title: International Harvester

text: For 1985, the Transtar conventional was reintroduced, becoming the International 9000 series; while the short-hood Transtar was discontinued (overlapped by the S2200 and S2300 Class 8 tractors), the long-hood 4300 was renamed the International 9370. Sharing its cab with the Transtar, the 9370 was restyled with a larger grille and vertically stacked quad headlamps.


title: International Harvester

text: After seeing almost no change since 1974, International ended production of the Cargostar (the final Loadstar-based truck). As the company did not develop a tilt-cab truck derived from the S-series (or a distinct vehicle), International introduced the 400/500/700/900 low-cab COE, produced by Nissan Diesel (UD). The first imported vehicle marketed by the company, the 400-900 was marketed through 1991.


title: International Harvester

text: International Harvester Australia, a subsidiary of the US manufacturer, had a long relationship with the Australian Army with the US-designed AS series trucks in the early 1950s. The AS164 4x2 used as a tractor unit and the 4x2 AS161 used as a trayback troop transport


title: International Harvester

text: The association between International Harvester Australia and the Australian Army developed and in conjunction with the Army Design Establishment of the Australian Commonwealth Department of Supply, designed and constructed a range of trucks for the Australian Army. With the body loosely based upon the design of cab 13 of the Canadian Military Pattern truck, the first prototype built in 1959 was the International Truck Cargo Ton General Service, Australian No.1 Mk1. which was followed by the Mk2 prototype. A variant with a midmounted, 20,000-lb winch, resulted in the first production model, the Mk3 entering service in 1963 – just in time for Australia's entry into the Vietnam War.


title: International Harvester

text: A five-ton 6×6 version was to follow with three major variants the Truck Cargo 5 Ton with winch F1 which replaced the Mk3 in Vietnam service.


title: International Harvester

text: The F2 a tipper version that replaced the International Harvester AB160 "teaspoon Tipper" in both Vietnam and Borneo theatres of operations.


title: International Harvester

text: The F5 wrecker with a lack of 4×4 ton trucks available because of the Vietnam War, the Mk3 was supplemented with further 4×4 production with the updated Mk4 version which shared the cab with the 6×6 variants Production of The Australian No.1. range of trucks were produced until 1973. The Mk3, Mk4, F1, F2 and F5 saw service until the late 1980s.


title: International Harvester

text: The Australian designed and built International Australian A-line Cab Over (AACO) was first produced in the late 1960s and later in 1972 the Australian C-line Cab Over (ACCO) . The ACCO is a cab over engine type truck and has been offered in 4x2, 4x4, 6x2, 6x4, 8x4, and 10x4 configurations. Engines used have been Cummins, Caterpillar, Detroit Diesel, Perkins, Neuss or GMC with Road-Ranger or Allison transmissions and Rockwell differentials. The ACCO range were built to order, serving private operators, fire departments, military services, and municipal departments across Australia and New Zealand. The ACCO became the most popular product of International Harvester in Australia. The ACCO was discontinued in November 2019 and replaced by a locally built European designed ACCO, under the ownership of Iveco.


title: International Harvester

text: International Harvester Máquinas S.A. was established with Brazilian government support as part of a project to develop a vehicle industry there. Their first product was the International S-184 heavy truck. In 1966 Chrysler purchased International's Brazilian plant.


title: International Harvester

text: Although best known for farm equipment, IH produced home appliances for farmers and nonfarmers alike. This included refrigeration equipment such as refrigerators, air conditioners, and freezers. IH had a refrigeration division of its own, as did other vehicle manufacturers of the time: Ford had Philco, Chrysler had Airtemp, General Motors had Frigidaire, Nash-Kelvinator Corporation (and then American Motors) had Kelvinator, Studebaker had the Franklin Appliance Company, and Crosley had Crosley.


title: International Harvester

text: The IH appliance division had originally been developed to manufacture commercial-grade items to farmers, most of whom had just received electricity by way of the many electrification projects in the U.S. before and after World War II. Among the offerings were milk coolers and walk-in freezers for produce and meat. Later on, IH courted the farmer's wife with kitchen refrigerators available in the latest designer styles. The IH spokeswoman for these products was Irma Harding, a factory trademark. These products were introduced in 1947 and sold for less than 10 years. The refrigeration division was sold to Whirlpool Corporation in 1955. Since the duration of production was short, IH appliances are rare today.


title: International Harvester

text: On the American sitcom "Friends", the refrigerator in Monica's apartment is a circa 1950 International Harvester. Several close-ups can be seen in Season 8, Episode 17, "TOW The Tea Leaves."


title: International Harvester

text: IH branched out into the home lawn and garden business in 1961 with its line of Cub Cadet equipment, which included riding and walk-behind lawn mowers and snow blowers. Also produced were compost shredders, rotary tillers, Cadet garden tractors, and power washers.


title: International Harvester

text: IH manufactured light, medium, and heavy vehicles for military use. Examples include a Metro van sold to the Czechoslovakian Army in 1938, M5 Tractors and 2.5-ton M-5H-6 trucks for the US Navy and Marines in 1942, and around 3,500 2.5 ton M-5-6-318 cargo trucks provided mostly to the Soviet Union and China.


title: International Harvester

text: In early 1951, the United States Army through the Springfield Armory contracted International Harvester to produce M1 rifles, and from 1953 to 1956 IH produced 337,623 rifles in total, according to the Army Ordnance Department.


title: International Harvester

text: In 1959, International Harvester created a jet turbine-powered tractor called the International HT-341. It was donated to the Smithsonian Institution in 1967.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe is an American animated television series produced by Filmation based on Mattel's toy line "Masters of the Universe". The show, often referred to as simply He-Man, was one of the most popular animated shows of the 1980s.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: It made its television debut in September 1983 and ran until 1985, consisting of two seasons of 65 episodes each. Towards the end of the show's original run, it spawned one feature length theatrical movie "", which served as the introduction for the show's spinoff literal sister series "". Reruns continued to air in syndication until 1988, at which point USA Network bought the rights to the series. USA aired "He-Man" until September 1990. The success of the toy-based show in syndication greatly influenced other animation houses to produce half-hour "cartoon commercials", and considerably changed the syndicated cartoon market.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: The franchise has been adapted many times in comic book and comic strip form, and a live-action film was produced in 1987. A rebooted series, He-Man and the Masters of the Universe, renamed "Masters of the Universe vs. The Snake Men" during season 2, released on Toonami on August 16, 2002. Two continuation series were released in 2021 for Netflix: one is "" for an adult audience and another is a family-oriented animated CGI revival, also titled "He-Man and the Masters of the Universe".


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: The series takes place on Eternia, a planet of magic, myth and fantasy. Its lead character is Prince Adam, the young son of Eternia's rulers, King Randor and Queen Marlena. Whenever Prince Adam holds the Sword of Power aloft and proclaims "By the Power of Grayskull!" he is endowed with "fabulous secret powers" and transformed into He-Man, the most powerful man in the universe. Together with his close allies, Battle Cat (who undergoes a similar transformation from being Adam's cowardly pet tiger Cringer), The Sorceress, Teela, Man-At-Arms and Orko, He-Man uses his powers to defend Eternia from the evil forces of Skeletor. Skeletor's main goal is to conquer the mysterious fortress of Castle Grayskull, from which He-Man draws his powers. If successful, Skeletor would have enough power to rule all of Eternia and possibly the entire universe.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: The Mattel company released the original He-Man action figure in 1982; the franchise backstory was developed by the Filmation animation studio. On 1 December 1982, Michael Halperin wrote a "series bible". Some time after, both firms pitched the idea to the ABC network, who turned it down. The resulting series, "He-Man and the Masters of the Universe", debuted through barter syndication in September 1983, and became the first syndicated show to be based on a toy. By 1984, it was seen on 120 U.S. stations and in more than 30 countries. By mid-1985, it was airing on 152 stations across the U.S., and was the most popular syndicated program with children 2-11 with a 10.9 rating in that demographic.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: Despite the limited animation techniques that were used to produce the series, "He-Man" was notable for breaking the boundaries of censorship that had severely restricted the narrative scope of children's TV programming in the 1970s. For the first time since Ruby-Spears's "Thundarr the Barbarian", a cartoon series could feature a muscular superhero who was actually allowed to hit people (although he more typically used wrestling-style moves rather than actually punching enemies), though he still could not use his sword often; more often than not He-Man opted to pick up his opponents and toss them away rather than hit them. The cartoon was controversial in that it was produced in connection with marketing a line of toys; advertising to children was itself controversial during this period. In the United Kingdom, advertising regulations forbade commercials for He-Man toys to accompany the program itself. In similar fashion to other shows at the time, notably "", an attempt to mitigate the negative publicity generated by this controversy was made by including a "life lesson" or "moral of the story" at the end of each episode. This moral was usually directly tied to the action or central theme of that episode.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: The show was so successful that it spawned a spin-off series, "", following the adventures of He-Man's sister, Princess Adora. Mattel's subsequent attempts to relaunch the He-Man toy line also led to the short-lived sequel series "The New Adventures of He-Man" in the early 1990s, and an update of the franchise for a contemporary audience in 2002.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: It is also noted for featuring early script-writing work from J. Michael Straczynski, later the creator of "Babylon 5"; Paul Dini and Brynne Stephens, both of whom who would go on to write acclaimed episodes of ""; "Beast Wars" story editor Larry DiTillio; and David Wise, later the head-writer of the TV version of "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" and "The Real Ghostbusters". In 2016, a new episode of "He-Man" was released.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: The series' music was composed by Shuki Levy and Haim Saban. The opening theme, snippets of which are used whenever Prince Adam transforms into He-Man and during interludes, is in C Mixolydian.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: In 1984, a soundtrack album was released in France and Argentina by CBS Records and reissued on compact disc by XIII Bis in 2012, featuring music from the series and an adaptation of "A Friend in Need" (French release)/"Diamond Ray of Disappearance" (Argentine release); La-La Land Records released a two-disc, limited-edition soundtrack album in 2015, containing the musical content of the 1983 LP and much previously unreleased material.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: The Latin American Spanish-language version of the show features an actual theme song complete with lyrics unique to this version, with vocals by Chilean singer Memo Aguirre (a.k.a. "Captain Memo") based on Levy and Saban's original musical score.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: "He-Man and the Masters of the Universe" is considered the most successful animated series ever made by Filmation. The show, as it was it was created to promote hyper-consumerism in children, left itself vulnerable to criticism. Many parent groups were also critical of what they saw as the show's homoeroticism. In 2009, IGN ranked the series as the 58th greatest animated show of all time in their Top 100 list.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: In 1983-1986 RCA/Columbia Pictures Home Video released the series in VHS and Beta. BCI Eclipse LLC (under its "Ink & Paint" classic animation entertainment label) (under license from Entertainment Rights) released all 130 episodes of the original 1983 series of "He-Man and the Masters of the Universe" on DVD in Region 1 in 2005/2006, in 4 volume sets. Each episode on BCI Ink & Paint's "He-Man and the Masters of the Universe" DVD releases were uncut, unedited, fully restored and digitally remastered for optimum audio and video quality and presented in its original broadcast presentation and story continuity order. Each volume contains an extensive array of special features including documentaries, character profiles, commentaries, DVD-ROM features, trivia, photo galleries and more. As of 2009, these releases have been discontinued and are out of print as BCI Eclipse ceased operations.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: On December 10, 2010, Mill Creek Entertainment announced that they had acquired the rights from Classic Media to re-release the series on DVD in America. They have subsequently re-released the complete first season in one eight-disc set as well as two smaller 20-episode volume releases. The complete second season was released on September 13, 2011. The 2002 series, composed of four discs; 960min, was also released in 2010 by Mill Creek Entertainment, and is titled "Masters of the Universe: The Complete Series" (ASIN B002DQL34G). Commemorating the 30th anniversary "Masters of the Universe" brand, Mill Creek Entertainment finally released the "30th Anniversary Commemorative Collection of the Masters of the Universe" DVD. The 22-disc set features all 130 episodes of the 1983 series, 20 fan-favorite episodes of the 1990 series, as well as all 39 episodes of the 2002 series.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: Universal Pictures Home Entertainment released all 130 episodes of the original 1983 He-Man and the Masters of the Universe series on DVD in Region 1 on October 1, 2019, as "He-Man and the Masters of the Universe: The Complete Original Series". This release includes "He-Man & She-Ra: The Secret of the Sword" and "He-Man & She-Ra: A Christmas Special".


