title: Yaser Abdel Said

text: Three years later, in August 2020, the police began 24-hour surveillance on a home in Justin, Texas. They observed Islam and Yassein entering and exiting the home and the shadow of another man inside the home after the two men had left. After a week of surveillance, the FBI obtained a search warrant and arrested Yaser on August 26, 2020. On the same day in nearby Euless, Texas, they also arrested Islam, age 32, and Yassein Abdulfatah Said, age 59. Said's son and brother were both charged with concealing a person from arrest. Authorities suspect that other people helped Said evade arrest over the years, and a federal criminal complaint said that Islam was in contact with two more of his father’s brothers.


title: Yaser Abdel Said

text: Even though Yaser Said was indicted on capital murder charges, prosecutors did not seek the death penalty. Since his capture, he has been held at Dallas County Jail - North Tower. His trial opened on August 2, 2022. Said argued through a translator that he was not present during the murders, having taken his daughters in his taxi for a ride and that there was a threat following them that made him leave, leaving his 2 daughters alone as Said has thought he was a target. After hearing closing arguments and three hours of deliberation, the jury found Said guilty of capital murder. Dallas County District Court Judge Chika Anyiam sentenced Said to life in prison without the possibility of parole. Said is currently incarcerated at McConnell Unit in Bee County, Texas.


title: Yaser Abdel Said

text: On January 19, 2021, Islam pleaded guilty to harboring a fugitive, conspiring to harbor a fugitive, and one count of conspiracy to obstruct justice. On April 27, 2021, he was sentenced to 10 years in federal prison for the aforementioned charges. He is currently serving his sentence at Federal Correctional Institution, Big Spring.


title: Yaser Abdel Said

text: According to his defense, Yassein Abdulfatah Said claimed that he hated Yaser for what he did and that he would have never helped him if he had known what would happen. On February 4, 2021, he was found guilty of conspiracy and harboring a fugitive. He was sentenced to 12 years in federal prison on June 4, 2021. He is currently serving his sentence at Federal Correctional Institution, Bastrop.


title: The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar (film)

text: The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar is an upcoming American adventure comedy film written, produced and directed by Wes Anderson. Based on the eponymous short story contained in the 1977 collection "The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar and Six More" by Roald Dahl, the second film adaptation of a Dahl work directed by Anderson, after "Fantastic Mr. Fox" in 2009. The film stars Benedict Cumberbatch as the title character alongside Ralph Fiennes, Dev Patel, Ben Kingsley, Rupert Friend, and Richard Ayoade. It is scheduled to be released in 2023 on Netflix.


text: The film is divided into three chapters. The character of Henry Sugar will serve as a connective thread through each one.


text: In September 2021, Netflix acquired the Roald Dahl Story Company for $686 million. "The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar" project was confirmed on January 7, 2022, the day after it was reported that Wes Anderson was set to write and direct an adaptation of the Roald Dahl short story with Netflix distributing. It was announced that Benedict Cumberbatch would star as Sugar, with Ralph Fiennes, Dev Patel, and Ben Kingsley joining the cast. Rupert Friend and Richard Ayoade were later added to the cast. Filming began on January 14, 2022 in London.


title: Sasha Calle

text: Sasha Calle (; born August 7) is an American actress. She is known for her role as Lola Rosales on the CBS soap opera "The Young and the Restless", which earned her a Daytime Emmy Award nomination. She will portray the superheroine Supergirl in the DC Extended Universe in "The Flash", which will also serve as her feature film debut.


title: Sasha Calle

text: Sasha Calle was born in Boston, Massachusetts. She is of Colombian descent. She has a younger brother. She and her mother moved to Colombia when she was ten and moved back to the U.S. after two years. Calle is a graduate of the American Musical and Dramatic Academy, where she obtained a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree.


title: Sasha Calle

text: In September 2018, Calle joined the cast of the soap opera "The Young and the Restless" as chef Lola Rosales. She received a Daytime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Younger Performer in a Drama Series in 2020 for her performance. In February 2021, Calle was cast in her first film role to portray the superheroine Supergirl in the DC Extended Universe, beginning with the film "The Flash", which is set for a June 2023 release. She will be the first Latina actress to play the role.


title: Fascia

text: A fascia (; plural fasciae or fascias; adjective fascial; from Latin: "band") is a band or sheet of connective tissue, primarily collagen, beneath the skin that attaches to, stabilizes, encloses, and separates muscles and other internal organs. Fascia is classified by layer, as superficial fascia, deep fascia, and "visceral" or "parietal" fascia, or by its function and anatomical location.


title: Fascia

text: Like ligaments, aponeuroses, and tendons, fascia is made up of fibrous connective tissue containing closely packed bundles of collagen fibers oriented in a wavy pattern parallel to the direction of pull. Fascia is consequently flexible and able to resist great unidirectional tension forces until the wavy pattern of fibers has been straightened out by the pulling force. These collagen fibers are produced by fibroblasts located within the fascia.


title: Fascia

text: Fasciae are similar to ligaments and tendons as they have collagen as their major component. They differ in their location and function: ligaments join one bone to another bone, tendons join muscle to bone, and fasciae surround muscles and other structures.


title: Fascia

text: There exists some controversy about what structures are considered "fascia", and how types of fascia should be classified. The two most common systems are:


title: Fascia

text: Superficial fascia is the lowermost layer of the skin in nearly all of the regions of the body, that blends with the reticular dermis layer. It is present on the face, over the upper portion of the sternocleidomastoid, at the nape of the neck, and overlying the breastbone. It consists mainly of loose areolar, and fatty adipose connective tissue and is the layer that primarily determines the shape of a body. In addition to its subcutaneous presence, superficial fascia surrounds organs and glands, neurovascular bundles, and is found at many other locations where it fills otherwise unoccupied space. It serves as a storage medium of fat and water; as a passageway for lymph, nerve and blood vessels; and as a protective padding to cushion and insulate.


title: Fascia

text: Superficial fascia is present, but does not contain fat, in the eyelid, ear, scrotum, penis and clitoris.


title: Fascia

text: Due to its viscoelastic properties, superficial fascia can stretch to accommodate the deposition of adipose that accompanies both ordinary and prenatal weight gain. After pregnancy and weight loss, the superficial fascia slowly reverts to its original level of tension.


title: Fascia

text: Visceral fascia (also called subserous fascia) suspends the organs within their cavities and wraps them in layers of connective tissue membranes. Each of the organs is covered in a double layer of fascia; these layers are separated by a thin serous membrane.


title: Fascia

text: Visceral fascia is less extensible than superficial fascia. Due to its suspensory role of the organs, it needs to maintain its tone rather consistently. If it is too lax, it contributes to organ prolapse, yet if it is hypertonic, it restricts proper organ motility.


title: Fascia

text: Deep fascia is a layer of dense fibrous connective tissue which surrounds individual muscles, and also divides groups of muscles into fascial compartments.


title: Fascia

text: This fascia has a high density of elastin fibre that determines its extensibility or resilience. Deep fascia was originally considered to be essentially avascular but later investigations have confirmed a rich presence of thin blood vessels. Deep fascia is also richly supplied with sensory receptors. Examples of deep fascia are fascia lata, fascia cruris, brachial fascia, plantar fascia, thoracolumbar fascia and Buck's fascia.


title: Fascia

text: Fasciae were traditionally thought of as passive structures that transmit mechanical tension generated by muscular activities or external forces throughout the body. An important function of muscle fasciae is to reduce friction of muscular force. In doing so, fasciae provide a supportive and movable wrapping for nerves and blood vessels as they pass through and between muscles.


title: Fascia

text: Fascial tissues are frequently innervated by sensory nerve endings. These include myelinated as well as unmyelinated nerves. Based on this a proprioceptive, nociceptive as well as interoceptive function of fascia has been postulated.


title: Fascia

text: Fascial tissues – particularly those with tendinous or aponeurotic properties – are also able to store and release elastic potential energy.


title: Fascia

text: Fascia becomes important clinically when it loses stiffness, becomes too stiff, or has decreased shearing ability. When inflammatory fasciitis or trauma causes fibrosis and adhesions, fascial tissue fails to differentiate the adjacent structures effectively. This can happen after surgery, where the fascia has been incised and healing includes a scar that traverses the surrounding structures.


title: Fascia

text: A fascial compartment is a section within the body that contains muscles and nerves and is surrounded by fascia. In the human body, the limbs can each be divided into two segments: The upper limb can be divided into the arm and the forearm and the sectional compartments of both of these – the fascial compartments of the arm and the fascial compartments of the forearm contain an anterior and a posterior compartment. The lower limbs can be divided into two segments – the leg and the thigh – and these contain the fascial compartments of the leg and the fascial compartments of the thigh.


title: Fascia

text: A fasciotomy may be used to relieve compartment syndrome as a result of high pressure within a fascial compartment.


title: Ayane Sakura

text: Sakura was born in Ebisu, Shibuya. She had a desire in becoming an actress and decided to enroll in a theater acting school, during her junior high school years. At school, she studied Japanese dancing, stretching, sword fighting, voice training and acting, although she initially continued to pursue acting, after performing on stage, she realized that she "was different" and decided that acting was no longer a suitable career for her. At this point, she decided to become a voice actress.


title: Ayane Sakura

text: Sakura made her voice acting debut in 2010, starring in "", and playing Futaba Shirayuki in the ninth episode of the anime series "Ōkami-san & her Seven Companions", as well as voicing background characters in the anime series "Oreimo". In 2011, she voiced Merry Nightmare, the heroine of the anime series "Dream Eater Merry", as well as the character Yozora Mikazuki in the anime series "Haganai" during flashbacks. She also performed the song , which was used as the ending theme to "Dream Eater Merry". In 2012, she voiced the character Miyabi Kannagi in "Nakaimo - My Sister Is Among Them!", Marii Buratei in "Joshiraku", and Ayami Ōruri in "Pretty Rhythm: Dear My Future". She also performed the song "Heavenly Lover" together with the other cast members of "Nakaimo", and the song " which she performed together with her "Joshiraku" co-stars; the song was used as the opening theme to "Joshiraku".


