title: RMS Queen Elizabeth

text: After the fire, Tung had one of the liner's anchors and the metal letters "Q" and "E" from the name on the bow placed in front of the office building at Del Amo Fashion Center in Torrance, California, which had been intended as the headquarters of the Seawise University venture; they later went on display with commemorative plaques in the lobby of Wall Street Plaza, 88 Pine Street, New York City. Two of the ship's fire warning system brass plaques were recovered by a dredger, and were displayed at The Aberdeen Boat Club in Hong Kong in an exhibit about the ship. The charred remnants of her last ensign were cut from the flagpole and framed in 1972, and still adorn the wall of the officers' mess of marine police HQ in Hong Kong. Parker Pen Company produced a special edition of 5,000 pens made from material recovered from the wreck, each in a presentation box; today these are highly collectible.


title: RMS Queen Elizabeth

text: Following the demise of "Queen Elizabeth", the largest passenger ship in active service became the 66,343 GRT , which was longer but with less tonnage than the Cunard liner.


title: RMS Queen Elizabeth

text: In 1959, the ship made an appearance in the British satirical comedy film "The Mouse That Roared", starring Peter Sellers and Jean Seberg. While a troupe of invading men from "Grand Fenwick", a fictional European micro-nation, cross the Atlantic to 'war' with the United States, they meet and pass the far larger "Queen Elizabeth", and learn that the port of New York is closed due to an air raid drill.


title: RMS Queen Elizabeth

text: Ian Fleming set the climax to his 1956 James Bond novel "Diamonds Are Forever" on "Queen Elizabeth". The 1971 film version starring Connery used the P&O liner for the sequence.


title: RMS Queen Elizabeth

text: The wreck was featured in the 1974 James Bond film "The Man with the Golden Gun", as a covert headquarters for MI6.


title: Alec Baldwin filmography

text: Alec Baldwin's filmography includes the year the film was/will be released, the name of his character and other related notes. There is also a list of his appearances on TV series, video games and documentaries, as well as stage. A member of the Baldwin family, he is the eldest of the four Baldwin brothers, all actors. Baldwin first gained recognition by appearing on the sixth and seventh seasons of primetime CBS soap opera "Knots Landing" in the role of Joshua Rush, the half-brother of long-standing character Valene Ewing (Joan Van Ark).


title: Alec Baldwin filmography

text: In his early career he then has played both leading and supporting roles in a variety of films such as Tim Burton's "Beetlejuice" (1988), Mike Nichols' "Working Girl" (1988), Jonathan Demme's "Married to the Mob" (1988), and Oliver Stone's "Talk Radio" (1988). He gained attention for his performances in "Glengarry Glen Ross" (1992), and as Jack Ryan in "The Hunt for Red October" (1990). Since then he has worked with such notable directors such as Woody Allen in "Alice" (1990), "To Rome with Love" (2012), and "Blue Jasmine" (2013), Spike Lee in "BlacKkKlansman" (2018), and Martin Scorsese in "The Aviator" (2004) and "The Departed" (2006). His performance in the 2003 drama "The Cooler" garnered him a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.


title: Alec Baldwin filmography

text: From 2006 to 2013, Baldwin starred as Jack Donaghy on the critically acclaimed NBC sitcom "30 Rock" starring alongside Tina Fey. He won many accolades for his performance winning two Primetime Emmy Awards, three Golden Globe Awards, and seven Screen Actors Guild Awards for his work on the show, making him the male performer with the most SAG Awards.


title: Alec Baldwin filmography

text: Baldwin recently co-starred alongside Tom Cruise in "" and "", respectively the fifth and sixth installments of the "" series. He is also a columnist for "The Huffington Post". Since 2016, he has been the host of "Match Game". He has received worldwide attention and acclaim for his portrayal of Donald Trump on the long-running sketch series "Saturday Night Live", both during the 2016 U.S. presidential election and following the inauguration, a role for which he won a Primetime Emmy in 2017.


title: Coin

text: A coin is a small, flat (usually depending on the country or value), round piece of metal or plastic used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government. Coins often have images, numerals, or text on them. "Obverse" and its opposite, "reverse", refer to the two flat faces of coins and medals. In this usage, "obverse" means the front face of the object and "reverse" means the back face. The obverse of a coin is commonly called "heads", because it often depicts the head of a prominent person, and the reverse "tails".


title: Coin

text: Coins are usually made of metal or an alloy, or sometimes of man-made materials. They are usually disc shaped. Coins, made of valuable metal, are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in everyday transactions, circulating alongside banknotes. Usually the highest value coin in circulation (excluding bullion coins) is worth less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the face value of circulation coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain, for example due to inflation. If the difference becomes significant, the issuing authority may decide to withdraw these coins from circulation, possibly issuing new equivalents with a different composition, or the public may decide to melt the coins down or hoard them (see Gresham's law).


title: Coin

text: Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of "copper, silver, or gold" (and rarely other metals, such as platinum or palladium), intended for collectors or investors in precious metals. Examples of modern gold collector/investor coins include the British sovereign minted by the United Kingdom, the American Gold Eagle minted by the United States, the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf minted by Canada, and the Krugerrand, minted by South Africa. While the Eagle, and Sovereign coins have nominal (purely symbolic) face values, the Krugerrand does not.


title: Coin

text: Historically, a considerable variety of coinage metals (including alloys) and other materials (e.g. porcelain) have been used to produce coins for circulation, collection, and metal investment: bullion coins often serve as more convenient stores of assured metal quantity and purity than other bullion.


title: Coin

text: Metal ingots, silver bullion or unmarked bars were probably in use for exchange among many of the civilizations that mastered metallurgy. The weight and purity of bullion would be the key determinant of value. In the Achaemenid Empire in the early 6th century BC, coinage was yet unknown. The barter system, as well as silver bullion were used instead for trade. The practice of using silver bars for currency also seems to have been current in Central Asia from the 6th century BC. Coins were an evolution of "currency" systems of the Late Bronze Age, where standard-sized ingots, and tokens such as knife money, were used to store and transfer value. Phoenician metal ingots had to be stamped with the current ruler to guarantee is worth and value, which is probably how stamping busts and designs began.


title: Coin

text: In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made, such as those discovered in a tomb near Anyang. These were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese currency, cowrie shells, so they were named Bronze Shell.


title: Coin

text: The worlds oldest coin factory is excavated in the ancient city "Guanzhuang" in Henan province in China. The factory produced shovel-shaped bronze coins between 640 B.C. and 550 B.C., which is the oldest securely dated minting site.


title: Coin

text: The earliest coins are mostly associated with Iron Age Anatolia of the late 7th century BC, and especially with the kingdom of Lydia. Early electrum coins (an alluvial alloy of gold and silver, varying wildly in proportion, and usually about 40–55% gold) were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests. The unpredictability of the composition of naturally occurring electrum implied that it had a variable value, which greatly hampered its development.


title: Coin

text: Most of the early Lydian coins include no writing ("myth" or "inscription"), only an image of a symbolic animal. Therefore, the dating of these coins relies primarily on archaeological evidence, with the most commonly cited evidence coming from excavations at the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, also called the Ephesian Artemision (which would later evolve into one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World). This was the site of the earliest known deposit of electrum coins. Anatolian Artemis was the Πὀτνια Θηρῶν ("Potnia Thêrôn", "Mistress of Animals"), whose symbol was the stag. It took some time before ancient coins were used for commerce and trade. Even the smallest-denomination electrum coins, perhaps worth about a day's subsistence, would have been too valuable for buying a loaf of bread. Maybe the first coins to be used for retailing on a large-scale basis were likely small silver fractions, Hemiobol, Ancient Greek coinage minted by the Ionian Greeks in the late sixth century BC.


title: Coin

text: And both Aristotle (fr. 611,37, ed. V. Rose) and Pollux (Onamastikon IX.83), mention that the first issuer of coinage was Hermodike/Demodike of Cyme. Cyme was a city in Aeolia, nearby Lydia.


title: Coin

text: Many early Lydian and Greek coins were minted under the authority of private individuals and are thus more akin to tokens or badges than to modern coins, though due to their numbers it is evident that some were official state issues. The earliest inscribed coins are those of Phanes, dated to 625–600 BC from Ephesus in Ionia, with the legend ΦΑΕΝΟΣ ΕΜΙ ΣHΜΑ (or similar) (“I am the badge/sign/mark of Phanes/light”) or just bearing the name ΦΑΝΕΟΣ (“of Phanes”).


title: Coin

text: The first electrum coins issued by a monarch are those minted by king Alyattes of Lydia (died c. 560 BC), for which reason this king is sometimes mentioned as the originator of coinage.


title: Coin

text: The successor of Alyattes, king Croesus (r. c. 560–546 BC), became associated with great wealth in Greek historiography. He is credited with issuing the "Croeseid", the first true gold coins with a standardized purity for general circulation. and the world's first bimetallic monetary system c. 550 BC.


title: Coin

text: Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, leading to the development of Ancient Greek coinage and Achaemenid coinage, and further to Illyrian coinage.


title: Coin

text: When Cyrus the Great (550–530 BC) came to power, coinage was unfamiliar in his realm. Barter and to some extent silver bullion was used instead for trade. The practice of using silver bars for currency also seems to have been current in Central Asia from the 6th century.


title: Coin

text: Cyrus the Great introduced coins to the Persian Empire after 546 BC, following his conquest of Lydia and the defeat of its king Croesus, who had put in place the first coinage in history. With his conquest of Lydia, Cyrus acquired a region in which coinage was invented, developed through advanced metallurgy, and had already been in circulation for about 50 years, making the Lydian Kingdom one of the leading trade powers of the time. It seems Cyrus initially adopted the Lydian coinage as such, and continued to strike Lydia's lion-and-bull coinage.


title: Coin

text: Original coins of the Achaemenid Empire were issued from 520 BC – 450 BC to 330 BC. The Persian Daric was the first truly Achaemenid gold coin which, along with a similar silver coin, the Siglos, represented the bimetallic monetary standard of the Achaemenid Persian Empire.


title: Coin

text: The Achaemenid Empire already reached the doors of India during the original expansion of Cyrus the Great, and the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley is dated to c. 515 BC under Darius I. An Achaemenid administration was established in the area. The Kabul hoard, also called the Chaman Hazouri hoard, is a coin hoard discovered in the vicinity of Kabul, Afghanistan, containing numerous Achaemenid coins as well as many Greek coins from the 5th and 4th centuries BC. The deposit of the hoard is dated to the Achaemenid period, in approximately 380 BC. The hoard also contained many locally produced silver coins, minted by local authorities under Achaemenid rule. Several of these issues follow the "western designs" of the facing bull heads, a stag, or Persian column capitals on the obverse, and incuse punch on the reverse.


