title: Walter Hill

text: Hill then directed the 2000 film "Supernova" for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. When the studio did not agree with his vision, they brought in Francis Ford Coppola to re-cut the film. This caused Hill to withdraw from the project and credit himself with the pseudonym "Thomas Lee" (a variation of Alan Smithee), and chose not to be associated with the finished product. Hill called his original version a much darker take than the final product.


title: Walter Hill

text: "One, it was embarrassing and, two, it made me think about quitting," said Hill. "While Coppola's intentions were honorable, I think he made a bad situation worse. I didn't do anything for a year. I was fortunate enough that I could buy my children a hot lunch. Then, I decided I wanted to work again."


title: Walter Hill

text: In 2002, Hill directed the prison boxing film "Undisputed" starring Wesley Snipes, Ving Rhames and Peter Falk.


title: Walter Hill

text: In 2002 he said he wanted to make "Vengeance is Mine", an original contemporary thriller set in Las Vegas, which he had written with Giler. It was not made. "We almost had it together a couple of times and financing always slipped away at the last second," said Hill.


title: Walter Hill

text: In 2003, Quentin Tarantino said Hill was still worthy of admiration." I think in the last 10 years he's had a big resurgence in creativity. I think he lost his way for a while in the '80s. "Johnny Handsome" I thought was a return to form . . . But I thought with "Geronimo" he went to a really fantastic place. Everybody talked about how boring it was. But I didn't. I thought he made a really great classic Western and America just wasn't worthy of the privilege."


title: Walter Hill

text: Hill served as a director and consulting producer for the pilot episode of the HBO Western drama television series "Deadwood" in 2004. The series was created by David Milch and focused on a growing town in the Western United States. Hill's work on "Deadwood" has seen him return to favour in critical circles to some extent, earning him a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series in 2004 and a Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series in 2004. However Hill had a falling out with Milch during the editing of the pilot and did not work on any other episodes of the show.


title: Walter Hill

text: Hill continued his work with westerns by directing the mini series "Broken Trail", which became the highest-rated film made by a cable network when it premiered on AMC. It also earned him the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Limited Series. Hill also won the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Miniseries or TV Film for his efforts on "Broken Trail".


title: Walter Hill

text: In 2006 he reflected on his career saying "Those who have been doing for this for 40 years would like to think that it's a kind of Darwinian survival of the talented. But I think that's half the picture. It has as much as to do with the survival of temperament. There are few people still working now that started when I did. Not many people have the temperament to deal with that."


title: Walter Hill

text: In the 2010s Hill described his status as "semi-retired" and said he had a number of projects fall through.


title: Walter Hill

text: It was Sylvester Stallone who offered Hill the job of directing "Bullet to the Head" (2012). The film was not a success at the box office.


title: Walter Hill

text: Hill was going to write and direct a proposed remake of "What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?" but it fell through.


title: Walter Hill

text: He wrote the original story for a graphic novel, "Bailes Perdues", which was adapted by Matz with art by Jef, which was published in France, and later translated as "Triggerman" by Edward Gauvin and published by the Titan Comics imprint Hard Case Crime.


title: Walter Hill

text: In 2016 Hill's movie "The Assignment," based on a script Hill had written with Denis Hamill, premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival before a limited release and streaming video release in 2017.


title: Walter Hill

text: In 2016 he said in an interview "You are very privileged to be a director. There is a great quote I'll get wrong of Samuel Johnson, the English poet and essayist, that: 'We come to the arena uncalled, to seek our fortune and hazard disgrace. That's the game, those are the rules.' So I say to you as an audience, if you wanna feel sorry, feel sorry for the people in Syria, but don't feel sorry for film directors."


title: Walter Hill

text: In 2019 Hill made his recording debut at age 77 with "The Cowboy Iliad: A Legend Told In The Spoken Word". Written and performed by Hill, the spoken word record tells the story of a deadly shootout that occurred in Newton, Kansas in 1871 and its legendary aftermath of violence and controversy. The record was produced by Bobby Woods and featured music by Les Deux Love Orchestra.


title: Walter Hill

text: In August 2021 Hill began shooting the upcoming western "Dead for a Dollar" starring Christoph Waltz, Willem Dafoe, and Rachel Brosnahan. Filming wrapped in September 2021. The film was later shown at the 2022 Venice Film Festival for the first time, where Hill received the Glory to the Filmmaker award.


title: Walter Hill

text: Hill married Hildy Gottlieb, a talent agent at International Creative Management, in New York City at Tavern on the Green on September 7, 1986. They have two daughters, Joanna and Miranda.


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: The "Midway"-class was a class of three United States Navy aircraft carriers. The lead ship, , was commissioned in September 1945 and decommissioned in 1992. was commissioned in October 1945, and taken out of service in 1977. was commissioned in April 1947, and decommissioned in 1990.


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: The CVB-41-class vessels (then unnamed) were originally conceived in 1940 as a design study to determine the effect of including an armored flight deck on a carrier the size of the . The resulting calculations showed that the effect would be a reduction of air group size—the resulting ship would have an air group of 64, compared to 90-100 for the standard "Essex"-class fleet carriers. As it progressed, the design also became heavily influenced by the wartime experience of the Royal Navy's armored carriers:


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: The concept went to finding a larger carrier that could support both deck armor and a sufficiently large air group. The weight-savings needed to armor the flight deck were achieved by removing the planned cruiser-caliber battery of guns and reducing the 5-inch antiaircraft battery from dual to single mounts. Unlike the Royal Navy's aircraft carriers, for which the armored deck was part of the ship structure, the "Midway" class retained their "strength deck" at the hangar deck level and the armored flight deck was part of the superstructure. They would be the last USN carriers to be so designed; the immense size of the succeeding supercarriers would required a new deep-hulled design carrying the strength deck at the flight deck level to produce a stronger and lighter hull.


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: The heavily subdivided arrangement of the machinery spaces was based on that of the , while the two inner propeller shafts were partially enclosed in skegs, similar to contemporary battleship construction. While the "Essex"-class carriers had eight main engineering compartments, the "Midway"-class had 26, including twelve boiler rooms well off the centerline and four widely separated engine rooms. More extensive use of electric arc-welding than in previous warships reduced the weight by about 10 percent of what would have been required for riveted structural assembly.


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: The resulting "Midway"-class carriers were very large, with the ability to accommodate more planes than any other carrier in the U.S. fleet (30–40 more aircraft than the "Essex" class). In their original configuration, the "Midway"-class ships had an airwing of up to 130 aircraft. It was soon realized that the coordination of so many planes was beyond the effective command and control ability of one ship. However, their size did allow these ships to more easily accommodate the rapid growth in aircraft size and weight that took place in the early jet age. The forward flight deck was designed for launching 13-ton aircraft; and the aft flight deck was designed for landing 11-ton aircraft, assuming in-flight expenditure of fuel and ordnance.


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: While the resulting ships featured excellent protection and unprecedented airwing size, they also had several undesirable characteristics. Internally, the ships were very cramped and crowded. Freeboard was unusually low for such large carriers; in heavy seas, they shipped large amounts of water (only partially mitigated by the fitting of a hurricane bow during the SCB-110/110A upgrades) and corkscrewed in a manner that hampered landing operations. The follow-up "Forrestal"-class featured a deeper hull that had more freeboard and better seakeeping.


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: In contrast with the earlier , and -classes, the beam (width) of the "Midway"-class carriers meant that they could not pass through the Panama Canal.


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: Although they were intended to augment the US Pacific fleet during World War II, the lead ship of the class, , was not commissioned until 10 September 1945, eight days after the Surrender of Japan.


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: While "Midway" and "Coral Sea" followed the US Navy's policy of naming aircraft carriers after battles (two "Casablanca"-class escort carriers gave up their names for the larger ships) USS "Franklin D. Roosevelt" inaugurated the policy of naming aircraft carriers after former US Presidents that the US Navy generally follows today.


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: None of the class went on war cruises during the Korean War. As the three ships became essential to the Navy's strategic nuclear weapons role in Europe, they were mainly deployed to the Atlantic and Mediterranean. Until the availability of the "Forrestal" class, they were the premier commands sought by senior naval aviators. They were "admiral makers" for many of their commanding officers including future CNOs George Whelan Anderson Jr. and David L. McDonald.


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: During the 1950s, "Midway" and "Franklin D. Roosevelt" underwent the SCB-110 modernization program (similar to SCB-125 for the "Essex" class), which added angled decks, steam catapults, mirror landing systems, and other modifications that allowed them to operate a new breed of large, heavy naval jets. "Coral Sea" had a variant modernization program called SCB-110A with an angled deck 3 degrees greater than the other two.


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: All three of the "Midway" class made combat deployments in the Vietnam War. deployed to the Gulf of Tonkin six times, deployed on three occasions, and made one combat deployment before returning to the Mediterranean.


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: In the late 1960s, "Midway" underwent an extensive modernization and reconstruction program under SCB 101.66, which proved to be controversial and expensive and thus was not repeated on the other ships. While $82 million had been budgeted for the modernization, the actual cost was $202 million, in comparison to $277 million for simultaneous construction of the brand-new .


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: By the 1970s, "Franklin D. Roosevelt" and "Coral Sea" were showing their age. All three retained the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II in their air wings, being too small to operate the new Grumman F-14 Tomcat fleet defense fighter or the S-3 Viking anti-submarine jet. In 1977, "Franklin D. Roosevelt" was decommissioned. On her final deployment, "Roosevelt" embarked AV-8 Harrier jump jets to test the concept of including VSTOL aircraft in a carrier air wing.


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: "Coral Sea" was rescued from imminent decommissioning by the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980. Reagan's proposed 600-ship Navy gave the remaining ships a new lease on life. "Coral Sea" underwent extensive refits to address the ship's poor condition. When the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet became operational in the mid-1980s, the Navy quickly deployed them to the "Midway" and "Coral Sea" to replace the older F-4s. A 1986 refit for "Midway" removed her 6" armor belt and bulged her hull to try to increase freeboard. While successful in this regard, the bulges also resulted in a dangerously fast rolling period that prevented "Midway" from operating aircraft in heavy seas. The bulging was therefore not repeated on "Coral Sea".