title: Ayane Sakura

text: In 2013, Sakura played Asuka Mishima in "A Town Where You Live", Alisa Ayase in "Love Live!", Yuiko Enomoto in "Love Lab", Natsumi Koshigaya in "Non Non Biyori", Akane Isshiki in "Vividred Operation" and Suzuka Dairenji in "Tokyo Ravens". In 2014, she played the role of Cocoa Hoto in the anime series "Is the Order a Rabbit?"; she and her co-stars performed the series' opening theme "Daydream Cafe" as the group Petit Rabbit's. She also played Silvia Lautreamont in "Dragonar Academy", Yuzuki Kurebayashi in "Selector Infected WIXOSS", Levi Kazama in "Trinity Seven" and Tsubaki Sawabe in "Your Lie in April". In 2015, Sakura reprised the role for the second season of "Is the Order a Rabbit?"; she and her co-stars performed the series' opening theme "No-Poi!". She voiced Nao Tomori in "Charlotte", Iroha Isshiki in "My Youth Romantic Comedy Is Wrong, As I Expected", Haru Onodera in "Nisekoi", and Moa in "Show by Rock!!". In 2016, Sakura played Ochaco Uraraka in "My Hero Academia", Rena Asteria in "" and Ryoka Narusawa in "Occultic;Nine". In 2017, she played the roles of Hikari Tsuneki in "Seiren", Phoena in "Chain Chronicle", and Shizuku Hanaoka in "Welcome to the Ballroom". Sakura shared the Best Supporting Actress Award at the 12th Seiyu Awards with Saori Ōnishi. In 2018, she played the roles of Yū Ōsawa in "Ms. Koizumi Loves Ramen Noodles" and Saiko Yonebayashi in "Tokyo Ghoul:re". In 2019, she played Yotsuba Nakano in "The Quintessential Quintuplets".


title: Ayane Sakura

text: On January 31, 2022, Sakura announced that she has left her talent agency I'm Enterprise. The following day, Aoni Production announced that she has joined their agency.


title: Call Me by Your Name (novel)

text: Call Me by Your Name is a 2007 coming-of-age novel by American writer André Aciman that centers on a blossoming romantic relationship between an intellectually precocious, curious, and pretentious 17-year-old American-Italian Jewish boy named Elio Perlman and a visiting 24-year-old American Jewish scholar named Oliver in 1980s Italy. The novel chronicles their summer romance and the 20 years that follow. A sequel to the novel, "Find Me", was released in October 2019.


title: Call Me by Your Name (novel)

text: The narrator, Elio Perlman, recalls the events of the summer of about 1983, when he was seventeen and living with his parents in Italy. Each summer, his parents would take in a doctoral student as a house guest for six weeks, who would revise a book manuscript while assisting his father with academic paperwork. Elio resents the tradition, as it requires him to vacate his bedroom so the guest can use it for the duration of their stay.


title: Call Me by Your Name (novel)

text: Oliver, the guest for the summer, is carefree and detached—a stark contrast to Elio's introversion. Elio selected Oliver as a guest in the hopes of "instant affinities" between them and acts as his tour guide, though Elio's attempts to impress Oliver are met with indifference. Though Elio recognizes his own bisexuality and his attraction to Oliver—he is particularly excited by his discovery that Oliver is Jewish, seeing it as a bond between them—he doubts that Oliver reciprocates his feelings.


title: Call Me by Your Name (novel)

text: One day, Elio sneaks into Oliver's room, and masturbates while wearing Oliver's swimming trunks. Later, Elio confesses his attraction to Oliver, and they kiss on a berm where Claude Monet had supposedly painted some of his pictures. When Elio touches Oliver's penis through his clothes, Oliver pushes him away.


title: Call Me by Your Name (novel)

text: Oliver and Elio grow distant in the subsequent days. Elio begins an affair—more taking advantage of her, than anything—with Marzia, a local girl around his own age. Seeking reconciliation, Oliver slips a note under Elio’s bedroom door, with a plan to meet at midnight. At midnight, Elio enters Oliver's room, where they have sex. Elio feels guilty about the encounter, and decides that he cannot continue his relationship with Oliver.


title: Call Me by Your Name (novel)

text: The next morning, Oliver wears Elio's bathing suit to breakfast—mirroring Elio's earlier fetishistic behavior—and later performs oral stimulation on Elio to see if he gets hard, which he does. Elio realizes that his attraction to Oliver persists, and that he wishes to continue their relationship. Elio visits Marzia's house, and the two have sex; in the afternoon he masturbates with a cut peach, and ejaculates inside of it. Oliver later visits Elio's room, eats the peach and its contents, and again has sex with Elio.


title: Call Me by Your Name (novel)

text: Before returning to the United States, Oliver decides to spend three days in Rome, where he is accompanied by Elio. Upon returning from the trip, Elio is saddened to find that his belongings have already been returned to his original bedroom, and that all traces of Oliver's visit have vanished. Elio has a discussion with his father, who says that he approves of the friendship (and relationship) between Elio and Oliver.


title: Call Me by Your Name (novel)

text: That Christmas, Oliver again visits the Perlman family, and announces that he intends to marry next summer. Oliver and Elio fall out of touch, and do not communicate with each other for many years.


title: Call Me by Your Name (novel)

text: Fifteen years later, Elio visits Oliver in the United States, where Oliver is now a professor. Elio is unwilling to meet Oliver's wife and children, admitting that he still feels attraction towards Oliver and jealousy towards his new family. Oliver admits that he has followed Elio's academic career, and shows him a postcard that he brought with him when he left Italy and has kept over the years. During a final meeting at a bar, Elio and Oliver muse that people can lead two parallel lives—one in reality, and one a fantasy that is denied to them by external forces.


title: Call Me by Your Name (novel)

text: Twenty years after their first meeting and one year before the narrator's present, Oliver visits Elio's family home in Italy. They recall their time together; Elio informs Oliver that his father has died, and that he has spread his ashes all over the world. The novel concludes with Elio, as the narrator, remarking to the reader that if Oliver remembered everything as he says he did, he should once more "look me in the face, hold my gaze, and call me by your name."


title: Call Me by Your Name (novel)

text: "Call Me by Your Name" received widespread acclaim from literary critics, with review aggregator Book Marks reporting zero negative and zero mixed reviews among 10 total, indicating "rave" reviews.


title: Call Me by Your Name (novel)

text: Reviewing for "The New York Times", Stacey D'Erasmo called the novel "an exceptionally beautiful book". Writing in "The New Yorker", Cynthia Zarin said, "Aciman’s first novel shows him to be an acute grammarian of desire". In "The Washington Post", Charles Kaiser said, "If you have ever been the willing victim of obsessive love—a force greater than yourself that pulls you inextricably toward the object of your desire—you will recognize every nuance of André Aciman's superb new novel, "Call Me by Your Name"."


title: Call Me by Your Name (novel)

text: According to Nielsen BookScan, , the book has sold 33,376 copies for £252,675 in the United Kingdom. In early November 2017, the book went from 618 copies sold to 1,164, an 88% jump in volume week on week. It reached 2,012 copies sold for the week ending February 3.


title: Call Me by Your Name (novel)

text: A film adaptation directed by Luca Guadagnino and starring Timothée Chalamet as Elio, Armie Hammer as Oliver, and Michael Stuhlbarg as Elio's father was released on November 24, 2017, in the United States to critical acclaim. At the 90th Academy Awards, it was nominated for Best Picture, Best Actor (Chalamet), Best Original Song ("Mystery of Love" by Sufjan Stevens), and Best Adapted Screenplay (James Ivory), winning the latter.


title: Call Me by Your Name (novel)

text: On December 3, 2018, Aciman announced on his Twitter account that he was writing a sequel to "Call Me by Your Name". On March 20, 2019, Aciman announced the sequel's title, "Find Me". It was published by Farrar, Straus and Giroux on October 29, 2019.


title: Zen 2

text: Zen 2 is a computer processor microarchitecture by AMD. It is the successor of AMD's Zen and Zen+ microarchitectures, and is fabricated on the 7 nanometer MOSFET node from TSMC. The microarchitecture powers the third generation of Ryzen processors, known as Ryzen 3000 for the mainstream desktop chips (codename "Matisse"), Ryzen 4000U/H (codename "Renoir") and Ryzen 5000U (codename "Lucienne") for mobile applications, as Threadripper 3000 for high-end desktop systems, and as Ryzen 4000G for accelerated processing units (APUs). The Ryzen 3000 series CPUs were released on 7 July 2019, while the Zen 2-based Epyc server CPUs (codename "Rome") were released on 7 August 2019. An additional chip, the Ryzen 9 3950X, was released in November 2019.


title: Zen 2

text: At CES 2019, AMD showed a Ryzen third-generation engineering sample that contained one chiplet with eight cores and 16 threads. AMD CEO Lisa Su also said to expect more than eight cores in the final lineup. At Computex 2019, AMD revealed that the Zen 2 "Matisse" processors would feature up to 12 cores, and a few weeks later a 16 core processor was also revealed at E3 2019, being the aforementioned Ryzen 9 3950X.


title: Zen 2

text: Zen 2 includes hardware mitigations to the Spectre security vulnerability. Zen 2-based EPYC server CPUs use a design in which multiple CPU dies (up to eight in total) manufactured on a 7 nm process ("chiplets") are combined with a 14 nm I/O die on each multi-chip module (MCM) package. Using this, up to 64 physical cores and 128 total compute threads (with simultaneous multithreading) are supported per socket. This architecture is nearly identical to the layout of the "pro-consumer" flagship processor Threadripper 3990X. Zen 2 delivers about 15% more instructions per clock than Zen and Zen+, the 14- and 12-nm microarchitectures utilized on first and second generation Ryzen respectively.


title: Zen 2

text: The Steam Deck, PlayStation 5, Xbox Series X and Series S all use chips based on the Zen 2 microarchitecture, with proprietary tweaks and different configurations in each system's implementation than AMD sells in its own commercially available APUs.


title: Zen 2

text: Zen 2 is a significant departure from the physical design paradigm of AMD's previous Zen architectures, Zen and Zen+. Zen 2 moves to a multi-chip module design where the I/O components of the CPU are laid out on its own, separate die, which is also called a chiplet in this context. This separation has benefits in scalability and manufacturability. As physical interfaces don't scale very well with shrinks in process technology, their separation into a different die allows these components to be manufactured using a larger, more mature process node than the CPU dies. The CPU dies (referred to by AMD as or CCDs), now more compact due to the move of I/O components onto another die, can be manufactured using a smaller process with fewer manufacturing defects than a larger die would exhibit (since the chances of a die having a defect increases with device (die) size) while also allowing for more dies per wafer. In addition, the central I/O die can service multiple chiplets, making it easier to construct processors with a large number of cores.


