title: Security clearance

text: Section 750(3) of the Criminal Code, states that no person convicted of an offence under section 121 (frauds on the Government), section 124 (selling or purchasing office), section 380 (Fraud - if directed against Her Majesty) or section 418 (selling defective stores to Her Majesty), has, after that conviction, the capacity to contract with Her Majesty or to receive any benefits under a contract between Her Majesty and any other person or to hold office under Her Majesty unless a pardon has been granted. (This effectively prohibits granting of a Reliability Status to any such individual.)


title: Security clearance

text: National Security Clearances are a hierarchy of levels, depending on the classification of materials that can be accessed—Baseline Personnel Security Standard (BPSS), Counter-Terrorist Check (CTC), Enhanced Baseline Standard (EBS), Security Check (SC), enhanced Security Check (eSC), Developed Vetting (DV), enhanced Developed Vetting (eDV), and STRAP.


title: Security clearance

text: The BPSS is the entry-level National Security Clearance, and both CTC and EBS are effectively enhancements to the BPSS, with CTC relating to checking for susceptibility to extremist persuasion, and EBS relating to checking for susceptibility to espionage persuasion, the latter being needed for supervised access to SECRET material. The SC again is focused on susceptibility to espionage persuasion, and is required for an individual to have long-term unsupervised access to SECRET material and occasional access to TOP SECRET (TS) material, whilst for regular access to TS the DV, eDV is required. Occasionally STRAP is required with DV.


title: Security clearance

text: Those with National Security Clearance are commonly required to sign a statement to the effect that they agree to abide by the restrictions of the Official Secrets Act (OSA). This is popularly referred to as "signing the Official Secrets Act". Signing this has no effect on which actions are legal, as the act is a law, not a contract, and individuals are bound by it whether or not they have signed it. Signing it is intended more as a reminder to the person that they are under such obligations. To this end, it is common to sign this statement both before and after a period of employment that involves access to secrets.


title: Security clearance

text: After the United States entered into World War II, Britain changed its security classifications to match those of the U.S.. Previously, classifications had included the top classification "Most Secret", but it soon became apparent that the United States did not fully understand the UK's classifications, and classified information appeared in the U.S.'s press. This spearheaded the uniformity in classification between the United Kingdom and the United States. The terminology and levels of British security classifications have also changed from Positive Vetting and Enhanced Positive Vetting to SC, eSC, DV, eDV and STRAP.


title: Security clearance

text: In addition to National Security Clearances, other types of roles and organisations stipulate a need for clearances, including:


title: Security clearance

text: In the United States, a security clearance is an official determination that an individual may access information classified by the United States Government. Security clearances are hierarchical; each level grants the holder access to information in that level and the levels below it. The clearance process requires an in-depth background investigation primarily conducted by the Defense Counterintelligence and Security Agency and the signing of a nondisclosure agreement. Access to any particular piece of information requires "need-to-know." In some cases, this requirement is only nominal, as some classified information is widely published on secure networks. In other cases, there is a formal need-to-know determination. In addition to such a determination, Special Access Programs and Sensitive Compartmented Information may require additional investigation and adjudication of the prospective clearance holder.


title: Security clearance

text: Pending a full security clearance an applicant may be granted a temporary security clearance of indefinite duration, which gives the applicant access to classified information while the original application is being vetted.


title: Security clearance

text: As of 2020, the cost of obtaining a Top Secret clearance is $5,596 while a Secret is $433. These costs are paid for by revolving government funds and not by contractor companies.


title: Security clearance

text: The authority for classifying information and granting security clearances to access that information is found in executive orders (EOs) and US Federal law. The United States' National Security Information (NSI) has been classified under EO 13526, but since 10 January 2017 the rules were modified by James Clapper as Security Executive Agent Directive 4 in the closing days of the Obama administration. Information may be classified under this Order if a classification authority determines its unauthorized release could cause damage to the national defense or foreign relations of the United States. Information concerning nuclear weapons and fissile material may be classified under the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (AEA). These clearances are only granted by the US Department of Energy. The clearance process for access to NSI or AEA information is substantially aligned. Under EO 12968, the investigative and adjudicative guidelines for NSI and AEA clearances are identical. This enables reciprocity between NSI and AEA clearances, although some exceptions exist.


title: Security clearance

text: The United States' Executive Order 12968's standards are binding on all of the United States government agencies that handle classified information, but it allows certain agency heads to establish Special Access Programs (SAPs) with additional, but not duplicative, investigative and adjudicative requirements. The Intelligence Community's Sensitive Compartmented Information (SCI) control systems are a family of SAPs, and SCI eligibility must be granted prior to accessing any particular control system or compartment (which may require additional investigation or adjudication). SCI eligibility policy is described in Intelligence Community Directive 704 and its implementing policy guidance Within the Intelligence Community, the access to SCI information is far more common than "Collateral Top Secret information," and therefore operatives will routinely include SCI in a TS product, just to ensure they do not have to meet the "cradle-to-grave" accountability requirements of Collateral TS information. Any additional clearance measures used by SAPs must be approved by the Office of Management and Budget, which has generally limited such measures to polygraphs, exclusion of persons with non-US immediate family members, requiring more frequent reinvestigations, and requiring annual updates to security questionnaires.


title: Security clearance

text: A security clearance is granted to an individual and generally recognizes a maximum level of clearance. Exceptions include levels above compartmentalized access or when an individual is cleared for a certain type of data. The President of the United States will be given access to any government or military information that they request, even if they would not otherwise be able to normally obtain a security clearance were they not the President. Having obtained a certain level security clearance does not mean that one automatically has access to or is given access to information cleared for that clearance level in the absence of a demonstrated "need to know". The need-to-know determination is made by a disclosure officer, who may work in the office of origin of the information. The specified need to know must be germane to the prospective user's mission, or of necessity for the integrity of a specified security apparatus.


title: Security clearance

text: Controlled Unclassified does not represent a clearance designation, but rather a clearance level at which information distribution is controlled. Controlled Unclassified designates information that may be illegal to distribute. This information is available when needed by government employees, such as United States Department of Defense (DoD) employees, but the designation signifies that the information should not be redistributed to users not designated to use it on an operational basis. For example, the organization and processes of an information-technology system may be designated Controlled Unclassified to users for whom the operational details of the system are non-critical.


title: Security clearance

text: Despite common misconception, this designation is not a security clearance, and is not the same as the confidential designation. Certain positions which require access to sensitive information, but not information which is classified, must obtain this designation through a background check. In the US, Public Trust Positions can either be moderate-risk or high-risk.


title: Security clearance

text: This is hierarchically the first security clearance to get, typically requiring a few weeks to a few months of investigation. A Confidential clearance requires a NACLC investigation which dates back 7 years on the subject's record and must be renewed (with another investigation) every 15 years.


title: Security clearance

text: A Secret clearance, also known as Collateral Secret or Ordinary Secret, requires a few months to a year to investigate, depending on the individual's background. Some instances wherein individuals would take longer than normal to be investigated are many past residences, having residences in foreign countries, having relatives outside the United States, or significant ties with non-US citizens. Unpaid bills as well as criminal charges will more than likely disqualify an applicant for approval. However, a bankruptcy will be evaluated on a case-by-case basis and is not an automatic disqualifier. Poor financial history is the number-one cause of rejection, and foreign activities and criminal record are also common causes for disqualification. A Secret clearance requires a NACLC, and a Credit investigation; it must also be re-investigated every 10 years. Investigative requirements for DoD clearances, which apply to most civilian contractor situations, are contained in the Personnel Security Program issuance known as DoD Regulation 5200.2-R, at part C3.4.2.


title: Security clearance

text: Top Secret is a more stringent clearance. A Top Secret, or "TS", clearance, is often given as the result of a Single Scope Background Investigation, or SSBI. Top Secret clearances, in general, afford one access to data that affects national security, counterterrorism/counterintelligence, or other highly sensitive data. There are far fewer individuals with TS clearances than Secret clearances. A TS clearance can take as few as 3 to 6 months to obtain, but often it takes 6 to 18 months. In most instances, an individual with Top Secret clearance undergoes an SSBI Period Reinvestigation (SSBI-PR) every five years.


title: Security clearance

text: As with TS clearances, Sensitive Compartmented Information (SCI) clearances are assigned only after one has been through the rigors of a Single Scope Background Investigation and a special adjudication process for evaluating the investigation. SCI access, however, is assigned only in "compartments". These compartments are necessarily separated from each other with respect to organization, so that an individual with access to one compartment will not necessarily have access to another. Each compartment may include its own additional special requirements and clearance process. An individual may be granted access to, or read into, a compartment for any period of time.


title: Security clearance

text: Such compartmentalized clearances may be expressed as "John has a TS/SCI", whereby all clearance descriptors are spelled out verbally. For example, the US National Security Agency once used specialized terms such as "Umbra", This classification is reported to be a compartment within the "Special Intelligence" compartment of SCI. The various NSA compartments have been simplified; all but the most sensitive compartments are marked "CCO", meaning "handle through COMINT channels only".


title: Security clearance

text: The US Department of Defense establishes, separately from intelligence compartments, special access programs (SAP) when the vulnerability of specific information is considered exceptional and the normal criteria for determining eligibility for access applicable to information classified at the same level are not deemed sufficient to protect the information from unauthorized disclosure. The number of people cleared for access to such programs is typically kept low. Information about stealth technology, for example, often requires such access.


title: Security clearance

text: There are two different types of jobs that require clearance: public trust and low-risk positions, which require a Standard Form 85 application, and a positions with access to classified information, which require a Standard Form 86 application.


