distributions (but which, normally, aren't present in Windows installations), including Perl, Flex, Bison, and other common tools. In addition, it currently requires three additional libraries to be present in order to build: GMP, MPC, and MPFR.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: In May 2010, the GCC steering committee decided to allow use of a C++ compiler to compile GCC. The compiler was intended to be written mostly in C plus a subset of features from C++. In particular, this was decided so that GCC's developers could use the destructors and generics features of C++.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: In August 2012, the GCC steering committee announced that GCC now uses C++ as its implementation language. This means that to build GCC from sources, a C++ compiler is required that understands ISO/IEC C++03 standard.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: On May 18, 2020, GCC moved away from ISO/IEC C++03 standard to ISO/IEC C++11 standard (i.e. needed to compile, bootstrap, the compiler itself; by default it however compiles later versions of C++).


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: Each front end uses a parser to produce the abstract syntax tree of a given source file. Due to the syntax tree abstraction, source files of any of the different supported languages can be processed by the same back end. GCC started out using LALR parsers generated with Bison, but gradually switched to hand-written recursive-descent parsers for C++ in 2004, and for C and Objective-C in 2006. As of 2021 all front ends use hand-written recursive-descent parsers.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: Until GCC 4.0 the tree representation of the program was not fully independent of the processor being targeted. The meaning of a tree was somewhat different for different language front ends, and front ends could provide their own tree codes. This was simplified with the introduction of GENERIC and GIMPLE, two new forms of language-independent trees that were introduced with the advent of GCC 4.0. GENERIC is more complex, based on the GCC 3.x Java front end's intermediate representation. GIMPLE is a simplified GENERIC, in which various constructs are "lowered" to multiple GIMPLE instructions. The C, C++, and Java front ends produce GENERIC directly in the front end. Other front ends instead have different intermediate representations after parsing and convert these to GENERIC.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: In either case, the so-called "gimplifier" then converts this more complex form into the simpler SSA-based GIMPLE form that is the common language for a large number of powerful language- and architecture-independent global (function scope) optimizations.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: "GENERIC" is an intermediate representation language used as a "middle end" while compiling source code into executable binaries. A subset, called "GIMPLE", is targeted by all the front ends of GCC.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: The middle stage of GCC does all of the code analysis and optimization, working independently of both the compiled language and the target architecture, starting from the GENERIC representation and expanding it to register transfer language (RTL). The GENERIC representation contains only the subset of the imperative programming constructs optimized by the middle end.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: In transforming the source code to GIMPLE, complex expressions are split into a three-address code using temporary variables. This representation was inspired by the SIMPLE representation proposed in the McCAT compiler by Laurie J. Hendren for simplifying the analysis and optimization of imperative programs.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: Optimization can occur during any phase of compilation; however, the bulk of optimizations are performed after the syntax and semantic analysis of the front end and before the code generation of the back end; thus a common, even though somewhat contradictory, name for this part of the compiler is the "middle end."


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: The exact set of GCC optimizations varies from release to release as it develops, but includes the standard algorithms, such as loop optimization, jump threading, common subexpression elimination, instruction scheduling, and so forth. The RTL optimizations are of less importance with the addition of global SSA-based optimizations on GIMPLE trees, as RTL optimizations have a much more limited scope, and have less high-level information.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: Some of these optimizations performed at this level include dead-code elimination, partial-redundancy elimination, global value numbering, sparse conditional constant propagation, and scalar replacement of aggregates. Array dependence based optimizations such as automatic vectorization and automatic parallelization are also performed. Profile-guided optimization is also possible.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: The GCC's back end is partly specified by preprocessor macros and functions specific to a target architecture, for instance to define its endianness, word size, and calling conventions. The front part of the back end uses these to help decide RTL generation, so although GCC's RTL is nominally processor-independent, the initial sequence of abstract instructions is already adapted to the target. At any moment, the actual RTL instructions forming the program representation have to comply with the machine description of the target architecture.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: The machine description file contains RTL patterns, along with operand constraints, and code snippets to output the final assembly. The constraints indicate that a particular RTL pattern might only apply (for example) to certain hardware registers, or (for example) allow immediate operand offsets of only a limited size (e.g. 12, 16, 24, ... bit offsets, etc.). During RTL generation, the constraints for the given target architecture are checked. In order to issue a given snippet of RTL, it must match one (or more) of the RTL patterns in the machine description file, and satisfy the constraints for that pattern; otherwise, it would be impossible to convert the final RTL into machine code.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: Towards the end of compilation, valid RTL is reduced to a "strict" form in which each instruction refers to real machine registers and a pattern from the target's machine description file. Forming strict RTL is a complicated task; an important step is register allocation, where real hardware registers are chosen to replace the initially assigned pseudo-registers. This is followed by a "reloading" phase; any pseudo-registers that were not assigned a real hardware register are 'spilled' to the stack, and RTL to perform this spilling is generated. Likewise, offsets that are too large to fit into an actual instruction must be broken up and replaced by RTL sequences that will obey the offset constraints.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: In the final phase, the machine code is built by calling a small snippet of code, associated with each pattern, to generate the real instructions from the target's instruction set, using the final registers, offsets, and addresses chosen during the reload phase. The assembly-generation snippet may be just a string, in which case a simple string substitution of the registers, offsets, and/or addresses into the string is performed. The assembly-generation snippet may also be a short block of C code, performing some additional work, but ultimately returning a string containing the valid assembly code.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: The GCC project includes an implementation of the C++ Standard Library called libstdc++, licensed under the GPLv3 License with an exception to link closed source application when sources are built with GCC.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: Additional processors have been supported by GCC versions maintained separately from the FSF version:


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: The GCJ Java compiler can target either a native machine language architecture or the Java virtual machine's Java bytecode. When retargeting GCC to a new platform, bootstrapping is often used. Motorola 68000, Zilog Z80, and other processors are also targeted in the GCC versions developed for various Texas Instruments, Hewlett Packard, Sharp, and Casio programmable graphing calculators.


title: GNU Compiler Collection

text: GCC is licensed under the GNU General Public License version 3. The "GCC runtime exception" permits compilation of proprietary programs (in addition to free software) with GCC. This does not impact the license terms of GCC source code.


title: AN-94

text: The AN-94 (Russian: 5,45-мм автомат Никонова обр. 1987 г. / АН-94 «Абака́н», GRAU designation 6P33) is a Russian assault rifle. The initials stand for "Avtomat Nikonova" model of 1994, after its chief designer Gennadiy Nikonov, who previously worked on the Nikonov machine gun.