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: In Region 4, Madman Entertainment released the entire series on DVD in Australia in 4 volume sets (similar to BCI Eclipse releases). These releases have been discontinued and are now out of print. A complete series box set was released by Madman on June 24, 2009; this is still available.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: The pilot episode, "Diamond Ray of Disappearance", has a minute or so of footage missing due to the master tapes being damaged. In the original version, after teleporting the King and Queen and Man-At-Arms away to another dimension, Skeletor turns the ray onto Orko, who gets stuck inside a vase which deflects the beam. Orko escapes to warn He-Man. This footage has not been lost; it is still existent on other media in circulation. However, complications over the rights to it prevented it from being inserted back into the DVD release.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: An adult Netflix Original series "", was released in 2021. It is a direct sequel to the 1983 TV series, though it also features characters from the original toyline and STAR/Marvel comics that never appeared in the series, such as Scare Glow, He-Ro, and Lt. Andra.


title: He-Man and the Masters of the Universe

text: "Revelation" was directed by Kevin Smith and animated by Powerhouse Animation Studios. The series aired for 10 episodes, split between two "parts". A sequel series, "Masters of the Universe: Revolution", is in development.


title: Ryan Holiday

text: public-relations strategist, owner of the Painted Porch Bookshop and host of the podcast "The Daily Stoic." Prior to becoming an author, he served as the former director of marketing and eventually an advisor for American Apparel. Holiday's debut to writing was in 2012, when he published "Trust Me, I'm Lying." Holiday's notable works include his books on Stoic philosophy, such as "The Obstacle Is The Way", "Ego is the Enemy", "Stillness is the Key", "Courage is Calling", and "Lives of the Stoics".


title: Ryan Holiday

text: Holiday began his professional career after dropping out of college at the age of 19. He attended University of California, Riverside, where he studied political science and creative writing. He consulted for author Tucker Max and, later, he worked with Robert Greene, author of "The 48 Laws of Power", on Greene's 2009 "New York Times" bestselling book, "The 50th Law". Holiday served as Director of Marketing for American Apparel and, later, as an adviser to the company. He left the company in October 2014. He has consulted on a number of media campaigns and written extensively on the topic of media manipulation.


title: Ryan Holiday

text: Holiday is the author of several books and has written for "Forbes", "Fast Company", "The Huffington Post", "The Columbia Journalism Review", "The Guardian", "Thought Catalog", "Medium.com", "New York Observer", "The New York Times" and "Texas Monthly". Books he has authored have sold more than three million copies combined.


title: Ryan Holiday

text: Holiday published his first book, a media exposé about the state of online journalism called "Trust Me, I'm Lying", in July 2012, which debuted on the "Wall Street Journal" bestseller list. His second book "Growth Hacker Marketing" was originally published in September 2013 by Portfolio/Penguin and then expanded into a print edition in 2014. The book shows how traditional marketing efforts are no longer the most effective, and why growth hacking is cheaper and more effective in today's market. The book was named one of "Inc." magazine's top 10 marketing books of 2014.


title: Ryan Holiday

text: In February 2014, Holiday was named editor-at-large of the Business & Technology section at the "New York Observer".


title: Ryan Holiday

text: Holiday's third book "The Obstacle Is The Way", was published May 1, 2014, also by Portfolio/Penguin. The book is based on the Stoic exercise of framing obstacles as opportunities. The book has sold more than 1 million copies and was read by the New England Patriots during their 2014 Super Bowl-winning season, as well as distributed through the locker room of the Seattle Seahawks in the following offseason. "The Obstacle Is the Way" reached #1 on the "Wall Street Journal" Bestseller List in 2019, five years after its initial release. Two-time NBA Champion Chris Bosh listed "The Obstacle Is the Way" as his favorite book and added that, when his head coach Erik Spoelstra gifted Miami Heat players copies of the book, Bosh had already read it twice. During a press conference at the Masters in 2019, four-time major champion golfer Rory McIlroy said he read "The Obstacle Is the Way" as well as Holiday's following book, "Ego Is the Enemy", leading up to the tournament. In the months following former Pittsburgh Steelers linebacker Ryan Shazier's on-field spinal injury that left him unable to walk, Shazier credited "The Obstacle Is The Way" for helping him improve his mindset and focus on recovery.


title: Ryan Holiday

text: In 2016, he published two books. The first, "Ego Is the Enemy", uses various historical figures as case studies to illustrate the perils of egotism. The second, "The Daily Stoic", is a daily devotional of Stoic meditations. Both books went on to become bestsellers with "Daily Stoic" reaching #1 on the "Wall Street Journal" bestseller list.


title: Ryan Holiday

text: In 2018, he published "Conspiracy: Peter Thiel, Hulk Hogan, Gawker, and the Anatomy of Intrigue". It is about the lawsuit between Gawker Media and wrestler Hulk Hogan, as well as Peter Thiel's involvement in the dispute. It was favorably reviewed by William D. Cohan of "The New York Times", who called the book, "one helluva page-turner." "Conspiracy" is being developed into a feature film with Charles Randolph writing the script and Francis Lawrence attached as the director. In October 2019, he published "Stillness Is the Key", which became the first of Holiday's books to reach #1 on the New York Times bestseller list. "Stillness Is the Key" argues for a balanced approach to life, of limiting the amount of "noise" and while mostly referencing stoicism, he also makes references to Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism as well as the Abrahamic religions. In 2020, he published "Lives of the Stoics", which he wrote with author Stephen Hanselman. The book is a collection of biographies for more than two dozen philosophers who lived according to the stoic virtues of courage, temperance and wisdom.


title: Ryan Holiday

text: While Holiday was a college student, Dr. Drew recommended Epictetus which inspired Holiday's interest in stoicism. Holiday, through his books, articles and lectures, has been credited by "The New York Times" with the increasing popularity of stoicism. He was also described as "leading the charge for stoicism," which has been noted for gaining traction among Silicon Valley entrepreneurs. Classicist Gregory Hays, whose 2002 translation of Marcus Aurelius's "Meditations" became a bestseller, provided commentary on Holiday's stoic writing by saying it is, "very much in the spirit of his ancient models" and added, "Holiday is also a great teller of stories."


title: Ryan Holiday

text: Holiday wrote public letters encouraging his father not to vote for Donald Trump in 2016 and 2020. Despite his public opposition to Trump's 2016 Presidential campaign, Holiday was offered a communications director position within the Trump administration, which he did not accept. Holiday supported Joe Biden in the 2020 United States presidential election. He said: "For those asking what happened to the Biden sign...we hung it up on our ranch in Texas, where we own guns, raise cows for meat, prefer low taxes, fly an American flag, and mostly want to be left alone. It's perfectly possible to have "conservative" beliefs and know what the obvious right thing to do in 2020 is." In September 2020, Holiday initiated a funding drive and personally contributed $10,000 toward the removal of two Confederate monuments from the Bastrop County Courthouse and the courthouse approved the removal and relocation of the monuments to an alternative site in February 2021.


title: Ryan Holiday

text: Holiday owns and operates the independent bookstore Painted Porch Bookshop in Bastrop, Texas. He is married and has two sons. He lives on a 40-acre ranch in Bastrop County, Texas.


title: Kung Pao chicken

text: Kung Pao chicken (), also transcribed Gong Bao or Kung Po, is a spicy, stir-fried Chinese dish made with cubes of chicken, peanuts, vegetables (traditionally Welsh onion only ), and chili peppers. The classic dish in Sichuan cuisine originated in the Sichuan province of south-western China and includes Sichuan peppercorns. Although the dish is found throughout China, there are regional variations that are typically less spicy than the Sichuan serving. Western Kung Pao chicken is also a staple of Westernized Chinese cuisine.


title: Kung Pao chicken

text: The dish is believed to be named after Ding Baozhen (1820–1886), a late Qing Dynasty official and governor of Sichuan Province. His title was "Taizi Shaobao", which is one of "Gongbao" (). The name "Kung Pao chicken" is derived from this title, while the use of the character "dīng" in the name of the dish is a pun on his surname "Dīng", a moderately common Chinese surname that can also be read to mean "small cube" (like the cubes the chicken is diced into for the dish).