title: Zen 2

text: With Zen 2, each CPU chiplet houses 8 CPU cores, arranged in 2 (CCXs), each of 4 CPU cores. These chiplets are manufactured using TSMC's 7 nanometer MOSFET node and are about 74 to 80 mm in size. The chiplet has about 3.8 billion transistors, while the 12 nm I/O die (IOD) is ~125 mm and has 2.09 billion transistors. The amount of L3 cache has been doubled to 32 MB, with each CCX in the chiplet now having access to 16 MB of L3 compared to the 8 MB of Zen and Zen+. AVX2 performance is greatly improved by an increase in execution unit width from 128-bit to 256-bit. There are multiple variants of the I/O die: one manufactured on GlobalFoundries 14 nanometer process, and another manufactured using the same company's 12 nanometer process. The 14 nanometer dies have more features and are used for the EPYC Rome processors, whereas the 12 nm versions are used for consumer processors. Both processes have similar feature sizes, so their transistor density is also similar.


title: Zen 2

text: AMD's Zen 2 architecture can deliver higher performance at a lower power consumption than Intel's Cascade Lake architecture, with an example being the AMD Ryzen Threadripper 3970X running with a TDP of 140W in ECO mode delivering higher performance than the Intel Core i9-10980XE running with a TDP of 165W.


title: Zen 2

text: On 26 May 2019, AMD announced six Zen 2-based desktop Ryzen processors (codenamed "Matisse"). These included 6-core and 8-core variants in the Ryzen 5 and Ryzen 7 product lines, as well as a new Ryzen 9 line that includes the company's first 12-core and 16-core mainstream desktop processors.


title: Zen 2

text: AMD's second generation of Epyc processors, codenamed "Rome", feature up to 64 cores, and were launched on 7 August 2019.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: Dr. Tommy Oliver is a fictional character and the overarching main protagonist of the American live-action television franchise "Power Rangers". He is best known as being the original Green Ranger and the first evil Ranger who fought and nearly defeated the original Power Rangers while under the control of Rita Repulsa. He was eventually freed from Rita’s spell and aligned himself with the other Power Rangers. He is a main character in the "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers" TV series, as well as four of its successive incarnations "Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers", "Power Rangers Zeo", "Power Rangers Turbo", and "Power Rangers Dino Thunder" (where he returns as a legendary Power Ranger veteran). He also appeared in the "Power Rangers Wild Force" episode "Forever Red", the "Power Rangers S.P.D." episode "Wormhole", the "Power Rangers Super Megaforce" episode "Legendary Battle", and in the "Power Rangers Super Ninja Steel" episode "Dimensions in Danger". He has been portrayed by actor Jason David Frank in all of his appearances with the exception of the episode "Wormhole", where he appeared only in Ranger form and was voiced by actor Jeffrey Parazzo (who played Trent Mercer in "Dino Thunder"). He was also infrequently portrayed by actor Michael R. Gotto in instances where the story required the character during childhood, such as in the series "Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers".