title: Security clearance

text: Anyone with access to classified data requires a clearance at or higher than the level at which the data is classified. For this reason, security clearances are required for a wide range of jobs, from senior management to janitorial. According to a 2013 Washington Post article, over 1.5 million Americans had top-secret clearances; almost one-third of them worked for private companies, rather than for the U.S. government.


title: Security clearance

text: Jobs that require a security clearance can be found either as positions working directly for the federal government or as authorized federal contractors. Over time, more clearance jobs are being outsourced to contractors. Due to an overall shortage in security-cleared candidates and a long time frame to obtain the credentials for an uncleared worker, those with clearance are often paid more than their non-cleared equivalent counterparts. According to one 2010 estimate, "people with security clearances are in the top 10 percent of wage earners in the country".


title: Security clearance

text: The vetting process for a security clearance is usually undertaken only when someone is hired or transferred into a position that requires access to classified information. The Defense Counterintelligence and Security Agency is the primary security agency that conducts background investigations for the Federal Government, conducting 95% of all background investigations for over 100 agencies and conducting approximately 2 million background investigations each year.


title: Security clearance

text: The employee is typically fingerprinted and asked to provide information about themselves. This becomes a starting point for an investigation into the candidate's suitability. The process has been streamlined and now requires the person who needs clearance to input the information online using E-qip; five days are allowed for data input. Having the older paper form can be helpful for collecting and organizing the information in advance. The information on an investigation and its status is stored in either JPAS or Scattered Castles.


title: Security clearance

text: If issues of concern surface during any phase of security processing, coverage is expanded to resolve those issues. At lower levels, "interim" clearances may be issued to individuals who are presently under investigation, but who have passed some preliminary, automatic process. Such automatic processes include things such as credit checks, felony checks, and so on. An interim clearance may be denied (although the final clearance may still be granted) for having a large amount of debt, having a foreign spouse, for having admitted to seeing a doctor for a mental health condition, or for having admitted to other items of security concern (such as a criminal record or a history of drug use.). When security concerns arise for an individual, which could bar them from holding a security clearance, adjudicators may also look at the Whole-Person Concept as a source of potential mitigation so that the person may still be granted a security clearance.


title: Security clearance

text: Investigations conducted by one federal agency are no longer supposed to be duplicated by another federal agency when those investigations are current within 5 years and meet the scope and standards for the level of clearance required. The high-level clearance process can be lengthy, sometimes taking a year or more. In recent years, there has been an increased backlog of cases which has been attributed to the economic climate. The long time needed for new appointees to be cleared has been cited as hindering the presidential transition process.


title: Security clearance

text: In the US, once the clearance is granted, the candidate is briefed on "the proper safeguarding of classified information and on the criminal, civil, and administrative sanctions that may be imposed on an individual who fails to protect classified information from unauthorized disclosure." They are also required to sign an approved non-disclosure agreement (e.g., form SF-312). High-level clearances are reviewed periodically and any "adverse information" reports received at any time can trigger a review. When a cleared person leaves their job, they are often "debriefed"—reminded of their ongoing obligations to protect the information they were allowed to see, and the possible consequences should they fail to uphold those obligations. According to NISPOM Chapter 3, newly cleared employees are required to receive an initial security briefing before having access to classified information. This training helps them understand the threat, risks to classified information, how to protect the classified information, security procedures and duties as they apply to their job. This training is followed up by refresher training that reinforces the initial security briefing.


title: Security clearance

text: Dual citizenship is associated with two categories of security concerns: foreign influence and foreign preference. Dual citizenship in itself is not the major problem in obtaining or retaining security clearance in the United States. If a security clearance applicant's dual citizenship is "based solely on parents' citizenship or birth in a foreign country", that can be a mitigating condition. However, "exercising" (taking advantage of the entitlements of) a non-U.S. citizenship can cause problems. For example, possession and/or use of a foreign passport is a condition disqualifying from security clearance and "is not mitigated by reasons of personal convenience, safety, requirements of foreign law, or the identity of the foreign country" as is explicitly clarified in a Department of Defense policy memorandum which defines a guideline requiring that "any clearance be denied or revoked unless the applicant surrenders the foreign passport or obtains official permission for its use from the appropriate agency of the United States Government". This guideline has been followed in administrative rulings by the Department of Defense (DoD) Defense Office of Hearings and Appeals (DOHA) office of Industrial Security Clearance Review (ISCR), which decides cases involving security clearances for Contractor personnel doing classified work for all DoD components. In one such case, an administrative judge ruled that it is not clearly consistent with U.S. national interest to grant a request for a security clearance to an applicant who was a dual national of the United States and Ireland. DOHA can rule on issues involving the granting of security clearances.


title: Security clearance

text: The UN has a Security Clearance (SC) procedure and document for United Nations staff travelling to areas designated as security phase areas, with numbers ranging from one to five ("no-phase" areas are calm countries where no SC is required).


title: Security clearance

text: United Nations staff can apply for SC online, at the website of the Department for Safety and Security.


title: Security clearance

text: In the post World War II era, there have been several highly publicized, and often controversial, cases of officials or scientists having their security clearances revoked, including:


title: Security clearance

text: This list does not cover people whose security clearance lapsed possibly following changing their job.


title: Simian

text: The simians, anthropoids, or higher primates are an infraorder (Simiiformes ) of primates containing all animals traditionally called monkeys and apes. More precisely, they consist of the parvorders New World monkeys (Platyrrhini) and Catarrhini, the latter of which consists of the superfamilies Cercopithecidae (Old World monkeys in the stricter sense) and apes (Hominoidea; including the genus "Homo").


title: Simian

text: The simians are sister group to the tarsiers (Tarsiiformes), together forming the haplorhines. The radiation occurred about 60 million years ago (during the Cenozoic era); 40 million years ago, simians colonized South America, giving rise to the New World monkeys. The remaining simians (catarrhines) split about 25 million years ago into Cercopithecidae and apes (including humans).


title: Simian

text: In earlier classification, New World monkeys, Old World monkeys, apes, and humans – collectively known as simians or anthropoids – were grouped under Anthropoidea (; ), while the strepsirrhines and tarsiers were grouped under the suborder "Prosimii". Under modern classification, the tarsiers and simians are grouped under the suborder Haplorhini, while the strepsirrhines are placed in suborder Strepsirrhini. Strong genetic evidence for this is that five SINEs are common to all haplorhines whilst absent in strepsirrhines — even one being coincidental between tarsiers and simians would be quite unlikely. Despite this preferred taxonomic division, "prosimian" is still regularly found in textbooks and the academic literature because of familiarity, a condition likened to the use of the metric system in the sciences and the use of customary units elsewhere in the United States. In the Anthropoidea, evidence indicates that the Old World and New World primates went through parallel evolution.


title: Simian

text: Primatology, paleoanthropology, and other related fields are split on their usage of the synonymous infraorder names, Simiiformes and Anthropoidea. According to Robert Hoffstetter (and supported by Colin Groves), the term Simiiformes has priority over Anthropoidea because the taxonomic term "Simii" by van der Hoeven, from which it is constructed, dates to 1833. In contrast, Anthropoidea by Mivart dates to 1864, while Simiiformes by Haeckel dates to 1866, leading to counterclaims of priority. Hoffstetter also argued that Simiiformes is also constructed like a proper infraorder name (ending in "iformes"), whereas Anthropoidea ends in -"oidea", which is reserved for superfamilies. He also noted that Anthropoidea is too easily confused with "anthropoïdes", which translates to "apes" from several languages.


title: Simian

text: Extant simians are split into three distinct groups. The New World monkeys in parvorder Platyrrhini split from the rest of the simian line about 40 million years ago (Mya), leaving the parvorder Catarrhini occupying the Old World. This group split about 25 Mya between the Cercopithecidae and the apes.


title: Simian

text: Some lines of extinct simian also are either placed into the Eosimiidae (to reflect their Eocene origin) and sometimes in Amphipithecidae, thought to originate in the Early Oligocene. Additionally, "Phileosimias" is sometimes placed in the Eosimiidae and sometimes categorised separately.


title: Simian

text: The following is the listing of the various simian families, and their placement in the order Primates:


title: Simian

text: Below is a cladogram with some of the extinct simian species with the more modern species emerging within the Eosimiidae. The simians originated in Asia, while the crown simians were in Afro-Arabia. It is indicated approximately how many Mya the clades diverged into newer clades.


title: Simian

text: Usually the Ekgmowechashalidae are considered to be Strepsirrhini, not Haplorhini. A 2018 study places Eosimiidae as a sister to the crown haplorhini. In 2020 papers, the Proteopithecidae are part of the Parapithecoidea, and "Nosmips aenigmaticus" (previously in Eosimidae) is a basal simian.


title: Simian

text: In a section of their 2010 assessment of the evolution of anthropoids (simians) entitled "What is an Anthropoid", Williams, Kay, and Kirk set out a list of biological features common to all or most anthropoids, including genetic similarities, similarities in eye location and the muscles close to the eyes, internal similarities between ears, dental similarities, and similarities on foot bone structure. The earliest anthropods were small primates with varied diets, forward-facing eyes, acute color vision for daytime lifestyles, and brains devoted more to vision and less to smell. Living simians in both the New World and the Old World have larger brains than other primates, but they evolved these larger brains independently.


title: Ludo King

text: Ludo King is an Indian free-to-play mobile game application developed by Indian studio Gametion Technologies Pvt Ltd, based in Navi Mumbai, India. Gametion is owned by Vikash Jaiswal. It is developed on the Unity game engine and is available on Android, iOS, Kindle, Windows Phone and Microsoft Windows platforms. The game is a modernization of the board game, Ludo, which in turn is based on the ancient Indian game of Pachisi.