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: The Reagan era reprieve could not last. In 1990, "Coral Sea", which had long since earned the nickname "Ageless Warrior", was decommissioned. "Midway" had one last war in which to participate, and was one of the six aircraft carriers deployed by the U.S. against Iraq during Operation Desert Storm. A few months after the campaign, the last of the class left Navy service.


title: Midway-class aircraft carrier

text: "Coral Sea" was slowly scrapped in Baltimore as legal and environmental troubles continually delayed her fate. "Midway" spent five years in the mothball fleet at Bremerton, Washington before being taken over by a museum group. The ship is now open to the public as a museum in San Diego, California.


title: DC Black Label

text: DC Black Label, also simply referred to as Black Label, is an imprint of American comic book publisher DC Comics consisting of original miniseries and reprints of books previously published under other imprints. The imprint intends to present traditional DC Universe characters for a mature audience with stand-alone, prestige-format series. The first title of the imprint, "", was shipped on September 19, 2018.


title: DC Black Label

text: With the discontinuation of DC's Vertigo imprint, new and current series, as well as reprints of old titles, are published under the DC Black Label imprint beginning in 2020.


title: DC Black Label

text: Single issues of comic books that are issued under the "Black Label" line will be published in Prestige Format. If a comic book series exceeds a miniseries run length, it will be published in standard format.


title: DC Black Label

text: In August 2018, "The Sandman Universe" was unveiled by creator Neil Gaiman, initially published under Vertigo. DC closed Vertigo in January 2020 as part of a reorganization of age-directed imprints. All "Sandman Universe" titles are currently published under DC Black Label.


title: DC Black Label

text: Hill House Comics is a pop-up horror line of comics founded and curated by Joe Hill under DC Black Label. The first release, "Basketful of Heads" #1, written by Joe Hill, was released on October 30, 2019. There is also a backup story, "Sea Dogs", written by Joe Hill in every comic series, with each chapter of this story following the order of when each comic issue under Hill House Comics was released.


title: DC Black Label

text: In March 2020, following the success of "" and "", both comics created by Sean Murphy, it was reported that DC was interested in creating a mini imprint centered around Murphy's works. Referred to as the "Murphyverse", the imprint intends to feature limited series set in the shared universe first established in the "White Knight" series.


title: Saba Qamar

text: Saba Qamar Zaman (born 5 April 1984), known professionally as Saba Qamar, is a Pakistani actress who works predominantly in Urdu films and television. She has won several accolades including Lux Style Awards and Hum Awards. Qamar is one of Pakistan's most popular and highest-paid actresses. Government of Pakistan honoured her Tamgha-e-Imtiaz in 2012, and Pride of Performance in 2016.


title: Saba Qamar

text: Qamar first received positive media attention for the role of Fatima Jinnah in the historical drama "Jinnah Ke Naam" (2007), and this breakthrough was followed with further success in several television series, including the pre-partition drama "Dastaan", the melodrama "Uraan" (both 2010), the romantic dramas "Maat" and "Pani Jaisa Piyar" (both 2011), the socio "Thakan" (2012), thriller "Sannata", the romantic "Bunty I Love You" (both 2013), family drama "Digest Writer" (2014), crime thriller "Sangat" (2015) and "Besharam" (2016), receiving Best Actress awards and nominations for each of them. She has also appeared in acclaimed biographical film "Manto" (2015), romantic comedy "Lahore Se Aagey" (2016), and the hindi educational drama "Hindi Medium" (2017), for which she received a nomination of Filmfare Award for Best Actress.


title: Saba Qamar

text: Qamar continued to draw praise for portraying Fouzia Azeem and Noor Jehan in the 2017 biographical dramas "Baaghi" and "Main Manto", and a strong woman, fighting for her friend's attempted rape and murder in the 2019 courtroom drama "Cheekh". The first of these earned her a Lux Style Award for Best Television Actress. She features in listings of the nation's most popular personalities.


title: Saba Qamar

text: Saba Qamar Zaman was born on 5 April 1984 into a Sindhi family in Hyderabad, Sindh, Pakistan. She lost her father at a very young age and spent most of her childhood in Gujranwala with her grandmother. She got her early education in Gujranwala, then moved to Lahore to pursue further studies. Her family is settled in Karachi.


title: Saba Qamar

text: Qamar appeared in the PTV Home television series "Mein Aurat Hoon" (2005). The series was shot in Lahore, and was followed by several classic PTV series including "Gharoor", "Taqdeer", "Chaap", "Dhoop Mein Andhera Hai", "Kanpur Se Katas Tak", "Unbiyaanable" and "Maamo". Later in 2007, Qamar appeared in ATV's series "Khuda Gawah" which was the remake of 1992 Indian film of the same name, and the biographical drama "Jinnah Ke Naam", which was the production of PTV Home in the direction of Tariq Mairaj. She has played the role of Fatima Jinnah and the series was a tribute to the founder of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Though the series failed commercially, Qamar received a nomination for Best TV Actress (Terrestrial) at the Lux Style Awards. In an earlier interview with "The Express Tribune", Qamar confessed, "For me, acting is being able to express the feelings, emotions and expressions of different people and characters".


title: Saba Qamar

text: In 2010, she appeared in a supporting role of Surraya in Hum TV's pre partition television series "Dastaan", an adaptation of Razia Butt's novel "Bano". She was seen opposite Ahsan Khan, Sanam Baloch and Fawad Khan. Series proved to be the break-through for her and she won the Best TV Actress trophy at the Pakistan Media Awards (2010). She won the PTV Awards for the best TV actress in both public and jury choice categories at the 16th Annual PTV awards, held on 23 July 2011 for her role in "Tinkay"."Tinkay" also earned her a nomination for Best Television Actress at Lux Style Awards. This was followed by a supporting role in the PTV Home's social drama on women "Bint-e-Adam". Her role in the series was of a rich brat who falls for a boy from poor background, and marries him against her cruel father's wishes. "Bint e Adam" was a major critical and commercial hit, however, critics noted that her role was "limited" from an acting point of view.


title: Saba Qamar

text: Qamar then appeared in Sarmad Khoosat's romantic series "Pani Jaisa Piyar" (2011), where she played the character of Sana who has been engaged to Adarsh, the son of her mother's best friend ever since she was a child. Adarsh, however, has been unaware of this engagement, as his parents thought that he needed to focus more on his education than wedding plans. It was followed by a role in PTV's "Tera Pyar Nahi Bhoole". She was paired opposite Ahsan Khan in both the series. Both of which garnered her Lux Style Award nominations for Best Television Actress. Later that year, she appeared in "Maat" where she played the role of selfish, self-obsessed Saman opposite Adnan Siddiqui and Aamina Sheikh. The series was critically and commercially hit and became the thirteen highest-rated Pakistani television series and also garnered her Pakistan Media Awards for Best Actress. That same year, Qamar collaborated with Sami Khan in three of Geo TV's projects, "Jo Chale To Jaan Se Guzar Gaye", "Tere Ik Nazar", and "Main Chand Si", receiving further praise.


title: Saba Qamar

text: Qamar next appeared in Ameen Iqbal's "Thakan" (2012), which also starred Yumna Zaidi where she played the role of Sadaf who works extremely hard like a machine day and night to run her family but no one except her grandfather feels sympathy for her or even cares about her. It was followed by the leading roles in the Amna Nawaz Khan-written "Na Kaho Tum Mere Nahi" (2012) and Faiza Iftikhar's "Yahan Pyar Nahin Hai" (2012). The later of which earned her a nomination for Best Actress at Hum Awards. She gained recognition for portraying a range of characters in the serials "Shehryar Shehzadi" (2012), "Kaash Aisa Ho" (2013), "Sannata" (2013), and "Ullu Baraye Farokht Nahi" (2013), some of which garnered her several best actress nominations. Qamar won her first Hum Awards for the Best TV Actress for her role as Diana in "Bunty I Love You", at the 3rd Hum Awards. That same year, Qamar worked in the television film "Aina" (2013), opposite Faysal Qureshi. The film, a remake of the 1977 film of the same name, was well received by the audience and she was nominated for the Best Actress award at the Tarang Housefull Awards.After two consecutive years of poorly received serials, Qamar's career prospects began to improve in 2014; she appeared in five projects: "Jaanam", "Bay Emaan Mohabbat", "Bunty I Love You", "Izteraab", and "Digest Writer". The romantic drama "Jaanam" (alongside Adnan Siddiqui) and the romance "Bay Emaan Mohabbat" (alongside Agha Ali and Adnan Shah Tipu) earned little praise, but the family drama "Bunty I Love You" (a story about a girl who got married at age of 17 to much older man, later dreams of living a free life after his death) was Qamar's first critical success since "Maat". Directed by Siraj-ul-Haque, the series was generally well received. Reviewer from "Daily Pakistan" considered it along with "Digest Writer" as "one of the best performances of Qamar". The series received five nominations at Hum Awards including Qamar for best actress. She next appeared in "Izteraab". Her performance as the working women did not go well and despite the strong cast, story, production house and promotions, the drama turned out to be a major critical and commercial Disaster.


title: Saba Qamar

text: Qamar appeared in three series in 2015. She first reunited with Muhammad Younis Butt and Fawad Wyne in the comedy series "S.H.E" where she played a role of lady S.H.O Bajirao Mastani. She then starred alongside Adeel Chaudhry in Fahim Burney's directorial "Kaisay Tum Se Kahoon" which tells the story of star-crossed lovers who are reincarnated. It was her third consecutive appearance in Momina Duraid's production. Although the series did not do well in terms of ratings, but her performance was praised by the critics. The following year, Qamar collaborated with Mikaal Zulfiqar for the third time (alongside Zahid Ahmed, Kiran Haq, and Sonia Mishal) in Kashif Nisar's "Sangat" where she played a role of Aisha, a rape survivor who faced difficulties when her husband came to know that he was not the biological father of a daughter they have. The series earned her the nomination for Best Actress in both Jury and Popular categories at the Hum Awards.


title: Saba Qamar

text: Qamar then made her acting debut with a leading actress in the acclaimed biographical drama "Manto" (2015). Directed by Sarmad Khoosat, the film was made on a big budget and performed poorly at the box office with a lifetime collection of Rs 5.05 million, however it was critically praised and Qamar's portrayal of the singer Noor Jehan was well received by the critics, and earned her a nomination at the ARY Films Awards for Best Supporting Actress. The film was later adapted into a television series with the same cast in 2017, titled as "Main Manto", and was aired on Geo TV.


title: Saba Qamar

text: In 2016, Qamar played the role of a struggling actress in the period drama "Mein Sitara", (serial based on lollywood golden era) alongside Mekaal Zulfiqar and appeared as Mishal in Farooq Rind's "Besharam" opposite Zahid Ahmed. The later was a commercially and critically hit. Sadaf Haider of "The Express Tribune" praised her saying, "Qamar is in great form as Mishi and plays her with restraint and quiet power; a welcome relief from the wounded women she has played of late". During the 16th Lux Style Awards, the series earned 5 nominations including Qamar for Best TV actress. She was also nominated for her projects "Mein Sitara" and "Lahore Se Aagey" in Best Actress category. Qamar next played a rockstar opposite Yasir Hussain, in the travel comedy "Lahore Se Aagey" (2016). The film, a sequel to the comedy "Karachi Se Lahore", ranks among the highest-grossing Pakistani films of all time with a worldwide grossing of Rs21.60 million. Later that year, she played a leading role in the psycho–thriller "8969", a critical and commercial failure.


title: Saba Qamar

text: Qamar was offered an Indian film opposite Randeep Hooda, and supporting roles in "Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai" (2012) and "Heroine" (2012), which she declined. After the 2016 Uri attack, relations between India and Pakistan deteriorated; the Indian Motion Picture Producers Association (IMPPA) and the Film Producers Guild of India banned Pakistani artists from working in India until the situation normalised. The comedy-drama "Hindi Medium" (2017), in which Qamar played the lead female role of Mita Batra, a nouveau riche opposite Irrfan Khan, marked her first project in the Hindi cinema. Critical reception of the film was positive. A reviewer for "The Times of India" wrote, "Saba, as the dominating wife is sheer delight onscreen". In a scathing review, Sreehari Nair of "Rediff.com" labelled the film "fascinatingly frustrating" and called Qamar "natural actress, sexual daring". The film earned over ₹334.36 million worldwide, a majority of which came from the Chinese box office. and China with a collection of ₹334.36 million. Qamar received several Best Female Debut and Best Actress awards and nominations at various award ceremonies, including a Best Actress nomination at Filmfare. Later that year, Qamar was declared as the top Bollywood debutante of 2017 by "Eastern Eye".


title: Saba Qamar

text: In 2017, Qamar worked in the biographical drama series "Baaghi", in the role of Pakistani controversial figure Qandeel Baloch. The series was a critical and commercial success, becoming one of the highest-grossing Pakistani drama of 2017. Qamar's performance was widely praised by the critics and her portrayal of the actress and singer was applauded even before its release. Neeha of "The Nation" wrote, "Without a doubt, Qamar has done an outstanding job", whereas reviewer from "The Express Tribune" said she "slayed the social media star with such finesse". The series earned her a Lux Style Awards for Best Actress (Television) and IPPA Awards for Best Actress.


title: Saba Qamar

text: In 2018, Qamar appeared in three short films. She first paired with Ahsan Khan in Siraj-ul-Haque directorial Moomal Rano. The film was made as part of the Zeal For Unity initiative to bridge cultural barriers between India and Pakistan. It was critically praised and was nominated for Best film at the 2018 European festival. It was also released by digital platform Zee5. She then appeared in Fahim Burney's "Dil Diyan Gallan", opposite Zahid Ahmed where she played the character of Raniya and "Iss Dil Ki Essi Ki Tessi". in 2019, Qamar worked in crime drama "Cheekh", opposite Bilal Abbas khan, she played a headstrong girl who fights for justice. It is considered both critical and commercial blockbuster. Qamar next collaborated with Sarmad Khoosat for film "Kamli", and Saqib Khan's debut film, titled "Ghabrana Nahi Hai".


title: Saba Qamar

text: In 2009, Qamar joined the political satire show "Hum Sab Umeed Se Hain", as a host and presenter where she also did the parody of politicians and actors. The show was extremely popular and was at the number one spot in ratings in Pakistan. She decided to quit the show and was replaced by Meera in 2013. In January 2018, she appeared in photoshoot for Mahid Khawar's creation "Padmavat" where she dressed up like Rani Padmavati. In May 2018, she showcased golden bridal couture for designer Nilofer Shahid. She was showstopper for Rimple and Harpreet Narula's first Pakistan show on "Shaan-E-Pakistan". On 10 December 2018, she walked the ramp for designer Uzma Babar's collection Umsha on Bridal Couture Week. Qamar became the ambassador for a number of brands including Lux Pakistan, Sunsilk, Dalda, Ufone, and Tapal.


title: Saba Qamar

text: Qamar is considered one of the nation's most popular and highest-paid actresses. After the success of "Mein Sitara" and "Hindi Medium", she was cited by critics as one of the finest actresses in Pakistan. Throughout her career, she has received several accolades including Lux Style Awards, Hum Awards, Pakistan Media Awards, PTV Awards and a Filmfare Awards nomination. In 2012, Government of Pakistan honoured her with Tamgha-e-Imtiaz, the fourth-highest decoration given to civilians in Pakistan based on their achievements. In 2016, she received Pride of Performance in recognition of meritorious work in the fields of arts.


title: Saba Qamar

text: In addition to acting, Qamar has supported charitable organisations for various causes. She is involved with several humanitarian causes and is vocal about issues faced by women and children. In June 2018, she did a special appearance in Shuja Haider's music video "Jeevan Daan" to raised awareness against child abuse. The song was socially relevant and highlights issues concerning children and women. In August 2018, Qamar expressed in an interview, "I encourage and urge people to invest in good education as it will shape the future of our children and our society". On Independence Day in 2018, "Daily Times" named Qamar "Pride of Pakistan".


title: Saba Qamar

text: In April 2020, she started her YouTube channel and released mini series "Isolation" based on the situation of Lockdown due to COVID-19. She further raised her hands for collecting COVID relief funds for poor minorities and transgender communities with Ali Zafar's charity trust "Ali Zafar Foundation". Qamar revealed thorugh her YouTube channel about her relationship in which she was engaged for eight years and parted ways with him. She described it as abusive relationship.


title: Basketball at the Summer Olympics

text: Prior to its inclusion as a medal sport, basketball was held as a demonstration event in 1904. Women's basketball made its debut in the Summer Olympics in 1976. FIBA organizes both the men's and women's FIBA World Olympic Qualifying Tournaments and the Summer Olympics basketball tournaments, which are sanctioned by the IOC.


title: Basketball at the Summer Olympics

text: The United States is by far the most successful country in Olympic basketball, with United States men's teams having won 16 of 19 tournaments in which they participated, including seven consecutive titles from 1936 through 1968. United States women's teams have won 8 titles out of the 10 tournaments in which they competed, including seven in a row from 1996 to 2020. Besides the United States, Argentina is the only nation still in existence who has won either the men's or women's tournament. The Soviet Union, Yugoslavia and the Unified Team are the countries no longer in existence who have won the tournament. The United States are the defending champions in both men's and women's tournaments.


title: Basketball at the Summer Olympics

text: On 9 June 2017, the Executive Board of the International Olympic Committee announced that 3x3 basketball would become an official Olympic sport as of the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan, for both men and women.


title: Basketball at the Summer Olympics

text: Basketball was invented by James Naismith in Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1891. Within a few decades, the new game became popular throughout the United States as an indoor sport. The popularity spread overseas and the International Basketball Federation (FIBA) was organized in 1932 in Geneva, Switzerland. The Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) had a big part in the spread of this sport to many countries and as many as 21 teams competed in the first Olympic basketball tournament.


title: Basketball at the Summer Olympics

text: Thanks in part to the effort of Phog Allen—a Kansas Jayhawks collegiate coach—the first Olympic basketball tournament was organized in the 1936 Berlin Olympics on outdoor tennis courts. Dr. Naismith presented the medals to the top three teams. According to the Olympic rules of that time, all of the competitors were amateurs. The tournament was held indoors for the first time in 1948. The American team proved its dominance, winning the first seven Olympic tournaments through 1968, without losing a single game. While the Americans were barred from sending a team that contained players from the professional National Basketball Association, they instead sent in college players; teams from some other countries sent in their best players, as some of their players were classified as "amateur" by FIBA, by earning allowances instead of wages.


title: Basketball at the Summer Olympics

text: The U.S. winning streak ended in 1972 in one of the most controversial matches in history, when the Soviet Union beat them in the gold-medal game by one point.


title: Basketball at the Summer Olympics

text: The U.S. team reclaimed the gold medal in 1976, with Yugoslavia, which had beaten the Soviet Union in the semifinal, finishing runner-up for the second time. In 1980, with the Americans' absence due to the boycott, Yugoslavia became the third team to win the title, after beating the Soviets anew in the semifinals and Italy in the final. The Americans regained the title in 1984, by beating Spain in the final, with the Soviets boycotting this time. The Soviets won the gold medal for the second time in 1988, after beating the U.S. team for the second time in the semifinal, and the Yugoslavs in the gold medal game.


title: Basketball at the Summer Olympics

text: The advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete" of the Eastern Bloc countries eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally listed in the military, but all of whom were in fact paid by the state to train full-time. In April 1989, through the leadership of Secretary General Borislav Stanković, FIBA approved the rule that allowed NBA players to compete in international tournaments, including the Olympics. In the 1992 Summer Olympics, the U.S. "Dream Team" won the gold medal with an average winning margin of 44 points per game, and without calling a timeout. By this time, the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia no longer existed, but their successor states continued to be among the leading forces. Two newly independent countries of the former Yugoslavia and Soviet Union, Croatia and Lithuania, won the silver and bronze medals respectively.


title: Basketball at the Summer Olympics

text: The American team repeated its victory in 1996 and 2000, but its performance was not as dominant as in 1992. Since active NBA players have been allowed to compete in the Summer Olympics, the 1996 Games in Atlanta is the only instance where the Olympic host city also had a home NBA team — the Hawks. Yugoslavia was the runner-up in Atlanta, and France in Sydney, with Lithuania winning bronze again on both occasions.