title: Kung Pao chicken

text: During the Cultural Revolution, the dish's name became politically incorrect because of its association with the imperial system. The dish was renamed "spicy chicken" () by Maoists until its political rehabilitation in the 1980s under Deng Xiaoping's reforms.


title: Kung Pao chicken

text: The original Sichuan version uses chicken as its primary ingredient. In this original version, diced chicken is typically mixed with a prepared marinade. Shaoxing wine is used to enhance flavor in the marinade. The wok is seasoned and then chili peppers and Sichuan peppercorns are flash-fried to add fragrance to the oil. In Sichuan, or when preparing Sichuan-style Kung Pao chicken, usually Sichuan-style chili peppers such as facing heaven pepper or seven stars pepper () are used. Smaller, thinner Sichuanese varieties may also be used. Sichuan peppercorns are then added; while Kung Pao chicken does not belong to the numbing-spicy ""mala"" flavor profile (), a small amount of fresh toasted peppercorns are traditionally used to balance the heat of the chilis. Then the chicken is stir-fried and chopped welsh onion, along with peanuts, are added. Kung Pao chicken starts off with fresh, moist, unroasted peanuts. These are often used instead of their pre-roasted versions. The peanuts are dropped into the hot oil at the bottom of the wok, then deep-fried until golden brown before the other ingredients are added.


title: Kung Pao chicken

text: Variants exist that use other meats in place of chicken, such as "Kung Pao shrimp" () and "Kung Pao frog legs" ().


title: Kung Pao chicken

text: The neighboring province of Guizhou, southeast of Sichuan, has a variant of Kung Pao chicken based on the ciba fermented chili paste ( "cíbā làjiāo") of Guizhou cuisine. Like the Sichuan version, the dish features marinated cubes of chicken; while the Guizhou marinade is largely the same as the Sichuan version's, the chicken cubes are larger and typically skin-on. The dish is further distinguished in that rather than flash-frying whole peppers in oil before stir-frying, a large quantity of the ciba chili paste is fried in the wok until the oil is stained. The chicken is then stir-fried in the resulting sauce with garlic, ginger, and green garlic or green onion.


title: Kung Pao chicken

text: Versions commonly found in the West, called "Kung Pao chicken", "Kung Po", or just "chicken chili and garlic", consist of diced, marinated chicken, stir-fried with orange or orange juice, ginger, garlic, chicken broth, sugar, cooking oil, corn starch, and salt and pepper to taste. Many other vegetables may be added, such as onion, bell pepper or carrots. The dish often includes or is garnished with whole roasted peanuts. Instead of chicken, Western variations sometimes substitute other meat such as pork, duck, fish, shrimp, or tofu.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: Rashtrakuta (IAST: "") (r. 753-982 CE) was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their rule from manapur a city in Central or West India. Other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings of Achalapur and the rulers of Kannauj. Several controversies exist regarding the origin of these early Rashtrakutas, their native homeland and their language.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The Elichpur clan was a feudatory of the Badami Chalukyas, and during the rule of Dantidurga, it overthrew Chalukya Kirtivarman II and went on to build an empire with the Gulbarga region in modern Karnataka as its base. This clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, rising to power in South India in 753 AD. At the same time the Pala dynasty of Bengal and the Prathihara dynasty of Malwa were gaining force in eastern and northwestern India respectively. An Arabic text, "Silsilat al-Tawarikh" (851), called the Rashtrakutas one of the four principal empires of the world.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: This period, between the eighth and the 10th centuries, saw a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains, each of these three empires annexing the seat of power at Kannauj for short periods of time. At their peak the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta ruled a vast empire stretching from the Ganges River and Yamuna River doab in the north to Kanyakumari in the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions. The early kings of this dynasty were influenced by Hinduism and the later kings by Jainism.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: During their rule, Jain mathematicians and scholars contributed important works in Kannada and Sanskrit. Amoghavarsha I, the most famous king of this dynasty wrote "Kavirajamarga", a landmark literary work in the Kannada language. Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora in modern Maharashtra. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, both of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The origin of the Rashtrakuta dynasty has been a controversial topic of Indian history. These issues pertain to the origin of the earliest ancestors of the Rashtrakutas during the time of Emperor Ashoka in the 2nd century BCE, and the connection between the several Rashtrakuta dynasties that ruled small kingdoms in northern and central India and the Deccan between the 6th and 7th centuries. The relationship of these medieval Rashtrakutas to the most famous later dynasty, the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (present-day Malkhed in the Kalaburagi district, Karnataka state), who ruled between the 8th and 10th centuries has also been debated.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The sources for Rashtrakuta history include medieval inscriptions, ancient literature in the Pali language, contemporaneous literature in Sanskrit and Kannada and the notes of the Arab travellers. Theories about the dynastic lineage ("Surya Vamsa"—Solar line and "Chandra Vamsa"—Lunar line), the native region and the ancestral home have been proposed, based on information gleaned from inscriptions, royal emblems, the ancient clan names such as "Rashtrika", epithets ("Ratta", "Rashtrakuta", "Lattalura Puravaradhiswara"), the names of princes and princesses of the dynasty, and clues from relics such as coins. Scholars debate over which ethnic/linguistic groups can claim the early Rashtrakutas. Possibilities include the Kannadiga, Reddi, the Maratha, the tribes from the Punjab region, or other north western ethnic groups of India.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: Scholars however concur that the rulers of the imperial dynasty in the 8th to 10th century made the Kannada language as important as Sanskrit. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use both Kannada and Sanskrit (historians Sheldon Pollock and Jan Houben claim they are mostly in Kannada), and the rulers encouraged literature in both languages. The earliest existing Kannada literary writings are credited to their court poets and royalty. Though these Rashtrakutas were Kannadigas, they were conversant in a northern Deccan language as well.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The heart of the Rashtrakuta empire included nearly all of Karnataka, Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh, an area which the Rashtrakutas ruled for over two centuries. The Samangadh copper plate grant (753) confirms that the feudatory King Dantidurga, who probably ruled from Achalapura in Berar (modern Elichpur in Maharashtra), defeated the great Karnatic army (referring to the army of the Badami Chalukyas) of Kirtivarman II of Badami in 753 and took control of the northern regions of the Chalukya empire. He then helped his father-in-law, Pallava King Nandivarman regain Kanchi from the Chalukyas and defeated the Gurjaras of Malwa, and the rulers of Kalinga, Kosala and Srisailam.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: Dantidurga's successor Krishna I brought major portions of present-day Karnataka and Konkan under his control. During the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha who took control in 780, the kingdom expanded into an empire that encompassed all of the territory between the Kaveri River and Central India. He led successful expeditions to Kannauj, the seat of northern Indian power where he defeated the Gurjara Pratiharas and the Palas of Bengal, gaining him fame and vast booty but not more territory. He also brought the Eastern Chalukyas and Gangas of Talakad under his control. According to Altekar and Sen, the Rashtrakutas became a pan-India power during his rule.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The ascent of Dhruva Dharavarsha's third son, Govinda III, to the throne heralded an era of success like never before. There is uncertainty about the location of the early capital of the Rashtrakutas at this time. During his rule there was a three way conflict between the Rashtrakutas, the Palas and the Pratiharas for control over the Gangetic plains. Describing his victories over the Pratihara Emperor Nagabhatta II and the Pala Emperor Dharmapala, the Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank from the icy waters of the Himalayan streams and his war elephants tasted the sacred waters of the Ganges. His military exploits have been compared to those of Alexander the Great and Arjuna of Mahabharata. Having conquered Kannauj, he travelled south, took firm hold over Gujarat, Kosala (Kaushal), Gangavadi, humbled the Pallavas of Kanchi, installed a ruler of his choice in Vengi and received two statues as an act of submission from the king of Ceylon (one statue of the king and another of his minister). The Cholas, the Pandyas and the Kongu Cheras of Karur all paid him tribute. As one historian puts it, the drums of the Deccan were heard from the Himalayan caves to the shores of the Malabar Coast. The Rashtrakutas empire now spread over the areas from Cape Comorin to Kannauj and from Banaras to Bharuch.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The successor of Govinda III, Amoghavarsha I made Manyakheta his capital and ruled a large empire. Manyakheta remained the Rashtrakutas' regal capital until the end of the empire. He came to the throne in 814 but it was not until 821 that he had suppressed revolts from feudatories and ministers. Amoghavarsha I made peace with the Western Ganga dynasty by giving them his two daughters in marriage, and then defeated the invading Eastern Chalukyas at Vingavalli and assumed the title "Viranarayana". His rule was not as militant as that of Govinda III as he preferred to maintain friendly relations with his neighbours, the Gangas, the Eastern Chalukyas and the Pallavas with whom he also cultivated marital ties. His era was an enriching one for the arts, literature and religion. Widely seen as the most famous of the Rashtrakuta Emperors, Amoghavarsha I was an accomplished scholar in Kannada and Sanskrit. His "Kavirajamarga" is considered an important landmark in Kannada poetics and "Prashnottara Ratnamalika" in Sanskrit is a writing of high merit and was later translated into the Tibetan language. Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature, he has been compared to the emperor Ashoka and called "Ashoka of the South".