title: Tommy Oliver

text: According to the character's history, Tommy is a legend among the Power Rangers community and is considered to be the greatest Power Ranger of all time, having been five different Power Rangers — the Green Ranger, the White Ranger, Zeo Ranger V–Red, the Red Turbo Ranger, and the Black Dino Ranger — and a part of four Ranger teams over the years. In addition, Tommy is a lifelong practitioner of the martial arts; during the first season of "Power Rangers", he was referred to as having a third-degree black belt in karate. By "Power Rangers Dino Thunder", he is a 6th degree black belt. ("Return of the Ranger", "Power Rangers Dino Thunder – Collision Course" DVD). Tommy serves as a love interest to the original Pink Ranger Kimberly Hart before their separation. He later pursues a relationship with Kimberly's successor Kat Hillard.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: Tommy Oliver is first introduced in the "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers" five-part episode "Green with Evil" as a new student at Angel Grove High School. Unlike other Power Rangers, his outfit includes a golden shield armor, two golden armbands, triangles instead of diamonds on the gloves and boots, and the belt buckle is golden instead of silver. After he spars with Jason Lee Scott (Red Power Ranger) in a martial arts tournament, they begin to develop a friendship, and he catches the eye of both Kimberly Hart (Pink Power Ranger) and the evil witch Rita Repulsa. Rita decides to enchant Tommy to be her loyal servant, granting him the Dragon Power Coin to give him the power to transform into the Green Power Ranger, possessing the Dragon Shield, which makes him stronger than the other Power Rangers, and armed with the Dragon Dagger and the Sword of Darkness. She orders him to destroy the Power Rangers and their guardian Zordon so she may be able to conquer the Earth unopposed. He succeeds in his mission, dispatching Zordon, destroying the Power Rangers' Command Center, and infecting the robot Alpha 5 with a computer virus, leaving the Rangers defenseless against attacks, but they are still able to ward him off with the Megazord. With the return of Goldar's wife Scorpina, the two wreak havoc in Angel Grove, leading the Power Rangers to use the Megazord once more, only to be attacked by Goldar, Scorpina, and the Green Ranger at once, putting the Megazord out of commission when it is thrown into the Earth's core. After this battle, the Power Rangers discover that their foe is none other than their classmate Tommy. After Tommy escapes, he uses the Dragon Dagger to summon the Dragonzord to attack the city. Zordon is revived and reveals the Power Rangers' Dinozords have been restored by the Earth's lava, allowing them to counter the Dragonzord's attack. The Red Ranger is then able to battle the Green Ranger one-on-one, and destroys the Sword of Darkness, freeing Tommy from Rita's spell. Zordon then offers Tommy a part on the team to atone for his misdeeds, and he agrees. In the original draft script for the Green Dream, Lord Zedd claims the Sword of Power was created from the remains of the Sword of Darkness. This is also stated by the announcer's intro to The Green Dream episode claiming it to be the Sword of Darkness.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: During his time with the group, Tommy recognizes Kimberly's feelings, having broken her heart while he was under Rita's spell, and he now begins to show affections for her. However, Rita's plan to use the evil Green Candle to get revenge on Tommy for leaving her employ, weakening Tommy, just as Kimberly returns his affections. Tommy is captured by Goldar and kept imprisoned in the Dark Dimension as the Green Candle burns down, draining him of his strength, due to the fact that Tommy's presence within the proximity of the Candle accelerates the Candle's burning process. Tommy is ultimately freed, but not before the Green Candle burns through completely. His powers nearly gone, after using them in one final battle with a powerful monster, he decides to give the Dragon Coin to Jason, permanently preventing Rita from attaining its power once more while allowing Jason to use Tommy's weapons and the Dragonzord. Tommy then leaves Angel Grove to recover from the endeavour.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: After Rita kidnaps all of the parents of the students of Angel Grove High School, the Power Rangers are forced to pay her ransom with their Power Coins, preventing them from using their powers. When they are double-crossed, and Rita acquires the Dragon Dagger by enchanting Billy Cranston, all seems hopeless, but Jason reveals he still has the Dragon Power Coin. The group finds Tommy once more, and with help from Zordon, Tommy is able to morph into the Green Ranger and retrieve the Power Coins and Dragon Dagger. However, his powers are now unstable and he requires constant energy boosts from Zordon in order to maintain his place as the Green Ranger.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: With the arrival of the evil Lord Zedd in season 2, the other Power Rangers are given new Thunderzords to battle his stronger monsters, but because of Tommy's unstable power reserves, the Dragonzord cannot be empowered into a new form. With this knowledge in mind, Lord Zedd sends several energy draining monsters to steal the Green Ranger's powers to the point where Zordon can no longer safely maintain himself and the Green Ranger. This culminates in the attack of the monster Turbanshell, who drains Tommy of his Green Ranger powers, trapping everyone in the Otherworld dimension, while charging the Dark Crystal to power Lord Zedd's evil Dark Rangers to attack the Earth. Tommy uses the last of his powers to destroy the Dark Crystal, ending the reign of terror of the Dark Rangers and allowing the others to defeat Turbanshell. With his powers gone once again, Tommy leaves Angel Grove, again, spending time at his uncle's lakeside cabin.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: In season 2's two-part "White Light" saga, Lord Zedd sends his monsters Nimrod, A.C., and D.C. to attack, who easily overpower the Power Rangers, leading Zordon and Alpha to come up with a plan to recruit a new Ranger. Initially the teens are put off at the idea of a newcomer out of their loyalty to Tommy, but are thrilled once they discover that it is actually Tommy himself, who has now become the White Power Ranger with his powers created by the Light of Goodness, which are unable to be stolen by the forces of evil. Unlike other Power Rangers, his costume includes a black and golden shield armor as well as golden bands instead of the diamond shapes on the gloves and chest, and the mouthpiece on his helmet lacks sculpted lips. After being installed as the team's new leader (also becoming the main protagonist), Tommy goes into battle using his new powers to defeat the monsters, including summoning the Tigerzord with his talking saber Saba. Tommy then meets Rocky DeSantos, Adam Park and Aisha Campbell as they were trying to save a baby who belongs to their teacher. After Rocky, Adam and Aisha discover Tommy's identity as the White Ranger while Tommy and Kimberly were trying to save Billy by removing his helmet, Jason, Zack and Trini were called to the peace conference in Switzerland as Tommy transfers their powers to Rocky, Adam and Aisha and allows them to join the team. Tommy later contends with a clone of his named "Tom", created and controlled by Lord Zedd's Wizard of Deception, who is given the powers of the Green Ranger, restored by using portion of the White Ranger's powers. With his worst fear from his past brought to life in front of him, Tommy battles Tom, initially seeks to destroy his clone under distress but he later recognizes that Tom is actually not evil but under the Wizard's spell as he was under Rita's, and then fights to save him. After the Wizard of Deception is destroyed during a series of battles that sends everyone back to the colonial era, Tom is freed from the spell and given free will. Tommy persuades his clone to fight to save people, and Tom decides to remain in the past to protect colonial Angel Grove despite Tommy offering Tom to join the Power Rangers, while the others return to the present time. Tom also keeps the Green Ranger powers.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: In season 3, Rita's brother Rito Revolto comes to Earth and manages to destroy the Rangers Zords and Power Coins. After the group seeks out the Power Coins creator Ninjor, he grants the team new Ninja Power Coins, and Tommy as the White Ninja Ranger receives the Falcon Power Coin and the new Falconzord. Later, Tommy meets Kat Hillard, who has been enchanted by Rita into serving her, resulting in Kimberly's powers being stolen as well as the Falconzord. When Kimberly is kidnapped by Kat and Goldar, the Power Rangers are forced by Lord Zedd to use the Shogunzords to destroy the Earth or Kimberly will be harmed. While Billy manages to take control of the Zords away from Zedd, Tommy saves Kimberly and Kat by freeing her from Rita's spell. When Kimberly is given the option to train for the Pan Global Games, she decides to give her powers to Kat, and she and Tommy keep a long-distance relationship. He and Kat also developed a close friendship due to their similar experiences with Rita; however, he is unaware that Kat is in love with him. The Falconzord is ultimately retrieved in time for Rita and Rito's father Master Vile's arrival on Earth, and the Rangers are able to use their new Metallic Armor to battle him. It is during this time that Tommy is tasked with retrieving the Zeo Crystal from beneath Rita and Zedd's palace, as only a being of pure heart can pass through its force field and survive. Tommy manages to traverse the Caves of Deception to find the Zeo Crystal, and the team uses their powers to split it into five pieces and send it to different parts of history so Master Vile can never use its powers to harm the Earth.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: In the events of "Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers", Tommy, the other Power Rangers, and all of Angel Grove are sent back in time by Master Vile's Orb of Doom, reverting the Power Rangers to children. While the Aquitian Rangers protect the Earth from Master Vile's monsters, Billy manages to create a device to restore them to their original age, using their six Ninja Power Coins to power it. Billy is restored to his original age, but the machine is stolen by Rito and Goldar, and Rita and Zedd destroy the Ninja Power Coins. The five child Power Rangers are sent through time to retrieve the pieces of the Zeo Crystal. Tommy is sent to a point in the past on Native American land, where he meets Sam Trueheart who leads him to a test where he must find the Red Sub-Crystal amongst two fakes. After succeeding, Tommy returns to the present time, but not before Sam gives him half of an arrowhead pendant.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: During "Power Rangers Zeo", time is restored to normal and Tommy, with Kat, Rocky, Adam, and new friend Tanya Sloan replacing Aisha Campbell who chose to stay in Africa, is given the powers of the Zeo Crystal and the Zeo Rangers protect the Earth from the Machine Empire. Tommy remains the team's leader and is assigned to be the Red Zeo Ranger. Later, Kimberly, while she is living in Paris for the Pan Global Games, sends Tommy a Dear John letter, ending their relationship. Kat attempts to find a new girlfriend for Tommy despite her feelings for him, but their duties as Power Rangers prevent any relationship from blossoming. Ultimately, Tommy and Kat begin dating. A holiday special during the season shows an elderly Tommy and Kat entertaining their granddaughter, and their teenaged grandson, who is hinted to be a Power Ranger. When the Zeo Megazord is heavily damaged, Tommy is given the Red Battlezord to control with his mind. Unable to control his emotions to use the Red Battlezord, Tommy goes on a spiritual journey to find peace of mind, and meets up with his long-lost twin brother David Truehart (portrayed by Jason David Frank's real brother Erik Frank). He too possesses half of an arrowhead pendant, and he reveals to Tommy that if the two halves are joined the holder could use the spirits trapped within them to control a darkness powerful enough to destroy the world. When David is captured by King Mondo, Tommy frees him, and under the stress of protecting his brother from the Machine Empire who will not leave as they are both in trouble, he reveals his identity as a Power Ranger to him. When the Rangers' ally Trey of Triforia can no longer sustain his Gold Ranger powers after a battle, Tommy recruits Jason, who has returned from Switzerland to be the new temporary Gold Ranger, reuniting the old friends. This proves useful when Tommy is brainwashed by the Machine Empire's Prince Gasket into thinking his friends are a threat to the world, as Jason and Kat are able to return Tommy to his senses. Jason leaves when Trey's health is restored.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: In "", Tommy and Kat are sent to save the wizard Lerigot from the evil Space Pirate Divatox, who plans on wedding Maligore, a powerful monster, in order to take over the world. With their Zeo Ranger powers not strong enough, Tommy, with the other Power Rangers- and new member Justin Stewart replacing Rocky DeSantos due to a recent back injury- are given new powers to morph into the Turbo Rangers, with Tommy still serving as team leader as the Red Turbo Ranger. They use their new powers to save Jason and Kimberly, who have been kidnapped by Divatox as sacrifices for Maligore.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: In "Power Rangers Turbo", as he and his friends graduate from high school, Tommy becomes interested in stock car racing. The group also deals with the Blue Senturion who has been tricked by Divatox into thinking the Rangers are evil and preventing him from telling the Rangers the Millennium Message, a warning that the forces of evil are joining together out in space. After Zordon and Alpha 5 leave the Earth to deal this threat, the team's new guardian Dimitria eventually judges that Tommy, along with Kat, Adam, and Tanya, has fulfilled their duties as defenders of the Earth. In the episode "Passing the Torch", Divatox's mother Mama D convinces her that taking out Tommy will cause the fall of the rest of Power Rangers. Their new allies T.J. Johnson and Cassie Chan manage to help Kat fend off the Pirahantrons, and save Tommy from Divatox and Mama D's plans, resulting in Tommy (who is leaving for MIT university to become a teacher) deciding that T.J. should be his successor as the new Red Turbo Ranger.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: Five years after Tommy gave his powers to T.J., Tommy returns in the "Power Rangers Wild Force" episode "Forever Red", where he is shown to own a resort with Bulk and Skull. Tommy leads a team made up of former Red Power Rangers, recruiting the current Red Ranger Cole Evans to help stop remnants of the Machine Empire from resurrecting Lord Zedd's evil Zord Serpentera and attack the Earth. Tommy uses his Zeo Ranger powers to combat the enemies.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: Between the events in "Turbo" and "Power Rangers Dino Thunder", Tommy earns a PhD in paleontology at MIT. He also meets Hayley Ziktor and goes into business as partners with Terrence "Smitty" Smith and Dr. Anton Mercer, who together work on research that results in the creation of the Tyrannodrones, Raptor Riders, and the new Dinozords. A lab accident turns Mercer into the evil Mesogog, and Smitty is left for dead, until he is revived by Mesogog into the cyborg Zeltrax. It is during these events that Tommy discovers the Dino Gems, hiding them in his lab, and the location of the Shield of Triumph. While Mesogog gains control of the Tyrannodrones, Tommy keeps the Raptor Riders and Dinozords, working with Hayley to create equipment to harness the Dino Gems' powers, while he gets a job at Reefside High School as a science teacher. Three of his students who received detention—Conner McKnight, Ethan James, and Kira Ford—discover his lab and use three of the Dino Gems to become the new Dino Thunder Power Rangers. Tommy mentors the group, keeping his past secret, until he discovers the monsters attacking Reefside are controlled by Mesogog. His three students soon discover the man they know as "Dr. O" was one of the previous Power Rangers, a fact that Hayley corrects them on by saying that he was one of the best. Tommy, using the powers of the Black Dino Gem, joins the group as the Black Dino Ranger and became the second-in-command, controlling the Brachiozord.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: When the White Dino Ranger appears, Tommy's dedication to saving the lives of innocents seems to give Tommy cause to show no mercy to him, even after he discovers that the White Dino Ranger is Trent Mercer. For a while, Tommy is encased in amber by the White Dino Ranger, and once freed, finds himself unable to de-morph, due to his Dino Gem and his morpher re-molecularizing. He remains in his morphed form for a while. Despite this resolve, he cannot help but feel sympathy for Trent when his students did not, reminding the others of his tenure as the evil Green Power Ranger. After seeing the power of the White Ranger Clone and the Terrorsaurus, Tommy decides that the Rangers need an upgrade. He takes Trent to the location of the Shield of Triumph, as the shield can only be freed from its resting place by the power of Trent's Dino Gem. The Shield is then used by Conner to become the Triassic Ranger, just as a prophecy Tommy had read during its discovery foretold. Tommy is later freed from his permanently morphed status by a special substance, but is rendered invisible. He decides to run an experiment to return himself to normal, but it shatters the Black Dino Gem and leaves him comatose. In his subconscious, he battles against his previous Power Ranger alter-egos: Zeo Ranger V, the White Power Ranger, and then the Green Power Ranger. After proving that he will not give up the fight for his life, his inner selves each offer him a shattered piece of his Dino Gem, restoring him to full health and allowing him to attain Super Dino Mode when morphed. During his mentoring of the Dino Thunder Rangers, Tommy notes similarities in his past in Conner, placing a lot of trust into him. His mentoring of Conner through a point where the young man doubts himself, allows Conner to overcome these feelings and gain the Battlizer. When Tommy learns that Trent has been keeping his father's identity as Mesogog secret, Tommy considers removing Trent from the team. Although he comes to terms with Trent's loyalty to his father, he asks the others if Trent should stay, and they agree when Trent saves Conner's life. In the final battles against Zeltrax and Mesogog, having been liberated from sharing a body with Anton Mercer, Tommy informs the Rangers that they must give up their powers in order to save the world. Zeltrax is destroyed with the destruction of the Dinozords, and the Rangers give up their Dino Gems to stop Mesogog for good. In the end, Tommy decides to pursue his life after Mesogog's destruction as a normal high school science teacher.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: The character of Tommy Oliver is not present during the "Power Rangers S.P.D." episode "History", in which Conner, Kira, and Ethan go to their high school reunion in 2005, wondering if Tommy will arrive, only to be taken into the future by the S.P.D. Power Rangers' foe Broodwing. Tommy does return in the episode "Wormhole" when Emperor Grumm travels back in time to take over the Earth without S.P.D.'s interference, only to encounter the Dino Rangers. According to S.P.D. Red Ranger Jack Landors, Tommy's services as a Power Ranger are well known in the future. In this episode, Jason David Frank didn't reprise his role as Tommy Oliver, and as such only appears morphed. He was instead voiced by Jeffrey Parazzo, who also portrays Trent.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: Although he doesn't appear on screen in the "Power Rangers Operation Overdrive" two-part episode "Once a Ranger", Kira mentions how Tommy would have enjoyed seeing the Operation Overdrive Power Rangers' base of operations, with Adam noting his incredulity that Tommy received a doctorate.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: Jason David Frank reprised the role of Tommy Oliver in "Power Rangers Super Megaforce". Tommy is first seen using Saba, the White Ranger's sword, to rescue a boy from a car wreck caused by the Armada's invasion. Later he is seen leading the team of Legendary Rangers, wielding his original Green Ranger powers, to aid the Megaforce Rangers in defeating the Armada.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: In the "Power Rangers Super Ninja Steel" episode "Dimensions in Danger" — marking the 25th anniversary of "Power Rangers" — Tommy is captured by Lord Draven and replaced with a robot duplicate who traps several other past Rangers, including Kat and Rocky. He escapes and joins the Ninja Steel Rangers, Wes Collins, Gemma and Koda in rescuing the other Rangers. Tommy defeats his robot duplicate using a Master Morpher — a modified Power Morpher that allows him to access any of his previous Ranger forms — to call on the powers of Dino Thunder Black, Zeo Red and Mighty Morphin White and Green Rangers. As Lord Draven attempts to destroy the multiverse, the freed Legendary Rangers join the Ninja Steel Rangers in defeating Draven's army and Tommy summons the Falconzord to thwart Draven's final strike. The episode implies that Tommy and Kat are now in a relationship and introduces Tommy's son, J.J.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: "Dimensions in Danger" marks the final appearance of Jason David Frank in "Power Rangers" before his death in 2022.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: A villainous alternate version of Tommy from another universe known as Lord Drakkon is also featured, with his costume combining elements of Tommy's green and white Ranger suits. Drakkon also controls a unique Zord called the Black Dragon. Because of the chain of events including Lord Drakkon's attacks to the Power Rangers' universe, it creates an alternate reality from the television series' continuity. He also kills Tommy before he can become the White Ranger. In 2018, Jason David Frank has been involved with Boom! Studios' "Power Rangers" comic book storyline "Shattered Grid", about the character's war against all of the incarnations of the Power Rangers and their enemies throughout their universe's timeline with Frank portraying Lord Drakkon in its promotions. During the storyline, despite Drakkon having killed Tommy as part of his first attack on the prime universe, Tommy nevertheless plays an important role in Lord Drakkon's defeat, with a chain of events having trapped Tommy's spirit in a crystal held in the weapon Drakkon used to kill his counterpart. When Drakkon succeeds in subverting the Morphing Grid and using it to rewrite the universe to make himself the hero, Tommy's spirit forces Drakkon to face his fundamental weakness, Drakkon having attacked the multiverse simply because he couldn't accept that he was the only Tommy Oliver to choose evil. Although Tommy offers his counterpart a truce, Drakkon chooses to die instead. After the multiverse is restored, the timeline returned to how it is supposed to be as depicted in the television franchise. However, Drakkon returns to threaten the prime universe, with the Omega Rangers- Jason, Trini and Zack using new powers- recruiting Drakkon for his expertise out of desperation to deal with the greater threat.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: Tommy features in the graphic novel "Soul of the Dragon", which depicts him as an old man investigating the recent disappearance of his son, J.J., who has apparently dropped out of SPD. While investigating his son's recent activities with the aid of another SPD cadet, Tommy learns that his Master Morpher was damaged the last time he used it eight years ago; as a result, he can only morph into his past Ranger identities in reverse order (Black Dino to original Green), and once he has used a morph the power coin that creates the morph will be destroyed. With the aid of a reformed Finster, Tommy learns that J.J. was actually undercover investigating the return of Scorpina and the dark wizard Lokar, culminating in Tommy giving his Master Morpher to his son so that J.J. can use the final morph for himself. As Tommy leaves for a vacation with Kat, it is revealed that J.J. has become the official SPD Green Ranger, but the dregs of power in the Master Morpher have also left him with his father's Dragon Shield.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: In "", Jason David Frank portrayed a similar version of his character from the television series, who endowed new power from warrior Dulcea and becomes the White Ninja Ranger; he harnesses the spirit of the falcon and controlling the White Falcon Ninjazord to defeat Ivan Ooze with his team. Unlike the television series, Tommy's White Ranger costume is more of an armor than a formfitting spandex.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: In "Power/Rangers" Tommy Oliver (played by Russ Bain), in this much darker reimagining, in this timeline the Machine Empire defeats the Power Rangers and destroys the Megazord in battle, Earth's governments negotiate a truce with the Machine Empire and the Power Rangers are disbanded. Tommy is a wanted fugitive, whilst trying to find out who is murdering his former teammates. He fights Rocky DeSantos, who defected to the Machine Empire. After DeSantos is killed by Kimberly Hart, Tommy knows it isn't Kimberly because she was killed during the final battle, revealing her to be Rita in disguise and also the one who has been the one killing his teammates. She asks Tommy to re-join her so they can rule the world together; Tommy refuses and attacks her.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: While Tommy Oliver did not appear in the 2017 reboot film, Jason David Frank does have a cameo role, and Tommy Oliver is referenced in a post-credits scene, setting up his role as the Green Ranger in future sequels. Frank's cameo consists of a brief appearance of him as a random citizen of Angel Grove, accompanied by Amy Jo Johnson, where he is part of a crowd gathering after the Rangers have defeated Goldar in the Megazord, and is apparently the first person to bring out his cellphone to take a picture of the Megazord. The mid-credits sequence features a teacher in charge of the weekend detention class calling for Tommy Oliver, and the camera focusing on an empty chair with a green jacket with a dragon, draped over it. The cast of the film as well as Frank himself, have expressed interest in a female version in the sequel.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: In this short film, Tommy Oliver is again played by Jason David Frank. He and former Megaforce ranger Gia Moran assist Ryu and Chun-Li in stopping the criminal M. Bison and freeing a captured Ninjor. During this film, it is revealed that Ninjor, who created the original power coins, gave Tommy an upgrade to his suit. He now has a silver and gold helmet, as well as new weapons and a darker colored suit.