title: Coin

text: According to numismatist Joe Cribb, these finds suggest that the idea of coinage and the use of punch-marked techniques was introduced to India from the Achaemenid Empire during the 4th century BC. More Achaemenid coins were also found in Pushkalavati and in Bhir Mound.


title: Coin

text: According to Aristotle (fr. 611,37, ed. V. Rose) and Pollux (Onamastikon IX.83), the first issuer of Greek coinage was Hermodike of Kyme.


title: Coin

text: A small percentage of early Lydian/Greek coins have a legend. The most ancient inscribed coin known is from nearby Caria. This coin has a Greek legend reading "phaenos emi sema" interpreted variously as "I am the badge of Phanes", or "I am the sign of light". The Phanes coins are among the earliest of Greek coins; a hemihekte of the issue was found in the foundation deposit of the temple of Artemis at Ephesos (the oldest deposit of electrum coins discovered). One assumption is that Phanes was a mercenary mentioned by Herodotus, another that this coin is associated with the primeval god Phanes or "Phanes" might have been an epithet of the local goddess identified with Artemis. Barclay V. Head found these suggestions unlikely and thought it more probably "the name of some prominent citizen of Ephesus".


title: Coin

text: Another candidate for the site of the earliest coins is Aegina, where Chelone ("turtle") coins were first minted c. 700 BC. Coins from Athens and Corinth appeared shortly thereafter, known to exist at least since the late 6th century BC.


title: Coin

text: The Classical period saw Greek coinage reach a high level of technical and aesthetic quality. Larger cities now produced a range of fine silver and gold coins, most bearing a portrait of their patron god or goddess or a legendary hero on one side, and a symbol of the city on the other. Some coins employed a visual pun: some coins from Rhodes featured a rose, since the Greek word for rose is "rhodon". The use of inscriptions on coins also began, usually the name of the issuing city.


title: Coin

text: The wealthy cities of Sicily produced some especially fine coins. The large silver "decadrachm" (10-drachm) coin from Syracuse is regarded by many collectors as the finest coin produced in the ancient world, perhaps ever. Syracusan issues were rather standard in their imprints, one side bearing the head of the nymph Arethusa and the other usually a victorious quadriga. The tyrants of Syracuse were fabulously rich, and part of their public relations policy was to fund quadrigas for the Olympic chariot race, a very expensive undertaking. As they were often able to finance more than one quadriga at a time, they were frequent victors in this highly prestigious event. Syracuse was one of the epicenters of numismatic art during the classical period. Led by the engravers Kimon and Euainetos, Syracuse produced some of the finest coin designs of antiquity.


title: Coin

text: Amongst the first centers to produce coins during the Greek colonization of mainland Southern Italy (Magna Graecia) were Paestum, Crotone, Sybaris, Caulonia, Metapontum, and Taranto. These ancient cities started producing coins from 550BC to 510BC.


title: Coin

text: Amisano, in a general publication, including the Etruscan coinage, attributing it the beginning to about 560 BC in Populonia, a chronology that would leave out the contribution of the Greeks of Magna Graecia and attribute to the Etruscans the burden of introducing the coin in Italy. In this work, constant reference is made to classical sources, and credit is given to the origin of the Etruscan Lydia, a source supported by Herodotus, and also to the invention of coin in Lydia.


title: Coin

text: Although many of the first coins illustrated the images of various gods, the first portraiture of actual rulers appears with the coinage of Lycia in the 5th century BC. No ruler had dared illustrating his own portrait on coinage until that time. The Achaemenids had been the first to illustrate the person of their king or a hero in a stereotypical manner, showing a bust or the full body but never an actual portrait, on their Sigloi and Daric coinage from c. 500 BC. A slightly earlier candidate for the first portrait-coin is Themistocles the Athenian general, who became a Governor of Magnesia on the Meander, c. 465–459 BC, for the Achaemenid Empire, although there is some doubt that his coins may have represented Zeus rather than himself. Themistocles may have been in a unique position in which he could transfer the notion of individual portraiture, already current in the Greek world, and at the same time wield the dynastic power of an Achaemenid dynasty who could issue his own coins and illustrate them as he wished. From the time of Alexander the Great, portraiture of the issuing ruler would then become a standard, generalized, feature of coinage.


title: Coin

text: The Karshapana is the earliest punch-marked coin found in India, produced from at least the mid-4th century BC, and possibly as early as 575 BC, influenced by similar coins produced in Gandhara under the Achaemenid empire, such as those of the Kabul hoard, or other examples found at Pushkalavati and in Bhir Mound.


title: Coin

text: In China, early round coins appeared in the 4th century BC and were adopted for all China by Emperor Qin Shi Huang Di at the end of 3rd century BC. The round coin, the precursor of the familiar cash coin, circulated in both the spade and knife money areas in the Zhou period, from around 350 BC. Apart from two small and presumably late coins from the State of Qin, coins from the spade money area have a round hole and refer to the "jin" and "liang" units. Those from the knife money area have a square hole and are denominated in "hua" (化).


title: Coin

text: Although for discussion purposes the Zhou coins are divided up into categories of knives, spades, and round coins, it is apparent from archaeological finds that most of the various kinds circulated together. A hoard found in 1981, near Hebi in north Henan province, consisted of: 3,537 Gong spades, 3 Anyi arched foot spades, 8 Liang "Dang Lie" spades, 18 Liang square foot spades and 1,180 Yuan round coins, all contained in three clay jars.


title: Coin

text: The Hellenistic period was characterized by the spread of Greek culture across a large part of the known world. Greek-speaking kingdoms were established in Egypt and Syria, and for a time also in Iran and as far east as what is now Afghanistan and northwestern India. Greek traders spread Greek coins across this vast area, and the new kingdoms soon began to produce their own coins. Because these kingdoms were much larger and wealthier than the Greek city states of the classical period, their coins tended to be more mass-produced, as well as larger, and more frequently in gold. They often lacked the aesthetic delicacy of coins of the earlier period.


title: Coin

text: Still, some of the Greco-Bactrian coins, and those of their successors in India, the Indo-Greeks, are considered the finest examples of Greek numismatic art with "a nice blend of realism and idealization", including the largest coins to be minted in the Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted by Eucratides (reigned 171–145 BC), the largest silver coin by the Indo-Greek king Amyntas Nikator (reigned c. 95–90 BC). The portraits "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland depictions of their royal contemporaries further West" (Roger Ling, "Greece and the Hellenistic World").


title: Coin

text: Coinage followed Greek colonization and influence first around the Mediterranean and soon after to North Africa (including Egypt), Syria, Persia, and the Balkans. Coins came late to the Roman Republic compared with the rest of the Mediterranean, especially Greece and Asia Minor where coins were invented in the 7th century BC. The currency of central Italy was influenced by its natural resources, with bronze being abundant (the Etruscans were famous metal workers in bronze and iron) and silver ore being scarce. The coinage of the Roman Republic started with a few silver coins apparently devised for trade with Celtic in northern Italy and the Greek colonies in Southern Italy, and heavy cast bronze pieces for use in Central Italy. The first Roman coins, which were crude, heavy cast bronzes, were issued c. 289 BC.


title: Coin

text: Amisano, in a general publication, including the Etruscan coinage, attributing it the beginning to about 550 BC in Populonia, a chronology that would leave out the contribution of the Greeks of Magna Graecia and attribute to the Etruscans the burden of introducing the coin in Italy. In this work, constant reference is made to classical sources, and credit is given to the origin of the Etruscan Lydia, a source supported by Herodotus, and also to the invention of coin in Lydia.


title: Coin

text: The first European coin to use Arabic numerals to date the year in which the coin was minted was the St. Gall silver "Plappart" of 1424.


title: Coin

text: Most coins presently are made of a base metal, and their value comes from their status as fiat money. This means that the value of the coin is established by law, and thus is determined by the free market only in as much as national currencies are used in domestic trade and also traded internationally on foreign exchange markets. Thus, these coins are monetary tokens, just as paper currency is: their value is usually not backed by metal, but rather by some form of government guarantee. Thus, there is very little economic difference between notes and coins of equivalent face value.


title: Coin

text: Coins may be in circulation with face values lower than the value of their component metals, but they are never initially issued with such value, and the shortfall only arises over time due to inflation, as market values for the metal overtake the face value of the coin. Examples are the pre-1965 US dime, quarter, half dollar, and dollar (containing slightly less than a tenth, quarter, half, and full ounce of silver, respectively), US nickel, and pre-1982 US penny. As a result of the increase in the value of copper, the United States greatly reduced the amount of copper in each penny. Since mid-1982, United States pennies are made of 97.5% zinc, with the remaining 2.5% being a coating of copper. Extreme differences between face values and metal values of coins cause coins to be hoarded or removed from circulation by illicit smelters in order to realize the value of their metal content. This is an example of Gresham's law. The United States Mint, in an attempt to avoid this, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalized the melting and export of pennies and nickels. Violators can be fined up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for up to five years.


title: Coin

text: A coin's value as a collector's item or as an investment generally depends on its condition, specific historical significance, rarity, quality, beauty of the design and general popularity with collectors. If a coin is greatly lacking in all of these, it is unlikely to be worth much. The value of bullion coins is also influenced to some extent by those factors, but is largely based on the value of their gold, silver, or platinum content. Sometimes non-monetized bullion coins such as the Canadian Maple Leaf and the American Gold Eagle are minted with nominal face values less than the value of the metal in them, but as such coins are never intended for circulation, these face values have no relevance.


title: Coin

text: Collector catalogs often include information about coins to assists collectors with identifying and grading. Additional resources can be found online for collectors These are collector clubs, collection management tools, marketplaces, trading platforms, and forums,


title: Coin

text: Coins can be used as creative media of expression – from fine art sculpture to the penny machines that can be found in most amusement parks. In the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) in the United States there are some regulations specific to nickels and pennies that are informative on this topic. 31 CFR § 82.1 forbids unauthorized persons from exporting, melting, or treating any 5 or 1 cent coins.