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: During the rule of Krishna II, the empire faced a revolt from the Eastern Chalukyas and its size decreased to the area including most of the Western Deccan and Gujarat. Krishna II ended the independent status of the Gujarat branch and brought it under direct control from Manyakheta. Indra III recovered the dynasty's fortunes in central India by defeating the Paramara and then invaded the doab region of the Ganges and Jamuna rivers. He also defeated the dynasty's traditional enemies, the Pratiharas and the Palas, while maintaining his influence over Vengi. The effect of his victories in Kannauj lasted several years according to the 930 copper plate inscription of Emperor Govinda IV. After a succession of weak kings during whose reigns the empire lost control of territories in the north and east, Krishna III the last great ruler consolidated the empire so that it stretched from the Narmada River to Kaveri River and included the northern Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: In 972 A.D., during the rule of Khottiga Amoghavarsha, the Paramara King Siyaka Harsha attacked the empire and plundered Manyakheta, the capital of the Rashtrakutas. This seriously undermined the reputation of the Rastrakuta Empire and consequently led to its downfall. The final decline was sudden as Tailapa II, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruling from Tardavadi province in modern Bijapur district, declared himself independent by taking advantage of this defeat. Indra IV, the last emperor, committed Sallekhana (fasting unto death practised by Jain monks) at Shravanabelagola. With the fall of the Rashtrakutas, their feudatories and related clans in the Deccan and northern India declared independence. The Western Chalukyas annexed Manyakheta and made it their capital until 1015 and built an impressive empire in the Rashtrakuta heartland during the 11th century. The focus of dominance shifted to the Krishna River – Godavari River doab called Vengi. The former feudatories of the Rashtrakutas in western Deccan were brought under control of the Chalukyas, and the hitherto-suppressed Cholas of Tanjore became their arch enemies in the south.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: In conclusion, the rise of Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta had a great impact on India, even on India's north. Sulaiman (851), Al-Masudi (944) and Ibn Khurdadba (912) wrote that their empire was the largest in contemporary India and Sulaiman further called it one among the four great contemporary empires of the world. According to the travelogues of the Arabs Al Masudi and Ibn Khordidbih of the 10th century, "most of the kings of Hindustan turned their faces towards the Rashtrakuta king while they were praying, and they prostrated themselves before his ambassadors. The Rashtrakuta king was known as the "King of kings" ("Rajadhiraja") who possessed the mightiest of armies and whose domains extended from Konkan to Sind." Some historians have called these times an "Age of Imperial Kannauj". Since the Rashtrakutas successfully captured Kannauj, levied tribute on its rulers and presented themselves as masters of North India, the era could also be called the "Age of Imperial Karnataka". During their political expansion into central and northern India in the 8th to the 10th centuries, the Rashtrakutas or their relatives created several kingdoms that either ruled during the reign of the parent empire or continued to rule for centuries after its fall or came to power much later. Well known among these were the Rashtrakutas of Gujarat (757–888), the Rattas of Saundatti (875–1230) in modern Karnataka, the Gahadavalas of Kannauj (1068–1223), the Rashtrakutas of Rajasthan (known as Rajputana) and ruling from Hastikundi or Hathundi (893–996), Dahal (near Jabalpur), Rathores of Mandore (near Jodhpur), the Rathores of Dhanop, Rashtraudha dynasty of Mayuragiri in modern Maharashtra and Rashtrakutas of Kannauj. Rajadhiraja Chola's conquest of the island of Ceylon in the early 11th century CE led to the fall of four kings there. According to historian K. Pillay, one of them, King Madavarajah of the Jaffna kingdom, was an usurper from the Rashtrakuta Dynasty.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: Inscriptions and other literary records indicate the Rashtrakutas selected the crown prince based on heredity. The crown did not always pass on to the eldest son. Abilities were considered more important than age and chronology of birth, as exemplified by the crowning of Govinda III who was the third son of king Dhruva Dharavarsha. The most important position under the king was the Chief Minister ("Mahasandhivigrahi") whose position came with five insignia commensurate with his position namely, a flag, a conch, a fan, a white umbrella, a large drum and five musical instruments called "Panchamahashabdas". Under him was the commander ("Dandanayaka"), the foreign minister ("Mahakshapataladhikrita") and a prime minister ("Mahamatya" or "Purnamathya"), all of whom were usually associated with one of the feudatory kings and must have held a position in government equivalent to a premier. A "Mahasamantha" was a feudatory or higher ranking regal officer. All cabinet ministers were well versed in political science ("Rajneeti") and possessed military training. There were cases where women supervised significant areas as when Revakanimaddi, daughter of Amoghavarsha I, administered Edathore "Vishaya".


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The kingdom was divided into "Mandala" or "Rashtras" (provinces). A "Rashtra" was ruled by a Rashtrapathi who on occasion was the emperor himself. Amoghavarsha I's empire had sixteen "Rashtras". Under a "Rashtra" was a "Vishaya" (district) overseen by a Vishayapathi. Trusted ministers sometimes ruled more than a "Rashtra". For example, Bankesha, a commander of Amoghavarsha I headed Banavasi-12000, Belvola-300, Puligere-300, Kunduru-500 and Kundarge-70, the suffix designating the number of villages in that territory. Below the "Vishaya" was the "Nadu" looked after by the Nadugowda or Nadugavunda; sometimes there were two such officials, one assuming the position through heredity and another appointed centrally. The lowest division was a "Grama" or village administered by a "Gramapathi" or "Prabhu Gavunda".


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The Rashtrakuta army consisted of large contingents of infantry, horsemen, and elephants. A standing army was always ready for war in a cantonment ("Sthirabhuta Kataka") in the regal capital of Manyakheta. Large armies were also maintained by the feudatory kings who were expected to contribute to the defense of the empire in case of war. Chieftains and all the officials also served as commanders whose postings were transferable if the need arose.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The Rashtrakutas issued coins (minted in an "Akkashale") such as "Suvarna", "Drammas" in silver and gold weighing 65 grains, "Kalanju" weighing 48 grains, "Gadyanaka" weighing 96 grains, "Kasu" weighing 15 grains, "Manjati" with 2.5 grains and "Akkam" of 1.25 grain.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The Rashtrakuta economy was sustained by its natural and agricultural produce, its manufacturing revenues and moneys gained from its conquests. Cotton was the chief crop of the regions of southern Gujarat, Khandesh and Berar. Minnagar, Gujarat, Ujjain, Paithan and Tagara were important centres of textile industry. Muslin cloth were manufactured in Paithan and Warangal. The cotton yarn and cloth was exported from Bharoch. White calicos were manufactured in Burhanpur and Berar and exported to Persia, Byzantines, Khazaria, Arabia and Egypt. The Konkan region, ruled by the feudatory Silharas, produced large quantities of betel leaves, coconut and rice while the lush forests of Mysore, ruled by the feudatory Gangas, produced such woods as sandal, timber, teak and ebony. Incense and perfumes were exported from the ports of Thana and Saimur.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The Deccan was rich in minerals, though its soil was not as fertile as that of the Gangetic plains. The copper mines of Cudappah, Bellary, Chanda, Buldhana, Narsingpur, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Dharwar were an important source of income and played an important role in the economy. Diamonds were mined in Cudappah, Bellary, Kurnool and Golconda; the capital Manyakheta and Devagiri were important diamond and jewellery trading centres. The leather industry and tanning flourished in Gujarat and some regions of northern Maharashtra. Mysore with its vast elephant herds was important for the ivory industry.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The Rashtrakuta empire controlled most of the western sea board of the subcontinent which facilitated its maritime trade. The Gujarat branch of the empire earned a significant income from the port of Bharoch, one of the most prominent ports in the world at that time. The empire's chief exports were cotton yarn, cotton cloth, muslins, hides, mats, indigo, incense, perfumes, betel nuts, coconuts, sandal, teak, timber, sesame oil and ivory. Its major imports were pearls, gold, dates from Arabia, slaves, Italian wines, tin, lead, topaz, storax, sweet clover, flint glass, antimony, gold and silver coins, singing boys and girls (for the entertainment of the royalty) from other lands. Trading in horses was an important and profitable business, monopolised by the Arabs and some local merchants. The Rashtrakuta government levied a shipping tax of one golden "Gadyanaka" on all foreign vessels embarking to any other ports and a fee of one silver "Ctharna" ( a coin) on vessels travelling locally.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: Artists and craftsman operated as corporations (guilds) rather than as individual business. Inscriptions mention guilds of weavers, oilmen, artisans, basket and mat makers and fruit sellers. A Saundatti inscription refers to an assemblage of all the people of a district headed by the guilds of the region. Some guilds were considered superior to others, just as some corporations were, and received royal charters determining their powers and privileges. Inscriptions suggest these guilds had their own militia to protect goods in transit and, like village assemblies, they operated banks that lent money to traders and businesses.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The government's income came from five principal sources: regular taxes, occasional taxes, fines, income taxes, miscellaneous taxes and tributes from feudatories. An emergency tax was imposed occasionally and were applicable when the kingdom was under duress, such as when it faced natural calamities, or was preparing for war or overcoming war's ravages. Income tax included taxes on crown land, wasteland, specific types of trees considered valuable to the economy, mines, salt, treasures unearthed by prospectors. Additionally, customary presents were given to the king or royal officers on such festive occasions as marriage or the birth of a son.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The king determined the tax levels based on need and circumstances in the kingdom while ensuring that an undue burden was not placed on the peasants. The land owner or tenant paid a variety of taxes, including land taxes, produce taxes and payment of the overhead for maintenance of the Gavunda (village head). Land taxes were varied, based on type of land, its produce and situation and ranged from 8% to 16%. A Banavasi inscription of 941 mentions reassessment of land tax due to the drying up of an old irrigation canal in the region. The land tax may have been as high as 20% to pay for expenses of a military frequently at war. In most of the kingdom, land taxes were paid in goods and services and rarely was cash accepted. A portion of all taxes earned by the government (usually 15%) was returned to the villages for maintenance.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: Taxes were levied on artisans such as potters, sheep herders, weavers, oilmen, shopkeepers, stall owners, brewers and gardeners. Taxes on perishable items such as fish, meat, honey, medicine, fruits and essentials like fuel was as high as 16%. Taxes on salt and minerals were mandatory although the empire did not claim sole ownership of mines, implying that private mineral prospecting and the quarrying business may have been active. The state claimed all such properties whose deceased legal owner had no immediate family to make an inheritance claim. Other miscellaneous taxes included ferry and house taxes. Only Brahmins and their temple institutions were taxed at a lower rate.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The Rashtrakuta kings supported the popular religions of the day in the traditional spirit of religious tolerance. Scholars have offered various arguments regarding which specific religion the Rashtrakutas favoured, basing their evidence on inscriptions, coins and contemporary literature. Some claim the Rashtrakutas were inclined towards Jainism since many of the scholars who flourished in their courts and wrote in Sanskrit, Kannada and a few in Apabhramsha and Prakrit were Jains. The Rashtrakutas built well-known Jain temples at locations such as Lokapura in Bagalkot district and their loyal feudatory, the Western Ganga Dynasty, built Jain monuments at Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. Scholars have suggested that Jainism was a principal religion at the very heart of the empire, modern Karnataka, accounting for more than 30% of the population and dominating the culture of the region. King Amoghavarsha I was a disciple of the Jain acharya Jinasena and wrote in his religious writing, "Prashnottara Ratnamalika", "having bowed to Varaddhamana (Mahavira), I write Prashnottara Ratnamalika". The mathematician Mahaviracharya wrote in his "Ganita Sarasangraha", "The subjects under Amoghavarsha are happy and the land yields plenty of grain. May the kingdom of King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha, follower of Jainism ever increase far and wide." Amoghavarsha may have taken up Jainism in his old age.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: However, the Rashtrakuta kings also patronized Hinduism's followers of the Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta faiths. Almost all of their inscriptions begin with an invocation to god Vishnu or god Shiva. The Sanjan inscriptions tell of King Amoghavarsha I sacrificing a finger from his left hand at the Lakshmi temple at Kolhapur to avert a calamity in his kingdom. King Dantidurga performed the "Hiranyagarbha" (horse sacrifice) and the Sanjan and Cambay plates of King Govinda IV mention Brahmins performing such rituals as "Rajasuya", "Vajapeya" and "Agnishtoma". An early copper plate grant of King Dantidurga (753) shows an image of god Shiva and the coins of his successor, King Krishna I (768), bear the legend "Parama Maheshwara" (another name for Shiva). The kings' titles such as "Veeranarayana" showed their Vaishnava leanings. Their flag had the sign of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, perhaps copied from the Badami Chalukyas. The famous Kailasnatha temple at Ellora and other rock-cut caves attributed to them show that the Hinduism was flourishing. Their family deity was a goddess by name "Latana" (also known as "Rashtrashyena", "Manasa" "Vindyavasini") who took the form of a falcon to save the kingdom. They built temples with icons and ornamentation that satisfied the needs of different faiths. The temple at Salotgi was meant for followers of Shiva and Vishnu and the temple at Kargudri was meant for worshipers of Shiva, Vishnu and Bhaskara (Surya, the sun god).


