title: Churchill tank

text: Churchill tanks took part in containing the German offensive of Operation Ochsenkopf in February – March 1943. At a place called Steamroller Farm, two Churchill Mk III tanks of 51 RTR got ahead of their squadron. They came across an entire German transport column, which they ambushed and completely shot up before they rejoined. The result was the destruction of two 88 mm, two 75 mm and two 50 mm, four lesser anti-tank guns, 25 wheeled vehicles, two 3-inch mortars, two Panzer III tanks and infliction of nearly 200 casualties.


title: Churchill tank

text: A Churchill tank in a hull down defensive position made a particular contribution to Allied success. In one encounter, on 21 April 1943, during the start of the Battle of Longstop Hill, a Churchill tank of the 48th Royal Tank Regiment got the better of a German Tiger I heavy tank. A 6 pounder shot from the Churchill lodged between the Tiger's turret and turret ring, jamming the turret and injuring the German crew. They abandoned the Tiger, which was subsequently captured by the British. Known as Tiger 131, this was the first Tiger captured by the Western Allies and was particularly useful for intelligence. Tiger 131 has since been restored to full working condition and is now on display at The Tank Museum in Dorset, UK. As of early 2021, it is the only working Tiger tank in the world.


title: Churchill tank

text: Churchill tanks were not initially used in the Italian mainland in 1943. There were six regiments with Churchills in Tunisia, these may have been kept out because Montgomery preferred the Sherman or because their 6-pdr guns were not considered suitable for the fighting in Italy. Churchills did land in Italy in April/May 1944 with 75mm gun armed Churchills arriving later.


title: Churchill tank

text: As the mainstay of the Tank Brigades, which operated in support of the infantry, Churchill units were in operation more often than other tank units.


title: Churchill tank

text: The "NA75" conversions of Churchill Mark IIIs to carry the US 75 mm gun were used in Italy. As the Churchill proved to be a better gun platform than the Sherman, the effective range of the 75 mm was increased.


title: Churchill tank

text: Churchills saw widespread action in Normandy during the Battle of Hill 112 and Operation Bluecoat, as well as subsequent operations in the Low Countries and into Germany, such as the fighting in the Reichswald during Operation Veritable.


title: Churchill tank

text: The Churchill was able to cross the muddy ground and force through the forests of the Reichswald; a contemporary report expressed the belief that no other tank could have managed the same conditions.


title: Churchill tank

text: A single Churchill, possibly a Mk V, was trialled in Burma in 1945. It was operated by the 3rd Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers) from the end of April 1945 for about a month. Although it proved impossible to bring the Churchill into action, on approach marches the tank proved at least the equal to the M3 Lee then in service.


title: Churchill tank

text: The 254th Indian Tank Brigade returned to India from Burma, arriving at Ahmednagar during July 1945. The brigade immediately began conversion from the Lee to the Churchill, the intention being for the newly equipped brigade to return to operations in October 1945. At the time, it was assumed that the war against Japan would continue and that the new battleground would be Malaya. Although a small number of tanks were delivered, and some training undertaken, the end of the war against Japan meant that the conversion was not completed. At the end of September, the 254th Indian Tank Brigade was reassigned and posted away from Ahmednagar. All the Churchills delivered up to that point were returned to the Ordnance Depot at Kirkee (Khadki) by the end of November–early December 1945. Of the three regiments (battalions) involved, the 3rd Dragoon Guards accompanied the 254th Brigade when posted away while the 149th Regiment Royal Armoured Corps and the 150th Regiment Royal Armoured Corps were eventually disbanded at Ahmednagar on 28 February 1946, the majority of personnel already having been repatriated to the United Kingdom or posted to other units.


title: Churchill tank

text: In mid-1944, at the request of Britain's War Office, the Churchill was tested by the Australian Army, along with the M4 Sherman. The results were to be used to determine any modifications required for use in the tropics; Matildas were used as a reference point in the tests at Madang, New Guinea. The Churchill was found to be, overall, superior to the other tanks for jungle warfare.


title: Churchill tank

text: It was not used in the Pacific War; only 46 of the 510 Churchills ordered by Australia were delivered by the end of the war, and the remainder of the order was cancelled.


title: Churchill tank

text: During the Korean War, the United Kingdom deployed 20 Churchill tanks from the C Company, 7th Royal Tank Regiment, and arrived on the Korean Peninsula along with its first sent troops in November 1950. Most of these tanks were Mk. VII (A42) 'Crocodile' flame-throwing tanks; despite being a flame-thrower, they were used like a regular tank. In addition, the Assault Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE), Armoured Recovery Vehicle (ARV), and Bridgelayers variants were brought together.


title: Churchill tank

text: In action against the Chinese, they mostly fought as gun tanks, for example in the Third Battle of Seoul. To restore the 1st Battalion, Royal Northumberland Fusiliers' position during the defence of Seoul, Brigadier Thomas Brodie of the 29th Infantry Brigade sent four Churchill tanks as reinforcement; their contributions to the battle were widely praised by British and American historians.


title: Churchill tank

text: The Churchill tank was briefly operated in 1950 to 1951, and withdrew in October 1951 from Korea. All Churchills retired from the British Army in 1952.


title: Churchill tank

text: The Soviet Union was sent 301 Churchill tanks (45 Mk II, 151 Mk III and 105 Mk IV) as part of the Lend-Lease programme. 43 of them (19 Mk II and 24 Mk III) were lost "en route" on the Arctic Convoys. Delivery of the first 25 units took place in May 1942, but adoption by the Red Army was delayed because of the 30 that were sent by June 1942, 20 had been lost in shipping.


title: Churchill tank

text: The Churchill was not very popular in Soviet service. Soviet operators disliked the 2 pdr gun of the Mk II version (also used by Matildas and Valentines shipped to the USSR), and the tank was considered "sufficient" by inspectors, who warned that it was "unrefined" in terms of both design and production and would require constant maintenance in the field. Like Soviet heavy tanks, they were assigned to separate breakthrough tank regiments tasked with infantry support.


title: Churchill tank

text: In 1942–1943, Churchills were used in the Battle of Stalingrad (47th and 48th regiments of heavy tanks – 42 Churchills). In 1943, the Soviet 5th Guards Tank Army used Churchills in the Battle of Prokhorovka (15th and 36th regiments of heavy tanks – 42 Churchills) during the Battle of Kursk, and in the Fourth Battle of Kharkov. It was also used in other battles until 1944 (82nd regiment of heavy tanks).


title: Churchill tank

text: The Irish Army took delivery of three Churchill Mk VI tanks in 1948 and a fourth in 1949. These were rented from the British War Office as trials vehicles until 1954, when they were purchased outright. This purchase was despite the fact that the supply and transport corps workshops, which maintained them, had reported that spares had all but run out. Experiments were carried out involving replacing the existing Bedford engine with a Rolls-Royce Merlin engine salvaged from an Irish Air Corps Supermarine Seafire aircraft on one tank. The experiment was a success, but not followed up on the other tanks although the reasons are not recorded. By 1967, only one Churchill remained serviceable, and by 1969 all were retired. One remains preserved in the Curragh Camp.


title: Churchill tank

text: During the course of the war, as well as new production, older vehicles were reworked to bring them up to later standard. For example, 2-pdr turrets were replaced with the 6-pdr turret, and the improved commander's cupola (with eight periscopes) introduced after the first Mark VII was applied to some earlier marks as well. Nearly 3,100 Churchills of all marks were rebuilt. Early tanks were produced before the Churchill name was attached and were retroactively known as Churchill Mark I etc.


title: Churchill tank

text: In addition to the tanks, several specialist Churchill variants were developed, chiefly for combat engineering roles.


title: Churchill tank

text: The Churchill Assault Vehicle Royal Engineers was a Churchill III or IV armed with a spigot mortar demolition weapon which replaced the 6 pounder gun. The effective range of the 230mm high-explosive "flying dustbin" round was only around 80 yards of 230 yard maximum range. Crew was increased to six to accommodate a demolition NCO in addition to driver, commander, gunner, wireless operator, and co-driver/machine gunner. As well as the mortar ammunition it carried "General Wade" 26 lb explosive charge, and "Beehive" charges of up to 75 lbs of explosive. Both types of charge had to be set manually, but could be detonated from the relative safety of the AVRE interior. The AVRE could be fitted to carry different combat engineering equipment.


title: Churchill tank

text: The Churchill Crocodile was a flamethrower tank which replaced the hull machine gun with a flamethrower and towed an armoured fuel trailer.


title: Churchill tank

text: Churchills were converted to "Kangaroo" armoured personnel carriers by removing the turret from Churchills.


title: Churchill tank

text: The Black Prince, General Staff specification A43), was a development of the Churchill design. In 1943, an attempt was made to produce a Churchill with the same 17 pounder that the Sherman Firefly, a British modification of the American M4 Sherman, on a Churchill chassis and turret. It was known that insufficient numbers of the 17 pounder armed Cruiser Mk VIII Challenger were going to be produced in time for the invasion of Europe, and work was only starting on the Centurion cruiser design. Due to the wider turret ring required, Vauxhall had to redesign the hull though it used as much of the Churchill Mark VII as possible including retaining the Bedford Flat-12 engine which led to the heavier Black Prince being consequently much slower, going from 15 MPH (24 km/h) to 10.5 MPH onroad, and 7.5 mph offroad. This resulted in the "Tank, Infantry, Black Prince (A43)". Six prototypes were built and delivered in May 1945 just as the war in Europe was ending. The test programme was completed but the project was cancelled due to the success of the new and less complicated Centurion Mark I, which offered the same armament and frontal armour, was faster and more manoeuvrable, and had just entered production. There are 2 surviving Black Princes as of today. The one that is fully intact is No. 4 of the prototypes, and is displayed at The Tank Museum in Bovington. The second surviving Black Prince is only a hull, recovered from Salsbury plain in the 80's as part of the Tony Budge collection. It is now held as of today by the Rex and Rod Cadman collection. After the Black Prince, no more Churchills were developed,as the army had shifted in favour of the above mentioned Centurion, which was mainly claimed as the first Main battle tank, and also, the British army was going through a change of doctrine, meaining large infantry tanks to suppourt men were no longer needed on the front.