title: Ludo King

text: "Ludo King" was released on February 20, 2016, on the Apple App Store, and has consistently ranked No. 1 in the Top Free Games Section of both the Apple App Store and the Google Play Store. It is the first Indian gaming app to pass 500 million downloads. "Ludo King" is played in 30 countries and available in 14 languages.


title: Ludo King

text: "Ludo King" is based on the board game, Ludo, which is derived from the ancient Indian game of Pachisi. The objective of the game is to move 4 tokens from the starting point around the board to the center of the board, also known as home. The first person to do this wins the game.


title: Ludo King

text: "Ludo King" has four modes: vs Computer, Local Mode (i.e. pass and play), Online Multiplayer (play with other players around the world) and Private Multiplayer (play with friends in private rooms). In the vs Computer mode, the player can play offline against the computer AI; in Local Mode, multiple players can play together offline; in Online Multiplayer, users can play with other players online but have no choice over who their players are; and in Private Multiplayer, a user can play with multiple players online and can choose the other players. Here, the players can choose to play with their Facebook friends on the online mode, and can play with up to 6 players in the local multiplayer mode.


title: Ludo King

text: Before "Ludo King", Gametion primarily focused on developing browser games for desktop users. In 2013, the company shifted focus to mobile gaming. It published several games, including "Snakes and Ladders" and "Baby’s Big Adventure", but these were all average. The company rose to prominence with the release of "Ludo King".


title: Ludo King

text: In September 2019, "Ludo King" rolled out an update which included a series of new themes such as Nature, Egyptian, Disco, Cake, Candy, and Pinball, etc.


title: Ludo King

text: "Ludo King" added 7 Up Down, a sub-game within the game, in addition to the Snakes & Ladders in-game.


title: Ludo King

text: "Ludo King" is available in 15 languages – English, Bengali, Tamil, Malayalam, Bahasa Indonesia, German, Spanish, Hindi, Gujarati, Telugu, Kannada, French, Arabic, Marathi and Italian.


title: Ludo King

text: In January 2021, "Ludo King" launched a 6 player online multiplayer mode and Quick Mode. "Ludo King" also has released a five and six-player online feature.


title: Ludo King

text: "Ludo King" used the third-party mLab platform for hosting. However, after mLab was acquired by MongoDB Inc, the game moved to MongoDB Atlas, the global cloud database service.


title: Ludo King

text: "Ludo King" also utilizes Amazon Web Services (AWS), and Flentas Technologies, an AWS Partner Network Partner, to "build an internal multiplayer backend system to manage its increasing user traffic more efficiently and in a cost-effective manner."


title: Ludo King

text: Google Launched Google Play Points Program in India and Ludo King is one of the partnering game apps for the program.


title: Ludo King

text: According to POKKT, a leading mobile video advertising platform in India, "Ludo King" is one of the most popular games in India. The game has a DAU (Daily Active Users) of 10 million and 70 million monthly users. Since May 2017, "Ludo King" has topped the Google Play download charts. By September 2017, the game had been downloaded 120 million times, about 70% of which, i.e. around 100 million, are in India, followed by Indonesia, Pakistan, Nepal, Saudi Arabia, and Brazil.


title: Ludo King

text: According to India Times, "[Ludo King] attracted a new demographic of players (45 years and older) that had been relatively lower in India and turned gaming into mainstream entertainment and a social media alternative." This is primarily because "Ludo King" is available in local languages like Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi, etc., thus attempting to target a large local audience.


title: Ludo King

text: Since "Ludo King"'s launch on February 20, 2016, by May 2017, the game had been downloaded 50 million times on Android phones. The game is played "mostly by 18-35-year olds but also retirees. And on average, a player spends 15-16 minutes a day on the game." In 2016, "Ludo King" recorded four million installs and went up to 57 million in 2017, crossing 118 million in 2018.


title: Ludo King

text: In April 2018, in lieu of the Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal, "Ludo King" was noted as being one of the fair apps among the top 5 apps on Google Play in India that did not seek excessive permissions on devices.


title: Ludo King

text: According to Vishal Gondal, founder of GOQii, "Ludo King" is one of the very few successful Indian games that is completely original and not "reskinned."


title: Ludo King

text: "Ludo King" is considered to be a popular game because of its "local multiplayer aspect" which allows up to six people to play on a single phone, each with their own dice. Its fascinating to see how seamlessly "it has penetrated the lower rungs of the socio-economic segment, galvanising a strata that hadn't warmed up to digital games".


title: Ludo King

text: Casual and hyper-casual games, like "Ludo King", are "light on the gamer's system and have simple mechanics. They can be learnt through a short tutorial, or none, even by beginners. Also, quick progress gives a rapid sense of achievement, encouraging the gamer to jump from level to level."


title: Ludo King

text: By January 2020, "Ludo King" has been downloaded 300 million times, with 6 million daily active users and 75 million playing a month. Users spend about 45 minutes on average playing "Ludo King".


title: Ludo King

text: "Ludo King" saw a 50-75% boost in audience during India's COVID-19 Lockdown, reaching the Top 5 Downloaded Apps in India between 25 March and 10 April 2020, with 9.5 million downloads. "Ludo King"'s daily download figures changed from 150,000 in early February to over 450,000 in India by April 13, 2020. It saw a 142% jump in downloads between February and April 2020. In April alone, the game garnered 26 million downloads.


title: Ludo King

text: According to an AppsFlyer report, "Ludo King" saw a 100% surge in gaming during the Lockdown. The daily average time spent on the game increased from 32 minutes to 49 minutes. News18 reported that "Ludo King" had a "five-fold increase in traffic during the lockdown. It has more than 330 million downloads, with about 50 million daily active users." In May 2020, it was the sixth most downloaded game worldwide and its revenue was about $922,000 worldwide. In the beginning of May 2020, "Ludo King" had 251 million daily active users; the number averaged 40 to 45 million by June 2020. Gametion had to increase the server base from 8 to 200 servers to keep up with demand.


title: Ludo King

text: According to Sensor Tower, "Ludo King" saw 48.3 million downloads between April and June 2020, beating other popular games like "PUBG Mobile", which ranked 3rd with 30.8 million downloads. According to Craig Chapple, Mobile Insights Strategist, Sensor Tower, "In February, the title generated 10.8 million downloads, while in April it accumulated 26 million downloads, an increase of 140.7%." "Ludo King" was one of the top 5 most-installed mobile games worldwide.


title: Ludo King

text: "Ludo King" originally had 80%-20% proportion for Advertising and In-App Purchase (IAP) revenues, which changed to 60%-40% for Advertising and IAP revenues, respectively by June 2020. About 50% of the revenue comes from India and 50% from outside of India like Indonesia, Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Germany, the US and UK. The app gets "maximum traffic between 2:00 and 4:00 p.m. during the day, and 8:00-11:00 p.m. in the evening". 75% of the audience is from India.


title: Ludo King

text: According to data by Sensor Tower, "Ludo King" registered 1.52 million downloads between September 2 and September 5, 2020, across iOS and Android app stores, making it the second most downloaded game during that time. This boost came after the Indian government announced the ban on 118 Chinese apps, including "PUBG Mobile". "Ludo King" was also the 7th most downloaded game on Google Play Store in August 2020.


title: Ludo King

text: According to Inc42, "Ludo King" is currently the most downloaded mobile game in India with 10.3 million downloads during the month of September 2020.


title: Ludo King

text: By the end of 2020, "Ludo King" had 32 million daily active users (DAUs), an increase from 15 million, while its monthly average users (MAUs) rose from 110 to 142 million. Due to the increase in the number of downloads and user interest in the game, Gametion Technologies, the parent company of "Ludo King" has earned $20 million in revenue in 2020.


title: Ludo King

text: Another Sensor Tower report states that "Ludo King was the most downloaded game in Asia region in the mobile gaming market, driven by its popularity in India. Interestingly, India accounted for nearly 80% of "Ludo King’"s global downloads in Q2 2021."


title: Ludo King

text: According to App Annie, "Ludo King" was the most popular game in India in H1 2021 by downloads. App Annie further listed "Ludo King" as 'top game in India in terms of overall downloads' for the whole of 2021.


title: Ludo King

text: According to a Google Play Partnerships Vice-President Purnima Kochikar, 'Ludo King has become one of the most-played games globally.' She further stated that, "Indian apps and games saw a 200% increase in active monthly users on Google Play compared to 2019."


title: Ludo King

text: According to a Sensor Tower report, "Ludo King" ranked either first or second in each quarter of 2021 on the Google Play Store.


title: Ludo King

text: According to Business Today magazine, Ludo King, a lockdown sensation crossed 800 million global installs in June 2022 and turned into a mainstream alternative and a social interaction tool.


title: Ludo King

text: According to Sensor Tower, Ludo King was among the top 5 most installed mobile games worldwide for the month of April 2022.


title: Ludo King

text: Google Play’s best apps and games of 2022 in India - Play Store featured Ludo King in the "Best Ongoing" games category for engaging players with new compelling updates, fresh content, and advanced gameplay experience.


title: Ludo King

text: It was reported that while shooting for his film, "Zero", Indian actor, Shah Rukh Khan enjoyed playing "Ludo King" with director, Aanand L. Rai, and co-star, Anushka Sharma.


title: Ludo King

text: "Ludo King" was one of the featured games at India's first ever mobile eSports event held at the CII's India Gaming Show in January 2018.


title: Ludo King

text: On 9 September 2018, Indian singer Mika Singh announced via Instagram that he was working on a video song titled "Ludo King." The song was launched on October 23, 2018. It is the 'Official Ludo Song'.


title: Ludo King

text: During the Lockdown in 2020, Anushka Sharma said that she played "Ludo King" with her husband Virat Kohli and family.


title: Ludo King

text: On 8 August 2020, "Ludo King" released a patriotic song titled, HINDUSTAN by LUDO KING by MEET BROS feat. SHANKAR MAHADEVAN.