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: In short, the Rashtrakuta rule was tolerant to multiple popular religions, Jainism, Vaishnavaism and Shaivism. Buddhism too found support and was popular in places such as Dambal and Balligavi, although it had declined significantly by this time. The decline of Buddhism in South India began in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara's Advaita philosophy. Islamic contact with South India began as early as the 7th century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and Arab lands. Jumma Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the 10th century and many Muslims lived and mosques flourished on the coasts, specifically in towns such as Kayalpattanam and Nagore. Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as Mappilas ("Moplahs") and were actively involved in horse trading and manning shipping fleets.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: Chronicles mention more castes than the four commonly known castes in the Hindu social system, some as many as seven castes. Al-Biruni, the famed 10th century Persian / central Asian Indologist mentions sixteen castes including the four basic castes of Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudras. The "Zakaya" or "Lahud" caste consisted of communities specialising in dance and acrobatics. People in the professions of sailing, hunting, weaving, cobblery, basket making and fishing belonged to specific castes or subcastes. The "Antyajas" caste provided many menial services to the wealthy. Brahmins enjoyed the highest status in Rashtrakuta society; only those Kshatriyas in the "Sat-Kshatriya" sub-caste (noble Kshatriyas) were higher in status.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The careers of Brahmins usually related to education, the judiciary, astrology, mathematics, poetry and philosophy or the occupation of hereditary administrative posts. Also Brahmins increasingly practiced non-Brahminical professions (agriculture, trade in betel nuts and martial posts). Capital punishment, although widespread, was not given to the royal Kshatriya sub-castes or to Brahmins found guilty of heinous crimes (as the killing of a Brahmin in medieval Hindu India was itself considered a heinous crime). As an alternate punishment to enforce the law a Brahmin's right hand and left foot was severed, leaving that person disabled.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: By the 9th century, kings from all the four castes had occupied the highest seat in the monarchical system in Hindu India. Admitting Kshatriyas to Vedic schools along with Brahmins was customary, but the children of the Vaishya and Shudra castes were not allowed. Landownership by people of all castes is recorded in inscriptions Intercaste marriages in the higher castes were only between highly placed Kshatriya girls and Brahmin boys, but was relatively frequent among other castes. Intercaste functions were rare and dining together between people of various castes was avoided.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: Joint families were the norm but legal separations between brothers and even father and son have been recorded in inscriptions. Women and daughters had rights over property and land as there are inscriptions recording the sale of land by women. The arranged marriage system followed a strict policy of early marriage for women. Among Brahmins, boys married at or below 16 years of age and the brides chosen for them were 12 or younger. This age policy was not strictly followed by other castes. Sati (a custom in which a dead man's widow would immolate herself on her husband's funeral pyre) was practiced but the few examples noted in inscriptions were mostly in the royal families. The system of shaving the heads of widows was infrequent as epigraphs note that widows were allowed to grow their hair but decorating it was discouraged. The remarriage of a widow was rare among the upper castes and more accepted among the lower castes.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: In the general population men wore two simple pieces of cloth, a loose garment on top and a garment worn like a "dhoti" for the lower part of the body. Only kings could wear turbans, a practice that spread to the masses much later. Dancing was a popular entertainment and inscriptions speak of royal women being charmed by dancers, both male and female, in the king's palace. Devadasis (girls were "married" to a deity or temple) were often present in temples. Other recreational activities included attending animal fights of the same or different species. The Atakur inscription (hero stone, "virgal") was made for the favourite hound of the feudatory Western Ganga King Butuga II that died fighting a wild boar in a hunt. There are records of game preserves for hunting by royalty. Astronomy and astrology were well developed as subjects of study, and there were many superstitious beliefs such as catching a snake alive proved a woman's chastity. Old persons suffering from incurable diseases preferred to end their lives by drowning in the sacred waters of a pilgrim site or by a ritual burning.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: Kannada became more prominent as a literary language during the Rashtrakuta rule with its script and literature showing remarkable growth, dignity and productivity. This period effectively marked the end of the classical Prakrit and Sanskrit era. Court poets and royalty created eminent works in Kannada and Sanskrit that spanned such literary forms as prose, poetry, rhetoric, the Hindu epics and the life history of Jain tirthankars. Bilingual writers such as Asaga gained fame, and noted scholars such as the Mahaviracharya wrote on pure mathematics in the court of King Amoghavarsha I.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: "Kavirajamarga" (850) by King Amoghavarsha I is the earliest available book on rhetoric and poetics in Kannada, though it is evident from this book that native styles of Kannada composition had already existed in previous centuries. "Kavirajamarga" is a guide to poets ("Kavishiksha") that aims to standardize these various styles. The book refers to early Kannada prose and poetry writers such as Durvinita, perhaps the 6th-century monarch of Western Ganga Dynasty.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The Jain writer Adikavi Pampa, widely regarded as one of the most influential Kannada writers, became famous for "Adipurana" (941). Written in champu (mixed prose-verse style) style, it is the life history of the first Jain "tirthankara" Rishabhadeva. Pampa's other notable work was "Vikramarjuna Vijaya" (941), the author's version of the Hindu epic, Mahabharata, with Arjuna as the hero. Also called "Pampa Bharata", it is a eulogy of the writer's patron, King Chalukya Arikeseri of Vemulawada (a Rashtrakuta feudatory), comparing the king's virtues favorably to those of Arjuna. Pampa demonstrates such a command of classical Kannada that scholars over the centuries have written many interpretations of his work.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: Another notable Jain writer in Kannada was Sri Ponna, patronised by King Krishna III and famed for "Shantipurana", his account of the life of Shantinatha, the 16th Jain tirthankara. He earned the title "Ubhaya Kavichakravathi" (supreme poet in two languages) for his command over both Kannada and Sanskrit. His other writings in Kannada were "Bhuvanaika-ramaabhyudaya", "Jinaksharamale" and "Gatapratyagata". Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna are called "gems of Kannada literature".


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: Prose works in Sanskrit was prolific during this era as well. Important mathematical theories and axioms were postulated by Mahaviracharya, a native of Gulbarga, who belonged to the Karnataka mathematical tradition and was patronised by King Amoghavarsha I. His greatest contribution was "Ganitasarasangraha", a writing in 9 chapters. Somadevasuri of 950 wrote in the court of Arikesari II, a feudatory of Rashtrakuta Krishna III in Vemulavada. He was the author of "Yasastilaka champu", "Nitivakyamrita" and other writings. The main aim of the "champu" writing was to propagate Jain tenets and ethics. The second writing reviews the subject matter of "Arthashastra" from the standpoint of Jain morals in a clear and pithy manner. Ugraditya, a Jain ascetic from Hanasoge in the modern Mysore district wrote a medical treatise called "Kalyanakaraka". He delivered a discourse in the court of Amoghavarsha I encouraging abstinence from animal products and alcohol in medicine.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: Trivikrama was a noted scholar in the court of King Indra III. His classics were "Nalachampu" (915), the earliest in champu style in Sanskrit, "Damayanti Katha", "Madalasachampu" and Begumra plates. Legend has it that Goddess Saraswati helped him in his effort to compete with a rival in the king's court. Jinasena was the spiritual preceptor and guru of Amoghavarsha I. A theologian, his contributions are "Dhavala" and "Jayadhavala" (written with another theologian Virasena). These writings are named after their patron king who was also called Athishayadhavala. Other contributions from Jinasena were "Adipurana," later completed by his disciple Gunabhadra, "Harivamsha" and "Parshvabhyudaya".