title: Churchill tank

text: A number of Churchills still exist as gate guardians or war memorials, while many examples reside in museums. Jacques Littlefield's Military Vehicle Technology Foundation in California, United States, acquired a Flail FV3902 "Toad" in its collection in 2008 after it was restored to full working order by RR Services in Kent, England; it was subsequently sold at auction and acquired by the Australian Armour and Artillery Museum. There are two Churchill Mark IVs at Normandy in France; one is residing at Lion-sur-Mer, while the other is located at Graye-sur-Mer.


title: Churchill tank

text: The Churchill Trust is a project that aims to restore existing Churchills to their original condition and working order. So far, a Mark III AVRE with appliqué armour, salvaged from a firing range, and a post-war Mark IV Twin-ARK have been restored to running condition. The specialist equipment was removed and turrets were added, converting both tanks into their original variants. the project was in the process of restoring a Mark VII AVRE recovered from a range in northern England.


title: Churchill tank

text: The Tank Museum in Bovington Camp, Dorset, England, currently has four Churchills in its collection: a Mark VII in The Tank Story Hall as a static exhibit, a working Mark III AVRE as a static display (currently located in the Museum's Conservation Hall), a Mark VI returned to the Museum after the closure of the Isle of Wight Military History Museum (also currently located in the Museum's Conservation Hall) and a Mark II (with cosmetic alterations to make it appear as a Mark I) as an outdoor static display. The museum's Mark VII was the last Mark VII produced; it went directly to the museum from the factory, and in terms of mileage, is virtually brand new. The Mark III AVRE was salvaged from a firing range marker as a complete wreck. It was restored to running order by Bob Grundy of Wigan and his Tracked Armour Group in August 1988. The Museum also has the only surviving Black Prince prototype.


title: Churchill tank

text: The Churchill Trust and the Tank Museum are not affiliated or associated with one another in any way; their tanks are different and owned separately, and the only common ground between both parties is that the Churchill Trust sometimes sends its tanks to participate in the Tank Museum's annual Tankfest event. Additionally, the Churchill Trust's tanks were all specialist vehicles, but were converted back into the standard turreted heavy tank variants during restoration. In 2018 the two parties concluded a long-term agreement that saw the Churchill Trust loan all three of its Churchills to the Tank Museum, with the III* becoming a permanent part of the Museum's fleet of running vehicles and the IV and VII being included in the Museum's Second World War exhibitions. The Churchill III* was restored in time for Tankfest 2019, and ran at the event.


title: Churchill tank

text: The Cavalry Tank Museum, Ahmednagar. Maharashtra, India has one Churchill Mark VII, a Mark X (uparmoured Mk VI chassis; Mk VII turret; 75mm gun; Mk VII driver's visor and MG mount), a Churchill bridgelayer and a Churchill ARV.


title: Churchill tank

text: A Mk. VII Churchill Tank stands at the side of the Marine Highway, Carrickfergus, Co. Antrim. The restored vehicle was a gift to the Borough from the Trustees of the North Irish Horse Regimental Association.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Evanston ( ) is a college town suburb of Chicago. Located in Cook County, Illinois, United States, it is situated on the North Shore along Lake Michigan. Evanston is north of Downtown Chicago, bordered by Chicago to the south, Skokie to the west, Wilmette to the north, and Lake Michigan to the east. Evanston had a population of 78,110 .


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Founded by Methodist business leaders in 1857, the city was incorporated in 1863. Evanston is home to Northwestern University, founded in 1851 before the city's incorporation, one of the world's leading research universities. Today known for its socially liberal politics and ethnically diverse population, Evanston was historically a dry city, until 1972. The city uses a council–manager system of government and is a Democratic stronghold. The city is heavily shaped by the influence of Chicago, externally, and Northwestern, internally. The city and the university share a historically complex long-standing relationship.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Prior to the 1830s, the area now occupied by Evanston was mainly uninhabited, consisting largely of wetlands and swampy forest. However, Potawatomi Native Americans used trails along higher lying ridges that ran in a general north–south direction through the area, and had at least some semi-permanent settlements along the trails.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: French explorers referred to the general area as "Grosse Pointe" after a point of land jutting into Lake Michigan about north of the mouth of the Chicago River. After the first non-Native Americans settled in the area in 1836, the names "Grosse Point Territory" and "Gross Point voting district" were used through the 1830s and 1840s, although the territory had no defined boundaries. The area remained only sparsely settled, supporting some farming and lumber activity on some of the higher ground, as well as a number of taverns or "hotels" along the ridge roads. Grosse Pointe itself steadily eroded into the lake during this period.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: In 1850, a township called Ridgeville was organized, extending from Graceland Cemetery in Chicago to the southern edge of the Ouilmette Reservation, along what is now Central Street, and from Lake Michigan to Western Avenue in Chicago. The 1850 census shows a few hundred settlers in this township, and a post office with the name of Ridgeville was established at one of the taverns. However, no municipality yet existed.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: In 1851, a group of Methodist business leaders founded Northwestern University and Garrett Biblical Institute. Unable to find available land on the north shore up to Lake Forest, the committee was ready to purchase farmland to the west of the city when Orrington Lunt insisted on one final visit to the present location. They chose a bluffed and wooded site along the lake as Northwestern's home, purchasing several hundred acres of land from Dr. John Foster, a Chicago farm owner. In 1854, the founders of Northwestern submitted to the county judge their plans for a city to be named Evanston after John Evans, one of their leaders. In 1857, the request was granted. The township of Evanston was split off from Ridgeville Township; at approximately the same time, that portion of Ridgeville south of Devon Avenue was organized as Lake View Township.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Evanston was formally incorporated as a town on December 29, 1863, but declined in 1869 to become a city despite the Illinois legislature passing a bill for that purpose. Evanston expanded after the Civil War with the annexation of the village of North Evanston. Finally, in early 1892, following the annexation of the village of South Evanston, voters elected to organize as a city. The 1892 boundaries are largely those that exist today.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: In the late summer of 1912, the beaches in Evanston were infested with thousands of rats. The rats had burrowed into the sides of the lake banks, dug holes in the sand, and hid under piers. Most of the rats were extremely large and savage, attacking people who disturbed them. Local bathers struggled to navigate the shores, constantly stepping into the hidden rat holes. John Morgan, the manager of an extermination company tasked with removing the vermin, stated that it was not uncommon for rats to live around the lake's shore because of the quantity of dead fish that was cast to shore by the waves. The weather also played a role since the close proximity to the beaches allowed the rats to swim out in the water during the hot summer.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: In 1939, Evanston hosted the first NCAA basketball championship final at Northwestern University's Patten Gymnasium.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: In August 1954, Evanston hosted the second assembly of the World Council of Churches, still the only WCC assembly to have been held in the United States. President Dwight Eisenhower welcomed the delegates, and Dag Hammarskjöld, secretary-general of the United Nations, delivered an important address entitled "An instrument of faith".


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Evanston first received power in April 1893. Many people lined the streets on Emerson St. where the first appearance of street lights were lined and turned on. Today, the city is home to Northwestern University, Music Institute of Chicago, and other educational institutions, as well as headquarters of Alpha Phi International women's fraternity, Rotary International, the National Merit Scholarship Corporation, the National Lekotek Center, the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity, the Sigma Chi fraternity and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Evanston is the birthplace of Tinkertoys, and is the one of the locations claiming to have originated the ice cream sundae. Evanston was the home of the Clayton Mark and Company, which for many years supplied the most jobs.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Evanston was a dry community from 1858 until 1972, when the City Council voted to allow restaurants and hotels to serve liquor on their premises. In 1984, the Council voted to allow retail liquor outlets within the city limits.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: In March 2021, Evanston became the first city in the United States to pay reparations to African American residents (or their descendants) who were victims of unfair housing practices. The city council of the city voted 8 to 1 to approve the reparations which consisted of a $25,000 payment to African American households that can be used as down payments on their homes, house payments or for home repairs. This was the initial payment, with plans to distribute 10 million dollars in reparations payments to black residents over the next 10 years.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: In August 2021, Evanston became one of the first cities to approve a pilot project providing a guaranteed income to select residents, drawing upon a combination of public funds and a partnership with Northwestern University.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: According to the 2021 census gazetteer files, Evanston has a total area of , of which (or 99.72%) is land and (or 0.28%) is water.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: "Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race."