title: Tommy Oliver

text: Tommy has been often voted as the most popular character of the entire franchise. The character was only intended to appear for one season but became so popular that Tommy became a breakout character and a season regular.


title: Henan

text: Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is also applied to the entirety of China proper. Henan is a birthplace of Han Chinese civilization, with over 3,200 years of recorded history and remained China's cultural, economic and political center until approximately 1,000 years ago.


title: Henan

text: Henan Province is home to many heritage sites, including the ruins of Shang dynasty capital city Yin and the Shaolin Temple. Four of the Eight Great Ancient Capitals of China, Luoyang, Anyang, Kaifeng and Zhengzhou, are in Henan. The practice of tai chi also began here in Chen Jia Gou Village (Chen style), as did the later Yang and Wu styles.


title: Henan

text: Although the name of the province () means "south of the [Yellow] river.", approximately a quarter of the province lies north of the Yellow River, also known as the Huang He. With an area of , Henan covers a large part of the fertile and densely populated North China Plain. Its neighboring provinces are Shaanxi, Shanxi, Hebei, Shandong, Anhui, and Hubei.


title: Henan

text: Henan is China's third-most populous province with a population of over 99 million as of 2020. Henan is also the world's seventh-most populous subnational entity, and, if it were a country by itself, Henan would be the 14th-most populous country in the world, ahead of Egypt and Vietnam.


title: Henan

text: Henan is the 5th-largest provincial economy of China, the second largest in South Central China after Guangdong, and the largest among inland provinces, with a nominal GDP of 5.88 trillion RMB (US$926 billion) as of 2021, ahead of the GDP of Turkey of 815 billion. If it were a country, it would be the 18th-largest economy as well as the 14th most populous as of 2021. However, per capita GDP is low compared to other eastern and central provinces. The economy continues to grow based on aluminum and coal prices, as well as agriculture, heavy industry, tourism and retail. High-tech industries and the service sector are concentrated around Zhengzhou and Luoyang.


title: Henan

text: Widely regarded as one of the cradles of Chinese civilization along with the Shanxi and Shaanxi provinces, Henan is known for its historical prosperity and periodic downturns. The economic prosperity resulted from its extensive fertile plains and its location at the heart of the country. However, its strategic location also means that it has suffered from nearly all of the major wars in China. In addition, the numerous floods of the Yellow River have caused significant damage from time to time. Kaifeng, in particular, has been buried by the Yellow River's silt seven times due to flooding.


title: Henan

text: Archaeological sites reveal that prehistoric cultures such as the Yangshao Culture and Longshan Culture were active in what is now northern Henan since the Neolithic Era. The more recent Erlitou culture has been controversially identified with the Xia dynasty, the first and largely legendary Chinese dynasty that was established, roughly, in the 21st century BC. Virtually the entire kingdom existed within what is now north and central Henan.


title: Henan

text: The Xia dynasty collapsed around the 16th century BC following the invasion of Shang, a neighboring vassal state centered around today's Shangqiu in eastern Henan. The Shang dynasty (16th–11th centuries BC) was the first literate dynasty of China. Its many capitals are located at the modern cities of Shangqiu, Yanshi, and Zhengzhou. Their last and most important capital, Yin, located in modern Anyang, is where the first Chinese writing was created.


title: Henan

text: In the 11th century BC, the Zhou dynasty of Shaanxi arrived from the west and overthrew the Shang dynasty. The capital was moved to Chang'an, and the political and economical center was moved away from Henan for the first time. In 722 BC, when Chang'an was devastated by Xionites invasions, the capital was moved back east to Luoyang. This began the Spring and Autumn period, a period of warfare and rivalry. What is now Henan and all of China was divided into a variety of small, independent states, constantly at war for control of the central plain. Although regarded formally as the ruler of China, the control that Zhou king in Luoyang exerted over the feudal kingdoms had virtually disappeared. Despite the prolonged period of instability, prominent philosophers such as Confucius emerged in this era and offered their ideas on how a state should be run. Laozi, the founder of Taoism, was born in northern Chu, part of modern-day Henan.


title: Henan

text: Later on, these states were replaced by seven large and powerful states during the Warring States period, and Henan was divided into three states, the Wei to the north, the Chu to the south, and the Han in the middle. In 221 BC, state of Qin forces from Shaanxi conquered all of the other six states, ending 800 years of warfare.


title: Henan

text: Ying Zheng, the leader of Qin, crowned himself (220 BCE) as the First Emperor. He abolished the feudal system and centralized all powers, establishing the Qin dynasty and unifying the core of the Han Chinese homeland for the first time. The empire quickly collapsed after the death (210 BCE) of Ying Zheng and was replaced by the Han dynasty in 206 BC, with its capital at Chang'an. Thus, a golden age of Chinese culture, economy, and military power began. The capital moved east to Luoyang in 25 AD, in response to a coup in Chang'an that created the short-lived Xin dynasty. Luoyang quickly regained control of China, and the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220) began, extending the golden age for another two centuries.