title: Basketball at the Summer Olympics

text: The renewed dominance of the U.S. was interrupted in 2004, when the Americans barely made it to the semifinal, after losing to Puerto Rico and Lithuania in the preliminaries; Argentina defeated them in the semifinals, on their way to a gold medal finish, where they beat Italy in the final, and became the fourth team to win the Olympic title.


title: Basketball at the Summer Olympics

text: The Americans regrouped in 2008, beating the reigning FIBA world champions, Spain, in an intense gold medal game, with the Argentines beating the Lithuanians in the bronze medal game. The Americans and the Spaniards met again in the 2012 gold medal game, with the U.S. again winning, although with the closest winning margin for the American team. The U.S. won again in 2016, defeating the Serbians in the gold medal game, a rematch of the 2014 FIBA Basketball World Cup Final, after eliminating the Spaniards, who settled for bronze.


title: Basketball at the Summer Olympics

text: The first women's tournament was staged in the 1976 Summer Olympics. The Soviet Union won five straight games, becoming the inaugural champion. The next two tournaments followed the six-team round-robin format, with the Soviets defending their title in 1980 amid the U.S.-led boycott, and the U.S. winning in 1984, against the South Koreans, amid the Soviet-led boycott. In 1988, the tournament expanded into eight teams, with the Americans beating Yugoslavia in the gold medal game. In 1992, the Unified Team, consisting of the former Soviet republics, defeated China in the gold medal game. In 1996, the tournament settled into its current 12-team format; the U.S. has swept all of the tournaments since then, winning 48 consecutive games.


title: Basketball at the Summer Olympics

text: All venues were indoor stadiums except for the 1936 tournament which was held outdoors on lawn tennis courts.


title: Basketball at the Summer Olympics

text: In 2020, the men's tournament will have a new qualification system. After the 2019 FIBA World Cup, seven teams will qualify directly: the top two European and American teams, and the top team from Africa, Asia and Oceania. The next 16 best teams from the FIBA World Cup will join the two teams from each continent at the Olympic qualifiers. It will feature four groups of six teams, where the best team of each group will get the remaining spots at the Olympics. The continental championships will no longer be used for Olympic qualifying.


title: Yūrei

text: According to traditional Japanese beliefs, all humans have a spirit or soul called a . When a person dies, the "reikon" leaves the body and enters a form of purgatory, where it waits for the proper funeral and post-funeral rites to be performed so that it may join its ancestors. If this is done correctly, the "reikon" is believed to be a protector of the living family and to return yearly in August during the Obon Festival to receive thanks.


title: Yūrei

text: If the person dies, however, in a sudden or violent manner such as murder or suicide, if the proper rites have not been performed, or if they are influenced by powerful emotions such as a desire for revenge, love, jealousy, hatred or sorrow, the "reikon" is believed to transform into a "yūrei" which can then bridge the gap back to the physical world. The emotion or thought need not be particularly strong or driven. Even innocuous thoughts can cause death to become disturbed. Once a thought enters the mind of a dying person, their "yūrei" will come back to complete the action last thought of before returning to the cycle of reincarnation.


title: Yūrei

text: The "yūrei" then exists on Earth until it can be laid to rest, either by performing the missing rituals or resolving the emotional conflict that still ties it to the physical plane. If the rituals are not completed or the conflict left unresolved, the "yūrei" will persist in its haunting.


title: Yūrei

text: Oftentimes the lower the social rank of the person who died violently or who was treated harshly during life, the more powerful as a "yūrei" they would return. This is illustrated in the fate of Oiwa in the story "Yotsuya Kaidan", or the servant Okiku in "Banchō Sarayashiki".


title: Yūrei

text: In the late 17th century, a game called "Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai" became popular, and "kaidan" increasingly became a subject for theater, literature and other arts. "Ukiyo-e" artist Maruyama Ōkyo created the first known example of the now-traditional "yūrei", in his painting "The Ghost of Oyuki". The Zenshō-an in Tokyo houses the largest single collection of "yūrei" paintings which are only shown in August, the traditional month of the spirits.


title: Yūrei

text: Today, the appearance of "yūrei" is somewhat uniform, instantly signaling the ghostly nature of the figure, and assuring that it is culturally authentic.


title: Yūrei

text: While all Japanese ghosts are called "yūrei", within that category there are several specific types of phantom, classified mainly by the manner they died or their reason for returning to Earth:


title: Yūrei

text: There are two types of ghosts specific to Buddhism, both being examples of unfulfilled earthly hungers being carried on after death. They are different from other classifications of "yūrei" due to their religious nature:


title: Yūrei

text: In Japanese folklore, not only the dead are able to manifest their "reikon" for a haunting. Living creatures possessed by extraordinary jealousy or rage can release their spirit as an , a living ghost that can enact its will while still alive.


title: Yūrei

text: The most famous example of an "ikiryo" is "Rokujō no Miyasundokoro", from the novel "The Tale of Genji". A mistress of the titular Genji who falls deeply in love with him, the lady Rokujō is an ambitious woman whose ambition is denied upon the death of her husband. The jealousy she repressed over Genji transformed her slowly into a demon, and then took shape as an "ikiryō" upon discovering that Genji's wife was pregnant. This "ikiryō" possessed Genji's wife, ultimately leading to her demise. Upon realising that her jealousy had caused this misfortune, she locked herself away and became a nun until her death, after which time her spirit continued to haunt Genji until her daughter performed the correct spiritual rites.


title: Yūrei

text: "Yūrei" often fall under the general umbrella term of obake, derived from the verb bakeru, meaning "to change"; thus obake are preternatural beings who have undergone some sort of change, from the natural realm to the supernatural.


title: Yūrei

text: However, "yūrei" differ from traditional "bakemono" due to their temporal specificity. The "yūrei" is one of the only creatures in Japanese mythology to have a preferred haunting time (midtime of the hours of the Ox; around 2:00 am–2:30 am, when the veils between the world of the dead and the world of the living are at their thinnest). By comparison, normal "obake" could strike at any time, often darkening or changing their surroundings should they feel the need. Similarly, "yūrei" are more bound to specific locations of haunting than the average "bakemono," which are free to haunt any place without being bound to it.""


title: Yūrei

text: Yanagita Kunio generally distinguishes "yūrei" from "obake" by noting that "yūrei" tend to have a specific purpose for their haunting, such as vengeance or completing unfinished business. While for many "yūrei" this business is concluded, some "yūrei", such as Okiku, remain earthbound due to the fact that their business is not possible to complete. In the case of Okiku, this business is counting plates hoping to find a full set, but the last plate is invariably missing or broken according to the different retellings of the story. This means that their spirit can never find peace, and thus will remain a "jibakurei".


title: Yūrei

text: Some famous locations that are said to be haunted by "yūrei" are the well of Himeji Castle, haunted by the ghost of Okiku, and Aokigahara, the forest at the bottom of Mount Fuji, which is a popular location for suicide. A particularly powerful "onryō", known as Oiwa, is said to be able to bring vengeance on any actress portraying her part in a theater or film adaptation.


title: Yūrei

text: Okiku, Oiwa, and the lovesick Otsuya together make up the of Japanese culture. These are "yūrei" whose stories have been passed down and retold throughout the centuries, and whose characteristics along with their circumstances and fates have formed a large part of Japanese art and society.


title: Yūrei

text: The easiest way to exorcise a "yūrei" is to help it fulfill its purpose. When the reason for the strong emotion binding the spirit to Earth is gone, the "yūrei" is satisfied and can move on. Traditionally, this is accomplished by family members enacting revenge upon the "yūrei"s slayer, or when the ghost consummates its passion/love with its intended lover, or when its remains are discovered and given a proper burial with all rites performed.


title: Yūrei

text: The emotions of the "onryō" are particularly strong, and they are the least likely to be pacified by these methods.


title: Yūrei

text: On occasion, Buddhist priests and mountain ascetics were hired to perform services on those whose unusual or unfortunate deaths could result in their transition into a vengeful ghost, a practice similar to exorcism. Sometimes these ghosts would be deified in order to placate their spirits.


title: Yūrei

text: Like many monsters of Japanese folklore, malicious "yūrei" are repelled by , holy Shinto writings containing the name of a "kami". The "ofuda" must generally be placed on the "yūrei"s forehead to banish the spirit, although they can be attached to a house's entry ways to prevent the "yūrei" from entering.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Frederick Winslow Taylor (March 20, 1856 – March 21, 1915) was an American mechanical engineer. He was widely known for his methods to improve industrial efficiency. He was one of the first management consultants. In 1909, Taylor summed up his efficiency techniques in his book "The Principles of Scientific Management" which, in 2001, Fellows of the Academy of Management voted the most influential management book of the twentieth century. His pioneering work in applying engineering principles to the work done on the factory floor was instrumental in the creation and development of the branch of engineering that is now known as industrial engineering. Taylor made his name, and was most proud of his work, in scientific management; however, he made his fortune patenting steel-process improvements. As a result, scientific management is sometimes referred to as "Taylorism".


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Taylor was born in 1856 to a Quaker family in Germantown, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Taylor's father, Franklin Taylor, a Princeton-educated lawyer, built his wealth on mortgages. Taylor's mother, Emily Annette Taylor (née Winslow), was an ardent abolitionist and a coworker with Lucretia Mott. His father's ancestor, Samuel Taylor, settled in Burlington, New Jersey, in 1677. His mother's ancestor, Edward Winslow, was one of the fifteen original Mayflower Pilgrims who brought servants or children, and one of eight who had the honorable distinction of Mister. Winslow served for many years as the Governor of the Plymouth colony.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Educated early by his mother, Taylor studied for two years in France and Germany and traveled Europe for 18 months. In 1872, he entered Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter, New Hampshire, with the plan of eventually going to Harvard and becoming a lawyer like his father. In 1874, Taylor passed the Harvard entrance examinations with honors. However, due allegedly to rapidly deteriorating eyesight, Taylor chose quite a different path.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Instead of attending Harvard University, Taylor became an apprentice patternmaker and machinist, gaining shop-floor experience at Enterprise Hydraulic Works in Philadelphia (a pump-manufacturing company whose proprietors were friends of the Taylor family). He left his apprenticeship for six months and represented a group of New England machine-tool manufacturers at Philadelphia's centennial exposition. Taylor finished his four-year apprenticeship and in 1878 became a machine-shop laborer at Midvale Steel Works. At Midvale, he was quickly promoted to time clerk, journeyman machinist, gang boss over the lathe hands, machine shop foreman, research director, and finally chief engineer of the works (while maintaining his position as machine shop foreman). Taylor's fast promotions reflected both his talent and his family's relationship with Edward Clark, part owner of Midvale Steel. (Edward Clark's son Clarence Clark, who was also a manager at Midvale Steel, married Taylor's sister.)


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Early on at Midvale, working as a laborer and machinist, Taylor recognized that workmen were working their machines, or themselves, not nearly as hard as they could (a practice that at the time was called "soldiering") and that this resulted in high labor costs for the company. When he became a foreman he expected more output from the workmen. In order to determine how much work should properly be expected, he began to study and analyze the productivity of both the men and the machines (although the word "productivity" was not used at the time, and the applied science of productivity had not yet been developed). His focus on the human component of production Taylor labeled scientific management.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: While Taylor worked at Midvale, he and Clarence Clark won the first tennis doubles tournament in the 1881 US National Championships, the precursor of the US Open. Taylor became a student of Stevens Institute of Technology, studying via correspondence and obtaining a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering in 1883. On May 3, 1884, he married Louise M. Spooner of Philadelphia.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: From 1890 until 1893 Taylor worked as a general manager and a consulting engineer to management for the Manufacturing Investment Company of Philadelphia, a company that operated large paper mills in Maine and Wisconsin. He was a plant manager in Maine. In 1893, Taylor opened an independent consulting practice in Philadelphia. His business card read "Consulting Engineer - Systematizing Shop Management and Manufacturing Costs a Specialty". Through these consulting experiences, Taylor perfected his management system. His first paper, "A Piece Rate System", was presented to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in June 1895.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: In 1898 he joined Bethlehem Steel to solve an expensive machine-shop capacity problem. While at Bethlehem, he discovered the best known and most profitable of his many patents: between 1898 and 1900 Taylor and Maunsel White ("né" Maunsel White III; 1856–1912; grandson of Maunsel White; 1783–1863) conducted comprehensive empirical tests, and concluded that tungsten alloyed steel doubled or quadrupled cutting speeds. The inventors received for the English patents alone, although the U.S. patent was eventually nullified.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Taylor was forced to leave Bethlehem Steel in 1901 after discord with other managers. Now a wealthy man, Taylor focused the remainder of his career promoting his management and machining methods through lecturing, writing, and consulting. In 1910, owing to the Eastern Rate Case, Frederick Winslow Taylor and his Scientific Management methodologies became famous worldwide. In 1911, Taylor introduced his The Principles of Scientific Management paper to the ASME, eight years after his Shop Management paper.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: On October 19, 1906, Taylor was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Science by the University of Pennsylvania. Taylor eventually became a professor at the Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth College. In early spring of 1915 Taylor caught pneumonia and died, one day after his fifty-ninth birthday, on March 21, 1915. He was buried in West Laurel Hill Cemetery, in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Taylor was a mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency. He is regarded as the father of scientific management, and was one of the first management consultants and director of a famous firm. In Peter Drucker's description,


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Future US Supreme Court justice Louis Brandeis coined the term "scientific management" in the course of his argument for the Eastern Rate Case before the Interstate Commerce Commission in 1910. Brandeis argued that railroads, when governed according to Taylor's principles, did not need to raise rates to increase wages. Taylor used Brandeis's term in the title of his monograph "The Principles of Scientific Management," published in 1911. The Eastern Rate Case propelled Taylor's ideas to the forefront of the management agenda. Taylor wrote to Brandeis, "I have rarely seen a new movement started with such great momentum as you have given this one." Taylor's approach is also often referred to as "Taylor's Principles", or, frequently disparagingly, as "Taylorism".


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Taylor believed in transferring control from workers to management. He set out to increase the distinction between mental (planning work) and manual labor (executing work). Detailed plans, specifying the job and how it was to be done, were to be formulated by management and communicated to the workers.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: The introduction of his system was often resented by workers and provoked numerous strikes. The strike at Watertown Arsenal led to the congressional investigation in 1912.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Taylor believed the laborer was worthy of his hire, and pay was linked to productivity. His workers were able to earn substantially more than those under conventional management, and this earned him enemies among the owners of factories where scientific management was not in use.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Debate about Taylor's Bethlehem study of workers, particularly the stereotypical laborer "Schmidt", continues to this day. One 2009 study supports assertions Taylor made about the quite substantial increase in productivity, for even the most basic task of picking up, carrying and dropping pigs of iron.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Taylor thought that by analysing work, the "one best way" to do it would be found. He is most remembered for developing the stopwatch time study, which, combined with Frank Gilbreth's motion study methods, later became the field of time and motion study. He broke a job into its component parts and measured each to the hundredth of a minute. One of his most famous studies involved shovels. He noticed that workers used the same shovel for all materials. He determined that the most effective load was 21½ pounds, and found or designed shovels that for each material would scoop up that amount. He was generally unsuccessful in getting his concepts applied, and was dismissed from Bethlehem Iron Company/Bethlehem Steel Company. Nevertheless, Taylor was able to convince workers who used shovels and whose compensation was tied to how much they produced to adopt his advice about the optimum way to shovel by breaking the movements down into their component elements and recommending better ways to perform these movements. It was largely through his disciples' efforts (most notably Henry Gantt's) that industry came to implement his ideas. Moreover, the book he wrote after parting company with the Bethlehem company, "Shop Management", sold well.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Taylor's written works were designed for presentation to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). These include "Notes on Belting" (1894), "A Piece-Rate System" (1895), "Shop Management" (1903), "Art of Cutting Metals" (1906), and "The Principles of Scientific Management" (1911).


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Taylor was president of the ASME from 1906 to 1907. While president, he tried to implement his system into the management of the ASME but met with much resistance. He was able to reorganize only the publications department and that only partially. He also forced out the ASME's longtime secretary, Morris Llewellyn Cooke, and replaced him with Calvin W. Rice. His tenure as president was trouble-ridden and marked the beginning of a period of internal dissension within the ASME during the Progressive Age.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: In 1911, Taylor collected a number of his articles into a book-length manuscript, which he submitted to the ASME for publication. The ASME formed an ad hoc committee to review the text. The committee included Taylor allies such as James Mapes Dodge and Henry R. Towne. The committee delegated the report to the editor of the "American Machinist", Leon P. Alford. Alford was a critic of the Taylor system and his report was negative. The committee modified the report slightly, but accepted Alford's recommendation not to publish Taylor's book. Taylor angrily withdrew the book and published "Principles" without ASME approval. Taylor published the trade book himself in 1912.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: In France, Le Chatelier translated Taylor's work and introduced scientific management throughout government owned plants during World War I. This influenced the French theorist Henri Fayol, whose 1916 "Administration Industrielle et Générale" emphasized organizational structure in management. In the classic "General and Industrial Management", Fayol wrote that "Taylor's approach differs from the one we have outlined in that he examines the firm from the 'bottom up.' He starts with the most elemental units of activity – the workers' actions – then studies the effects of their actions on productivity, devises new methods for making them more efficient, and applies what he learns at lower levels to the hierarchy " He suggests that Taylor has staff analysts and advisors working with individuals at lower levels of the organization to identify the ways to improve efficiency. According to Fayol, the approach results in a "negation of the principle of unity of command." Fayol criticized Taylor's functional management in this way: In "Shop Management", Taylor said « ... the most marked outward characteristics of functional management lies in the fact that each workman, instead of coming in direct contact with the management at one point only, ... receives his daily orders and help from eight different bosses... these eight were (1) route clerks, (2) instruction card men, (3) cost and time clerks, (4) gang bosses, (5) speed bosses, (6) inspectors, (7) repair bosses, and the (8) shop disciplinarian. » Fayol said that this was an unworkable situation and that Taylor must have reconciled the differences in some way not described in Taylor's works.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Around 1922 the journalist Paulette Bernège became interested in Taylor's theories, which were popular in France in the post-war period.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Bernège became the faithful disciple of the Domestic Sciences Movement that Christine Frederick had launched earlier in the United States, which Bernège adapted to French homes.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Frederick had transferred the concepts of Taylorism from the factory to domestic work. These included suitable tools, rational study of movements and timing of tasks. Scientific standards for housework were derived from scientific standards for workshops, intended to streamline the work of a housewife.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: The "Comité national de l'organisation française" (CNOF) was founded in 1925 by a group of journalists and consulting engineers who saw Taylorism as a way to expand their client base.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Founders included prominent engineers such as Henry Louis Le Châtelier and Léon Guillet. Bernège's Institute of Housekeeping Organization participated in various congresses on the scientific organization of work that led up to the founding of the CNOF, and in 1929 led to a section in CNOF on domestic economy.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Older historical accounts used to suggest that British industry had less interest in Taylor's teachings than in similarly sized countries. More recent research has revealed that British engineers and managers were as interested as in other countries. This disparity was largely due to what historians have been analysing: recent research has revealed that Taylor's practices diffused to Britain more through consultancies, in particular the Bedaux consultancy, than through institutions, as in Germany and to a lesser extent France, where a mixture was most effective.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Particularly enthusiastic were the Cadbury family, Seebohm Rowntree, Oliver Sheldon and Lyndall Urwick. In addition to establishing a consultancy to implement Taylor's system, Urwick, Orr & Partners, Urwick was also a key historian of F.W. Taylor and scientific management, publishing "The Making of Scientific Management" trilogy in the 1940s and "The Golden Book of Management" in 1956.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: In Switzerland, the American Edward Albert Filene established the International Management Institute to spread information about management techniques. Lyndall Urwick was its director until the IMI closed in 1933.Charles D. Wrege, Ronald G. Greenwood, and Sakae Hata, 'The International Management Institute and Political Opposition to its Efforts in Europe, 1925-1934' "Business and Economic History" (1987)PDF link</ref>


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: In the Soviet Union, Vladimir Lenin was very impressed by Taylorism, which he and other Bolshevik leaders tried to incorporate into Soviet manufacturing. When Joseph Stalin took power in the 1920s, he championed the theory of "Socialism in one country" which denied that the Soviet economy needed foreign help to develop, and open advocates of Western management techniques fell into disfavor. No longer celebrated by Soviet leadership, Taylorism and the mass production methods of Henry Ford remained silent influences during the industrialization of the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, "[...] Frederick Taylor's methods have never really taken root in the Soviet Union." The voluntaristic approach of Stalin's Stakhanovite movement in the 1930s, fixated on setting individual records, was intrinsically opposed to Taylor's systematic approach and proved to be counter-productive. The stop-and-go of the production process – workers having nothing to do at the beginning of a month and 'storming' during illegal extra shifts at the end of the month – which prevailed even in the 1980s had nothing to do with the successfully taylorized plants e.g., of Toyota which are characterized by "continuous" production processes (heijunka) which are "continuously" improved (kaizen).