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: As of the 2020 census there were 78,110 people, 27,918 households, and 15,184 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 34,462 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 59.06% White, 16.06% African American, 9.92% Asian, 0.67% Native American, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 4.46% from other races, and 9.78% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 11.24% of the population.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: There were 27,918 households, out of which 47.27% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.44% were married couples living together, 8.71% had a female householder with no husband present, and 45.61% were non-families. 34.79% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.46% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.22 and the average family size was 2.40.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: The city's age distribution consisted of 19.9% under the age of 18, 16.0% from 18 to 24, 25% from 25 to 44, 23.1% from 45 to 64, and 16.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.3 males.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: The median income for a household in the city was $82,335, and the median income for a family was $130,494. Males had a median income of $56,582 versus $42,589 for females. The per capita income for the city was $53,685. About 4.6% of families and 11.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.5% of those under age 18 and 6.6% of those age 65 or over.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: The City of Evanston became sister cities with the Dnieprovsky District of the City of Kyiv, Ukraine in 1988, and sister cities with Belize City, Belize in 1992.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Evanston has a council-manager system of government and is divided into nine wards, each of which is represented by an Alderman, or member of the Evanston City Council.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Evanston was heavily Republican in voter identification from the time of the Civil War up to the 1960s. Richard Nixon carried it in the 1968 presidential election. The city began trending Democratic in the 1960s, though it never elected a Democratic mayor until 1993.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: In the 2012 presidential election, Democratic incumbent Barack Obama won 85% of Evanston's vote, compared to 13% for Republican challenger Mitt Romney. In the 2016 Democratic primary, Hillary Clinton received 54% of the votes of Evanston Democrats to Bernie Sanders' 45%. During that year's general election, Clinton won 87% of the vote in Evanston, while Republican Donald Trump received just 7%. Evanston's turnout for presidential elections has grown steadily since 2004, with 80% of registered voters voting in the 2016 general election.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: In the 2020 presidential election Democrat Joe Biden received 90% of the vote while Republican Donald Trump received only 7%.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Most of Evanston (and a small part of the village of Skokie) is within the boundaries of Evanston Township High School District 202. The school district has a single high school, Evanston Township High School, with an enrollment of just over 4,000, covering grades 9 through 12.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Evanston-Skokie Community Consolidated School District 65, covering all of Evanston and a small part of Skokie, provides primary education from pre-kindergarten through grade 8. The district has ten elementary schools (kindergarten through fifth grade), three middle schools (grades 6 through 8), two magnet schools (K through 8), two special schools or centers, and an early childhood school. Dr. Devon Horton is the Superintendent of Schools.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: The Evanston Public Library was established in 1873, and has a satellite branch at the Robert Crown Community Center. Karen Danczak Lyons is the Library Director. The North Branch of the Evanston Library was closed in 2021.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: In 2006, National-Louis University closed its former main site, which had of land, with about 33% in Evanston; the majority of the land was in Wilmette.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Founded in 1855, Evanston is home to Northwestern University, one of the nation's leading research universities. Located along Lake Michigan, Northwestern's campus spans 240 acres with an estimated 250 buildings. Since 1908, Kellogg School of Management as well as Garrett-Evangelical Theological Seminary (1853) have institutions, of which both share the campus with Northwestern.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Evanston's growth occurred largely because of its accessibility from Chicago by rail. The Northwestern founders did not finalize their commitment to siting the university there until they were assured the Chicago & Milwaukee Railway line would run there. C&M trains began stopping in Evanston in 1855. Evanston later experienced rapid growth as one of the first streetcar suburbs. The North Shore Line, the interurban railroad that gave the area its nickname, ran through Evanston and continued to Waukegan and Milwaukee.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: The city is still connected to Chicago by rail transit. The CTA's Purple Line, part of the Chicago 'L' system, runs through Evanston. From its terminal at Howard in Chicago, the line heads north to the South Boulevard, Main, Dempster, Davis, Foster, Noyes, and Central stations, before terminating at the Linden station in Wilmette, Illinois. Metra's Union Pacific/North Line also serves Evanston, with stations at Main Street, Davis Street and Central Street, the first two being adjacent to Purple Line stations. The CTA's Yellow Line also runs through the city, though it does not stop there. Evanston is served by six CTA bus routes as well as four Pace bus routes.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Automobile routes from Chicago to Evanston include Lake Shore Drive, the Edens Expressway (I-94), and McCormick Boulevard, although the first two of those do not extend to Evanston itself and require driving through Rogers Park (via Sheridan Road or Ridge Avenue) and Skokie, respectively. The main routes from the north are the Edens, Green Bay Road, and Sheridan Road. Active modes of transportation include miles of sidewalks and bicycle lanes.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: As of 2015, according to the "State of Illinois Dept Commerce and Economic Opportunity and Individual Employers", the top employers in the city are:


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Once the home of one of the first Marshall Field's and Sears stores in suburbia, Evanston has several shopping areas:


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: A perennial debate in Evanston is the issue of Northwestern University's status as a tax-exempt institution. In the founding charter of Northwestern University, signed in 1851, the state granted the school an exemption from paying property taxes, and unlike other well-off private universities with statutory exemptions, it provides its own police services, but not firefighter/paramedic services. It pays water, sewer, communications, real property transfer taxes, and building permit fees, but not property taxes. Northwestern does not make Payments in Lieu of Taxes for the real estate it removes from property tax rolls.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Its backers, like former Evanston mayor and Northwestern alumna Lorraine H. Morton, contend that the benefits of having an elite research institution justify Northwestern's tax status. These supporters highlight the fact that Northwestern University is the largest employer in Evanston, and that its students and faculty constitute a large consumer base for Evanston businesses. This controversy was revived in 2003 when the university purchased an eight-story office building downtown, removing it from the tax rolls. An advisory referendum put on the April elections ballot, dubbed by supporters as a "Fair Share Initiative", received a majority, but was not passed into ordinance by the City Council.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: During the tenure of Elizabeth Tisdahl as mayor, relationships between the university and Evanston improved. Upon arriving at Northwestern in 2009 president Morton O. Schapiro forged a strong working relationship with Tisdahl; in 2015, two announced that Northwestern would begin to donate $1 million annually to benefit city services and programs.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Evanston's variety of housing and commercial districts, combined with easy access to Chicago, make it a popular filming location. Evanston as of December 2008 is listed as a filming location for 65 different films, notably those of John Hughes. Much of the 1984 film "Sixteen Candles" was filmed in and around Evanston, the 1988 movie "She's Having a Baby", as was the 1989 film "Uncle Buck", the 1993 film "Dennis the Menace", and the 1997 film "Home Alone 3". A number of scenes from the 1986 Garry Marshall film "Nothing in Common" were filmed on the Northwestern University campus and Evanston's lakeshore. Although not filmed there, the 2004 film "Mean Girls" is set in the Chicago suburbs, and makes several references to the area. The movie's screenwriter and co-star, Tina Fey, had worked at the Evanston YMCA when starting her comedy career. In the 2003 film "Cheaper by the Dozen", the family moves to Evanston. Additionally, the baseball movie "Rookie of the Year", featuring Gary Busey and Thomas Ian Nicholas, was partially shot at Haven Middle School. The 2015 ABC Family reality series "Becoming Us" was filmed in Evanston.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: In "The Princess Bride", according to IMDb, the screenplay says that the boy and his grandfather live in Evanston. This was also stated by Mandy Patinkin in a behind-the-scenes interview. The story's author, William Goldman, was born in Chicago and grew up in Highland Park a little more than ten miles north of Evanston.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: Evanston has gained recognition and reputation for efforts related to sustainability, including those by government, citizens, and institutions. In 2015, the city was named the World Wildlife Fund's Earth Hour Capital after competing against cities including Seattle and Cleveland. In 2016, Evanston was again a finalist in the competition.


title: Evanston, Illinois

text: In October 2006, the city voted to sign the United States Conference of Mayors Climate Protection Agreement, and a number of citizen task forces convened to develop a plan to reduce the city's carbon footprint. The Evanston Climate Action Plan ("ECAP"), accepted by the City Council in November 2008, suggested over 200 strategies to make Evanston more sustainable, principally by reducing carbon emissions associated with transportation, buildings, energy sources, waste, and food production. In June 2011, the United States Conference of Mayors awarded Evanston first place in the small city category of the Mayors' Climate Protection Awards, based largely on the city's use of the ECAP, which the city asserts has reduced emissions by 24,000 metric tons per year. On September 15, 2011, Wal-Mart presented Mayor Tisdahl with a $15,000 award in recognition of the honor, which the mayor donated to Citizens' Greener Evanston.


title: Thalamus

text: The thalamus (from Greek , "chamber") is a large mass of gray matter located in the dorsal part of the diencephalon (a division of the forebrain). Nerve fibers project out of the thalamus to the cerebral cortex in all directions, allowing hub-like exchanges of information. It has several functions, such as the relaying of sensory signals, including motor signals to the cerebral cortex and the regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness.


title: Thalamus

text: Anatomically, it is a paramedian symmetrical structure of two halves (left and right), within the vertebrate brain, situated between the cerebral cortex and the midbrain. It forms during embryonic development as the main product of the diencephalon, as first recognized by the Swiss embryologist and anatomist Wilhelm His Sr. in 1893.


title: Thalamus

text: The thalamus is a paired structure of gray matter located in the forebrain which is superior to the midbrain, near the center of the brain, with nerve fibers projecting out to the cerebral cortex in all directions. The medial surface of the thalamus constitutes the upper part of the lateral wall of the third ventricle, and is connected to the corresponding surface of the opposite thalamus by a flattened gray band, the interthalamic adhesion. The lateral part of the thalamus is the phylogenetically newest part of the thalamus (neothalamus), and includes the lateral nuclei, the pulvinar and the medial and lateral geniculate nuclei. There are areas of white matter in the thalamus including the stratum zonale that covers the dorsal surface, and the external and internal medullary laminae. The external lamina covers the lateral surface and the internal lamina divides the nuclei into anterior, medial and lateral groups.


title: Thalamus

text: The thalamus derives its blood supply from a number of arteries: the polar artery (posterior communicating artery), paramedian thalamic-subthalamic arteries, inferolateral (thalamogeniculate) arteries, and posterior (medial and lateral) choroidal arteries. These are all branches of the posterior cerebral artery.


title: Thalamus

text: Some people have the artery of Percheron, which is a rare anatomic variation in which a single arterial trunk arises from the posterior cerebral artery to supply both parts of the thalamus.


title: Thalamus

text: Derivatives of the diencephalon include the dorsally-located epithalamus (essentially the habenula and annexes) and the perithalamus (prethalamus) containing the zona incerta and the thalamic reticular nucleus. Due to their different ontogenetic origins, the epithalamus and the perithalamus are formally distinguished from the thalamus proper. The metathalamus is made up of the lateral geniculate and medial geniculate nuclei.


title: Thalamus

text: The thalamus comprises a system of lamellae (made up of myelinated fibers) separating different thalamic subparts. Other areas are defined by distinct clusters of neurons, such as the periventricular nucleus, the intralaminar elements, the "nucleus limitans", and others. These latter structures, different in structure from the major part of the thalamus, have been grouped together into the "allothalamus" as opposed to the "isothalamus". This distinction simplifies the global description of the thalamus.


title: Thalamus

text: The thalamus has many connections to the hippocampus via the mammillothalamic tract, this tract comprises the mammillary bodies and fornix.