title: Coin

text: This has been a particular problem with nickels and dimes (and with some comparable coins in other currencies) because of their relatively low face value and unstable commodity prices. For a while, the copper in US pennies was worth more than one cent, so people would hoard pennies and then melt them down for their metal value. It cost more than face value to manufacture pennies or nickels, so any widespread loss of the coins in circulation could be expensive for the US Treasury. This was more of a problem when coins were still made of precious metals like silver and gold,


title: Coin

text: 31 CFR § 82.2(b) goes on to state that: "The prohibition contained in § 82.1 against the treatment of 5-cent coins and one-cent coins shall not apply to the treatment of these coins for educational, amusement, novelty, jewelry, and similar purposes as long as the volumes treated and the nature of the treatment makes it clear that such treatment is not intended as a means by which to profit solely from the value of the metal content of the coins."


title: Coin

text: Throughout history, monarchs and governments have often created more coinage than their supply of precious metals would allow if the coins were pure metal. By replacing some fraction of a coin's precious metal content with a base metal (often copper or nickel), the intrinsic value of each individual coin was reduced (thereby "debasing" the money), allowing the coining authority to produce more coins than would otherwise be possible. Debasement occasionally occurs in order to make the coin physically harder and therefore less likely to be worn down as quickly, but the more usual reason is to profit from the difference between face value and metal value. Debasement of money almost always leads to price inflation. Sometimes price controls are at the same time also instituted by the governing authority, but historically these have generally proved unworkable.


title: Coin

text: The United States is unusual in that it has only slightly modified its coinage system (except for the images and symbols on the coins, which have changed a number of times) to accommodate two centuries of inflation. The one-cent coin has changed little since 1856 (though its composition was changed in 1982 to remove virtually all copper from the coin) and still remains in circulation, despite a greatly reduced purchasing power. On the other end of the spectrum, the largest coin in common circulation is valued at 25 cents, a very low value for the largest denomination coin compared to many other countries. Increases in the prices of copper, nickel, and zinc meant that both the US one- and five-cent coins became worth more for their raw metal content than their face (fiat) value. In particular, copper one-cent pieces (those dated prior to 1982 and some 1982-dated coins) contained about two cents' worth of copper.


title: Coin

text: Some denominations of circulating coins that were formerly minted in the United States are no longer made. These include coins with a face value of a half cent, two cents, three cents, and twenty cents. (The half dollar and dollar coins are still produced, but mostly for vending machines and collectors.) In the past, the US also coined the following denominations for circulation in gold: One dollar, $2.50, three dollars, five dollars, ten dollars, and twenty dollars. In addition, cents were originally slightly larger than the modern quarter and weighed nearly half an ounce, while five-cent coins (known then as "half dimes") were smaller than a dime and made of a silver alloy. Dollar coins were also much larger, and weighed approximately an ounce. One-dollar gold coins are no longer produced and rarely used. The US also issues bullion and commemorative coins with the following denominations: 50¢, $1, $5, $10, $25, $50, and $100.


title: Coin

text: Circulating coins commonly suffered from "shaving" or "clipping": the public would cut off small amounts of precious metal from their edges to sell it and then pass on the mutilated coins at full value. Unmilled British sterling silver coins were sometimes reduced to almost half their minted weight. This form of debasement in Tudor England was commented on by Sir Thomas Gresham, whose name was later attached to Gresham's law. The monarch would have to periodically recall circulating coins, paying only the bullion value of the silver, and reminting them. This, also known as recoinage, is a long and difficult process that was done only occasionally. Many coins have milled or reeded edges, originally designed to make it easier to detect clipping.


title: Coin

text: Some convicted criminals from the British Isles who were sentenced to transportation to Australia in the 18th and 19th centuries used coins to leave messages of remembrance to loved ones left behind in Britain. The coins were defaced, smoothed and inscribed, either by stippling or engraving, with sometimes touching words of loss. These coins were called "convict love tokens" or "leaden hearts". Some of these tokens are in the collection of the National Museum of Australia.


title: Coin

text: The side of a coin carrying an image of a monarch, other authority ("see List of people on coins"), or a national emblem is called the "obverse" (colloquially, "heads"); the other side, carrying various types of information, is called the "reverse" (colloquially, "tails"). The year of minting is usually shown on the obverse, although some Chinese coins, most Canadian coins, the pre-2008 British 20p coin, the post-1999 American quarter, and all Japanese coins are exceptions.


title: Coin

text: The relation of the images on the obverse and reverse of a coin is the coin's orientation. If the image on the obverse of the coin is right side up and turning the coin left or right on its vertical axis reveals that the reverse of the coin is also right side up, then the coin is said to have medallic orientation—typical of the Euro and pound sterling; if, however, turning the coin left or right shows that the reverse image is upside down, then the coin is said to have coin orientation, characteristic of the United States dollar coin.


title: Coin

text: Bimetallic coins are sometimes used for higher values and for commemorative purposes. In the 1990s, France used a tri-metallic coin. Common circulating bimetallic examples include the €1, €2, British £1, £2 and Canadian $2 and several peso coins in Mexico.


title: Coin

text: The "exergue" is the space on a coin beneath the main design, often used to show the coin's date, although it is sometimes left blank or contains a mint mark, privy mark, or some other decorative or informative design feature. Many coins do not have an exergue at all, especially those with few or no legends, such as the Victorian bun penny.


title: Coin

text: Not all coins are round; they come in a variety of shapes. The Australian 50-cent coin, for example, has twelve flat sides. Some coins have wavy edges, e.g. the $2 and 20-cent coins of Hong Kong and the 10-cent coins of Bahamas. Some are square-shaped, such as the 15-cent coin of the Bahamas and the 50-cent coin from Aruba. During the 1970s, Swazi coins were minted in several shapes, including squares, polygons, and wavy edged circles with 8 and 12 waves.


title: Coin

text: Some other coins, like the British 20 and 50 pence coins and the Canadian Loonie, have an odd number of sides, with the edges rounded off. This way the coin has a constant diameter, recognizable by vending machines whichever direction it is inserted.


title: Coin

text: A triangular coin with a face value of £5 (produced to commemorate the 2007/2008 Tutankhamun exhibition at The O2 Arena) was commissioned by the Isle of Man: it became legal tender on 6 December 2007. Other triangular coins issued earlier include: Cabinda coin, Bermuda coin, 2 Dollar Cook Islands 1992 triangular coin, Uganda Millennium Coin and Polish Sterling-Silver 10-Zloty Coin.


title: Coin

text: Many coins over the years have been manufactured with integrated holes such as Chinese "cash" coins, Japanese coins, Colonial French coins, etc. This may have been done to permit their being strung on cords, to facilitate storage and being carried. Nowadays, holes help to differentiate coins of similar size and metal, such as the Japanese 50 yen and 100 yen coin.


title: Coin

text: The Royal Canadian Mint is now able to produce holographic-effect gold and silver coinage. However, this procedure is not limited to only bullion or commemorative coinage. The 500 yen coin from Japan was subject to a massive amount of counterfeiting. The Japanese government in response produced a circulatory coin with a holographic image.


title: Coin

text: The Royal Canadian Mint has also released several coins that are colored, the first of which was in commemoration of Remembrance Day. The subject was a colored poppy on the reverse of a 25-cent piece minted through a patented process.


title: Coin

text: An example of non-metallic composite coins (sometimes incorrectly called plastic coins) was introduced into circulation in Transnistria on 22 August 2014. Most of these coins are also non-circular, with different shapes corresponding to different coin values.


title: Coin

text: For a list of many pure metallic elements and their alloys which have been used in actual circulation coins and for trial experiments, see coinage metals.


title: Coin

text: To flip a coin to see whether it lands "heads" or "tails" is to use it as a two-sided dice in what is known in mathematics as a Bernoulli trial: if the probability of heads (in the parlance of Bernoulli trials, a "success") is exactly 0.5, the coin is fair.


title: Coin

text: Coins can also be spun on a flat surface such as a table. This results in the following phenomenon: as the coin falls over and rolls on its edge, it spins faster and faster (formally, the precession rate of the symmetry axis of the coin, i.e., the axis passing from one face of the coin to the other) before coming to an abrupt stop. This is mathematically modeled as a finite-time singularity – the precession rate is accelerating to infinity, before it suddenly stops, and has been studied using high speed photography and devices such as Euler's Disk. The slowing down is predominantly caused by rolling friction (air resistance is minor), and the singularity (divergence of the precession rate) can be modeled as a power law with exponent approximately −1/3.


title: Coin

text: Iron and copper coins have a characteristic metallic smell that is produced upon contact with oils in the skin. Perspiration is chemically reduced upon contact with these metals, which causes the skin oils to decompose, forming with iron the volatile molecule 1-octen-3-one.


title: Coin

text: In the Philippines, small, engraved gold coins called Piloncitos were excavated, some as lightweight as 0.09 to 2.65 grams. Piloncitos have been unearthed from Mandaluyong, Bataan, the banks of the Pasig River, Batangas, Marinduque, Samar, Leyte and some areas in Mindanao. Large quantities were found in Indonesian archaeological sites, suggesting that they may not have originated in the Philippines, but rather were imported. However, numerous Spanish accounts state that the gold coins were mined and labored in the Philippines, such as the following from 1586:


title: Marc Menchaca

text: Menchaca first became interested in performing as a student at Central High School. After graduating, he attended Texas A&M University, earning a bachelor's degree in English; it was also where he acted in his first play. He attended a summer acting program at the Circle in the Square Theatre School in Manhattan before deciding to pursue an acting career in his twenties. He is an alumnus of the William Esper Studio.


title: Marc Menchaca

text: Menchaca was co-director, co-writer and lead actor of the 2013 Heartland Film Festival Award Winning movie "This Is Where We Live",


title: Marc Menchaca

text: In 2015, he played a lead role as Bob Stevens, a veteran struggling with memory loss, in the Kyle Ham-directed film "Reparation". It earned him the best actor award at the Breckenridge Film Festival, with the film receiving a further 10 festival awards, including the Austin Film Festival ‘s Audience Choice prize and Best Film at the Santa Fe Film Festival.


title: Marc Menchaca

text: In the 2018 Netflix television series "Ozark," Menchaca had a recurring role as Russ Langmore, a man struggling to suppress his homosexuality. He has regular recent roles on television in "The Sinner" and "Manifest". He appeared again on TV with Jason Bateman in 2019, in the Stephen King horror miniseries "The Outsider" portraying Jack Hoskins for all 10 episodes.