title: Henan

text: The late Eastern Han dynasty saw war and rivalry between regional warlords. Xuchang in central Henan was the power base of Cao Cao, who eventually succeeded in unifying all of northern China under the Kingdom of Wei. Wei then moved its capital to Luoyang, which remained the capital after the unification of China by the Western Jin dynasty. During this period Luoyang became one of the largest and most prosperous cities in the world, despite being repeatedly damaged by warfare.


title: Henan

text: With the fall of the Western Jin dynasty in the 4th and 5th centuries, nomadic peoples from the north invaded northern China and established many successive regimes in northern China, including Henan. These people were gradually assimilated into the Chinese culture in a process known as sinification.


title: Henan

text: The short-lived Sui dynasty reunified China again in 589 with its capital back in Chang'an. It collapsed due to Sui Emperor Yang's costly attempt to relocate the capital from Chang'an to Luoyang and the construction of many extravagant palaces there. The succeeding Tang dynasty (618–907) kept its capital in Chang'an, marking the beginning of China's second golden age, with Henan being one of the wealthiest places in the empire.


title: Henan

text: The Tang dynasty lasted for three centuries before it eventually succumbed to internal strife. In the Period of Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960) that followed, Kaifeng in eastern Henan became the capital of four dynasties. The Song dynasty that reunified China in 982 also had its capital at Kaifeng. Under Song rule, China entered another era of culture and prosperity, and Kaifeng overtook Luoyang and Chang'an as the largest city in China and in the world. In 1127, however, the Song dynasty succumbed to Jurchen (Jin dynasty) invaders from the north in the Jin–Song war, and in 1142 ceded all of northern China, including Henan. The Song government moved its capital to Hangzhou in Southern China, which, under the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279) continued to enjoy relative economic and culture prosperity. A prolonged period of peace and cultural and economic prosperity in the Yangtze River delta "Jiangnan" region (modern southern Jiangsu, northern Zhejiang, and Shanghai) made this the new center of Chinese culture and economy.


title: Henan

text: Kaifeng served as the Jurchen's "southern capital" from 1157 (other sources say 1161) and was reconstructed during this time. But the Jurchen kept their main capital further north, until 1214, when they were forced to move the imperial court southwards to Kaifeng in order to flee the Mongol onslaught. In 1234 they succumbed to combined Mongol and Song dynasty forces. Mongols took control, and in 1279 they conquered all of China, establishing the Yuan dynasty and set up the equivalent of modern Henan province, with borders very similar to the modern ones. Neither its territories nor its role in the economy changed under later dynasties. Henan remained important in the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and Qing dynasty (1644–1911) that followed, though its economy slowly deteriorated due to frequent natural disasters.


title: Henan

text: The Qing dynasty was overthrown by the 1911 Revolution and then the Republic of China was established in 1912, during which a man from Henan, Yuan Shikai, played an important role and thus he became the first president of Republic of China. The construction and extension of the Pinghan Railway and Longhai Railway had turned Zhengzhou, a minor county town at the time, into a major transportation hub. Despite the rise of Zhengzhou, Henan's overall economy repeatedly stumbled as it was the hardest hit by the many disasters that struck China in its modern era.


title: Henan

text: Henan suffered greatly during the Second Sino-Japanese War. In 1938, when the Imperial Japanese Army captured Kaifeng, the government led by Chiang Kai-shek bombed the Huayuankou dam in Zhengzhou in order to prevent Japanese forces from advancing further. However, this caused massive flooding in Henan, Anhui, and Jiangsu resulting in hundreds of thousands of deaths. In 1942 Henan was hit by a great famine resulting from a mix of drought, locusts and destruction caused by the war. Grain requisition policies were continued by Chinese and Japanese authorities despite the shortage of food, making the death toll far greater than it might have been otherwise.


title: Henan

text: In 1954, the new government of the People's Republic of China moved the capital of Henan from Kaifeng to Zhengzhou, as a result of its economic importance. The PRC had earlier established a short-lived Pingyuan Province consisting of what is now northern Henan and western Shandong with Xinxiang as its capital. This province was abolished in 1952.


title: Henan

text: In 1958, Yashan in Suiping County, Henan, became the first people's commune of China, heralding the beginning of the "Great Leap Forward". In the subsequent famines of the early 1960s popularly attributed to the Great Leap Forward, Henan was one of the hardest hit and millions of people died. Suffering under famine and economic chaos caused by the Great Leap, locals in Henan offered low-level resistance mostly through banditry. In 1959, however, a full peasant uprising erupted and was only defeated after twenty days of fighting.


title: Henan

text: A destructive flooding of the Huai River in the summer of 1950 prompted large-scale construction of dams on its tributaries in central and southern Henan.


title: Henan

text: Unfortunately, many of the dams were not able to withstand the extraordinarily high levels of rainfall caused by Typhoon Nina in August 1975. Sixty-two dams, the largest of which was the Banqiao Dam in Biyang County collapsed; catastrophic flooding, spread over several counties throughout Zhumadian Prefecture and further downstream, killed at least 26,000 people. Unofficial human life loss estimates, including deaths from the ensuing epidemics and famine, range as high as 85,600, 171,000 or even 230 000. This is considered the most deadly dam-related disaster in human history.


title: Henan

text: By the early 1970s, China was one of the poorest countries in the world, and Henan was one of the poorest provinces in China. In 1978, however, when the communist leader Deng Xiaoping initiated the open door policy and embraced capitalism, China entered an economic boom that continues today. The boom did not reach inland provinces such as Henan initially, but by the 1990s Henan's economy was expanding at an even faster rate than that of China overall.


title: Henan

text: In November 2004, martial law was declared in Zhongmou County, Henan, to quell deadly ethnic clashes between Han Chinese and the Muslim Hui Chinese. The reported number of deaths ranged between 7 and 148.


title: Henan

text: In July 2021, high amounts of rainfall caused flooding, killing 302 and damaging amounting to 82 billion yuan.


title: Henan

text: Henan has a diverse landscape with floodplains in the east and mountains in the west. Much of the province forms part the densely populated North China Plain, an area known as the "breadbasket of China". The Taihang Mountains intrude partially into Henan's northwestern borders from Shanxi, forming the eastern edge of Loess Plateau. To the west the Xionger and Funiu Mountains form an extensive network of mountain ranges and plateaus, supporting one of the few remaining temperate deciduous forests which once covered all of Henan. The renowned Mount Song and its Shaolin Temple is located in the far east of the region, near the capital city Zhengzhou. To the far south, the Dabie Mountains divides Hubei from Henan. The Nanyang Basin, separated from North China Plain by these mountains, is another important agricultural and population center, with culture and history distinct from the rest of Henan and closer to that of Hubei's. Unlike the rest of northern China, desertification is not a problem in Henan, though sandstorms are common in cities near the Yellow River due to the large amount of sand present in the river. At 2413.8 meters above sea level, the highest point in Henan province is Laoyachanao ().


title: Henan

text: The Yellow River passes through central Henan. It enters from the northwest, via the Sanmenxia Reservoir. After it passes Luoyang, the mountains gave way to plains. Excessive amount of sediments are formed due to the silt it picks up from the Loess Plateau, raising the riverbed and causing frequent floods which shaped the habitat of the region. More recently however, construction of dams and levees, as well as the depletion of water resources have ended the floods. The Huai River in southern Henan is another important river, and has been recognized as part of the boundary dividing northern and southern Chinese climate and culture.


title: Henan

text: Henan shares borders with six other provinces. It is bordered to the west by Shaanxi, to the south by Hubei, and to the north by Shanxi (northwest) and Hebei (northeast). To the east lie Shandong (northeast) and Anhui (southeast), whose borders meet at a narrow strip of land which separates Henan from Jiangsu to the east.


title: Henan

text: Henan has a temperate climate that is humid subtropical (Köppen "Cwa" or "Cfa") to the south of the Yellow River and bordering on humid continental (Köppen "Dwa") to the north. It has a distinct seasonal climate characterised by hot, humid summers due to the East Asian monsoon, and generally cool to cold, windy, dry winters that reflect the influence of the vast Siberian anticyclone. Temperatures average around the freezing mark in January and 27 to 28 °C in July. A great majority of the annual rainfall occurs during the summer.


title: Henan

text: Henan is divided into seventeen prefecture-level divisions: all prefecture-level cities; along with one directly administered county-level city (a sub-prefecture-level city):


title: Henan

text: These 17 prefecture-level cities and one directly administered county-level city of Henan are in turn subdivided into 157 county-level divisions (54 districts, 21 county-level cities, and 82 counties; the sub-prefecture-level city of Jiyuan is counted as a county-level city here). Those are in turn divided into 2454 township-level divisions (1181 towns, 598 townships, twelve ethnic townships, and 663 subdistricts).


title: Henan

text: With a population of approximately 93.6 million, Henan is the third most populous Chinese province after Guangdong and Shandong. It is also the fifth most populous sub-national division in the world. If it were a country by itself, it would be the twelfth most populous in the world, just behind Mexico and ahead of the Philippines. However, the hukou system shows Henan as the most populous province in China with over 103 million people, as it counts the migrant Henanese laborers as residents of Henan, instead of the province they currently reside in. On the other hand, Guangdong is shown as having only 81 million people, though the actual population is 95 million due to the influx of migrants from other provinces.


title: Henan

text: The population is highly homogeneous with 98.8% of the population being Han. Small populations of Mongols and Manchus exists in scattered rural communities as well as major urban centers.


title: Henan

text: Along with Jiangxi, Henan has one of the most unbalanced gender ratios in China. As a result of the Chinese government's one-child policy (many parents do not want the only child to be female and abort the fetus), the gender ratio was 118.46 males for 100 females in 2000. Subsequently, aborting fetuses due to their female sex was banned in Henan and heavy fines are issued for those who violate the law. In addition, daughter-only families receive an annual allowance from the government. Despite these efforts the problem seems to have become far worse. Based on a 2009 British Medical Journal study, the ratio is over 140 boys for every 100 girls in the 1–4 age group; this might be a strong exaggeration, as many families with more than one child do not register their daughters to the hukou in order to escape fines.