title: AN-94

text: The AN-94 was designed as a potential replacement to the AK-74 series of rifles currently in service with the Russian Armed Forces. Due to its complex design and expense, it failed to fill its intended role as a replacement for the AK-74, but it is in limited use as a special purpose weapon.


title: AN-94

text: The AN-94 has the unique feature of delaying felt recoil for the first two rounds. This, it is claimed, increases hit probability under the most adverse combat conditions. The AN-94 offers a unique two-shot burst function at a stated 1800 rounds per minute.


title: AN-94

text: The most conspicuous identifying feature of the AN-94 is its magazine which is canted several degrees to the right of center (when viewed from a firing position). This design feature is necessary to accommodate the unique ammunition feed mechanism. The AN-94 is chambered in the same 5.45×39mm M74 cartridge as the AK-74, and it utilizes a rotating bolt to lock the action. Gennadiy Nikonov and his engineers used the Russian term "смещенный импульс свободного затвора" ("Smeŝennyj Impulʹs Svobodnogo Zatvora") to describe the rifle's method of operation, meaning "recoil shifted pulse."


title: AN-94

text: When a round is fired, residual energy from the propellant charge in the cartridge acts upon the safely locked breech and bolt carrier. Simultaneously, a quantity of powder gases driving the bullet through the barrel is tapped and acts upon the piston in the gas tube located above and parallel to the barrel. The movement of the piston and its connecting rod acts upon the locking bolt, causing it to rotate and allow the breech to safely open. This initiates the extraction and ejection cycle for the first spent cartridge. After the first round has been fired, the bolt and carrier group move toward the rear, ejecting the first casing towards the front of the ejection window. The movement of the Carrier is directly connected to a pulley system which is connected to a small metal rod on the rear side of the magazine well. The rod pushes a second round into the firing position. Once this action has completed the bolt and carrier group will stop and move back towards the front of the gun before it has hit the rear of the receiver. When the bolt has fully locked it will fire the second round. This whole process happens very quickly and it is how the 2 round burst works. For any follow-up rounds, the hammer - in fact a horizontal striker, as opposed to the rotating hammer of the AK rifle - is held until every full recoil cycle is finished, to prevent the rifle firing at the extremely high rate continuously. This means that after every bullet the bolt and carrier group will travel the whole distance of possible travel, resulting in a more manageable rate of 600 RPM.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: Fantasia 2000 is a 1999 American animated musical anthology film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. Produced by Roy E. Disney and Donald W. Ernst, it is the 38th Disney animated feature film and sequel to 1940's "Fantasia". Like its predecessor, "Fantasia 2000" consists of animated segments set to pieces of classical music. Celebrities including Steve Martin, Itzhak Perlman, Quincy Jones, Bette Midler, James Earl Jones, Penn & Teller, James Levine, and Angela Lansbury introduce a segment in live action scenes directed by Don Hahn.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: After numerous unsuccessful attempts to develop a "Fantasia" sequel, The Walt Disney Company revived the idea shortly after Michael Eisner became chief executive officer in 1984. Development paused until the commercial success of the 1991 home video release of "Fantasia" convinced Eisner that there was enough public interest and funds for a sequel, to which he assigned Disney as executive producer. The music for six of the film's eight segments is performed by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra conducted by James Levine. The film includes "The Sorcerer's Apprentice" from the 1940 original. Each new segment was produced by combining traditional animation with computer-generated imagery.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: "Fantasia 2000" premiered on December 17, 1999, at Carnegie Hall in New York City as part of a concert tour that also visited London, Paris, Tokyo, and Pasadena, California. The film was then released in 75 IMAX theaters worldwide from January 1 to April 30, 2000, marking the first animated feature-length film to be released in the format. Its general release in regular theaters followed on June 16, 2000. The film received mostly positive reviews from critics, who praised several of its sequences, while also deeming its overall quality uneven in comparison to its predecessor. Budgeted at about $80–$85 million, the film grossed $90.8 million worldwide.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: The film begins with the sound of an orchestra tuning and Deems Taylor's introduction from "Fantasia". Panels showing various segments from "Fantasia" fly in outer space and form the set and stage for an orchestra. Musicians take their seats and tune up as animators and artists draw at their desks before James Levine approaches the conductor's podium and signals the beginning of the first piece.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: In 1940, Walt Disney released "Fantasia", his third animated feature film, consisting of eight animated segments set to pieces of classical music. Initially he planned to have the film on continual release with new segments replacing older ones so audiences would never see the same film twice. The idea was dropped following the film's initial low box office receipts and a mixed response from critics. Following preliminary work on new segments, the idea was shelved by 1942 and was not revisited for the remainder of Disney's life. In 1980, animators Wolfgang Reitherman and Mel Shaw started preliminary work on "Musicana", a feature film "mixing jazz, classical music, myths, modern art ... following the old "Fantasia" format" that was to present "ethnic tales from around the world with the music of the various countries". The project was cancelled in favor of "Mickey's Christmas Carol" (1983).


title: Fantasia 2000

text: The idea of a "Fantasia" sequel was revived shortly after Michael Eisner became chief executive officer of The Walt Disney Company in 1984, when Walt's nephew, vice chairman Roy E. Disney, suggested it to him at a lunch. The idea had first entered Disney's mind ten years earlier, and he recalled Eisner's reaction: "It was as if a big light bulb went on over his head. The idea was enticing, but we didn't have the resources to carry it out". However, Walt Disney Studios chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg showed a lack of interest in the film. He had once asked André Previn to work on a "Fantasia" film but Previn declined after he learned it was to feature songs by the Beatles rather than classical music. Eisner approached Leonard Bernstein with the same idea, but while he seemed enthusiastic, Bernstein died before production began. It took a further seven years before the film was reconsidered, after the 1990 reissue of "Fantasia" grossed $25 million domestically and the announcement of its limited availability on home video in 1991 prompted 9.25 million pre-orders. Disney saw its commercial success as a sign that there was enough public interest in the "Fantasia" franchise to make a sequel. Eisner finally gave the green-light to the film in 1991, and had Disney serve as executive producer on the basis that its production was funded by the proceeds from the video sales. Disney assigned Donald W. Ernst as producer and Hendel Butoy as supervisory director, having liked his work on "The Rescuers Down Under" (1990).