title: Thalamus

text: The spinothalamic tract is a sensory pathway originating in the spinal cord. It transmits information to the thalamus about pain, temperature, itch and crude touch. There are two main parts: the lateral spinothalamic tract, which transmits pain and temperature, and the anterior (or ventral) spinothalamic tract, which transmits crude touch and pressure.


title: Thalamus

text: The thalamus has multiple functions, generally believed to act as a relay station, or hub, relaying information between different subcortical areas and the cerebral cortex. In particular, every sensory system (with the exception of the olfactory system) includes a thalamic nucleus that receives sensory signals and sends them to the associated primary cortical area. For the visual system, for example, inputs from the retina are sent to the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, which in turn projects to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe. The thalamus is believed to both process sensory information as well as relay it—each of the primary sensory relay areas receives strong feedback connections from the cerebral cortex. Similarly the medial geniculate nucleus acts as a key auditory relay between the inferior colliculus of the midbrain and the primary auditory cortex. The ventral posterior nucleus is a key somatosensory relay, which sends touch and proprioceptive information to the primary somatosensory cortex.


title: Thalamus

text: The thalamus also plays an important role in regulating states of sleep and wakefulness. Thalamic nuclei have strong reciprocal connections with the cerebral cortex, forming thalamo-cortico-thalamic circuits that are believed to be involved with consciousness. The thalamus plays a major role in regulating arousal, the level of awareness, and activity. Damage to the thalamus can lead to permanent coma.


title: Thalamus

text: The role of the thalamus in the more anterior pallidal and nigral territories in the basal ganglia system disturbances is recognized but still poorly understood. The contribution of the thalamus to vestibular or to tectal functions is almost ignored. The thalamus has been thought of as a "relay" that simply forwards signals to the cerebral cortex. Newer research suggests that thalamic function is more selective. Many different functions are linked to various regions of the thalamus. This is the case for many of the sensory systems (except for the olfactory system), such as the auditory, somatic, visceral, gustatory and visual systems where localized lesions provoke specific sensory deficits. A major role of the thalamus is support of motor and language systems, and much of the circuitry implicated for these systems is shared. The thalamus is "functionally connected" to the hippocampus as part of the extended hippocampal system at the thalamic anterior nuclei with respect to spatial memory and spatial sensory datum they are crucial for human episodic event memory. The thalamic region's connection to the mesio-temporal lobe provide differentiation of the functioning of recollective and familiarity memory.


title: Thalamus

text: The neuronal information processes necessary for motor control were proposed as a network involving the thalamus as a subcortical motor center. Through investigations of the anatomy of the brains of primates the nature of the interconnected tissues of the cerebellum to the multiple motor cortices suggested that the thalamus fulfills a key function in providing the specific channels from the basal ganglia and cerebellum to the cortical motor areas. In an investigation of the saccade and antisaccade motor response in three monkeys, the thalamic regions were found to be involved in the generation of antisaccade eye-movement (that is, the ability to inhibit the reflexive jerking movement of the eyes in the direction of a presented stimulus).


title: Thalamus

text: Recent research suggests that the mediodorsal thalamus (MD) may play a broader role in cognition. Specifically, the mediodorsal thalamus may "amplify the connectivity (signaling strength) of just the circuits in the cortex appropriate for the current context and thereby contribute to the flexibility (of the mammalian brain) to make complex decisions by wiring the many associations on which decisions depend into weakly connected cortical circuits." Researchers found that "enhancing MD activity magnified the ability of mice to "think," driving down by more than 25 percent their error rate in deciding which conflicting sensory stimuli to follow to find the reward."


title: Thalamus

text: The thalamic complex is composed of the perithalamus (or prethalamus, previously also known as ventral thalamus), the mid-diencephalic organiser (which forms later the zona limitans intrathalamica (ZLI) ) and the thalamus (dorsal thalamus). The development of the thalamus can be subdivided into three steps.


title: Thalamus

text: The thalamus is the largest structure deriving from the embryonic diencephalon, the posterior part of the forebrain situated between the midbrain and the cerebrum.


title: Thalamus

text: After neurulation the anlage of the prethalamus and the thalamus is induced within the neural tube. Data from different vertebrate model organisms support a model in which the interaction between two transcription factors, Fez and Otx, are of decisive importance. Fez is expressed in the prethalamus, and functional experiments show that Fez is required for prethalamus formation. Posteriorly, Otx1 and Otx2 abut the expression domain of Fez and are required for proper development of the thalamus.


title: Thalamus

text: Early in thalamic development two progenitor domains form, a caudal domain, and a rostral domain. The caudal domain gives rise to all of the glutamatergic neurons in the adult thalamus while the rostral domain gives rise to all of the GABAergic neurons in the adult thalamus.


title: Thalamus

text: At the interface between the expression domains of Fez and Otx, the mid-diencephalic organizer (MDO, also called the ZLI organiser) is induced within the thalamic anlage. The MDO is the central signalling organizer in the thalamus. A lack of the organizer leads to the absence of the thalamus. The MDO matures from ventral to dorsal during development. Members of the sonic hedgehog (SHH) family and of the Wnt family are the main principal signals emitted by the MDO.


title: Thalamus

text: Besides its importance as signalling center, the organizer matures into the morphological structure of the zona limitans intrathalamica (ZLI).


title: Thalamus

text: After its induction, the MDO starts to orchestrate the development of the thalamic anlage by release of signalling molecules such as SHH. In mice, the function of signaling at the MDO has not been addressed directly due to a complete absence of the diencephalon in SHH mutants.


title: Thalamus

text: Studies in chicks have shown that SHH is both necessary and sufficient for thalamic gene induction. In zebrafish, it was shown that the expression of two SHH genes, SHH-a and SHH-b (formerly described as twhh) mark the MDO territory, and that SHH signaling is sufficient for the molecular differentiation of both the prethalamus and the thalamus but is not required for their maintenance and SHH signaling from the MDO/alar plate is sufficient for the maturation of prethalamic and thalamic territory while ventral Shh signals are dispensable.


title: Thalamus

text: The exposure to SHH leads to differentiation of thalamic neurons. SHH signaling from the MDO induces a posterior-to-anterior wave of expression the proneural gene Neurogenin1 in the major (caudal) part of the thalamus, and Ascl1 (formerly Mash1) in the remaining narrow stripe of rostral thalamic cells immediately adjacent to the MDO, and in the prethalamus.


title: Thalamus

text: This zonation of proneural gene expression leads to the differentiation of glutamatergic relay neurons from the Neurogenin1+ precursors and of GABAergic inhibitory neurons from the Ascl1+ precursors. In fish, selection of these alternative neurotransmitter fates is controlled by the dynamic expression of Her6 the homolog of HES1. Expression of this hairy-like bHLH transcription factor, which represses Neurogenin but is required for Ascl1, is progressively lost from the caudal thalamus but maintained in the prethalamus and in the stripe of rostral thalamic cells. In addition, studies on chick and mice have shown that blocking the Shh pathway leads to absence of the rostral thalamus and substantial decrease of the caudal thalamus. The rostral thalamus will give rise to the reticular nucleus mainly whereby the caudal thalamus will form the relay thalamus and will be further subdivided in the thalamic nuclei.


title: Thalamus

text: In humans, a common genetic variation in the promoter region of the serotonin transporter (the SERT-long and -short allele: 5-HTTLPR) has been shown to affect the development of several regions of the thalamus in adults. People who inherit two short alleles (SERT-ss) have more neurons and a larger volume in the pulvinar and possibly the limbic regions of the thalamus. Enlargement of the thalamus provides an anatomical basis for why people who inherit two SERT-ss alleles are more vulnerable to major depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and suicide.


title: Thalamus

text: A thalamus damaged by a stroke can lead to thalamic pain syndrome, which involves a one-sided burning or aching sensation often accompanied by mood swings. Bilateral ischemia of the area supplied by the paramedian artery can cause serious problems including akinetic mutism, and be accompanied by oculomotor problems. A related concept is thalamocortical dysrhythmia. The occlusion of the artery of Percheron can lead to a bilateral thalamus infarction.


title: Thalamus

text: Alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome stems from damage to the mammillary body, the mammillothalamic fasciculus or the thalamus.


title: Thalamus

text: Fatal familial insomnia is a hereditary prion disease in which degeneration of the thalamus occurs, causing the patient to gradually lose their ability to sleep and progressing to a state of total insomnia, which invariably leads to death. In contrast, damage to the thalamus can result in coma.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Sedna (minor-planet designation 90377 Sedna) is a dwarf planet in the outer reaches of the Solar System that is in the innermost part of its orbit; it is 84 astronomical units (AU), or 1.26×10 km, from the Sun, almost three times farther than Neptune. Spectroscopy has revealed that Sedna's surface composition is largely a mixture of water, methane, and nitrogen ices with tholins, similar to those of some other trans-Neptunian objects. Its surface is one of the reddest among Solar System objects. Sedna, within estimated uncertainties, is tied with as the largest planetoid not known to have a moon.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Sedna's orbit is one of the largest in the Solar System other than those of long-period comets, with its aphelion (farthest distance from the Sun) estimated at 937 AU. This is 31 times Neptune's distance from the Sun, or 5.5 light-days, and well beyond the closest portion of the heliopause, which defines the boundary of interstellar space. As of 2022, the dwarf planets and are further from the Sun than Sedna is, because Sedna is near perihelion (its closest point to the Sun).


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Sedna has an exceptionally elongated orbit, and takes approximately 11,400 years to return to its closest approach to the Sun at a distant 76 AU. The IAU initially considered Sedna a member of the scattered disc, a group of objects sent into highly elongated orbits by the gravitational influence of Neptune. However, several astronomers contested this classification, because its perihelion is too large for it to have been scattered by any of the known planets, leading some astronomers to informally refer to it as the first known member of the inner Oort cloud. It is the prototype of a new orbital class of object, the sednoids, which include and Leleākūhonua.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Astronomer Michael E. Brown, co-discoverer of Sedna and numerous other possible dwarf planets, thinks that it is the most scientifically important trans-Neptunian object found to date, because understanding its unusual orbit is likely to yield valuable information about the origin and early evolution of the Solar System.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: It might have been tugged into its current orbit by a passing star, or perhaps by several stars within the Sun's birth cluster, or maybe even captured from the planetary system of another star. The clustering of the orbits of Sedna and similar objects has been speculated to be evidence for a planet beyond the orbit of Neptune.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Sedna (provisionally designated ) was discovered by Michael Brown (Caltech), Chad Trujillo (Gemini Observatory), and David Rabinowitz (Yale University) on 14 November 2003. The discovery formed part of a survey begun in 2001 with the Samuel Oschin telescope at Palomar Observatory near San Diego, California, using Yale's 160-megapixel Palomar Quest camera. On that day, an object was observed to move by 4.6 arcseconds over 3.1 hours relative to stars, which indicated that its distance was about 100 AU. Follow-up observations were made in November–December 2003 with the SMARTS (Small and Medium Research Telescope System) at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile, the Tenagra IV telescope in Nogales, Arizona, and the Keck Observatory on Mauna Kea in Hawaii. Combined with precovery observations taken at the Samuel Oschin telescope in August 2003, and by the Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking consortium in 2001–2002, these observations allowed accurate determination of its orbit. The calculations showed that the object was moving along a distant highly eccentric orbit, at a distance of 90.3 AU from the Sun. Precovery images have since been found in the Palomar Digitized Sky Survey dating back to 25 September 1990.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Brown initially nicknamed Sedna "The Flying Dutchman", or "Dutch", after a legendary ghost ship, because its slow movement had initially masked its presence from his team. He eventually settled on the official name after the goddess Sedna from Inuit mythology, partly because he mistakenly thought the Inuit were the closest polar culture to his home in Pasadena, and partly because the name, unlike Quaoar, would be easily pronounceable by English speakers. Brown further justified this naming by stating that the goddess Sedna's traditional location at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean reflected Sedna's large distance from the Sun. He suggested to the International Astronomical Union's (IAU) Minor Planet Center that any future objects discovered in Sedna's orbital region should be named after entities in Arctic mythologies.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: The team made the name "Sedna" public before the object had been officially numbered, which spurred some controversy among the community of amateur astronomers. Brian Marsden, the head of the Minor Planet Center, stated that such an action was a violation of protocol, and that some members of the IAU might vote against it. Despite the complaints, no objection was raised to the name, and no competing names were suggested. The IAU's Committee on Small Body Nomenclature accepted the name in September 2004, and considered that, in similar cases of extraordinary interest, it might in the future allow names to be announced before they were officially numbered.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Sedna has no symbol in the astronomical literature, as planetary symbols are no longer much used in astronomy. Unicode contains a Sedna symbol (U+2BF2), but this is mostly used among astrologers. The symbol is a monogram of "Sanna", the modern pronunciation of Sedna's name.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Sedna has the second longest orbital period of any known object in the Solar System of comparable size or larger, calculated at around 11,400 years. Its orbit is extremely eccentric, with an aphelion estimated at 937 AU and a perihelion at about 76 AU. This perihelion was the largest for any known Solar System object until the discovery of 2012 VP. At its aphelion, Sedna orbits the Sun at a mere 1.3% of Earth's orbital speed. When Sedna was discovered it was 89.6 AU from the Sun approaching perihelion, and was the most distant object in the Solar System observed. Sedna was later surpassed by Eris, which was detected by the same survey near aphelion at 97 AU. Because Sedna is near perihelion , both Eris and are farther from the Sun, at 95.8 AU and 88.9 AU, respectively, than Sedna at 83.9 AU. The orbits of some long-period comets extend further than that of Sedna; they are too dim to be discovered except when approaching perihelion in the inner Solar System. As Sedna nears its perihelion in mid-2076, the Sun will appear merely as an extremely bright star-like pinpoint in its sky, too far away to be visible as a disc to the naked eye.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: When first discovered, Sedna was thought to have an unusually long rotational period (20 to 50 days). It was initially speculated that Sedna's rotation was slowed by the gravitational pull of a large binary companion, similar to Pluto's moon Charon. However, a search for such a satellite by the Hubble Space Telescope in March 2004 found nothing. Subsequent measurements from the MMT telescope showed that Sedna actually has a much shorter rotation period of about 10 hours, more typical for a body of its size. It could rotate in about 18 hours instead, but this is thought to be unlikely.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Sedna has a V band absolute magnitude of about 1.8, and it is estimated to have an albedo of about 0.32, giving it a diameter of approximately 1,000 km. At the time of its discovery it was the brightest object found in the Solar System since Pluto in 1930. In 2004, the discoverers placed an upper limit of 1,800 km on its diameter; after observation by the Spitzer Space Telescope, this was revised downward by 2007 to less than 1,600 km. In 2012, measurements from the Herschel Space Observatory suggested that Sedna's diameter was , which would make it smaller than Pluto's moon Charon. Australian observations of a stellar occultation by Sedna in 2013 produced similar results on its diameter, giving chord lengths and .


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Because Sedna has no known moons, determining its mass is impossible without sending a space probe. Sedna is the largest trans-Neptunian Sun-orbiting object not known to have a satellite. Only a single attempt has been made to find a satellite, and it is possible that a satellite could have been lost in glare from Sedna itself.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Observations from the SMARTS telescope show that in visible light Sedna is one of the reddest objects in the Solar System, nearly as red as Mars. Chad Trujillo and his colleagues suggest that Sedna's dark red color is caused by a surface coating of hydrocarbon sludge, or tholin, formed from simpler organic compounds after long exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Its surface is homogeneous in color and spectrum; this may be because Sedna, unlike objects nearer the Sun, is rarely impacted by other bodies, which would expose bright patches of fresh icy material like that on 8405 Asbolus. Sedna and two other very distant objects – and – share their color with outer classical Kuiper belt objects and the centaur 5145 Pholus, suggesting a similar region of origin.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Trujillo and colleagues have placed upper limits on Sedna's surface composition of 60% for methane ice and 70% for water ice. The presence of methane further supports the existence of tholins on Sedna's surface, because they are produced by irradiation of methane. Barucci and colleagues compared Sedna's spectrum with that of Triton and detected weak absorption bands belonging to methane and nitrogen ices. From these observations, they suggested the following model of the surface: 24% Triton-type tholins, 7% amorphous carbon, 10% nitrogen ices, 26% methanol, and 33% methane. The detection of methane and water ices was confirmed in 2006 by the Spitzer Space Telescope mid-infrared photometry. The European Southern Observatory's Very Large Telescope observed Sedna with the SINFONI near-infrared spectrometer, finding indications of tholins and water ice on the surface. The presence of nitrogen on the surface suggests the possibility that, at least for a short time, Sedna may have a tenuous atmosphere. During a 200-year period near perihelion, the maximum temperature on Sedna should exceed , the transition temperature between alpha-phase solid N and the beta-phase seen on Triton. At 38 K, the N vapor pressure would be 14 microbar (1.4 Pa or 0.000014 atm). Its deep red spectral slope is indicative of high concentrations of organic material on its surface, and its weak methane absorption bands indicate that methane on Sedna's surface is ancient, rather than freshly deposited. This means that Sedna is too cold for methane to evaporate from its surface and then fall back as snow, which happens on Triton and probably on Pluto.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: In their paper announcing the discovery of Sedna, Brown and his colleagues described it as the first observed body belonging to the Oort cloud, the hypothetical cloud of comets thought to exist nearly a light-year from the Sun. They observed that, unlike scattered disc objects such as Eris, Sedna's perihelion (76 AU) is too distant for it to have been scattered by the gravitational influence of Neptune. Because it is considerably closer to the Sun than was expected for an Oort cloud object, and has an inclination roughly in line with the planets and the Kuiper belt, they described the planetoid as being an "inner Oort cloud object", situated in the disc reaching from the Kuiper belt to the spherical part of the cloud.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: If Sedna formed in its current location, the Sun's original protoplanetary disc must have extended as far as 75 AU into space. Also, Sedna's initial orbit must have been approximately circular, otherwise its formation by the accretion of smaller bodies into a whole would not have been possible, because the large relative velocities between planetesimals would have been too disruptive. Therefore, it must have been tugged into its current eccentric orbit by a gravitational interaction with another body. In their initial paper, Brown, Rabinowitz and colleagues suggested three possible candidates for the perturbing body: an unseen planet beyond the Kuiper belt, a single passing star, or one of the young stars embedded with the Sun in the stellar cluster in which it formed.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Brown and his team favored the hypothesis that Sedna was lifted into its current orbit by a star from the Sun's birth cluster, arguing that Sedna's aphelion of about 1,000 AU, which is relatively close compared to those of long-period comets, is not distant enough to be affected by passing stars at their current distances from the Sun. They propose that Sedna's orbit is best explained by the Sun having formed in an open cluster of several stars that gradually disassociated over time. That hypothesis has also been advanced by both Alessandro Morbidelli and Scott Jay Kenyon. Computer simulations by Julio A. Fernandez and Adrian Brunini suggest that multiple close passes by young stars in such a cluster would pull many objects into Sedna-like orbits. A study by Morbidelli and Levison suggested that the most likely explanation for Sedna's orbit was that it had been perturbed by a close (approximately 800 AU) pass by another star in the first 100 million years or so of the Solar System's existence.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: The trans-Neptunian planet hypothesis has been advanced in several forms by a number of astronomers, including Rodney Gomes and Patryk Lykawka. One scenario involves perturbations of Sedna's orbit by a hypothetical planetary-sized body in the inner Oort cloud. In 2006, simulations suggested that Sedna's orbital traits could be explained by perturbations by a Neptune-mass object at 2,000 AU (or less), a Jupiter-mass () object at 5,000 AU, or even an Earth-mass object at 1,000 AU. Computer simulations by Patryk Lykawka have indicated that Sedna's orbit may have been caused by a body roughly the size of Earth, ejected outward by Neptune early in the Solar System's formation and currently in an elongated orbit between 80 and 170 AU from the Sun. Brown's various sky surveys have not detected any Earth-sized objects out to a distance of about 100 AU. It is possible that such an object may have been scattered out of the Solar System after the formation of the inner Oort cloud.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Caltech researchers Konstantin Batygin and Brown have hypothesized the existence of a giant planet in the outer Solar System, nicknamed Planet Nine, would explain the orbits of a group of objects that includes Sedna. This planet would be perhaps 6 times as massive as Earth. It would have a highly eccentric orbit, and its average distance from the Sun would be about 15 times that of Neptune (which orbits at an average distance of ). Accordingly, its orbital period would be approximately 7,000 to 15,000 years.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Morbidelli and Kenyon have suggested that Sedna did not originate in the Solar System, but was captured by the Sun from a passing extrasolar planetary system, specifically that of a brown dwarf about 1/20th the mass of the Sun () or a main-sequence star 80 percent more massive than our Sun, which, owing to its larger mass, may now be a white dwarf. In either case, the stellar encounter had likely occurred early after the Sun's formation, about less than 100 million years after the Sun had formed. Stellar encounters during this time would have minimal effect on the Oort cloud's final mass and population since the Sun had excess material for replenishing the Oort cloud population.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Sedna's highly elliptical orbit means that the probability of its detection was roughly 1 in 80, which suggests that, unless its discovery was a fluke, another 40–120 Sedna-sized objects would exist within the same region.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: In 2007, astronomer Megan Schwamb outlined how each of the proposed mechanisms for Sedna's extreme orbit would affect the structure and dynamics of any wider population. If a trans-Neptunian planet was responsible, all such objects would share roughly the same perihelion (about 80 AU). If Sedna were captured from another planetary system that rotated in the same direction as the Solar System, then all of its population would have orbits on relatively low inclinations and have semi-major axes ranging from 100 to 500 AU. If it rotated in the opposite direction, then two populations would form, one with low and one with high inclinations. The perturbations from passing stars would produce a wide variety of perihelia and inclinations, each dependent on the number and angle of such encounters.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: A larger sample of objects with Sedna's extreme perihelion may help in determining which scenario is most likely. "I call Sedna a fossil record of the earliest Solar System", said Brown in 2006. "Eventually, when other fossil records are found, Sedna will help tell us how the Sun formed and the number of stars that were close to the Sun when it formed." A 2007–2008 survey by Brown, Rabinowitz and Megan Schwamb attempted to locate another member of Sedna's hypothetical population. Although the survey was sensitive to movement out to 1,000 AU and discovered the likely dwarf planet Gonggong, it detected no new sednoid. Subsequent simulations incorporating the new data suggested about 40 Sedna-sized objects probably exist in this region, with the brightest being about Eris's magnitude (−1.0).