title: Ludo King

text: In August's ‘Mann ki Baat’ radio programme, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, cited "Ludo King" as an example of homegrown games and toys. He further spoke about various opportunities made in India's games scene in context to "Ludo King".


title: Ludo King

text: In 2021, "Ludo King" started "Ludo King Show", a game show which features people playing "Ludo King", while others can watch on both the app and YouTube. On 18 June 2021, Ludo King Show featured Vidya Balan on the show playing with 3 regular users.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: Luiz Felipe Scolari (; born 9 November 1948), also known as Felipão ("Big Phil"), is a Brazilian football manager and former player. He is the current manager of Athletico Paranaense.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: Scolari was a defender during his playing days, and notably represented Caxias before moving to a managerial role in 1982. After leading the Brazil national team to a FIFA World Cup win in 2002, he was manager of the Portugal national team from July 2003 to June 2008. He led Portugal to the final of UEFA Euro 2004, which they lost 0–1 to Greece, and to a fourth-place finish in the 2006 World Cup. Scolari also managed Portugal through UEFA Euro 2008, but resigned after a 2–3 loss to Germany in the second round.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: After a return to club management at Chelsea in the Premier League, Scolari was hired again as manager of the Brazil national team in 2012. He led them to victory at the 2013 Confederations Cup, and to the semi-final in the 2014 World Cup. After the Brazil national team finished fourth overall in an upset 1–7 loss to Germany in the semi-finals, and a 0–3 loss to the Netherlands in the third-place playoff, the Brazilian Football Confederation decided not to renew his contract. In 2015, he started work at Guangzhou Evergrande and went on to claim both the 2015 Chinese Super League and 2015 AFC Champions League in his first season with the club.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: Scolari was born in Passo Fundo, Rio Grande do Sul. A defender regarded as more uncompromising than skillful, he was known among his contemporaries as "Perna-de-Pau" (literally translated as "wooden leg" in Portuguese, a Brazilian slang for a bad player), Scolari followed in the footsteps of his father, Benjamin Scolari, who was also a professional footballer. His playing career encompassed spells with Caxias, Juventude, Novo Hamburgo, and CSA; he often captained his sides. It was with CSA that he won his only major title as a player – the 1981 Campeonato Alagoano.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: Upon retiring as a player in 1982, he was appointed manager of CSA, his former club, and would go on to win the Alagoas state championship in his first season. After spells with Juventude (twice), Brasil de Pelotas and Pelotas and Saudi Arabian side Al-Shabab, he moved to Grêmio, where he won the 1987 Gaúcho state championship. After managing Goiás, Scolari had a two-year stint in charge of Kuwaiti side Al Qadisiya Kuwait, with whom he won the prestigious Kuwait Emir Cup in 1989. This was followed by a brief period as manager of the Kuwait national team, winning the 10th Gulf Cup in Kuwait. Scolari returned to Brazil to coach Coritiba. He stayed for just three matches, losing all of them. After the last loss, he abandoned the club by boarding the winning team's bus back to his hometown; and did not return even to collect his wages. Scolari coached Criciúma to their first major national title, in the 1991 Copa do Brasil. He returned to club management in the Middle East, managing Al-Ahli and a second spell at Al Qadisiya.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: In 1993, Scolari returned to Grêmio, where, albeit leading the team to historic victories, he was criticized by the Brazilian media for playing a pragmatic style of football regarded as "un-Brazilian". He claimed six titles in only three years, including the 1995 Copa Libertadores, which qualified Grêmio for the Intercontinental Cup, which they lost to Dutch side Ajax on penalties. The following year, they won the Brazilian Championship.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: His team featured no real superstar and depended on workman-like players such as Paraguayan right back Francisco Arce, tough-tackling midfielder Dinho, Paulo Nunes, and centre forward Mário Jardel.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: In 1997, Scolari became manager of J. League side Júbilo Iwata, but left after eleven games and shortly afterwards took charge of Palmeiras back in Brazil.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: In three years as manager, Scolari led Palmeiras to the Copa do Brasil, the Mercosur Cup, and their first Copa Libertadores title with a win on penalties over Deportivo Cali of Colombia. They were also runners-up to Manchester United in the 1999 Intercontinental Cup. He was named South American Coach of the Year for 1999.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: In June 2001, Scolari was appointed manager of his native Brazil, who, with five qualifying matches ahead, were in jeopardy of not qualifying for the 2002 FIFA World Cup, which would be a first in the Brazilian competitive record. Despite losing his first match 1–0 to Uruguay, Scolari eventually guided the team to qualification.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: In the build-up to the finals, Scolari refused to include veteran striker Romário in his squad, despite public pressure and a tearful appeal from the player himself. Brazil entered the tournament unfancied, but wins over Turkey, China, Costa Rica, Belgium, England and Turkey again took them to the final, where they beat Germany 2–0 with two goals from Ronaldo to win their fifth FIFA World Cup title.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: After his World Cup victory, Scolari took over as manager of Portugal in 2003 and oversaw their preparations as host nation for UEFA Euro 2004. In the finals, Portugal got through the group stages and saw off England in the quarter-finals on penalties before beating the Netherlands in the semi-finals. In the final, however, they were beaten in a 1–0 upset by tournament underdogs Greece.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: Scolari managed Portugal through the 2006 World Cup in Germany, where they reached the semi-finals, again coming out victorious in the quarterfinals against England. But they did not reach the final due to a semifinal defeat against eventual runners-up France. Following the tournament, Scolari was very heavily slated for the job of England manager, but ultimately opted to continue coaching Portugal.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: Scolari took Portugal to Euro 2008, where they reached the knock-out stages by placing first in Group A before being eliminated by Germany in the quarter-finals. During the tournament, he announced that he would be joining English Premier League side Chelsea for the 2008–09 season.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: Scolari took over as manager of Chelsea on 1 July 2008. This was announced shortly after Portugal's Euro 2008 match against the Czech Republic on 11 June. With this appointment, Scolari became the first World Cup-winning manager to manage in the Premier League. In previous press conferences, Scolari had talked about "tantrums" and "triumphs" and had a reputation as a tough and unpredictable person. When asked whether his decision to join Chelsea was financial, he responded, "Yes, that is one of the reasons," but also added, "I'm 59 and I don't want to work as a coach until I'm 70. I want to retire in four or five years, so it was a financial matter but there are other things." He also said, "I could offer my son the opportunity to study elsewhere. You only get this kind of opportunity once so you take it or leave it, but it was not only financial." Scolari later said that he had turned down an offer to manage Manchester City.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: Scolari's first match in charge of Chelsea was a friendly match against Chinese side Guangzhou Pharmaceutical, a 4–0 victory. He made Barcelona midfielder Deco, a player he was familiar with on the Portuguese national team, his first signing for a fee of around £8 million, but was subsequently frustrated in his attempts to sign Brazilian international Robinho from Real Madrid. Under Scolari, Chelsea had the biggest away win of the club in five years in which Chelsea won 5–0 at the Riverside Stadium in October 2008. It was also the club's biggest win ever at Middlesbrough.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: Scolari was sacked as Chelsea manager on 9 February 2009 after a run of poor form culminating in a 2–0 defeat at Liverpool followed by frustrating 0–0 home draw with Hull City. The club's stated reason for his removal was that "the results and performances of the team appeared to be deteriorating at a key time in the season". Scolari's replacement at Chelsea for the remainder of the 2008–09 season was Dutch manager Guus Hiddink, who simultaneously managed the Russian national team.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: On 6 June 2009, Scolari was spotted in attendance at Uzbekistan's World Cup qualifier against Japan; on 8 June 2009, Scolari revealed that he had signed an 18-month contract with the Uzbekistani champions FC Bunyodkor. The contract made Scolari the highest paid football manager in the world, earning €13 million a year.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: He left by mutual consent on 29 May 2010 after failing to guide Bunyodkor past the last 16 in the AFC Champions League, although he cited concern regarding his son's education as the key reason.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: On 13 June 2010, Scolari was announced as Palmeiras' new manager. He signed a -year contract. Palmeiras were 2012 Copa do Brasil champions under his management. In September 2012, Scolari left by mutual consent after an unsatisfying result in the Campeonato Brasileiro.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: In November 2012, after two months without a club, Scolari returned to managing the Brazil national team, replacing the outgoing Mano Menezes. He was tasked with securing a win in the 2014 FIFA World Cup, in which Brazil would be hosts. Scolari had previously won the 2002 FIFA World Cup as manager of Brazil.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: Under Scolari, Brazil beat Japan 3–0 in the opening game of the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, with goals from Neymar in the third minute, Paulinho in the 48th minute and Jô on the 90th minute. Three days later, his team won 2–0 over Mexico, with Neymar scoring again in the ninth minute.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: Brazil defeated Uruguay 2–1 in the semi-final match of the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup in a tough draw, with goals from Fred in the 41st minute paired with a late goal from Paulinho in the 86th minute. In the final, Brazil defeated Spain 3–0 with two goals from Fred and one from Neymar.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: After a successful campaign which earned them a semi-final spot in the 2014 FIFA World Cup, Brazil were defeated 7–1 in an upset loss against Germany at the semi-final stage, which became their biggest-ever defeat at the World Cup (their largest margin of defeat was previously losing 3-0 to France in the 1998 final), the record for most goals conceded in their World Cup track record and its first home loss in a competitive match since 1975. Scolari described the match as "the worst day of [his] life", and took responsibility for the loss.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: On 14 July 2014, following a further 3–0 defeat in the third place playoff match against the Netherlands, Scolari resigned from his position as Brazilian manager.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: On 29 July 2014, Scolari signed with Grêmio. He was officially unveiled by the club the following day at the Arena do Grêmio. On 19 May 2015, Scolari resigned from his position after a poor start to the season.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: On 4 June 2015, Scolari was appointed head coach of Chinese Super League champions Guangzhou Evergrande, signing a one-and-a-half plus one-year contract. After four months in charge, Scolari led the club to victory in the 2015 Chinese Super League and AFC Champions League, defeating Cosmin Olăroiu's Al-Ahli side with a 1–0 aggregate win in the final. He extended his contract for one year on 24 October 2016 after his potential successor Marcello Lippi was appointed as the manager of China national team. Scolari led Guangzhou win three consecutive league titles from 2015 to 2017. He refused to extend his contract again by the end of 2017 season.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: On 27 July 2018, Scolari returned to Brazilian side Palmeiras for a third time. On 2 September 2019, Scolari would be fired by club, that is under a poor performance after 2019 Copa America; in this period, Scolari gained only 23.8% of points played by Palmeiras.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: On 15 October 2020, Scolari returned to manage the football team of Cruzeiro. On 25 January 2021, Scolari and Cruzeiro parted ways by mutual agreement.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: On 7 July 2021, Scolari returned to Grêmio for the fourth time, with the goal of moving the team out of the last place in the Brasileiro Série A and fighting for the Copa Sudamericana. He left on a mutual agreement on 11 October, with the club second bottom of the league.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: On 4 May 2022, Scolari was hired by Athletico Paranaense as a technical director, being also a manager of the first team "until new definitions".