title: Henan

text: According to a 2012 survey only around 13% of the population of Henan belongs to organised religions, the largest groups being Buddhists with 6.4%, followed by Protestants with 5.6%, Muslims with 1.3% and Catholics with 0.5%. Henan has some important centres of Chinese Buddhism, the White Horse Temple and the famous Shaolin Monastery.


title: Henan

text: Henan has also the largest Christian population by numbers and percentage of any province of China, 6.1% of the province's population , corresponding to approximately 7 million Christians. A 2009 survey reported the share of Christians to be 9.33%. In 2019, Communist officials demolished the True Jesus Church near Zhumadian city in Henan province. In 2020, Communist officials demolished the Sunzhuang Church.


title: Henan

text: The reports didn't give figures for other types of religion; 86% of the population may be either irreligious or involved in worship of nature deities, Confucianism, Taoism and folk religious sects (for example, a sect that is endogenous to Henan is the Tianxian miaodao). According to a 2007 survey, approximately 8% of the Henanese believe in and are involved in ancestor veneration, the traditional Chinese religion of the lineages organised into lineage churches and ancestral shrines.


title: Henan

text: The Government of Henan is structured in a dual party-government system like all other governing institutions in mainland China.


title: Henan

text: The Governor of Henan is the highest-ranking official in the People's Government of Henan. However, in the province's dual party-government governing system, the Governor has less power than the Henan Chinese Communist Party Provincial Committee Secretary, colloquially termed the "Henan CCP Party Chief".


title: Henan

text: Henan has seen rapid development in its economy over the past two decades, and its economy has expanded at an even faster rate than the national average of 10%. This rapid growth has transformed Henan from one of the poorest provinces to one that matches other central provinces.


title: Henan

text: Henan is the 5th-largest provincial economy of China, the second largest in South Central China after Guangdong, the largest in Central China and the largest among inland provinces, with a nominal GDP of 5.88 trillion RMB (US$926 billion) as of 2021, ahead of the GDP of Turkey of 815 billion. If it were a country, it would be the 18th-largest economy as well as the 14th most populous as of 2021. However, per capita GDP is low compared to other eastern and central provinces.


title: Henan

text: Henan is a semi-industrialized economy with an underdeveloped service sector. Agriculture has traditionally been a pillar of its economy, with the nation's highest wheat and sesame output and second highest rice output, earning its reputation as the breadbasket of China. Henan is also an important producer of beef, cotton, maize, pork, animal oil, and corn.


title: Henan

text: Although Henan's industry has traditionally been based on light textiles and food processing, recent developments have diversified the industry sector to metallurgy, petrol, cement, chemical industry, machinery and electronics. Henan has the second largest molybdenum reserves in the world. Coal, aluminum, alkaline metals and tungsten are also present in large amounts in western Henan. Henan houses some of the biggest limestone reserves in China estimated over 24 billion tons. Export and processing of these materials is one of the main sources of revenues.


title: Henan

text: Henan is actively trying to build its economy around the provincial capital of Zhengzhou, and it is hoped that the province may become an important transportation and manufacturing hub in the years to come.


title: Henan

text: Henan has some of the most advanced transportation system in China due to its flat terrain and its location at the heart of central China's construction boom. The Jingguang and Longhai Railway, the nation's two most important railways, run through much of the province and intersect at Zhengzhou. Other railway hubs such as Shangqiu, Xinxiang, and Luohe have also become important centers of trade and manufacturing as a result. A high-speed railway links Zhengzhou with Xi'an. Henan's expressway system is highly developed and the total length is approximately , the highest total for any Chinese province. The state of air transport is less stellar, the only 3 public airports are located in Xinzheng (near Zhengzhou), Luoyang, and Nanyang.


title: Henan

text: Henan is located in the Yellow River valley where ancient people lived. Intricate pottery, writing and musical instruments of the Peiligang Culture and Yangshao Culture arose during neolithic times. Three of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China are in Henan: Luoyang, Kaifeng and Anyang. 16 historical sites in Henan are protected at the national level and 267 more at the provincial level.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom, discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford based on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment. After the discovery of the neutron in 1932, models for a nucleus composed of protons and neutrons were quickly developed by Dmitri Ivanenko and Werner Heisenberg. An atom is composed of a positively charged nucleus, with a cloud of negatively charged electrons surrounding it, bound together by electrostatic force. Almost all of the mass of an atom is located in the nucleus, with a very small contribution from the electron cloud. Protons and neutrons are bound together to form a nucleus by the nuclear force.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The diameter of the nucleus is in the range of () for hydrogen (the diameter of a single proton) to about for uranium. These dimensions are much smaller than the diameter of the atom itself (nucleus + electron cloud), by a factor of about 26,634 (uranium atomic radius is about ()) to about 60,250 (hydrogen atomic radius is about ).


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The branch of physics concerned with the study and understanding of the atomic nucleus, including its composition and the forces that bind it together, is called nuclear physics.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The nucleus was discovered in 1911, as a result of Ernest Rutherford's efforts to test Thomson's "plum pudding model" of the atom. The electron had already been discovered by J.J. Thomson. Knowing that atoms are electrically neutral, J.J.Thomson postulated that there must be a positive charge as well. In his plum pudding model, Thomson suggested that an atom consisted of negative electrons randomly scattered within a sphere of positive charge. Ernest Rutherford later devised an experiment with his research partner Hans Geiger and with help of Ernest Marsden, that involved the deflection of alpha particles (helium nuclei) directed at a thin sheet of metal foil. He reasoned that if J.J Thomson's model were correct, the positively charged alpha particles would easily pass through the foil with very little deviation in their paths, as the foil should act as electrically neutral if the negative and positive charges are so intimately mixed as to make it appear neutral. To his surprise, many of the particles were deflected at very large angles. Because the mass of an alpha particle is about 8000 times that of an electron, it became apparent that a very strong force must be present if it could deflect the massive and fast moving alpha particles. He realized that the plum pudding model could not be accurate and that the deflections of the alpha particles could only be explained if the positive and negative charges were separated from each other and that the mass of the atom was a concentrated point of positive charge. This justified the idea of a nuclear atom with a dense center of positive charge and mass.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The term nucleus is from the Latin word , a diminutive of ('nut'), meaning 'the kernel' (i.e., the 'small nut') inside a watery type of fruit (like a peach). In 1844, Michael Faraday used the term to refer to the "central point of an atom". The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1912. The adoption of the term "nucleus" to atomic theory, however, was not immediate. In 1916, for example, Gilbert N. Lewis stated, in his famous article "The Atom and the Molecule", that "the atom is composed of the "kernel" and an outer atom or "shell.""


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The nucleus of an atom consists of neutrons and protons, which in turn are the manifestation of more elementary particles, called quarks, that are held in association by the nuclear strong force in certain stable combinations of hadrons, called baryons. The nuclear strong force extends far enough from each baryon so as to bind the neutrons and protons together against the repulsive electrical force between the positively charged protons. The nuclear strong force has a very short range, and essentially drops to zero just beyond the edge of the nucleus. The collective action of the positively charged nucleus is to hold the electrically negative charged electrons in their orbits about the nucleus. The collection of negatively charged electrons orbiting the nucleus display an affinity for certain configurations and numbers of electrons that make their orbits stable. Which chemical element an atom represents is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus; the neutral atom will have an equal number of electrons orbiting that nucleus. Individual chemical elements can create more stable electron configurations by combining to share their electrons. It is that sharing of electrons to create stable electronic orbits about the nuclei that appears to us as the chemistry of our macro world.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Protons define the entire charge of a nucleus, and hence its chemical identity. Neutrons are electrically neutral, but contribute to the mass of a nucleus to nearly the same extent as the protons. Neutrons can explain the phenomenon of isotopes (same atomic number with different atomic mass). The main role of neutrons is to reduce electrostatic repulsion inside the nucleus.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Protons and neutrons are fermions, with different values of the strong isospin quantum number, so two protons and two neutrons can share the same space wave function since they are not identical quantum entities. They are sometimes viewed as two different quantum states of the same particle, the "nucleon". Two fermions, such as two protons, or two neutrons, or a proton + neutron (the deuteron) can exhibit bosonic behavior when they become loosely bound in pairs, which have integer spin.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: In the rare case of a hypernucleus, a third baryon called a hyperon, containing one or more strange quarks and/or other unusual quark(s), can also share the wave function. However, this type of nucleus is extremely unstable and not found on Earth except in high-energy physics experiments.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The neutron has a positively charged core of radius ≈ 0.3 fm surrounded by a compensating negative charge of radius between 0.3 fm and 2 fm. The proton has an approximately exponentially decaying positive charge distribution with a mean square radius of about 0.8 fm.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Nuclei can be spherical, rugby ball-shaped (prolate deformation), discus-shaped (oblate deformation), triaxial (a combination of oblate and prolate deformation) or pear-shaped.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Nuclei are bound together by the residual strong force (nuclear force). The residual strong force is a minor residuum of the strong interaction which binds quarks together to form protons and neutrons. This force is much weaker "between" neutrons and protons because it is mostly neutralized within them, in the same way that electromagnetic forces "between" neutral atoms (such as van der Waals forces that act between two inert gas atoms) are much weaker than the electromagnetic forces that hold the parts of the atoms together internally (for example, the forces that hold the electrons in an inert gas atom bound to its nucleus).


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The nuclear force is highly attractive at the distance of typical nucleon separation, and this overwhelms the repulsion between protons due to the electromagnetic force, thus allowing nuclei to exist. However, the residual strong force has a limited range because it decays quickly with distance (see Yukawa potential); thus only nuclei smaller than a certain size can be completely stable. The largest known completely stable nucleus (i.e. stable to alpha, beta, and gamma decay) is lead-208 which contains a total of 208 nucleons (126 neutrons and 82 protons). Nuclei larger than this maximum are unstable and tend to be increasingly short-lived with larger numbers of nucleons. However, bismuth-209 is also stable to beta decay and has the longest half-life to alpha decay of any known isotope, estimated at a billion times longer than the age of the universe.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The residual strong force is effective over a very short range (usually only a few femtometres (fm); roughly one or two nucleon diameters) and causes an attraction between any pair of nucleons. For example, between protons and neutrons to form [NP] deuteron, and also between protons and protons, and neutrons and neutrons.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The effective absolute limit of the range of the nuclear force (also known as residual strong force) is represented by halo nuclei such as lithium-11 or boron-14, in which dineutrons, or other collections of neutrons, orbit at distances of about (roughly similar to the radius of the nucleus of uranium-238). These nuclei are not maximally dense. Halo nuclei form at the extreme edges of the chart of the nuclides—the neutron drip line and proton drip line—and are all unstable with short half-lives, measured in milliseconds; for example, lithium-11 has a half-life of .