title: 90377 Sedna

text: In 2014, Chad Trujillo and Scott Sheppard announced the discovery of , an object half the size of Sedna in a 4,200-year orbit similar to Sedna's and a perihelion within Sedna's range of roughly 80 AU; they speculated that this similarity of orbits may be due to the gravitational shepherding effect of a trans-Neptunian planet. Another high-perihelion trans-Neptunian object was announced by Sheppard and colleagues in 2018, provisionally designated and now named Leleākūhonua. With a perihelion of 65 AU and an even more distant orbit of 40,000 years, its longitude of perihelion (the location where it makes its closest approach to the Sun) appears to be aligned in the directions of both Sedna and , strengthening the case for an apparent orbital clustering of trans-Neptunian objects suspected to be influenced by a hypothetical distant planet, dubbed Planet Nine. In a study detailing Sedna's population and Leleākūhonua's orbital dynamics, Sheppard concluded that the discovery implies a population of about 2 million inner Oort Cloud objects larger than 40 km, with a total mass in the range of (several times the mass of the asteroid belt and 80% the mass of Pluto).


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Sedna was recovered from Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite data in 2020, as part of preliminary work for an all-sky survey searching for Planet Nine and other as-yet-unknown trans-Neptunian objects.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: The discovery of Sedna resurrected the question of which astronomical objects should be considered planets and which should not. On 15 March 2004, articles on Sedna in the popular press reported that a tenth planet had been discovered. This question was resolved for many astronomers by the International Astronomical Union definition of a planet, adopted on 24 August 2006, which mandated that a planet must have cleared the neighborhood around its orbit. Sedna is not expected to have cleared its neighborhood; quantitatively speaking, its Stern–Levison parameter is estimated to be much less than 1. The IAU also adopted "dwarf planet" as a term for the largest non-planets (despite the name), that like planets are in hydrostatic equilibrium and thus can display planet-like geological activity, but have not cleared their neighbourhoods. Sedna is bright enough, and therefore large enough, that it is expected to be in hydrostatic equilibrium. Hence, astronomers generally consider Sedna a dwarf planet.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Beside its physical classification, Sedna is categorised according to its orbit. The Minor Planet Center, which officially catalogs the objects in the Solar System, designates Sedna only as a trans-Neptunian object (as it orbits beyond Neptune), as does the JPL Small-Body Database. The question of a more precise orbital classification has been much debated, and many astronomers have suggested that the sednoids, together with similar objects such as , be placed in a new category of distant objects named "extended scattered disc objects" (E-SDO), "detached objects", "distant detached objects" (DDO), or "scattered-extended" in the formal classification by the Deep Ecliptic Survey.


title: 90377 Sedna

text: Sedna will come to perihelion around July 2076. This close approach to the Sun provides an opportunity for study that will not occur again for 12,000 years. It was calculated that a flyby mission to Sedna could take 24.48 years using a Jupiter gravity assist, based on launch dates of 6 May 2033 or 23 June 2046. Sedna would be 77.27 or 76.43 AU from the Sun when the spacecraft arrived near the end of 2057 or 2070, respectively. Other potential flight trajectories involve gravity assists from Venus, Earth, Saturn, and Neptune as well as Jupiter.


title: Rufus Tiger Taylor

text: Rufus Tiger Taylor (born 8 March 1991) is an English musician, best known as the drummer for British rock band The Darkness since May 2015, and as a touring drummer for the Queen + Adam Lambert stage shows. He is the son of Queen drummer Roger Taylor.


title: Rufus Tiger Taylor

text: Taylor was born on 8 March 1991 in London, to Queen drummer Roger Taylor and his longtime girlfriend Deborah Leng. According to his father, Rufus' unusual middle name "Tiger" was chosen by the late Queen lead singer Freddie Mercury. Taylor claims that growing up with drums made him decide that he wanted to follow in his father's footsteps, as he was uninterested academically, dropping out of school at the age of 16 in favour of a ski instruction course with Warren Smith Ski Academy.


title: Rufus Tiger Taylor

text: Taylor's first notable appearance was the 2008 "Royal Variety Performance", where he played drums for Kerry Ellis and his father Roger Taylor's Queen partner Brian May to an audience including Charles, Prince of Wales, and his wife Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall. In 2009, he played with famed Queen touring musician Spike Edney as part of his SAS (Spike's All-Stars) band. He then toured with the Queen musical stage show, "We Will Rock You", and worked again alongside Brian May as well as his father with Kerry Ellis on her album "Anthems", contributing some drum tracks.


title: Rufus Tiger Taylor

text: In 2011, Taylor would perform alongside his father, when he joined the Queen + Adam Lambert collaboration as a touring musician, providing drums and percussion for the stage show. Some of his notable moments on the tour were his "drum battles" with his father, and taking over as lead drummer on Queen classics such as "Tie Your Mother Down", or on "A Kind of Magic" while his father left the kit to provide lead vocals. Taylor has joined the band on both of their world tours, and remains a mainstay of their live show.


title: Rufus Tiger Taylor

text: In May 2015, following the departure of Emily Dolan Davies, Taylor became the drummer for English rock band The Darkness, with guitarist Dan Hawkins confirming the news on a UK radio show. He has drummed on the Darkness albums "Pinewood Smile" (2017), "Easter Is Cancelled" (2019) and "Motorheart" (2021).


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: Bloody Sunday or Red Sunday () was the series of events on Sunday, in St Petersburg, Russia, when unarmed demonstrators, led by Father Georgy Gapon, were fired upon by soldiers of the Imperial Guard as they marched towards the Winter Palace to present a petition to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: Bloody Sunday caused grave consequences for the Tsarist autocracy governing Imperial Russia: the events in St. Petersburg provoked public outrage and a series of massive strikes that spread quickly to the industrial centres of the Russian Empire. The massacre on Bloody Sunday is considered to be the start of the active phase of the Revolution of 1905. In addition to beginning the 1905 Revolution, historians such as Lionel Kochan in his book "Russia in Revolution 1890–1918" view the events of Bloody Sunday to be one of the key events which led to the Russian Revolution of 1917.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: After the emancipation of the serfs in 1861 by Tsar Alexander II of Russia, there emerged a new peasant working class in Russia's industrializing cities. Prior to emancipation, no working class could be established because serfs working in the cities to supplement their incomes retained their ties to the land and their masters. Although the working conditions in the cities were horrific, they were only employed for short periods of time and returned to their village when their work was complete or it was time to resume agricultural work.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: The emancipation of the serfs resulted in the establishment of a permanent working class in urban areas, which created a strain on traditional Russian society. Peasants “were confronted by unfamiliar social relationships, a frustrating regime of factory discipline, and the distressing conditions of urban life.” This new group of peasant workers made up the majority of workers in urban areas. Generally unskilled, these peasants received low wages, were employed in unsafe working environments, and worked up to fifteen hours a day. Although some workers still had a paternalistic relationship with their employer, factory employers were more present and active than the noble landowners that previously had ownership of the serfs. Under serfdom, peasants had little, if any, contact with their landowner. In the new urban setting, however, factory employers often used their absolute authority in abusive and arbitrary manners. Their abuse of power, made evident by the long working hours, low wages, and lack of safety precautions, led to strikes in Russia.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: “The Russian term for strike, "stachka", was derived from an old colloquial term, "stakat’sia"- to conspire for a criminal act.” As such, Russian laws viewed strikes as criminal acts of conspiracy and potential catalysts for rebellion. The governmental response to strikes, however, supported the efforts of the workers and promoted strikes as an effective tool that could be used by the workers to help improve their working conditions. Tsarist authorities usually intervened with harsh punishment, especially for the leaders and spokesmen of the strike, but often the complaints of the strikers were reviewed and seen as justified and the employers were required to correct the abuses about which the strikers protested.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: These corrections did not address a grossly unbalanced system that clearly favoured employers. This caused the continuation of strikes and the first major industrial strike in Russia in 1870 in St. Petersburg. This new phenomenon was a catalyst of many more strikes in Russia, which increased until they reached a peak between 1884 and 1885 when 4,000 workers went on strike at Morozov's cotton mill. This large strike prompted officials to consider regulations that would restrain the abuses of employers and ensure safety in the workplace. A new law was passed in 1886 that required employers to specify working conditions in their factories in writing. This included the treatment of workers, workers' hours and the safety precautions taken by the employer. This new law also created factory inspectors who were charged with preserving industrial peace. Despite these changes, strike activity again reached high proportions during the 1890s, resulting in the restriction of the workday to eleven and a half hours in 1897.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: A leading role in these events was played by a priest Father Georgy Gapon. Fr. Gapon was a charismatic speaker and effective organizer who took an interest in the working and lower classes of the Russian cities.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: The "Assembly of the Russian Factory and Mill Workers of the City of St. Petersburg", otherwise known as “the Assembly”, had been headed by Fr. Gapon since 1903. The Assembly was patronized by the Department of the Police and the St. Petersburg Okhrana (secret police); during 1904 the membership of the association had grown rapidly, although more radical groups saw it as being a "police union" – under government influence. The Assembly's objectives were to defend workers' rights and to elevate their moral and religious status. In the words of Fr. Gapon, this organization served as:


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: The Assembly served as a type of union for the workers of St. Petersburg. Depicted as strictly conservative in its support of the autocracy, the Assembly was a means of preventing revolutionary influences and appeasing the workers by striving for better conditions, hours, and pay. The Assembly acted as one of the catalysts for what later became known as Bloody Sunday.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: In December 1904, six workers at the Putilov Ironworks in St. Petersburg were fired because of their membership of the Assembly, although the plant manager asserted that they were fired for unrelated reasons. Virtually the entire workforce of the Putilov Ironworks went on strike when the plant manager refused to accede to their requests that the workers be rehired. Sympathy strikes in other parts of the city raised the number of strikers up to 150,000 workers in 382 factories. By , the city had no electricity and no newspapers whatsoever and all public areas were declared closed.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: The decision to prepare and present a petition was made in the course of discussions during the evening of , at the headquarters of Father Gapon's movementthe "Gapon Hall" on the Shlisselburg Trakt in Saint Petersburg. The petition, as drafted in respectful terms by Gapon himself, made clear the problems and opinions of the workers and called for improved working conditions, fairer wages, and a reduction in the working day to eight hours. Other demands included an end to the Russo-Japanese War and the introduction of universal suffrage. The idea of a petition resonated with the traditionally minded working masses. From the 15th to the early 18th centuries individual or collective petitions were an established means of bringing grievances to the attention of the Tsar's administration. They could be submitted to the Petitions Prikaz (office) in Moscow, or directly to the Tsar or his courtiers when the tsar was making an appearance outside the palace.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: The march on the Winter Palace was not a revolutionary or rebellious act, though it was done against the permission of public authorities. Political groups, such as the Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, and the Social Revolutionaries disapproved of the procession due to its lack of political demands. Father Gapon even encouraged his followers to tear up leaflets that supported revolutionary aims. The majority of Russian workers retained their traditional conservative values of Orthodoxy, faith in the autocracy, and indifference to political life. The workers of St. Petersburg wished to receive fair treatment and better working conditions; they decided, therefore, to petition the tsar in hopes he would act on it. In their eyes, the tsar was their representative who would help them if he was made aware of their situation. God appointed the tsar, therefore the tsar had an obligation to protect the people and do what was best for them. Their petition was written in subservient terms and ended with a reminder to the tsar of his obligation to the people of Russia and their resolve to do what it took to ensure their pleas were met. It concluded: "And if Thou dost not so order and dost not respond to our pleas we will die here in this square before Thy palace". Gapon, who had an ambiguous relationship with the Tsarist authorities, sent a copy of the petition to the Minister of the Interior together with a notification of his intention to lead a procession of members of his workers' movement to the Winter Palace on the following Sunday.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: Troops had been deployed around the Winter Palace and at other key points. Despite the urging of various members of the imperial family to stay in St. Petersburg, the Tsar left on Saturday for Tsarskoye Selo. A cabinet meeting, held without any particular sense of urgency that same evening, concluded that the police would publicize his absence and that the workers would accordingly probably abandon their plans for a march.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: In the pre-dawn winter darkness of the morning of Sunday, , striking workers and their families began to gather at six points in the industrial outskirts of St Petersburg. Holding religious icons and singing hymns and patriotic songs (particularly "God Save the Tsar!"), a crowd of "more than 3,000" proceeded without police interference towards the Winter Palace, the Tsar's official residence. The crowd, whose mood was quiet, did not know that the Tsar was not in residence. Insofar as there was firm planning, the intention was for the various columns of marchers to converge in front of the palace at about 2 pm. Estimates of the total numbers involved range wildly from police figures of 3,000 to organizers' claims of 50,000. Initially, it was intended that women, children and elderly workers should lead, to emphasize the united nature of the demonstration. Vera Karelina, who was one of Gapon's inner circle, had encouraged women to take part although she expected that there would be casualties. On reflection, younger men moved to the front to make up the leading ranks.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: A report had been made to the Tsar at Tsarskoe Selo on Saturday night on the measures being taken to contain the marchers. Substantial military forces were deployed in and around the environs of the Winter Palace. These comprised units of the Imperial Guard, who provided the permanent garrison of Saint Petersburg and Cossacks, plus infantry regiments brought in by rail in the early morning of 9 January from Reval and Pskov. The troops, who now numbered about 10,000, had been ordered to halt the columns of marchers before they reached the palace square but the reaction of government forces was inconsistent and confused. Individual policemen saluted the religious banners and portraits of the Tsar carried by the crowd or joined the procession. Army officers variously told the marchers that they could proceed in smaller groups, called on them to disperse or ordered their troops to fire into the marchers without warning. When the crowds continued to press forward, Cossacks and regular cavalry made charges using their sabres or trampling the people.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: The first instance of shooting occurred between 10 and 11 am. There was no single encounter directly before the Winter Palace, as often portrayed, but rather a series of separate collisions at the bridges or other entry points to the central city. The column led by Gapon was fired upon near the Narva Gate. Around forty people were killed or wounded there, although Gapon himself was not injured.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: As late as 2 pm large family groups were promenading on the Nevsky Prospekt as was customary on Sunday afternoons, mostly unaware of the extent of the violence elsewhere in the city. Amongst them were parties of workers still making their way to the Winter Palace as originally intended by Gapon. A detachment of the Preobrazhensky Guards previously stationed in the Palace Square where about 2,300 soldiers were being held in reserve, now made its way onto the Nevsky and formed two ranks opposite the Alexander Gardens. Following a single shouted warning a bugle sounded and four volleys were fired into the panicked crowd, many of whom had not been participants in the organized marches.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: The total number killed in the day's clashes is uncertain. The Tsar's officials recorded 96 dead and 333 injured; anti-government sources claimed more than 4,000 dead; moderate estimates still average around 1,000 killed or wounded, both from shots and being trampled during the panic. Another source noted that the official estimate was 132 people killed. Leon Trotsky did not put forward a precise figure but claimed that hundreds were killed and that many of the dead were secretly buried by the authorities.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: Nicholas II described the day as "painful and sad". As reports spread across the city, disorder and looting broke out. Gapon's Assembly was closed down that day, and Gapon quickly left Russia with the assistance of writer and political activist, Maxim Gorky.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: Although the Tsar was not at the Winter Palace and did not give the order for the troops to fire, he was widely blamed for the inefficiency and callousness with which the crisis had been handled. While it was unrealistic for the marchers to expect Nicholas to ride out into the Palace Square to meet them, his absence from the city, against at least some advice, reflects a lack of imagination and perception that he was to show on other occasions. The killing of people, many of whom had seen the Tsar as their "Little Father", resulted in a surge of bitterness towards Nicholas and his autocratic rule. A widely quoted reaction was "we no longer have a Tsar".