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: Scolari also holds Italian citizenship, since his family emigrated from Veneto. He is a fan of Grêmio, and was reported to be a fan of Nottingham Forest, having watched their successes under Brian Clough in the 1970s. Scolari is a Roman Catholic.


title: Luiz Felipe Scolari

text: During his career, the media has been fond of pointing out Scolari's facial resemblance to actor Gene Hackman and Marlon Brando's portrayal of Don Vito Corleone in the film "The Godfather". In Brazil, Scolari is also known as "Felipão", and during his stint with Chelsea, he was sometimes referred by the English translation, Big Phil.


title: Harvard Law School

text: Harvard Law School (Harvard Law or HLS) is the law school of Harvard University, a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1817, it is the oldest continuously operating law school in the United States.


title: Harvard Law School

text: Each class in the three-year JD program has approximately 560 students, among the largest of the top 150 ranked law schools in the United States. The first-year class is broken into seven sections of approximately 80 students, who take most first-year classes together. Aside from the JD program, Harvard also awards both LLM and SJD degrees. Harvard's uniquely large class size and prestige have led the law school to graduate a great many distinguished alumni in the judiciary, government, and the business world.


title: Harvard Law School

text: According to Harvard Law's 2020 ABA-required disclosures, 99% of 2019 graduates passed the bar exam. The school's graduates accounted for more than one-quarter of all Supreme Court clerks between 2000 and 2010, more than any other law school in the United States.


title: Harvard Law School

text: Harvard Law School's founding is traditionally linked to the funding of Harvard's first professorship in law, paid for from a bequest from the estate of Isaac Royall Jr., a colonial American landowner and slaveowner. HLS is home to the world's largest academic law library. The school has an estimated 135 full-time faculty members.


title: Harvard Law School

text: Harvard Law School's founding is traced to the establishment of a 'law department' at Harvard in 1817. Dating the founding to the year of the creation of the law department makes Harvard Law School the oldest continuously operating law school in the United States. William & Mary Law School opened first in 1779, but it closed due to the American Civil War, reopening in 1920. The University of Maryland School of Law was chartered in 1816 but did not begin classes until 1824, and it also closed during the Civil War.


title: Harvard Law School

text: The founding of the law department came two years after the establishment of Harvard's first endowed professorship in law, funded by a bequest from the estate of wealthy slave-owner Isaac Royall Jr., in 1817. Royall left roughly 1,000 acres of land in Massachusetts to Harvard when he died in exile in Nova Scotia, where he fled to as a Loyalist during the American Revolution, in 1781, "to be appropriated towards the endowing a Professor of Laws ... or a Professor of Physick and Anatomy, whichever the said overseers and Corporation [of the college] shall judge to be best." The value of the land, when fully liquidated in 1809, was $2,938; the Harvard Corporation allocated $400 from the income generated by those funds to create the Royall Professorship of Law in 1815. The Royalls were so involved in the slave trade, that "the labor of slaves underwrote the teaching of law in Cambridge." The dean of the law school traditionally held the Royall chair; deans Elena Kagan and Martha Minow declined the Royall chair due to its origins in the proceeds of slavery.


title: Harvard Law School

text: The Royall family's coat of arms, which shows three stacked wheat sheaves on a blue background, was adopted as part of the law school's arms in 1936, topped with the university's motto ("Veritas", Latin for 'truth'). Until the school began investigating its connections with slavery in the 2010s, most alumni and faculty at the time were unaware of the origins of the arms. In March 2016, following requests by students, the school decided to remove the emblem because of its association with slavery. In November 2019, Harvard announced that a working group had been tasked to develop a new emblem. In August 2021, the new Harvard Law School emblem was introduced.


title: Harvard Law School

text: Royall's Medford estate, the Isaac Royall House, is now a museum which features the only remaining slave quarters in the northeast United States. In 2019, the government of Antigua and Barbuda requested reparations from Harvard Law School on the ground that it benefitted from Royall's enslavement of people in the country.


title: Harvard Law School

text: By 1827, the school, with one faculty member, was struggling. Nathan Dane, a prominent alumnus of the college, then endowed the Dane Professorship of Law, insisting that it be given to then Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story. For a while, the school was called "Dane Law School." In 1829, John H. Ashmun, son of Eli Porter Ashmun and brother of George Ashmun, accepted a professorship and closed his Northampton Law School, with many of his students following him to Harvard. Story's belief in the need for an elite law school based on merit and dedicated to public service helped build the school's reputation at the time, although the contours of these beliefs have not been consistent throughout its history. Enrollment remained low through the 19th century as university legal education was considered to be of little added benefit to apprenticeships in legal practice. After first trying lowered admissions standards, in 1848 HLS eliminated admissions requirements entirely. In 1869, HLS also eliminated examination requirements.


title: Harvard Law School

text: In the 1870s, under Dean Christopher Columbus Langdell, HLS introduced what has become the standard first-year curriculum for American law schools – including classes in contracts, property, torts, criminal law, and civil procedure. At Harvard, Langdell also developed the case method of teaching law, now the dominant pedagogical model at U.S. law schools. Langdell's notion that law could be studied as a "science" gave university legal education a reason for being distinct from vocational preparation. Critics at first defended the old lecture method because it was faster and cheaper and made fewer demands on faculty and students. Advocates said the case method had a sounder theoretical basis in scientific research and the inductive method. Langdell's graduates became leading professors at other law schools where they introduced the case method. The method was facilitated by casebooks. From its founding in 1900, the Association of American Law Schools promoted the case method in law schools that sought accreditation.


title: Harvard Law School

text: During the 20th century, Harvard Law School was known for its competitiveness. For example, Bob Berring called it "a samurai ring where you can test your swordsmanship against the swordsmanship of the strongest intellectual warriors from around the nation." When Langdell developed the original law school curriculum, Harvard President Charles Eliot told him to make it "hard and long." An urban legend holds that incoming students are told to "Look to your left, look to your right, because one of you won't be here by the end of the year." Scott Turow's memoir "One L" and John Jay Osborn's novel "The Paper Chase" describe such an environment. Trailing many of its peers, Harvard Law did not admit women as students until 1950, for the class of 1953.


title: Harvard Law School

text: Eleanor Kerlow's book "Poisoned Ivy: How Egos, Ideology, and Power Politics Almost Ruined Harvard Law School" criticized the school for a 1980s political dispute between newer and older faculty members over accusations of insensitivity to minority and feminist issues. Divisiveness over such issues as political correctness lent the school the title "Beirut on the Charles."


title: Harvard Law School

text: In "Broken Contract: A Memoir of Harvard Law School", Richard Kahlenberg criticized the school for driving students away from public interest and toward work in high-paying law firms. Kahlenberg's criticisms are supported by Granfield and Koenig's study, which found that "students [are directed] toward service in the most prestigious law firms, both because they learn that such positions are their destiny and because the recruitment network that results from collective eminence makes these jobs extremely easy to obtain." The school has also been criticized for its large first year class sizes (at one point there were 140 students per classroom; in 2001 there were 80), a cold and aloof administration, and an inaccessible faculty. The latter stereotype is a central plot element of "The Paper Chase" and appears in "Legally Blonde".


title: Harvard Law School

text: In response to the above criticisms, HLS eventually implemented the once-criticized but now dominant approach pioneered by Dean Robert Hutchins at Yale Law School, of shifting the competitiveness to the admissions process while making law school itself a more cooperative experience. Robert Granfield and Thomas Koenig's 1992 study of Harvard Law students that appeared in "The Sociological Quarterly" found that students "learn to cooperate with rather than compete against classmates," and that contrary to "less eminent" law schools, students "learn that professional success is available for all who attend, and that therefore, only neurotic 'gunners' try to outdo peers."


title: Harvard Law School

text: Under Kagan, the second half of the 2000s saw significant academic changes since the implementation of the Langdell curriculum. In 2006, the faculty voted unanimously to approve a new first-year curriculum, placing greater emphasis on problem-solving, administrative law, and international law. The new curriculum was implemented in stages over the next several years, with the last new course, a first year practice-oriented problem solving workshop, being instituted in January 2010. In late 2008, the faculty decided that the school should move to an Honors/Pass/Low Pass/Fail (H/P/LP/F) grading system, much like those in place at Yale and Stanford Law Schools. The system applied to half the courses taken by students in the Class of 2010 and fully started with the Class of 2011.