title: Marc Menchaca

text: In 2020, Menchaca won Best Actor in a Feature at the Mammoth Film Festival Awards for his performance as Sam in the John Hyams thriller "Alone" alongside co-star Jules Willcox. He performed his own stunts in the film, including a fight scene in mud with Willcox. He received a further award for Best Actor in 2020 at the Oxford International Film Festival (OXIFF) in the UK, for his portrayal of 'The Man' in "#Like" directed by Sarah Pirozek.


title: Marc Menchaca

text: In 2021, he starred in the Santiago Menghini directed Netflix horror movie "No One Gets Out Alive" with co-star Cristina Rodlo.


title: Leslie Grossman

text: Leslie Erin Grossman (born October 25, 1971) is an American actress. She is known for her role as Lauren on The WB sitcom "What I Like About You", and for her frequent collaborations with Ryan Murphy, appearing as Mary Cherry on The WB’s comedy-drama series "Popular" (1999–2001), and as various characters on the FX anthology series "American Horror Story" since 2017.


title: Leslie Grossman

text: Grossman was born and raised in Los Angeles, California. She attended Crossroads School for Arts & Sciences, where she directed plays. She started acting in her senior year at Sarah Lawrence College.


title: Leslie Grossman

text: In 1999, Grossman was cast in her first major role, playing supporting character Mary Cherry in The WB high school drama series "Popular". She had auditioned for the roles of Sam McPherson and Nicole Julian on "Popular" before having the part of Mary Cherry written for her. After "Popular", Grossman joined the cast of The WB sitcom "What I Like About You" with Amanda Bynes and Jennie Garth. She had a recurring role in the first season before being added to the main cast in the second season. She played Lauren, the co-worker and best friend of Val Tyler (Garth).


title: Leslie Grossman

text: On television, Grossman has appeared on "Nip/Tuck", "Charmed" and "", amongst other television series. In 2011 she guest starred on ABC Family's "Melissa and Joey", and in 2012 she appeared on "The New Normal" and "Ben and Kate". On film, Grossman appeared in "" in 2005. She appeared in two movies in 2006, "Running with Scissors" in an uncredited role and in "Itty Bitty Titty Committee" as Maude.


title: Leslie Grossman

text: In 2017, she joined the cast of the of "American Horror Story" as and a flashback version of the infamous serial killer and Manson Family gang member, Patricia Krenwinkel. In 2018, she was promoted to series regular for its portraying witch . She later appeared in the as Camp Redwood’s owner Margaret Booth. She returned for the as a strong-willed literary agent named Ursula, and for the as Barbara, a New York City citizen that is going through a harrowing divorce process. Her appearances on the show mark the fourth collaboration between Grossman and Ryan Murphy, having appeared on "Popular", "Nip/Tuck", "The New Normal," and "American Horror Story".


title: James Garner (footballer, born 2001)

text: James David Garner (born 13 March 2001) is an English professional footballer who plays as a central midfielder for Premier League club Everton and the England under-21 national team.


title: James Garner (footballer, born 2001)

text: Born in Merseyside, Garner joined Manchester United's youth system at under-8 level. He made his first-team debut at the age of 17, in a Premier League game against Crystal Palace in February 2019. He spent time on loan at Watford and Nottingham Forest. In the 2021–22 season, he helped Forest gain promotion to the Premier League by winning the play-offs. Garner made seven first-team appearances for United in total, before joining Everton in September 2022.


title: James Garner (footballer, born 2001)

text: Garner has represented England from under-17 to under-21 level. He made his debut for the under-21 team in September 2021.


title: James Garner (footballer, born 2001)

text: Garner was born in Birkenhead in Merseyside. He joined the Manchester United Academy at under-8 level. He initially played as a centre-back till the age of 15, before transitioning into midfield. Garner made his first appearances for the Manchester United Under-18s at the end of the 2016–17 season, appearing as a substitute in games against Arsenal and Blackburn Rovers. He signed as an academy scholar in July 2017 and was a regular for the Under-18s in 2017–18, scoring four goals in 24 appearances in all competitions as Manchester United won the Premier League North title; however, he missed the final of the competition against Chelsea as he was on international duty. He also made eight appearances for the Manchester United Under-19s as they made it to the round of 16 of the 2017–18 UEFA Youth League before being eliminated by local rivals Liverpool.


title: James Garner (footballer, born 2001)

text: Garner first became involved with the Manchester United first team on the club's summer 2018 tour of the United States, starting in the match against San Jose Earthquakes on 22 July, before being replaced by Scott McTominay at half-time. He also made substitute appearances against Real Madrid on 1 August and Bayern Munich on 5 August. With Manchester United's qualification from their 2018–19 UEFA Champions League group secure, Garner was named on the bench for their final group game against Valencia on 12 December, but was not used in the match. He was named as a substitute for Manchester United's 2018–19 FA Cup Third Round tie against Reading on 5 January 2019, but, again, was not brought on.


title: James Garner (footballer, born 2001)

text: On 27 February 2019, he made his first-team debut at the age of 17, coming on as a 90th-minute substitute for Fred in a 3–1 league win away to Crystal Palace. On 15 March, Garner signed a contract extension, keeping him at United until June 2022 with an option for a further year.


title: James Garner (footballer, born 2001)

text: Garner again went on the first team's summer tour in 2019, along with fellow academy players Angel Gomes, Tahith Chong and Mason Greenwood. He came on as a substitute in the 83rd minute of the first pre-season game against Perth Glory, and scored his first senior goal with his first touch within two minutes, a low drive into the bottom right corner from outside the box.


title: James Garner (footballer, born 2001)

text: On 24 October 2019, he made his European debut for Manchester United against Partizan in the Europa League.


title: James Garner (footballer, born 2001)

text: Garner fell out of first-team contention after the appointment of Xisco Muñoz as Watford head coach, and on 30 January 2021, his loan was terminated.


title: James Garner (footballer, born 2001)

text: On 30 January 2021, Garner joined Championship side Nottingham Forest on loan for the remainder of the 2020–21 season. He scored his first goal for the club on 26 February 2021 against arch-rivals Derby County in a league meeting at Pride Park that ended in a 1–1 draw. Following the conclusion of the season, he returned to Manchester United for pre-season training. On 22 August 2021, Garner rejoined Nottingham Forest on a season-long loan for the 2021–22 season after extending his contract with Manchester United. Garner helped Nottingham Forest gain promotion to the Premier League for the 2022–23 season, by playing in the Championship play-off final that they won at Wembley on 29 May 2022. During the following pre-season, Manchester United announced that Garner was up for sale, a decision which caused substantial backlash from fans.


title: James Garner (footballer, born 2001)

text: On 1 September 2022, Garner signed for Everton on a four-year deal for a reported amount of £9 million, with add-ons increasing the potential fee to £15 million.


title: James Garner (footballer, born 2001)

text: Garner is a youth international and has represented England at under-17, under-18, under-19, under-20 and under-21 levels. Garner captained the under-17 side that reached the semi-finals of the 2018 UEFA European Under-17 Championship. On 13 October 2020, Garner made his debut for the under-20 team during a 2–0 victory over Wales at St. George's Park.


title: James Garner (footballer, born 2001)

text: On 27 August 2021, Garner received his first call up at under-21 level. On 7 September 2021, he made his under-21 debut during the 2–0 2023 UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualification win over Kosovo at Stadium MK.


title: Modena

text: Modena (, , ; ; ; ) is a city and "comune" (municipality) on the south side of the Po Valley, in the Province of Modena in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy.


title: Modena

text: A town, and seat of an archbishop, it is known for its car industry since the factories of the famous Italian upper-class sports car makers Ferrari, De Tomaso, Lamborghini, Pagani and Maserati are, or were, located here and all, except Lamborghini, have headquarters in the city or nearby. One of Ferrari's cars, the 360 Modena, was named after the town itself. Ferrari's production plant and Formula One team Scuderia Ferrari are based in Maranello south of the city.


title: Modena

text: The University of Modena, founded in 1175 and expanded by Francesco II d'Este in 1686, focuses on economics, medicine and law, and is the second oldest athenaeum in Italy. Italian military officers are trained at the Military Academy of Modena, and partly housed in the Baroque Ducal Palace. The Biblioteca Estense houses historical volumes and 3,000 manuscripts. The Cathedral of Modena, the Torre della Ghirlandina and Piazza Grande are a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997.


title: Modena

text: Famous "Modenesi" include Mary of Modena, the Queen consort of England and Scotland; operatic tenor Luciano Pavarotti and soprano Mirella Freni, born in Modena itself; Enzo Ferrari, eponymous founder of the Ferrari motor company; Catholic priest Gabriele Amorth; chef Massimo Bottura; comics artist Franco Bonvicini; the band Modena City Ramblers and singer-songwriter Francesco Guccini, who lived here for several decades.


title: Modena

text: Modena lies on the Pianura Padana, and is bounded by the two rivers Secchia and Panaro, both affluents of the Po River. Their presence is symbolized by the Two Rivers Fountain in the city's center, by Giuseppe Graziosi. The city is connected to the Panaro by the Naviglio channel.


title: Modena

text: Modena has a humid subtropical climate, with continental influences. It has an average annual precipitation of . Summers are hot and winters are cool, with snowfall. This climate is described by the Köppen climate classification as "Cfa".


title: Modena

text: From 1946 to 1992, Modena had a series of Communist mayors. From the 1990s, the city has been governed by center-left coalitions.


title: Modena

text: The legislative body of the municipality ("comune") is the City Council ("Consiglio Comunale") which is composed by 35 members elected every five years. Modena's executive body is the City Committee ("Giunta Comunale") composed by 9 assessors, the deputy-mayor and the mayor. The current mayor (2019) of Modena is Gian Carlo Muzzarelli, member of the Democratic Party.


title: Modena

text: The territory around Modena (Latin: "Mutina", Etruscan: "Mutna") was inhabited by the Villanovans in the Iron Age, and later by Ligurian tribes, Etruscans, and the Gaulish Boii (the settlement itself being Etruscan). Although the exact date of its foundation is unknown, it is known that it was already in existence in the 3rd century BC, for in 218 BC, during Hannibal's invasion of Italy, the Boii revolted and laid siege to the city. Livy described it as a fortified citadel where Roman magistrates took shelter. The outcome of the siege is not known, but the city was most likely abandoned after Hannibal's arrival. Mutina was refounded as a Roman colony in 183 BC, to be used as a military base by Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, causing the Ligurians to sack it in 177 BC. Nonetheless, it was rebuilt, and quickly became the most important centre in Cisalpine Gaul, both because of its strategic importance and because it was on an important crossroads between Via Aemilia and the road going to Verona.