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: "The easy availability of replacement labor, which allowed Taylor to choose only 'first-class men,' was an important condition for his system's success." The situation in the Soviet Union was very different. "Because work is so unrhythmic, the rational manager will hire more workers than he would need if supplies were even in order to have enough for storming. Because of the continuing labor shortage, managers are happy to pay needed workers more than the norm, either by issuing false job orders, assigning them to higher skill grades than they deserve on merit criteria, giving them 'loose' piece rates, or making what is supposed to be 'incentive' pay, premia for good work, effectively part of the normal wage. As Mary McAuley has suggested under these circumstances piece rates are not an incentive wage, but a way of justifying giving workers whatever they 'should' be getting, no matter what their pay is supposed to be according to the official norms."


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Taylor and his theories are also referenced (and put to practice) in the 1921 dystopian novel "We" by Yevgeny Zamyatin.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: In the early 1920s, the Canadian textile industry was re-organized according to scientific management principles. In 1928, workers at Canada Cotton Ltd. in Hamilton, Ontario went on strike against newly introduced Taylorist work methods. Also, Henry Gantt, who was a close associate of Taylor, re-organized the Canadian Pacific Railway.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: With the prevalence of US branch plants in Canada and close economic and cultural ties between the two countries, the sharing of business practices, including Taylorism, has been common.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: The Taylor Society was founded in 1912 by Taylor's allies to promote his values and influence. A decade after Taylor's death in 1915 the Taylor Society had 800 members, including many leading U.S. industrialists and managers. In 1936 the Society merged with the Society of Industrial Engineers, forming the Society for Advancement of Management, which still exists today.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Many of the critiques of Taylor come from Marxists. The earliest was by Antonio Gramsci, an Italian Communist, in his "Prison Notebooks" (1937). Gramsci argued that Taylorism subordinates the workers to management. He also argued that the repetitive work produced by Taylorism might actually give rise to revolutionary thoughts in workers' minds.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Harry Braverman's work "", published in 1974, was critical of scientific management and of Taylor in particular. This work pioneered the field of Labor Process Theory as well as contributing to the historiography of the workplace.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Management theorist Henry Mintzberg is highly critical of Taylor's methods. Mintzberg states that an obsession with efficiency allows measurable benefits to overshadow less quantifiable social benefits completely, and social values get left behind.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Taylor's methods have also been challenged by socialists. Their arguments relate to progressive defanging of workers in the workplace and the subsequent degradation of work as management, powered by capital, uses Taylor's methods to render work repeatable and precise yet monotonous and skill-reducing. James W. Rinehart argued that Taylor's methods of transferring control over production from workers to management, and the division of labor into simple tasks, intensified the alienation of workers that had begun with the factory system of production around the period 1870 to 1890.


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: "We are going to win and the industrial west is going to lose out; ... the reasons for failure are within yourselves. Your firms are built on the Taylor model. Even worse, so are your heads. With your bosses doing the thinking while workers wield the screwdrivers, you’re convinced deep down that it is the right way to run a business. For the essence of management is getting ideas out of the heads of the bosses and into the heads of labour. We are beyond your mindset. Business, we know, is now so complex and difficult, the survival of firms so hazardous in an environment increasingly unpredictable, competitive and fraught with danger, that their continued existence depends on the day-to-day mobilisation of every ounce of intelligence."


title: Frederick Winslow Taylor

text: Taylor was an accomplished tennis and golf player. He and Clarence Clark won the inaugural United States National tennis doubles championship at Newport Casino in 1881, defeating Alexander Van Rensselaer and Arthur Newbold ("né" Arthur Emlen Newbold; 1859–1920) in straight sets. In the 1900 Summer Olympics, Taylor finished fourth in golf.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: Pat Patterson (born Pierre Clermont, January 19, 1941 – December 2, 2020) was a Canadian–American professional wrestler and producer, widely known for his long tenure in the professional wrestling promotion WWE, first as a wrestler, then as a creative consultant and producer ("booker"). He is recognized by the company as their first Intercontinental Champion and creator of the Royal Rumble match. He was inducted into the WWF Hall of Fame as part of the class of 1996.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: In 2019, Patterson became the oldest person to win a title in WWE history, after winning the WWE 24/7 Championship at age 78. He was described by journalist Dave Meltzer as "Vince McMahon's right-hand man" and "one of the chief architects of the WWE, playing an integral role in helping it become a global phenomenon".


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: Patterson was born into an impoverished French-speaking family in the Ville-Marie borough of Montreal, Quebec, Canada on January 19, 1941. He began training to wrestle at the age of 14 at Loisirs Saint Jean Baptiste. He was raised Roman Catholic, and was an altar boy. He expressed an interest to a priest in becoming one himself, but was advised it would not have worked, because he was "too adventurous".


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: Patterson debuted in Montreal, Quebec in 1958, wrestling at the Palais des Sports for promoter Sylvio Samson. Early in his career, he performed as "Killer" Pat Patterson.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: In 1962, Patterson - despite speaking no English - immigrated to the United States to pursue his professional wrestling career.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: He eventually became a U.S. citizen. Patterson initially worked for Tony Santos's Big Time Wrestling promotion in Boston, Massachusetts. While living and working in Boston, Patterson met his long-term partner, Louie Dondero.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: In 1962, Patterson was recruited by Mad Dog Vachon for Don Owen's Portland, Oregon-based Pacific Northwest Wrestling promotion. At the encouragement of PNW promoter Harry Elliot, who was aware of Patterson's homosexuality, Patterson developed the character of "Pretty Boy" Pat Patterson, an effeminate wrestler who wore lipstick, sunglasses, and a beret and carried a cigarette holder. In 1963, Patterson wrestled for promotions in Texas, Arizona and Oklahoma as part of a talent exchange organized by Owen. Patterson returned to Pacific Northwest Wrestling in 1964. He held the NWA Pacific Northwest Tag Team Championship on two occasions that year. On October 2, 1964, Patterson defeated Pepper Martin for the NWA Pacific Northwest Heavyweight Championship. He held the championship for six weeks before losing to Martin. Patterson won the championship again in 1965 and 1966.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: In January 1965, Patterson was hired by Roy Shire for his San Francisco, California-based Big Time Wrestling promotion. At Shire's request, Patterson dyed his hair blond to form a tag team with Ray Stevens, The Blond Bombers. The duo won the NWA World Tag Team Championship in 1965 and again in 1967. The Blonde Bombers were described by Bret Hart as "considered by many to be the best tag team of the 1970s". In 1968, Patterson wrestled for NWA Western States Wrestling in Amarillo, Texas as Lord Patrick Patterson, winning the NWA North American Heavyweight Championship and NWA Brass Knuckles Championship. In the same year, he undertook a six-week tour of Japan, facing Antonio Inoki in a series of bouts.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: After Stevens turned face in the late 1960s, he had a feud with the heel Patterson, culminating in a Texas Death match, in which Stevens won the title from Patterson. In 1970 and 1971, Patterson wore a mask during his matches, and would cheat by placing a foreign object under the mask to add power to his headbutts. In 1972, Patterson turned face again, after feuding with Lars Anderson, who was managed by Dr. Ken Ramey. Later that year, he teamed with Rocky Johnson and won the tag team championship. In 1975 and 1981, Patterson won the Cow Palace Battle Royal in San Francisco.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: In 1977, Patterson wrestled for Eddie Graham's Tampa, Florida-based Championship Wrestling from Florida promotion. During his run, he won the NWA Florida Television Championship and the NWA Florida Tag Team Championship, as well as briefly serving as booker.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: In 1978, Patterson joined Verne Gagne's Minneapolis, Minnesota-based American Wrestling Association. He reformed The Blond Bombers with Ray Stevens, with the duo winning the AWA World Tag Team Championship later that year. Patterson performed intermittently for the AWA until 1983.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: Patterson made his professional return to Quebec in 1980, wrestling a number of bouts for the Montreal, Quebec-based Lutte Internationale promotion. He held the Canadian International Tag Team Championship on five occasions between 1980 and 1983.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: In 1979, Patterson debuted in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), working as a heel, under the tutelage of manager The Grand Wizard. As a villain, Patterson's primary feuds were with then WWF North American Champion Ted DiBiase and WWF Heavyweight Champion Bob Backlund. During a television taping on June 19 in Allentown, Pennsylvania, Patterson defeated DiBiase for the WWF North American Championship by using a pair of brass knuckles to knock out DiBiase. Patterson was unsuccessful, however, in winning the WWF Heavyweight Championship from Backlund.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: In September 1979, the WWF would introduce the WWF Intercontinental Championship, a secondary championship for its midcard wrestlers. Patterson was crowned the company's first Intercontinental Heavyweight Champion after an alleged tournament held in Rio de Janeiro. While Patterson's tournament "victory" is widely listed in wrestling title and match histories, the tournament itself never actually took place. Patterson's apocryphal title victory would later become something of an inside joke during Patterson's on-screen tenure as one of Vince McMahon's "stooges". The fictional tournament was also later profiled in-depth on WWE.com as an April Fool's joke. On November 8, Patterson dropped the North American title to Seiji Sakaguchi.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: It was during Patterson's reign as champion that he turned face, after a botched attempt by the Grand Wizard to "sell" Patterson's contract to "Captain" Lou Albano for $100,000; Albano's protégés, the Wild Samoans, attacked Patterson after he cut a promo insulting Albano. Patterson held the Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship until April 21, 1980, when he was defeated by Ken Patera in New York City, New York. The match ended in controversial fashion after Patterson placed his right leg on the ropes just before the three count was made. On May 4, 1981, Patterson's feud with Sgt. Slaughter culminated in an alley street fight match in Madison Square Garden. The match was voted Match of the Year by the "Wrestling Observer Newsletter".