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Halos in effect represent an excited state with nucleons in an outer quantum shell which has unfilled energy levels "below" it (both in terms of radius and energy). The halo may be made of either neutrons [NN, NNN] or protons [PP, PPP]. Nuclei which have a single neutron halo include Be and C. A two-neutron halo is exhibited by He, Li, B, B and C. Two-neutron halo nuclei break into three fragments, never two, and are called "Borromean nuclei" because of this behavior (referring to a system of three interlocked rings in which breaking any ring frees both of the others). He and Be both exhibit a four-neutron halo. Nuclei which have a proton halo include B and P. A two-proton halo is exhibited by Ne and S. Proton halos are expected to be more rare and unstable than the neutron examples, because of the repulsive electromagnetic forces of the excess proton(s).


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Although the standard model of physics is widely believed to completely describe the composition and behavior of the nucleus, generating predictions from theory is much more difficult than for most other areas of particle physics. This is due to two reasons:


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Historically, experiments have been compared to relatively crude models that are necessarily imperfect. None of these models can completely explain experimental data on nuclear structure.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The nuclear radius ("R") is considered to be one of the basic quantities that any model must predict. For stable nuclei (not halo nuclei or other unstable distorted nuclei) the nuclear radius is roughly proportional to the cube root of the mass number ("A") of the nucleus, and particularly in nuclei containing many nucleons, as they arrange in more spherical configurations:


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The stable nucleus has approximately a constant density and therefore the nuclear radius R can be approximated by the following formula,


title: Atomic nucleus

text: where "A" = Atomic mass number (the number of protons "Z", plus the number of neutrons "N") and "r" = 1.25 fm = 1.25 × 10 m. In this equation, the "constant" "r" varies by 0.2 fm, depending on the nucleus in question, but this is less than 20% change from a constant.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: In other words, packing protons and neutrons in the nucleus gives "approximately" the same total size result as packing hard spheres of a constant size (like marbles) into a tight spherical or almost spherical bag (some stable nuclei are not quite spherical, but are known to be prolate).


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Early models of the nucleus viewed the nucleus as a rotating liquid drop. In this model, the trade-off of long-range electromagnetic forces and relatively short-range nuclear forces, together cause behavior which resembled surface tension forces in liquid drops of different sizes. This formula is successful at explaining many important phenomena of nuclei, such as their changing amounts of binding energy as their size and composition changes (see semi-empirical mass formula), but it does not explain the special stability which occurs when nuclei have special "magic numbers" of protons or neutrons.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The terms in the semi-empirical mass formula, which can be used to approximate the binding energy of many nuclei, are considered as the sum of five types of energies (see below). Then the picture of a nucleus as a drop of incompressible liquid roughly accounts for the observed variation of binding energy of the nucleus:


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Volume energy. When an assembly of nucleons of the same size is packed together into the smallest volume, each interior nucleon has a certain number of other nucleons in contact with it. So, this nuclear energy is proportional to the volume.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Surface energy. A nucleon at the surface of a nucleus interacts with fewer other nucleons than one in the interior of the nucleus and hence its binding energy is less. This surface energy term takes that into account and is therefore negative and is proportional to the surface area.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Coulomb energy. The electric repulsion between each pair of protons in a nucleus contributes toward decreasing its binding energy.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Asymmetry energy (also called Pauli Energy). An energy associated with the Pauli exclusion principle. Were it not for the Coulomb energy, the most stable form of nuclear matter would have the same number of neutrons as protons, since unequal numbers of neutrons and protons imply filling higher energy levels for one type of particle, while leaving lower energy levels vacant for the other type.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Pairing energy. An energy which is a correction term that arises from the tendency of proton pairs and neutron pairs to occur. An even number of particles is more stable than an odd number.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: A number of models for the nucleus have also been proposed in which nucleons occupy orbitals, much like the atomic orbitals in atomic physics theory. These wave models imagine nucleons to be either sizeless point particles in potential wells, or else probability waves as in the "optical model", frictionlessly orbiting at high speed in potential wells.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: In the above models, the nucleons may occupy orbitals in pairs, due to being fermions, which allows explanation of even/odd "Z" and "N" effects well-known from experiments. The exact nature and capacity of nuclear shells differs from those of electrons in atomic orbitals, primarily because the potential well in which the nucleons move (especially in larger nuclei) is quite different from the central electromagnetic potential well which binds electrons in atoms. Some resemblance to atomic orbital models may be seen in a small atomic nucleus like that of helium-4, in which the two protons and two neutrons separately occupy 1s orbitals analogous to the 1s orbital for the two electrons in the helium atom, and achieve unusual stability for the same reason. Nuclei with 5 nucleons are all extremely unstable and short-lived, yet, helium-3, with 3 nucleons, is very stable even with lack of a closed 1s orbital shell. Another nucleus with 3 nucleons, the triton hydrogen-3 is unstable and will decay into helium-3 when isolated. Weak nuclear stability with 2 nucleons {NP} in the 1s orbital is found in the deuteron hydrogen-2, with only one nucleon in each of the proton and neutron potential wells. While each nucleon is a fermion, the {NP} deuteron is a boson and thus does not follow Pauli Exclusion for close packing within shells. Lithium-6 with 6 nucleons is highly stable without a closed second 1p shell orbital. For light nuclei with total nucleon numbers 1 to 6 only those with 5 do not show some evidence of stability. Observations of beta-stability of light nuclei outside closed shells indicate that nuclear stability is much more complex than simple closure of shell orbitals with magic numbers of protons and neutrons.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: For larger nuclei, the shells occupied by nucleons begin to differ significantly from electron shells, but nevertheless, present nuclear theory does predict the magic numbers of filled nuclear shells for both protons and neutrons. The closure of the stable shells predicts unusually stable configurations, analogous to the noble group of nearly-inert gases in chemistry. An example is the stability of the closed shell of 50 protons, which allows tin to have 10 stable isotopes, more than any other element. Similarly, the distance from shell-closure explains the unusual instability of isotopes which have far from stable numbers of these particles, such as the radioactive elements 43 (technetium) and 61 (promethium), each of which is preceded and followed by 17 or more stable elements.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: There are however problems with the shell model when an attempt is made to account for nuclear properties well away from closed shells. This has led to complex "post hoc" distortions of the shape of the potential well to fit experimental data, but the question remains whether these mathematical manipulations actually correspond to the spatial deformations in real nuclei. Problems with the shell model have led some to propose realistic two-body and three-body nuclear force effects involving nucleon clusters and then build the nucleus on this basis. Three such cluster models are the 1936 Resonating Group Structure model of John Wheeler, Close-Packed Spheron Model of Linus Pauling and the 2D Ising Model of MacGregor.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: As with the case of superfluid liquid helium, atomic nuclei are an example of a state in which both (1) "ordinary" particle physical rules for volume and (2) non-intuitive quantum mechanical rules for a wave-like nature apply. In superfluid helium, the helium atoms have volume, and essentially "touch" each other, yet at the same time exhibit strange bulk properties, consistent with a Bose–Einstein condensation. The nucleons in atomic nuclei also exhibit a wave-like nature and lack standard fluid properties, such as friction. For nuclei made of hadrons which are fermions, Bose-Einstein condensation does not occur, yet nevertheless, many nuclear properties can only be explained similarly by a combination of properties of particles with volume, in addition to the frictionless motion characteristic of the wave-like behavior of objects trapped in Erwin Schrödinger's quantum orbitals.


title: Greek numerals

text: Greek numerals, also known as Ionic, Ionian, Milesian, or Alexandrian numerals, are a system of writing numbers using the letters of the Greek alphabet. In modern Greece, they are still used for ordinal numbers and in contexts similar to those in which Roman numerals are still used in the Western world. For ordinary cardinal numbers, however, modern Greece uses Arabic numerals.


title: Greek numerals

text: The Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations' Linear A and Linear B alphabets used a different system, called Aegean numerals, which included number-only symbols for powers of ten:  = 1,  = 10,  = 100,  = 1000, and  = 10000.


title: Greek numerals

text: Attic numerals comprised another system that came into use perhaps in the 7th century BCE. They were acrophonic, derived (after the initial one) from the first letters of the names of the numbers represented. They ran  = 1,  = 5,  = 10,  = 100,  = 1,000, and  = 10,000. The numbers 50, 500, 5,000, and 50,000 were represented by the letter with minuscule powers of ten written in the top right corner: , , , and . One-half was represented by (left half of a full circle) and one-quarter by the right side of the circle. The same system was used outside of Attica, but the symbols varied with the local alphabets, for example, 1,000 was in Boeotia.


title: Greek numerals

text: The present system probably developed around Miletus in Ionia. 19th century classicists placed its development in the 3rd century BCE, the occasion of its first widespread use. More thorough modern archaeology has caused the date to be pushed back at least to the 5th century BCE, a little before Athens abandoned its pre-Euclidean alphabet in favour of Miletus's in 402 BCE, and it may predate that by a century or two. The present system uses the 24 letters used by Euclid, as well as three Phoenician and Ionic ones that had not been dropped from the Athenian alphabet (although kept for numbers): digamma, koppa, and sampi. The position of those characters within the numbering system imply that the first two were still in use (or at least remembered as letters) while the third was not. The exact dating, particularly for sampi, is problematic since its uncommon value means the first attested representative near Miletus does not appear until the 2nd century BCE, and its use is unattested in Athens until the 2nd century CE. (In general, Athenians resisted using the new numerals for the longest of any Greek state, but had fully adopted them by .)


title: Greek numerals

text: Greek numerals are decimal, based on powers of 10. The units from 1 to 9 are assigned to the first nine letters of the old Ionic alphabet from alpha to theta. Instead of reusing these numbers to form multiples of the higher powers of ten, however, each multiple of ten from 10 to 90 was assigned its own separate letter from the next nine letters of the Ionic alphabet from iota to koppa. Each multiple of one hundred from 100 to 900 was then assigned its own separate letter as well, from rho to sampi. (That this was not the traditional location of sampi in the Ionic alphabetical order has led classicists to conclude that sampi had fallen into disuse as a letter by the time the system was created.)