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the architectural heritage of the Deccan. Art historian Adam Hardy categorizes their building activity into three schools: Ellora, around Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal, and at Sirval near Gulbarga.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta, areas also occupied by Jain monks, located in present-day Maharashtra. The Ellora site was originally part of a complex of 34 Buddhist caves probably created in the first half of the 6th century whose structural details show Pandyan influence. Cave temples occupied by Hindus are from later periods.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The Rashtrakutas renovated these Buddhist caves and re-dedicated the rock-cut shrines. Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism and there are five Jain cave temples at Ellora ascribed to his period. The most extensive and sumptuous of the Rashtrakuta works at Ellora is their creation of the monolithic Kailasanath Temple, a splendid achievement confirming the "Balhara" status as "one among the four principal Kings of the world". The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu mythology including Ravana, Shiva and Parvathi while the ceilings have paintings.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: The Kailasanath Temple project was commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used is "Karnata Dravida" according to Adam Hardy. It does not contain any of the "Shikharas" common to the "Nagara" style and was built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka. According to art historian Vincent Smith, the achievement at the Kailasanath temple is considered an architectural consummation of the monolithic rock-cut temple and deserves to be considered one of the wonders of the world. According to art historian Percy Brown, as an accomplishment of art, the Kailasanath temple is considered an unrivalled work of rock architecture, a monument that has always excited and astonished travellers.While some scholars have claimed the architecture at Elephanta is attributable to the Kalachuri, others claim that it was built during the Rashtrakuta period. Some of the sculptures such as "Nataraja" and "Sadashiva" excel in beauty and craftsmanship even that of the Ellora sculptures. Famous sculptures at Elephanta include "Ardhanarishvara" and "Maheshamurthy". The latter, a three faced bust of Lord Shiva, is tall and considered one of the finest pieces of sculpture in India. It is said that, in the world of sculpture, few works of art depicting a divinity are as balanced.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: In Karnataka their most famous temples are the "Kashivishvanatha" temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage site. Other well-known temples are the Parameshwara temple at Konnur, Brahmadeva temple at Savadi, the Settavva, Kontigudi II, Jadaragudi and Ambigeragudi temples at Aihole, Mallikarjuna temple at Ron, Andhakeshwara temple at Huli (Hooli), Someshwara temple at Sogal, Jain temples at Lokapura, Navalinga temple at Kuknur, Kumaraswamy temple at Sandur, numerous temples at Shirival in Gulbarga, and the "Trikuteshwara" temple at Gadag which was later expanded by Kalyani Chalukyas. Archeological study of these temples show some have the stellar (multigonal) plan later to be used profusely by the Hoysalas at Belur and Halebidu. One of the richest traditions in Indian architecture took shape in the Deccan during this time which Adam Hardy calls "Karnata dravida" style as opposed to traditional Dravida style.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: With the ending of the Gupta Dynasty in northern India in the early 6th century, major changes began taking place in the Deccan south of the Vindyas and in the southern regions of India. These changes were not only political but also linguistic and cultural. The royal courts of peninsular India (outside of Tamilakam) interfaced between the increasing use of the local Kannada language and the expanding Sanskritic culture. Inscriptions, including those that were bilingual, demonstrate the use of Kannada as the primary administrative language in conjunction with Sanskrit. Government archives used Kannada for recording pragmatic information relating to grants of land. The local language formed the "desi" (popular) literature while literature in Sanskrit was more "marga" (formal). Educational institutions and places of higher learning ("ghatikas") taught in Sanskrit, the language of the learned Brahmins, while Kannada increasingly became the speech of personal expression of devotional closeness of a worshipper to a private deity. The patronage Kannada received from rich and literate Jains eventually led to its use in the devotional movements of later centuries.


title: Rashtrakuta dynasty

text: Contemporaneous literature and inscriptions show that Kannada was not only popular in the modern Karnataka region but had spread further north into present day southern Maharashtra and to the northern Deccan by the 8th century. Kavirajamarga, the work on poetics, refers to the entire region between the Kaveri River and the Godavari River as "Kannada country". Higher education in Sanskrit included the subjects of Veda, "Vyakarana" (grammar), "Jyotisha" (astronomy and astrology), "Sahitya" (literature), "Mimansa" (Exegesis), "Dharmashastra" (law), "Puranas" (ritual), and "Nyaya" (logic). An examination of inscriptions from this period shows that the "Kavya" (classical) style of writing was popular. The awareness of the merits and defects in inscriptions by the archivists indicates that even they, though mediocre poets, had studied standard classical literature in Sanskrit. An inscription in Kannada by King Krishna III, written in a poetic Kanda metre, has been found as far away as Jabalpur in modern Madhya Pradesh. Kavirajamarga, a work on poetics in Kannada by Amoghavarsha I, shows that the study of poetry was popular in the Deccan during this time. Trivikrama's Sanskrit writing, "Nalachampu", is perhaps the earliest in the "champu" style from the Deccan.


title: Dayot Upamecano

text: Dayotchanculle Oswald Upamecano (born 27 October 1998) is a French professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for Bundesliga club Bayern Munich and the France national team.


title: Dayot Upamecano

text: Dayotchanculle Oswald Upamecano was born on 27 October 1998 in Évreux, Normandy and is of Bissau-Guinean descent. He was raised in La Madeleine, a neighbourhood with many African immigrants. He was named after his great-grandfather, who was king of the village on the island of Jeta in Guinea-Bissau, which his parents are from. He is the first son after four daughters, and has one younger brother. As a 15-year-old, he followed speech therapy sessions to overcome dyslexia and stuttering disorders, which caused shyness and certain difficulties in expressing himself.


title: Dayot Upamecano

text: Upamecano began playing football with local club Évreux, alongside the likes of Ousmane Dembélé, Rafik Guitane and Samuel Grandsir. He covered a variety of positions in his youth, before being fixed on the centre-back position. He joined the youth academy of Valenciennes in 2013. Described during the time as a youth in an adult body, Upamecano shaped his play after Sergio Ramos, and developed into a physically imposing defender.


title: Dayot Upamecano

text: After attracting the attention of a number of major European clubs, including Manchester United, Upamecano joined Red Bull Salzburg in July 2015 for a reported fee of €2.2 million. He was an unused substitute in Red Bull's UEFA Champions League game against Malmö FF on 29 July 2015. He made his professional debut for Red Bull's farm team, Liefering, two days later, in a 2–1 league win against St. Pölten. On 19 March 2016, he made his league debut with Red Bull Salzburg in a 2–1 win over SV Mattersburg.


title: Dayot Upamecano

text: In the first half of the 2016–17 season, Upamecano earned a regular place with the first team in both league and Europa League matches.


title: Dayot Upamecano

text: On 13 January 2017, Upamecano joined RB Leipzig on a -year deal, for a reported €10 million fee. On 4 February 2017, he made his Bundesliga debut under coach Ralph Hasenhüttl in a 1–0 defeat against Borussia Dortmund. On 13 September 2017, he made his Champions League debut in a 1–1 draw against Monaco. On 9 February 2018, he scored his first goal in a 2–0 win over Augsburg. On 2 July 2018, he was shortlisted for the 2018 Golden Boy award.


title: Dayot Upamecano

text: On 31 July 2020, Upamecano signed a new deal until 2023. In the 2019–20 season, he reached with RB Leipzig the Champions League semi-finals under coach Julian Nagelsmann.


title: Dayot Upamecano

text: On 14 February 2021, Bayern Munich announced an agreement for the signing of Upamecano on a five-year deal, to be effective as of 1 July 2021. The club reportedly met his release clause from Leipzig, set at €42.5 million. Upamecano's first game as a Bayern player came in a pre-season friendly on 16 July 2021 against fellow Bundesliga side 1. FC Köln that saw Bayern lose 3–2 after fielding a side largely consisting of reserve and youth players.


title: Dayot Upamecano

text: He made his competitive debut on the opening day of the 2021–22 Bundesliga season, starting at centre-back alongside Niklas Süle in a 1–1 away draw against Borussia Mönchengladbach. He scored his first goal for the club in a 4–0 win over VfL Wolfsburg on 17 December, heading in a cross from Thomas Müller.


title: Dayot Upamecano

text: Upamecano played for the France under-16 team that finished third in the 2014 Aegean Cup. He played in three of his country's four games and was named the competition's best defender. He subsequently moved up to the France under-17 squad, making his debut in a European Championship qualifier against Cyprus on 27 October 2014. France won the 2015 UEFA European Under-17 Championship, with Upamecano playing in all six of his country's matches and being named in the team of the tournament. He made his debut for France under-18 in a 0–0 friendly draw with United States under-18 on 4 September 2015.


title: Dayot Upamecano

text: Upamecano made his debut for the France national football team, on 5 September 2020, starting in a UEFA Nations League group-stage match against Sweden. Three days later on 8 September, he scored his first international goal in a 4–2 win against Croatia.


title: Dayot Upamecano

text: Upamecano played a pivotal role in France's 2022 FIFA World Cup, starting five of France's seven matches. This includes playing the entire 120 minutes in the final in an eventual 3-3 loss in penalties to Argentina.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: David Bowie (commonly known as Space Oddity) is the second studio album by English musician David Bowie. After the commercial failure of his 1967 self-titled debut album, Bowie acquired a new manager, Kenneth Pitt, who commissioned a promotional film in hopes of widening the artist's audience. For the film, Bowie wrote a new song, titled "Space Oddity", a tale about a fictional astronaut. The song earned Bowie a contract with Mercury Records, who agreed to finance production of a new album, with Pitt hiring Tony Visconti to produce. Due to his dislike of the song, Visconti appointed engineer Gus Dudgeon to produce a re-recording for release as a lead single, while he produced the rest of the album.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: Recording for the new album began in June 1969 and continued until early October, at Trident Studios in London. It featured an array of collaborators, including Herbie Flowers, Rick Wakeman, Terry Cox and the band Junior's Eyes. Departing from the music hall style of Bowie's 1967 debut, "David Bowie" instead features folk rock and psychedelic rock songs. Lyrically, the songs contain themes that were influenced by events happening in Bowie's life at the time, including former relationships and festivals he attended. Released as a single in July 1969, "Space Oddity" peaked at number five in the UK later in the year, earning Bowie his first commercial hit.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: "David Bowie" was released in the UK on 14November 1969 through Mercury affiliate Philips Records. For the US release, Mercury retitled it "Man of Words/Man of Music" and used different artwork. Due to a lack of promotion, the album was a commercial failure, despite earning some positive reviews from music critics. Following Bowie's commercial breakthrough with his fifth studio album "Ziggy Stardust" in 1972, RCA Records reissued the album under the title of "Space Oddity", and used a contemporary photo of Bowie as the artwork. The reissue charted in both the UK and the US.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: Retrospectively, "David Bowie" has received mixed reviews from critics and biographers, many criticising the lack of cohesiveness. Bowie himself later stated that the album lacked musical direction. Debate continues as to whether it should stand as Bowie's first "proper" album. "David Bowie" has been reissued numerous times, with bonus tracks and variance on the inclusion of the hidden track "Don't Sit Down". Labels have used both "David Bowie" and "Space Oddity" as the title, with "Space Oddity" being used for its 2019 remix by Visconti.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: After a string of unsuccessful singles, David Bowie released his music hall-influenced self-titled debut studio album through Deram Records in 1967. It was a commercial failure and did little to gain him notice, becoming his last release for two years. Around this time he also acquired a new manager, Kenneth Pitt. In 1968, Bowie began a relationship with dancer Hermione Farthingale, which lasted until February 1969. After the commercial failure of "David Bowie", Pitt authorised a promotional film in an attempt to introduce Bowie to a larger audience. The film, "Love You till Tuesday", went unreleased until 1984, with it marking the end of Pitt's mentorship to Bowie.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: Knowing "Love You till Tuesday" wouldn't feature any new material, Pitt asked Bowie to write something new. Encompassing the feeling of alienation, Bowie wrote "Space Oddity", a tale about a fictional astronaut named Major Tom. Its title and subject matter were influenced by Stanley Kubrick's "", which premiered in May 1968. Demoed as early as January 1969, "Space Oddity" was finalised and recorded on 2February at Morgan Studios in London. The session was produced by Jonathan Weston and featured Bowie and guitarist John "Hutch" Hutchinson on co-lead vocals. This version appears in "Love You till Tuesday". In April 1969, Bowie and Hutchinson recorded demos of tracks that would appear on "David Bowie", including another demo of "Space Oddity", and ones of "Janine", "An Occasional Dream", "Letter to Hermione" (titled "I'm Not Quite") and "Cygnet Committee" (titled "Lover to the Dawn").