title: Harvard Law School

text: In 2009, Kagan was appointed solicitor general of the United States by President Barack Obama and resigned the deanship. On June 11, 2009, Harvard University president, Drew Gilpin Faust named Martha Minow as the new dean. She assumed the position on July 1, 2009. On January 3, 2017, Minow announced that she would conclude her tenure as dean at the end of the academic year. In June 2017, John F. Manning was named as the new dean, effective as of July 1, 2017.


title: Harvard Law School

text: In September 2017, the school unveiled a plaque acknowledging the indirect role played by slavery in its history:


title: Harvard Law School

text: The acceptance rate for the JD Class of 2024 was 6.8%. HLS was ranked as the fourth best law school in the United States (in a tie with Columbia Law School, and trailing only Yale Law School, Stanford Law School, and the University of Chicago Law School) by "U.S. News & World Report" in its 2023 rankings, the most widely referenced rankings publisher in the American legal community. HLS was also ranked first, with a perfect overall assessment score of 100.0, by QS World University Rankings in 2019. It is also ranked first by the 2019 Academic Ranking of World Universities.


title: Harvard Law School

text: In November 2022, the law school made a joint decision along with Yale Law School to withdraw from the "U.S. News & World Report" Best Law Schools rankings, citing the system's "flawed methodology."


title: Harvard Law School

text: According to the school's employment summary for 2020 graduates, 86.8% were employed in bar passage required jobs and another 5.3% were employed in J.D. advantage jobs.


title: Harvard Law School

text: The cost of tuition for the 2022-2023 school year (9 month term) is $72,430. A Mandatory HUHS Student Health Fee is $1,304, bringing the total direct costs for the 2022-2023 school year to $73,734.


title: Harvard Law School

text: The total cost of attendance (indicating the cost of tuition, fees, and living expenses) at Harvard Law for the 2021–2022 academic year is $104,200.


title: Harvard Law School

text: In 2016, the governing body of the university, the Harvard Corporation, voted to retire the law school's 80-year-old heraldic shield. The shield, depicting three garbs (the heraldic term for wheat sheaves), was based in part upon the coat of arms of Isaac Royall Jr., a university benefactor who had endowed the first professorship in the law school. The shield had become a source of contention among a group of law school students, who objected to the Royall family's history as slave-owners.


title: Harvard Law School

text: The president of the university and dean of the law school, acting upon the recommendation of a committee formed to study the issue, ultimately agreed with its majority decision, that the shield was inconsistent with the values of both the university and the law school. Their recommendation was ultimately adopted by the Harvard Corporation and on March 15, 2016, the shield was ordered retired.


title: Harvard Law School

text: On August 23, 2021, it was announced that a new shield was approved by the Harvard Corporation. The new design features Harvard's traditional motto, (Latin for 'truth'), resting above the Latin phrase "Lex et Iustitia", meaning 'law and justice'. According to the HLS Shield Working Group's final report, the expanding or diverging lines, some with no obvious beginning or end, are meant to convey a sense of broad scope or great distance — the limitlessness of the school's work and mission. The radial lines also allude to the latitudinal and longitudinal lines that define the arc of the earth, conveying the global reach of the Law School's community and impact. The multifaceted, radiating form — a form inspired by architectural details found in both Austin Hall and Hauser Hall — seeks to convey dynamism, complexity, inclusiveness, connectivity, and strength.


title: Harvard Law School

text: Harvard Law School has more than 90 student organizations that are active on campus. These organizations include the student-edited journals, "Harvard Law Record", and the HLS Drama Society, which organizes the annual "Harvard Law School Parody", the Harvard Legal Aid Bureau as well as other political, social, service, and athletic groups.


title: Harvard Law School

text: HLS Student Government is the primary governing, advocacy, and representative body for Law School students. In addition, students are represented at the university level by the Harvard Graduate Council.


title: Harvard Law School

text: Students of the Juris Doctor (JD) program are involved in preparing and publishing the "Harvard Law Review", one of the most highly cited university law reviews, as well as a number of other law journals and an independent student newspaper. The "Harvard Law Review" was first published in 1887 and has been staffed and edited by some of the school's most notable alumni.


title: Harvard Law School

text: In addition to the journal, the Harvard Law Review Association, in conjunction with the Columbia Law Review, University of Pennsylvania Law Review, and "Yale Law Journal" also publishes "The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation", the most widely followed authority for legal citation formats in the United States.


title: Harvard Law School

text: The student newspaper, the "Harvard Law Record", has been published continuously since the 1940s, making it one of the oldest law school newspapers in the country, and has included the exploits of fictional law student Fenno for decades. The Harvard Law School Forum on Corporate Governance and Financial Regulation, formerly known as the "Harvard Law School Corporate Governance Blog", is one of the most widely read law websites in the country.


title: Harvard Law School

text: The "Harvard Law Bulletin" is the magazine of record for Harvard Law School. The "Harvard Law Bulletin" was first published in April 1948. The magazine is currently published twice a year, but in previous years has been published four or six times a year. The magazine was first published online in fall 1997.


title: Harvard Law School

text: Harvard's prestige and large class size have enabled it to graduate a large number of distinguished alumni.


title: Harvard Law School

text: Rutherford B. Hayes, the 19th president of the United States, graduated from HLS. Additionally, Barack Obama, the 44th president of the United States, graduated from HLS and was president of the "Harvard Law Review". His wife, Michelle Obama, is also a graduate of Harvard Law School. Past presidential candidates who are HLS graduates, include Michael Dukakis, Ralph Nader and Mitt Romney. Eight sitting U.S. senators are alumni of HLS: Romney, Ted Cruz, Mike Crapo, Tim Kaine, Jack Reed, Chuck Schumer, Tom Cotton, and Mark Warner.


title: Harvard Law School

text: Other legal and political leaders who attended HLS include former president of Taiwan, Ma Ying-jeou, and former vice president Annette Lu; the incumbent Chief Justice of India, Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud; the incumbent Chief Justice of the Court of Final Appeal of Hong Kong, Andrew Cheung Kui-nung; former chief justice of the Republic of the Philippines, Renato Corona; chief justice, Sundaresh Menon; former president of the World Bank Group, Robert Zoellick; former United Nations high commissioner for human rights, Navanethem Pillay; the former president of Ireland, Mary Robinson; Lady Arden, Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and Solomon Areda Waktolla, Deputy Chief Justice of the Federal Supreme Court of Ethiopia. Deputy Chief Justice Solomon Areda Waktolla is also member of the Court of the Permanent Court of Arbitration.


title: Harvard Law School

text: Lobsang Sangay is the first elected sikyong of the Tibetan Government in Exile. In 2004, he earned a S.J.D. degree from Harvard Law School and was a recipient of the 2004 Yong K. Kim' 95 Prize of excellence for his dissertation "Democracy in Distress: Is Exile Polity a Remedy? A Case Study of Tibet's Government-in-exile".


title: Harvard Law School

text: Sixteen of the school's graduates have served on the Supreme Court of the United States, more than any other law school. Four of the current nine members of the court graduated from HLS: the chief justice, John Roberts; associate justices Neil Gorsuch; Ketanji Brown Jackson; and Elena Kagan, who also served as the dean of Harvard Law School, from 2003 to 2009. Past Supreme Court justices from Harvard Law School include Antonin Scalia, David Souter, Harry Blackmun, William J. Brennan, Louis Brandeis, Felix Frankfurter, Lewis Powell (LLM), and Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., among others. Ruth Bader Ginsburg attended Harvard Law School for two years.


title: Harvard Law School

text: Attorneys General Loretta Lynch, Alberto Gonzales, and Janet Reno, among others, and noted federal judges Richard Posner of the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals, Michael Boudin of the First Circuit Court of Appeals, Joseph A. Greenaway of the Third Circuit Court of Appeals, Laurence Silberman of the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals, Lawrence VanDyke of the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, and Pierre Leval of the Second Circuit Court of Appeals, among many other judicial figures, graduated from the school. The former Commonwealth solicitor general of Australia and current justice of the High Court of Australia, Stephen Gageler, senior counsel graduated from Harvard with an LL.M.


title: Harvard Law School

text: Many HLS alumni are leaders and innovators in the business world. Its graduates include the current senior chairman of Goldman Sachs, Lloyd Blankfein; former chief executive officer of Reddit, Ellen Pao; current chairman of the board and majority owner of National Amusements Sumner Redstone; current president and CEO of TIAA-CREF, Roger W. Ferguson Jr.; current CEO and chairman of Toys "R" Us, Gerald L. Storch; and former CEO of Delta Air Lines, Gerald Grinstein, among many others.


title: Harvard Law School

text: Legal scholars who graduated from Harvard Law include Payam Akhavan, William P. Alford, Rachel Barkow, Yochai Benkler, Alexander Bickel, Andrew Burrows, Erwin Chemerinsky, Amy Chua, Sujit Choudhry, Robert C. Clark, Hugh Collins, James Duane (professor), I. Glenn Cohen, Ronald Dworkin, Christopher Edley Jr., Melvin A. Eisenberg, Susan Estrich, Jody Freeman, Gerald Gunther, Andrew T. Guzman, Louis Henkin, Harold Koh, Richard J. Lazarus, Arthur R. Miller, Gerald L. Neuman, Eric Posner, Richard Posner, John Mark Ramseyer, Jed Rubenfeld, Lewis Sargentich, John Sexton, Jeannie Suk, Kathleen Sullivan, Cass Sunstein, Laurence Tribe, Edwin R. Keedy, C. Raj Kumar and Tim Wu.


title: Harvard Law School

text: In sports, David Otunga is the first and only Harvard Law alum to work for WWE. He is a two-time WWE Tag Team Champion.


