title: Voyager program

text: The diagram shows the high-gain antenna (HGA) with a diameter dish attached to the hollow decagonal electronics container. There is also a spherical tank that contains the hydrazine monopropellant fuel.


title: Voyager program

text: The Voyager Golden Record is attached to one of the bus sides. The angled square panel to the right is the optical calibration target and excess heat radiator. The three radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the lower boom.


title: Voyager program

text: The scan platform comprises: the Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at top right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer (UVS) just above the IRIS; the two Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon cameras to the left of the UVS; and the Photopolarimeter System (PPS) under the ISS.


title: Voyager program

text: Only five investigation teams are still supported, though data is collected for two additional instruments.


title: Voyager program

text: The Flight Data Subsystem (FDS) and a single eight-track digital tape recorder (DTR) provide the data handling functions.


title: Voyager program

text: The FDS configures each instrument and controls instrument operations. It also collects engineering and science data and formats the data for transmission. The DTR is used to record high-rate Plasma Wave Subsystem (PWS) data. The data are played back every six months.


title: Voyager program

text: The Imaging Science Subsystem made up of a wide-angle and a narrow-angle camera is a modified version of the slow scan vidicon camera designs that were used in the earlier Mariner flights. The Imaging Science Subsystem consists of two television-type cameras, each with eight filters in a commandable filter wheel mounted in front of the vidicons. One has a low resolution focal length wide-angle lens with an aperture of f/3 (the wide-angle camera), while the other uses a higher resolution narrow-angle f/8.5 lens (the narrow-angle camera).


title: Voyager program

text: There are three different computer types on the Voyager spacecraft, two of each kind, sometimes used for redundancy. They are proprietary, custom-built computers built from CMOS and TTL medium-scale integrated circuits and discrete components. Total number of words among the six computers is about 32K. Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 have identical computer systems.


title: Voyager program

text: The Computer Command System (CCS), the central controller of the spacecraft, has two 18-bit word, interrupt-type processors with 4096 words each of non-volatile plated-wire memory. During most of the Voyager mission the two CCS computers on each spacecraft were used non-redundantly to increase the command and processing capability of the spacecraft. The CCS is nearly identical to the system flown on the Viking spacecraft.


title: Voyager program

text: The Attitude and Articulation Control System (AACS) is two 18-bit word machines with 4096 words each.


title: Voyager program

text: Unlike the other on-board instruments, the operation of the cameras for visible light is not autonomous, but rather it is controlled by an imaging parameter table contained in one of the on-board digital computers, the Flight Data Subsystem (FDS). More recent space probes, since about 1990, usually have completely autonomous cameras.


title: Voyager program

text: The computer command subsystem (CCS) controls the cameras. The CCS contains fixed computer programs such as command decoding, fault detection, and correction routines, antenna-pointing routines, and spacecraft sequencing routines. This computer is an improved version of the one that was used in the "Viking" orbiter. The hardware in both custom-built CCS subsystems in the Voyagers is identical. There is only a minor software modification for one of them that has a scientific subsystem that the other lacks.


title: Voyager program

text: The Attitude and Articulation Control Subsystem (AACS) controls the spacecraft orientation (its attitude). It keeps the high-gain antenna pointing towards the Earth, controls attitude changes, and points the scan platform. The custom-built AACS systems on both craft are identical.


title: Voyager program

text: It has been erroneously reported on the Internet that the Voyager space probes were controlled by a version of the RCA 1802 (RCA CDP1802 "COSMAC" microprocessor), but such claims are not supported by the primary design documents. The CDP1802 microprocessor was used later in the "Galileo" space probe, which was designed and built years later. The digital control electronics of the Voyagers were not based on a microprocessor integrated-circuit chip.


title: Voyager program

text: The uplink communications are executed via S-band microwave communications. The downlink communications are carried out by an X-band microwave transmitter on board the spacecraft, with an S-band transmitter as a back-up. All long-range communications to and from the two Voyagers have been carried out using their high-gain antennas. The high-gain antenna has a beamwidth of 0.5° for X-band, and 2.3° for S-band. (The low-gain antenna has a 7 dB gain and 60° beamwidth.)


title: Voyager program

text: Because of the inverse-square law in radio communications, the digital data rates used in the downlinks from the Voyagers have been continually decreasing the farther that they get from the Earth. For example, the data rate used from Jupiter was about 115,000 bits per second. That was halved at the distance of Saturn, and it has gone down continually since then. Some measures were taken on the ground along the way to reduce the effects of the inverse-square law. In between 1982 and 1985, the diameters of the three main parabolic dish antennas of the Deep Space Network were increased from dramatically increasing their areas for gathering weak microwave signals.


title: Voyager program

text: Whilst the craft were between Saturn and Uranus the onboard software was upgraded to do a degree of image compression and to use a more efficient Reed-Solomon error-correcting encoding.


title: Voyager program

text: Then between 1986 and 1989, new techniques were brought into play to combine the signals from multiple antennas on the ground into one, more powerful signal, in a kind of an antenna array. This was done at Goldstone, California, Canberra, and Madrid using the additional dish antennas available there. Also, in Australia, the Parkes Radio Telescope was brought into the array in time for the fly-by of Neptune in 1989. In the United States, the Very Large Array in New Mexico was brought into temporary use along with the antennas of the Deep Space Network at Goldstone. Using this new technology of antenna arrays helped to compensate for the immense radio distance from Neptune to the Earth.


title: Voyager program

text: Electrical power is supplied by three MHW-RTG radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs). They are powered by plutonium-238 (distinct from the Pu-239 isotope used in nuclear weapons) and provided approximately 470 W at 30 volts DC when the spacecraft was launched. Plutonium-238 decays with a half-life of 87.74 years, so RTGs using Pu-238 will lose a factor of 1−0.5 = 0.79% of their power output per year.


title: Voyager program

text: In 2011, 34 years after launch, the thermal power generated by such an RTG would be reduced to (1/2) ≈ 76% of its initial power. The RTG thermocouples, which convert thermal power into electricity, also degrade over time reducing available electric power below this calculated level.


title: Voyager program

text: By 7 October 2011 the power generated by "Voyager 1" and "Voyager 2" had dropped to 267.9 W and 269.2 W respectively, about 57% of the power at launch. The level of power output was better than pre-launch predictions based on a conservative thermocouple degradation model. As the electrical power decreases, spacecraft loads must be turned off, eliminating some capabilities. There may be insufficient power for communications by 2032.


title: Voyager program

text: The Voyager primary mission was completed in 1989, with the close flyby of Neptune by "Voyager 2". The Voyager Interstellar Mission (VIM) is a mission extension, which began when the two spacecraft had already been in flight for over 12 years. The Heliophysics Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate conducted a Heliophysics Senior Review in 2008. The panel found that the VIM "is a mission that is absolutely imperative to continue" and that VIM "funding near the optimal level and increased DSN (Deep Space Network) support is warranted."


title: Voyager program

text: The main objective of the VIM was to extend the exploration of the Solar System beyond the outer planets to the heliopause (the farthest extent at which the Sun's radiation predominates over interstellar winds) and if possible even beyond. Voyager 1 crossed the heliopause boundary in 2012, followed by Voyager 2 in 2018. Passing through the heliopause boundary has allowed both spacecraft to make measurements of the interstellar fields, particles and waves unaffected by the solar wind. Two significant findings so far have been the discovery of a region of magnetic bubbles and no indication of an expected shift in the Solar magnetic field.


title: Voyager program

text: The entire "Voyager 2" scan platform, including all of the platform instruments, was switched off in 1998. All platform instruments on "Voyager 1", except for the ultraviolet spectrometer (UVS) have also been switched off.


title: Voyager program

text: The "Voyager 1" scan platform was scheduled to go off-line in late 2000 but has been left on to investigate UV emission from the upwind direction.


title: Voyager program

text: Gyro operations ended in 2016 for "Voyager 2" and in 2017 for "Voyager 1". Gyro operations are used to rotate the probe 360 degrees six times per year to measure the magnetic field of the spacecraft, which is then subtracted from the magnetometer science data.


title: Voyager program

text: The two spacecraft continue to operate, with some loss in subsystem redundancy but retain the capability to return scientific data from a full complement of Voyager Interstellar Mission (VIM) science instruments.


title: Voyager program

text: Both spacecraft also have adequate electrical power and attitude control propellant to continue operating until around 2025, after which there may not be electrical power to support science instrument operation; science data return and spacecraft operations will cease.


title: Voyager program

text: By the start of VIM, "Voyager 1" was at a distance of 40 AU from the Earth while "Voyager 2" was at 31 AU. VIM is in three phases: termination shock, heliosheath exploration, and interstellar exploration phase. The spacecraft began VIM in an environment controlled by the Sun's magnetic field with the plasma particles being dominated by those contained in the expanding supersonic solar wind. This is the characteristic environment of the termination shock phase. At some distance from the Sun, the supersonic solar wind will be held back from further expansion by the interstellar wind. The first feature encountered by a spacecraft as a result of this interstellar wind–solar wind interaction was the termination shock where the solar wind slows to subsonic speed and large changes in plasma flow direction and magnetic field orientation occur.


title: Voyager program

text: "Voyager 1" completed the phase of termination shock in December 2004 at a distance of 94 AU while "Voyager 2" completed it in August 2007 at a distance of 84 AU. After entering into the heliosheath, the spacecraft were in an area that is dominated by the Sun's magnetic field and solar wind particles. After passing through the heliosheath, the two Voyagers began the phase of interstellar exploration.


title: Voyager program

text: The outer boundary of the heliosheath is called the heliopause. This is the region where the Sun's influence begins to decrease and interstellar space can be detected. "Voyager 1" is escaping the Solar System at the speed of 3.6 AU per year 35° north of the ecliptic in the general direction of the solar apex in Hercules, while "Voyager 2"s speed is about 3.3 AU per year, heading 48° south of the ecliptic. The Voyager spacecraft will eventually go on to the stars. In about 40,000 years, "Voyager 1" will be within 1.6 light years (ly) of AC+79 3888, also known as Gliese 445, which is approaching the Sun. In 40,000 years "Voyager 2" will be within 1.7 ly of Ross 248 (another star which is approaching the Sun) and in 296,000 years it will pass within 4.6 ly of Sirius which is the brightest star in the night sky.


title: Voyager program

text: In October 2020, astronomers reported a significant unexpected increase in density in the space beyond the Solar System as detected by the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 space probes. According to the researchers, this implies that "the density gradient is a large-scale feature of the VLISM (very local interstellar medium) in the general direction of the heliospheric nose".


title: Voyager program

text: The telemetry comes to the telemetry modulation unit (TMU) separately as a "low-rate" 40-bit-per-second (bit/s) channel and a "high-rate" channel.


title: Voyager program

text: Low rate telemetry is routed through the TMU such that it can only be downlinked as uncoded bits (in other words there is no error correction). At high rate, one of a set of rates between 10 bit/s and 115.2 kbit/s is downlinked as coded symbols.


title: Voyager program

text: The TMU encodes the high rate data stream with a convolutional code having constraint length of 7 with a symbol rate equal to twice the bit rate (k=7, r=1/2)


title: Voyager program

text: It is understood that there is substantial overlap of EL-40 and CR-5T (ISA 35395) telemetry, but the simpler EL-40 data does not have the resolution of the CR-5T telemetry. At least when it comes to representing available electricity to subsystems, EL-40 only transmits in integer increments—so similar behaviors are expected elsewhere.


title: Voyager program

text: Memory dumps are available in both engineering formats. These routine diagnostic procedures have detected and corrected intermittent memory bit flip problems, as well as detecting the permanent bit flip problem that caused a two-week data loss event mid-2010.


title: Voyager program

text: Both spacecraft carry a golden phonograph record that contains pictures and sounds of Earth, symbolic directions on the cover for playing the record, and data detailing the location of Earth. The record is intended as a combination time capsule and an interstellar message to any civilization, alien or far-future human, that may recover either of the Voyagers. The contents of this record were selected by a committee that included Timothy Ferris and was chaired by Carl Sagan.


title: Voyager program

text: The Voyager program's discoveries during the primary phase of its mission, including new close-up color photos of the major planets, were regularly documented by print and electronic media outlets. Among the best-known of these is an image of the Earth as a "Pale Blue Dot", taken in 1990 by "Voyager 1", and popularized by Carl Sagan,


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: LaMarcus Nurae Aldridge (born July 19, 1985) is an American professional basketball player who last played for the Brooklyn Nets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for two seasons with the Texas Longhorns. Aldridge was selected second overall in the 2006 NBA draft. After spending nine seasons with the Portland Trail Blazers, he signed with the San Antonio Spurs in 2015. In March 2021, he signed with the Brooklyn Nets after the Spurs bought out his contract. He retired after two weeks due to an irregular heartbeat, but returned to the Nets the following season after receiving medical clearance.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Widely known for his signature fadeaway jump shot, Aldridge has been selected to five All-NBA teams and is a seven-time NBA All-Star.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Aldridge attended Seagoville High School, where he became a second-team "Parade" All-American and Texas Association of Basketball Coaches (TABC) Class 4A Player of the Year.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Considered a five-star recruit by Rivals.com, Aldridge was listed as the no. 4 best center and the no. 16 player in the nation in 2004.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Aldridge attended the University of Texas at Austin. He declared for the 2004 NBA draft but ultimately withdrew his name. According to one report, Aldridge's initial decision to attend college rather than entering the pro ranks directly from high school was influenced by Shaquille O'Neal's personal advice that he should go to college and then evaluate his NBA prospects. However, in April 2006, after the end of his second year with the Longhorns, Aldridge announced that he would leave college to enter the 2006 NBA draft.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Aldridge was drafted second overall in the 2006 NBA draft by the Chicago Bulls, only to have his rights traded to the Portland Trail Blazers for their pick, Tyrus Thomas, and Viktor Khryapa, shortly after. The Bulls acquired the pick from the New York Knicks in the 2005 Eddy Curry trade.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Aldridge missed the first seven games of the 2006–07 NBA season due to off-season shoulder surgery, but returned ahead of schedule due in part to an injury to fellow rookie teammate Brandon Roy. Aldridge made an immediate impact on offense, averaging 8.4 points on 54% shooting from the field through his first 14 games. After the loss of starting center Joel Przybilla, in February 2007 to season-ending knee surgery, Aldridge was awarded the starting center position and improved his scoring to 14.7 points with 8.0 rebounds per game in the month of March. This placed him second in the voting for the Western Conference Rookie of the Month to Roy. On March 31, 2007, in the first quarter against the Los Angeles Clippers, Aldridge was taken to Providence Hospital in Portland for shortness of breath and irregular heartbeat. He was diagnosed with Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome on April 9 and missed the remaining eight games of the 2006–07 season. Aldridge started 22 games in his rookie season.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Aldridge was one of six players named to the 2007 NBA All-Rookie first team; he tied for fifth place with Toronto Raptors player Jorge Garbajosa.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Aldridge elevated his play in his second season, with career highs in points, rebounds, assists, blocks and steals, and finished third in voting for the NBA Most Improved Player Award. During this season, Aldridge had injury troubles due to plantar fasciitis, which caused him to miss games from December 11–18, 2007. After the time missed, Aldridge still had some trouble with the foot but was able to play effectively.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Aldridge played inconsistently to start the season, adjusting to more defensive pressure. He called the first 15 games "the worst funk" of his life but gradually improved as the season went on.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Aldridge developed his offensive game over the course of the season, still relying heavily on his midrange fade away shot. He finished the season averaging 18.1 points and 7.5 rebounds. Aldridge scored over 20 points in half of the last 28 games of the season. For his first time in the league Aldridge nearly played a full season, missing only one game.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: In late October, Aldridge signed a five-year, $65 million contract extension with Portland. Before committing to Aldridge, the Trail Blazers finalized a five-year, $80 million deal with All-Star Brandon Roy.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Aldridge put up similar numbers to the previous season. Early in December, Greg Oden suffered a season-ending injury. Aldridge received more minutes and offensive opportunities as a result.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Aldridge further emerged as both a player and a leader after Brandon Roy went out with knee problems in December 2010. In spite of Portland's "send LA to LA" program — the NBA All-Star game was in Los Angeles and Aldridge's nickname is "L-A" — Aldridge failed to get named to the Western Conference squad. He was, however, awarded the NBA Player of the Week for January 17–23 and February 7–13, and scored a career-high 42 points against the Chicago Bulls on February 7, 2011. On March 2, he joined Clyde Drexler (1991) and Kelvin Ransey (1981) as the only Blazers to ever receive the NBA Player of the Month award. Aldridge was runner-up to Kevin Love for the Most Improved Player Award, and voted to the All-NBA Third Team with 135 votes.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Due to the lockout, the 2011–12 season did not start until Christmas Day 2011. Blazer fans were hopeful that the three players advertised in their "Rise With Us" promotional campaign (Aldridge, Roy, and Greg Oden) would finally have a chance to play together for a "full" season. Those plans evaporated when Roy, who suffered from chronic knee problems due to the lack of cartilage in them, retired and Oden, who had only played in 82 games in the previous four seasons, had yet another setback in his effort to rehabilitate his knees. Aldridge was named a reserve on the Western Conference All-Star team in 2012.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: On November 12, 2012, Aldridge recorded a career-high eight assists in a 95–87 loss to the Atlanta Hawks. In 2013, Aldridge was named an All-Star for the second time in his career. He averaged 21.1 points per game, a career-high 9.1 rebounds per game and also recorded a career-high 2.6 assists per game in 37.7 minutes per game. The Trail Blazers went 33–49 and missed the playoffs for the second straight year.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Despite trade rumors during the 2013 offseason, Aldridge voiced his desire to stay put in Portland, while also asking for improvements to the Blazers' roster. Aldridge started out his eighth NBA season strong, recording five straight double-doubles from November 9 to 17. On November 23, 2013, in a game against the Warriors, Aldridge was involved in an altercation after Warriors center Andrew Bogut became entangled with Joel Freeland. On November 25, it was announced that he was fined $45,000 for escalating the incident. The very same day, Aldridge was named Western Conference Player of the Week for the fourth time in his career. The award came in the midst of an 11-game win streak for the Blazers, during which Aldridge averaged 21.1 points, 11.3 rebounds, 2.5 assists, and 2.5 blocks per game. On December 12, 2013, Aldridge scored 31 points and grabbed a career-high 25 rebounds in a 111–104 victory over the Houston Rockets, becoming the first player in Portland Trail Blazers franchise history with at least 30 points and 25 rebounds in a game. On January 23, 2014, Aldridge recorded a career-high 44 points along with 13 rebounds, 5 assists and 2 blocks in a 110–105 victory over the Denver Nuggets.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: The Trail Blazers went 31–10 over the first half of the 2014 season, consistently staying near the top of the Western Conference through the first three months of the season, and making a push for a return to the playoffs. Alongside teammate Damian Lillard, Aldridge was voted in as a reserve for the 2014 NBA All-Star Game, his third straight appearance. He finished fifth in the frontcourt fan voting, garnering over 600,000 votes.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Aldridge suffered a lower back contusion during the third quarter of a game versus the San Antonio Spurs on March 12, 2014. He missed the next seven games but returned in time to help the Blazers secure their 30th playoff berth and first since 2011.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: On April 20, 2014, Aldridge recorded a new career high and franchise playoff high of 46 points along with 18 rebounds, two assists, and two blocks in Game 1 of the opening round of the playoffs against the Houston Rockets which ended in a 122–120 overtime win for the Portland Trail Blazers. On April 23, 2014, in Game 2 of the Blazers' series against the Houston Rockets, Aldridge tallied 43 points and eight rebounds. He joined Michael Jordan, Jerry West, Allen Iverson, and Tracy McGrady as the only players in NBA history to score 89 or more points in the first two games of a playoff series. Over the entire six-game series with Houston, Aldridge averaged 29.8 points and over 2.5 blocks per game. In the next series against the Spurs, Aldridge struggled, shooting only 41.7 percent from the field, as the Blazers were handily defeated in five games. Ultimately, Aldridge had a career season in 2014, winning three Western Conference Player of the Week awards, and recording career highs in points per game, rebounds per game, free-throw percentage, defensive rebounds, and double-doubles.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: On December 9, 2014, in a game against the Detroit Pistons, Aldridge passed Terry Porter for second on the franchise's all-time scoring list with 11,333 career points. After leading Portland over the first half of the season with averages of 23.2 points and 10.2 rebounds per game, Aldridge was ruled out for six to eight weeks on January 23, 2015, after tearing the radial collateral ligament in his left thumb. However, he missed just two games after deciding against surgery and returned to the starting lineup on January 24 against the Washington Wizards, scoring 26 points in a victory that followed two losses with him sidelined. After being selected as a frontcourt reserve to his fourth straight NBA All-Star Game appearance on January 29, Aldridge was named as a starter on February 14 by Western Conference All-Star head coach Steve Kerr, replacing the injured Anthony Davis.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: On March 20, 2015, Aldridge became the Trail Blazers' all-time leader in rebounds by recording 10 against the Orlando Magic. Meanwhile, however, the Blazers were cooling off after a 30–11 record through the first 41 games of the season when shooting guard Wesley Matthews, whom Aldridge called "the heart and soul" of the Trail Blazers, tore his Achilles tendon on March 5 against the Dallas Mavericks and missed the rest of the season and playoffs. The Blazers subsequently went 21–20 through their final 41 games. In the playoffs, the short-handed Blazers were outplayed and outmatched by the Memphis Grizzlies in five games. Aldridge averaged a career-best 23.4 points per game, made a league-best 659 field goals, and was voted onto the All-NBA Second Team.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: On July 9, 2015, Aldridge signed a four-year, $80 million contract with the San Antonio Spurs. Upon being acquired by the Spurs, Aldridge was granted the number 12 jersey despite it having been retired for Bruce Bowen. Bowen gave Aldridge and the Spurs his blessing to unretire the number for him. He made his debut for the Spurs in the team's season opener on October 28 against the Oklahoma City Thunder. In just under 32 minutes of action, he recorded 11 points and 5 rebounds in a 112–106 loss. On November 11, he returned to Portland for the first time as a Spur, recording 23 points and 6 rebounds in a 113–101 win over his former team. On February 1, 2016, he scored a season-high 28 points in a 107–92 win over the Orlando Magic, helping the Spurs win its 35th straight home game (dating to March 2015), good for the sixth-best streak in league history. He topped his season-high mark two days later, scoring 36 points in a 110–97 win over the New Orleans Pelicans. With the win, the Spurs moved to 27–0 at home to start the season, snapping a tie with the 1977–78 Portland Trail Blazers for the best home start among Western Conference teams. On February 8, he was named the Western Conference Player of the Week for games played Monday, February 1 through Sunday, February 7. He averaged 26.0 points, 7.3 rebounds and 2.5 blocks while shooting .597 (37–62) from the field and .909 from the free throw line to help the Spurs go 4–0 for the week.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: After dislocating his right pinkie finger on April 7, it bothered him for the rest of the regular season and into the playoffs. As the No. 2 seed in the Western Conference, the Spurs faced a depleted Memphis Grizzlies team in the first round. In a Game 1 win, Aldridge scored 17 points. The Spurs went on to sweep the Grizzlies in the first round to move on to the conference semifinals, where they faced the Oklahoma City Thunder. In Game 1 of the series against the Thunder, Aldridge scored a game-high 38 points on 18-of-23 shooting in a 124–92 win. In a Game 2 loss, he bested that mark by scoring 41 points.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: In the Spurs' season opener on October 25, 2016, Aldridge recorded 26 points and 14 rebounds in a 129–100 win over the Golden State Warriors. His next best performance came on December 25 against the Chicago Bulls. Aldridge had a season-high 33 points in a 119–110 win over the Bulls, marking his second-highest scoring output as a Spur. He made his first nine attempts while scoring 20 points in the opening period, his most in any quarter with the Spurs. On March 11, 2017, he was ruled out for an indefinite period due to an occurrence of a minor heart arrhythmia. He was medically cleared to return on March 15. In his first game back, Aldridge had 19 points and seven rebounds in a 110–106 loss to the Portland Trail Blazers. As a result, Aldridge reached 1,000 points for a 10th straight season, joining LeBron James and Dwyane Wade as the only active players (at the time) with that streak.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: On May 11, 2017, the Spurs eliminated the Houston Rockets with a 114–75 victory in Game 6 of their second-round playoff series behind a season-high 34 points from Aldridge. Aldridge had failed to get out of the second round in his previous six postseason trips. He also became the first Spur to score 34 points with 12 rebounds in a playoff game since Tim Duncan against the Phoenix Suns in 2008. The Spurs went on to lose to the Warriors in a clean sweep in the Western Conference Finals. Aldridge closed out a disappointing series with his second eight-point effort against the Warriors. He entered Game 4 averaging 18 points but was held to 4-for-11 shooting in 22 minutes in the series finale.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: On October 16, 2017, Aldridge signed a three-year, $72.3 million contract extension with the Spurs, with only $7 million guaranteed in the final year of the extension. Two days later, in the Spurs' season opener, Aldridge had 25 points and 10 rebounds in a 107–99 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. On November 14, 2017, he scored a season-high 32 points in a 97–91 win over the Dallas Mavericks. On November 27, 2017, he set a new season high with 33 points in a 115–108 win over the Mavericks. Two days later, he set his San Antonio high with 41 points in a 104–95 win over the Memphis Grizzlies. On January 23, 2018, he was named a Western Conference All-Star reserve, becoming the first Spurs player who didn't play his rookie season in San Antonio to make the All-Star team since Artis Gilmore in 1986. Three days later, in a 97–78 loss to the Philadelphia 76ers, Aldridge grabbed his 7,000th career rebound, becoming the only player in the NBA with 16,000-plus points and 7,000-plus rebounds since he entered the league in 2006. On March 17, 2018, he had a 39-point effort in a 117–101 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. On March 21, 2018, in a 98–90 win over the Washington Wizards, Aldridge became the 27th player in league history with 900-plus blocks and 16,000-plus points in his career—the only player to accomplish that feat since he began his career in 2006. Two days later, he had a career-high 45 points in a 124–120 overtime win over the Utah Jazz. His 28 points in the first half were the most by a Spurs in a half since Manu Ginóbili had 28 points against Cleveland in 2008. In Game 2 of the Spurs' first-round playoff series against the Golden State Warriors, Aldridge scored a game-high 34 points in a 116–101 loss. The Spurs went on to lose the series in five games.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: In the Spurs' season opener on October 17, Aldridge recorded 21 points and 19 rebounds in a 112–108 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. On October 22, he had 37 points and 10 rebounds in a 143–142 overtime win over the Los Angeles Lakers. On December 29, he scored 38 points in a 122–111 win over the Los Angeles Clippers. On January 10, 2019, he scored a career-high 56 points in a 154–147 double-overtime victory over the Oklahoma City Thunder. On January 31, 2019, he was named a Western Conference All-Star reserve. On February 2, he had 25 points and 14 rebounds in a 113–108 win over the New Orleans Pelicans, thus reaching 18,000 points and becoming the only player in the league with 18,000 points and 7,500 rebounds since 2006 (the year he was drafted). On March 24, he had 48 points and 13 rebounds in a 115–98 win over the Boston Celtics.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: In a game against the Golden State Warriors, Aldridge collected his 8,000th career rebound. He became the first player in the NBA to score 18,000 or more points and grab 8,000 or more rebounds since 2006. On November 7, 2019, against the Oklahoma City Thunder, Aldridge recorded a season-high 39 points in a winning effort. On June 8, 2020, the San Antonio Spurs announced that Aldridge had undergone an arthroscopic subacromial decompression and rotator cuff debridement on his right shoulder on April 24 and would miss the remainder of the 2019–20 season.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: In 2020–21, Aldridge missed eight of San Antonio's final 11 games before the NBA All-Star break due to hip and quadriceps injuries. They were 6–2 in the games that he missed. He was a reserve in the three games that he did play, the first time he came off the bench since he was a rookie with Portland. After the break, Aldridge and the Spurs mutually agreed that he would not return to the team, and he was granted permission to seek out opportunities with other teams. He was averaging 13.7 points and 4.5 rebounds in 25.9 minutes per game for the season. On March 25, 2021, Aldridge reached a contract buyout agreement with San Antonio.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: On March 28, 2021, Aldridge signed with the Brooklyn Nets. On April 1, he debuted for the Nets, posting 11 points, nine rebounds and a season-high six assists in a 111–89 win against Charlotte Hornets. On April 15, Aldridge announced his retirement, citing health concerns arising from an irregular heartbeat.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: On September 3, 2021, Aldridge re-signed with the Nets after he received medical clearance to return to playing professional basketball. On October 22, Aldridge scored a season-high 23 points in a win against Philadelphia 76ers. On October 29, Aldridge scored 21 points in a 105–98 win over the Indiana Pacers, reaching 20,000 career points.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Aldridge and his ex-partner have a son together, who was born in 2009. His second son was born in 2011.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: In 2007, Aldridge was diagnosed with Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, a heart ailment. He missed the rest of the 2006–07 regular season in order to monitor the problem and correct it. Prior to the 2011–12 season, Aldridge once again underwent surgery to correct complications associated with his heart condition.


title: LaMarcus Aldridge

text: Aldridge has appeared in two episodes of "Portlandia —" season 2 episode 8, attending the 10th anniversary of the bookstore Women and Women First with Penny Marshall, and season 4 episode 7, "Trail Blazers".


title: Depreciation

text: In accountancy, depreciation is a term that refers to two aspects of the same concept: first, the actual decrease of fair value of an asset, such as the decrease in value of factory equipment each year as it is used and wear, and second, the allocation in accounting statements of the original cost of the assets to periods in which the assets are used (depreciation with the matching principle).


title: Depreciation

text: Depreciation is thus the decrease in the value of assets and the method used to reallocate, or "write down" the cost of a tangible asset (such as equipment) over its useful life span. Businesses depreciate long-term assets for both accounting and tax purposes. The decrease in value of the asset affects the balance sheet of a business or entity, and the method of depreciating the asset, accounting-wise, affects the net income, and thus the income statement that they report. Generally, the cost is allocated as depreciation expense among the periods in which the asset is expected to be used.


title: Depreciation

text: Methods of computing depreciation, and the periods over which assets are depreciated, may vary between asset types within the same business and may vary for tax purposes. These may be specified by law or accounting standards, which may vary by country. There are several standard methods of computing depreciation expense, including fixed percentage, straight line, and declining balance methods. Depreciation expense generally begins when the asset is placed in service. For example, a depreciation expense of 100 per year for five years may be recognized for an asset costing 500.


title: Depreciation

text: Depreciation has been defined as the diminution in the utility or value of an asset and is a non-cash expense. It does not result in any cash outflow; it just means that the asset is not worth as much as it used to be. Causes of depreciation are natural wear and tear.


title: Depreciation

text: In determining the net income (profits) from an activity, the receipts from the activity must be reduced by appropriate costs. One such cost is the cost of assets used but not immediately consumed in the activity. Such cost allocated in a given period is equal to the reduction in the value placed on the asset, which is initially equal to the amount paid for the asset and subsequently may or may not be related to the amount expected to be received upon its disposal. Depreciation is any method of allocating such net cost to those periods in which the organization is expected to benefit from the use of the asset. Depreciation is a process of deducting the cost of an asset over its useful life. Assets are sorted into different classes and each has its own useful life. The asset is referred to as a depreciable asset. Depreciation is technically a method of allocation, not valuation, even though it determines the value placed on the asset in the balance sheet.


title: Depreciation

text: Any business or income-producing activity using tangible assets may incur costs related to those assets. If an asset is expected to produce a benefit in future periods, some of these costs must be deferred rather than treated as a current expense. The business then records depreciation expense in its financial reporting as the current period's allocation of such costs. This is usually done in a rational and systematic manner. Generally, this involves four criteria:


title: Depreciation

text: Cost generally is the amount paid for the asset, including all costs related to acquiring and bringing the asset into use. In some countries or for some purposes, salvage value may be ignored. The rules of some countries specify lives and methods to be used for particular types of assets. However, in most countries the life is based on business experience, and the method may be chosen from one of several acceptable methods.


title: Depreciation

text: Accounting rules also require that an impairment charge or expense be recognized if the value of assets declines unexpectedly. Such charges are usually nonrecurring, and may relate to any type of asset.


title: Depreciation

text: Many companies consider write-offs of some of their long-lived assets because some property, plant, and equipment have suffered partial obsolescence. Accountants reduce the asset's carrying amount by its fair value. For example, if a company continues to incur losses because prices of a particular product or service are higher than the operating costs, companies consider write-offs of the particular asset. These write-offs are referred to as impairments. There are events and changes in circumstances might lead to impairment. Some examples are:


title: Depreciation

text: Events or changes in circumstances indicate that the company may not be able recover the carrying amount of the asset. In which case, companies use the recoverability test to determine whether impairment has occurred. The steps to determine are:


title: Depreciation

text: 2. If the sum of the expected cash flow is less than the carrying amount of the asset, the asset is considered impaired


title: Depreciation

text: Depletion and amortization are similar concepts for natural resources (including oil) and intangible assets, respectively.


title: Depreciation

text: Depreciation expense does not require a current outlay of cash. However, since depreciation is an expense to the P&L account, provided the enterprise is operating in a manner that covers its expenses (e.g. operating at a profit) depreciation is a source of cash in a statement of cash flows, which generally offsets the cash cost of acquiring new assets required to continue operations when existing assets reach the end of their useful lives.


title: Depreciation

text: While depreciation expense is recorded on the income statement of a business, its impact is generally recorded in a separate account and disclosed on the balance sheet as accumulated under fixed assets, according to most accounting principles. Accumulated depreciation is known as a contra account, because it separately shows a negative amount that is directly associated with an accumulated depreciation account on the balance sheet. Depreciation expense is usually charged against the relevant asset directly. The values of the fixed assets stated on the balance sheet will decline, even if the business has not invested in or disposed of any assets. Theoretically, the amounts will roughly approximate fair value. Otherwise, depreciation expense is charged against accumulated depreciation. Showing accumulated depreciation separately on the balance sheet has the effect of preserving the historical cost of assets on the balance sheet. If there have been no investments or dispositions in fixed assets for the year, then the values of the assets will be the same on the balance sheet for the current and prior year (P/Y).


title: Depreciation

text: There are several methods for calculating depreciation, generally based on either the passage of time or the level of activity (or use) of the asset.


title: Depreciation

text: Straight-line depreciation is the simplest and most often used method. The straight-line depreciation is calculated by dividing the difference between assets pagal sale cost and its expected salvage value by the number of years for its expected useful life. (The salvage value may be zero, or even negative due to costs required to retire it; however, for depreciation purposes salvage value is not generally calculated at below zero.) The company will then charge the same amount to depreciation each year over that period, until the value shown for the asset has reduced from the original cost to the salvage value.


title: Depreciation

text: For example, a vehicle that depreciates over 5 years is purchased at a cost of $17,000, and will have a salvage value of $2000. Then this vehicle will depreciate at $3,000 per year, i.e. (17-2)/5 = 3.


title: Depreciation

text: This table illustrates the straight-line method of depreciation. Book value at the beginning of the first year of depreciation is the original cost of the asset. At any time book value equals original cost minus accumulated depreciation.


title: Depreciation

text: Book value at the end of year becomes book value at the beginning of next year. The asset is depreciated until the book value equals scrap value.


title: Depreciation

text: If the vehicle were to be sold and the sales price exceeded the depreciated value (net book value) then the excess would be considered a gain and subject to depreciation recapture. In addition, this gain above the depreciated value would be recognized as ordinary income by the tax office. If the sales price is ever less than the book value, the resulting capital loss is tax-deductible. If the sale price were ever more than the original book value, then the gain above the original book value is recognized as a capital gain.


title: Depreciation

text: If a company chooses to depreciate an asset at a different rate from that used by the tax office then this generates a timing difference in the income statement due to the difference (at a point in time) between the taxation department's and company's view of the profit.


title: Depreciation

text: The double-declining-balance method is used to calculate an asset's accelerated rate of depreciation against its non-depreciated balance during earlier years of assets useful life. When using the double-declining-balance method, the salvage value is not considered in determining the annual depreciation, but the book value of the asset being depreciated is never brought below its salvage value, regardless of the method used. Depreciation ceases when either the salvage value or the end of the asset's useful life is reached.


title: Depreciation

text: Since double-declining-balance depreciation does not always depreciate an asset fully by its end of life, some methods also compute a straight-line depreciation each year, and apply the greater of the two. This has the effect of converting from declining-balance depreciation to straight-line depreciation at a midpoint in the asset's life. The double-declining-balance method is also a better representation of how vehicles depreciate and can more accurately match cost with benefit from asset use. The company in the future may want to allocate as little depreciation expenses as possible to help with additional expenses.


title: Depreciation

text: With the declining balance method, one can find the depreciation rate that would allow exactly for full depreciation by the end of the period, using the formula:


title: Depreciation

text: Annuity depreciation methods are not based on time, but on a level of Annuity. This could be miles driven for a vehicle, or a cycle count for a machine. When the asset is acquired, its life is estimated in terms of this level of activity. Assume the vehicle above is estimated to go 50,000 miles in its lifetime. The per-mile depreciation rate is calculated as: ($17,000 cost - $2,000 salvage) / 50,000 miles = $0.30 per mile. Each year, the depreciation expense is then calculated by multiplying the number of miles driven by the per-mile depreciation rate.


title: Depreciation

text: Sum-of-years-digits is a spent depreciation method that results in a more accelerated write-off than the straight-line method, and typically also more accelerated than the declining balance method. Under this method, the annual depreciation is determined by multiplying the depreciable cost by a schedule of fractions.


title: Depreciation

text: Sum of the years' digits method of depreciation is one of the accelerated depreciation techniques which are based on the assumption that assets are generally more productive when they are new and their productivity decreases as they become old. The formula to calculate depreciation under SYD method is:


title: Depreciation

text: Example: If an asset has original cost of $1000, a useful life of 5 years and a salvage value of $100, compute its depreciation schedule.


title: Depreciation

text: First, determine the years' digits. Since the asset has a useful life of 5 years, the years' digits are: 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1.


title: Depreciation

text: The sum of the digits can also be determined by using the formula (n+n)/2 where n is equal to the useful life of the asset in years. The example would be shown as (5+5)/2=15


title: Depreciation

text: Units-of-production depreciation method calculates greater deductions for depreciation in years when the asset is heavily used


title: Depreciation

text: Suppose an asset has original cost $70,000, salvage value $10,000, and is expected to produce 6,000 units.


title: Depreciation

text: Depreciation stops when book value is equal to the scrap value of the asset. In the end, the sum of accumulated depreciation and scrap value equals the original cost.


title: Depreciation

text: The group depreciation method is used for depreciating multiple-asset accounts using a similar depreciation method. The assets must be similar in nature and have approximately the same useful lives.


title: Depreciation

text: The composite method is applied to a collection of assets that are not similar and have different service lives. For example, computers and printers are not similar, but both are part of the office equipment. Depreciation on all assets is determined by using the straight-line-depreciation method.


title: Depreciation

text: Depreciation expense equals the composite depreciation rate times the balance in the asset account (historical cost). (0.20 * $6,500) $1,300.


title: Depreciation

text: When an asset is sold, debit cash for the amount received and credit the asset account for its original cost. Debit the difference between the two to accumulated depreciation. Under the composite method, no gain or loss is recognized on the sale of an asset. Theoretically, this makes sense because the gains and losses from assets sold before and after the composite life will average themselves out.


title: Depreciation

text: To calculate depreciation expense, multiply the result by the same total historical cost. The result, not surprisingly, will equal the total depreciation per year again.


title: Depreciation

text: Common sense requires depreciation expense to be equal to total depreciation per year, without first dividing and then multiplying total depreciation per year by the same number.


title: Depreciation

text: Most income tax systems allow a tax deduction for recovery of the cost of assets used in a business or for the production of income. Such deductions are allowed for individuals and companies. Where the assets are consumed currently, the cost may be deducted currently as an expense or treated as part of cost of goods sold. The cost of assets not currently consumed generally must be deferred and recovered over time, such as through depreciation. Some systems permit the full deduction of the cost, at least in part, in the year the assets are acquired. Other systems allow depreciation expense over some life using some depreciation method or percentage. Rules vary highly by country, and may vary within a country based on the type of asset or type of taxpayer. Many systems that specify depreciation lives and methods for financial reporting require the same lives and methods be used for tax purposes. Most tax systems provide different rules for real property (buildings, etc.) and personal property (equipment, etc.).


title: Depreciation

text: A common system is to allow a fixed percentage of the cost of depreciable assets to be deducted each year. This is often referred to as a capital allowance, as it is called in the United Kingdom. Deductions are permitted to individuals and businesses based on assets placed in service during or before the assessment year. Canada's Capital Cost Allowance are fixed percentages of assets within a class or type of asset. Fixed percentage rates are specified by the type of asset. The fixed percentage is multiplied by the tax basis of assets in service to determine the capital allowance deduction. The tax law or regulations of the country specifies these percentages. Capital allowance calculations may be based on the total set of assets, on sets or pools by year (vintage pools) or pools by classes of assets...


title: Depreciation

text: Some systems specify lives based on classes of property defined by the tax authority. Canada Revenue Agency specifies numerous classes based on the type of property and how it is used. Under the United States depreciation system, the Internal Revenue Service publishes a detailed guide which includes a table of asset lives and the applicable conventions. The table also incorporates specified lives for certain commonly used assets (e.g., office furniture, computers, automobiles) which override the business use lives. U.S. tax depreciation is computed under the double-declining balance method switching to straight line or the straight-line method, at the option of the taxpayer. IRS tables specify percentages to apply to the basis of an asset for each year in which it is in service. Depreciation first becomes deductible when an asset is placed in service.


title: Depreciation

text: Many systems allow an additional deduction for a portion of the cost of depreciable assets acquired in the current tax year. The UK system provides a first year capital allowance of £50,000. In the United States, two such deductions are available. A deduction for the full cost of depreciable tangible personal property is allowed up to $500,000 through 2013. This deduction is fully phased out for businesses acquiring over $2,000,000 of such property during the year. In addition, additional first year depreciation of 50% of the cost of most other depreciable tangible personal property is allowed as a deduction. Some other systems have similar first year or accelerated allowances.


title: Depreciation

text: Many tax systems prescribe longer depreciable lives for buildings and land improvements. Such lives may vary by type of use. Many such systems, including the United States, permit depreciation for real property using only the straight-line method, or a small fixed percentage of the cost. Generally, no depreciation tax deduction is allowed for bare land. In the United States, residential rental buildings are depreciable over a 27.5 year or 40-year life, other buildings over a 39 or 40-year life, and land improvements over a 15 or 20-year life, all using the straight-line method.


title: Depreciation

text: Depreciation calculations require a lot of record-keeping if done for each asset a business owns, especially if assets are added to after they are acquired, or partially disposed of. However, many tax systems permit all assets of a similar type acquired in the same year to be combined in a "pool". Depreciation is then computed for all assets in the pool as a single calculation. These calculations must make assumptions about the date of acquisition. The United States system allows a taxpayer to use a half-year convention for personal property or mid-month convention for real property. Under such a convention, all property of a particular type is considered to have been acquired at the midpoint of the acquisition period. One half of a full period's depreciation is allowed in the acquisition period (and also in the final depreciation period if the life of the assets is a whole number of years). United States rules require a mid-quarter convention for per property if more than 40% of the acquisitions for the year are in the final quarter.


title: Human nose

text: The human nose is the most protruding part of the face. It bears the nostrils and is the first organ of the respiratory system. It is also the principal organ in the olfactory system. The shape of the nose is determined by the nasal bones and the nasal cartilages, including the nasal septum which separates the nostrils and divides the nasal cavity into two. On average the nose of a male is larger than that of a female.


title: Human nose

text: The nose has an important function in breathing. The nasal mucosa lining the nasal cavity and the paranasal sinuses carries out the necessary conditioning of inhaled air by warming and moistening it. Nasal conchae, shell-like bones in the walls of the cavities, play a major part in this process. Filtering of the air by nasal hair in the nostrils prevents large particles from entering the lungs. Sneezing is a reflex to expel unwanted particles from the nose that irritate the mucosal lining. Sneezing can transmit infections, because aerosols are created in which the droplets can harbour pathogens.


title: Human nose

text: Another major function of the nose is olfaction, the sense of smell. The area of olfactory epithelium, in the upper nasal cavity, contains specialised olfactory cells responsible for this function.


title: Human nose

text: The nose is also involved in the function of speech. Nasal vowels and nasal consonants are produced in the process of nasalisation. The hollow cavities of the paranasal sinuses act as sound chambers that modify and amplify speech and other vocal sounds.


title: Human nose

text: There are several plastic surgery procedures that can be done on the nose, known as rhinoplasties available to correct various structural defects or to change the shape of the nose. Defects may be congenital, or result from nasal disorders or from trauma. These procedures are a type of reconstructive surgery. Elective procedures to change a nose shape are a type of cosmetic surgery.


title: Human nose

text: Several bones and cartilages make up the bony-cartilaginous framework of the nose, and the internal structure. The nose is also made up of types of soft tissue such as skin, epithelia, mucous membrane, muscles, nerves, and blood vessels. In the skin there are sebaceous glands, and in the mucous membrane there are nasal glands. The bones and cartilages provide strong protection for the internal structures of the nose. There are several muscles that are involved in movements of the nose. The arrangement of the cartilages allows flexibility through muscle control to enable airflow to be modified.


title: Human nose

text: The bony structure of the nose is provided by the maxilla, frontal bone, and a number of smaller bones.


title: Human nose

text: The topmost bony part of the nose is formed by the nasal part of the frontal bone, which lies between the brow ridges, and ends in a serrated nasal notch. A left and a right nasal bone join with the nasal part of the frontal bone at either side; and these at the side with the small lacrimal bones and the frontal process of each maxilla. The internal roof of the nasal cavity is composed of the horizontal, perforated cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone through which pass sensory fibres of the olfactory nerve. Below and behind the cribriform plate, sloping down at an angle, is the face of the sphenoid bone.


title: Human nose

text: The wall separating the two cavities of the nose, the nasal septum, is made up of bone inside and cartilage closer to the tip of the nose. The bony part is formed by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone at the top, and the vomer bone below. The floor of the nose is made up of the incisive bone and the horizontal plates of the palatine bones, and this makes up the hard palate of the roof of the mouth. The two horizontal plates join at the midline and form the posterior nasal spine that gives attachment to the musculus uvulae in the uvula.


title: Human nose

text: The two maxilla bones join at the base of the nose at the lower nasal midline between the nostrils, and at the top of the philtrum to form the anterior nasal spine. This thin projection of bone holds the cartilaginous center of the nose. It is also an important cephalometric landmark.


title: Human nose

text: The nasal cartilages are the septal, lateral, major alar, and minor alar cartilages. The major and minor cartilages are also known as the greater and lesser alar cartilages. There is a narrow strip of cartilage called the vomeronasal cartilage that lies between the vomer and the septal cartilage.


title: Human nose

text: The septal nasal cartilage, extends from the nasal bones in the midline, to the bony part of the septum in the midline, posteriorly. It then passes along the floor of the nasal cavity. The septum is quadrangular–the upper half is attached to the two lateral nasal cartilages which are fused to the dorsal septum in the midline. The septum is laterally attached, with loose ligaments, to the bony margin of the anterior nasal aperture, while the inferior ends of the lateral cartilages are free (unattached). The three or four minor alar cartilages are adjacent to the lateral cartilages, held in the connective tissue membrane, that connects the lateral cartilages to the frontal process of the maxilla.


title: Human nose

text: The nasal bones in the upper part of the nose are joined by the midline internasal suture. They join with the septal cartilage at a junction known as the rhinion. The rhinion is the midpoint of the internasal suture at the join with the cartilage, and from the rhinion to the apex, or tip, the framework is of cartilage.


title: Human nose

text: The major alar cartilages are thin, U-shaped plates of cartilage on each side of the nose that form the lateral and medial walls of the vestibule, known as the medial and lateral crura. The medial crura are attached to the septal cartilage, forming fleshy parts at the front of the nostrils on each side of the septum, called the "medial crural footpods". The medial crura meet at the midline below the end of the septum to form the columella and lobule. The lobule contains the tip of the nose and its base contains the nostrils. At the peaks of the folds of the medial crura, they form the alar domes the tip-defining points of the nose, separated by a notch. They then fold outwards, above and to the side of the nostrils forming the lateral crura. The major alar cartilages are freely moveable and can respond to muscles to either open or constrict the nostrils.


title: Human nose

text: There is a reinforcing structure known as the nasal scroll that resists internal collapse from airflow pressure generated by normal breathing. This structure is formed by the junction between the lateral and major cartilages. Their edges interlock by one scrolling upwards and one scrolling inwards.


title: Human nose

text: The muscles of the nose are a subgroup of the facial muscles. They are involved in respiration and facial expression. The muscles of the nose include the procerus, nasalis, depressor septi nasi, levator labii superioris alaeque nasi, and the orbicularis oris of the mouth. As are all of the facial muscles, the muscles of the nose are innervated by the facial nerve and its branches. Although each muscle is independent, the muscles of the nose form a continuous layer with connections between all the components of the muscles and ligaments, in the nasal part of a superficial muscular aponeurotic system (SMAS). The SMAS is continuous from the nasofrontal process to the nasal tip. It divides at level of the nasal valve into superficial and deep layers, each layer having medial and lateral components.


title: Human nose

text: The procerus muscle produces wrinkling over the bridge of the nose, and is active in concentration and frowning. It is a prime target for Botox procedures in the forehead to remove the lines between the eyes.


title: Human nose

text: The nasalis muscle consists of two main parts: a transverse part called the compressor naris, and an alar part termed the dilator naris. The compressor naris muscle compresses the nostrils and may completely close them. The alar part, the dilator naris mainly consists of the dilator naris posterior, and a much smaller dilator naris anterior, and this muscle flares the nostrils. The dilator naris helps to form the upper ridge of the philtrum. The anterior, and the posterior dilator naris, (the alar part of the nasalis muscle), give support to the nasal valves.


title: Human nose

text: The depressor septi nasi may sometimes be absent or rudimentary. The depressor septi pulls the columella, the septum, and the tip of the nose downwards. At the start of inspiration this muscle tenses the nasal septum and with the dilator naris widens the nostrils.


title: Human nose

text: The levator labii superioris alaeque nasi divides into a medial and a lateral slip. The medial slip blends into the perichondrium of the major alar cartilage and its overlying skin. The lateral slip blends at the side of the upper lip with the levator labii superioris, and with the orbicularis oris. The lateral slip raises the upper lip and deepens and increases the curve above the nasolabial furrow. The medial slip pulls the lateral crus upwards and modifies the curve of the furrow around the alae, and dilates the nostrils.


title: Human nose

text: The skin of the nose varies in thickness along its length. From the glabella to the bridge (the nasofrontal angle) the skin is thick, fairly flexible, and mobile. It tapers to the bridge where it is thinnest and least flexible as it is closest to the underlying bone. From the bridge until the tip of the nose the skin is thin. The tip is covered in skin that is as thick as the top section, and has many large sebaceous glands.


title: Human nose

text: The thickness of the skin varies but is still separated from the underlying bones and cartilage by four layers – a superficial fatty layer; a fibromuscular layer continued from the SMAS; a deep fatty layer, and the periosteum.


title: Human nose

text: Other areas of soft tissue are found where there is no support from cartilage; these include an area around the sides of the septum – the paraseptal area –, an area around the lateral cartilages, an area at the top of the nostril, and an area in the alae.


title: Human nose

text: The nasal root is the top of the nose that attaches the nose to the forehead. The nasal root is above the bridge and below the glabella, forming an indentation known as the nasion at the frontonasal suture where the frontal bone meets the nasal bones. The nasal dorsum also known as the "nasal ridge" is the border between the root and the tip of the nose which in profile can be variously shaped. The ala of the nose (ala nasi, "wing of the nose"; plural "alae") is the lower lateral surface of the external nose, shaped by the alar cartilage and covered in dense connective tissue. The alae flare out to form a rounded eminence around the nostril. Sexual dimorphism is evident in the larger nose of the male. This is due to the increased testosterone that thickens the brow ridge and the bridge of the nose making it wider.


title: Human nose

text: Differences in the symmetry of the nose have been noted in studies. Asymmetry is predominantly seen in wider left-sided nasal and other facial features.


title: Human nose

text: The nasal cavity is the large internal space of the nose, and is in two parts – the nasal vestibule and the nasal cavity proper. The nasal vestibule is the frontmost part of the nasal cavity, enclosed by cartilages. The vestibule is lined with skin, hair follicles, and a large number of sebaceous glands. A mucous ridge known as the limen nasi separates the vestibule from the rest of the nasal cavity and marks the change from the skin of the vestibule to the respiratory epithelium of the rest of the nasal cavity. This area is also known as a mucocutaneous junction and has a dense microvasculature.


title: Human nose

text: The nasal cavity is divided into two cavities by the nasal septum, and each is accessed by an external nostril. The division into two cavities enables the functioning of the nasal cycle that slows down the conditioning process of the inhaled air.


title: Human nose

text: At the back of the nasal cavity there are two openings, called choanae (also "posterior nostrils"), that give entrance to the nasopharynx, and rest of the respiratory tract.


title: Human nose

text: On the outer wall of each cavity are three shell-like bones called conchae, arranged as superior, middle and inferior nasal conchae. Below each concha is a corresponding superior, middle, and inferior nasal meatus, or passage. Sometimes when the superior concha is narrow, a fourth supreme nasal concha is present situated above and sharing the space with the superior concha. The term concha refers to the actual bone; when covered by soft tissue and mucosa, and functioning, a concha is termed a turbinate. Excessive moisture as tears collected in the lacrimal sac travel down the nasolacrimal ducts where they drain into the inferior meatus in the nasal cavity.


title: Human nose

text: Most of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses is lined with respiratory epithelium as nasal mucosa. In the roof of each cavity is an area of specialised olfactory epithelium. This region is about 5 square cm, covering the superior concha, the cribriform plate, and the nasal septum.


title: Human nose

text: There is a nasal valve area that is the narrowest part of the nasal passage. An external valve exists in the larger ala part of the vestibule. An internal nasal valve typically referred to as the nasal valve, is a slit-like segment between part of the upper lateral cartilage and the septum in the middle third of the cavity. The valves regulate the airflow and resistance. Air breathed in is forced to pass through the narrow internal nasal valve, and then expands as it moves into the nasal cavity. The sudden change in the speed and pressure of the airflow creates turbulence that allows optimum contact with the respiratory epithelium for the necessary warming, moisturising, and filtering. The turbulence also allows movement of the air to pass over the olfactory epithelium and transfer odour information. The angle of the valve between the septum and the sidewall needs to be sufficient for unobstructed airflow, and this is normally between 10 and 15 degrees.


title: Human nose

text: The borders of each nasal cavity are a roof, floor, medial wall (the septum), and lateral wall. The middle part of the roof of the nasal cavity is composed of the horizontal, perforated cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, through which pass sensory fibres of the olfactory nerve into the cranial cavity.


title: Human nose

text: The mucosa that lines the nasal cavity extends into its chambers, the paranasal sinuses. The nasal cavity and the paranasal sinuses are referred to as the "sinonasal tract" or "sinonasal region", and its anatomy is recognised as being unique and complex. Four paired paranasal sinuses – the frontal sinus, the sphenoid sinus, the ethmoid sinus and the maxillary sinus drain into regions of the nasal cavity.


title: Human nose

text: The sinuses are air-filled extensions of the nasal cavity into the cranial bones. The frontal sinuses are located in the frontal bone; the sphenoidal sinuses in the sphenoid bone; the maxillary sinuses in the maxilla; and the ethmoidal sinuses in the ethmoid bone.


title: Human nose

text: A narrow opening called a sinus ostium from each of the paranasal sinuses allows drainage into the nasal cavity. The maxillary sinus is the largest of the sinuses and drains into the middle meatus. Most of the ostia open into the middle meatus and the anterior ethmoid, that together are termed the ostiomeatal complex. Adults have a high concentration of cilia in the ostia. The cilia in the sinuses beat towards the openings into the nasal cavity. The increased numbers of cilia and the narrowness of the sinus openings allow for an increased time for moisturising, and warming.


title: Human nose

text: The shape of the nose varies widely due to differences in the nasal bone shapes and formation of the bridge of the nose. Some nose shapes were classified for surgeries by Eden Warwick in "Nasology". These were later incorporated into a nasal index by Paul Topinard. Anthropometric studies have importantly contributed to craniofacial surgery, and the nasal index is a recognised anthropometric index used in nasal surgery.


title: Human nose

text: Paul Topinard developed the as a method of classifying ethnic groups. The index is based on the ratio of the breadth of the nose to its height. The nasal dimensions are also used to classify nasal morphology into five types: "Hyperleptorrhine" is a very long, narrow nose with a nasal index of 40 to 55. "Leptorrhine" describes a long, narrow nose with an index of 55–70. "Mesorrhine" is a medium nose with an index of 70–85. "Platyrrhine" is a short, broad nose with an index of 85–99·9. The fifth type is the "hyperplatyrrhine" having an index of more than 100.


title: Human nose

text: Some deformities of the nose are named, such as the pug nose and the saddle nose. The pug nose is characterised by excess tissue from the apex that is out of proportion to the rest of the nose. A low and underdeveloped nasal bridge may also be evident. A saddle nose deformity involving the collapse of the bridge of the nose is mostly associated with trauma to the nose but can be caused by other conditions including leprosy.


title: Human nose

text: Werner syndrome, a condition associated with premature aging, causes a "bird-like" appearance due to pinching of the nose.


title: Human nose

text: Down syndrome commonly presents a small nose with a flattened nasal bridge. This can be due to the absence of one or both nasal bones, shortened nasal bones, or nasal bones that have not fused in the midline.


title: Human nose

text: The blood supply to the nose is provided by branches of the ophthalmic, maxillary, and facial arteries – branches of the carotid arteries. Branches of these arteries anastomose to form plexuses in and under the nasal mucosa. In the septal region Kiesselbach's plexus is a common site of nosebleeds.


title: Human nose

text: Branches of the ophthalmic artery – the anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries supply the roof, upper bony septum, and ethmoidal and frontal sinuses. The anterior ethmoidal artery also helps to supply the lower septal cartilage. Another branch is the dorsal nasal artery a terminal branch that supplies the skin of the alae and dorsum.


title: Human nose

text: Branches of the maxillary artery include the greater palatine artery; the sphenopalatine artery and its branches – the posterior lateral nasal arteries and posterior septal nasal branches; the pharyngeal branch; and the infraorbital artery and its branches – the superior anterior and posterior alveolar arteries.


title: Human nose

text: The sphenopalatine artery and the ethmoid arteries supply the outer walls of the nasal cavity. There is additional supply from a branch of the facial artery – the superior labial artery. The sphenopalantine artery is the artery primarily responsible for supplying the nasal mucosa.


title: Human nose

text: The skin of the alae is supplied by the septal and lateral nasal branches of the facial artery. The skin of the outer parts of the alae and the dorsum of the nose are supplied by the dorsal nasal artery a branch of the ophthalmic artery, and the infraorbital branch of the maxillary arteries.


title: Human nose

text: Veins of the nose include the angular vein that drains the side of the nose, receiving lateral nasal veins from the alae. The angular vein joins with the superior labial vein. Some small veins from the dorsum of the nose drain to the nasal arch of the frontal vein at the root of the nose.


title: Human nose

text: In the posterior region of the cavity, specifically in the posterior part of the inferior meatus is a venous plexus known as Woodruff's plexus. This plexus is made up of large thin-walled veins with little soft tissue such as muscle or fiber. The mucosa of the plexus is thin with very few structures.


title: Human nose

text: From different areas of the nose superficial lymphatic vessels run with the veins, and deep lymphatic vessels travel with the arteries.


title: Human nose

text: Lymph drains from the anterior half of the nasal cavity, including both the medial and lateral walls, to join that of the external nasal skin to drain into the


title: Human nose

text: submandibular lymph nodes. The rest of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses all drain to the upper deep cervical lymph nodes, either directly or through the retropharyngeal lymph nodes. The back of the nasal floor probably drains to the parotid lymph nodes.


title: Human nose

text: The nerve supply to the nose and paranasal sinuses comes from two branches of the trigeminal nerve (CN V): the ophthalmic nerve (CN V), the maxillary nerve (CN V), and branches from these.


title: Human nose

text: In the nasal cavity, the nasal mucosa is divided in terms of nerve supply into a back lower part (posteroinferior), and a frontal upper part (anterosuperior). The posterior part is supplied by a branch of the maxillary nerve – the nasopalatine nerve which reaches the septum. Lateral nasal branches of the greater palatine nerve supply the lateral wall.


title: Human nose

text: The frontal upper part is supplied from a branch of the ophthalmic nerve – the nasociliary nerve, and its branches – the anterior and posterior ethmoidal nerves.


title: Human nose

text: Most of the external nose – the dorsum, and the apex are supplied by the infratrochlear nerve, (a branch of the nasociliary nerve). The external branch of the anterior ethmoidal nerve also supplies areas of skin between the root and the alae.


title: Human nose

text: The alae of the nose are supplied by nasal branches of CN V, the infraorbital nerve, and internal nasal branches of infraorbital nerve that supply the septum and the vestibule.


title: Human nose

text: The maxillary sinus is supplied by superior alveolar nerves from the maxillary and infraorbital nerves. The frontal sinus is supplied by branches of the supraorbital nerve. The ethmoid sinuses are supplied by anterior and posterior ethmoid branches of the nasociliary nerve. The sphenoid sinus is supplied by the posterior ethmoidal nerves.


title: Human nose

text: The muscles of the nose are supplied by branches of the facial nerve. The nasalis muscle is supplied by the buccal branches. It may also be supplied by one of the zygomatic branches. The procerus is supplied by temporal branches of the facial nerve and lower zygomatic branches; a supply from the buccal branch has also been described. The depressor septi is innervated by the buccal branch, and sometimes by the zygomatic branch, of the facial nerve. The levator labii superioris alaeque nasi is innervated by zygomatic and superior buccal branches of the facial nerve.


title: Human nose

text: The sense of smell is transmitted by the olfactory nerves. Olfactory nerves are bundles of very small unmyelinated axons that are derived from olfactory receptor neurons in the olfactory mucosa. The axons are in varying stages of maturity, reflecting the constant turnover of neurons in the olfactory epithelium. A plexiform network is formed in the lamina propria, by the bundles of axons that are surrounded by olfactory ensheathing cells. In as many as twenty branches, the bundled axons cross the cribriform plate and enter the overlying olfactory bulb ending as glomeruli. Each branch is enclosed by an outer dura mater that becomes continuous with the nasal periosteum.


title: Human nose

text: The nasal mucosa in the nasal cavity is also supplied by the autonomic nervous system. Postganglionic nerve fibers from the deep petrosal nerve join with preganglionic nerve fibers from the greater petrosal nerve to form the nerve of the pterygoid canal. Sympathetic postganglionic fibers are distributed to the blood vessels of the nose. Postganglionic parasympathetic fibres derived from the pterygopalatine ganglion provide the secretomotor supply to the nasal mucous glands, and are distributed via branches of the maxillary nerves.


title: Human nose

text: In the early development of the embryo, neural crest cells migrate to form the mesenchymal tissue as ectomesenchyme of the pharyngeal arches. By the end of the fourth week, the first pair of pharyngeal arches form five facial prominences or processes - an unpaired frontonasal process, paired mandibular processes and paired maxillary processes. The nose is largely formed by the fusion of these five facial prominences. The frontonasal process gives rise to the bridge of the nose. The medial nasal processes provide the crest and the tip of the nose, and the lateral nasal processes form the alae or sides of the nose. The frontonasal process is a proliferation of mesenchyme in front of  the brain vesicles, and makes up the upper border of the stomadeum.


title: Human nose

text: During the fifth week the maxillary processes increase in size and at the same time the ectoderm of  the frontonasal process becomes thickened at its sides and also increases in size, forming the nasal placodes. The nasal placodes are also known as the olfactory placodes. This development is induced by the ventral part of the forebrain. In the sixth week the ectoderm in each nasal placode invaginates to form an indented oval-shaped pit, which forms a  surrounding  raised ridge of tissue. Each nasal pit forms a  division between the ridges, into a lateral nasal process on the outer edge, and a medial nasal process on the inner edge.


title: Human nose

text: In the sixth week the nasal pits deepen as they penetrate into the underlying mesenchyme. At this time, the medial nasal processes migrate towards each other and fuse forming the primordium of the bridge of the nose and the septum. The migration is helped by the increased growth of the maxillary prominences medially, which compresses the medial nasal processes towards the midline.  Their merging takes place at the surface, and also at a deeper level. The merge forms the intermaxillary segment, and this is continuous with the rostral part of the nasal septum. The tips of the maxillary processes also grow and fuse with the intermaxillary process. The intermaxillary process gives rise to the philtrum of the upper lip.


title: Human nose

text: At the end of the sixth week the nasal pits have deepened further and they fuse to make a large ectodermal nasal sac. This sac will be above and to the back of the intermaxillary process. Leading into the seventh week, the nasal sac floor and posterior wall grow to form a thickened plate-like ectodermal structure called the nasal fin. The nasal fin separates the sac from the oral cavity. Within the fin, vacuoles develop that fuse with the nasal sac. This enlarges the nasal sac and at the same time thins the fin to a membrane - the oronasal membrane that separates the nasal pits from the oral cavity. During the seventh week the oronasal membrane ruptures and disintegrates to form an opening - the single primitive choana.  The intermaxillary segment extends posteriorly to form the primary palate which makes up the floor of the nasal cavity. During the eighth and ninth weeks a pair of thin extensions form from the medial walls of the maxillary process. These extensions are called the palatine shelves that form the secondary palate. The secondary palate will endochondrally ossify to form the hard palate - the end-stage floor of the nasal cavity.  During this time ectoderm and mesoderm of the frontonasal process produce the midline septum. The septum grows down from the roof of the nasal cavity and fuses with the developing palates along the midline. The septum divides the nasal cavity into two nasal passages opening into the pharynx through the definitive choanae.


title: Human nose

text: At ten weeks, the cells differentiate into muscle, cartilage, and bone. Problems at this stage of development can cause birth defects such as choanal atresia (absent or closed passage), facial clefts and nasal dysplasia (faulty or incomplete development) or extremely rarely polyrrhinia the formation of a duplicate nose.


title: Human nose

text: Normal development is critical because the newborn infant breathes through the nose for the first six weeks, and any nasal blockage will need emergency treatment to clear.


title: Human nose

text: The four pairs of paranasal sinuses - the maxillary, ethmoid, sphenoid, and frontal, develop from the nasal cavity as invaginations extending into their named bones. Two pairs of sinuses form during prenatal development and two pairs form after birth. The maxillary sinuses are the first to appear during the fetal third month. They slowly expand within the maxillary bones and continue to expand throughout childhood. The maxillary sinuses form as invaginations from the nasal sac. The ethmoid sinuses appear in the fetal fifth month as invaginations of the middle meatus. The ethmoid sinuses do not grow into the ethmoid bone and do not completely develop until puberty.


title: Human nose

text: The sphenoid sinuses are extensions of the ethmoid sinuses into the sphenoid bones. They begin to develop around two years of age, and continue to enlarge during childhood.


title: Human nose

text: The frontal sinuses only develop in the fifth or sixth year of childhood, and continue expanding throughout adolescence. Each frontal sinus is made up of two independent spaces that develop from two different sources; one from the expansion of ethmoid sinuses into frontal bone, and the other develops from invagination. They never coalesce so drain independently.


title: Human nose

text: The nose is the first organ of the upper respiratory tract in the respiratory system. Its main respiratory function is the supply and conditioning, by warming, moisturising and filtering of particulates of inhaled air. Nasal hair in the nostrils traps large particles preventing their entry into the lungs.


title: Human nose

text: The three positioned nasal conchae in each cavity provide four grooves as air passages, along which the air is circulated and moved to the nasopharynx. The internal structures and cavities, including the conchae and paranasal sinuses form an integrated system for the conditioning of the air breathed in through the nose. This functioning also includes the major role of the nasal mucosa, and the resulting conditioning of the air before it reaches the lungs is important in maintaining the internal environment and proper functioning of the lungs. The turbulence created by the conchae and meatuses optimises the warming, moistening, and filtering of the mucosa. A major protective role is thereby provided by these structures of the upper respiratory tract, in the passage of air to the more delicate structures of the lower respiratory tract.


title: Human nose

text: Sneezing is an important protective reflex action initiated by irritation of the nasal mucosa to expel unwanted particles through the mouth and nose. Photic sneezing is a reflex brought on by different stimuli such as bright lights. The nose is also able to provide sense information as to the temperature of the air being breathed.


title: Human nose

text: Variations in shape of the nose have been hypothesised to possibly be adaptive to regional differences in temperature and humidity, though they may also have been driven by other factors such as sexual selection.


title: Human nose

text: The nose also plays the major part in the olfactory system. It contains an area of specialised cells, olfactory receptor neurons responsible for the sense of smell (olfaction). Olfactory mucosa in the upper nasal cavity, contains a type of nasal gland called olfactory glands or Bowman's glands which help in olfaction. The nasal conchae also help in olfaction function, by directing air-flow to the olfactory region.


title: Human nose

text: Speech is produced with pressure from the lungs. This can be modified using airflow through the nose in a process called nasalisation. This involves the lowering of the soft palate to produce nasal vowels and consonants by allowing air to escape from both the nose and the mouth. Nasal airflow is also used to produce a variety of nasal clicks called click consonants. The large, hollow cavities of the paranasal sinuses act as resonating chambers that modify, and amplify speech and other vocal vibrations passing through them.


title: Human nose

text: One of the most common medical conditions involving the nose is a nosebleed (epistaxis). Most nosebleeds occur in Kiesselbach's plexus, a vascular plexus in the lower front part of the septum involving the convergence of four arteries. A smaller proportion of nosebleeds that tend to be nontraumatic occur in Woodruff's plexus. Woodruff's plexus is a venous plexus of large thin-walled veins lying in the posterior part of the inferior meatus.


title: Human nose

text: Another common condition is nasal congestion, usually a symptom of infection, particularly sinusitis, or other inflammation of the nasal lining called rhinitis, including allergic rhinitis and nonallergic rhinitis. Chronic nasal obstruction resulting in breathing through the mouth can greatly impair or prevent the nostrils from flaring. One of the causes of snoring is nasal obstruction, and anti-snoring devices such as a nasal strip help to flare the nostrils and keep the airway open. Nasal flaring, is usually seen in children when breathing is difficult. Most conditions of nasal congestion also cause a loss of the sense of smell (anosmia). This may also occur in other conditions, for example following trauma, in Kallmann syndrome or Parkinson's disease. A blocked sinus ostium, an opening from a paranasal sinus, will cause fluid to accumulate in the sinus.


title: Human nose

text: In children the nose is a common site of foreign bodies. The nose is one of the exposed areas that is susceptible to frostbite.


title: Human nose

text: Because of the special nature of the blood supply to the human nose and surrounding area, it is possible for retrograde infections from the nasal area to spread to the brain. For this reason, the area from the corners of the mouth to the bridge of the nose, including the nose and maxilla, is known as the danger triangle of the face.


title: Human nose

text: Infections or other conditions that may result in destruction of, or damage to a part of the nose include rhinophyma, skin cancers particularly basal-cell carcinoma, paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, syphilis, leprosy, recreational use of cocaine, chromium and other toxins. The nose may be stimulated to grow in acromegaly, a condition caused by an excess of growth hormone.


title: Human nose

text: A common anatomic variant is an air-filled cavity within a concha known as a concha bullosa. In rare cases a polyp can form inside a bullosa. Usually a concha bullosa is small and without symptoms but when large can cause obstruction to sinus drainage.


title: Human nose

text: Some drugs can be nasally administered, including drug delivery to the brain, and these include nasal sprays and topical treatments. The septal cartilage can be destroyed through the repeated inhalation of recreational drugs such as cocaine. This, in turn, can lead to more widespread collapse of the nasal skeleton.


title: Human nose

text: Sneezing can transmit infections carried in the expelled droplets. This route is called either airborne transmission or aerosol transmission.


title: Human nose

text: Badly positioned alar cartilages lack proper support, and can affect the function of the external nasal valve. This can cause breathing problems particularly during deep inhalation. The surgical procedure to correct breathing problems due to disorders in the nasal structures is called a rhinoplasty, and this is also the procedure used for a cosmetic surgery when it is commonly called a "nose job". For surgical procedures of rhinoplasty, the nose is mapped out into a number of subunits and segments. This uses nine "aesthetic nasal subunits" and six "aesthetic nasal segments". A septoplasty is the specific surgery to correct a nasal septum deviation.


title: Human nose

text: A broken nose can result from trauma. Minor fractures may heal on their own. Surgery known as reduction may be carried out on more severe breaks that cause dislocation.


title: Human nose

text: Several nasal procedures of the nose and paranasal sinuses can be carried out using minimally-invasive nasal endoscopy. These procedures aim to restore sinus ventilation, mucociliary clearance, and maintain the health of the sinus mucosa.


title: Human nose

text: Some non-nasal surgeries can also be carried out through the use of an endoscope that is entered through the nose. These endoscopic endonasal surgeries are used to remove tumours from the front of the base of the skull.


title: Human nose

text: Swollen conchae can cause obstruction and nasal congestion, and may be treated surgically by a turbinectomy.


title: Human nose

text: Some people choose to have cosmetic surgery (called a rhinoplasty) to change the appearance of their nose. Nose piercings, such as in the nostril, septum, or bridge, are also common. In certain Asian countries such as China, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Thailand and Bangladesh, rhinoplasties are commonly carried out to create a more developed nose bridge or a "high nose". Similarly, "DIY nose lifts" in the form of re-usable cosmetic items have become popular and are sold in many Asian countries such as China, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Sri Lanka and Thailand. A high-bridged nose has been a common beauty ideal in many Asian cultures dating back to the beauty ideals of ancient China and India.


title: Human nose

text: In New Zealand, nose pressing ("hongi") is a traditional greeting originating among the Māori people. However it is now generally confined to certain traditional celebrations.


title: Human nose

text: The Hanazuka monument enshrines the mutilated noses of at least 38,000 Koreans killed during the Japanese invasions of Korea from 1592 to 1598.


title: Human nose

text: Nose-picking is a common, mildly taboo habit. Medical risks include the spread of infections, nosebleeds and, rarely, perforation of the nasal septum. When it becomes compulsive it is termed rhinotillexomania. The wiping of the nose with the hand, commonly referred to as the "allergic salute", is also mildly taboo and can result in the spreading of infections as well. Habitual as well as fast or rough nose wiping may also result in a crease (known as a transverse nasal crease or groove) running across the nose, and can lead to permanent physical deformity observable in childhood and adulthood.


title: Human nose

text: Clive Finlayson of the Gibraltar Museum said the large Neanderthal noses were an adaption to the cold, Todd C. Rae of the American Museum of Natural History said primate and arctic animal studies have shown sinus size reduction in areas of extreme cold rather than enlargement in accordance with Allen's rule. Therefore, Todd C. Rae concludes that the design of the large and Neanderthal nose was evolved for the hotter climate of the Middle East and Africa and remained unchanged when they entered Europe.


title: Human nose

text: Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the University of Barcelona said the "high and narrow nose of Eskimos and Neanderthals" is an "adaption to a cold and dry environment", since it contributes to warming and moisturizing the air and the "recovery of heat and moisture from expired air".


title: Languages of Nigeria

text: There are over 525 native languages spoken in Nigeria. The Nigerian official language is English, the language of former colonial British Nigeria. As reported in 2003, Nigerian Pidgin was spoken as a second language by 60 million people in Nigeria.


title: Languages of Nigeria

text: The major native languages, in terms of population, are Hausa (over 80 million when including second-language, or L2, speakers), Yoruba (over 50 million including L2 speakers), Igbo (over 30 million, including L2 speakers), Efik-Ibibio cluster (over 15 million), Fulfulde (13 million), Kanuri (8 million), Tiv (5 million), Nupe (3 million) and approx. 2 to 3 million each of Karai-Karai Kupa, Kakanda, Edo, Igala, Idoma and Izon. Nigeria's linguistic diversity is a microcosm of much of Africa as a whole, and the country contains languages from the three major African language families: Afroasiatic, Nilo-Saharan and Niger–Congo. Nigeria also has several as-yet unclassified languages, such as Centúúm, which may represent a relic of an even greater diversity prior to the spread of the current language families.


title: Languages of Nigeria

text: The Afroasiatic languages of Nigeria is divided into Chadic, Semitic and Berber. Among these category, Chadic languages predominate, with more than 700 languages. Semitic is represented by various dialects of Arabic spoken in the Northeast and Berber by the Tuareg-speaking communities in the extreme Northwest. The Hausa language is the best known Chadic language in Nigeria; though there is a paucity of statistics on native speakers in Nigeria, the language is spoken by 24 million people in West Africa and is the second language of 15 million more. Hausa has therefore emerged as "lingua franca" throughout much of West Africa, and the Sahel in particular. The language is spoken primarily amongst Northern Nigerians and is often associated with Islamic culture in Nigeria and West Africa on the whole.


title: Languages of Nigeria

text: Hausa is classified as a West Chadic language of the Chadic grouping, a major subfamily of Afroasiatic. Culturally, the Hausa people became closely integrated with the Fulani following the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate by the Fulani Uthman dan Fodio in the 19th century. Hausa is the official language of several states in Northern Nigeria and the most important dialect is generally regarded as that spoken in Kano, an Eastern Hausa dialect, which is the standard variety used for official purposes.


title: Languages of Nigeria

text: Eastern dialects also include some dialects spoken in Zaria and Bauchi; Western Hausa dialects include Sakkwatanchi spoken in Sokoto, Katsinanchi in Katsina Arewanchi in both Gobir and Adar, Kebbi and Zamfara. Katsina is transitional between Eastern and Western dialects. Northern Hausa dialects include slay:) Arewa and Arawa, whilst Zaria is a prominent Southern version; Barikanchi is a pidgin formerly used in the military.


title: Languages of Nigeria

text: Hausa is a very atypical Chadic language, with a reduced tonal system and a phonology influenced by Arabic. Other well-known Chadic languages include Mupun, Ngas, Goemai, Mwaghavul, Bole, Ngizim, Bade and Bachama. In the East of Nigeria and on into Cameroon are the Central Chadic languages such as Bura, Kamwe and Margi. These are highly diverse and remain very poorly described. Many Chadic languages are severely threatened; recent searches by Bernard Caron for Southern Bauchi languages show that even some of those recorded in the 1970s have disappeared. However unknown Chadic languages are still being reported, such as the recent description of Dyarim.