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: When Bowie met Angela Barnett in late 1968, she was dating Lou Reizner, the head of Mercury Records in London. After meeting Bowie, Barnett consulted with Mercury's Assistant European Director of A&R Calvin Mark Lee, whom she met through Reizner, to secure Bowie a contract with Mercury. Lee, after hearing "Space Oddity", knew that the song was his chance to get Bowie signed, so Lee went behind Reizner's back to finance a demo session. Lee told biographer Marc Spitz: "We had to do it all behind Lou's back. But it was such a "good" record." Pitt, unaware of these proceedings, attempted to earn Bowie a contract with other labels, including Atlantic Records in March 1969. On 14April, at Bowie's request, Pitt met with Simon Hayes, Mercury's New York director, and screened him "Love You till Tuesday" with Lee. In 2009, Lee stated that Bowie earned a contract with Mercury because of Hayes. Bowie's new contract, enacted in May 1969, granted Bowie enough finances to make a new album, with two one-year renewal options. The album would be distributed through Mercury in the US and its affiliate Philips Records in the UK.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: After failing to get George Martin, Pitt hired Tony Visconti, who produced Bowie's later Deram sessions, to produce the new album. Before recording for the album commenced, "Space Oddity" had been selected as the lead single. However, Visconti saw it as a "novelty record" and passed the production responsibility for the song on to Bowie's former engineer Gus Dudgeon. Dudgeon later recalled: "I listened to the demo and thought it was incredible. I couldn't believe that Tony didn't want to do it...he said, 'That's great, you do that and the B-side, and I'll do the album.' I was only too pleased." In an interview with Mary Finnigan for "IT" in 1969, Bowie compared the two producers:


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: Recording for "David Bowie" officially began on 20June 1969 at Trident Studios in London, where work commenced on the new version of "Space Oddity" and its B-side "Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud"; Mercury insisted on the single being released in a month's time, ahead of the Apollo 11 moon landing. The lineup consisted of Bowie, bassist Herbie Flowers, Rick Wakeman, who played Mellotron, drummer Terry Cox, Junior's Eyes guitarist Mick Wayne and an orchestra arranged by Paul Buckmaster. After the single release of "Space Oddity" on 11July 1969, recording continued on 16July, with work commencing on "Janine", "An Occasional Dream" and "Letter to Hermione"; Work on the former two tracks continued into 17July. With Visconti producing, he recruited the Junior's Eyes band – guitarists Wayne and Tim Renwick, bassist John Lodge and drummer John Cambridge (but without vocalist Graham Kelly) – as the main backing band for the sessions; Bowie hired Keith Christmas as an additional guitarist. Also joining the sessions as an engineer was Ken Scott, who recently finished multiple works with the Beatles. Regarding Bowie's attitude towards the recording sessions, Renwick recalled how the band found him "kind of nervous and unsure of himself", further stating that he was vague and gave little direction throughout the sessions. Biographer Paul Trynka attributes the lack of direction to the numerous events happening in Bowie's personal life at the time. On the other hand, Visconti remained enthusiastic during the sessions despite having little production experience at the time: "I was not a very good producer yet and I hadn't started to engineer. I had only made the first Tyrannosaurus Rex album and the Junior's Eyes album," he later stated.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: Recording continued on and off for the next few months. On 3August 1969, Bowie received the news that his father John Jones was seriously ill; he died two days later. Bowie wrote "Unwashed and Somewhat Slightly Dazed" to express grief. On 16August, Bowie participated in the Beckenham Free Festival, commemorating "Memory of a Free Festival" after it. Biographer Nicholas Pegg writes that around this time, Bowie's "disillusion" with the "slack attitude" of hippies around him caused him to reshape the lyrics of "Cygnet Committee". On 8September, the backing band began recording for "Memory of a Free Festival". Three days later, recording for "God Knows I'm Good" was attempted at Pye Studios in Marble Arch, but scrapped due to problems with the recording equipment. The song was re-recorded at Trident on 16September, with Christmas joining on guitar. Recording officially finished on 6October 1969.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: The music on "David Bowie" has been described as folk rock and psychedelic rock, with elements of country and progressive rock. Biographer David Buckley writes that: "Bowie was still reflecting the governing ideologies of the day and the dominant musical modes...rather than developing a distinct music of his own." Kevin Cann finds the musical ground on the album to encompass "a fusion of acoustic folk leanings with a growing interest in electric rock". Cann continues that "David Bowie" marked a turning point for the artist, in that lyrically he began "drawing on life" rather than writing "winsome stories". Spitz considers the album to be Bowie's first "heavy" record and also one of his darkest, due to the death of his father. He writes that it reflects the artist's "darkening vision" and depicts "a man coming of age in a world that is increasingly depraved and barren". Susie Goldring of BBC Music calls "David Bowie" a "kaleidoscopic album [that] is an amalgamation of [Bowie's] obsessions – directors, musicians, poets and spirituality of a distinctly late-60s hue".


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: "Space Oddity" is a largely acoustic number augmented by the eerie tones of the composer's stylophone, a pocket electronic organ. Some commentators have also seen the song as a metaphor for heroin use, citing the opening countdown as analogous to the drug's passage down the needle prior to the euphoric "hit", while noting Bowie's admission of a "silly flirtation with smack" in 1968. "Unwashed and Somewhat Slightly Dazed" reflects a strong Bob Dylan influence, with its harmonica, edgy guitar sound and snarling vocal. Spitz describes the song as an "extensive hard rock jam", while Buckley calls it a "country-meets-prog-rock collision of ideas". Heard at the end of that track on the UK Philips LP was "Don't Sit Down", an unlisted 40-second jam. The hidden track was excluded from the US Mercury release and the RCA reissue of "David Bowie". Author Peter Doggett criticises the track's inclusion, calling it "pointless and disruptive", and believes "the album is stronger without it".


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: "Letter to Hermione" was a farewell ballad to Bowie's former girlfriend Hermione Farthingale, who is also the subject of "An Occasional Dream", a gentle folk tune reminiscent of the singer's 1967 debut album. "God Knows I'm Good", Bowie's observational tale of a shoplifter's plight, also recalls his earlier style. "Cygnet Committee" has been called Bowie's "first true masterpiece". Commonly regarded as the track on "David Bowie" most indicative of the composer's future direction, its lead character is a messianic figure "who breaks down barriers for his younger followers, but finds that he has only provided them with the means to reject and destroy him". Bowie himself described the song at the time as a put down of hippies who seemed ready to follow any charismatic leader. "Janine" was written about a girlfriend of Bowie's childhood friend George Underwood. It has been cited as another track that foreshadowed themes to which Bowie would return in the 1970s, in this case the fracturing of personality, featuring the words "But if you took an axe to me, you'd kill another man not me at all".


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: The Buddhism-influenced "Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud" is presented in a heavily expanded form compared to the original guitar-and-cello version on the B-side of the "Space Oddity" single; the album cut features a 50-piece orchestra. "Memory of a Free Festival" is Bowie's reminiscence of an arts festival he had organised in August 1969. Its drawn-out fade/chorus ("The Sun Machine is coming down / And we're gonna have a party") was compared to the Beatles' "Hey Jude"; the song has also been interpreted as a derisive comment on the counterculture it ostensibly celebrates. The background vocals for the crowd finale features Bob Harris, his wife Sue, Tony Woollcott and Marc Bolan. "Conversation Piece," an outtake from the sessions, which has been described as featuring "a lovely melody and an emotive lyric addressing familiar Bowie topics of alienation and social exclusion," was released for the first time as a single B-side in 1970.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: In the UK, the album was released under the eponymous title "David Bowie", the same name as Bowie's 1967 debut for Deram, a move Trynka calls "bizarre". The original UK cover artwork featured a facial portrait of Bowie taken by British photographer Vernon Dewhurst, exposed on top of a work by Hungarian artist Victor Vasarely with blue and violet spots on a green background. The artwork, titled CTA 25 Neg, was designed by Bowie and Lee, who enthusiastically collected Vasarely's works; Lee is credited as CML33. The back cover was an illustration by Underwood and depicted lyrical aspects from the album, stylistically similar to that of the 1968 Tyrannosaurus Rex album "My People Were Fair and Had Sky in Their Hair... But Now They're Content to Wear Stars on Their Brows". Underwood's illustration was based on initial sketches by Bowie. According to Underwood, the sketches included "a fish in water, two astronauts holding a rose, [and] rats in bowler hats representing the Beckenham Arts Lab committee types he was so pissed off with". Pegg writes that these items appear in the final picture, along with "a Buddha, a smouldering joint, an unmistakable portrait of Hermione Farthingale, and a weeping woman (presumably the shoplifter in 'God Knows I'm Good') being comforted by a Pierrot", which he notes is "remarkably similar in appearance" to the "Ashes to Ashes" character Bowie later adopted. Underwood's illustration is referred to on the sleeve as "Depth of a Circle", which according to Bowie was a typo by the record label; he intended it to read "Width of a Circle", a title he used for a song on his next album, "The Man Who Sold the World" (1970). Apart from Bowie, none of the musicians who played on "David Bowie" were credited on the original pressings, due to the majority being under contract with other labels in the UK; song lyrics were instead presented on the inner gatefold sleeve.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: For the US release in 1970, the album was renamed "Man of Words/Man of Music", although Cann writes that this phrase was added to the cover to describe the artist and was not intended to replace the title. Mercury also changed Vasarely's artwork in favour of a different, but similar photograph by Dewhurst, placed against a plain blue background. Cann criticises this artwork, stating that it "suffered from sloppy technical application and the image appeared washed out as a result of poor duplication of the transparency". However, the musicians were credited on this release, while song lyrics still appeared on the inner gatefold. Cambridge later said in 1991: "[Bowie] showed me a copy; I was really pleased to see I was credited inside. I kept on to [Bowie] to let me have it and he kept saying 'It's my only copy.' Eventually, he gave in and gave it to me. I've still got it."


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: In 1972, as part of a reissue campaign undertaken by RCA Records in the wake of the commercial breakthrough of his fifth studio album "Ziggy Stardust", "David Bowie" was repackaged with the title "Space Oddity", after the opening track. For this release, the front cover was updated with a new photograph of Bowie taken the same year by photographer Mick Rock at Haddon Hall. The sleeve notes proclaimed that the album "was NOW then, and it is still now NOW: personal and universal, perhaps galactic, microcosmic and macrocosmic".


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: Rykodisc's 1990 reissue, again titled "Space Oddity," used the 1972 front cover photograph as its cover, while also incorporating a reproduction of the 1970 US front cover. For the 1999 EMI reissue, the original UK portrait was restored, although the "Space Oddity" name was retained. EMI's 40th anniversary CD reissue in 2009 and the various releases of the album associated with the 2015 "Five Years (1969–1973)" box set reverted to the original "David Bowie" title and kept the UK artwork. For the album's 2019 remix, the "Space Oddity" title was used.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: "Space Oddity" was released as a single on 11July 1969, with "Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud" as the B-side. Featuring different edits between the British and American versions, the song was rush-released by the label – it was recorded only three weeks prior – as a way to capitalise on the Apollo 11 moon landing. Although it received some glowing reviews, the single initially failed to sell, despite attempts made by Pitt at chart-rigging. By September 1969 however, the single debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 48, slowing rising to number 5 by early November. Mercury's publicist Ron Oberman wrote a letter to American journalists describing "Space Oddity" as "one of the greatest recordings I've ever heard. If this already controversial single gets the airplay, it's going to be a huge hit." Despite this, the single flopped completely in the US, which Pitt attributed to Oberman's use of the word "controversial" in his statement; this caused it to be banned on multiple radio stations across the country. The single's success in the UK earned Bowie a number of television appearances throughout the rest of 1969, including his first appearance on "Top of the Pops" in early October.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: "David Bowie" was released in the UK on 14November 1969 through Philips Records, with the catalogue number SBL 7912. Cann states that Mercury considered releasing "Janine" as a follow-up single to "Space Oddity", but were uncertain about the song's commercial appeal and scrapped it. Biographer Christopher Sandford writes that despite the commercial success of "Space Oddity", the remainder of the album bore little resemblance to it and resulted in "David Bowie" being a commercial failure on its initial release. Furthermore, around the same time as the album's release, personnel at Philips underwent numerous changes, some of whom were Bowie's supporters, resulting in a severe lack of promotion for the album. Despite Bowie being named 1969's Best Newcomer in a readers' poll for "Music Now!" and "Space Oddity" being named record of the year by Penny Valentine of "Disc and Music Echo", "David Bowie" barely sold over 5,000 copies by March 1970. Following the 1972 reissue by RCA, the album finally managed to chart, peaking at number 17 on the UK Albums Chart in November 1972, remaining on the chart for 42 weeks. It also peaked at number 16 on the US "Billboard" Top LPs & Tape chart in April 1973, remaining on the chart for 36 weeks. The album's 1990 reissue also managed to chart at number 64 in the UK.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: Upon release, the album received primarily mixed reviews from music critics. Valentine gave the album a positive review, describing it as "rather doomy and un-nerving, but Bowie's point comes across like a latter-day Dylan. It is an album a lot of people are going to expect a lot from. I don't think they'll be disappointed." A reviewer for "Music Now!" offered similar praise, calling it "[d]eep, thoughtful, probing, exposing, gouging at your innards" and concluded: "This is more than a record. It is an experience. An expression of life as others see it. The lyrics are full of the grandeur of yesterday, the immediacy of today and the futility of tomorrow. This is well worth your attention." Nancy Erlich of "The New York Times", in a review published over a year after its release, praised the album, calling it, "a complete, coherent and brilliant vision".


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: Other reviewers offered more mixed sentiments. A writer for "Music Business Weekly" found that "Bowie seems to be a little unsure of the direction he is going in", criticising the various musical styles found throughout, ultimately describing the record as "over-ambitious". A reviewer for "Zygote" praised "Space Oddity" and "Memory of a Free Festival", but felt the album as a whole lacks cohesiveness and is "very awkward to the ear". The reviewer concluded that "Bowie is erratic. When he succeeds, he's excellent; when fails, he's laborious." "The Village Voice" critic Robert Christgau considered this album and "The Man Who Sold the World" to be "overwrought excursions".


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: Following the release of "David Bowie", Bowie spent the next month promoting the album through live performances and interviews. In mid-December 1969, Philips requested a new version of "Space Oddity" with Italian lyrics upon learning one had already been recorded in Italy. The Italian version was recorded on 20 December at Morgan Studios, with accent coach and producer Claudio Fabi producing and lyrics being translated by Italian lyricist Mogol. This version, titled "Ragazzo solo, ragazza sola" (meaning "Lonely Boy, Lonely Girl"), was released as a single across Italy in 1970 and failed to chart.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: In January 1970, Bowie began arrangements to re-record an older Deram-era composition, "London Bye Ta-Ta", along with a new composition, "The Prettiest Star". Recording for both tracks began at Trident on 7 January and continued on 13 January, being completed two days later. Guitar work was provided by Marc Bolan on "The Prettiest Star". "London Bye Ta-Ta" was initially chosen as the follow-up single to "Space Oddity" but at the last minute, Bowie chose "The Prettiest Star" against Pitt's wishes. Released as a single on 6 March, with the outtake "Conversation Piece" as the B-side, "The Prettiest Star" received praise from music journalists, but failed to chart.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: Following the commercial failure of "The Prettiest Star", the label requested the follow-up to be a re-recording of the album track "Memory of a Free Festival", which was set to be split across and A- and B-sides. The two-part single was released on 26 June 1970 and again, failed to chart. By this time, Bowie had completed recording "The Man Who Sold the World", which marked a shift in musical style towards hard rock. Around the same time, due to continuing managerial disputes, Bowie terminated his contract with Pitt and hired a new manager, Tony Defries.


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: Retrospectively, "David Bowie" has continued to receive primarily mixed reviews from reviewers, with many criticising its lack of cohesiveness. Although feeling that the record has its moments, Dave Thompson of AllMusic writes: "'Space Oddity' aside, Bowie possessed very little in the way of commercial songs, and the ensuing album (his second) emerged as a dense, even rambling, excursion through the folky strains that were the last glimmering of British psychedelia." Douglas Wolk of "Pitchfork" found that Bowie presents numerous ideas throughout the record, but does not know what to do with them, writing, "he wears his influences on his sleeve and constantly overreaches for dramatic effect". Terry Staunton of "Record Collector" agreed, writing: ""Space Oddity" may be regarded as the singer's first 'proper' album, though its mish-mash of styles and strummy experiments suggest he was still trying to settle on an identity."


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: The album's 40th anniversary remaster garnered numerous reviews. Mike Schiller of "PopMatters" stated that although it's far from Bowie's best, the record as a whole is "not half bad". Despite its flaws, Schiller considers the record a "landmark" in Bowie's catalogue, writing that "it offers a glimpse at a man transitioning into the artist we've come to know". Stuart Berman of "Pitchfork" found that the record's "prog-folk hymnals" were a precursor to the "artful glam-rock" sound that made Bowie a star. Reviewing for "The Quietus", John Tatlock found that the album is not where "it all came together", primarily due to a lack of coherence. Tatlock also believed it to not stand out on its own merit, but nonetheless, stated that "it captures its creator at a fascinating crossroads, and is much more than a fans-only curio".


title: David Bowie (1969 album)

text: Biographers have differing views on "David Bowie". While Buckley calls it "the first Bowie album proper", "NME" editors Roy Carr and Charles Shaar Murray have said, "Some of it belonged in '67 and some of it in '72, but in 1969 it all seemed vastly incongruous. Basically, "David Bowie" can be viewed in retrospect as all that Bowie had been and a little of what he would become, all jumbled up and fighting for control..." Trynka similarly states that the record has an "endearing lack of artifice", which nonetheless makes it a "unique" entry in the artist's catalogue. Pegg calls the album "a remarkable step forward from anything Bowie had recorded before". He writes that a few of the tracks, including "Unwashed and Somewhat Slightly Dazed", "Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud" and "Cygnet Committee", highlight Bowie's evolution as a lyricist. However, he ultimately believes that the "monolithic reputation" of "Space Oddity" does the album more harm than good. Spitz opinions that "while not iconic, as his seventies albums would become, "Space Oddity" is first-rate as trippy rock records go". Sandford writes that "Space Oddity" aside, the record doesn't have a "voice", and also lacked "punch" and "clarity". He continues that the songs vary between "mundane" (highlighting the two tributes to Farthingale) and "mawkish" (highlighting "God Knows I'm Good"). However, he further stated that the record, like his 1967 debut, does have its moments, signaling out "Unwashed and Somewhat Slightly Dazed" and "Janine".