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: Patterson began doing color commentary in 1980 with Vince McMahon, calling "WWF Championship Wrestling" from 1980 to 1984. While Patterson was a face commentator when partnered with Gorilla Monsoon and Vince McMahon, he hosted a heel interview segment for French WWF broadcasts known as "Le Brunch de Pat", where he would politely ask questions in English but furtively mock his face guests in French. Patterson was on commentary with Monsoon when The Iron Sheik defeated Bob Backlund for the world heavyweight championship, as well as for when Hulk Hogan defeated The Iron Sheik about a month later. Patterson was also calling the action when Jimmy Snuka jumped off the steel cage and splashed Don Muraco in Madison Square Garden in 1983.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: Patterson retired from wrestling in 1984. Although retired, Patterson continued to occasionally wrestle. On January 26, 1985, he wrestled Nikolai Volkoff in a losing effort in a house show in Cincinnati, Ohio. The following month, he teamed with Andre the Giant at a pair of house shows in Canada and defeated Ken Patera and Big John Studd. He took the spot of Mad Dog Vachon on the WWF skit show Le Brunch on WWF Superstars in Canada until late summer in 1987. Several wrestlers like the Rougeau Brothers and Dino Bravo replaced him, and Frenchie Martin hosted Le Studio as a replacement of Le Brunch. Before that he made another appearance, this time in a battle royal in Montreal on February 24, 1987. He also appeared in a battle royal at a house show in Buffalo, New York on December 27. Patterson made a handful of additional appearances in Montreal in 1987, wrestling as a heel (while remaining a face or neutral backstage official in the United States and elsewhere in Canada). His most notable appearance was a win over the up-and-coming Brutus Beefcake on August 10 His final match would come three weeks later in Montreal as he fell in defeat to Beefcake and subsequently received a haircut.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: He began working backstage as a road agent and right-hand man to WWF promoter Vince McMahon, and is credited with inventing and booking the Royal Rumble match. In the late 1990s, he also worked in the talent-relations department. After his retirement, Patterson also worked as a WWF referee. He was selected as the in-ring referee for the main event at the first WrestleMania at Madison Square Garden on March 31, 1985, as well as the main event of WrestleMania XI. In 1992, Patterson was accused of sexual harassment by former announcer Murray Hodgson. He was briefly released from the company until the charges were dropped, when he was promptly rehired.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: In 1997, Patterson, along with Gerald Brisco, became comedy heels as the on-screen stooges of Vince McMahon, assisting their boss in his rivalries with Stone Cold Steve Austin, Mankind and The Rock. Patterson and Brisco were among the founding members of The Corporation. In order to mock Hulk Hogan, they used "Real American" as their entrance music and parodied Hogan's flexing routine as they approached the ring. On the May 18, 1998 episode of Raw, Patterson and Brisco competed in a 2 on 1 Street Fight against Austin that ended in a no contest when Vince McMahon and Dude Love attacked Austin.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: Later in 1999, the two became entangled with the McMahon-Helmsley Faction. On the December 16, 1999 episode of "SmackDown", Patterson and Brisco helped Test, who had been injured by D-Generation X. Triple H and Stephanie McMahon then forced Patterson and Brisco to compete for the WWF Tag Team Championship against The New Age Outlaws or be fired. Patterson and Brisco lost the match. In 2000, Patterson and Brisco joined Triple H and Stephanie McMahon.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: On the May 8 episode of Raw, Patterson, Road Dogg and X-Pac faced Rikishi in a 3 on 1 handicap match and were disqualified after Patterson hit Rikishi with a chair. Afterwards, Patterson lowered his drawers to deliver a Stink Face to Rikishi with brown-stained underwear, which commentator Jim Ross described as a "tractor-sized skidmark". Patterson began to use the soiled underwear as part of his gimmick in the coming weeks, attempting to rub the soiled underwear into the faces of opponents. As a result, WWE commentators began to refer to Patterson as “Poopstain Patterson” during the broadcasts.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: On June 12, 2000, when the Faction unmasked Kane, Patterson photographed Kane's "hideously scarred" face, and threatened to "expose him to the world" if he did not comply. Kane was forced to wrestle The Rock (then his ally) in a No Holds Barred match. When Patterson's film did not develop properly, Kane turned on the Faction.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: On June 19, 2000, Patterson helped Brisco win the perpetually contested WWF Hardcore Championship from Crash Holly but during the victory celebration turned on his ally, blinding him with champagne and then breaking a second bottle over Brisco's head, and pinning the (kayfabe) unconscious champion. Brisco pursued Patterson into the women's locker room, where Patterson was hiding in drag. Subsequently, Vince McMahon scheduled them to fight over the Hardcore Championship in an Evening Gown match at King of the Ring 2000; in the course of the match, Crash Holly attacked both men and pinned Patterson to become Hardcore Champion.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: On the June 21 episode of Raw, Patterson and Brisco's match with Shane and Vince McMahon ended in a no contest when The Mean Street Posse ran in and attacked them.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: The Intercontinental Championship, unified with the World Heavyweight Championship on October 20, 2002, was resurrected on May 18, 2003, at Judgment Day in a battle royal. Patterson, as the first Intercontinental Champion, was at ringside to present the belt to the victor. Booker T eliminated Christian for the win, but the referee was unconscious. As Patterson attempted to give the championship belt to Booker T, Christian attacked him, stole the Intercontinental Championship belt and used it to knock out Booker T. The referee then recovered and awarded the match to Christian. In October 2004, Patterson retired from World Wrestling Entertainment. Patterson returned to WWE in a limited capacity in May 2005. While retired as a producer for WWE, he still acted as a creative consultant. At Breaking Point, Patterson made an appearance in his hometown of Montreal in an in-ring segment with Dolph Ziggler. Patterson was a regular cast member on the WWE Network original reality show "Legends' House".


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: On July 22, 2019, during the "Raw Reunion" episode, Patterson won the WWE 24/7 Championship by pinning Drake Maverick backstage. He would lose the title to Gerald Brisco off-screen later that same night. At 78 years old, he became the oldest person ever to win a title in WWE history, beating The Fabulous Moolah's fourth reign with the original WWF Women's Championship at 76 years old. It was also Patterson's first title reign since June 19, 2000, with the similarly introduced WWF Hardcore Championship, which also used the "24/7 rule". He was only the second person ever to win both the 24/7 and Hardcore Championships. He was working backstage as a WWE official from 2005 until his death in 2020.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: Patterson was openly gay, having come out in the early 1970s. Though Jim Ross made several jokes about Patterson's sexuality on commentary, it was not acknowledged publicly or in WWE storylines until the finale of "WWE Legends' House", which aired June 12, 2014. NBC News described Patterson as "the first openly gay pro wrestling star." "People" magazine described him as the "First Gay Wrestling Star."


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: In the 1960s, after the end of the main part of the Lavender scare, the Justice Department's Immigration and Naturalization Service spent several years, from the end of 1964 onwards, looking for evidence of "homosexual activity" in order to have Patterson deported back to Canada. Documents disclosed as a result of Freedom of Information Act requests show that, as a part of a Portland Police Bureau Morals Division investigation into the Portland gay community, PPB had reported Patterson's presence at gay' parties" and gay bars in the city and that Patterson was known to pick up male prostitutes in Portland. The documents also describe interviewees' suspicions that Louie Dondero was Patterson's romantic partner, as well as his agent, and that they had an open relationship. The same documents reveal that the United States Air Force Office of Special Investigations were investigating another wrestler suspected of being gay, with a view to discharging him; this wrestler subsequently denounced Patterson to INS before retracting. In November 1966, the INS initiated deportation proceedings against Patterson, leading to an interview where he was asked about his effeminacy, dyed hair, about whether he was a homosexual and whether "he molested little boys". In December 1966, Patterson was served with a deportation notice, requiring him to leave the United States on or before January 10, possibly as an attempt to dupe Patterson into leaving with an expectation of an easy green card but with the intention of excluding him through psychological exam; however Patterson was fighting again in Arizona 4 days later. After Patterson's application for a green card in 1971, the journalist's dossier of Freedom of Information responses showed nothing further until his successful naturalization in 2002.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: Patterson's longtime partner was Louie Dondero. Patterson said on "WWE Legends' House" he and Dondero were together for 40 years. Dondero died of a heart attack on June 28, 1998, the same night as King of the Ring. In August 2006, Patterson underwent emergency heart surgery to remove a cyst from his coronary artery. In October, Patterson recovered from his operation and was released from the hospital. He legally changed his name to Pat Patterson in 2008.


title: Pat Patterson (wrestler)

text: Patterson died of liver failure caused by a blood clot at a Miami, Florida, hospital on December 2, 2020. He was 79 years old. Many figures in the wrestling world openly paid their respects to Patterson, as both an in-ring performer and as a behind-the-scenes figure.


title: Mycoplasma

text: Mycoplasma is a genus of bacteria that, like the other members of the class "Mollicutes", lack a cell wall around their cell membranes. Peptidoglycan (murein) is absent. This characteristic makes them naturally resistant to antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis (like the beta-lactam antibiotics). They can be parasitic or saprotrophic. Several species are pathogenic in humans, including "M. pneumoniae", which is an important cause of "walking" pneumonia and other respiratory disorders, and "M. genitalium", which is believed to be involved in pelvic inflammatory diseases. "Mycoplasma" species (like the other species of the class "Mollicutes") are among the smallest organisms yet discovered, can survive without oxygen, and come in various shapes. For example, "M. genitalium" is flask-shaped (about 300 x 600 nm), while "M. pneumoniae" is more elongated (about 100 x 1000 nm), many "Mycoplasma" species are coccoid. Hundreds of "Mycoplasma" species infect animals.