title: Modena

text: In the 1st century BC Mutina was besieged twice. The first siege was by Pompey in 78 BC, when Mutina was defended by Marcus Junius Brutus (a populist leader, not to be confused with his son, Caesar's best known assassin). The city eventually surrendered out of hunger, and Brutus fled, only to be slain in Regium Lepidi. In the civil war following Caesar's assassination, the city was besieged again, this time by Mark Antony, in 44 BC, and defended by Decimus Junius Brutus. Octavian relieved the city with the help of the Senate.


title: Modena

text: Cicero called it "Mutina splendidissima" ("most beautiful Mutina") in his "Philippics" (44 BC). Until the 3rd century AD, it kept its position as the most important city in the newly formed province Aemilia, but the fall of the Empire brought Mutina down with it, as it was used as a military base both against the barbarians and in the civil wars. It is said that Mutina was never sacked by Attila, for a dense fog hid it (a miracle said to be provided by Saint Geminianus, bishop and patron of Modena), but it was eventually buried by a great flood in the 7th century and abandoned.


title: Modena

text: In December 2008, Italian researchers discovered the pottery center where the oil lamps that lit the ancient Roman empire were made. Evidence of the pottery workshops emerged in Modena, during construction work to build a residential complex near the ancient walls of the city. "We found a large ancient Roman dumping filled with pottery scraps. There were vases, bottles, bricks, but most of all, hundreds of oil lamps, each bearing their maker's name", Donato Labate, the archaeologist in charge of the dig, stated.


title: Modena

text: Its exiles founded a new city a few miles to the northwest, still represented by the village of Cittanova (literally "new city"). About the end of the 9th century, Modena was restored and refortified by its bishop, Ludovicus. At about this time the "Song of the Watchmen of Modena" was composed. Later the city was part of the possessions of the Countess Matilda of Tuscany, becoming a free comune starting from the 12th century. In the wars between Emperor Frederick II and Pope Gregory IX Modena sided with the emperor.


title: Modena

text: The Este family were identified as lords of Modena from 1288 (Obizzo d'Este). After the death of Obizzo's successor (Azzo VIII, in 1308) the comune reasserted itself, but by 1336 the Este family was permanently in power. Under Borso d'Este Modena was made a duchy.


title: Modena

text: Enlarged and fortified by Ercole II, it was made the primary ducal residence when Ferrara, the main Este seat, fell to the Pope in 1598. Francesco I d'Este, Duke of Modena (1629–1658) built the citadel and began the palace, which was largely embellished by Francesco II. In the 18th century, Rinaldo d'Este was twice driven from his city by French invasions, and Francesco III built many of Modena's public buildings, but the Este pictures were sold and many of them wound up in Dresden. Ercole III died in exile at Treviso, having refused Napoleonic offers of compensation when Modena was made part of the Napoleonic Cispadane Republic. His only daughter, Maria Beatrice d'Este, married Ferdinand I, Archduke of Austria-Este, son of Empress Maria Theresa of Austria; and in 1814 their eldest son, Francis IV, received back the estates of the Este. Quickly, in 1816, he dismantled the fortifications and began Modena's years under Austrian rule.


title: Modena

text: His son Francis V was also a just ruler and famously tended the victims of war and cholera with his own hands. However, he too had to face yet more foreign-inspired revolutions and was temporarily expelled from Modena in the European Revolutions of 1848. He was restored, amidst wide popular acclaim, by Austrian troops. Ten years later, on 20 August 1859, the revolutionaries again invaded (this time the Piedmontese), annexing Modena to the revolutionary Savoyard Kingdom of Italy.


title: Modena

text: The Ducal Palace, initiated by Francesco I d'Este in 1634 and completed by Francis V, was the seat of the Este court from the 17th to 19th century. The palace occupies the site of the former Este Castle, once located in the periphery of the city. Although generally credited to Bartolomeo Avanzini, it has been suggested that advice and guidance in the design process had been sought from the contemporary luminaries, Cortona, Bernini, and Borromini.


title: Modena

text: The Palace currently houses the Accademia Militare di Modena, the Military Museum and a precious library.


title: Modena

text: The Palace has a Baroque façade from which the Honour Court, where the military ceremonies are held, and the Honour Staircase can be accessed. The Central Hall has a frescoed ceiling with the 17th-century "Incoronation of Bradamante" by Marco Antonio Franceschini. The "Salottino d'Oro" ("Golden Hall"), covered with gilted removable panels, was used by Duke Francis III as his main cabinet of work.


title: Modena

text: Facing the Piazza Grande (a UNESCO World Heritage Site), the Town Hall of Modena was put together in the 17th and 18th centuries from several pre-existing edifices built from 1046 as municipal offices.


title: Modena

text: It is characterized by a Clock Tower ("Torre dell'Orologio", late 15th century), once paired with another tower ("Torre Civica") demolished after an earthquake in 1671. In the interior, noteworthy is the "Sala del Fuoco" ("Fire Hall"), with a painted frieze by Niccolò dell'Abbate (1546) portraying famous characters from Ancient Rome against a typical Emilia background. The "Camerino dei Confirmati" ("Chamber of the Confirmed") houses one of the symbols of the city, the "Secchia Rapita", a bucket kept in memory of the victorious Battle of Zappolino (1325) against Bologna. This relic inspired the poem of the same title by Alessandro Tassoni. Another relic from the Middle Ages in Modena is the "Preda Ringadora", a rectangular marble stone next to the palace porch, used as a speakers' platform, and the statue called "La Bonissima" ("The Very Good"): the latter, portraying a female figure, was erected in the square in 1268 and later installed over the porch.


title: Modena

text: The Cathedral of Modena and the annexed campanile are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Begun under the direction of the Countess Matilda of Tuscany with its first stone laid 6 June 1099 and its crypt ready for the city's patron, Saint Geminianus, and consecrated only six years later, the Duomo of Modena was finished in 1184. The building of a great cathedral in this flood-prone ravaged former center of Arianism was an act of urban renewal in itself, and an expression of the flood of piety that motivated the contemporary First Crusade. Unusually, the master builder's name, Lanfranco, was celebrated in his own day: the city's chronicler expressed the popular confidence in the master-mason from Como, Lanfranco: by God's mercy the man was found ("inventus est vir"). The sculptor Wiligelmus who directed the mason's yard was praised in the plaque that commemorated the founding. The program of the sculpture is not lost in a welter of detail: the wild dangerous universe of the exterior is mediated by the Biblical figures of the portals leading to the Christian world of the interior. In Wiligelmus' sculpture at Modena, the human body takes on a renewed physicality it had lost in the schematic symbolic figures of previous centuries. At the east end, three apses reflect the division of the body of the cathedral into nave and wide aisles with their bold, solid masses. Modena's Duomo inspired campaigns of cathedral and abbey building in emulation through the valley of the Po.


title: Modena

text: The Gothic campanile (1224–1319) is called "Torre della Ghirlandina" from the bronze garland surrounding the weathercock.


title: Modena

text: The Museum Palace, on the St. Augustine square, is an example of civil architecture from the Este period, built as a Hostel for the poor, together with the nearby Hospital in the late 18th century. Today it houses the main museums of Modena:


title: Modena

text: The Estense Gallery and Library have reopened on 29 May 2015 after the earthquake of 2012. The Gallery has been completely restored but some pieces are still damaged and thus cannot be seen.


title: Modena

text: Opened for the Great Jubilee in 2000, the Museum of the Cathedral houses a rich collection of artistic heritage, in particular liturgical ornaments and furnishings. Apart from the finds of the cathedral building site by Wiligelmus and Lanfranco, such as romanesque metopes and roof decorations, in the Lapidary there are also reliefs, sculptures and inscriptions of the Roman, Medieval and Renaissance era found in the cathedral area during the restoration works between the 19th and the 20th century.


title: Modena

text: Inaugurated on 10 March 2012, the museum complex includes Enzo Ferrari's birthplace and a futuristic automotive design gallery, painted in the yellow that Enzo Ferrari chose as the background for the Prancing horse on his logo. The exhibition gallery was designed by the famous architect Jan Kaplický, who suddenly died in 2009, and carried on by his associate and loyal assistant Andrea Morgante.


title: Modena

text: The interior features a multimedia display of pictures, unpublished films and precious mementoes of Enzo Ferrari's life as a man, driver and car-maker throughout the 20th century.


title: Modena

text: The Exhibition Gallery houses a flexible mounting representing story, figures, places and races of the Modenese sport motor racing.


title: Modena

text: Founded in 1986 by Giuseppe Panini, who then decided to donate his collection to the city, the Museum was opened to the public on 15 December 2006. It is located inside the Santa Margherita Palace, which also houses the Delfini Library and the City Gallery.


title: Modena

text: The Museum houses several collections, including, apart from the classic stickers, cigarette cards, letter seals, matchboxes and calendars, all of which represent a very important historical document of the development of picture cards throughout the years.


title: Modena

text: The Teatro Comunale Modena (Community Theatre of Modena, but renamed in October 2007 as "Teatro Comunale Luciano Pavarotti") is an opera house in Modena. The idea for the creation of the present theatre dates from 1838, when it became apparent that the then-existing Teatro Comunale di via Emilia (in dual private and public ownership) was no longer suitable for staging opera. However, this house had been the venue for presentations of all of the works of Donizetti, Bellini and Rossini up to this time, and a flourishing operatic culture existed in Modena.


title: Modena

text: Under the Mayor of Modena in collaboration with the Conservatorio dell'Illustrissima Comunità (Conservatory of the Most Illustrious Community), architect Francesco Vandelli was engaged to design the Teatro dell'Illustrissima Comunità, as the theatre was first called, "for the dignity of the city and for the transmission of the scenic arts". Paid for in the manner typical of the time – from the sale of boxes – in addition to a significant gift from Duke Friedrich IV, Vandelli created a design for the new theatre combining ideas from those in Piacenza, Mantua, and Milan, and it opened on 2 October 1841 with a performance of Gandini's "Adelaide di Borgogna al Castello di Canossa", an opera specially commissioned for the occasion.