title: Fantasia 2000

text: During the search for a suitable conductor, Disney and Walt Disney Feature Animation president Thomas Schumacher invited Metropolitan Opera conductor James Levine and manager Peter Gelb to a meeting in September 1991. Disney recalled: "I asked James what his thought was on a three minute version of Beethoven's fifth symphony. He paused and went 'I think the right three minutes would be beautiful'". In November 1992, Disney, Schumacher, Levine, Gelb, and Butoy met in Vienna to discuss a collection of story reels developed, one of them being "Pines of Rome", which Levine took an immediate liking to. Butoy described Levine's enthusiasm toward the film as "like a kid in a candy store". Because Katzenberg continued to express some hostility towards the film, Disney held development meetings without him and reported directly to Eisner instead, something that author James B. Stewart wrote "would have been unthinkable on any other future animation project."


title: Fantasia 2000

text: Production began under the working title of "Fantasia Continued" with a release in 1997. The title was changed to "Fantasia 1999", followed by "Fantasia 2000" to coincide with its theatrical release in 2000. Disney formed its initial running order with half of the "Fantasia" program and only "three or four new numbers" with the aim of releasing a "semi-new movie". Realizing the idea would not work, he kept three "Fantasia" segments—"The Sorcerer's Apprentice", "The Nutcracker Suite", and "Dance of the Hours"—in the program for "quite a while". "Night on Bald Mountain" was the most difficult segment for him to remove from his original running order because it was one of his favorites. He had placed it in the middle of the film without "Ave Maria", but felt it did not work and scrapped the idea. Later on, "Dance of the Hours" was dropped and "The Nutcracker Suite" was replaced by "Rhapsody in Blue" during the last few months of production following the response from numerous test screenings. Disney kept "The Sorcerer's Apprentice" in the final program as a homage to "Fantasia". The segment underwent digital restoration by Cinesite in Los Angeles. Disney considered using "Clair de Lune", a piece originally made for "Fantasia" that followed two Great white herons flying through the Everglades at night, but thought it was "pretty boring". An idea to have "a nightmare and a dream struggling for a sleeping child's soul" to "Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini" by Sergei Rachmaninoff was fully storyboarded, but fell through.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: "Symphony No. 5" is an abstract segment created by Pixote Hunt with story development by Kelvin Yasuda. In December 1997, after rejecting pitches from four other animators, Disney and Ernst asked Hunt for his ideas. Hunt first thought of the story on a morning walk in Pasadena, California, one depicting a battle of "good" against "evil" and how the conflict resolves itself. It took Hunt approximately two years, from start to finish, to complete the segment. Disney and Ernst decided to go with Hunt's idea; Hunt avoided producing an entirely abstract work because "you can get something abstract on every computer screen" with ease. Hunt divided the segment into 31 mini-scenes, noting down points in which he would employ vivid color when the music was bright and fluid, and then switch to darker hues when the music felt darker and denser. To gain inspiration in how the shapes would move, Hunt and his associates visited San Diego Zoo, a butterfly farm, and observed slow motion footage of bats. The segment combines hand drawn backgrounds using pastels and paint that were scanned into the Computer Animation Production System (CAPS), and computer-generated imagery (CGI) of abstract shapes and effects, which were layered on top. Hunt explained that scanning each drawing "was a one-shot deal" as the platen that pressed onto it would alter the pastel once it had been scanned. At one point during production, Hunt and Yasuda completed 68 pastel drawings in eight days. The segment was produced using Houdini animation software.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: "Pines of Rome" was the first piece Disney suggested for the film, as well as the first to be animated; designs appeared in the studio's dailies as early as October 1993. Butoy served as director with James Fujii handling the story. The opening to the piece gave Disney the idea of "something flying". Butoy sketched the sequence on yellow Post-it notes. The story originally involved the whales flying around from the perspective of a group of penguins, but the idea was scrapped to make the baby whale a central character. The whales were also set to return to Earth but Butoy said it "never felt quite right", leading to the decision to have them break through a cloud ceiling and enter a different world by the supernova. Butoy created a "musical intensity chart" for the animators to follow which "tracked the ups and downs of the music ... as the music brightens so does the color", and vice versa. He explained that because CGI was in its infancy during development, the first third of the segment was hand drawn using pencil to get a feel of how the whales would move. When the drawings were scanned into the CAPS system, Butoy found the whales were either moving too fast or had less weight to them. The drawings were altered to make the whales slow down and "more believable". The eyes of the whales were drawn by hand, as the desired looks and glances were not fully achievable using CGI. Butoy recalled the challenge of having the water appear and move as naturally as possible; the team decided to write computer code from scratch as traditional animation would have been too time-consuming and would have produced undesired results. The code handling the pod of whales was written so the whales would move away if they were to collide and not bump into, overlap, or go through each other. The same technique was used for the stampede scene in "The Lion King" (1994), which was produced at the same time.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: "Rhapsody in Blue" is the first "Fantasia" segment with music from the American composer George Gershwin. It originated in 1992 when director and animator Eric Goldberg approached Al Hirschfeld about the idea of an animated short set to Gershwin's composition in the style of Hirschfeld's illustrations. Hirschfeld agreed to serve as artistic consultant and allowed the animators to use and adapt his previous works for the segment. Goldberg's wife Susan was art director. Duke is named after jazz artist Duke Ellington. The bottom of his toothpaste tube reads "NINA", an Easter egg referencing Hirschfeld's daughter Nina. Rachel was designed after the Goldbergs' daughter and John is based on animation historian and author John Culhane and Hirschfeld's caricature of Alexander Woollcott. Goldberg took Hirschfeld's original illustration of Gershwin and animated it to make him play the piano. Featured in the crowd emerging from the hotel are depictions of Brooks Atkinson and Hirschfeld, along with his wife Dolly Haas. The segment was completed two months ahead of schedule. Despite this, the sequence was so chromatically complex that the rendering process using the CAPS system delayed work on "Tarzan".