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: This event was seen by the British ambassador as inflaming revolutionary activities in Russia and contributing to the Revolution of 1905. Media commentary in Britain and the United States was overwhelmingly negative towards the actions of an already unpopular regime. The writer Leo Tolstoy was emotionally affected by the event, reflecting the revulsion of liberal, socialist and intellectual opinion within Russia itself.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: The immediate consequence of Bloody Sunday was a strike movement that spread throughout the country. Strikes began to erupt outside of St. Petersburg in places such as Moscow, Warsaw, Riga, Vilna, Kovno, Reval, Tiflis, Baku and Batum. In all, about 414,000 people participated in the work stoppage during January 1905. Tsar Nicholas II attempted to appease the people with a duma; however, the autocracy eventually resorted to brute force near the end of 1905 in order to curtail the burgeoning strike movement that continued to spread. Between October 1905 and April 1906, an estimated 15,000 peasants and workers were either hanged or shot; 20,000 were injured and 45,000 sent into exile.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: Perhaps the most significant effect of Bloody Sunday was the drastic change in the attitude of the Russian peasants and workers. Previously the tsar had been seen as the champion of the people: in dire situations, the masses would appeal to the tsar, traditionally through a petition, and the tsar would respond to his people promising to set things right. The lower classes placed their faith in the tsar. Any problems that the lower classes faced were associated with the boyars of Russia; however, after Bloody Sunday the tsar was no longer distinguished from the bureaucrats and was held personally responsible for the tragedy that occurred. The social contract between the tsar and the people was broken, which delegitimized the position of the tsar and his divine right to rule. Although Bloody Sunday was not initiated as a revolutionary or rebellious movement, the repercussions of the government's reaction laid the foundations for revolution by bringing into question autocracy and the legitimacy of the tsar.


title: Bloody Sunday (1905)

text: Dmitri Shostakovich's 11th Symphony, subtitled "The Year 1905", is a programmatic work centered on Bloody Sunday. The second movement, entitled "The Ninth of January", is a forceful depiction of the massacre. The sixth of Shostakovich's "Ten Poems on Texts by Revolutionary Poets" is also called "The Ninth of January". Shostakovich's father and uncle were both present at the march that day, a year before the composer's birth. Maxim Gorky's novel "The Life of a Useless Man" (1908) portrays the effects of Bloody Sunday on the Russian working class and operations of the spies employed by the Tsar.


title: Robin Lord Taylor

text: Robin Lord Taylor (born June 4, 1978) is an American film and television actor and director, known for his role as Oswald Cobblepot in the Fox TV series "Gotham", as well as "Accepted" (2006), "Another Earth" (2011), "Would You Rather" (2012), "" (2019) and "You" (2019).


title: Robin Lord Taylor

text: Taylor was born in Shueyville, Iowa, to Robert Harmon Taylor and Mary Susan (née Stamy) Taylor. He attended Solon High School and Northwestern University, earning his Bachelor of Science degree in Theatre in 2000. While at Northwestern, his roommate was actor Billy Eichner.


title: Robin Lord Taylor

text: Taylor has appeared in several television series, such as "The Walking Dead", "Law & Order", "", "The Good Wife" and "Person of Interest". He had a recurring role as "Darrell, the "Late Show" page with the fake British accent" on "Late Show with David Letterman". He played Abernathy Darwin Dunlap in "Accepted". He appeared in such independent films as "Would You Rather", "Cold Comes the Night", and "Another Earth", the last of which won the Alfred P. Sloan Prize at the 2011 Sundance Film Festival.


title: Robin Lord Taylor

text: Taylor was featured in Spike Lee's segment "Jesus Children of America" of the 2005 anthology film on the theme of childhood and exploitation "All the Invisible Children" (Venice Film Festival), "The House is Burning" (produced by Wim Wenders (Cannes Film Festival), "Pitch" (Cannes Film Festival), Kevin Connolly's "Gardener of Eden" (Tribeca Film Festival) and "Assassination of a High School President" (Sundance Film Festival).


title: Robin Lord Taylor

text: Taylor co-created and co-starred in "Creation Nation: A Live Talk Show" with Billy Eichner, which they performed at the 2008 Edinburgh Festival Fringe, as well as at the HBO Aspen Comedy Festival and throughout New York City and Los Angeles. He has also appeared onstage in "Neighborhood 3: Requisition of Doom", "The Shooting Stage", "Henry IV" and "No. 11 Blue and White", as well as numerous productions in Stephen Sondheim's Young Playwrights Festival at the Cherry Lane Theater.


title: Robin Lord Taylor

text: In February 2019, it was announced that Taylor had been cast in the recurring role of Will Bettelheim on the second season of the Netflix thriller series "You".


title: Robin Lord Taylor

text: Taylor was cast as Oswald Cobblepot in February 2014. His performance as Cobblepot has been described by "Esquire" as a "standout performance of the first episode [...], disarming and multilayered", by "The Wall Street Journal" as "a passionate performance ... [that] steals the show", and as "spectacularly cast as the Penguin".


title: Robin Lord Taylor

text: In a November 2014 "Glamour" interview, Taylor was asked, "I notice you are wearing a wedding ring on your ring finger. Are you married?" To which he responded, "I am married! I like to keep it private, but I've been married for over three years, and we've been together for 5½ years. No kids. No kids yet!"


title: Robin Lord Taylor

text: In March 2015, "Slate" noted Taylor in an article discussing "Several actors who are openly gay or who have been cast in multiple straight or bisexual roles and the typecasting of gay roles". Taylor, himself, added: "I feel like the landscape has totally changed. Regardless of sexual preference, it's more that as a character actor, the less I reveal about myself, the better. My favorite actors are the ones I know least about." In April 2015, Taylor openly identified as gay on episode 672 of "The Nerdist Podcast" with Chris Hardwick.


title: Robin Lord Taylor

text: In October 2019, in a post on his Instagram account, Taylor identified as gay and stated he had been out of the closet for 22 years.


title: Betamethasone

text: Betamethasone is a steroid medication. It is used for a number of diseases including rheumatic disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus, skin diseases such as dermatitis and psoriasis, allergic conditions such as asthma and angioedema, preterm labor to speed the development of the baby's lungs, Crohn's disease, cancers such as leukemia, and along with fludrocortisone for adrenocortical insufficiency, among others. It can be taken by mouth, injected into a muscle, or applied to the skin, typically in cream, lotion, or liquid forms.


title: Betamethasone

text: Serious side effects include an increased risk of infection, muscle weakness, severe allergic reactions, and psychosis. Long-term use may cause adrenal insufficiency. Stopping the medication suddenly following long-term use may be dangerous. The cream commonly results in increased hair growth and skin irritation. Betamethasone belongs to the glucocorticoid class of medication. It is a stereoisomer of dexamethasone, the two compounds differing only in the spatial configuration of the methyl group at position 16 (see steroid nomenclature).


title: Betamethasone

text: Betamethasone was patented in 1958, and approved for medical use in the United States in 1961. The cream and ointment are on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 233rd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1million prescriptions.


title: Betamethasone

text: Betamethasone is a corticosteroid that is available as a pill, by injection, and as an ointment, cream, lotion, gel, or aerosol (spray) for the skin, and a foam for the scalp. When given by injection, anti-inflammatory effects begin in around two hours and last for seven days.


title: Betamethasone

text: It is used as a topical cream to relieve skin irritation, such as itching and flaking from eczema. It is used as a treatment for local psoriasis, as betamethasone dipropionate and salicylic acid, or as the combination calcipotriol/betamethasone dipropionate. Betamethasone sodium phosphate is used orally and via injection with the same indications as other steroids. Many betamethasone-based pharmaceuticals include the steroid as the valerate ester.


title: Betamethasone

text: In a randomized controlled trial betamethasone was shown to reduce some of the ataxia (poor coordination) symptoms associated with ataxia telangiectasia (A-T) by 28-31%.


title: Betamethasone

text: Betamethasone is also used to stimulate fetal lung maturation in order to prevent infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS) and to decrease the incidence and mortality from intracranial hemorrhage in premature infants.


title: Betamethasone

text: A cream with 0.05% betamethasone appears effective in treating phimosis in boys, and often averts the need for circumcision. It has replaced circumcision as the preferred treatment method for some physicians in the British National Health Service.


title: Betamethasone

text: Prolonged use of this medicine on extensive areas of skin, broken or raw skin, skin folds, or underneath airtight dressings may on rare occasions result in enough corticosteroid being absorbed to have side effects on other parts of the body; for example, by causing a decrease in the production of natural hormones by the adrenal glands.


title: Betamethasone

text: Betamethasone is also used prior to delivery of a preterm baby to help prepare the lungs for breathing. However, because betamethasone crosses the placenta, which is required for its beneficial effects, it may also be associated with complications, such as hypoglycemia and leukocytosis in newborns exposed "in utero".


title: Betamethasone

text: When injected into the epidural space or the spine, it may cause serious side effects like loss of vision, stroke, and paralysis.


title: Betamethasone

text: Betamethasone is available in a number of compound forms: betamethasone dipropionate (branded as Diprosone, Diprolene, Celestamine, Procort (in Pakistan), and others), betamethasone sodium phosphate (branded as Bentelan in Italy) and betamethasone valerate (branded as Audavate, Betnovate, Celestone, Fucibet, and others). In the United States and Canada, betamethasone is mixed with clotrimazole and sold as Lotrisone and Lotriderm. It is also available in combination with salicylic acid (branded as Diprosalic) for using in psoriatic skin conditions. In some countries, it is also sold mixed with both clotrimazole and gentamicin to add an antibacterial agent to the mix.


title: Betamethasone

text: Betamethasone sodium phosphate mixed with betamethasone acetate is available in the United States as Celestone Soluspan.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: Jonathan David Haidt (; born October 19, 1963) is an American social psychologist and author. He is the Thomas Cooley Professor of Ethical Leadership at New York University Stern School of Business. His main areas of study are the psychology of morality and moral emotions.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: Haidt's main scientific contributions come from the psychological field of moral foundations theory, which attempts to explain the evolutionary origins of human moral reasoning on the basis of innate, gut feelings rather than logic and reason. The theory was later extended to explain the different moral reasoning and how they relate to political ideology, with different political orientations prioritizing different sets of morals. The research served as a foundation for future books on various topics.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: Haidt has written three books for general audiences: "" (2006) explores the relationship between ancient philosophies and modern science; "" (2012) examines how morality is shaped by emotion and intuition more than by reasoning, and why differing political groups have different notions of right and wrong; and "The Coddling of the American Mind: How Good Intentions and Bad Ideas Are Setting Up a Generation for Failure" (2018), co-written with Greg Lukianoff, explores the rising political polarization and changing culture on college campuses, and its effects on mental health.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: Haidt has attracted both support and criticism for his critique of the current state of universities and his interpretation of progressive values. He has been named one of the "top global thinkers" by "Foreign Policy" magazine, and one of the "top world thinkers" by "Prospect" magazine. He is among the most cited researchers in political and moral psychology, and is considered among the top 25 most influential living psychologists.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: Haidt is Jewish and was born in New York City, and raised in Scarsdale, New York. His grandparents were immigrants from Russia and Poland.