title: Modena

text: Modena has a rich and diversified cuisine, often including meats, hams and salamis. One of the most famous Modenese dishes is "zampone" (the fatter and heartier version) or "cotechino modena" (cotechino is leaner and less fat than zampone). Cotechino dates back to around 1511 to Mirandola, where, whilst besieged, the people had to find a way to preserve meat and use the less tender cuts, so made the cotechino. By the 18th century it had become more popular than the yellowish sausage had been around at the time, and in the 19th century was in mass production in and around the area.


title: Modena

text: Modena's contribution to the Italian pasta culture are tortellini and tortelloni which are squares of pasta shaped in the form of a ring and stuffed with meat or cheese.


title: Modena

text: "Cappello del prete" is also a popular meal, which is a very fatty pig's trotter. Other dishes include "Torta Barozzi" or "Torta Nera", which is a black tart (a dessert made with a coffee/cocoa and almond filling encased in a fine pastry dough), "Ciccioli", made by slowly cooking, compressing, drying, and aging fatty, leftover pieces of pork, and "Pesto modenese", which is cured pork back fat pounded with garlic, rosemary and Parmigiano-Reggiano used to fill borlenghi and crescentine.


title: Modena

text: Balsamic vinegar of Modena became a protected geographical indication under EU law in 2000. The Balsamic Vinegar vinegar is a condiment for salad, cheese, strawberries and many other dishes. The practice of cooking the must of grapes can be traced back to the ancient Romans: the so-called sapum was used both as a medicinal product and in the kitchen as a sweetener and condiment. The long history of the Balsamic Vinegar came to us through centuries and now is most consumed abroad than in Italy.


title: Modena

text: Modena contains Italy's most acclaimed restaurant, Osteria Francescana, which holds three stars in the Michelin Guide since 2013 and, as of 2018, has been named as the best restaurant in the world in The World's 50 Best Restaurants.


title: Modena

text: Modena and its province are one of Italy's most affluent areas, thanks to a rich agriculture and numerous small and medium manufacturing enterprises. Among the largest employers are BPER Banca, the publishing company Panini Group; Cremonini Group, one of Europe's largest meat packaging and catering companies; Grandi Salumifici Italiani and Parmareggio, other large food processing companies; Liu·Jo, a large clothing company.


title: Modena

text: Modena is, along with Turin, one of Italy's main centres of the automotive industry, with a rich history and tradition in this field. The iconic Ferrari brand was founded in Modena by Modenese legendary car tycoon Enzo Ferrari, and today is headquartered just outside the city, in the suburb of Maranello. Several other Italian luxury automobile manufacturers such as Pagani, Lamborghini, and Maserati are headquartered in the Modena area.


title: Modena

text: Modena railway station, opened in 1859, forms part of the Milan–Bologna railway, and is also a terminus of two secondary railways, linking Modena with each of Verona and Sassuolo.


title: Modena

text: Modena's urban public transport network is operated by SETA. The network includes the Modena trolleybus system.


title: Modena

text: At the census of 2011, there were 179,149 people residing in the city. The population density was 978.9 persons per square kilometre. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totaled 16.2 percent of the population compared to pensioners who number 22.5 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 18.1 percent (minors) and 19.9 percent (pensioners). The average age of Modena resident is 44 compared to the Italian average of 42. Between 2002 and 2007, Modena grew by 2.4%, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.6%. The current birth rate of Modena is 9.62 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births.


title: Modena

text: , 89.6% of the population was Italian. The largest foreign group comes from other parts of Europe (namely Romania and Albania): 3.9%, followed by North Africa: 2.4%, and sub-saharan Africa: 1.9%.


title: Modena

text: Modena has a strong sporting tradition, linked mainly to motor racing as the birthplace of Enzo Ferrari, founder of the eponymous motor racing team and car manufacturer based in nearby Maranello. The Ferrari 360 Modena was named after the city. Modena is known as the world's 'Supercar Capital', being the nearest large town to the homes of Maserati, Lamborghini, Pagani and previously also Ducati and De Tomaso.


title: Modena

text: The city has had two major football clubs: Modena F.C., who played in Serie B for many years but was dissolved in 2017, and Serie B team Carpi F.C. 1909. In 2018, Modena F.C. was reincarnated as Modena F.C. 2018 who play at the 21,151-seat Stadio Alberto Braglia, the former home of Modena F.C. which has also hosted international rugby union.


title: Modena

text: Volleyball plays an important role in Modena's sport history, with Modena Volley having won 12 National championships, four Champion's League seasons, and other trophies.


title: Modena

text: There is also a baseball club with 50 years' tradition—the Modena BBC, currently playing in the A-Series of the Italian Baseball League.


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: God's Not Dead is a 2014 American Christian drama film directed by Harold Cronk and starring Kevin Sorbo, Shane Harper, David A. R. White, and Dean Cain. The film was released theatrically on March 21, 2014, by Pure Flix Entertainment.


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: Written by Cary Solomon and Chuck Konzelman, and based on Rice book "God's Not Dead: Evidence for God in an Age of Uncertainty", the film follows a Christian college student (Harper) whose faith is challenged by an atheist philosophy professor (Sorbo), who declares God a pre-scientific fiction. It was heavily panned by critics but grossed over $62 million on a $2 million budget. The film was criticized for its screenplay, Cronk's directing, performances, mean-spirited tone, characters, and use of straw man arguments and common stereotypes of atheists, instead of any actual debate.


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: Josh Wheaton, a college student and evangelical Christian, enrolls in a philosophy class taught by Professor Jeffrey Radisson, an atheist. Radisson demands his students sign a declaration that "God is dead" to pass. Josh is the only student who refuses. Radisson requires Josh to debate the topic with him but agrees to let his other students decide the winner.


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: In the first two debates, Radisson has counter-arguments for all of Josh's points. Josh's girlfriend Kara demands Josh either sign the statement or drop Radisson's class because standing up to Radisson will jeopardize their academic future. When Josh refuses, Kara breaks up with him.


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: In the final debate, Josh halts his line of debate to ask Radisson: "Why do you hate God?" Radisson explodes in rage, confirming he hates God for his mother's death. Josh asks Radisson how he can hate someone that does not exist. Martin, a Chinese student whose father forbids him from talking about God to avoid jeopardizing his brother's chance at overseas study, stands up and says, "God's not dead." Most of the class follows Martin's lead, and Radisson leaves the room in defeat.


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: Radisson dates Mina, an evangelical whom he belittles in front of his fellow atheist colleagues. Her brother Mark, a successful businessman and atheist, refuses to visit their mother, who suffers from dementia. Mark's girlfriend Amy is a left-wing blogger who writes articles critical of "Duck Dynasty". When Amy is diagnosed with cancer, Mark dumps her. A Muslim student, Ayisha, secretly converts to Christianity and is disowned by her infuriated father when he finds out.


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: Josh invites Martin to attend a Newsboys concert. Radisson reads a letter from his late mother and is moved to reconcile with Mina. Amy confronts the Newsboys in their dressing room but asks them to help guide her in converting to Christianity. On his way to find Mina, Radisson is struck by a car and fatally injured. A reverend waiting at the intersection tends to Radisson and helps him as he dies. Mark, at last, visits his mother, but mocks her for her faith; she responds that his financial success was given to him by Satan to keep him from turning to God, then she doesn't remember his name. At the concert, the Newsboys show a video clip of Willie Robertson congratulating Josh on standing up to Radisson and encourages the audience to text "God's Not Dead" as a message to others. The Newsboys begin to play their song "God's Not Dead", dedicating it to Josh.


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: The film's script was inspired by lawsuits involving the place of the Christian faith in universities and by the book "God's Not Dead: Evidence for God in an Age of Uncertainty" published by Pastor Rice Broocks.


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: The film was shot from October to November 2012, in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, with the concert scene done in Houston, Texas. However, exterior shots of the concert were filmed at Staples Center.


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: The film became a surprise success at the box office. In its first weekend of release, the film earned $9.2 million with an $11,816 per-screen average from 780 theaters, causing "Entertainment Weekly"s Adam Markovitz to refer to it as "the biggest surprise of the weekend". During that weekend, it finished third behind "Divergent" and "Muppets Most Wanted" at the box office.


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: The film began its international roll-out in Mexico on April 4, 2014, where the movie grossed $89,021 its opening weekend. "God's Not Dead" grossed $60.8 million in North America and $3.9 million in other territories for a total of $64.7 million, against a budget of $2 million. At the end of 2014, "God's Not Dead" was ranked 93rd in terms of worldwide gross, and finished with $64.7 million worldwide.


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes the film received 12% positive reviews, based on 26 reviews, with an average rating of 3.40/10. The consensus reads, "Deploying sledgehammer theatrics instead of delivering its message with a dose of good faith, "God's Not Dead" makes for bad drama and an unconvincing argument to the unconverted." On Metacritic, the film received a score of 16 out of 100, based on six critics, indicating "overwhelming dislike".


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: Elaine Wilkinson criticized the film for presenting a narrative based on a Christian persecution complex in the United States, specifically the idea of colleges as "atheist factories", a premise criticized as an inaccurate stereotype by Emma Green, writing for The Atlantic. Writing for "The A.V. Club", Emily St. James gave the film a "D−", saying, "Even by the rather lax standards of the Christian film industry, "God's Not Dead" is a disaster. It's an uninspired amble past a variety of Christian-email-forward bogeymen that feels far too long at just 113 minutes". Reviewer Scott Foundas of "Variety" wrote "... even grading on a generous curve, this strident melodrama about the insidious efforts of America's university system to silence true believers on campus is about as subtle as a stack of Bibles falling on your head ..." Some sources and blogs have cited the film's similarities to a popular urban legend.


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: The Alliance Defending Freedom, American Heritage Girls, Faith Driven Consumer, Denison Forum on Truth and Culture, Trevecca Nazarene University, The Dove Foundation and Ratio Christi have all endorsed the film.


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: Dave Hartline of "The American Catholic" gave "God's Not Dead" a positive review and hoped that other films like it would follow. Vincent Funaro of "The Christian Post" praised the film for being "a hit for believers and may even appeal to skeptics searching for answers".


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: Evangelical Michael Gerson, however, was highly critical of the film and its message, writing "The main problem with "God's Not Dead" is not its cosmology or ethics but its anthropology. It assumes that human beings are made out of cardboard. Academics are arrogant and cruel. Liberal bloggers are preening and snarky. Unbelievers disbelieve because of personal demons. It is characterization by caricature." John Mulderig echoed similar concerns in his review for the Catholic News Service, stating: "There might be the kernel of an intriguing documentary buried within director Harold Cronk's stacked-deck drama, given the extent of real-life academic hostility toward religion. But even faith-filled moviegoers will sense the claustrophobia of the echo chamber within which this largely unrealistic picture unfolds."


title: God's Not Dead (film)

text: Pure Flix Entertainment produced a sequel, "God's Not Dead 2", with a release date of April 1, 2016. A second sequel, "", was released on March 30, 2018. A third sequel, "", was released on October 4, 2021. David A. R. White, Paul Kwo, Trisha LaFache, and Benjamin Onyango reprise their roles in the second film. However, in the third film, only David A. R. White and Benjamin Onyango reprise their roles, with Shane Harper also reprising his role as Josh Wheaton from the first film.


title: Paul Wahlberg

text: Paul Wahlberg (born March 20, 1964) is an American chef and reality TV star. With his brothers Mark and Donnie, he runs the dining burger restaurant and bar Wahlburgers and stars in the reality television show also titled "Wahlburgers".


title: Paul Wahlberg

text: Born in Boston to Alma and Donald Wahlberg, he is the fifth of nine children and the first of his siblings to graduate from high school.


title: Paul Wahlberg

text: As a child, he was interested in watching cooking shows like "The Galloping Gourmet". He decided to become a chef when he was 17.


title: Paul Wahlberg

text: Paul found a love for the culinary industry working for Joseph's catering, run by the Calapa family of Braintree, Massachusetts. After high school, he worked at several restaurants, including The Charles Hotel, The Four Seasons and Bridgeman's in Hull, Massachusetts, where he served as executive chef for nine years.


title: Rheinmetall

text: Rheinmetall AG is a German automotive and arms manufacturer, headquartered in Düsseldorf, Germany. Its shares are traded on the Frankfurt stock exchange.


title: Rheinmetall

text: Rheinmetall was founded in 1889. Banker and investor Lorenz Zuckermandel (1847–1928) was one of the founders and the first chairman of the supervisory board. It manufactured steel products, including armaments. During the post-WWI disarmament of Germany, the company diversified, but by the 1930s armament manufacture resumed. In 1933, it acquired A. Borsig GmbH, which manufactured locomotives.


title: Qliphoth

text: In the Zohar, Lurianic Kabbalah and Hermetic Qabalah, the qliphoth/qlippoth/qlifot or kelipot ( "qəlīpōṯ", originally Aramaic: "qəlīpīn", plural of "qəlīpā"; literally "peels", "shells", or "husks"), are the representation of evil or impure spiritual forces in Jewish mysticism, the polar opposites of the holy Sefirot. The realm of evil is also termed "Sitra Achra" (Aramaic: "sīṭrāʾ ʾaḥrāʾ", the "Other Side") in Kabbalah texts.


title: Qliphoth

text: The "Qlippot" are first mentioned in the Zohar, where they are described as being created by God to function as a literal nutshell for holiness. The text subsequently relays an esoteric interpretation of the text of Genesis 1:14, which describes God creating the moon and sun to act as "luminaries" in the sky. The verse uses a defective spelling of the Hebrew word for "luminaries", resulting in a written form identical to the Hebrew word for "curses". In the context of the Zohar, interpreting the verse as calling the moon and sun "curses" is given mystic significance, personified by a description of the moon descending into the realm of Beri'ah, where it began to belittle itself and dim its own light, both physically and spiritually. The resulting darkness gave birth to the "qlippot". Reflecting this, they are thenceforth generally synonymous with "darkness" itself.


title: Qliphoth

text: Later, the Zohar gives specific names to some of the "qlippot", relaying them as counterparts to certain sephirot: "Mashchith" ( "mašḥīṯ", "destroyer") to "Chesed", "Aph" ( "ʾap̄", "anger") to "Gevurah", and "Chemah" ( "ḥēmā", "wrath") to "Tiferet". It also names "Avon", ( "ʿāvōn", "iniquity"), "Tohu" ( "ṯōhū", "formless"), "Bohu" ( "ḇōhū", "void"), "Esh" ( "ʿēš", "fire"), and "Tehom" ( "təhōm", "deep"), but does not relate them to any corresponding sephira. Though the Zohar clarifies that each of the Sephirot and Qlippot are 1:1, even down to having equivalent "partzufim", it does not give all of their names.


title: Qliphoth

text: In the Kabbalistic cosmology of Isaac Luria, the qlippot are metaphorical "shells" or "peels" surrounding holiness. They are the innate spiritual obstacles to holiness, and receive their existence from God only in an external and circumstantial manner, rather than an internal and direct manner. In this sense, qlippot have a slightly beneficial function, as much like a peel protects a fruit, so do the qlippot technically prevent the flow of Divinity (revelation of God's true unity) from being dissipated as it permeates throughout the various facets of Creation. Nevertheless, as a consequence, the qlippoth conceal this holiness, and are therefore synonymous with what runs counter to Jewish thought, like idolatry, impurity, rejection of Divine unity (dualism), and with the "Sitra Achra", the perceived realm opposite to holiness. Much like their holy counterparts, qlippot emerge in a descending seder hishtalshelus (Chain of Being) through "Tzimtzum" (God's action of contracting His "Ohr Ein Sof", "infinite light", in order to provide a space for Creation). Kabbalah distinguishes between two "realms" in qlippot, three completely impure qlippot ( "haṭmēʾōṯ", literally "the unclean [ones]") and the remainder of intermediate qlippot ( "nōgah", literally "light"). The "qlippot nogah" are "redeemable", and can be refined and sublimated, whereas the "qlippot hatme'ot" can only be redeemed by their own destruction.


title: Qliphoth

text: Similar to a certain interpretation of the Kabbalistic Tree of Life, the qlippoth are sometimes imagined as a series of concentric circles which surround not just aspects of God, but also one another. Their four concentric terms derived from various phrases used in Ezekiel's famous vision of the Throne of God (Ezekiel 1:4), itself the focus of a school of Jewish mystic thought, "And I looked and behold, a "whirlwind" came out of the north, a "great cloud", and a "fire infolding itself", and a "brightness" was about it..." The whirlwind, great cloud, and infolding fire are associated with the aforementioned three "impure" qlippot, with the "brightness" associated with the "intermediate" qlippot. In medieval Kabbalah, it was believed that the Shekhinah (God's presence) is separated from the Sefirot by man's sins, while in Lurianic Kabbalah it was believed the Shekhinah was exiled to the qlippot due to the "shattering" of Divinity into Tohu and Tikun, which is a natural part of its cosmological model of Creation. This in turn causes the Sephirot's various "Sparks of Holiness" to be exiled in the qlippot as well, thereby causing these respective qlippoth to manifest as either the "qlippot nogah" or "qlippot hatme'ot". From there, the "qlippot nogah" would be redeemed through the observance of "mitzvah", whereas the "qlippot hatme'ot" would be indirectly "redeemed" through abiding by the negative prohibitions put forth by the 613 commandments. In addition to righteous living, genuine repentance also allows the qlippot to be redeemed, as it retrospectively turns sin into virtue and darkness into light, and thus deprives the qlippot of their vitality. According to Lurianic Doctrine, when all the Sparks of Holiness are freed from the qlippot, the Messianic era will begin.


title: Qliphoth

text: In Hasidic philosophy, which is underlined by panentheistic and monistic thought, the qlippot are viewed as a representation of the ultimately acomistic self-awareness of Creation. The Kabbalistic scheme of qlippot is internalized as a psychological exercise, by focusing on the self, opposite to "devekut", or the practice of "self-nullification" in order to better grasp mystic contemplation.


title: Qliphoth

text: In some non-Jewish Hermetic Qabalah, contact is sought with the Qliphoth unlike in the ethical-mystical Jewish prohibition, as part of its process of human self-knowledge. In contrast, the theurgic Jewish Practical Kabbalah was understood by its practitioners as similar to white magic, accessing only holiness, while the danger inherent in such ventures involving the intermingling of holiness and impure Magic ensured that accessing the Qlipoth remained a minor and restricted practice in Jewish history.


title: Qliphoth

text: Christian Knorr von Rosenroth's Latin "Kabbala denudata" (1684) (translated "The Kabbalah Unveiled" by MacGregor Mathers) equates these forces with the Kings of Edom and also offers the suggestion they are the result of an imbalance towards Gedulah, the Pillar of Mercy or the merciful aspect of God, and have since been destroyed.


title: Qliphoth

text: In subsequent Hermetic teachings, the Qliphoth have tended, much like the sephirot, to be interpreted as mystical worlds or entities, and merged with ideas derived from demonology.


title: Qliphoth

text: In most descriptions, there are seven divisions of Hell ("Sheol" or "Tehom"; "Abaddon" or "Tzoah Rotachat"; "Be'er Shachat" (בְּאֵר שַׁחַת, "Be'er Shachath" — "pit of corruption") or "Mashchit"; "Bor Shaon" (בּוֹר שָׁאוֹן — "cistern of sound") or "Tit ha-Yaven" (טִיט הַיָוֵן — "clinging mud"); "Dumah" or "Sha'are Mavet" (שַׁעֲרֵי מָוֶת, "Sha'arei Maveth" — "gates of death"); "Neshiyyah" (נְשִׁיָּה — "oblivion", "Limbo") or "Tzalmavet"; and "Eretz Tachtit" (אֶרֶץ תַּחְתִּית, "Erets Tachtith" — "lowest earth") or "Gehenna"), twelve Qliphotic orders of demons, three powers before Satan and twenty-two demons which correspond to the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet.


title: Qliphoth

text: According to Aleister Crowley, the three evil forms (before Samael), are said to be Qemetial, Belial, and Othiel.


title: Qliphoth

text: Crowley (who call them "Orders of Qliphoth") and Israel Regardie lists the qliphoth as: תאומיאל (Thaumiel), עוגואל (Ghogiel), סאתאריאל (Satariel), געסכלה (Agshekeloh), גולחב (Golohab), תגרירון (Tagiriron), ערב זרק (Gharab Tzerek), סמאל (Samael), גמיאל (Gamaliel), and לילית (Lilith).


title: Qliphoth

text: Bill Heidrick gives his own interpretation on the adverse tree, saying that the spellings are "mostly reconstructions with alternatives. Nonetheless, it is believed that the majority of the above are at least suitable if not perfect". He also goes on to say that "These names are sometimes called the 'adverse Sephiroth' instead of the Demonic Orders. A. E. Waite makes this later point in his Holy Kabbalah, page 256."