title: Fantasia 2000

text: "Piano Concerto No. 2" was directed by Butoy with art director Michael Humphries. It originated in the 1930s when Walt Disney wished to adapt a collection of Hans Christian Andersen fairy tales into an animated film. The artists completed a series of preliminary designs based on the stories, including ones for "The Steadfast Tin Soldier" from 1938 by Bianca Majolie that were stored in the studio's animation research library and used for a 1991 Disney book that retold the story accompanied with the storyboard sketches. When Disney suggested using the Shostakovich piece, Butoy flipped through the book and found the story's structure fit to the music. When Humphries saw the sketches he designed the segment with works by Caravaggio and Rembrandt in mind to give the segment a "timeless" feel, while keeping the colors "as romantic as possible" during the scenes when the soldier and ballerina are first getting acquainted. Live action footage of a real ballerina was used as a guide for the toy ballerina's movements. Butoy found the Jack-in-a-box a difficult character to design and animate with its spring base and how he moved with the box. His appearance went through numerous changes, partly due to the lack of reference material available to the team.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: The segment marked the first time the Disney studio created a film's main characters entirely from CGI; only backgrounds, secondary, or tertiary characters had been produced using CGI beforehand. Initially Butoy asked Pixar Animation Studios to handle the computer graphics, but CGI artist Steve Goldberg convinced him to let Disney's own team produce it. The backgrounds were completed by hand. Originally the drain sequence included friendly rats who performed comical gags, but the team found it did not fit the mood of the rest of the segment. The drains became a more scary environment, something that Butoy said was "what the music was telling us to do". Rain animation from "Bambi" (1942) was scanned into the CAPS system and digitally altered to fit into the segment. The ending was to feature the original ending with the soldier and ballerina melting in the fire, but the music was too upbeat to animate it and was changed. An excerpt of the segment was shown at the 1998 SIGGRAPH conference.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: "The Carnival of the Animals, Finale" was directed by Goldberg; his wife Susan was its art director. The idea originated from animator Joe Grant, one of the two story directors on "Fantasia" who loved the ostriches in "Dance of the Hours". When development for "Fantasia 2000" began, Grant suggested the idea of having one of the ostriches play with a yo-yo to the last movement of "The Carnival of the Animals". The ostriches were later changed to flamingos as Disney wished to avoid reintroducing characters from the original film and thought flamingos would look more colorful on the screen. Goldberg was partly inspired by co-director Mike Gabriel, who would play with a yo-yo as he took a break from working on "Pocahontas" (1995). The segment was produced with CGI and 6,000 watercolor paintings on heavy bond paper. Susan chose a distinct colour palette for the segment which she compared to the style of a Hawaiian shirt. The Goldbergs and their team visited the zoo in Los Angeles and San Diego to study the anatomy and movement of flamingos.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: Eisner suggested "Pomp and Circumstance" as a piece after he attended a graduation and thought its familiarity would be suitable for a "Fantasia" segment. His idea involved a selection of Disney princesses and heroes in a wedding procession carrying their future children who would then be presented in a ceremony. The animators' preliminary designs depicted a Greco-Roman setting; one of the staff members described the artwork as "an appalling abuse" of the characters. Eisner agreed to drop the story, but insisted that the music be used. After numerous ideas were scrapped due to the difficulty in writing a clear plot, animator and director Francis Glebas came up with the Noah's Ark idea that he titled "Donald's Last Roundup!", later retitled as "Noah's Duck", and pitched it thinking it was "laden with comic possibilities".


title: Fantasia 2000

text: To close the film, Disney wanted a piece that was "emotionally equivalent" to the "Night on Bald Mountain" and "Ave Maria" segments that closed "Fantasia". Disney chose "The Firebird" as the piece to use after "half a dozen" others were scrapped, including Symphony No. 9 by Beethoven and the "Hallelujah Chorus" from "Messiah" by Handel. Disney thought of the idea of the Earth's destruction and renewal after passing Mount St. Helens following its eruption in 1980. French twins Paul and Gaëtan Brizzi from Disney's Paris studio were hired to direct the segment. The Sprite is a Dryad-like creature from Greek mythology. Her form changes six times; she is introduced as a Water Sprite who plants flowers as a Flower Sprite. She becomes a Neutral Sprite where her growth trail stops and an Ash Sprite when the forest has been destroyed. The segment ends with her as a Rain-Wave Sprite, followed by the Grass Sprite. The segment originally ended with the Sprite in the form of a flowing river that rises up into the sky and transforms into a Sun Sprite, but this was abandoned. The elk's antlers were produced by CGI and placed on top of its body that was drawn traditionally. The segment was produced using Houdini animation software.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: The music to "The Sorcerer's Apprentice" was already recorded on January 9, 1938 for the first film at Culver Studios, California with Leopold Stokowski conducting a group of session musicians. The recording of "Rhapsody in Blue" used in the film is an edited version of Ferde Grofé's orchestration of the piece performed by the Philharmonia Orchestra with conductor Bruce Broughton. The shortened version was made by cutting 125 bars of piano solo in three different places. A recording of James Levine conducting both pieces with the Philharmonia appears on the film's soundtrack.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: The remaining six pieces were recorded at the Medinah Temple in Chicago, performed by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra conducted by Levine. "Pines of Rome" was re-arranged in 1993 by Bruce Coughlin, who reduced the four-movement piece by cutting the second movement and trimming sections of the third and fourth movements. The piece was recorded on March 28, 1994. The second recording involved "Symphony No. 5", "Carnival of the Animals", and "Pomp and Circumstance", on April 25, 1994. "Carnival of the Animals, Finale" uses two pianos played by Gail Niwa and Philip Sabransky. "Pomp and Circumstance" was arranged by Peter Schickele and features the Chicago Symphony Chorus and soprano soloist Kathleen Battle. The next recording took place on April 24, 1995 for "Piano Concerto No. 2" with pianist Yefim Bronfman. On September 28, 1996, "The Firebird" was the final piece to be recorded; its session lasted for three hours. The piece was arranged using four sections from Stravinsky's 1919 revision of the score.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: Disney felt the need to keep interstitials (bridges) as used in "Fantasia" in order to give audiences a chance to "cleanse their emotional palate" from the previous segment while also providing some information about the next one. Don Hahn directed the live action scenes which were designed by Pixote Hunt. Hahn came up with the set and backgrounds while eating lunch; he proceeded to sketch a rough idea of what he imagined on a napkin. He "wanted to show images on shapes like big sails of a clipper ship. They fly in on the wind and form a sort of Stonehenge concert hall in the middle of a vast, empty, imaginary plain".


title: Fantasia 2000

text: Hahn recalled some difficulty in finding someone to host the film, so the studio decided to use a group of artists and musicians from various fields of entertainment. The interstitials were filmed in various locations; the orchestra, Jones, Lansbury, and Bronfman were shot in Los Angeles, Perlman and Midler in New York City, and others in Boston, Massachusetts. Each scene was filmed in front of a green screen to allow shots of the orchestra or the set to be placed behind them. The shots of Levine, the artists, and the orchestra were filmed on October 31, 1998. The piano Grierson plays in his scene with Jones is the same one on which he played "Rhapsody in Blue" for the soundtrack.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: "Fantasia 2000" was officially announced on February 9, 1999 during a Disney presentation at the New Amsterdam Theater in New York City which featured a screening of "The Carnival of the Animals". The film premiered at Carnegie Hall in New York City on December 16, 1999 for three nights as part of a five-city concert tour. The animation was presented on a screen above the stage while Levine conducted the Philharmonia Orchestra with a video auto-cue to time the music to the images. Performances followed at the Royal Albert Hall in London on December 21; the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris on December 22; the Orchard Hall in Tokyo on December 27; and the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Pasadena, California on December 31, where Derrick Inouye conducted as part of a black tie $2,000-per-head New Year's Eve event. Each of the seven performances cost over $1 million.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: "Fantasia 2000" was first released on VHS and DVD on November 14, 2000, with both featuring a specially made introduction in which Roy gives a history of key innovations brought by various Disney productions (specifically "Steamboat Willie", "Flowers and Trees", "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs", "Fantasia", "The Great Mouse Detective", "Beauty and the Beast", "Toy Story 2" and "Dinosaur"). While it was available as a single-disc DVD, a three-disc set titled "The Fantasia Anthology" was released, including a digital copy of the film, a restored print of "Fantasia" to commemorate its 60th anniversary, and a third disc containing bonus features.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: On November 30, 2010, the film was issued for DVD and Blu-ray in a single and two-disc set with "Fantasia" and a four-disc DVD and Blu-ray combo pack. The Blu-ray transfer presents the film in 1080p high-definition video with DTS-HD Master Audio 7.1 surround sound. The film was withdrawn from release after its return to the "Disney Vault" moratorium on April 30, 2011.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: The film, along with "Fantasia" and the 2018 compilation "Celebrating Mickey" (containing 13 Mickey Mouse shorts from "Steamboat Willie" to "Get a Horse!"), was reissued in 2021 as part of the U.S. Disney Movie Club exclusive "The Best of Mickey Collection" (Blu-ray/DVD/Digital). Both films were also broadly released for the first time in 2021 on multiple U.S. purchased streaming platforms, including Movies Anywhere and its retailers.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: Walt Disney Records released 60,000 copies of a limited edition of the film's soundtrack on November 30, 1999 in the United States and internationally under the Sony Classical label. With a running time of 60 minutes, the album features Levine conducting the Philharmonia Orchestra on "Rhapsody in Blue" and "The Sorcerer's Apprentice" at AIR Studios in London, and the Chicago Symphony Orchestra for the remaining six tracks using the recordings from the Medinah Temple. The soundtrack went on to reach the number one spot on the "Billboard" Top Classical Albums chart in July 2000. A "Fantasia 2000 Deluxe Read-Along" cassette and CD followed which contains two tracks telling the stories of "Pomp and Circumstance" and "The Sorcerer's Apprentice", with narration by Pat Carroll. Included in the set is a 44-page book containing some of the film's artwork.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: "Fantasia 2000" first opened in IMAX theatres for a four-month run from January 1 to April 30, 2000, becoming the first animated feature-length film shown in the format. The idea to release it in IMAX first originated from Dick Cook during meetings the studio had about the best way to create "a sense of event" for the film. Roy Disney believed its uniqueness from typical feature films gave it a psychological advantage. A temporary 622-seat theatre costing almost was built in four weeks for its Los Angeles run as Disney was unable to reach an agreement to only have the film shown during the four months at the city's sole IMAX theater at the time at the California Science Center. Disney enforced the exclusive screening rule on the other IMAX cinemas that showed the film which limited its release. Each theater was decorated with a museum-like exhibit with educational material and large displays.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: After opening at 75 theaters worldwide, the film grossed over in 54 cinemas in North America in its opening weekend, averaging $41,481 per theater, and $842,000 from 21 screens in 14 markets. It set new records for the highest gross for any IMAX engagement and surpassed the highest weekly total for any previously released IMAX film. Its three-day worldwide gross surpassed , setting further records at 18 venues worldwide. "Fantasia 2000" grossed a worldwide total of in 30 days, and at the end of its IMAX run.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: Following its release in 1,313 regular theatres in the United States on June 16, 2000, the film grossed an additional in its opening weekend that ranked eleventh at the box office. This followed nearly half a year of release in the IMAX format, possibly blunting the amount earned in the weekends of wide release. "Fantasia 2000" has earned a total worldwide gross of over since its release, with $60.7 million of that total from the U.S. market, and the rest through foreign box office sales. The film had cost around $90 million and was viewed by Eisner as Roy Disney's "folly".


title: Fantasia 2000

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, "Fantasia 2000" holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . Its consensus reads: "It provides an entertaining experience for adults and children alike." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 59 out of 100 based on 27 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Fantasia 2000

text: "Entertainment Weekly" gave a "B−" rating; its reviewer, Bruce Fretts, called "Symphony No. 5" "maddeningly abstract", "Piano Concerto No. 2" "charmingly traditional" and thought "Rhapsody in Blue" fit well to the music, but "Pomp and Circumstance" "inexplicably inspires biblical kitsch". The review ends with a criticism of the inadequate quality of "The Sorcerer's Apprentice" on the IMAX screen. Todd McCarthy of "Variety" pointed out that while the original "Fantasia" felt too long and formal, its "enjoyable follow-up is, at 75 minutes, simply too breezy and lightweight". He summarized the film "like a light buffet of tasty morsels rather than a full and satisfying meal".


title: Fantasia 2000

text: In his December 1999 review for the "Chicago Sun-Times", Roger Ebert gave the film a rating of three stars out of four. He described some of the animation (such as "Firebird Suite", his favorite segment) as "powerful", though he thought others, like the dance of the abstract triangles in "Symphony No. 5", to be "a little pedestrian". He admired "Rhapsody in Blue" and its interlocking stories, pointing out its style was reminiscent of the "Madeline" picture books by Ludwig Bemelmans. He thought "Pines of Rome" presented itself well in the IMAX format and found the "Piano Concerto No. 2" played "wonderfully as a self-contained film", while he found "The Sorcerer's Apprentice" to be "not as visually sharp as the rest of the film". He nonetheless described the film overall as "splendid entertainment". Film critic Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" wrote that the film "often has the feel of a giant corporate promotion whose stars are there simply to hawk the company's wares" while noting the film "is not especially innovative in its look or subject matter." "Firebird Suite" was his favorite segment which left "a lasting impression of the beauty, terror, and unpredictability of the natural world". He found "The Sorcerer's Apprentice" fit well with the rest of the film and the battle in "Symphony No. 5" too abbreviated to amount to much. He found the segment with the whales failed in that the images "quickly become redundant". He found "Rhapsody in Blue" to be the second-best in the film with its witty, hyper-kinetic evocation of the melting pot with sharply defined characters. He found the segment with the flamingos cute and the one with the tin soldier to be romantic. James Berardinelli found the film to be of uneven quality. He felt "Symphony No. 5" was "dull and uninspired", the yo-yoing flamingos "wasteful", and the New York City-based story of Rhapsody in Blue interesting but out of place in this particular movie. He found the story of the tin soldier to successfully mix its music with "top-notch animation" and "an emotionally rewarding story". He felt the Firebird section was "visually ingenious", and "Pomp and Circumstance" the most light-hearted episode and the one with the most appeal to children, in an otherwise adult-oriented film. To him "The Sorcerer's Apprentice" was an enduring classic.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: David Parkinson of British film magazine "Empire" rates the film three stars out of five, calling it a "curate egg, with moments of hilarity and beauty alternating with the pompous and the banal". Moments of "Symphony No. 5" and "The Firebird" he thought lacked the "abstract grace" from "Toccata and Fugue" from the original, and "Pines of Rome" was "even less successful" due to the computer imagery which affected its quality. He claims "Rhapsody in Blue" is "guilty of some dubious racial and sexual caricaturing", but hailed the film's IMAX presentation as "a breathtaking spectacle". He summarized the film as "slightly more successful" than the original "Fantasia", more child-friendly and a "mixed bag of delights". Richard Corliss of "Time" magazine wrote a positive review of the film, citing "Pines of Rome" as "a superb, uplifting flight of the spirit" and "Piano Concerto No. 2" "a gorgeous blend of traditional and computer animation". He drew a comparison to "The Firebird" with the 1997 Japanese animated film "Princess Mononoke". Brian Sibley wrote a mostly negative review in "Sight & Sound", a monthly magazine published by the British Film Institute, in June 2000. He pointed out that though the film includes moments of comedy and pastoral, "the themes running through the old 'Fantasia' – the struggle between light and dark, the war between chaos and order, the ultimate triumph of goodness – find only a pale equivalent in this new version". He compared the film's orchestra set to scenes from "A Matter of Life and Death" (1946) and thought the CGI in "Symphony No. 5" lacked the technical qualities of "Toy Story". Sibley argued the film lacked an even quality, highlighting "Pines of Rome" with its "breathtaking" opening before "its magic has been overtaken by chronic boredom" when the baby whale reunites with his parents. "Pomp and Circumstance", he thought, contained "shamefully sloppy animation" but is saved by Donald's comical gags, but pointed out "Rhapsody in Blue", with its "strong lines and vivid, flat colours that are fashionably retro", and the "classic Disneyesque ... exquisite beauty and raw natural violence" in "Firebird Suite", as the film's most successful segments as they "ironically, hark back to older times".


title: Fantasia 2000

text: Note: All segments performed by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra with conductor James Levine, except where noted.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: Development on a third film began in 2002 under the working title "Fantasia 2006". Plans were made to include "One by One" by Pixote Hunt and "The Little Matchgirl" by Roger Allers in the film before the project was cancelled in 2004 for unknown reasons, with the proposed segments instead being released as standalone short films.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: "Destino" is an animated short film released in 2003 by The Walt Disney Company. "Destino" is unique in that its production began in 1945, 58 years before its eventual completion. The project was originally a collaboration between Walt Disney and Spanish surrealist painter Salvador Dalí, and features music written by Mexican songwriter Armando Domínguez and performed by Dora Luz. In 1999, Walt Disney's nephew, Roy E. Disney, while working on "Fantasia 2000", unearthed the dormant project and decided to bring it back to life.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: "Lorenzo" is a 2004 American animated short film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation about a cat named Lorenzo who is "dismayed to discover that his tail has developed a personality of its own". The short was directed by Mike Gabriel and produced by Baker Bloodworth. It premiered at the Florida Film Festival on March 6, 2004 and later appeared as a feature before the film "Raising Helen"; however, it did not appear on the DVD release of the film. Work on the film began in 1943, but was shelved. It was later found along with "Destino".


title: Fantasia 2000

text: "One by One" is a traditionally animated short film directed by Pixote Hunt and released by Walt Disney Pictures on August 31, 2004, as an extra feature on the DVD release of "" Special Edition.


title: Fantasia 2000

text: "The Little Match Girl" is a 2006 animated short film directed by Roger Allers and produced by Don Hahn. It is based on an original story by Hans Christian Andersen entitled "The Little Girl with the Matches" or "The Little Match Girl", published in 1845.


title: Christ (title)

text: Christ, used by Christians as both a name and a title, unambiguously refers to Jesus. It is also used as a title, in the reciprocal use "Christ Jesus", meaning "the Messiah Jesus", and independently as "the Christ". The Pauline epistles, the earliest texts of the New Testament, often refer to Jesus as "Christ Jesus" or "Christ".


title: Christ (title)

text: The concept of the Christ in Christianity originated from the concept of the messiah in Judaism. Christians believe that Jesus is the messiah foretold in the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. Although the conceptions of the messiah in each religion are similar, for the most part they are distinct from one another due to the split of early Christianity and Judaism in the 1st century.


title: Christ (title)

text: Although the original followers of Jesus believed Jesus to be the Jewish messiah, e.g. in the Confession of Peter, Jesus was usually referred to as "Jesus of Nazareth" or "Jesus, son of Joseph", Jesus came to be called "Jesus Christ" (meaning "Jesus the "Khristós"", i.e. "Jesus the Messiah" or "Jesus the Anointed") by Christians, who believe that his crucifixion and resurrection fulfill the messianic prophecies of the Old Testament.


title: Christ (title)

text: Christ comes from the Greek word (), meaning "anointed one". The word is derived from the Greek verb (), meaning "to anoint." In the Greek Septuagint, "χριστός" was a semantic loan used to translate the Hebrew (, messiah), meaning "[one who is] anointed".


title: Christ (title)

text: The word "Christ" (and similar spellings) appears in English and in most European languages. English-speakers now often use "Christ" as if it were a name, one part of the name "Jesus Christ", though it was originally a title ("the Messiah"). Its usage in "Christ Jesus" emphasizes its nature as a title. Compare the usage "the Christ".


title: Christ (title)

text: The spelling "Christ" in English became standardized in the 18th century, when, in the spirit of the Enlightenment, the spelling of certain words changed to fit their Greek or Latin origins. Prior to this, scribes writing in Old and Middle English usually used the spelling "Crist"—the "i" being pronounced either as , preserved in the names of churches such as St Katherine Cree, or as a short , preserved in the modern pronunciation of "Christmas". The spelling "Christ" in English is attested from the 14th century.


title: Christ (title)

text: In modern and ancient usage, even in secular terminology, "Christ" usually refers to Jesus, based on the centuries-old tradition of such usage. Since the Apostolic Age, the... use of the definite article before the word Christ and its gradual development into a proper name show the Christians identified the bearer with the promised Messias of the Jews.


title: Christ (title)

text: In the Old Testament, anointing was a ceremonial reserved to the Kings of Israel (1 Kings 19:16; 24:7), Psalms 17 (18):51), to Cyrus the Great (Isaiah 45:1), to the High Priest of Israel, the patriarchs (Psalms 104(105):15 and to the prophets.


title: Christ (title)

text: In the Septuagint text of the deuterocanonical books, the term "Christ" (Χριστός, translit. Christós) is found in 2 Maccabees 1:10 (referring to the anointed High Priest of Israel) and in the Book of Sirach 46:19, in relation to Samuel, prophet and institutor of the kingdom under Saul.


title: Christ (title)

text: At the time of Jesus, there was no single form of Second Temple Judaism, and there were significant political, social, and religious differences among the various Jewish groups. However, for centuries the Jews had used the term "moshiach" ("anointed") to refer to their expected deliverer.


title: Christ (title)

text: Mark ("The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God") identifies Jesus as both Christ and the Son of God. uses Christ as a name and Matthew explains it again with: "Jesus, who is called Christ". The use of the definite article before the word "Christ" and its gradual development into a proper name show that the Christians identified Jesus with the promised messiah of the Jews who fulfilled all the messianic predictions in a fuller and a higher sense than had been given them by the rabbis.


title: Christ (title)

text: The so-called Confession of Peter, recorded in the Synoptic Gospels as Jesus's foremost apostle Peter saying that Jesus was the Messiah, has become a famous proclamation of faith among Christians since the first century.


title: Christ (title)

text: In Martha told Jesus, "you are the Christ, the Son of God, who is coming into the world", signifying that both titles were generally accepted (yet considered distinct) among the followers of Jesus before the raising of Lazarus.


title: Christ (title)

text: During the Sanhedrin trial of Jesus, it might appear from the narrative of Matthew that Jesus at first refused a direct reply to the high priest Caiaphas's question: "Are you the Messiah, the Son of God?", where his answer is given merely as Σὺ εἶπας ("Su eipas", "You [singular] have said it"). Similarly but differently in Luke, all those present are said to ask Jesus: 'Are you then the Son of God?', to which Jesus reportedly answered: Ὑμεῖς λέγετε ὅτι ἐγώ εἰμι ("Hymeis legete hoti ego eimi", "You [plural] say that I am". In the Gospel of Mark, however, when asked by Caiaphas 'Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?', Jesus tells the Sanhedrin: Ἐγώ εἰμι ("ego eimi", "I am"). There are instances from Jewish literature in which the expression "you have said it" is equivalent to "you are right". The Messianic claim was less significant than the claim to divinity, which caused the high priest's horrified accusation of blasphemy and the subsequent call for the death sentence. Before Pilate, on the other hand, it was merely the assertion of his royal dignity which gave grounds for his condemnation.


title: Christ (title)

text: The word "Christ" is closely associated with Jesus in the Pauline epistles, which suggests that there was no need for the early Christians to claim that Jesus is Christ because it was considered widely accepted among them. Hence Paul can use the term "Khristós" with no confusion as to whom it refers, and he can use expressions such as "in Christ" to refer to the followers of Jesus, as in and . Paul proclaimed him as the Last Adam, who restored through obedience what Adam lost through disobedience. The Pauline epistles are a source of some key Christological connections; e.g., relates the love of Christ to the knowledge of Christ, and considers the love of Christ as a necessity for knowing him.


title: Christ (title)

text: The Hellenization Μεσσίας (Messías) is used twice to mean "Messiah" in the New Testament: by the disciple Andrew at , and by the Samaritan woman at the well at John 4:25. In both cases, the Greek text specifies immediately after that this means "the Christ."


title: Christ (title)

text: Christology, literally "the understanding of Christ," is the study of the nature (person) and work (role in salvation) of Jesus in Christianity. It studies Jesus Christ's humanity and divinity, and the relation between these two aspects; and the role he plays in salvation.


title: Christ (title)

text: From the second to the fifth centuries, the relation of the human and divine nature of Christ was a major focus of debates in the early church and at the first seven ecumenical councils. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 issued a formulation of the hypostatic union of the two natures of Christ, one human and one divine, "united with neither confusion nor division". Most of the major branches of Western Christianity and Eastern Orthodoxy subscribe to this formulation, while many branches of Oriental Orthodox Churches reject it, subscribing to miaphysitism.


title: Christ (title)

text: According to the "Summa Theologica" of Thomas Aquinas, in the singular case of Jesus, the word "Christ" has a twofold meaning, which stands for "both the Godhead anointing and the manhood anointed". It derives from the twofold human-divine nature of Christ (dyophysitism): the Son of man is anointed in consequence of His incarnated flesh, as well as the Son of God is anointing in consequence of the "Godhead which He has with the Father" (ST "III", q. 16, a. 5).


title: Christ (title)

text: The use of "Χ" as an abbreviation for "Christ" derives from the Greek letter Chi (χ), in the word (). An early Christogram is the "Chi Rho" symbol, formed by superimposing the first two Greek letters in Christ, chi (Χ) and rho (Ρ), to produce ☧.


title: Christ (title)

text: The centuries-old English word "Χmas" (or, in earlier form, "XPmas") is an English form of χ-mas, itself an abbreviation for Christ-mas. The "Oxford English Dictionary" ("OED") and the "OED Supplement" have cited usages of "X-" or "Xp-" for "Christ-" as early as 1485. The terms "Xpian" and "Xren" have been used for "Christian", "Xst" for "Christ's" "Xρofer" for Christopher and Xmas, Xstmas, and Xtmas for Christmas. The "OED" further cites usage of "Xtianity" for "Christianity" from 1634. According to "Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage", most of the evidence for these words comes from "educated Englishmen who knew their Greek".


title: Christ (title)

text: The December 1957 "News and Views" published by the Church League of America, a conservative organization founded in 1937, attacked the use of "Xmas" in an article titled "X=The Unknown Quantity". Gerald L. K. Smith picked up the statements later, in December 1966, saying that Xmas was a "blasphemous omission of the name of Christ" and that "'X' is referred to as being symbolical of the unknown quantity." More recently, American evangelist Franklin Graham and former CNN contributor Roland S. Martin publicly raised concerns. Graham stated in an interview that the use of "Xmas" is taking "Christ out of Christmas" and called it a "war against the name of Jesus Christ." Roland Martin relates the use of "Xmas" to his growing concerns of increasing commercialization and secularization of what he says is one of Christianity's highest holy days.


title: Donald O'Connor

text: Donald David Dixon Ronald O'Connor (August 28, 1925 – September 27, 2003) was an American dancer, singer and actor. He came to fame in a series of films in which he co-starred with Gloria Jean, Peggy Ryan, and Francis the Talking Mule.


title: Donald O'Connor

text: His best-known works came in the film "Singin' in the Rain" (1952), for which O'Connor was awarded a Golden Globe. He also won a Primetime Emmy Award from four nominations and received two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.


title: Donald O'Connor

text: Though he considered Danville, Illinois, to be his hometown, O'Connor was the 200th child born in St. Elizabeth Hospital in Chicago. Often, both of his parents struggled to remember where and when exactly O'Connor was born, due to the family's extensive travel as a Vaudeville team. Indeed, his parents, Effie Irene (née Crane) and John Edward "Chuck" O'Connor, were vaudeville entertainers; she was a bareback rider and he was a circus strongman and acrobat. His father's family was from Ireland.


title: Donald O'Connor

text: O'Connor later said, "I was about 13 months old, they tell me, when I first started dancing, and they'd hold me up by the back of my neck and they'd start the music, and I'd dance. You could do that with any kid, only I got paid for it."


title: Donald O'Connor

text: When O'Connor was only two years old, he and his seven-year-old sister, Arlene, were hit by a car while crossing the street outside a theater in Hartford, Connecticut; Donald survived, but his sister did not. A few weeks later, his father died of a heart attack while dancing on stage in Brockton, Massachusetts. His brother Billy died a decade later from scarlet fever and his eldest sibling Jack died from alcoholism in 1959. His three other siblings died during childbirth. O'Connor said the tragedies "marred my childhood and it's still haunting."


title: Donald O'Connor

text: O'Connor's mother was extremely possessive of her youngest son due to these traumas, not allowing him to cross the street on his own until he turned 13. Effie also stopped O'Connor from learning hazardous dance routines, and made sure she always knew where he was when he wasn't performing. She was a typical stage mother, often striking him.


title: Donald O'Connor

text: O'Connor later said regarding Effie, "She wanted me to be as great as I possibly could be. She did her best."


title: Donald O'Connor

text: O'Connor joined a dance act with his mother and elder brother Jack. They were billed as the O'Connor Family, the Royal Family of Vaudeville. They toured the country doing singing, dancing, comedy, and acting. "Our entire family composed an act", he says. "We really didn't have a choice; if you were in the family you appeared in the act. I loved vaudeville. The live audiences created a certain spontaneity."


title: Donald O'Connor

text: When they were not touring they stayed with O'Connor's Uncle Bill in Danville, Illinois. O'Connor never went to school.


title: Donald O'Connor

text: He later said, "I learned two dance routines. I looked like the world's greatest dancer. I did triple wings and everything. But I had never had any formal training. So, when I went into movies and started working with all those great dancers, I had a terrible time. I couldn't pick up routines because I didn't have any formal training. At the age of 15 — from 15 on, I really had to learn to dance. And that's quite old for someone to start dancing real heavy, professionally."


title: Donald O'Connor

text: O'Connor began performing in movies in 1937, making his debut aged 11 in "Melody for Two" appearing with his family act. He was also in Columbia's "It Can't Last Forever" (1937).


title: Donald O'Connor

text: O'Connor signed a contract at Paramount. He appeared in "Men with Wings" (1938), directed by William Wellman, as Fred MacMurray's character as a boy. He was billed fifth in "Sing You Sinners" (1938) playing Bing Crosby's and MacMurray's younger brother.


title: Donald O'Connor

text: He was in "Sons of the Legion" (1938), then had the lead in a B-picture, "Tom Sawyer, Detective" (1938), playing Huckleberry Finn opposite Billy Cook's Tom Sawyer. O'Connor third billed in both "Boy Trouble" (1939) and "Unmarried" (1939), playing John Hartley as a young boy in the latter.


title: Donald O'Connor

text: O'Connor was billed fourth in "Million Dollar Legs" (1939) with Betty Grable. He played Gary Cooper as a young boy in "Beau Geste" (1939), directed by Wellman.


title: Donald O'Connor

text: He went to Warner Bros to play Eddie Albert as a young boy in "On Your Toes" (1939). He then returned to his family act in vaudeville for two years.


title: Donald O'Connor

text: In 1941, O'Connor signed with Universal Pictures for $200 a week, where he began with "What's Cookin'?" (1942), a low-budget musical with The Andrews Sisters, Gloria Jean and Peggy Ryan. The film was popular and Universal began to develop O'Connor and Ryan as their version of Mickey Rooney and Judy Garland.


title: Donald O'Connor

text: He, Ryan, and the Andrews Sisters were in "Private Buckaroo" (1942) and "Give Out, Sisters" (1942); then he was co-starred opposite Universal's teenage singing star Gloria Jean in four films: "Get Hep to Love" (1942), "When Johnny Comes Marching Home" (1943), "It Comes Up Love" (1943), and "School for Jive", which showed O'Connor to such good advantage that he became the focal point of the film, retitled "Mister Big" (1943). Universal added $50,000 to the budget and elevated the "B" movie to "A" status.


title: Donald O'Connor

text: O'Connor and Ryan were in "Top Man" (1943), with Susanna Foster, and "Chip Off the Old Block" (1944), with Ann Blyth. O'Connor and Ryan both had cameos in Universal's all-star "Follow the Boys" (1944).


title: Donald O'Connor

text: During World War II, on his 18th birthday in August 1943, O'Connor was drafted into the United States Army. Before he reported for induction on February 6, 1944, Universal already had four O'Connor films completed. They rushed production to complete four more by that date, all with Ryan: "This Is the Life" (1944), with Foster; "The Merry Monahans" (1944), with Blyth and Jack Oakie; "Bowery to Broadway" (1945), another all-star effort where O'Connor had a cameo; and "Patrick the Great" (1945).


title: Donald O'Connor

text: With a backlog of seven features, deferred openings kept O'Connor's screen presence uninterrupted during the two years he was overseas with Special Services in the U.S. Army Air Forces.