title: Mycoplasma

text: The trivial name “mycoplasma” (plural mycoplasmas or mycoplasms) is commonly used for all members of the class "Mollicutes". In scientific classification, the designation "Mycoplasma" refers exclusively to the genus, a member of the "Mycoplasmataceae", the only family of the order "Mycoplasmatales" (see “scientific classification”).


title: Mycoplasma

text: The term "mycoplasma", from the Greek μύκης, ' (fungus) and πλάσμα, ' (formed), was first used by Albert Bernhard Frank in 1889 to describe an altered state of plant cell cytoplasm resulting from infiltration by fungus-like microorganisms. Julian Nowak later proposed the name mycoplasma for certain filamentous microorganisms imagined to have both cellular and acellular stages in their lifecycles, which could explain how they were visible with a microscope, but passed through filters impermeable to other bacteria. Later, the name for these mycoplasmas was pleuropneumonia-like organisms (PPLO), broadly referring to organisms similar in colonial morphology and filterability to the causative agent (a "Mycoplasma" species) of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. At present, all these organisms are classified as "Mollicutes" and the term "Mycoplasma" refers solely to the genus.


title: Mycoplasma

text: Species of "Mycoplasma", other than those listed below, have been recovered from humans, but are assumed to have been contracted from a non-human host. The following species use humans as the primary host:


title: Mycoplasma

text: "Mycoplasma" species have been isolated from women with bacterial vaginosis. "M. genitalium" is found in women with pelvic inflammatory disease. In addition, infection is associated with increased risk of cervicitis, infertility, preterm birth and spontaneous abortion. "Mycoplasma genitalium" has developed resistance to some antibiotics. "Mycoplasma" species are associated with infant respiratory distress syndrome, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, and intraventricular hemorrhage in preterm infants.


title: Mycoplasma

text: Over 100 species have been included in the genus "Mycoplasma", a member of the class "Mollicutes." They are parasites or commensals of humans, animals, and plants. The genus "Mycoplasma" uses vertebrate and arthropod hosts.


title: Mycoplasma

text: Dietary nitrogen availability has been shown to alter codon bias and genome evolution in "Mycoplasma" and "Phytoplasma".


title: Mycoplasma

text: "Mycoplasma" species are among the smallest free-living organisms (about 0.2 - 0.3 µm in diameter). They have been found in the pleural cavities of cattle suffering from pleuropneumonia. These organisms are often called MLO (mycoplasma-like organisms) or, formerly, PPLO (pleuropneumonia-like organisms).


title: Mycoplasma

text: Due to the lack of a rigid cell wall, "Mycoplasma" species (like all "Mollicutes") can contort into a broad range of shapes, from round to oblong. They are pleomorphic and therefore cannot be identified as rods, cocci or spirochetes.


title: Mycoplasma

text: In 1954, using phase-contrast microscopy, continual observations of live cells have shown that "Mycoplasma" species ("mycoplasmas", formerly called pleuropneumonia-like organisms, PPLO, now classified as "Mollicutes") and L-form bacteria (previously also called L-phase bacteria) do not proliferate by binary fission, but by a uni- or multi-polar budding mechanism. Microphotograph series of growing microcultures of different strains of PPLOs, L-form bacteria and, as a control, a Micrococcus species (dividing by binary fission) have been presented.  Additionally, electron microscopic studies have been performed.


title: Mycoplasma

text: Previously, "Mycoplasma" species (often commonly called "mycoplasmas", now classified as "Mollicutes") were sometimes considered stable L-form bacteria or even viruses, but phylogenetic analysis has identified them as bacteria that have lost their cell walls in the course of evolution.


title: Mycoplasma

text: The genus "Mycoplasma" as originally described is highly paraphyletic, as such it was redescibed by Gupta et al. 2018 and its emendation was accompanied by the removal of 78 species. The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)


title: Mycoplasma

text: "Mycoplasma" species are often found in research laboratories as contaminants in cell culture. Mycoplasmal cell culture contamination occurs due to contamination from individuals or contaminated cell culture medium ingredients. "Mycoplasma" cells are physically small – less than 1  µm, so are difficult to detect with a conventional microscope.


title: Mycoplasma

text: Mycoplasmae may induce cellular changes, including chromosome aberrations, changes in metabolism and cell growth. Severe "Mycoplasma" infections may destroy a cell line. Detection techniques include DNA probe, enzyme immunoassays, PCR, plating on sensitive agar and staining with a DNA stain including DAPI or Hoechst.


title: Mycoplasma

text: A Corning study showed that half of U.S. scientists did not test for "Mycoplasma" contamination in their cell cultures. The study also stated that, in former Czechoslovakia, 100% of cell cultures that were not routinely tested were contaminated while only 2% of those routinely tested were contaminated (study p. 6). Since the U.S. contamination rate was based on a study of companies that routinely checked for "Mycoplasma", the actual contamination rate may be higher. European contamination rates are higher and that of other countries are higher still (up to 80% of Japanese cell cultures).


title: Mycoplasma

text: About 1% of published Gene Expression Omnibus data may have been compromised. Several antibiotic-containing formulations of antimycoplasmal reagents have been developed over the years.


title: Mycoplasma

text: A chemically synthesized genome of a mycoplasmal cell based entirely on synthetic DNA which can self-replicate has been referred to as "Mycoplasma laboratorium".


title: Mycoplasma

text: The P1 antigen is the primary virulence factor of mycoplasma. P1 is a membrane associated protein that allows adhesion to epithelial cells. The P1 receptor is also expressed on erythrocytes which can lead to autoantibody agglutination from mycobacteria infection. Several "Mycoplasma" species can cause disease, including "M. pneumoniae", which is an important cause of atypical pneumonia (formerly known as "walking pneumonia"), and "M. genitalium", which has been associated with pelvic inflammatory diseases. Mycoplasma infections in humans are associated with skin eruptions in 17% of cases.


title: Mycoplasma

text: "Mycoplasma" and "Ureaplasma" species are not part of the normal vaginal flora. Some "Mycoplasma" species are spread through sexual contact.


title: Mycoplasma

text: Some "Mycoplasma" species have a negative effect on fertility. "M. hominis" causes "male sterility/Genitals inflammation" in humans.


title: Mycoplasma

text: Several species of "Mycoplasma" are frequently detected in different types of cancer cells. These species are:


title: Mycoplasma

text: The majority of these "Mycoplasma" species have shown a strong correlation to malignant transformation in mammalian cells "in vitro".


title: Mycoplasma

text: The presence of "Mycoplasma" was first reported in samples of cancer tissue in the 1960s. Since then, several studies tried to find and prove the connection between "Mycoplasma" and cancer, as well as how the bacterium might be involved in the formation of cancer. Several studies have shown that cells that are chronically infected with the bacteria go through a multistep transformation. The changes caused by chronic mycoplasmal infections occur gradually and are both morphological and genetic. The first visual sign of infection is when the cells gradually shift from their normal form to sickle-shaped. They also become hyperchromatic due to an increase of DNA in the nucleus of the cells. In later stages, the cells lose the need for solid support to grow and proliferate, as well as the normal contact-dependent inhibition cells.


title: Mycoplasma

text: Cells infected with "Mycoplasma" for an extended period of time show significant chromosomal abnormalities. These include the addition of chromosomes, the loss of entire chromosomes, partial loss of chromosomes, and chromosomal translocation. All of these genetic abnormalities may contribute to the process of malignant transformation. Chromosomal translocation and extra chromosomes help create abnormally high activity of certain proto-oncogenes, which caused by these genetic abnormalities and include those encoding c-myc, HRAS, and vav. The activity of proto-oncogenes is not the only cellular function that is affected; tumour suppressor genes are affected by the chromosomal changes induced by mycoplasma, as well. Partial or complete loss of chromosomes causes the loss of important genes involved in the regulation of cell proliferation. Two genes whose activities are markedly decreased during chronic infections with mycoplasma are the Rb and the p53 tumour suppressor genes. Another possible mechanism of carcinogenesis is RAC1 activation by a small GTPase-like protein fragment of Mycoplasma. A major feature that differentiates mycoplasmas from other carcinogenic pathogens is that the mycoplasmas do not cause the cellular changes by insertion of their own genetic material into the host cell. The exact mechanism by which the bacterium causes the changes is not yet known.


title: Mycoplasma

text: The malignant transformation induced by "Mycoplasma" species is also different from that caused by other pathogens in that the process is reversible. The state of reversal is, however, only possible up to a certain point during the infection. The window of time when reversibility is possible varies greatly; it depends primarily on the "Mycoplasma" involved. In the case of "M. fermentans", the transformation is reversible until around week 11 of infection and starts to become irreversible between weeks 11 and 18. If the bacteria are killed using antibiotics (i.e. ciprofloxacin or Clarithromycin) before the irreversible stage, the infected cells should return to normal.


title: Mycoplasma

text: Epidemiologic, genetic, and molecular studies suggest infection and inflammation initiate certain cancers, including those of the prostate. "M. genitalium" and "M. hyorhinis" induce malignant phenotype in benign human prostate cells (BPH-1) that were not tumorigenic after 19 weeks of exposure.


title: Mycoplasma

text: Colon cancer: In a study to understand the effects of "Mycoplasma" contamination on the quality of cultured human colon cancer cells, a positive correlation was found between the number of" M. hyorhinis" cells present in the sample and the percentage of CD133-positive cells (a glycoprotein with an unknown function).


title: Mycoplasma

text: Gastric cancer: Strong evidence indicates the infection of" M. hyorhinis" contributes to the development of cancer within the stomach and increases the likelihood of malignant cancer cell development.


title: Mycoplasma

text: Lung cancer: Studies on lung cancer have supported the belief that more than a coincidental positive correlation exists between the appearance of" Mycoplasma" strains in patients and the infection with tumorigenesis.


title: Mycoplasma

text: Prostate cancer: p37, a protein encoded for by "M. hyorhinis", has been found to promote the invasiveness of prostate cancer cells. The protein also causes the growth, morphology, and gene expression of the cells to change, causing them to become a more aggressive phenotype.