title: Colgate University

text: Colgate University is a private liberal arts college in Hamilton, New York. The college was founded in 1819 as the Baptist Education Society of the State of New York and operated under that name until 1823, when it was renamed Hamilton Theological and Literary Institution, often called Hamilton College (1823–1846), then Madison College (1846–1890), and its present name since 1890.


title: Colgate University

text: Colgate University is among the 100 most selective colleges and universities in the United States, and is considered a Hidden Ivy as well as one of the Little Ivies. In addition, Colgate campus is also consistently ranked as one of the most beautiful campuses in the nation due to a singular architectural theme of the campus and a hillside location adorned with a lake and trees. The university is located in Hamilton, New York, a small town in central New York in Madison County.


title: Colgate University

text: Colgate now enrolls nearly 3,000 students in 56 undergraduate majors that culminate in a Bachelor of Arts degree. The student body is 54% female and 46% male students who participate in over 200 clubs and organizations. While Colgate offers almost an entirely undergraduate program, it also has a small graduate program in Master of Arts in Teaching.


title: Colgate University

text: According to Colgate archivist Howard Williams in his "History of Colgate University 1819–1969", "the story of Colgate’s early years is often confusing because of the variety of names used in referring to it."


title: Colgate University

text: In 1817, the Baptist Education Society of the State of New York was founded by thirteen men (six clergymen and seven laymen). Two years later, in 1819, the state granted the school's charter, and the school opened a year later, in 1820. The first classes were held in a building in the town of Hamilton. Three years later, in 1823, the Baptist Theological Seminary at New York City incorporated with the Baptist Education Society and subsequently changed its name to the Hamilton Literary & Theological Institution. Among the trustees was William Colgate, founder of the Colgate Company.


title: Colgate University

text: In 1826, the school's trustees bought farmland that later became the focal point of the campus, known as 'The Hill'. One year later, the current students and faculty of the school built West Hall, by using stone taken from a quarry found on the land. Originally called West Edifice before being renamed to West Hall, it is the oldest structure on campus. On March 26, 1846, the State of New York granted a college charter to Hamilton's Collegiate Department; in the two years prior to that, at the request of Hamilton trustees, degrees of forty-five Bachelor's students and at least one Master's candidate were awarded by Columbian College in Washington, D.C. (now the George Washington University), a fellow Baptist institution. In 1846, the school changed its name to Madison University. In 1850, the Baptist Education Society planned to move the university to Rochester, but was halted by legal action. Dissenting trustees, faculty, and students founded the University of Rochester. Another group of Baptist dissenters, calling for an end to racial and gender discrimination, had founded New-York Central College in 1849.


title: Colgate University

text: In 1890, Madison University changed its name to Colgate University in recognition of the family and its gifts to the school. James B. Colgate, one of William Colgate's sons, established a $1 million endowment called the Dodge Memorial Fund. In 1912 Colgate Academy, a preparatory school and high school that had operated in Hamilton since the early 1800s, was closed and its facility became Colgate University's administration building. The theological side of Colgate merged with the Rochester Theological Seminary in 1928 to become the Colgate Rochester Divinity School, leaving Colgate to become non-denominational.


title: Colgate University

text: During World War II, Colgate University was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission.


title: Colgate University

text: Beginning with undergraduate students admitted in 2022, Colgate plans to be fully tuition-free for students from families making $80,000 or less, cost between 5 and 10% of income for families making between $80,000 to $150,000, and meet 100% of demonstrated need for students from families making more than $150,000.


title: Colgate University

text: From its inception, the institution was an all-male institution but started to see female students attend in a limited capacity as early as the mid-1800s when Emily Taylor, daughter of then-president Stephen W. Taylor (1851–56), attended her father's moral philosophy class.


title: Colgate University

text: The institution's first full-time female student was Mabel Dart (later Colegrove), who participated in classes from 1878 to 1882. At the time, university officials deemed it best that a female student not be embarrassed by graduating from an all-male college, and made arrangements for Dart to officially receive her degree from then all-female Vassar College.


title: Colgate University

text: In the ensuing years, additional female students participated in courses, including faculty spouses and the wives of enrolled veterans in the post-WWII era. Colgate became fully coeducational in 1970.


title: Colgate University

text: The national monument at Ellis Island displays a statement by Colgate's eighth President, George Barton Cutten, which has been criticized for its jingoistic anti-immigration sentiment. He warned, "The danger [that] the 'melting pot' brings to the nation is the breeding out of the higher divisions of the white race."


title: Colgate University

text: While Cutten's legacy has been marred by the espousal of racist beliefs, the contributions he made to developing the prestige and facilities of Colgate were significant. Student protests in 2006 around campus facilities bearing Cutten's name became emblematic of the division surrounding how modern American universities should broker their own history with racism, foreshadowing future controversies in the mid-2010s at universities such as Yale University and Harvard University. Colgate removed the Cutten name from a residential complex located between Whitnall Field and Huntington Gym in 2017. Each of the four houses that compose the building—Brigham, Shepardson, Read, and Whitnall—is now known by its existing name and street address, 113 Broad Street.


title: Colgate University

text: Colgate University is located in the rural village of Hamilton Village, Hamilton, New York. The campus is situated on of land. The university owns an additional of undeveloped forested lands.


title: Colgate University

text: Colgate's first building, West Hall, was built by students and faculty from stones from Colgate's own rock quarry. Nearly all the buildings on campus are built of stone, and newer buildings are built with materials that fit the style. Old Biology Hall was built in 1884 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. The principal campus plan was created by Ernest W. Bowditch in 1891–1893, drawing on earlier recommendations by Frederick Law Olmsted.


title: Colgate University

text: Probably the most distinctive building on campus is Colgate Memorial Chapel, which was built in 1918 and is used for lectures, performances, concerts, and religious services.


title: Colgate University

text: Most of the campus's heat is generated from a wood boiler which burns wood chips, a renewable resource. Almost all of Colgate's electricity comes from a hydroelectric dam at Niagara Falls; the rest comes from nuclear sources. The campus also has a Green Bikes program with over two dozen bikes that are loaned out in an effort to encourage students to rely less on cars. Colgate Dining Services currently provides organic rice, beans, and other dry foods, and is working to offer more local foods options. Dining Services take-out containers are also made from natural materials, and are compostable. "On August 13, Colgate received a perfect sustainability score from the Princeton Review. As a result, it was recognized as one of only 24 schools (out of 861 evaluated) to make their Green Honor Roll.


title: Colgate University

text: Colgate founded the Upstate Institute in 2003. The institute was created to connect the Colgate community to its surrounding region, as well as to give back and help economically and socially sustain the area. Currently, they do research on counties in the area, as well as support outreach and volunteer organizations.


title: Colgate University

text: Colgate was an initial sponsor of Partnership for Community Development, a local nonprofit organization which seeks to support the community through the revitalization of buildings and small business development.


title: Colgate University

text: The Longyear Museum of Anthropology is part of the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at Colgate University. Carol Ann Lorenz is the Senior Curator and Jordan Kerber is the Curator of Archaeological Collections.


title: Colgate University

text: The Longyear Museum exhibition gallery is centrally located in Alumni Hall on campus. The museum has approximately 20,000 archaeological artifacts from North, Central, and South America as well as artworks from Africa, Native North America, Asia, and Oceania. Prior to the construction of the gallery, objects were exhibited in display cases in the department of Social Relations.


title: Colgate University

text: Professor of anthropology and archaeologist John M. Longyear III, who retired from Colgate University in 1978, suggested a Museum where students could study and interact with the collection.


title: Colgate University

text: Today, the Museum hosts about four exhibitions per academic year, some of which are partly curated by students. Academic classes also work in conjunction with the Longyear. As a group, students in these classes research and curate exhibitions from the Museum's collection, or create virtual exhibitions. During the summer months, students can apply for research grants to work directly with the permanent collection. In some cases, student work will result in an exhibition featuring the researched objects. Access to the collection is available to students who enroll in an independent study class and receive course credit for working with the museum.


title: Colgate University

text: The Picker Art Gallery is a fine arts museum that is housed in the Dana Arts Center at Colgate University in Hamilton, New York. It was named after Evelyn Picker, class of '36 and trustee emeritus, and opened in 1969. The Museum houses an impressive 11,000-some art objects in its permanent collections. Highlights include old master paintings from Europe, woodblock prints from China and Japan, and a series of original photographs from famed Soviet wartime photographer Yevgeny Khaldei. The Picker has also hosted exhibitions from artists across the world and collections from other museums in the US.


title: Colgate University

text: Since 2013, there have been plans to move the Picker collection to a new facility, which Colgate University has named the Center for Art and Culture. This center, which was designed and centered with the community at large in mind, includes plans for “exhibition space, seminar rooms, project space, and archive space,” along with office space, reception area, amenities, and a space for public functions. The same building plans to house the Longyear Museum of Anthropology.


title: Colgate University

text: In 2013, the Picker Art Museum launched an online campaign to display works as a digital exhibition, their first being "Selected Old Masters From the Picker Art Gallery". Other than this online gallery, all exhibition, and educational programs have been temporarily ceased due to the university's thorough assessment of the works in anticipation for the move to the new Center for Arts and Culture.


title: Colgate University

text: Colgate University edits and publishes an international academic journal entitled "Medieval & Renaissance Drama in England". It was founded in 1984 and publishes academic content related to the study of drama prior to 1642. It is part of the English Department. This journal is also indexed and available on JSTOR.


title: Colgate University

text: Colgate offers 56 undergraduate majors leading to a Bachelor of Arts degree, all of which are registered officially with the New York State Department of Education. The university also has a small Master of Arts in Teaching degree program, which graduates 3–7 students each year.


title: Colgate University

text: In addition to regular campus courses, the university offers 22 semester-long off-campus study groups each year, including programs in Australia, China, Japan, India, several Western European countries, Washington, D.C., and the National Institutes of Health. Approximately two-thirds of Colgate undergraduates study abroad, which is a high proportion compared to other colleges and universities in the United States. About 95% of seniors graduate and most alumni proceed to graduate schools in law, administration, engineering, medicine, the arts, and the sciences, as well as to financial, administrative or scientific occupations. In partnership similar to that of Haverford and Swarthmore, Colgate students are also able to enroll in classes at Hamilton College, another nearby selective liberal arts school.