title: Harvard Law School

text: "The Paper Chase" is a novel set amid a student's first ("One L") year at the school. It was written by John Jay Osborn, Jr., who studied at the school. The book was later turned into a film and a television series (see below).


title: Harvard Law School

text: Several movies and television shows take place at least in part at the school. Most of them have scenes filmed on location at or around Harvard University. They include:


title: Harvard Law School

text: Many popular movies and television shows also feature characters introduced as Harvard Law School graduates. The central plot point of the TV series "Suits" is that one of the main characters did not attend Harvard but fakes his graduate status in order to practice law.


title: Captive bolt pistol

text: A captive bolt (also variously known as a cattle gun, stunbolt gun, bolt gun, or stunner) is a device used for stunning animals prior to slaughter.


title: Captive bolt pistol

text: The goal of captive bolt stunning is to inflict a forceful strike on the forehead with the bolt in order to induce unconsciousness. For the non-penetrating bolt gun variation the bolt may or may not destroy part of the brain, while brain tissue is always destroyed with the penetrating bolt gun.


title: Captive bolt pistol

text: The bolt consists of a heavy rod made of corrosion-resistant alloys, such as stainless steel. It is held in position inside the barrel of the stunner by means of rubber washers. The bolt is usually not visible in a stunner in good condition. The bolt is actuated by a trigger pull and is propelled forward by compressed air, a spring mechanism, or by the discharge of a blank round ignited by a firing pin. After striking a shallow but forceful blow on the forehead of the animal, spring tension causes the bolt to recoil back into the barrel.


title: Captive bolt pistol

text: The captive bolt pistol was invented in 1903 by Hugo Heiss, former director of a slaughterhouse in Straubing, Germany.


title: Captive bolt pistol

text: Captive bolt pistols are of three types: penetrating, non-penetrating, and free bolt. The use of penetrating captive bolts has largely been discontinued in commercial situations in order to minimize the risk of transmission of disease.


title: Captive bolt pistol

text: In the penetrating type, the stunner uses a pointed bolt which is propelled by pressurized air, spring mechanism, or a blank cartridge. The bolt penetrates the skull of the animal, enters the cranium, and catastrophically damages the cerebrum and part of the cerebellum. Concussion causes destruction of vital centers of the brain and an increase in intracranial pressure, causing the animal to lose consciousness. This method is currently the most effective type of stunning, since it physically destroys brain matter (increasing the probability of a successful stun), while also leaving the brain stem intact and thus ensuring the heart continues to pump during the exsanguination. One disadvantage of this method is that brain matter is allowed to enter the blood stream, possibly contaminating other tissue with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, colloquially known as mad cow disease).


title: Captive bolt pistol

text: The action of a non-penetrating stunner is similar, but the bolt is blunt with a mushroom-shaped tip. The bolt strikes the forehead with great force and immediately retracts. The subsequent concussion is responsible for the unconsciousness of the animal. This type of stunner is less reliable at causing immediate unconsciousness than penetrating types; however, it has undergone a resurgence of popularity because of concerns about mad cow disease. In the European Union, this captive bolt design is required for slaughter of animals that will be used for pharmaceutical manufacture.


title: Captive bolt pistol

text: The free bolt stunner is used for emergency, in-the-field euthanasia of large farm-animals that cannot be restrained. It differs from a true captive bolt gun in that the projectile is not retractable; it is similar in operation to a powder-actuated nail gun or conventional firearm. Capable of firing only when pressed firmly against a surface (typically the animal's forehead), the device fires a small projectile through the animal's skull. The veterinarian can then either leave the animal to die from the projectile wound or administer lethal drugs.


title: Captive bolt pistol

text: With cattle, goats, sheep, rabbits, and horses, failure to adequately stun using a penetrating stunner can largely be attributed to incorrect positioning. Captive bolts allow for meat trimmings from the head to be salvaged. In some veal operations, a non-penetrating concussive stunner is used in order to preserve the brains for further processing.


title: Captive bolt pistol

text: Captive bolt stunners are safer to use in most red meat slaughter situations. There is no danger of ricochet or over-penetration as there is with regular firearms.


title: Captive bolt pistol

text: The cartridges typically use 2 to 3 grains (130 to 190 mg) of smokeless powder but can use up to 7 grains (450 mg) in the case of large animals such as bulls. The velocity of the bolt is usually in the case of small animals and in the case of large animals.


title: Clinical psychology

text: Clinical psychology is an integration of social science, theory, and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its practice are psychological assessment, clinical formulation, and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.


title: Clinical psychology

text: The field is generally considered to have begun in 1896 with the opening of the first psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania by Lightner Witmer. In the first half of the 20th century, clinical psychology was focused on psychological assessment, with little attention given to treatment. This changed after the 1940s when World War II resulted in the need for a large increase in the number of trained clinicians. Since that time, three main educational models have developed in the US—the PhD Clinical Science model (heavily focused on research), the PhD science-practitioner model (integrating scientific research and practice), and the PsyD practitioner-scholar model (focusing on clinical theory and practice). In the UK and the Republic of Ireland, the Clinical Psychology Doctorate falls between the latter two of these models, whilst in much of mainland Europe, the training is at the masters level and predominantly psychotherapeutic. Clinical psychologists are expert in providing psychotherapy, and generally train within four primary theoretical orientations—psychodynamic, humanistic, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), and systems or family therapy.


title: Clinical psychology

text: Clinical psychology is different from psychiatry. Although practitioners in both fields are experts in mental health, clinical psychologists treat mental disorders primarily through psychotherapy. Currently, only five US states, Louisiana, New Mexico, Illinois, Iowa, and Idaho, allow clinical psychologists with advanced specialty training to prescribe psychotropic medications. Psychiatrists are medical doctors who specialize in the treatment of mental disorders via a variety of methods, e.g., diagnostic assessment, brief psychotherapy, psychoactive medications, and medical procedures such as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) or transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Additionally, psychiatrists are legally authorized to prescribe psychotropic medications in all states of the U.S. and in all provinces of Canada. In education, clinical psychologists attend a graduate institution and have a doctorate in psychology (Psy.D.) or a Doctor of Psychology (Ph.D.) degree while psychiatrists completed their studies at a medical school and hold a medical degree (M.D.) or an osteopathic degree (D.O.), with the latter only available in the United States.


title: Clinical psychology

text: The earliest recorded approaches to assess and treat mental distress were a combination of religious, magical, and/or medical perspectives. In the early 19th century, one approach to study mental conditions and behavior was using phrenology, the study of personality by examining the shape of the skull. Other popular treatments at that time included the study of the shape of the face (physiognomy) and Mesmer's treatment for mental conditions using magnets (mesmerism). Spiritualism and Phineas Quimby's "mental healing" were also popular.


title: Clinical psychology

text: While the scientific community eventually came to reject all of these methods for treating mental illness, academic psychologists also were not concerned with serious forms of mental illness. The study of mental illness was already being done in the developing fields of psychiatry and neurology within the asylum movement. It was not until the end of the 19th century, around the time when Sigmund Freud was first developing his "talking cure" in Vienna, that the first scientific application of clinical psychology began.


title: Clinical psychology

text: By the second half of the 1800s, the scientific study of psychology was becoming well established in university laboratories. Although there were a few scattered voices calling for applied psychology, the general field looked down upon this idea and insisted on "pure" science as the only respectable practice. This changed when Lightner Witmer (1867–1956), a past student of Wundt and head of the psychology department at the University of Pennsylvania, agreed to treat a young boy who had trouble with spelling. His successful treatment was soon to lead to Witmer's opening of the first psychological clinic at Penn in 1896, dedicated to helping children with learning disabilities. Ten years later in 1907, Witmer was to found the first journal of this new field, "The Psychological Clinic", where he coined the term "clinical psychology", defined as "the study of individuals, by observation or experimentation, with the intention of promoting change". The field was slow to follow Witmer's example, but by 1914, there were 26 similar clinics in the US.


title: Clinical psychology

text: Even as clinical psychology was growing, working with issues of serious mental distress remained the domain of psychiatrists and neurologists. However, clinical psychologists continued to make inroads into this area due to their increasing skill at psychological assessment. Psychologists' reputation as assessment experts became solidified during World War I with the development of two intelligence tests, "Army Alpha" and "Army Beta" (testing verbal and nonverbal skills, respectively), which could be used with large groups of recruits. Due in large part to the success of these tests, assessment was to become the core discipline of clinical psychology for the next quarter-century, when another war would propel the field into treatment.


title: Clinical psychology

text: The field began to organize under the name "clinical psychology" in 1917 with the founding of the American Association of Clinical Psychology. This only lasted until 1919, after which the American Psychological Association (founded by G. Stanley Hall in 1892) developed a section on Clinical Psychology, which offered certification until 1927. Growth in the field was slow for the next few years when various unconnected psychological organizations came together as the American Association of Applied Psychology in 1930, which would act as the primary forum for psychologists until after World War II when the APA reorganized. In 1945, the APA created what is now called Division 12, its division of clinical psychology, which remains a leading organization in the field. Psychological societies and associations in other English-speaking countries developed similar divisions, including in Britain, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.


title: Clinical psychology

text: When World War II broke out, the military once again called upon clinical psychologists. As soldiers began to return from combat, psychologists started to notice symptoms of psychological trauma labeled "shell shock" (eventually to be termed post-traumatic stress disorder) that were best treated as soon as possible. Because physicians (including psychiatrists) were over-extended in treating bodily injuries, psychologists were called to help treat this condition. At the same time, female psychologists (who were excluded from the war effort) formed the National Council of Women Psychologists with the purpose of helping communities deal with the stresses of war and giving young mothers advice on child rearing. After the war, the Veterans Administration in the US made an enormous investment to set up programs to train doctoral-level clinical psychologists to help treat the thousands of veterans needing care. As a consequence, the US went from having no formal university programs in clinical psychology in 1946 to over half of all PhDs in psychology in 1950 being awarded in clinical psychology.


