title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: Sentry joins the Dark Avengers, Norman Osborn's personal team of Avengers, stating that Osborn is helping him in return after Osborn confides his own mental deficiency in Bob. Upon confronting the sorceress Morgan le Fay, the Sentry kills her only to have her come back to life and kill him in turn. After the Dark Avengers and Doctor Doom defeat Morgan, the team returns to New York City to find the Sentry reappears alive and well. After a terrorist attack by an Atlantean cell, Norman Osborn demands to speak to the Void and tells him to kill all the terrorists. The Sentry obliges but is seen with black eyes, indicating the return of the Void within the Sentry persona.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: When anti-mutant riots break out in San Francisco, the Dark Avengers and H.A.M.M.E.R. move in to contain the situation. The Sentry watches as the riots are quelled, when the Dark Avengers team up with Norman's Dark X-Men against the X-Men, Emma Frost frees the Void from Sentry to take him off the battlefield. However, a sliver of the Void becomes contained in her mind, forcing Emma to shift into her diamond form to keep it contained. When Psylocke, Professor X, and Cyclops attempt to help Emma, she subsequently passes the Void sliver to Cyclops, whom the Void felt could be of more use to it. However, after years of dating and being married to the world's most powerful mutant telepath Jean Grey, Cyclops uses all that she taught him to successfully lock the Void inside an unbreakable psychic prison within his own mind.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: When Sentry returns to Avengers Tower, Lindy shoots him because she fears his mindset, but he returns unharmed.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: The Avengers are sent to investigate disappearances in Dinosaur, Colorado, and the Sentry is disintegrated when he approaches the area. The team find that Molecule Man, secluding himself, is responsible. Reece is losing touch with reality, and struggles to differentiate between the real and his creations. After the other Dark Avengers have been defeated, Osborn's aide Victoria Hand convinces Owen to restore reality in order to be left to his own devices. The Sentry returns mid-conversation and attacks Molecule Man only to be destroyed again. The Sentry reforms once more, but this time under the Void's influence. When a missile distracts Owen, Sentry takes control of Reece's body and tells Owen to restore reality or die. Reece seemingly obliges him, but is killed, which causes Bob/Void to believe they cannot die. Bob regains control of his body, but doesn't seem to recall killing Molecule Man. Ms. Marvel muses that the Scarlet Witch's reality-rewriting nervous breakdown was negligible in comparison to the threat posed by the Sentry losing control.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: Sentry finds a runaway Noh-Varr in the streets of Manhattan. A battle breaks out and Sentry is distracted when a girl named Annie uses one of Noh-Varr's weapons. This creates enough time for Noh-Varr to get away.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: After shooting Robert, apparently killing him, Lindy records Sentry's origins as a drug addict (previously revealed) and that he found the Professor's super serum by accident. After drinking the serum, Bob accidentally destroys the lab, killing his partner and two guards. As the Sentry, Bob lives a hero's life, forgetting about his past as a thief and addict, blaming them on "a boogeyman" that would become the Void. Lindy knew that Osborn's orders and replica of the serum were unlocking the Void again (Osborn calls him "his secret weapon"). When Bob recovers, his Void persona tries to kill Lindy while claiming to be Galactus, only to be stopped by the Sentry one, who tries to destroy the Void (and himself) in the Sun, only to survive and be convinced to return home.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: Upon his return, the Void has now taken control of Robert's body. With black tendrils raining from the sky, the Void severely damages multiple buildings, killing some innocents. As the Iron Patriot, Osborn flies to the Void, claiming that he was breaking their "deal". Norman then has Bullseye murder Lindy.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: During the 2010 storyline "Siege", when Osborn attacks the city of Asgard, Sentry, who serves Osborn, is pitted against the Avengers and others who rebel against Osborn. At Osborn's request, the Sentry destroyed Asgard. The Void then takes complete control, Sentry kills Ares much to the surprise of the combatants. After defeating the entire Avengers contingent, Sentry is eventually reverted to human form following Loki's revival of the Avengers using the stones of Norn. He then asks to be killed and following a brief outburst from the Void, his wish is granted by Thor. Thor respectfully carries Reynolds' body to the sun and cremates him there.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: At a memorial service for Bob Reynolds, CLOC remarks he would rebuild the Watchtower (which vanished at the moment of Bob's apparent death) at an undisclosed location in preparation for the return of the Sentry, and that no one would be allowed to approach it. CLOC then gives Mister Fantastic the Sentry's diary and instructs him to read the final sentence of page nineteen, the contents of which Reynolds knew that only Mister Fantastic would understand. When asked about it, Mister Fantastic keeps the information to himself.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: The Sentry is later resurrected by the Apocalypse Twins, who use a Celestial Death Seed to transform him into a member of their new Horsemen of Death. The Sentry claims he became trapped in the sun after his previous death at Thor's hands, dying and regenerating over and over again, and that the Void became 'bored' and has left him. He attacks the Avengers and initially captures Thor, but in a later confrontation is stymied by a sand worm controlled by Wasp. After the defeat of the Apocalypse Twins, the Sentry takes the dead body of the Celestial Executioner and offers to take it into deep space, far away from Earth. Wasp states that Sentry is trustworthy as he now views himself as the cosmic protector of humanity.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: It is revealed that Doctor Strange cured Robert from his condition and put the Void into a chamber of his Sanctum Sanctorum. When Loki became the new Sorcerer Supreme, Stephen asked the Sentry for help, now residing on the top of a mountain. Because of Loki's curiosity about the chamber, Stephen opens it, unleashing the Void. This causes the Void to possess Doctor Strange; however, with the replenishment of his magic by Loki and the help of the Sentry, Strange is freed by his influence and together they lock-in the Void again. An angry and distrustful Robert hits Strange, telling him to leave him alone.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: It is later revealed that Doctor Strange created a device called the Confluctor that created a pocket dimension where Robert Reynolds can go to once every 24 hours to be the Sentry and fight the Void with Scout and Watchdog. This will prevent him from turning into the Void in the real world. Robert confides in Billy Turner (formerly The Scout) about the pocket dimension. Unbeknownst to him, Billy devises a plot with one of Sentry's oldest enemies Cranio to duplicate the Sentry formula and trap Robert Reynolds in the pocket dimension, so Cranio can rule there and Billy will be the new Sentry. The plan is foiled when S.H.I.E.L.D. and Iron Man arrest Robert Reynolds for not checking in on his "parole", but he unleashes the Sentry and escapes. Billy takes the Sentry formula and battles Reynolds. They are evenly matched until Reynolds while in his subconscious thoughts decides to stop fighting the Void and become one with him. The newly-merged Sentry easily kills Billy, then removes Cranio from the pocket dimension. Iron Man returns with the Avengers, but they are unable to stop the new Sentry. As Reynolds prepares to leave, Iron Man asks if they're supposed to simply trust he'll do the right thing from now on. Reynolds replies "You don't have a choice" and flies off into space.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: During the "King in Black" storyline, Sentry returns in his golden appearance and has been called by the Avengers to help fight Knull. He attempts to fly Knull into space, as he had done to Carnage, only for Knull to break free and tear Sentry in half instead, absorbing the Void emerging from Sentry's body, into his own. Valkyrie Jane Foster then takes Robert’s soul to Valhalla.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: The Sentry's powers ostensibly derive from the Super-Soldier Serum that "moves his molecules an instant ahead of the current timeline". This was designed to be a hundred thousand times stronger than the original used on Captain America, and was modified by Weapon X. However, in "The Age of the Sentry" miniseries, it is suggested that Sentry is a sentient life force, a refugee from another universe who attempted to break through to another one for its new home, and that this was merely accommodated by the serum.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: Although the character's exact abilities and their limits are unknown and also said to be omnipotent, he has shown a small portion of his powers by lifting a Helicarrier (with assistance from Ms. Marvel and Wonder Man); preventing the Celestial Exitar from crushing the Earth by lifting his foot (with the help of an empowered Rogue) although later seen carrying it alone; also seen effortlessly toying with Thor, sending him flying with punches that produced shock waves felt around the planet. He dismembered Carnage with little effort. Sentry is considered by the mutant Emma Frost to be one of the best telepaths on Earth 616. He is somehow resistant to Rogue's mutate touch. Effortlessly defeating and breaking the handle of the axe of Terrax, a herald of Galactus shown as powerful enough to slice planets in half; severely pummeling and nearly tearing apart the female Ultron; and easily shattering shields of Doctor Doom. During the Sentry's initial miniseries, Spider-Man, in a moment of reflection, recalls that the Sentry fought and stalemated Galactus at one point.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: He generally holds back his powers, greatly restraining his full might. On occasion, he has unleashed them, showing the true magnitude of his abilities and strength. On some of these occasions, he overloaded the abilities of the Absorbing Man; and fought an enraged Hulk for a prolonged period of time until both fighters reverted to their human forms, whereupon Reynolds was knocked unconscious by Banner. He possesses superhuman speed, making him easily able to evade or catch bullets; and through flight he can travel to the sun and back in a matter of minutes. The Sentry is also apparently invulnerable: Spider-Woman's venom blasts, capable of killing even superhumans at full power, have no effect upon him. Nick Fury has stated that S.H.I.E.L.D. has not yet found a way to kill the Sentry. Iron Man's scanners have found no physical weaknesses in his body.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: The Sentry also has superhumanly acute senses. He once told an opponent that he could see his nerve centers and on another occasion said he can hear a heartbeat of a butterfly in Africa while he's in the US. He can emit light, which can be used for a pacifying effect. He possesses an ability to absorb energy from any matter/source which provides him limitless energy. Sentry possesses tremendous powers of energy projection, from both his hands and eyes, capable of harming even the Hulk (in his Green Scar incarnation), who has withstood the equivalent of solar flares unharmed, and also released planet-destroying energy against Genis-Vell. The Sentry has also at times demonstrated the ability to instantly teleport himself away in a blinding flash of light.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: He was once able to implant his memories inside another person's mind (he also implanted his thoughts on the comic's writer's mind for them to be written in comics), he uses his vast mental powers to maintain control even while in an uneven state caused by his mental illness. After Ultron murdered his wife, Sentry was able to resurrect her by simply touching her.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: The Sentry has demonstrated the ability to recreate himself after bodily destruction, up to and including total molecular destruction within seconds (he once tried to commit suicide by flying into the heart of the sun). Dialogue between Reynolds and the Void suggests that this particular capability is automatic, involuntary, and beyond the control of either Reynolds or the Void.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: He eventually found out that all his powers apparently derive from abilities similar to those of the virtually omnipotent Molecule Man, which he uses to take control of the latter's body and resurrect himself multiple times after seemingly being annihilated.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: During a conversation between Lindy, CLOC, and the Void, it is hinted that the Sentry's powers may come from a cosmic source, or possibly even from the Judeo-Christian God. Lindy believed that his powers were of "maybe Biblical proportions" and theorized that modern-day superheroes were conduits through which such higher power was now being channeled. When Steve Rogers demands that Norman Osborn tell him how the heroes are to stop the Void, Osborn says (albeit possibly figuratively) that the Void was the 'Angel of Death'; an earlier Biblical flashback also revealed that the being that brought the divine plagues down on Egypt was apparently similar in appearance to the Void, who, millennia later, claims to the Sentry when attacking New York that doing so is 'God's way'.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: As Sentry's molecules are ahead of the current timeline, this states that he simultaneously exists in the future, present and past altogether. His long time foe Cranio stated that Time bends for Sentry, and every situation that happens all works in his favor, sort of Probability manipulation but in his case it's Time.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: Robert Reynolds projects an entity as a dark side effect of his powers. It has been claimed that for every benevolent act the Sentry performs, the Void corresponds with attempting an act of malevolence. He was formerly unaware that the Void was a false personality, but has since been informed otherwise. In the 2009 storyline "Utopia", it was temporarily separated from his being, with a "shard" of its essence placed within Emma Frost which is later transferred to Scott Summers and currently resides locked away in his mind.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: Several reasons for the existence of the Void have been given: the innate division between good and evil in any nominally normal person; a "mind virus" put into place by the mutant Mastermind by order of the crazed General; the idea that the Void is in fact the true personality of Rob Reynolds and the Sentry is the false one; as mentioned above, the result of covering up his past; and, according to Norman Osborn the Sentry's superhumanity eroded his humanity, leading to a 'void' in his life. During the Siege storyline, the Void exhibits a more demonic form, capable of nearly slaughtering Thor, bringing down the entire city of Asgard, and striking down every immortal and mortal hero set against it simultaneously, killing the Norn Stone-powered Loki in seconds, and even tearing the god of war, Ares, in half. Norman Osborn claims that it is the Angel of Death, tying into an earlier prelude which showed the Void's presence in biblical times.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: The Void possesses the ability to shape-shift, and through its control over the weather and darkness it can create destructive storms and deadly "infini-tendrils" that attack the mind. Victims impaled on the tendrils experience traumatic visions of the past, present, and future. Its regular appearance varies between a shadowy, trench-coat-wearing villain to a massive hurricane of darkness. It can also assume powers dependent on shape, like a flame form that breathes fire, alternately an armored monster with superstrength and toughness. It is at its strongest during the night and in the Negative Zone (which is also Blue Marvel's source of his strength & power), where it has shown itself capable of easily overpowering the Hulk by breaking every single bone in his body in moments. Coincidentally, Sentry is at his weakest in the Negative Zone. A mere physical assault required much effort to hold off, even with the combined force fields of Iron Man, Doctor Strange, and the Invisible Woman, while the united forces of the New Avengers, Fantastic Four, X-Men, Inhumans, Illuminati, and heavily armed S.H.I.E.L.D. agents simultaneously attacked it.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: Joining Sentry to take on the Void are his sidekick, Scout, his loyal canine companion Watchdog and his equal, Sentress.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: Better known as Scout, Billy Turner is the sidekick and partner of the Sentry. After the Sentry made the entire world forget of his existence with the help of Mister Fantastic and Doctor Strange in order to stop the Void, Billy went on to live a normal life. He lived with his mother and worked at a fast food restaurant. When the Sentry first re-emerged, Billy's memories of his life as Scout returned. He suited up on his old costume and joined the Sentry and numerous other heroes at the Statue of Liberty to take a stand against the Void. When the Sentry saw himself forced to return to obscurity, Billy returned again to his normal life.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: Scout's powers are similar to Sentry's (superhuman strength, speed, and stamina; regenerative healing; flight; etc.) and were also obtained by drinking the super serum.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: Watchdog is a super-powered Welsh Corgi. He takes verbal orders from the Sentry. The orders are given by the prefix Watchdog, directly followed by commands, such as, Guard, Stay, etc. Watchdog always obeys.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: After Wanda Maximoff changes the world in "House of M" #1, Robert Reynolds is seen briefly with Doctor Strange in a therapy session. He tells Strange about a dream in which he sees an immense darkness (the Void) coming down on him.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: A version of the Sentry is responsible for the zombie outbreak depicted in "Ultimate Fantastic Four" and "Marvel Zombies". A costumed hero resembling the Sentry appears from another universe, looking for food. The Avengers attempt to intercept him, and are immediately infected. The zombie virus rapidly spreads to nearly every super-powered character in that world. The costumed hero responsible for the outbreak is never called by name, and is only distinguishable by his outfit. What happens to him after his initial contact with this universe is unknown.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: In "Marvel Zombies vs. The Army of Darkness", it is revealed that the zombie Sentry was undead in the afterlife, eating everyone that came into the "light" and knocking Ash into the not yet infected world of superheroes. Unfortunately, the Sentry finds its way through the same portal and infects the Avengers who came to tackle him in the first place. He joins them in decimating the city and consuming civilians. However, he is not seen after


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: In "Marvel Zombies Return", it is revealed that the Sentry's infection and universal travel is a predestination paradox. When the Giant-Man of the Marvel Zombies universe comes to a past version of the Marvel Universe, he infects the Hulk, who then infects the Sentry. At the conclusion of the story, Sentry is sent through the multiverse by that Earth's version of Uatu the Watcher and infects the Avengers, setting off the entire series of events while 'containing' the infection between these two universes so that it will essentially 'devour itself'. In the one-shot "Marvel Zombies: Evil Evolution", Zombie Reed Richards speculates that a dimensional teleporter he was testing may have pulled the Sentry from his reality, though whether this was from the Gates of Heaven or was the other end of Uatu's teleporter is not revealed.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: This version of Sentry is mostly identical to the mainstream counterpart, becoming a hero and battling villains alongside Scout, Watchdog and the Sentress and falling in love with Lindy Lee. Afterwards, the villainous brain-like alien Gorax was able to take away the powers of Sentry, resulting in Robert and Lindy going back in time and regaining his powers. Then, the two villains known as Phineas Mason and the Mad Thinker started posing as two film-makers who were using their machinery to drain Sentry's power which ultimately failed.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: In "", the corpse of a Sentry is seen along with other deceased heroes after being killed by Dreadpool.


title: Sentry (Robert Reynolds)

text: "Newsarama" ranked The Sentry as the third worst Avengers member describing him as "a schizophrenic powerhouse who somehow managed to make that combination of words actually mean a whiny, self-possessed MacGuffin character whose personal lameness is only outweighed by the lameness of the conceits that are required for his existence to make any sense."


title: Philodendron

text: Philodendron is a large genus of flowering plants in the family Araceae. , the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families accepted 489 species; other sources accept different numbers. Regardless of number of species, the genus is the second-largest member of the family Araceae, after genus "Anthurium". Taxonomically, the genus "Philodendron" is still poorly known, with many undescribed species. Many are grown as ornamental and indoor plants. The name derives from the Greek words "philo-" or "love, affection" and "dendron" or "tree". The generic name, "Philodendron", is often used as the English name.


title: Philodendron

text: Compared to other genera of the family Araceae, philodendrons have an extremely diverse array of growth methods. The habits of growth can be epiphytic, hemiepiphytic, or rarely terrestrial. Others can show a combination of these growth habits depending on the environment. Hemiepiphytic philodendrons can be classified into two types: primary and secondary hemiepiphytes. A primary hemiepiphytic philodendron starts life high up in the canopy where the seed initially sprouts. The plant then grows as an epiphyte. Once it has reached a sufficient size and age, it will begin producing aerial roots that grow toward the forest floor. Once they reach the forest floor, nutrients can be obtained directly from the soil. In this manner, the plant's strategy is to obtain light early in its life at the expense of nutrients. Some primary epiphytic species have a symbiotic relationship with ants. In these species, the ants' nest is grown amongst the plant's roots, which help keep the nest together. Philodendrons have extrafloral nectaries, glands that secrete nectar to attract the ants. The philodendron, in turn, obtains nutrients from the surrounding ant nest, and the aggressive nature of the ants serves to protect the plant from other insects which would eat it.


title: Philodendron

text: Secondary hemiepiphytes start life on the ground or on part of a tree trunk very close to the ground, where the seeds sprout. These philodendrons have their roots in the ground early in their lives. They then begin climbing up a tree and eventually may become completely epiphytic, doing away with their subterranean roots. Secondary hemiepiphytes do not always start their lives close to a tree. For these philodendrons, the plant will grow with long internodes along the ground until a tree is found. They find a suitable tree by growing towards darker areas, such as the dark shadow of a tree. This trait is called scototropism. After a tree has been found, the scototropic behavior stops and the philodendron switches to a phototropic growth habit and the internodes shorten and thicken. Usually, however, philodendrons germinate on trees.


title: Philodendron

text: The leaves are usually large and imposing, often lobed or deeply cut, and may be more or less pinnate. They can also be oval, spear-shaped, or in many other possible shape variations. The leaves are borne alternately on the stem. A quality of philodendrons is that they do not have a single type of leaf on the same plant. Instead, they have juvenile leaves and adult leaves, which can be drastically different from one another. The leaves of seedling philodendrons are usually heart-shaped early in the life of the plant. But after it has matured past the seedling stage, the leaves will acquire the typical juvenile leaf's shape and size. Later in the philodendron's life, it starts producing adult leaves, a process called metamorphosis. Most philodendrons go through metamorphosis gradually; there is no immediately distinct difference between juvenile and adult leaves. Aside from being typically much bigger than the juvenile leaves, the shape of adult leaves can be significantly different. In fact, considerable taxonomic difficulty has occurred in the past due to these differences, causing juvenile and adult plants to mistakenly be classified as different species.


title: Philodendron

text: The trigger for the transformation to adult leaves can vary considerably. One possible trigger is the height of the plant. Secondary hemiepiphytes start off on the dark forest floor and climb their way up a tree, displaying their juvenile type leaves along the way. Once they reach a sufficient height, they begin developing adult type leaves. The smaller juvenile leaves are used for the darker forest floor where light is in scarce supply, but once they reach a sufficient height in the canopy the light is bright enough that the bigger adult leaves can serve a useful purpose. Another possible trigger occurs in primary hemiepiphytes. These philodendrons typically send their aerial roots downward. Once their roots have reached the ground below, the plant will begin taking up nutrients from the soil, of which it had been previously deprived. As a result, the plant will quickly morph into its adult leaves and gain in size dramatically. Another quality of philodendrons leaves is they are often quite different in shape and size even between two plants of the same species. As a result of all these different possible leaf shapes, it is often difficult to differentiate natural variations from morphogenesis.


title: Philodendron

text: Philodendrons also produce cataphylls, which are modified leaves that surround and protect the newly forming leaves. Cataphylls are usually green, leaf-like, and rigid while they are protecting the leaf. In some species, they can even be rather succulent. Once the leaf has been fully formed, the cataphyll usually remains attached where the stem and base of the leaf meet. In philodendrons, cataphylls typically fall into two categories: deciduous and persistent types. A deciduous cataphyll curls away from the leaf once it has formed, eventually turning brown and drying out, and finally falling off the plant, leaving a scar on the stem where it was attached. Deciduous cataphylls are typically found on vining philodendrons, whereas persistent cataphylls are typical of epiphytic philodendrons or appressed climbers. In the latter, the cataphylls are prevented from falling off in a timely manner due to the short internodes of the plant. The cataphylls will remain attached, drying out and becoming nothing more than fibers attached at the nodes. In some philodendrons, the cataphylls build up over time and eventually form a wet mass at the nodes. This may keep emerging roots moist and provide some form of lubrication to new leaves.


title: Philodendron

text: Philodendrons have both aerial and subterranean roots. The aerial roots occur in many shapes and sizes and originate from most of the plant's nodes or occasionally from an internode. The size and number of aerial roots per node depends on the presence of a suitable substrate for the roots to attach themselves. Aerial roots serve two primary purposes. They allow the philodendron to attach itself to a tree or other plant, and they allow it to collect water and nutrients. As such, the roots are divided morphologically into these two categories. Aerial roots used for attaching to trees tend to be shorter, more numerous, and sometimes have a layer of root hairs attached; those used for collecting water and nutrients tend to be thicker and longer. These feeder roots tend to attach flush with the substrate to which the philodendron is attached, and make their way directly downwards in search of soil. In general, feeder roots tend to show both positive hydrotropic and negative heliotropic behaviors. Characteristic of roots in philodendrons is the presence of a sclerotic hypodermis, which are cylindrical tubes inside the epidermis that can be one to five cells long. The cells that line the sclerotic hypodermis are elongated and tend to be hardened. Underneath the epidermis is a unique layer of cells in a pattern of long cells followed by short cells.


title: Philodendron

text: Some philodendrons have extrafloral nectaries (nectar-producing glands found outside of the flowers). The nectar attracts ants, with which the plant enjoys a protective symbiotic relationship. Nectaries can be found in a variety of locations on the plant, including the stalks, sheaths, lower surfaces of the leaves, and spathes. The nectaries produce a sweet, sticky substance the ants like to eat and which provides an incentive for them to build their nests amongst the roots of the given philodendron. In some cases, the amount of nectar produced can be quite extensive, resulting in the surface becoming entirely covered with it.


title: Philodendron

text: When philodendrons are ready to reproduce, they will produce an inflorescence which consists of a leaf-like hood called a spathe within which is enclosed a tube-like structure called a spadix. Depending on the species, a single inflorescence can be produced or a cluster of up to 11 inflorescences can be produced at a single time on short peduncles. The spathe tends to be waxy and is usually bicolored. In some philodendrons, the colour of the base of the spathe contrasts in colour with the upper part, and in others, the inner and outer surfaces of the spathe differ in coloration. The paler colour tends to be either white or green, and the darker usually red or crimson. Pelargonidin is the predominant pigment causing the red coloration in the spathes. The upper portion of the spathe is called the limb or blade, while the lower portion is called the convolute tube or chamber due to its tubular structure at the base. The spadix is more often than not white and shorter than the spathe. On the spadix are found fertile female, fertile male, and sterile male flowers. The fertile male and female flowers are separated on the spadix by a sterile zone or staminodal region composed of sterile male flowers. This barrier of sterile male flowers ensures fertile male flowers do not fertilize the female flowers. The arrangement tends to be vertical, with fertile male flowers at the top of the spadix followed by sterile male flowers, and fertile female flowers very close to the bottom in the region known as the spathe tube or chamber. In some philodendrons, an additional region of sterile male flowers is found at the very top of the spadix. The fertile female flowers are often not receptive to fertilization when the fertile males are producing pollen, which again prevents self-pollination. The pollen itself is thread-like and appears to project out from the region where the fertile male flowers are located.


title: Philodendron

text: Sexual reproduction is achieved by means of beetles, with many philodendron species requiring the presence of a specific beetle species to achieve pollination. The reverse is not always the case, as many beetle species will pollinate more than one philodendron species. These same beetles could also pollinate other genera outside of philodendron, as well as outside of the family Araceae. The pollinating beetles are males and members of the subfamily Rutelinae and Dynastinae, and to date the only beetles seen to pollinate the inflorescence are in the genera "Cyclocephala" or "Erioscelis". Other smaller types of beetles in the genus" Neelia" visit the inflorescences, as well, but they are not believed to be involved in pollinating philodendrons. To attract the beetles, the sterile male flowers give off pheromones to attract the male beetles, usually at dusk. This process, female anthesis, is followed by male anthesis, in which the pollen is produced. Female anthesis typically lasts up to two days, and includes the gradual opening of the spathe to allow the beetles to enter. Some evidence suggest the timing of opening of the spathe is dependent on light levels, where cloudy, darker days result in the spathe opening up earlier than on clear days. During female anthesis, the spadix will project forward at roughly 45° relative to the spathe.


title: Philodendron

text: The spathe provides a safe breeding area for the beetles. As such, the male beetles are often followed by female beetles with the intent of mating with the males within the spathe. The philodendrons benefit from this symbiotic relationship because the males will eventually leave the spathe covered in pollen and repeat the process at another philodendron, pollinating it in the process and thus providing philodendrons a means of sexual reproduction. In addition to gaining a safe location to mate, the male beetles may benefit from having a central location, because it allows them to broadcast to females that they are willing and able to mate. Females which see a male beetle headed for a philodendron flower know he does so with intention of mating, and females which are sexually receptive and need to mate know that they can find males if they follow the pheromones produced by the philodendron flowers. As a result, the male beetles benefit from this relationship with the philodendrons because they do not have to produce pheromones to attract females, since the philodendrons do it for them. Additionally, male beetles benefit because they are ensured of mating with only sexually receptive females, which is not necessarily certain otherwise. In doing so, the philodendron provides male beetles a more efficient way to find females than what they could achieve on their own. Pheromones produced by the philodendrons may be similar to those produced by female beetles when they wish to attract males to mate. Also, the pheromones have a sweet, fruity smell in many species and no noticeable smell for others. In addition to the reproductive benefits to beetles, the philodendrons provide food in two forms. Pollen from the fertile male flowers is eaten by the beetles throughout the night. Secondly, the sterile male flowers consumed by the beetles are rich in lipids.


title: Philodendron

text: The male beetles will stay overnight in the spathe, eating and mating throughout the night due to the benefits provided by the spathe and spadix. Typically, five to 12 beetles will be within the spathe throughout the night. Rarely, cases of 200 beetles at a time have been observed and almost always the beetles are of the same species. Another feature of this symbiotic relationship, less well understood, is the series of events in which the spadix begins to heat up prior to the spathe opening up for the beetles. This process is known as thermogenesis. By the time the spathe is open and the beetles have arrived, the spadix is usually quite hot; up to around 46 °C in some species, but usually around 35 °C. The thermogenesis coincides with the arrival of the beetles and appears to increase their presence. The maximum temperature reached by the spadix remains about 20 °C higher than the outside ambient temperature. The time dependence of the temperature can vary from species to species. In some species, the temperature of the spadix will peak on the arrival of the beetles, then decrease, and finally increase reaching a maximum once again when the philodendron is ready for the beetles to leave. Other species, though, only show a maximum temperature on the arrival of the beetles, which remains roughly constant for about a day, and then steadily decreases. A few species will show three peaks in temperature during the flowering. The increased temperature increases the metabolism of the beetles, causing them to move about more within the spathe and increasing the likelihood they will be sufficiently coated with pollen. A sticky resin is also produced in drops attached to the spadix which help to keep the pollen attached to the beetles. This resin producing quality is unique to "Philodendron" and "Monstera", as other genera of Araceae do not produce it on their spadices. The resin is also found on the stems, leaves, and roots of philodendrons. Its color can be red, orange, yellow, or colorless when it is first produced. Yet, over time, it will turn brown as it is exposed to air. Also, some evidence suggests the thermogenesis triggers the beetles to mate. It also appears to distribute the pheromones into the air. The reason for the spadix being held at 45° relative to the spathe may be to maximize the heat's ability to waft the pheromones into the air. Oxidizing stored carbohydrates and lipids has been found to be the energy source for thermogenesis. The part of the spadix that heats up is the sterile zone. As it heats up, carbohydrates are used, but once the spadix has reached its maximum temperature, lipids are oxidized. The lipids are not first converted to carbohydrates, but rather are directly oxidized. The thermogenic reaction is triggered when concentrations of acetosalicytic acid form in the sterile zone. The acid sets off the mitochondria in the cells that make up the sterile zone to switch to an electron transport chain called the cyanide-resistant pathway, which results in the production of heat. Philodendrons consume oxygen during thermogenesis. The rate at which oxygen is used is remarkably high, close to that of hummingbirds and sphinx moths. The spadix has been shown to generate infrared radiation. As the beetles home in on the inflorescence, they first move in a zig-zag pattern until they get reasonably close, when they switch to a straight-line path. The beetles may be using scent to find the inflorescence when they are far away, but once within range, they find it by means of the infrared radiation. This would account for the two different types of paths the beetles follow.


title: Philodendron

text: Once female anthesis is nearing its end and the female flowers have been pollinated, the spathe will be fully open and male anthesis begins. In the beginning of male anthesis, the fertile male flowers complete the process of producing the pollen and the female flowers become unreceptive to further pollination. Additionally, the spadix moves from its 45° position and presses up flush to the spathe. Towards the end of male anthesis, the spathe begins to close from the bottom, working its way up and forcing the beetles to move up and across the upper region of the spathe, where the fertile male flowers are located. In doing so, the philodendron controls when the beetles come and when they leave and forces them to rub against the top of the spadix where the pollen is located as they exit, thus ensuring they are well-coated with pollen. One would expect the beetles to stay indefinitely if they could due to the very favorable conditions the inflorescence provides. After male anthesis, the males will go off and find another philodendron undergoing female anthesis, so will pollinate the female flowers with the pollen it had collected from its previous night of mating.


title: Philodendron

text: Botanically, the fruit produced is a berry. The berries develop later in the season; berry development time varies from species to species from a few weeks to a year, although most philodendrons take a few months. The spathe will enlarge to hold the maturing berries. Once the fruit are mature, the spathe will begin to open again, but this time it will break off at the base and fall to the forest floor. Additionally, the berries are edible, although they contain calcium oxalate crystals, and have a taste akin to bananas. Many botanical sources will indicate that the berries are poisonous, probably due to the oxalate crystals. Many tropical plants contain oxalates in varying amounts. Sometimes proper preparation can render these harmless, and in many cases eating minor amounts causes most people no distress or minor gastric irritation. However, care should be taken to verify the toxicity of any particular species before ingesting these berries, particularly regularly or in large amounts.


title: Philodendron

text: The color of the berries can vary depending on the species, but most produce a white berry with slight tones of green. Some produce orange berries and others yellow berries, though. Still others will produce berries that start off white, but then change to another color with time. Philodendrons that produce orange berries tend to be members of the section "Calostigma". Contained within the berries are the seeds which are extremely small compared to other members of the family Araceae. The berries often give off odors to attract animals to eat and disperse them. For example, "Philodendron alliodorum" berries are known to emit an odor similar to that of garlic. The animals that distribute the seeds depends on the species, but some possible dispersers include bats and monkeys. Insects also may be responsible for dispersing seeds, as beetles and wasps have been seen feeding on philodendron berries.


title: Philodendron

text: Eurytomid wasps also seek out philodendrons, and are known to lay their eggs in the ovaries of many "Philodendron" species, resulting in galled inflorescences.


title: Philodendron

text: Philodendrons exhibit extremely few physical reproductive barriers to prevent hybridization, but very few natural hybrids are found in nature. This may be because philodendrons have many geographic and time barriers to prevent any such cross pollination. For example, it is rare for more than one philodendron species to be flowering at the same time or to be pollinated by the same species of beetles. The beetles have also been observed to be selective to the height of the plant they pollinate, which would serve as an additional preventive measure to make hybrids less likely. Because of these outside barriers, philodendrons may not have had to evolve physical mechanisms to prevent cross-pollination. Hybrids in nature are only rarely reported. When found, these hybrids often can show remarkable genetic relationships. Crosses between two philodendrons in different sections can occur successfully.


title: Philodendron

text: Philodendrons are known to have been collected from the wild as early as 1644 by Georg Marcgraf, but the first partly successful scientific attempt to collect and classify the genus was done by Charles Plumier. Plumier collected approximately six species from the islands of Martinique, Hispaniola, and St. Thomas. Since then, many exploration attempts have been made to collect new species by others. These include those by N.J. Jacquin who collected new species in the West Indies, Colombia, and Venezuela. At this time in history, the names of the philodendrons they were discovering were being published with the genus name "Arum", since most aroids were considered to belong to this same genus. The genus "Philodendron" had not yet been created. Throughout the late 17th, 18th century, and early 19th centuries, many plants were removed from the genus" Arum" and placed into newly created genera in an attempt to improve the classification. Heinrich Wilhelm Schott addressed the problem of providing improved taxonomy and created the genus "Philodendron" and described it in 1829. The genus was first spelled as 'Philodendrum', but in 1832, Schott published a system for classifying plants in the family Araceae titled "Meletemata Botanica" in which he provided a method of classifying philodendrons based on flowering characteristics. In 1856, Schott published a revision of his previous work titled "Synopsis aroidearum", and then published his final work "Prodromus Systematis Aroidearum" in 1860, in which he provided even more details about the classification of "Philodendron" and described 135 species.


title: Philodendron

text: Philodendron are usually extremely distinctive and not usually confused with other genera, although a few exceptions in the genera "Anthurium" and "Homalomena" resemble "Philodendron".


title: Philodendron

text: The genus Philodendron has been subdivided into three subgenera: "Meconostigma", "Pteromischum", and "Philodendron". In 2018, it was proposed that "Philodendron" subg. "Meconostigma" be recognized as a separate genus, "Thaumatophyllum".


title: Philodendron

text: The genus "Philodendron" can also be subdivided into several sections and subsections. Section "Baursia", section "Philopsammos", section "Philodendron" (subsections "Achyropodium", "Canniphyllium", "Macrolonchium", "Philodendron", "Platypodium", "Psoropodium" and "Solenosterigma"), section "Calostigma" (subsections "Bulaoana", "Eucardium", "Glossophyllum", "Macrobelium" and "Oligocarpidium"), section "Tritomophyllum", section "Schizophyllum", section "Polytomium", section "Macrogynium" and section "Camptogynium".


title: Philodendron

text: Typically, the inflorescence is of great importance in determining the species of a given philodendron, since it tends to be less variable than the leaves. The genus "Philodendron" could be classified further by means of differentiating them based on the pattern of thermogenesis observed, although this is not currently used.


title: Philodendron

text: "Philodendron" diverged from "Adelonema" and diversified during the late Oligocene, 25 million years ago, in the New World.


title: Philodendron

text: Philodendron species can be found in many diverse habitats in the tropical Americas and the West Indies. Most occur in humid tropical forests, but can also be found in swamps and on river banks, roadsides and rock outcrops. They are also found throughout the diverse range of elevations from sea level to over 2000 m above sea level. Species of this genus are often found clambering over other plants, or climbing the trunks of trees with the aid of aerial roots. Philodendrons usually distinguish themselves in their environment by their large numbers compared to other plants, making them a highly noticeable component of the ecosystems in which they are found. They are found in great numbers in road clearings.


title: Philodendron

text: Philodendrons can also be found in Australia, some Pacific islands, Africa and Asia, although they are not indigenous and were introduced or accidentally escaped.


title: Philodendron

text: Philodendrons can be grown outdoors in mild climates in shady spots. They thrive in moist soils with high organic matter. In milder climates, they can be grown in pots of soil or in the case of "Philodendron oxycardium" in containers of water. Indoor plants thrive at temperatures between 15 and 18 °C and can survive at lower light levels than other house plants. Although philodendrons can survive in dark places, they much prefer bright lights. Wiping the leaves off with water will remove any dust and insects. Plants in pots with good root systems will benefit from a weak fertilizer solution every other week.


title: Philodendron

text: New plants can be grown by taking stem cuttings with at least two joints. Cuttings then can be rooted in pots of sand and peat moss mixtures. These pots are placed in greenhouses with bottom heat of 21–24 °C. During the rooting, cuttings should be kept out of direct sunlight. Once rooted, the plants can be transplanted to larger pots or directly outside in milder climates. Stem cuttings, particularly from trailing varieties, can be rooted in water. In four to five weeks, the plant should develop roots and can be transferred to pots.


title: Philodendron

text: Hybridizing philodendrons is quite easy if flowering plants are available, because they have very few barriers to prevent hybridization. However, some aspects of making crosses can make philodendron hybridization more difficult. Philodendrons often flower at different times and the time when the spathe opens up varies from plant to plant. The pollen and the inflorescence both have short lives, which means a large collection of philodendrons is necessary if crossbreeding is to be done successfully,The pollen life can be extended to a few weeks by storing it in film canisters in a refrigerator. Artificial pollination is usually achieved by first mixing the pollen with water. A window is then cut into the spathe and the water-pollen mixture is rubbed on the fertile female flowers. The entire spathe is then covered in a plastic bag so the water–pollen mixture does not dry out; the bag is removed a few days later. If the inflorescence has not been fertilized, it will fall off, usually within a few weeks.


title: Philodendron

text: The resins produced during the flowering of "Monstera" and "Philodendron" are known to be used by "Trigona" bees in the construction of their nests. Indigenous people from South America use the resin from the bees' nests to make their blowguns air- and watertight.


title: Philodendron

text: Though they contain calcium oxalate crystals, the berries of some species are eaten by the locals. For example, the sweet white berries of "Philodendron bipinnatifidum" are known to be used. Additionally, the aerial roots are also used for rope in this particular species.


title: Philodendron

text: The leaves of philodendrons are also known to be eaten by Venezuelan red howler monkeys, making up 3.1% of all the leaves they eat.


title: Philodendron

text: Also, in the making of a particular recipe for curare by the Amazonian Taiwanos, the leaves and stems of an unknown philodendron species are used. The leaves and stems are mixed with the bark of "Vochysia ferruginea" and with some parts of a species in the genus "Strychnos".


title: Philodendron

text: Yet another use of philodendrons is for catching fish. A tribe in the Colombian Amazon is known to use "Philodendron craspedodromum" to add poison to the water, temporarily stunning the fish, which rise up to the surface, where they can be easily scooped up. To add the poison to the water, the leaves are cut into pieces and tied together to form bundles, which are allowed to ferment for a few days. The bundles are crushed and added to the water into which the poison will dissipate. Although the toxicity of "Philodendron craspedodromum" is not fully known, active ingredients in the poisoning of the fish possibly are coumarins formed during the fermentation process.


title: Philodendron

text: Some philodendrons are also used for ceremonial purposes. Among the Kubeo tribe, native to Colombia, "Philodendron insigne" is used by witch doctors to treat ill patients. They use the juice of the spathe to stain their hands red, since many such tribes view the color red as a sign of power.


title: Philodendron

text: Philodendrons can contain as much as 0.7% of oxalates in the form of calcium oxalate crystals as raphides. The risk of death, if even possible, is extremely low if ingested by an average adult, although its consumption is generally considered unhealthy. In general, the calcium oxalate crystals have a very mild effect on humans, and large quantities have to be consumed for symptoms to even appear. Possible symptoms include increased salivation, a sensation of burning of the mouth, swelling of the tongue, stomatitis, dysphagia, an inability to speak, and edema. Cases of mild dermatitis due to contact with the leaves have also been reported, with symptoms including vesiculation and erythema. The chemical derivatives of alkenyl resorcinol are believed to be responsible for the dermatitis in some people. Contact with philodendron oils or fluids with the eyes have also been known to result in conjunctivitis. Fatal poisonings are extremely rare; one case of an infant eating small quantities of a philodendron resulting in hospitalization and death has been reported. This one case study, however, was found to be inconsistent with the findings from a second study. In this study, 127 cases of children ingesting philodendrons were studied, and they found only one child showed symptoms; a 10-month-old had minor upper lip swelling when he chewed on a philodendron leaf. The study also found the symptoms could subside without treatment and that previously reported cases of severe complications were exaggerated.


title: Philodendron

text: As to the toxicity of philodendrons in cats, the evidence is conflicting. In one study, 72 cases of cat poisonings were examined, of which 37 resulted in the death of the cat. The symptoms of the poisoned cats included excitability, spasms, seizures, kidney failure, and encephalitis. However, in another study, three cats were tube fed "Philodendron cordatum" and showed no signs of acute poisoning. In this study, two adult cats and one kitten were fed a puréed leaf and water mixture, observed afterward, then euthanized, and finally a necropsy was performed. Dosages of 2.8, 5.6, and 9.1 g/kg were used, with the highest dose administered being considerably more than any house cat could consume. The cats showed none of the symptoms found in past epidemiological studies and appeared normal. Necropsies showed nothing that would suggest toxicity. The past epidemiological studies have been suggested to be wrong, since sick cats may be inclined to eat plants to alleviate their illnesses. If this were the case, then such studies would be incorrectly attributing the sickness of the cats to the philodendrons. The forced feeding study may have failed to show signs of philodendron toxicity because the tube feeding bypassed the mouth and hence minimized the typical signs of irritation.


title: Philodendron

text: Some philodendrons are, however, known to be toxic to mice and rats. In one study, 100 mg of "Philodendron cordatum" leaves suspended in distilled water were fed to six mice. Three of the mice died. The same experiment was done with 100 mg of "P. cordatum" stems on three mice and none of them died. Leaves and flowers of "Philodendron sagittifolium" were also orally administered in 100-mg doses to the mice. Three mice were used for each of the leaves and flowers; none of the mice died. A similar experiment was done on rats with the leaves and stems of "P. cordatum", but instead of oral administration of the dose, it was injected intraperitoneally using 3 g of plant extract from either the leaves or stems. Six rats were injected with the leaf extract and five of them died. Eight rats were injected with the stem extract and two of them died.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: The Australian Kelpie, or simply Kelpie, is an Australian sheepdog capable of mustering and droving with little or no guidance. It is a medium-sized dog and comes in a variety of colours. The Kelpie has been exported throughout the world and is used to muster livestock, primarily sheep, cattle and goats.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: The breed has been separated into two distinct varieties: the Show (or Bench) Kelpie and the Working Kelpie. The Show Kelpie is seen at conformation dog shows in some countries and is selected for appearance rather than working instinct, while the Working Kelpie is bred for working ability rather than appearance.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: The ancestors of most Kelpies were British dogs known loosely as collies (sometimes spelled colleys). These were mostly black, or very dark brown, dogs – hence the name collie, which has the same root as coal. (The official collie breeds were not formed until about 10 or 15 years after the Kelpie was established as a breed, and the first recognised Border Collie was not brought to Australia until after the Federation in 1901). Some collies were imported to Australia for stock work in the early 19th century, and were bred with other types of dogs – usually with an eye to working sheep without direct supervision.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: For much of the 20th century and early 21st century it was claimed that kelpies were partly descended from dingoes. In 2019, it was widely reported that a genomic study conducted by researchers from the University of Sydney indicated that the kelpie had no dingo ancestry although this is still uncertain. Claire Wade, co-author of the study's paper, informed Bill Robinson (author of "Origins of the Australian Kelpie") that she has never suggested there was "no dingo blood in the Kelpie breed" as the media reported. Wade explained:


title: Australian Kelpie

text: The first dog known as a Kelpie was a black and tan female pup with floppy ears bought by Jack Gleeson about 1872 from a litter born on Warrock Station near Casterton, owned by George Robertson, a Scot. This dog was named "Kelpie" after the kelpie, a mythological shapeshifting water spirit of Celtic folklore. In later years she was referred to as "(Gleeson's) Kelpie", to differentiate her from "(King's) Kelpie", her daughter.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: The second "Kelpie" was "(King's) Kelpie", another black and tan bitch out of "Kelpie" by "Caesar", a pup from two sheepdogs imported from Scotland. "(King's) Kelpie" tied for the prestigious Forbes Trial in 1879, and the strain was soon popularly referred to as "Kelpie's pups", or just Kelpies. The King brothers joined another breeder, McLeod, to form a dog breeding partnership whose dogs dominated trials during 1900 to 1920.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: An early Kelpie, Sally, was mated to Moss, a Smooth Collie, and she produced a black pup that was named Barb after The Barb, a black horse which had won the Melbourne Cup in 1866. Consequently, black Kelpies became known as Barb Kelpies or Barbs.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: There were a number of Kelpies named Red Cloud. The first and most famous was John Quinn's Red Cloud in the early 20th century. In the 1960s, another Red Cloud became well known in Western Australia. This started the tradition in Western Australia of calling all Red or Red and Tan Kelpies, especially those with white chests, Red Cloud Kelpies. Other notable specimens include Gunner and Red Dog (c. 1971 – 21 November 1979), a Kelpie mix which was the subject of a movie, "Red Dog", released in 2011.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: Kelpies have now been exported to many countries including Argentina, Canada, Italy, Korea, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States for various pursuits.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: By 1990, Kelpies have been trained as scent dogs with good success rates. In Sweden they are widely used for tracking and rescue work.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: The Kelpie is a soft-coated, medium-sized dog, usually with prick ears and an athletic appearance. Their coat colours include black, black and tan, red, red and tan, blue, blue and tan,


title: Australian Kelpie

text: fawn, fawn and tan, cream, black and blue, and white and gold. The Kelpie generally weighs and measures at the withers. They can reach a maximum weight of .


title: Australian Kelpie

text: Robert Kaleski published the first standard for the Kelpie in 1904. The standard was accepted by leading breeders of the time and adopted by the Kennel Club of New South Wales. Contemporary breed standards vary depending on whether the registry is for working or show Kelpies. It is possible for a dog to both work and show, but options for competition in conformation shows might be limited depending on ancestry and the opinions of the kennel clubs or breed clubs involved.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: In Australia, there are two separate registries for Kelpies. "Working Kelpies" are registered with the Working Kelpie Council (WKC) and/or the Australian Sheepdog Workers Association. The WKC encourages breeding for working ability, and allows a wide variety of coat colours. "Show Kelpies" are registered with the Australian National Kennel Council, which encourages breeding for a certain appearance and limits acceptable colours. The wide standards allowed by the WKC mean that Working Kelpies do not meet the standard for showing.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: In the US, the Kelpie is not recognised as a breed by the American Kennel Club (AKC). However, the United Kennel Club and the Canadian Kennel Club recognise the Kelpie and allow them to compete in official events. As of 2015, Australian Kelpies have been accepted by the AKC as Herding Dogs allowed to compete in AKC sanctioned Sheep Herding Trials.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: The Working Kelpie comes in three coat types: short, smooth and rough. The coat can be almost any colour from black to light tan or cream. Some Kelpies have a white blaze on the chest, and a few have white points. Kelpies sometimes have a double coat, which sheds out in spring in temperate climates. Agouti is not unusual, and can look like a double coat.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: Working Kelpies vary in size, ranging from about and . The dog's working ability is unrelated to appearance, so stockmen looking for capable working dogs disregard the dog's appearance.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: A Working Kelpie can be a cheap and efficient worker that can save farmers and graziers the cost of several hands when mustering livestock. The good working Kelpies are herding dogs that will prevent stock from moving away from the stockman. This natural instinct is crucial when mustering stock in isolated gorge country, where a good dog will silently move ahead of the stockman and block up the stock (usually cattle) until the rider appears. The preferred dogs for cattle work are Kelpies, often of a special line, or a Kelpie cross. They will drive a mob of livestock long distances in extremes of climates and conditions. Kelpies have natural instincts for managing livestock. They will work sheep, cattle, goats, pigs, poultry, and other domestic livestock. The Kelpie's signature move is to jump on the backs of sheep and walk across the tops of the sheep to reach the other side and break up the jam. A good working Kelpie is a versatile dog – they can work all day on the farm, ranch, or station, and trial on the weekends. Kelpies compete and are exhibited in livestock working trials, ranging from yards or arenas to large open fields working sheep, goats, cattle, or ducks.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: Kelpies that are bred under the ANKC registrations are registered for show (Main Register) only in the following colours: Black, Chocolate, Red, Smoky Blue, Fawn, Black and Tan and Red and Tan. They have a double coat and pricked ears. The other colours can be registered as pets and sporting dogs (Limited Register): Blue and Tan, Fawn and Tan and Yellow/Cream. It was during the early 20th century that Kelpies were first exhibited, at the Sydney Royal Easter Show. Different kennel clubs' Show Kelpies are generally a little heavier in build and not as tall as Working Kelpies. ANKC "Show" Kelpies are now becoming very popular both nationally and internationally as family pets, companion dogs, running mates and sport dogs due to their trainability, good nature and low maintenance of care and can be found all over the world.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: Kelpies are intelligent and easy to train dogs making them good-tempered and good pets, especially with children. However they require a lot of physical exercise and mental stimulation, otherwise, they can become bored and hence be disruptive by constantly barking or digging, or by chewing on objects. Taking them on medium to long walks or playing fetch are good ways to keep them stimulated.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: Kelpies are a hardy breed with few health problems, but they are susceptible to disorders common to all breeds, such as cryptorchidism, hip dysplasia, cerebellar abiotrophy and luxating patella. Research is underway to find the genetic marker for cerebellar abiotrophy in the breed.


title: Australian Kelpie

text: They tend to live to around 10–12 years although some injure themselves as by the age of 10 or 11 they become weaker. Until she died at her home in Woolsthorpe, Victoria in April 2016, aged 30 years (about 150 'dog years'), "Maggie" (a Kelpie), was thought to be the world's oldest dog at her time of death.


title: International Harvester

text: The International Harvester Company (often abbreviated by IHC, IH, or simply International (colloq.)) was an American manufacturer of agricultural and construction equipment, automobiles, commercial trucks, lawn and garden products, household equipment, and more. It was formed from the 1902 merger of McCormick Harvesting Machine Company and Deering Harvester Company and three smaller manufactures: Milwaukee; Plano; and Warder, Bushnell, and Glessner (manufacturers of Champion brand). In the 1980s all divisions were sold off except for International Trucks, which changed its parent company name to Navistar International (NYSE: NAV). Its brands included McCormick, Deering, and later McCormick-Deering, as well as International. Along with the Farmall and Cub Cadet tractors, International was also known for the Scout and Travelall vehicle nameplates. Given its monumental importance to the building of rural communities the brand continues to have a massive cult following. The International Harvester legacy non-profits host some of the largest agriculture related events in the United States.


title: International Harvester

text: Following years of financial and economic decline, International began selling its separate equipment divisions, starting with the sale of the construction division to Dresser Industries in 1982. In November 1984 IH finalized a deal with Tenneco to sell the farm equipment division to Tenneco's subsidiary Case Corporation, and the brand continues as Case IH which is owned by CNH. The European division exists today as McCormick Tractors and is owned by ARGO SpA of Italy. International became solely a truck and engine manufacturer and reorganized as Navistar International in 1986. Throughout its existence International Harvester was headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. In 2020 Volkswagen agreed to fully purchase the remaining shares of Navistar.


title: International Harvester

text: The roots of International Harvester run to the 1830s, when Virginia inventor Cyrus Hall McCormick perfected his version of a horse-drawn reaper, which he field-demonstrated in 1831 and for which he received a patent in 1834. Together with his brother Leander J. McCormick, he moved to Chicago in 1847 to be closer to the Midwestern grain fields and founded the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company. The reaper sold well, partially as a result of savvy and innovative business practices. Their products came onto the market just as the development of railroads offered wide distribution to distant territories. He developed a vast support network to demonstrate field operations. McCormick died in 1884 and his company passed to his son, Cyrus McCormick, Jr., whose antipathy and incompetence toward organized labor sparked the Haymarket affair, the origin of May Day as a labor holiday.


title: International Harvester

text: In 1902, the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company and Deering Harvester Company, along with three smaller agricultural equipment firms (Milwaukee Harvesting Machine Co., Plano Manufacturing Co., and Warder, Bushnell, and Glessner—manufacturers of Champion brand) merged to create the International Harvester Company. Banker J.P. Morgan provided the financing. The architect of the merger was George W. Perkins, one of the Morgan executives about whom Cyrus McCormick described as the "most brilliant negotiator he had ever known." The new company was valued at $150 million. In 1919, IH bought the Parlin and Orendorff factory in Canton, Illinois, a leader in plow manufacturing, renaming it Canton Works. International Harvester was one of the main clients of Product Miniature Company.


title: International Harvester

text: In 1926, IH's Farmall Works built a new plant in Rock Island, Illinois. By 1930, the 100,000th Farmall was produced. IH next set their sights on introducing a true 'general-purpose' tractor to satisfy the needs of the average American family farmer. The resulting 'letter' series of Raymond Loewy-designed Farmall tractors in 1939 proved a huge success. IH dominated the market through the 1950s despite stiff competition from Ford, Allis Chalmers, Massey Ferguson and John Deere.


title: International Harvester

text: IH ranked 33rd among United States corporations in the value of World War II production contracts. In 1946 IH acquired a defense plant in Louisville, Kentucky, which was adapted for production of the Farmall A, B, and the new 340 tractors. It acquired the Metropolitan Body Company of Bridgeport, Connecticut, in 1948. The commercially successful Metro line of forward control vans and trucks were produced here from 1938 until 1964.


title: International Harvester

text: In 1970, Pacific Trucks was purchased. In 1974, the five-millionth IHC tractor was produced at the Rock Island Farmall plant.


title: International Harvester

text: Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, despite good sales, IH's profit margins remained slim. The continual addition of unrelated business lines created a somewhat unwieldy corporate organization. Overly conservative management and a rigid policy of in-house promotion tended to stifle new management strategies and technical innovation. IH faced strong competition and increased production costs, primarily due to labor and government-imposed environmental and safety regulations. In 1974 the 5 millionth International Harvester tractor, a 1066, was manufactured.


title: International Harvester

text: In 1979 IH named a new CEO, Archie McCardell, who was determined to improve profit margins and drastically cut costs. Unprofitable lines were terminated and factory production was curtailed. By the end of the year, profits were at their highest levels in 10 years but cash reserves were still low. Union members became increasingly irate over these measures and in the spring of 1979, IH prepared to face a strike. On November 1, IH announced McCardell had received a $1.8 million bonus. After he pressed for more concessions from the United Auto Workers, a strike was called on November 2, 1979. By the time it ended, the strike had cost the company almost $600 million (over $2 billion today).


title: International Harvester

text: By 1981, the company's finances were at their lowest point ever. The company sold its Payline division of construction equipment to Dresser Industries in 1982. Further assets were sold to Tenneco, Inc., in 1984.


title: International Harvester

text: Following the merger, tractor production at Farmall Works ceased in 1985. Production of the new Case IH tractors moved to J.I. Case in Racine, Wisconsin. Production of IH Axial-Flow combines continued at the East Moline, Illinois, factory. The Memphis Works plant was closed. The truck and engine divisions remained and in 1986, Harvester changed the corporate name to Navistar International Corporation, having sold the International Harvester name to Tenneco. Navistar International Corporation continues to manufacture medium- and heavy-duty trucks, school buses, and engines under the International brand name.


title: International Harvester

text: The International Harvester Agricultural Division may have been second to the Truck Division but it was the best-known subsidiary. One of its early products was the Traction Truck, a frame manufactured by Morton Traction Truck Company (later bought by IHC) featuring an IHC engine.


title: International Harvester

text: From 1902 to the early 1920s, the McCormick and Deering dealerships kept their original branding with Mogul tractors sold by McCormick and Titan tractors at Deering due to the still-present competitiveness of the former rivals.


title: International Harvester

text: IH produced a range of large gasoline-powered farm tractors under the Mogul and Titan brands. Sold by McCormick dealers, the Type C Mogul was little more than a stationary engine on a tractor chassis, fitted with friction drive (one speed forward, one reverse). Between 1911 and 1914, 862 were built. These tractors had varied success but the trend going into the mid-1910s was toward "small" and "cheap".The company's first important tractors were the 10-20 and 15-30 models. Introduced in 1915, they were primarily used as traction engines to pull plows and for belt work on threshing machines. The 10-20 and 15-30 had similar Mogul and Titan versions.


title: International Harvester

text: Concurrently, IHC purchased a number of smaller competitors. Parlin & Orendorff (P&O Plow) and Chattanooga Plow were purchased in 1919. Other brand names they incorporated include Keystone, D.M. Osborne, Kemp, Meadows, Sterling, Weber, Plano, and Champion.


title: International Harvester

text: In 1924 IH introduced the Farmall, a smaller general-purpose tractor, to fend off competition from Ford Motor Company's Fordson tractors. Farmall was a leader in the emerging row-crop tractor segment.


title: International Harvester

text: Following the introduction of Farmall, several similarly styled "F Series" models were introduced while the original design continued to be produced as the "Regular."


title: International Harvester

text: In 1932, IH produced their first diesel engine for the McCormick-Deering TD-40 crawler. This engine would start on gasoline and then switch to diesel. Other diesel engines of this era were difficult to start in cold weather and using gasoline allowed the engine to thoroughly warm up first. In 1935, it was used in the WD-40, becoming the first diesel tractor on wheels in North America (the world's first diesel tractor was Germany's Benz-Sendling BS 6 in 1922).


title: International Harvester

text: The market for industrial tractors grew in the 1930s. The TD-40, the first of IH's heavy-equipment crawlers, was suited for a wide range of environments. As demand for construction equipment grew, so did the competition. The diversification of the agricultural tractor range into genuine construction equipment whetted appetites for further expansion. In 1937 IH engaged designer Raymond Loewy to revamp its product line and logo. In 1938 the first such model was the TD-65 heavy tractor, later renamed the TD-18.


title: International Harvester

text: For model year 1939, Raymond Loewy created the Farmall "letter series" (A, B, BN, C, H, and M) and the McCormick-Deering "standard series" (W-4, W-6, and W-9). For 1941 the MD model was introduced as the first row crop diesel-powered tractor; over a decade later, IH's largest competitor, John Deere, introduced a diesel option on their row crop models. The letter series tractors were updated to the "super" series in 1953 (with the exception of the A, which had become a "super" in 1947, and the B and BN, which were discontinued in 1948). Many of these tractors (especially the largest, the H, M, and W models) are still in operation on farms today. Especially desirable are the diesel-powered MD, WD-6, and WD-9's.


title: International Harvester

text: The letter and standard series of tractors was produced until 1954 and was a defining product in IH history.


title: International Harvester

text: In 1947, the smallest tractor in the Farmall line was introduced, the Cub. With a 60-cu. in., four-cylinder engine and a 69-inch wheelbase, the Cub was aimed at small farms which had previously relied on horse-drawn equipment. Like the various John Deere L/LA/LI models, one of the "mechanization-resistant" markets it hoped to penetrate was the small one-mule family farms of the rural American Deep South, but the Cub also sold to owners of larger farms needing a second tractor. Production of the Cub commenced at the newly acquired and updated Farmall Works-Louisville plant (formerly the wartime Curtiss-Wright Aircraft factory in Louisville, Kentucky). Selling for $545 in 1947, the Cub proved extremely popular and its design continued largely unchanged mechanically until 1979.


title: International Harvester

text: For 1955 in IH tractors, the numbered "hundred series" was offered. Although given slightly different styling and few new features, they were still updates to the models introduced in 1939. The only new tractor in the 1955 lineup was the 300 Utility. In 1957 power was increased in some models and the 230 Utility was introduced.


title: International Harvester

text: IH would sell 38,000 TD-18 series tractors between 1938 and 1958. The TD-18 would be replaced by an upgraded TD-18A in 1949 and 181/182 variants in 1955. In 1958 the TD-20 crawler was introduced.


title: International Harvester

text: In July 1958, IH launched a major campaign to introduce a new line of tractors, the 60 series. At the Hinsdale, Illinois, Testing Farm, IH entertained over 12,000 dealers from over 25 countries. The series included the first-of-its-kind six-cylinder 460 and 560 tractors. Unfortunately just a year later, these models were recalled due to final drive component failures. They had not been updated since 1939 and would fail rapidly under the stress of the more powerful 60-series engines. Some customers lost faith in IH and migrated to John Deere's New Generation of Power tractors introduced in 1960.


title: International Harvester

text: Throughout the 1960s, IH introduced new tractors and new sales techniques. As producing tractors was the lifeblood of the company, IH would have to remain competitive in this field. They both succeeded and failed at this goal but farming was about to change. In 1963, IH introduced the 706 and 806 tractors. Until the 88 series, all numbered seies tractors followed a simple numbering system. The first 2-3 digits was the horsepower rating, and the last number was the number of cylinders, so a 1486 was rated 148 hp and had a 6 cyl. engine, while the 1468 had 146 hp and a v8 engine. In 1964, IH made its four-millionth tractor, an 806. In 1965, IH introduced its first two-wheel-drive tractor, the 1206. Another option became available in 1965 for the 706, 806, and the new 1206: a factory-installed cab (made by Stopler Allen Co.), often called the "ice cream box" due to its shape. It could be equipped with a fan and heater. By 1967, over 100,000 models 706, 806, and 1206 were built. The 276 was also built at this time, becoming popular for smaller farms with tighter lanes and fields due to its lighter weight.


title: International Harvester

text: In 1967 was the introduction of the bigger and more powerful 56 series tractors as replacements for the popular "06" series. These new models included the 656, 756, the 856, and the 1256. The "ice cream box" cab was still an option. In 1969 IH introduced the 1456 Turbo at . Also that year, the 826 was introduced with the option of gearshift or hydrostatic transmissions. The "ice cream box" cab was dropped and replaced with a new "custom" cab made by Exel Industries which could be equipped with factory air-conditioning, heat, and an AM radio. Another milestone was the 1970 introduction of the 1026 Hydro, basically a hydrostatic version of the 1256 and at that time the most powerful hydrostatic transmission tractor made in the US with .


title: International Harvester

text: In 1971, IH introduced the 66 series line. The new models included the 766, the 966, the 1066 turbo, the 1466 Turbo, and the 1468 V-8. The 4166 4WD was also introduced. The 966 and 1066 were available with Hydro or gearshift transmissions and the choice of two-post roll over protection structures (ROPs) or two different cabs, the "custom" and the "deluxe". Both could be equipped with air conditioning, heat, and AM-FM radios.


title: International Harvester

text: In 1972, the 666 replaced the long-running 656, the 1568 V-8 replaced the 1468, and the 1566 and the 4366 4WD were introduced. Also later that year, four-post ROPs replaced two-post; the "custom" cab was dropped and the "deluxe" cab was now painted red instead of white. Due to horsepower confusions, the 966 and 1066 Hydro models were restriped; the Hydro 100 and the 666 Hydro became the Hydro 70. On February 1, 1974, at 9:00 am, the five-millionth tractor came off the assembly line at the Farmall Plant in Illinois. IH was the first tractor manufacturer to accomplish this. Also in 1973, IH officially dropped the "Farmall" name from its tractor. This ended an era that began with the first Farmall "Regular" back in 1924.


title: International Harvester

text: The 4568 V-8 4WD was introduced in 1975. In 1976, the entire tractor line got a new paint job and decal pattern. No longer were the side panels all white with chrome and black decals: they were now all red with a black-striped sticker. This was done to clear inventory for the forthcoming Pro Ag Line.


title: International Harvester

text: In September 1976, IH released their 86 series Pro Ag Line. The models included the 786, the 886, the 986, the 186 Hydro, the 1086, the 1486 and the 1586. These new tractors had a new cab dubbed the Control Center that came standard with air conditioning, heat, and several radio-CB options. The driver sat well ahead of the rear axle and the fuel tank was mounted behind the cab over the rear axle. This increased balance and ride. Also in 1976, the 686 along with the "86" series four-wheel-drives were introduced, including the 4186, 4386, 4586, and 4786.


title: International Harvester

text: In 1977, International Harvester introduced the first Axial-Flow rotary combine. This machine, produced at East Moline, Illinois, was the first generation of over 30 years of Axial-Flow combines.


title: International Harvester

text: In 1979, IH introduced two all-new tractors: the 3388 and 3588, known as the 2+2 4WD line. These tractors were the result of taking two 1086 rear ends and hooking them together with a transfer case. A year later, the 3788 was introduced. Although these tractors performed well in the field, they never sold well.


title: International Harvester

text: As the 1980s began, IH faced a stable economy, yet an unknown fate. In September 1981, IH announced at a dealership meeting the new "50 Series" of tractors, which included the 5088, the 5288 and the 5488. IH also released the "30 series", which included the 3088, the 3288, the 3488 Hydro, and the 3688. These new tractors proved once again that IH was innovative. Designed and styled by IH industrial designer Gregg Montgomery (Montgomery Design International), the new stylish design of the 50 and 30 series changed the look of tractors from that time forward. IH spent over $29 million to develop this new series, and the result was the last great lineup of tractors from International Harvester.


title: International Harvester

text: Many technology-related innovations were used in the new series. A computer monitoring system (Sentry) was developed, and IH became the first manufacturer to add a computer to a farm tractor. Other innovations included a "Z" shift pattern, an 18-speed synchronized transmission, a forward air-flow cooling system which sucked air from above the hood and blew it out the front grille, "Power Priority" three-pump hydraulic system, color-coded hydraulic lines and controls, and a new rear-hitch system. The 50 Series had an unprecedented three-year or 2,500-hour engine and drive-train warranty, which later became an industry standard. Although no new sales records were set, IH sold a respectable number of these tractors during their short production time. IH also released the "60 series 2+2s" and planned on making the "Super 70 series" 2+2s, but only a handful of these exist today. On May 14, 1985, the last IH tractor rolled off the factory line, a 5488 FWA.


title: International Harvester

text: In the late 1970s, IH entered a deal with Spain's Enasa to build diesel engines there as "Internacional de Motores". After a downturn in the market coupled to problems with Spain's entry into the European Economic Community threatened the profitability of this project, International Harvester withdrew in 1982. In return for being allowed to escape all conditions of the joint venture, IH lost their up-front investment in the engine plant and ended up selling British truck manufacturer Seddon Atkinson (which had belonged to IH since 1974) to Enasa in 1983.


title: International Harvester

text: Along with the prominent tractor division, IH also sold several different types of farm-related equipment, such as balers, cultivators, combines (self-propelled and pull behind), combine heads, corn shellers, cotton pickers, manure spreaders, hay rakes, crop dusters, disk harrows, elevators, feed grinders, hammer mills, hay conditioners, milking machines, planters, mills, discs, plows, and miscellaneous equipment.


title: International Harvester

text: IH built up its earthmoving division over a period of time, buying companies and acquiring technology. Its heavy tractor range was an established offering, however IH wanted to offer innovative new construction technology. Significant moves included the purchase of the Frank G Hough company which produced an iconic machine called a PayLoader, and the purchase of French company Yumbo, which produced hydraulic excavators.


title: International Harvester

text: Between 1956 and 1982 IH developed and sold a range of off-road dump trucks, which were known commercially as 'PayHaulers'.


title: International Harvester

text: International manufactured and sold an extensive range of heavy equipment. In 1974 IH renamed this division the 'Payline' division.


title: International Harvester

text: The original payloader model was literally a tractor which had forks welded to the front. Frank Hough was the man who invented the concept and Hough's company worked closely with IH until it was purchased in 1952. The terminology came to mean any type of front loader machine, and loaders were manufactured in a number of varieties, included wheeled and track loaders, rear wheel loaders or an articulated steering design.


title: International Harvester

text: In the early 1950s contractors worldwide began using motor scrapers as a means of shifting dirt. IH had a hole in its product range; it did not offer a motor scraper product to the market. One of IH's suppliers, a company named Heil Earthmovers, manufactured a range of scrapers called 'Heiliners.'


title: International Harvester

text: Rather than spend money on R&D and enter the market at a later date, in 1953 IH bought Heil's road machinery division, incorporating a range of motor and towed scrapers.


title: International Harvester

text: company called Bucyrus-Erie. Amongst a variety of attachment solutions Bucyrus-Erie made a range of cable and hydraulically operated blades which fitted International-Harvester track type tractors.


title: International Harvester

text: IH purchased the blades range from Bucyrus-Erie in the 1950s and absorbed these into its machinery division.


title: International Harvester

text: IH also purchased attachments for the tractor range from Isaacson, including logging arches and dozer blades. Carrying on with its expansion IH purchased Isaacson's attachments division in 1952.


title: International Harvester

text: The Electrall system was introduced in 1954; it was a short-lived attempt to market electrically operated farm equipment and accessories. The system, co-developed with General Electric, consisted of a 208 V three-phase alternating-current generator connected with electric cables to the device to be powered. The generator could even power a household. A 10 kW Electrall generator was an option on the Farmall 400 tractor, and a 12.5 kW PTO-driven version was made. The possible applications of Electrall power were many, but few made it to market. IH marketing materials showed a haybaler being Electrall powered. One of the more novel applications of the Electrall was a device to electrocute insects in the field at night (basically like a modern-day bug zapper, but on a larger scale).


title: International Harvester

text: IH is often remembered as a maker of relatively successful and innovative "light" lines of vehicles, competing directly against the Big Three. The most common were pickup trucks. IH made light trucks from 1907 to 1975, beginning with the Model A Auto Wagon (sometimes called the "Auto Buggy"). Production commenced in February 1907 at IH's McCormick Works in Chicago, although production was moved to Akron, Ohio, in October that year. Powered by a horizontally opposed, air-cooled twin around , it was a right-hand-drive model popular in rural areas for high ground clearance on the poor roads typical of the era. It featured a rear seat convertible to a carrier bed. The Auto Wagon was renamed the Motor Truck in 1910, and was a forerunner to the successful modern pickup truck. They were called IHC until 1914, when the 'International' name was first applied. The final light line truck was made on May 5, 1975.


title: International Harvester

text: Following the early success with the Auto Buggy, International released their K and KB series trucks in the mid-1940s. They were more simplistic than other trucks released in that era. This was followed by the L Series in 1949, which was replaced by the R Series in 1952, followed by the S line (a name re-used later for IH's larger medium-duty trucks) in 1955. In 1957, to celebrate IH's golden anniversary as a truck manufacturer, this was replaced by the new A line. 'A' stands for anniversary. With light modifications to its appearance, but more serious changes under the shell (and a number of new names), this design continued in production until replaced by the 1100D in late 1969, which looked very similar to the Scout which was already in production.


title: International Harvester

text: Corresponding with the truck "letter lines" was the Metro line of step (delivery) vans. Starting in 1938 and manufactured through 1975, the Metro series was produced and updated with each iteration of IH's truck lines. Also, special-use variants were sold, such as the Metro Coach (a bus version with windows and passenger seats) and Metro front-end section and chassis for full commercial customization. Additional variants were based on the medium-duty engine and chassis lines.


title: International Harvester

text: IH abandoned sales of passenger vehicles in 1980 to concentrate on commercial trucks and school buses.


title: International Harvester

text: One of the company's light-duty vehicles was the Travelall, which was similar in concept to the Chevrolet Suburban. The Travelette was a crew cab, available in two- or four-wheel drive. A three-door version was available starting in 1957, and a four-door version was available starting in 1961. The 1961 Travelette four-door (crewcab) was the first six-passenger, four-door truck of its time.


title: International Harvester

text: The Scout, first introduced in 1961, is a small, two-door SUV, similar to a Jeep. In 1972, the Scout became the Scout II, and in 1974, Dana 44 axles, power steering, and power disc brakes became standard. After the Light Line pickups and Travelall were discontinued in 1975, the Scout Traveler and Terra became available, both with a longer wheelbase than a standard Scout II.


title: International Harvester

text: In the 1970s, motorhomes were manufactured using IHC engines and bare chassis. Most of the bodies were constructed of fiberglass.


title: International Harvester

text: International Harvester was an early manufacturer of medium- and heavy-duty trucks. Although based upon truck chassis, IH also became the leading manufacturer of the chassis portion of body-on-chassis conventional (type C) school buses. In 1962, IH offered the International Harvester Loadstar which became the premier medium-duty truck. In 1978, IH offered the International Harvester S-Series, which replaced the Loadstar in 1979.


title: International Harvester

text: With the truck and engine divisions remaining following the 1985 sale of the agricultural division, International Harvester Company changed their corporate name to Navistar International in 1986. Today, Navistar International's subsidiary, International Truck and Engine Corporation, manufactures and markets trucks and engines under the International brand name. From 1983 to 2010, Ford Motor Company offered International V8 diesel engines in heavy-duty pickup trucks, vans, and SUVs (using the Power Stroke name after 1994).


title: International Harvester

text: In 1961, the DCO-400 "Emeryville" model line was expanded with a conventional; officially named the D-400, the model line shared its cab with the COE and was the first International conventional produced with a tilting hood.


title: International Harvester

text: In 1962, International began to phase out the R-line series of trucks (dating to 1953). In place of a comprehensive model line ranging from half-ton pickup trucks to its largest Class 8 trucks, International introduced two purpose-built model lines for commercial use. Slotted above its Light Line pickup trucks, the Loadstar was a medium-duty conventional-cab truck. For 1963, International introduced the heavier-duty Fleetstar, a short-hood conventional slotted between the Loadstar and the heavier-duty R and V-Line conventionals. While no longer serving as a comprehensive model range, the Loadstar shared its cab with the A-series pickup truck (and its derivatives); as a cowled chassis, the Loadstar was produced for bus use (the IHC Schoolmaster). Sharing only its name with its conventional-cab namesake, the Loadstar CO was a low-cab COE (with a forward-tilting cab).


title: International Harvester

text: In 1965, International introduced the CO-4000, the first heavy-duty COE designed entirely by the company, replacing the DCO-400 "Emeryville" COE (which sourced its cab design from Diamond T). In a design feature that would be adopted by International COEs into the 1990s, the cab was designed with a large trapezoidal grille.


title: International Harvester

text: In 1968, International redesigned the Fleetstar, adopting the cab of the Light Line pickups. Renamed the Fleetstar-A, the redesign marked the consolidation of the Fleetstar with the previous R-line and V-line trucks. The largest R-210 and R-230 remained (dropping their R prefix) alongside the newly introduced M-series as the largest International trucks, sharing a common cab (dating back to 1952). The Transtar name made its first appearance, as the CO-4000 was replaced by the Transtar CO4070/4090; while visually similar to its predecessor, the Transtar CO was designed with an all-new cab (to accommodate larger diesel engines).


title: International Harvester

text: For 1969, International introduced the final version of the Emeryville model line, with the DC-400 Transtar 400 replacing the D-400.


title: International Harvester

text: In 1970, International split the CO Loadstar into its own product line, dubbed the Cargostar. As part of a model update, the Cargostar received a larger grille and wider cab over its predecessor. Competing directly against the Ford C-Series, the Cargostar was a medium-duty truck fitted with both gasoline and diesel engines (shared with the Loadstar conventional).


title: International Harvester

text: 1971 marked the end of the "Emeryville" product lines, as the DC-400 Transtar 400 was replaced by the Transtar 4200/4300. Developed as a Class 8 highway tractor, the Transtar 4200/4300 introduced an all-new cab that would be used for International heavy-duty trucks through 1999. Competing against a wide range of manufacturers, the Transtar conventional was offered in both short and long-hood configurations for both regional and long-distance shipping.


title: International Harvester

text: In 1972, the Paystar 5000 series was introduced, replacing the 210/230 and M-series trucks (dating to 1952). Developed for severe-service use (primarily construction and related applications), the Paystar shared its cab with the Transtar, using a heavier-duty chassis, steel fenders, and a flat-panel hood. The medium-duty Loadstar received an optional tilting hood with a larger grille and straighter-edge fenders (updating its appearance for the first time in 10 years).


title: International Harvester

text: In 1974, the Transtar II COE was introduced, following a redesign of the Transtar. Distinguished by top-mounted windshield wipers, the Transtar II standardized the previous raised-cab option, as the previous 852 cubic-inch Detroit Diesel 12V71 V12 was replaced by some of the largest-displacement engines ever fitted to a road-going vehicle, including the Cummins KTA diesel I6 (1,150 cubic inches) and the Caterpillar 3408 diesel V8 (1,099 cubic inches). On the other end of the size scale, the Cargostar underwent a second update, with a slightly wider cab and a much larger grille (sharing the black trim band of the Transtar COE grille).


title: International Harvester

text: In 1977, the International S-series was introduced, consolidating the Fleetstar and Loadstar into a single model range. While less comprehensive than the product ranges of the 1930s to the 1950s, the S-series product line included medium-duty, heavy-duty, severe-service, and highway trucks (along with a new generation of the Schoolmaster bus chassis) from the Class 5 to Class 8 size ranges. At its 1977 launch, the S-series was introduced to replace the Fleetstar, with lighter-duty models phased in to replace the Loadstar during 1979. Competing against an extensive segment of the truck industry, the S-Series was produced in multiple layouts, hood lengths, and axle configurations; gasoline and diesel engines were offered.


title: International Harvester

text: Produced as a cowled chassis (Schoolmaster), straight truck, or semitractor, the S-Series was produced from 1977 to 2004, remaining the longest-produced vehicle line ever produced by International (as either International Harvester or Navistar).


title: International Harvester

text: In 1981, International introduced the CO9670, replacing the Transtar II. Sharing only the trapezoidal grille with the previous Transtar II, the CO9670 was designed with a larger cab with improved visibility and improved access (larger windshield, shared doors with the Transtar/Paystar conventional); to increase fuel economy, the Cummins KTA diesel was replaced by a turbocharged Cummins N-series I6.