title: Clinical psychology

text: WWII helped bring dramatic changes to clinical psychology, not just in America but internationally as well. Graduate education in psychology began adding psychotherapy to the science and research focus based on the 1947 scientist-practitioner model, known today as the "Boulder Model", for PhD programs in clinical psychology. Clinical psychology in Britain developed much like in the US after WWII, specifically within the context of the National Health Service with qualifications, standards, and salaries managed by the British Psychological Society.


title: Clinical psychology

text: By the 1960s, psychotherapy had become embedded within clinical psychology, but for many, the PhD educational model did not offer the necessary training for those interested in practice rather than research. There was a growing argument that said the field of psychology in the US had developed to a degree warranting explicit training in clinical practice. The concept of a practice-oriented degree was debated in 1965 and narrowly gained approval for a pilot program at the University of Illinois starting in 1968. Several other similar programs were instituted soon after, and in 1973, at the Vail Conference on Professional Training in Psychology, the practitioner–scholar model of clinical psychology—or "Vail Model"—resulting in the Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) degree was recognized. Although training would continue to include research skills and a scientific understanding of psychology, the intent would be to produce highly trained professionals, similar to programs in medicine, dentistry, and law. The first program explicitly based on the PsyD model was instituted at Rutgers University. Today, about half of all American graduate students in clinical psychology are enrolled in PsyD programs.


title: Clinical psychology

text: Since the 1970s, clinical psychology has continued growing into a robust profession and academic field of study. Although the exact number of practicing clinical psychologists is unknown, it is estimated that between 1974 and 1990, the number in the US grew from 20,000 to 63,000. Clinical psychologists continue to be experts in assessment and psychotherapy while expanding their focus to address issues of gerontology, sports, and the criminal justice system to name a few. One important field is health psychology, the fastest-growing employment setting for clinical psychologists in the past decade. Other major changes include the impact of managed care on mental health care; an increasing realization of the importance of knowledge relating to multicultural and diverse populations; and emerging privileges to prescribe psychotropic medication.


title: Clinical psychology

text: Clinical psychologists engage in a wide range of activities. Some focus solely on research into the assessment, treatment, or cause of mental illness and related conditions. Some teach, whether in a medical school or hospital setting, or in an academic department (e.g., psychology department) at an institution of higher education. The majority of clinical psychologists engage in some form of clinical practice, with professional services including psychological assessment, provision of psychotherapy, development and administration of clinical programs, and forensics (e.g., providing expert testimony in a legal proceeding).


title: Clinical psychology

text: In clinical practice, clinical psychologists may work with individuals, couples, families, or groups in a variety of settings, including private practices, hospitals, mental health organizations, schools, businesses, and non-profit agencies. Clinical psychologists who provide clinical services may also choose to specialize. Some specializations are codified and credentialed by regulatory agencies within the country of practice. In the United States such specializations are credentialed by the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP).


title: Clinical psychology

text: Clinical psychologists study a generalist program in psychology plus postgraduate training and/or clinical placement and supervision. The length of training differs across the world, ranging from four years plus post-Bachelors supervised practice to a doctorate of three to six years which combines clinical placement. In the US, about half of all clinical psychology graduate students are being trained in PhD programs—a model that emphasizes research—with the other half in PsyD programs, which has more focus on practice (similar to professional degrees for medicine and law). Both models are accredited by the American Psychological Association and many other English-speaking psychological societies. A smaller number of schools offer accredited programs in clinical psychology resulting in a master's degree, which usually takes two to three years post-Bachelors.


title: Clinical psychology

text: In the UK, clinical psychologists undertake a Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DClinPsych), which is a practitioner doctorate with both clinical and research components. This is a three-year full-time salaried program sponsored by the National Health Service (NHS) and based in universities and the NHS. Entry into these programs is highly competitive and requires at least a three-year undergraduate degree in psychology plus some form of experience, usually in either the NHS as an Assistant Psychologist or in academia as a Research Assistant. It is not unusual for applicants to apply several times before being accepted onto a training course as only about one-fifth of applicants are accepted each year. These clinical psychology doctoral degrees are accredited by the British Psychological Society and the Health Professions Council (HPC). The HPC is the statutory regulator for practitioner psychologists in the UK. Those who successfully complete clinical psychology doctoral degrees are eligible to apply for registration with the HPC as a clinical psychologist.


title: Clinical psychology

text: The practice of clinical psychology requires a license in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and many other countries. Although each of the US states is somewhat different in terms of requirements and licenses, there are three common elements:


title: Clinical psychology

text: All US state and Canadian province licensing boards are members of the Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards (ASPPB) which created and maintains the Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology (EPPP). Many states require other examinations in addition to the EPPP, such as a jurisprudence (i.e. mental health law) examination and/or an oral examination. Most states also require a certain number of continuing education credits per year in order to renew a license, which can be obtained through various means, such as taking audited classes and attending approved workshops. Clinical psychologists require the Psychologist license to practice, although licenses can be obtained with a masters-level degree, such as Marriage and Family Therapist (MFT), Licensed Professional Counselor (LPC), and Licensed Psychological Associate (LPA).


title: Clinical psychology

text: In the UK registration as a clinical psychologist with the Health Professions Council (HPC) is necessary. The HPC is the statutory regulator for practitioner psychologists in the UK. In the UK the following titles are restricted by law "registered psychologist" and "practitioner psychologist"; in addition, the specialist title "clinical psychologist" is also restricted by law.


title: Clinical psychology

text: An important area of expertise for many clinical psychologists is psychological assessment, and there are indications that as many as 91% of psychologists engage in this core clinical practice. Such evaluation is usually done in service to gaining insight into and forming hypothesis about psychological or behavioral problems. As such, the results of such assessments are usually used to create generalized impressions (rather than diagnosis) in service to informing treatment planning. Methods include formal testing measures, interviews, reviewing records, clinical observation, and physical examination.


title: Clinical psychology

text: There exist hundreds of various assessment tools, although only a few have been shown to have both high validity (i.e., test actually measures what it claims to measure) and reliability (i.e., consistency). Many psychological assessment measures are restricted for use by those with advanced training in mental health. For instance, Pearson (one of the many companies with rights and protection of psychological assessment tools) separates who can administer, interpret, and report on certain tests. Anybody is able to access Qualification Level A tests. Those who intend to use assessment tools at Qualification Level B must hold a master's degree in psychology, education, speech language pathology, occupational therapy, social work, counseling, or in a field closely related to the intended use of the assessment, and formal training in the ethical administration, scoring, and interpretation of clinical assessments. Those with access to Qualification C (highest level) assessment measures must hold a doctorate degree in psychology, education, or a closely related field with formal training in the ethical administration, scoring, and interpretation of clinical assessments related to the intended use of the assessment.


title: Clinical psychology

text: After assessment, clinical psychologists may provide a diagnostic impression. Many countries use the "International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems" (ICD-10) while the US most often uses the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders". Both are nosological systems that largely assume categorical disorders diagnosed through the application of sets of criteria including symptoms and signs.


title: Clinical psychology

text: Several new models are being discussed, including a "dimensional model" based on empirically validated models of human differences (such as the five factor model of personality) and a "psychosocial model", which would take changing, intersubjective states into greater account. The proponents of these models claim that they would offer greater diagnostic flexibility and clinical utility without depending on the medical concept of illness. However, they also admit that these models are not yet robust enough to gain widespread use, and should continue to be developed.


title: Clinical psychology

text: Clinical psychologists do not tend to diagnose, but rather use "formulation"—an individualized map of the difficulties that the patient or client faces, encompassing predisposing, precipitating and perpetuating (maintaining) factors.


title: Clinical psychology

text: Clinical assessment can be characterized as a prediction problem where the purpose of assessment is to make inferences (predictions) about past, present, or future behavior. For example, many therapy decisions are made on the basis of what a clinician expects will help a patient make therapeutic gains. Once observations have been collected (e.g., psychological testing results, diagnostic impressions, clinical history, X-ray, etc.), there are two mutually exclusive ways to combine those sources of information to arrive at a decision, diagnosis, or prediction. One way is to combine the data in an algorithmic, or "mechanical" fashion. Mechanical prediction methods are simply a mode of combination of data to arrive at a decision/prediction of behavior (e.g., treatment response). The mechanical prediction does not preclude any type of data from being combined; it can incorporate clinical judgments, properly coded, in the algorithm. The defining characteristic is that, once the data to be combined is given, the mechanical approach will make a prediction that is 100% reliable. That is, it will make exactly the same prediction for exactly the same data every time. Clinical prediction, on the other hand, does not guarantee this, as it depends on the decision-making processes of the clinician making the judgment, their current state of mind, and knowledge base.


title: Clinical psychology

text: What has come to be called the "clinical versus statistical prediction" debate was first described in detail in 1954 by Paul Meehl, where he explored the claim that mechanical (formal, algorithmic) methods of data combination could outperform clinical (e.g., subjective, informal, "in the clinician's head") methods when such combinations are used to arrive at a prediction of behavior. Meehl concluded that mechanical modes of combination performed as well or better than clinical modes. Subsequent meta-analyses of studies that directly compare mechanical and clinical predictions have born out Meehl's 1954 conclusions. A 2009 survey of practicing clinical psychologists found that clinicians almost exclusively use their clinical judgment to make behavioral predictions for their patients, including diagnosis and prognosis.


title: Clinical psychology

text: Psychotherapy involves a formal relationship between professional and client—usually an individual, couple, family, or small group—that employs a set of procedures intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving.