title: Transformational leadership

text: Results of a meta-analysis of effectiveness of as adapted by Bass (2006) in Transformational Leadership.


title: Transformational leadership

text: Phipps suggests that the individual personality of a leader heavily affects their leadership style, specifically with regard to the following components of the Five-factor model of personality: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion/introversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism/emotional stability (OCEAN).


title: Transformational leadership

text: Phipps also proposed that all the Big Five dimensions would be positively related to transformational leadership. Openness to experience allows the leader to be more accepting of novel ideas and thus more likely to stimulate the follower intellectually. Conscientious leaders are achievement oriented and thus more likely to motivate their followers to achieve organizational goals. Extraverted and agreeable individuals are more outgoing and pleasant, respectively, and more likely to have successful interpersonal relationships. Thus, they are more likely to influence their followers and to be considerate towards them. Emotionally stable leaders would be better able to influence their followers because their stability would enable them to be better role models to followers and to thoroughly engage them in the goal fulfillment process.


title: Transformational leadership

text: A specific example of cultural background affecting the effectiveness of transformational leadership would be Indian culture, where a nurturant-task style of leadership has been shown to be an effective leadership style. Singh and Bhandarker (1990) demonstrated that effective transformational leaders in India are likes heads of Indian families taking personal interest in the welfare of their followers. Leaders in Indian organizations are therefore more likely to exhibit transformational behaviors if their followers are more self-effacing in approaching the leaders. It is also hypothesized in general that subordinates’ being socialized to be less assertive, self-confident, and independent would enhance superiors’ exhibition of transformational leadership.


title: Transformational leadership

text: Follower characteristics, combined with their perceptions of the leader and their own situation, did appear to moderate the connection between transformational leadership and subordinates’ willingness to take charge and be good organizational citizens. For instance, if subordinates in a work group perceive their leader to be prototypical of them, then transformational leadership would have less of an impact on their willingness to engage in organizational citizenship behaviors. Likewise, if subordinates are goal oriented and possess a traditional view of the organizational hierarchy, they tend to be less affected by transformational leadership. Self-motivated employees are less likely to need transformational leaders to prod them into action, while “traditionalists” tend to see positive organizational citizenship as something expected given their roles as followers—not something they need to be “inspired” to do.


title: Transformational leadership

text: Evidence suggests that the above sets of factors act, in essence, as both inhibitors of and substitutes for transformational leadership. As inhibitors, the presence of any of these factors—either independently or especially collectively—could make the presence of a transformational leader “redundant” since followers’ positive behavior would instead be sparked by their own motivations or perceptions. On the other hand, when these factors are not present (e.g., employees in a work group do not see their leader as “one of us”), then transformational leadership is likely to have a much greater impact on subordinates. In essence, when such “favorable conditions” are not present, managers—and the organizations they work for—should see a better return on investment from transformational leadership.


title: Transformational leadership

text: It was shown that leader continuity enhanced the effect of transformational leadership on role clarity and commitment, indicating that it takes time before transformational leaders actually have an effect on employees. Furthermore, co-worker support enhanced the effect on commitment, reflecting the role of followers in the transformational leadership process. However, there are also factors that would serve to balance the exhibition of transformational leadership, including the organizational structure, ongoing change, the leaders’ working conditions, and the leaders' elevated commitment of organizational value.


title: Transformational leadership

text: Bernard Bass in Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations states some leaders are only able to extract competent effort from their employees, while others inspire extraordinary effort. Transformational leadership is the key (Bass, 1985).


title: Transformational leadership

text: Implementing transformational leadership has many positive outcomes not only in the workplace but in other situations as well. Evidence shows that each of the previously talked about four components of transformational leadership are significantly associated with positive emotions and outcomes in the workplace as well as in team projects performed online. One recent study indicates that these four components are significantly associated with higher job satisfaction and the effectiveness of the employees. Both intellectual stimulation and inspirational motivation are associated with a higher degree of positive emotions such as enthusiasm, happiness, and a sense of pride in the follower's life and work.


title: Transformational leadership

text: Companies seem to be transforming everywhere; growth and culture change are a focus within their core strategies. It is not necessarily about cost structure, but about finding new ways to grow. Models need to be produced to help leaders create the future. Kent Thirty, CEO of DaVita, chose the name DaVita, Italian for “giving life,” and settled on a list of core values that included


title: Transformational leadership

text: service excellence, teamwork, accountability, and fun. A transformational leader inspires and follows the employee's self-interests, while a transactional leader manages and reinforces generally without employee consideration. Aligning the organization into transformational leaders by committing, being involved, and developing with the employees will lead to higher job satisfaction and motivation.


title: Transformational leadership

text: When transformational leadership was used in a nursing environment, researchers found that it led to an increase in organizational commitment. A separate study examined that way that transformational leadership and transactional leadership compare when implemented into an online class. The results of this study indicate that transformational leadership increases cognitive effort while transactional leadership decreases it.


title: Transformational leadership

text: Nelson Mandela used transformational leadership principles while working to abolish apartheid and enforce change in South Africa. In 1995, he visited Betsie Verwoerd, the widow of the architect of apartheid Hendrik Verwoerd, at her home in Orania. Orania was an Afrikaner homeland and a striking anachronistic symbol of racial separation, and Mandela's recurring emphasis on forgiveness contributed toward the healing the prejudices of South Africa and as vast influence as a leader. In 2000, he was quoted as saying, "For all people who have found themselves in the position of being in jail and trying to transform society, forgiveness is natural because you have no time to be retaliative." This illustrates a common approach in the narratives of transformational leadership, of describing a collective or corporate effort in individualised terms, and pointing to the responsibility or opportunity for individuals to commit to making the effort a success. Such an approach is seen in community organising.


title: Transformational leadership

text: He also set an example for others to follow in terms of sacrifice and philanthropy. Schoemaker describes one such instance:


title: Transformational leadership

text: The evolution of transformational leadership in the digital age is tied to the development of organizational leadership in an academic setting. As organizations move from position-based responsibilities to task-based responsibilities, transformational leadership is redefined to continue to develop individual commitment to organizational goals by aligning these goals with the interests of their leadership community. The academic community is a front-runner in this sense of redefining transformational leadership to suit these changes in job definition.


title: Transformational leadership

text: The future of transformational leadership is also related to political globalization and a more homogenous spectrum of economic systems under which organizations find themselves operating. Cultural and geographical dimensions of transformational leadership become blurred as globalization renders ethnically specific collectivist and individualistic effects of organizational behavior obsolete in a more diversified workplace.


title: Transformational leadership

text: The concept of transformational leadership needs further clarification, especially when a leader is labelled as a transformational or transactional leader. While discussing Jinnah's leadership style, Yousaf (2015) argued that it is not the number of followers, but the nature of the change that indicates whether a leader is transformational or transactional.


title: Publishing

text: Publishing is the activity of making information, literature, music, software and other content available to the public for sale or for free. Traditionally, the term refers to the creation and distribution of printed works, such as books, newspapers, and magazines. With the advent of digital information systems, the scope has expanded to include electronic publishing such as ebooks, academic journals, micropublishing, websites, blogs, video game publishing, and the like.


title: Publishing

text: Publishing may produce private, club, commons or public goods and may be conducted as a commercial, public, social or community activity. The commercial publishing industry ranges from large multinational conglomerates such as Bertelsmann, RELX, Pearson and Thomson Reuters to thousands of small independents. It has various divisions such as trade/retail publishing of fiction and non-fiction, educational publishing (k-12) and academic and scientific publishing. Publishing is also undertaken by governments, civil society and private companies for administrative or compliance requirements, business, research, advocacy or public interest objectives. This can include annual reports, research reports, market research, policy briefings and technical reports. Self-publishing has become very common.


title: Publishing

text: "Publisher" can refer to a publishing company or organization, or to an individual who leads a publishing company, imprint, periodical or newspaper.


title: Publishing

text: Publishing became possible with the invention of writing, and became more practical upon the introduction of printing. Prior to printing, distributed works were copied manually, by scribes. Due to printing, publishing progressed hand-in-hand with the development of books.


title: Publishing

text: The Chinese inventor Bi Sheng made movable type of earthenware circa 1045, but there are no known surviving examples of his work. The Korean civil servant Choe Yun-ui, who lived during the Goryeo Dynasty, invented the first metal moveable type in 1234–1250 AD


title: Publishing

text: Around 1450, in what is commonly regarded as an independent invention, Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in Europe, along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and hand mould. This invention gradually made books less expensive to produce and more widely available.


title: Publishing

text: Early printed books, single sheets and images which were created before 1501 in Europe are known as incunables or "incunabula". "A man born in 1453, the year of the fall of Constantinople, could look back from his fiftieth year on a lifetime in which about eight million books had been printed, more perhaps than all the scribes of Europe had produced since Constantine founded his city in A.D. 330."


title: Publishing

text: Eventually, printing enabled other forms of publishing besides books. The history of modern newspaper publishing started in Germany in 1609, with publishing of magazines following in 1663.


title: Publishing

text: Historically, publishing has been handled by publishers, although some authors self-published. The establishment of the World Wide Web in 1989 soon propelled the website into a dominant medium of publishing. Wikis and Blogs soon developed, followed by online books, online newspapers, and online magazines.


title: Publishing

text: Since its start, the World Wide Web has been facilitating the technological convergence of commercial and self-published content, as well as the convergence of publishing and producing into online production through the development of multimedia content.


title: Publishing

text: A U.S.-based study in 2016 that surveyed 34 publishers found that the publishing industry in the US in general is overwhelmingly represented by straight, able bodied, white females. "Salon" described the situation as "lack of diversity behind the scenes in book world". A survey in 2020 by the same group found there has been no statistical significant change in the lack of diversity since the 2016 survey four years earlier. Lack of diversity in the American publishing industry has been an issue for years. Within the industry, there was the least amount of diversity in higher level editorial positions.


title: Publishing

text: The publishing process includes creation, acquisition, copy editing, production, printing (and its electronic equivalents), marketing, and distribution. With books, binding follows upon the printing process. It involves folding the printed sheets, "securing them together, affixing boards or sides to it, and covering the whole with leather or other materials".


title: Publishing

text: Derided in the 1911 "Encyclopædia Britannica" as "a purely commercial affair" that cared more about profits than about literary quality, publishing is like any business, with a need for the expenses not to exceed the income. Publishing is now a major industry with the largest companies Reed Elsevier and Pearson PLC having global publishing operations.


title: Publishing

text: Some businesses maximize their profit margins through vertical integration; book publishing is not one of them. Although newspaper and magazine companies still often own printing presses and binderies, book publishers rarely do. Similarly, the trade usually sells the finished products through a distributor who stores and distributes the publisher's wares for a percentage fee or sells on a sale or return basis.


title: Publishing

text: The advent of the Internet has provided the electronic way of book distribution without the need of physical printing, physical delivery and storage of books.


title: Publishing

text: Within the electronic book path, the publishing house's role remains almost identical. The process of preparing a book for e-book publication is exactly the same as print publication, with only minor variations in the process to account for the different mediums of publishing. While some costs, such as the discount given to retailers (normally around 45%) are eliminated,


title: Publishing

text: Book clubs are almost entirely direct-to-retail, and niche publishers pursue a mixed strategy to sell through all available outlets — their output is insignificant to the major booksellers, so lost revenue poses no threat to the traditional symbiotic relationships between the four activities of printing, publishing, distribution, and retail.


title: Publishing

text: Newspapers are regularly scheduled publications that present recent news, typically on a type of inexpensive paper called newsprint. Most newspapers are primarily sold to subscribers, through retail newsstands or are distributed as advertising-supported free newspapers. About one-third of publishers in the United States are newspaper publishers.


title: Publishing

text: Nominally, periodical publishing involves publications that appear in a new edition on a regular schedule. Newspapers and magazines are both periodicals, but within the industry, the periodical publishing is frequently considered a separate branch that includes magazines and even academic journals, but not newspapers. About one-third of publishers in the United States publish periodicals (not including newspapers). The library and information science communities often refer to periodicals as serials.


title: Publishing

text: The global book publishing industry accounts for over $100 billion of annual revenue, or about 15% of the total media industry.


title: Publishing

text: For-profit publishers of books that serve the general public are often referred to as "trade publishers." Book publishers represent less than a sixth of the publishers in the United States. Most books are published by a small number of very large book publishers, but thousands of smaller book publishers exist. Many small- and medium-sized book publishers specialize in a specific area. Additionally, thousands of authors have created publishing companies and self-published their own works. Within book publishing, the publisher of record for a book is the entity in whose name the book's ISBN is registered. The publisher of record may or may not be the actual publisher.


title: Publishing

text: In 2013, Penguin (owned by Pearson) and Random House (owned by Bertelsmann) merged, narrowing the industry to a handful of big publishers as it adapted to digital media. The merger created the largest consumer book publisher in the world, with a global market share of more than 25 percent. Approximately 60% of English-language books are produced through the "Big Five" publishing houses: Penguin Random House, Hachette, HarperCollins, Simon & Schuster, and Macmillan. In November 2020, ViacomCBS agreed to sell Simon & Schuster, the third largest book publisher in the United States, to Penguin Random House in a deal that will create the first mega publisher. On November 2, 2021, the United States Department of Justice filed a lawsuit (U.S. v. Bertelsmann SE & CO. KGaA, et al.) to block the merger on anti-trust grounds, and on October 31st, 2022, the D.C. District Court ruled in favour of the Department of Justice, filing a permanent injunction on the merger.


title: Publishing

text: Directory publishing is a specialized genre within the publishing industry. These publishers produce mailing lists, telephone books, and other types of directories. With the advent of the Internet, many of these directories are now online.


title: Publishing

text: Technically, radio, television, cinemas, VCDs and DVDs, music systems, games, computer hardware and mobile telephony publish information to their audiences. Indeed, the marketing of a major film often includes a novelization, a graphic novel or comic version, the soundtrack album, a game, model, toys and endless promotional publications.


title: Publishing

text: Some of the major publishers have entire divisions devoted to a single franchise, e.g., Ballantine Del Rey Lucasbooks has the exclusive rights to "Star Wars" in the United States; Random House UK (Bertelsmann)/Century LucasBooks holds the same rights in the United Kingdom. The game industry self-publishes through BL Publishing/Black Library (Warhammer) and Wizards of the Coast (Dragonlance, Forgotten Realms, etc.). The BBC has its publishing division that does very well with long-running series such as Doctor Who. These multimedia works are cross-marketed aggressively and sales frequently outperform the average stand-alone published work, making them a focus of corporate interest.


title: Publishing

text: Accessible publishing uses the digitization of books to mark-up books into XML and then produces multiple formats from this to sell to customers, often targeting those with difficulty reading. Formats include a variety larger print sizes, specialized print formats for dyslexia, eye tracking problems and macular degeneration, as well as Braille, DAISY, audiobooks and e-books.


title: Publishing

text: Green publishing means adapting the publishing process to minimise environmental impact. One example of this is the concept of on-demand printing, using digital or print-on-demand technology. This cuts down the need to ship books since they are manufactured close to the customer on a just-in-time basis.


title: Publishing

text: A further development is the growth of on-line publishing where no physical books are produced. The ebook is created by the author and uploaded to a website from where it can be downloaded and read by anyone.


title: Publishing

text: An increasing number of authors are using niche marketing online to sell more books by engaging with their readers online.


title: Publishing

text: Publication is the distribution of copies or content to the public. The Berne Convention requires that this can only be done with the consent of the copyright holder, which is initially always the author. In the Universal Copyright Convention, "publication" is defined in article VI as "the reproduction in tangible form and the general distribution to the public of copies of a work from which it can be read or otherwise visually perceived."


title: Publishing

text: Privishing ("priv"ate publ"ishing", but not to be confused with self-publishing) is a modern term for publishing a book but printing so few copies or with such lack of marketing, advertising or sales support that it effectively does not reach the public. The book, while nominally published, is almost impossible to obtain through normal channels such as bookshops, often cannot be ordered specially, and has a notable lack of support from its publisher, including refusal to reprint the title. A book that is privished may be referred to as "killed". Depending on the motivation, privishing may constitute breach of contract, censorship, or good business practice (e.g., not printing more books than the publisher believes will sell in a reasonable length of time).


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The Oklahoma Sooners football program is a college football team that represents the University of Oklahoma (variously "Oklahoma" or "OU"). The team is a member of the Big 12 Conference, which is in Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (formerly Division I-A) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The program began in 1895 and is one of the most successful programs of the modern era, with the most wins (606) and the highest winning percentage (.762) since 1945.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The program claims 7 national championships, 50 conference championships, 167 first-team All-Americans (82 consensus), and seven Heisman Trophy winners. In addition, the school has had 23 members (five coaches and 18 players) inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame and holds the record for the longest winning streak in Division I history with 47 straight victories. Oklahoma is also the only program that has had four coaches with 100+ wins. They became the sixth NCAA FBS team to win 900 games when they defeated the Texas Tech Red Raiders on September 28, 2019.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The Sooners play their home games at Gaylord Family Oklahoma Memorial Stadium in Norman, Oklahoma. Brent Venables is the head coach and has served since 2022.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: On July 26, 2021, while showing interest in joining the Southeastern Conference (SEC) the University of Oklahoma and the University of Texas sent a joint letter of intent to the Big 12 Conference stating that they do not intend to extend their media contracts with that conference, which is set to expire following the 2024–25 season. However, Oklahoma and Texas could join the SEC as early as the 2023 season, potentially incurring a nearly $80 million early termination fee from each school for terminating their contracts with the Big 12 prior to the contract expiration.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The first football game in the university's history was played on December 14, 1895, 12 years before Oklahoma became a state. The team was organized by John A. Harts, a student from Winfield, Kansas who had played the game in his home state. Oklahoma was shut out 34–0 by a more experienced team from the Oklahoma City High School in what was the Sooners' only game that season. Oklahoma failed to record a first down throughout the entire game, which was played on a field of low prairie grass just Northwest of the current site of Holmberg Hall. Several members of the Oklahoma team were injured, including Harts; by the end of the game, the Oklahoma team was borrowing members from the opposing squad so they would have a full lineup. After that year, Harts left Oklahoma to become a gold prospector.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: After playing two games without a coach in 1896, a professor named Vernon Louis Parrington became head coach in 1897. Parrington had played football at Harvard and was more exposed to the game, having come from the East Coast. In his four years as head coach, Parrington's teams recorded nine wins, two losses, and one tie. After the 1900 season, football began interfering with Parrington's teaching, and he stepped down as head coach. He would go on to win the Pulitzer Prize for History in 1928 at the University of Washington.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The Sooners had three more coaches over the next four seasons, beginning with Fred Roberts, who led the Sooners to a 3–2 record in 1901. Mark McMahon followed, finishing 11–7–3 in his two years as coach in 1902 and 1903. Fred Ewing followed McMahon, achieving a 4–3–1 record in 1904. The 1904 season marked the first game between Oklahoma and in-state rival Oklahoma A&M. The game was played on November 6 at Mineral Wells Park in Guthrie, Oklahoma, with Oklahoma winning 75–0. The game was the first football matchup in the Bedlam Series, the athletic rivalry between the University of Oklahoma and Oklahoma State University.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: After a decade of football, the program acquired its first long-term head coach in Bennie Owen, a former quarterback of the undefeated 1899 Kansas Jayhawks team led by coach Fielding H. Yost. Owen had previously coached under Yost at Michigan, and his Bethany College teams had defeated Oklahoma in 1903 and 1904.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Owen's first two years at Oklahoma were spent between Norman and Arkansas City since Oklahoma lacked a large enough budget to employ him all year. As a result of these budgetary limitations, Owen would occasionally schedule up to three road games in a single short trip, exhausting his players in the process. However, even early in his tenure, Owen's teams found success. In 1905, Oklahoma won its first victory over rival Texas, winning the eighth meeting between the two schools by a 2–0 margin. In 1908, the Sooners went 8–1–1, losing only to the undefeated Kansas Jayhawks. Owen's 1908 team relied on hand-offs to large runners, as the forward pass was just becoming common. In contrast, his 1911 team had several small and fast players that the quarterback would pass to directly. That team finished 8–0.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Oklahoma had undefeated seasons in 1915 and 1918. In 1920, the Sooners moved to the Missouri Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Association after three seasons in the Southwest Conference, of which it was a founding member. In the new conference, they went 6–0–1, tying only Kansas State. Owen retired after the 1926 season. During his 22-year career at Oklahoma, he went 122–54–16 (.677), won three conference championships, and achieved four undefeated seasons. In 1951, the inaugural year of the College Football Hall of Fame, he became Oklahoma's first inductee.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: In 1927, Adrian Lindsey became Oklahoma's first new head coach in over two decades. Like Owen, Lindsey had played football at Kansas and been the head coach at Bethany College prior to his arrival in Norman. However, he was unable to achieve Owen's success, resigning quietly after a five-year tenure. The Sooners achieved a notable win in 1930, defeating Nebraska 20–7 in the Cornhuskers' worst in-conference loss in two decades. Despite this achievement, Lindsey finished an inconsistent stint in Norman with a 19–19–6 record.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Following Lindsey's resignation, Owen, who had remained Oklahoma's athletic director after his retirement from coaching, hired hired Vanderbilt backfield coach Lewie Hardage as head coach. Upon his hire, Hardage emphasized speed by fabricating new lighter uniforms and trimming the grass on Owen Field. However, in three seasons he failed to produce a successful team. His final record at Oklahoma was 11–12–4, making him the first coach in program history with a losing record aside from John A. Harts, who only coached a single game.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Although the next head coach, Lawrence "Biff" Jones, went an unspectacular 9–6–3 across two seasons, his impact on the athletic department's administration and finances was significant. Jones was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1954 following a career that also included coaching stints at Army, LSU, and Nebraska. After his departure from Norman, assistant coach Tom Stidham became head coach. In 1938, Stidham led the team to a 10–1 record, a fourth-place finish in the final AP poll, and the first bowl game in school history, a 17–0 Orange Bowl loss to undefeated Tennessee. Although Stidham's other teams would not be as successful, he left Oklahoma after four seasons with a .750 winning percentage, the highest of any coach since Vernon Louis Parrington (.792).


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Stidham left for Marquette in 1941, and assistant coach Dewey "Snorter" Luster succeeded him. After Luster's first season, a 6–3 campaign, with the United States having entered World War II, many players left the team to join the military. The Sooners regressed to a 3–5–2 record in 1942 but rebounded to finish 7–2 in 1943 and 6–3–1 in 1944. Luster stepped down after the 1945 season due to ill health. He attained a 27–18–3 record in five seasons at Oklahoma, and his teams never finished below second place in the Big Six. However, despite two conference championships, the Sooners were not invited to a bowl game during Luster's tenure.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: After Luster's resignation, several candidates were interviewed for the head coaching job, among them North Carolina native Jim Tatum. Tatum was joined at his interview by his assistant, Bud Wilkinson, with whom athletic director Lawrence Haskell was more impressed. However, it was decided that usurping Tatum and giving the job to Wilkinson would be unethical. Tatum was hired as head coach, with Wilkinson joining the staff as an assistant, over several other coaches, including Bear Bryant. The 1946 season saw the Sooners finish 8–3, including a 73–12 Bedlam Series win and a victory over NC State in the Gator Bowl. Tatum left Oklahoma after one season to accept the head coach position at Maryland.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: In his first season, the Sooners went 7–2–1 and shared the conference title with Kansas for the second year in a row. Over the next two years, Oklahoma lost only a single game and went undefeated in conference play, winning two straight Sugar Bowls. In 1949, despite going undefeated and winning the Sugar Bowl, the Sooners were not awarded the national championship, which went to the Notre Dame Fighting Irish, though they did not play in a bowl game. At the time, however, most major championship selectors, including the AP and Coaches Polls, did not consider bowl game results when deciding their champion.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: In 1950, Wilkinson guided the Sooners to their first national championship, though they lost the Sugar Bowl to Bear Bryant's Kentucky team. That loss was the Sooners' first since a season-opening defeat to Santa Clara in 1948, 31 games earlier. The team's success began to influence the culture of football at the university. "People talk a lot about the tradition of football at Oklahoma. The person who started that tradition was Bud Wilkinson," Oklahoma native and Hall of Fame wide receiver Steve Largent later said. In 1951, while seeking funding to improve the school, university president George Lynn Cross told the Oklahoma legislature that he "would like to build a university of which the football team would be proud."


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: In 1952, Oklahoma had its first Heisman Trophy winner in halfback Billy Vessels, a local player from Cleveland, Oklahoma. Vessels became the first thousand-yard rusher to win the Heisman and scored 18 touchdowns for the Sooners, who finished 8–1–1, their only loss coming on the road to Notre Dame. The 1953 team would open the season with a loss to the Fighting Irish and a tie with Pitt.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The Sooners went undefeated for the remainder of the 1953 season, culminating in an Orange Bowl victory over national champions Maryland, coached by Jim Tatum. They went 10–0 in 1954 and 11–0 in 1955, concluding the latter season with another Orange Bowl win over Tatum and Maryland. The Sooners won the national championship in 1955 and repeated the feat in 1956, when they went 10–0, including a 40–0 rout of Notre Dame that marked the 35th win in the streak.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: At the start of the 1957 season, with the streak standing at 40 games, speculation arose that the team was not as good as it had been in previous years, having lost 18 lettermen from 1956. Wilkinson commented that "this year we'll have to work faster and organize better than ever before." The Sooners won their first seven games that year, but fell to Notre Dame on November 16, suffering their first defeat in more than three years.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The record of 47 consecutive wins has never been seriously threatened; since it ended, no FBS school has achieved a streak longer than 35 wins. During the streak, the Sooners outscored their opponents 1620–269 and recorded 23 shutouts. In addition to their back-to-back national championships during the streak, the Sooners won 14 straight conference titles from 1946 to 1959, one under Jim Tatum and 13 under Wilkinson. Oklahoma went undefeated in conference play from November 23, 1946, to October 31, 1959; their record was only blemished by two ties.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Wilkinson's best teams came during the first 11 years of his tenure. In that time, he recorded winning streaks of 31 and 47 games and went 114–10–3 for a .909 winning percentage. After a pair of one-loss seasons in 1957 and 1958, the Sooners fell to 7–3 in 1959, then 3–6–1 in 1960. Oklahoma would finish that season unranked, the first time that they had done so under Wilkinson. They finished unranked in 1961 as well, and although they rebounded to secure a conference championship in 1962, the Sooners were unable to replicate the success of the previous decade. Wilkinson retired from coaching after the 1963 season, finishing with a record of 145–29–4, 14 conference titles, and 123 straight games without being shut out. He was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1969.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: During Wilkinson's tenure, Prentice Gautt became the first black football player at the University of Oklahoma. Gautt had been a superior student in high school, where during his junior and senior years he had helped his team amass a 31-game winning streak. He was also the first black player to participate in the Oklahoma state all-star game. Some members of Gautt's team did not want to play with him; one player even left Oklahoma because he refused to play with an African American. However, most of the team had his support. After a freshman game in Tulsa, when Gautt was refused service at a restaurant, his teammates left and found a restaurant that would serve him. Gautt was twice named to the All-Conference team and scored a touchdown in the 1959 Orange Bowl.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Following Wilkinson's retirement, his assistant coach, Gomer Jones, was promoted to head coach, a move supported by Wilkinson. His first year was a sharp contrast from Wilkinson's early years; the Sooners went 6–4–1. Less than a month before the team's Gator Bowl loss to Florida State, it was discovered that four starters had signed professional football contracts before their college eligibility had expired, and they were dismissed from the team.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Following a 3–7 season in his second year as head coach, Oklahoma's worst record since its inaugural season in 1895, Jones was replaced by Arkansas assistant Jim Mackenzie. Seeking discipline from his players, Mackenzie set a curfew and required them to enroll in a physical education class. His first team went 6–4, including a win in the Red River Showdown over a rival Texas team coached by former Oklahoma defensive back Darrell Royal, their first win over Texas since 1957. They also beat rival Nebraska, then ranked fourth in the nation, by a score of 10–9. On April 28, 1967, at the age of 37, Mackenzie died of a heart attack.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Assistant coach Chuck Fairbanks succeeded Mackenzie, and in 1967, the Sooners went 10–1, including a 26–24 win over second-ranked Tennessee in the Orange Bowl. The Sooners finished the season ranked third in the country. The Sooners lost four games in each of the next three seasons, with highlights including Steve Owens becoming the Sooners' second Heisman Trophy winner in 1969.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: In the 1970s, several college football teams began implementing the wishbone offense, a run-based scheme designed to expand the possibilities of the option offense by placing three rushers in the backfield behind the quarterback. In a traditional option play, the quarterback determines which rusher carries the ball by reading the alignment of the defense. The wishbone relies on the triple option, in which the quarterback has three potential candidates to carry the ball (himself and two backfield rushers). One innovation of the wishbone was to place a third rusher in the backfield to serve as a lead blocker. Head coach Fairbanks and offensive coordinator Barry Switzer were among the early adopters of the wishbone and used it to widespread success in Norman. Their 1970 team tied an Alabama squad that also used the wishbone in the Astro-Bluebonnet Bowl. During the next season, the Sooners beat No. 17 USC, No. 3 Texas and No. 6 Colorado in consecutive weeks. After these wins, Oklahoma was ranked second in the country ahead of a "Game of the Century" matchup against top-ranked Nebraska. On November 25, Nebraska edged Oklahoma, 35–31, Oklahoma's only loss of the season. Nebraska went on to win the national championship with a 13–0 record, while Oklahoma went on to beat No. 5 Auburn in the Sugar Bowl to finish the season ranked second. Led by quarterback Jack Mildren and running back Greg Pruitt, Oklahoma's wishbone offense averaged 44.5 points per game, at the time the second most in team history. The offense gained 472.36 rushing yards per game, an FBS record that still stands. Pruitt averaged nine yards per carry, and Mildren's performance led to his adopting the moniker "the Godfather of the Wishbone."


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: In 1972, the Sooners went 11–1, finishing the year at No. 2 after a Sugar Bowl victory over Penn State. Following the season, Fairbanks left Oklahoma to become the head coach of the New England Patriots.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Switzer ascended to head coach following the departure of Fairbanks. His tenure began with a scandal when the university self-reported violations involving the alteration of a player's high school transcript. Although the Sooners forfeited eight games from the 1972 season, the university now recognizes the wins and the Big Eight Conference championship won that year.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The Big Eight punished the team with a two-year bowl ban beginning in 1973 and a two-year ban on television appearances beginning in 1974. During the next three years, while the bans were in place, Oklahoma went 32–1–1 and won three straight conference championships. They claimed back-to-back national championships in 1974 and 1975, the two years in which they could not appear on television during the regular season. As it was a postseason game, NBC did air Oklahoma's 1976 Orange Bowl win over Michigan, which secured the team's fifth national championship.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Oklahoma performed exceptionally well during their probation. In 1973, the Sooners had seven ranked teams on their 11-game schedule and beat six of them, tying No. 1 USC and finishing the year undefeated. In 1974, the run-heavy wishbone offense averaged 43 points per game and set an FBS record that still stands with 73.91 rushing attempts per game. In both 1974 and 1975, the team had six players rush for over 300 yards, with Joe Washington earning All-America honors in both seasons as the team's rushing leader. Additionally, due to the frequency of quarterback rushes in the wishbone, signal caller Steve Davis rushed for more yards than he passed in both seasons.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Following the 1975 season, several key players left the team. Defensive tackle Lee Roy Selmon was selected first overall in the 1976 NFL Draft, and Washington was taken three picks later. Davis departed and was replaced at quarterback by Dean Blevins, who was unable to match his predecessor's contributions in the running game. In 1978, Oklahoma would get their third Heisman Trophy winner in running back Billy Sims, who rushed for 1,896 yards and broke the Big Eight regular season rushing record. The Sooners finished third in the final AP poll after an Orange Bowl victory over Nebraska, the closest they came to a national championship in the second half of the 1970s. Despite never losing more than two games in any season during the these years, Oklahoma never finished in the top two in the final AP poll.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: During the 1970s, Switzer's teams went 73–7–2 in seven years, and the Sooners won the Big Eight every year from 1972 to 1980. However, during the early 1980s, the team's performance worsened. They lost four games each in 1981, 1982, and 1983. In 1984, the team improved to 9–2–1 and defeated Nebraska when the Cornhuskers were ranked No. 1 in the country. The win allowed Oklahoma to claim a share of the conference championship and receive an Orange Bowl bid against Washington, which they subsequently lost.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Switzer's teams returned to contention for the national championship during the next three seasons, earning an 11–1 record and a Big Eight title in each. However, in all three years, the Sooners lost to Miami, directly costing them the opportunity to win at least one championship. In 1985, the Sooners won the national championship despite their loss, rebounding to defeat top-ranked Penn State in the Orange Bowl. In 1986, the Sooners won another Orange Bowl but finished No. 3 behind Penn State and Miami, who had faced each other for the championship in the Fiesta Bowl with the Nittany Lions emerging victorious. 1987 saw the Sooners play in two No. 1 vs. No. 2 games in a row, defeating top-ranked Nebraska to end their regular season undefeated before facing Miami the Orange Bowl to decide the national title. No. 2 Miami defeated the Sooners, who had risen to the top of the polls following the Nebraska game, 20–14. In 1988, the Sooners finished 9–3, with highlights including a 70–24 win against Kansas State in which the team rushed for 768 yards, which remains an FBS record.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Switzer's tenure ended in scandal. After the 1988 season, the NCAA placed the Sooners on probation for violating several rules, including offering improper benefits to players and recruits. In one example, a recruit was offered $1,000 to enroll at the university. It was determined that Switzer had personally paid for rental cars for students entertaining recruits on campus. Meanwhile, several of his players were in trouble with the law. Despite knowing that certain players had problems with alcohol or drugs, Switzer had recruited them anyway due to their talent. Notable players Charles Thompson and Brian Bosworth were found to be involved with drugs or steroids. Switzer's home was robbed in 1989, and Thompson was alleged to be one of the burglars. On multiple occasions, players were caught attempting to sell cocaine to undercover agents. A shooting and a gang rape took place in the athletic dorm within eight days of each other; two players were later convicted for the rape. Former Sooner Jim Riley later said that amid the turmoil, "Barry was just trying to keep it together."


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The probation lasted three years, including a two-year bowl ban, a one-year television ban, and a two-year reduction in scholarships. Facing immense pressure to resign, Switzer stepped down as head coach in 1989. He finished his tenure in Norman with a 157–29–4 record, an .837 winning percentage, 12 conference championships, and three national titles.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Switzer's ouster marked the beginning of what Stan Dorsey, writing for "The Sporting News", called "a pratfall of unspeakable scope and unfathomable dimension" for the Sooners. Defensive coordinator Gary Gibbs was promoted to head coach. Dorsey characterized Gibbs as being uncomfortable around alumni and the media, as well as with being a head coach in general. During his six-year tenure, while Oklahoma attempted to recover from probation, the team finished a combined 44–23–2, never reaching higher than second in the conference or No. 16 in the final AP poll. Gibbs punctuated a middling record with losses to Oklahoma's rivals; the Sooners went a combined 2–15–1 against Texas, Nebraska, and Colorado during his tenure. He announced his resignation prior to the end of the 1994 season.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Gibbs was replaced by Howard Schnellenberger, whose resume included a national championship at Miami. Convinced that the 1994 Copper Bowl loss to BYU was "clearly the lowest point in the great history of Oklahoma football," Schnellenberger sought to reshape the program, beginning by ordering files from previous seasons to be thrown out. Instead, they were archived without his knowledge. Schnellenberger often said that "they will write books and make movies about my time [at Oklahoma]," and his first team started out well. The Sooners rose to No. 10 in the AP poll after three wins to begin the 1995 season, but a home loss to fourth-ranked Colorado started a 2–5–1 stretch to finish the year. The season ended with shutout losses to Oklahoma State and national champions Nebraska. Schnellenberger resigned after one season in Norman, having failed to live up to his own expectations for success.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Oklahoma then hired former player John Blake as head coach. Although he was Switzer's preferred candidate, Blake had very little experience, having never previously held a head coach or coordinator position. In the 101 years preceding Blake's hire, Oklahoma had nine losing seasons. Under Blake, the Sooners had three losing seasons in three years. The team's eight losses in 1996 set a team record that was matched the following season. Blake's 12–22 record gave him the worst winning percentage of any Oklahoma head coach since the single-game tenure of John A. Harts in 1895. He was fired after presiding over the worst three-year stretch in team history.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Despite his poor record as head coach, Blake contributed to success after his tenure by recruiting several players who would help achieve more favorable results for his successor. Future NFL players Roy Williams and Rocky Calmus were key starters on teams that returned the Sooners to national prominence under Bob Stoops.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Under pressure to find a head coach who would turn the program around, athletic director Joe Castiglione vetted each candidate personally. He eventually selected Stoops, then the defensive coordinator at Florida, who improved the Sooners to 7–5 in his first season.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Oklahoma began the 2000 season ranked No. 19 in the AP poll, their first preseason AP poll appearance in five years. After a 4–0 start, the Sooners defeated No. 11 Texas 63–14; running back Quentin Griffin broke a school record with six rushing touchdowns in the game. The next week, the Sooners beat No. 2 Kansas State 41–31, then defeated top-ranked Nebraska 31–14 two weeks later. The Sooners finished the regular season undefeated and beat Kansas State in the conference championship game to win their first conference title since 1987. In the years since that victory, the Big Eight had dissolved and the Sooners had joined its successor conference, the Big 12. Additionally, the BCS format had been established, with each season culminating in a national championship game between the top two teams in the system's rankings. Oklahoma was ranked No. 1 following the conference championship win and played Florida State in the Orange Bowl for the BCS title. The Sooners defeated the heavily favored Seminoles 13–2 to claim the school's seventh national championship. The team produced consensus All-Americans for the first time since 1988, including quarterback Josh Heupel, who finished runner-up for the Heisman in one of the closest votes in the award's history to that point.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The influence of John Blake's recruiting classes on the championship would be a difficult question for Stoops, even years after the title. More than half of the 2000 team's starters were recruited by Blake, although Stoops brought in the quarterback (Heupel) and running back (Griffin). Despite continued success throughout the rest of his tenure in Norman, Stoops never won another national championship after 2000.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The following years saw Oklahoma contend for conference and national championships while qualifying for major bowl games. In 2001, after rivalry losses to Nebraska and Oklahoma State, Oklahoma did not earn a spot in the conference championship game, but the Sooners were granted a Cotton Bowl Classic berth, their first in school history, against unranked Arkansas and won 10–3. In 2002, the Sooners won the Big 12 and advanced to the Rose Bowl for the first time, defeating No. 7 Washington State 34–14.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Oklahoma went undefeated in the regular season in both 2003 and 2004. 2003 included a 77–0 defeat of 2003 Texas A&M and a 65–13 defeat of Texas, the latter being the biggest win in Red River Showdown history. Led by Heisman Trophy winner Jason White, the team was ranked No. 1 in every AP poll of the season until an upset in the Big 12 Championship Game by Kansas State dropped them to third. However, the Sooners were ranked first in the BCS rankings and were thus able to play for the national championship in the Sugar Bowl. They were defeated 21–14 by LSU. White, a Tuttle, Oklahoma native, threw for 3,846 yards and 40 touchdowns in his Heisman campaign but was kept in check by the LSU defense, completing just over 35 percent of his passes and throwing two interceptions. The next year, freshman running back Adrian Peterson emerged as a star with 1,925 yards and 15 touchdowns on the ground. The AP, Coaches Poll, and BCS all ranked USC at No. 1 and Oklahoma at No. 2 in every poll of the season until the two undefeated conference champions met in the Orange Bowl for the national championship. Oklahoma would lose their second straight national championship game, and Peterson would finish second in Heisman voting behind USC quarterback Matt Leinart. Following the season, several key players departed as 10 Sooners were selected in the 2005 NFL Draft, more than any other school.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The 2005 season saw Oklahoma fall out of the AP poll for the first time since the 1999 season en route to an 8–4 record and a Holiday Bowl victory over No. 6 Oregon. In both 2006 and 2007, the Sooners won the Big 12 but suffered upset losses in their bowl games. In the 2007 Fiesta Bowl, the Sooners lost a back-and-forth game in overtime when Boise State executed a Statue of Liberty play on a two-point conversion attempt to win 43–42. Oklahoma qualified for the Fiesta Bowl again the following year and were favored against West Virginia, however, a 48–28 loss ended their season.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Prior to the 2007 season, the NCAA announced sanctions due to violations committed by players on the 2005 team who had been paid for unperformed work at a Norman car dealership. The NCAA found Oklahoma guilty of a "failure to monitor" the improper employment benefits and punished the team by vacating its victories from the 2005 season. However, in 2008, the NCAA partially reversed its decision and reinstated the vacated wins.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: At the end of the 2008 regular season, the Big 12 South finished in a three-way tie between Oklahoma, Texas, and Texas Tech, with each team having suffered one loss at the hands of another. As the team with the highest BCS ranking, Oklahoma advanced to the conference championship game on a tie-breaker. The Sooners won the game, and quarterback Sam Bradford won the Heisman Trophy. His 53 combined passing and rushing touchdowns are tied for the most ever in a Heisman campaign. The Sooners advanced to the BCS National Championship Game but were defeated by Florida.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: After a Fiesta Bowl victory in 2010, the Sooners, led by Stoops and new co-offensive coordinator Josh Heupel, were ranked No. 1 in the polls to start the 2011 season. After maintaining their ranking for three weeks, the Sooners achieved their 100th No. 1 ranking in the AP poll, becoming the first team to accomplish the feat since the poll began in 1936.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: 2011 marked the final time that the Sooners were ranked No. 1 under Stoops. However, Oklahoma remained competitive throughout the rest of the BCS era, including a 2014 Sugar Bowl win over defending national champions Alabama in their last game before the introduction of the College Football Playoff. Under this system, four teams are selected to compete in yearly national semifinal games in which the winners advance to the national championship game. The Sooners received their first playoff birth in 2015 and subsequently lost 37–17 to Clemson in their semifinal game, the Orange Bowl. Despite winning the Big 12 in 2016, Oklahoma lost two regular season games and did not make the playoff. They defeated Auburn in the Sugar Bowl, 35–19.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: In 2017, Stoops announced that he was stepping down as head coach, with offensive coordinator Lincoln Riley immediately appointed as his replacement. Stoops said that he felt that the time was right to retire, with a source indicating to Gene Wojciechowski of ESPN that Stoops wanted to leave on his own terms while he still could, without the university or his health forcing him to step aside. During his tenure in Norman, Stoops produced a 190–48 (.798) record, 10 conference titles, and a school-record 18 bowl game appearances. His 2008 team scored the most points in college football history to that point, averaging over 51 per game. In 2021, he was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: In his first season, Riley led the Sooners to 12 wins, beating the 10-win record held by Chuck Fairbanks and Barry Switzer for most victories by a first-year coach in program history. The Sooners entered the playoff against Georgia in the Rose Bowl, losing 54–48 in double overtime. 2017 was the first of three consecutive 12–2 seasons for the Sooners under Riley, however, each ended in a College Football Playoff semifinal loss. As of the end of the 2022 season, Oklahoma has an 0–4 playoff record and more playoff appearances without a win than any other FBS team. However, the Sooners did win the 2017, 2018, 2019, and 2020 Big 12 Championship Games during Riley's tenure.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Under Riley, the Sooners had two consecutive Heisman Trophy winners who became No. 1 overall picks in the NFL Draft. In 2017, Baker Mayfield broke his own FBS record for single-season passing efficiency while throwing for over 4,600 yards and 43 touchdowns. He was selected first overall in the 2018 NFL Draft. The following season, ex-Texas A&M starter Kyler Murray topped Mayfield's passing efficiency mark and became the seventh Heisman winner in program history. He was selected first overall in the 2019 NFL Draft. To replace Murray for the 2019 season, Riley turned to ex-Alabama starter Jalen Hurts. The Sooners lost 63–28 to eventual national champion LSU in the Peach Bowl, and Hurts finished second in Heisman voting to LSU quarterback Joe Burrow. As of the end of the 2022 season, Mayfield, Murray, and Hurts collectively own four of the top 12 passing efficiency seasons in FBS history.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: In July 2021, Oklahoma and Texas announced that they would leave the Big 12 for the Southeastern Conference (SEC) upon the conclusion of the Big 12's current media rights contract, which is set to expire in 2025. The surprising move initiated a widespread wave of conference realignment that saw, among many other moves, Pac-12 teams USC and UCLA announce their intention to join the Big Ten. Oklahoma and Texas have been criticized for abandoning their historic conference roots and setting the stage for other teams to do so, thereby creating a landscape in which the SEC and Big Ten are poised to dominate the sport at the expense of other conferences.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Prior to the end of the 2021 season, Riley accepted the head coach position at USC, becoming the first head coach to leave Oklahoma for a different job since Chuck Fairbanks in 1973. Chuck Carlton, writing for "The Dallas Morning News", said that the departure "blindsided most of the college football world." During his tenure in Norman, Riley compiled a 55–10 (.846) record and achieved the highest winning percentage of any coach in program history. Bob Stoops was named interim head coach for the team's Alamo Bowl appearance and led the Sooners to a victory. Clemson defensive coordinator Brent Venables, who had once held the same position at Oklahoma under Stoops, was hired as Riley's replacement. In his first year at the helm, the Sooners stand at 6–6, their season punctuated by a 49–0 loss to Texas, Oklahoma's worst loss in Red River Showdown history and the biggest shutout loss that the Sooners have ever suffered.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Oklahoma claims seven consensus national championships won by selection in the major college football polls. In addition, in ten years other than those seven championship seasons, Oklahoma has appeared atop lists by selectors designated by the NCAA as "major", primarily using math rating formulas.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: In general, math formula rankings are not recognized as national championships. For years other than the seven in which Oklahoma was selected by a major poll as national champion, the following created math rating systems that selected Oklahoma:


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: ‡ Both Nebraska and Oklahoma claim the 1972 championship, despite Oklahoma in early 1973 forfeiting eight games from the 1972 season and the Big 8 crown.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The Sooners have been a member of only one division, the Big 12 South, in their entire history. They were members from 1996 until 2010, after which the Big 12 ceased divisional play.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The team has had 23 head coaches, with the current head coach being Brent Venables who was hired on December 5, 2021. Oklahoma started organized football with the nickname "Sooners" in 1895. The Sooners have played in more than 1,100 games in a total of 96 seasons. In those seasons, nine coaches have led the Sooners to postseason bowl games: Tom Stidham, Jim Tatum, Bud Wilkinson, Gomer Jones, Chuck Fairbanks, Barry Switzer, Gary Gibbs, Bob Stoops, and Lincoln Riley. Nine coaches have won conference championships with the Sooners: Bennie Owen, Stidham, Dewey Luster, Tatum, Wilkinson, Fairbanks, Switzer, Stoops, and Riley. Owen is the all-time leader in games coached and years coached, while Switzer is the all-time leader in winning percentage. Bob Stoops is the leader in wins. John Harts is, in terms of winning percentage, the worst coach the Sooners have had; he lost the only game he coached, giving him a .000 winning percentage. John Blake has the lowest winning percentage of those who have coached more than one game with .353.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Of the 23 Sooner coaches, Owen, Lawrence Jones, Tatum, Wilkinson, Switzer, and Stoops have been inducted in the College Football Hall of Fame. Wilkinson, Switzer, and Stoops have each received National Coach of the Year honors from at least one organization.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The Sooners play their home games at Gaylord Family Oklahoma Memorial Stadium also known as The Palace on the Prairie. The stadium was formerly called Oklahoma Memorial Stadium but the administration decided to add 'Gaylord Family' to recognize the contributions made by Edward K. Gaylord and his family over the years (estimated at over $50 million). The playing surface is called Owen Field after Bennie Owen, Oklahoma's coach from 1905 to 1926. The stadium was built in 1923 with an original capacity of 500. In 1925, 16,000 seats were added and 16,000 more seats were added in 1929 bringing the total capacity to 32,000. The stadium has had a natural grass playing surface for the majority of its existence. The stadium had an artificial turf from 1970 to 1994. The stadium had a major renovation in 2003 when a new upper deck was added to the east side of the stadium, adding over 8,400 new seats. The official seating capacity of the stadium, following renovations in 2015, is 83,489. which makes it the 15th largest college stadium in the U.S. and second largest in the Big 12 Conference. Despite the official capacity, the Sooners routinely average well above capacity, most recently 86,735 for the 2018 season. The largest crowd ever was 88,308 on November 11, 2017, against TCU.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Oklahoma's rivalry with the Nebraska Cornhuskers historically had national championship implications, with the winner usually advancing to the Orange Bowl. The teams often met on Thanksgiving. For the majority of the 20th century Oklahoma and Nebraska competed as part of the Big Eight Conference where from 1907 to 1995 the programs won a combined 77 conference titles. The teams are noted for playing in the Game of the Century, in 1971 which OU lost 35–31. In 1996, the teams joined the Big XII Conference when Nebraska joined the North Division, and Oklahoma joined the South Division, thus ending the annual match-ups between the programs in 1998 and 1999. In 2000 the series resumed with Nebraska and Oklahoma being ranked number one and two in the BCS rankings. OU won 31–14. Oklahoma leads the series 47–38–3. On September 18, 2021, Oklahoma defeated Nebraska 23–16. Oklahoma beat Nebraska 49–14 on the last matchup on September 17, 2022.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The Red River Showdown or the OU–Texas Game is the annual matchup in Dallas during the State Fair of Texas between Oklahoma and the Texas Longhorns. Since 1929, the game has been played annually at the Cotton Bowl, halfway between Norman and Austin. For the majority of the 20th century the game was a non-conference match-up. Texas competed in the Southwest Conference. In 1996, the two programs became part of the Big XII Conference South division. That year Oklahoma won the first overtime game of the series, after a tie the previous year. The stadium is split along the 50-yard line with Oklahoma fans occupying the south half of the field. Texas leads the series 62–50–5 through the 2021 season.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Oklahoma's official school colors are crimson and cream. These colors were picked in 1895 by May Overstreet, the only female faculty member at the time. The colors were her own personal choice and she decided on them after viewing many color samples and materials. After her decision, the colors were brought in front of the student body who enthusiastically approved of her selections. In recent years, red and white have sometimes replaced crimson and cream.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Oklahoma has had several mascots. The first was a stray dog named Mex. Mex was found in Mexico during the Mexican Revolution by Mott Keys, an army hospital medic. Keys' company adopted the dog and Keys took the dog back to Hollis, Oklahoma when he completed his duty. When Keys was enrolled in the university, he took Mex with him to Norman. With his experience as an army medic, Keys landed a job with the football team and a residence at the Kappa Sigma fraternity house. Mex's main duty during games was to keep stray dogs from roaming the field. He wore a red sweater with a big "O" letter on the side. Mex received national attention in October 1924 when the Oklahoma football team lost a game against Drake University. Mex was lost when the team boarded a train in Arkansas City, Kansas. The media blamed the loss on the field on the loss of their mascot. Mex was found later by two Oklahoma graduates. Mex died of old age on April 30, 1928. The campus was closed and classes were canceled on the day of his funeral. He was buried in a casket somewhere under the stadium.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Never an official mascot, Little Red began appearing at games in 1953. He was an Indian who wore red tights, breech cloth and a war bonnet and was last portrayed by Randy Palmer. In April 1970, Little Red was banished by Oklahoma president John Herbert Hollomon, Jr. The student court issued a temporary restraining order to keep Little Red from appearing at Sooner games. Despite this order, Palmer showed up as Little Red for the 1970 season opener where he was met with cheers from the crowd. When Palmer was drafted after the 1971 season, no one showed up for try-outs to replace him.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The mascot for Oklahoma is the Sooner Schooner, a conestoga wagon similar to the primary method of transportation used by early settlers in Oklahoma. The Schooner is maintained and driven by members of the RUF/NEKS, the university's all-male spirit organization, along with two white ponies named Boomer and Sooner. In 2005, the university also introduced two costumed mascots also named Boomer and Sooner to serve as mascots for football games and events that do not permit a covered wagon.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The official fight song of the Sooners is "Boomer Sooner." This song is played frequently at football games and is played by the band after touchdowns, field goals, after significant plays, and when the team or crowd need a boost of energy. "OK Oklahoma" is another school song that is played after an extra point and when the Sooner Schooner rolls onto the field. The official Alma Mater song is the "OU Chant", which is sung by OU fans before sporting events and at ceremonial occasions. Other tunes frequently heard at OU football games include the state song "Oklahoma" and "Fight for OKU."


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The Pride of Oklahoma Marching Band is a nationally renowned ensemble founded in 1904. The largest student organization on campus, the band performs at all home games and frequently travels to other games. The band holds a game ball from the Bedlam Series game in 1983, the day "the Pride" won.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: The Heisman Trophy is awarded annually to the nation's most outstanding college football player. Seven Oklahoma players have won the Heisman Trophy, six more finished runner-up. Kyler Murray is the most recent winner having won the 2018 Heisman Trophy.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Every year, several publications release rosters of the best college football players in the country. The athletes on these lists are referred to as All-Americans. The NCAA recognizes five All-American lists. They are the Associated Press, American Football Coaches Association, Football Writers Association of America, The Sporting News, and the Walter Camp Football Foundation. A consensus All-American is typically defined as a player who is named to three or more lists. Oklahoma has had 167 first-team All-Americans in its history, with 82 of them being named consensus All-Americans.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: Oklahoma has 29 inductees in the College Football Hall of Fame. The first was coach Bennie Owen who was inducted as part of the inaugural class in 1951. The most recent is Roy Williams inducted in 2022.


title: Oklahoma Sooners football

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki>Opponent becomes intra-conference opponent with Oklahoma's impending move to the Southeastern Conference.


title: Fresh Meat (TV series)

text: Fresh Meat is a British comedy-drama television series created by Jesse Armstrong and Sam Bain, who also created "Peep Show".


title: Fresh Meat (TV series)

text: The first episode, directed by David Kerr, was broadcast on Channel 4 on 21 September 2011, and the show aired on Wednesdays at 10 pm. The second series started airing on 9 October 2012 and consists of 8 episodes. On 22 November 2012, a third series was commissioned and began broadcasting on 4 November 2013. Bain said ideas were being developed for a potential film adaptation, following the runaway success of 2011's "The Inbetweeners Movie". However, a fourth series followed instead, filmed in 2015 and aired in February 2016 as a conclusion to the series.


title: Fresh Meat (TV series)

text: The plot revolves around the lives of six students – Vod, Oregon, Josie, Kingsley, JP and Howard – who are freshers (with the exception of Howard) at the fictional Medlock University (loosely based on the University of Manchester). They live in a shared house off-campus in Rusholme rather than university halls of residence, due to their late application.


title: Fresh Meat (TV series)

text: Main themes include: Oregon's insecurity and failed relationship with her English literature lecturer, Tony Shales; Vod's hedonistic, carefree lifestyle; Josie and Kingsley's tortured relationship; upper-class JP's attempts at popularity and impressing girls; and Howard's many eccentricities. On a larger scale, the series covers many student-related issues, including financial issues, work pressures, grades, expulsion, partying, and internship competition. In the final series a major theme is job seeking, final exam pressure and the value of degrees.


title: Fresh Meat (TV series)

text: Jesse Armstrong and Sam Bain created "Fresh Meat"'s characters and wrote the first episode whilst watching "The Young Ones" on "VHS"; subsequent episodes were written by other writers. Bain has explained the reasons for this approach: "We always imagined this as a team-written show partly for practical reasons because "Peep Show" has been recommissioned, and moving forward if we're lucky enough to get another series of "Fresh Meat" we simply couldn't write two shows at once. So we always knew we wanted to bring other writers on board, some are more experienced, some very talented women writers, and one who had just graduated when we started writing."


title: Fresh Meat (TV series)

text: "Fresh Meat" is produced by Liverpool-based Lime Pictures and London-based Objective Productions. The programme was filmed at The Sharp Project in Manchester, a £16.5 million studio facility built to fill the void when Granada Studios closed in 2013. The programme is set in Manchester, and some location scenes are filmed on the campus of the real life Manchester Metropolitan University (close to the River Medlock) – including scenes set within the students' union, which are filmed in the students' union of Manchester Metropolitan University. Scenes in the characters' local pub are filmed at the King's Arms in Salford. Many exterior shots were filmed at the University of Manchester's main Oxford Road campus – particularly outside the library – and in series 2, the University of Salford's library and many exterior parts of the campus were used as a set. 28 Hartnell Avenue, the Victorian house in which the students live, is in fact 28 Mayfield Road in Whalley Range, Manchester.


title: Fresh Meat (TV series)

text: Channel 4 announced that a second series had been commissioned in October 2011. Filming was completed in August 2012, and the series started broadcasting that following October. A third series was confirmed via Twitter following the second series' finale.


title: Fresh Meat (TV series)

text: Critical reaction to the first series' opening episodes was mixed, with reviews becoming more positive as the series progressed. "The Guardian" gave the opening episode a very positive review, finding it "sharp" and "refreshingly gag-dense".


title: Fresh Meat (TV series)

text: "The Independent"'s review was also positive, saying "what really holds the thing together is an underlying sympathy, the sense that these characters might be comically foolish but they aren't (with some exceptions) contemptible."


title: Fresh Meat (TV series)

text: However, Michael Deacon in "The Daily Telegraph" called the opening episode's script "a torrent of prattling self-hatred" and found the episode "drainingly bleak".


title: Fresh Meat (TV series)

text: Rupert Christiansen, also in the "Telegraph", was similarly unimpressed, calling it "[p]athetically laboured and over-acted" and "limply written and predictable". Rachel Cooke of "New Statesman" felt the opening episode was a "damp squib" and commented that this might be because "the writers failed to remember that going to university is also rather melancholic, what with all the loneliness, the strange and soon-to-be-shed new friends and the general exhaustion of trying to act cool and grown-up".


title: Fresh Meat (TV series)

text: By the end of the first series, the "Radio Times" said the show had been "full of well-worked plotlines and gorgeous character comedy", and "The Daily Telegraph" praised "the series' admirable habit of stirring pathos into the flow of gags" as well as complimenting the scripts and performances. "The Guardian" felt it had "managed to live up to sky-scraping expectations", and "Metro" said "Originally billed as a university version of "The Inbetweeners", Fresh Meat has developed into something much more sophisticated than its more-established sibling."


title: Fresh Meat (TV series)

text: The second series continued to receive positive reviews, with "The Observer" declaring the second episode "almost an hour of laugh-out-loud comic astuteness that single-handedly restored faith in the British ability to be funny", while "The Independent on Sunday" said "First time round, the student sitcom was chipper but clunky fare. But, just as its fresher gang have grown up, so the whole thing has become sharper, wiser, and more lovable".


title: Fresh Meat (TV series)

text: The third series also continued to receive positive reviews. Andrew Collins of "The Guardian" identified some similarities between "Fresh Meat" and "The Young Ones", but he suggested that "to say that "Fresh Meat" is a "Young Ones" for the Jägerbomb generation does neither show justice" and said ""The Young Ones" was like being picked up by the lapels and repeatedly shaken. "Fresh Meat" is more like being invited to stay". Collins also recognised Jack Whitehall's performance as J.P. and refuted Jonathan Ross's quip at the British Comedy Awards that, as an actor, Whitehall has "less range than a North Korean missile", adding that Whitehall's performance deepens with each episode.


title: Fresh Meat (TV series)

text: Thomas H. Green of "The Arts Desk" wrote that, after "rocky" earlier episodes of the third season, the finale of the third season of "Fresh Meat" had "retrieved its sterling reputation". Green suggested the circumstances in the seventh episode of the season were incredible and "reality was pushed too far" but conceded that the finale delivered, with Kingsley and Josie's "soul-wringing, half-hearted" attempt at an open relationship and then the "wrenching" dissolution of their relationship for the sake of their friendship; Vod's wildly promising run at president of the student union and then sabotaging her own campaign to mend her friendship with Oregon, who wins but inherits dire straits facing the student union and its executive; the development and progression of Howard and Candice's relationship, culminating in romance; and JP, who "applies for a position" with (or attempts to seduce) Josie (who is in an open relationship) via a PowerPoint presentation, moves on from Sam, cleans the house and attempts to sell it, and laments that he is "horny".


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: "Hoist with his own petard" is a phrase from a speech in William Shakespeare's play "Hamlet" that has become proverbial. The phrase's meaning is that a bomb-maker is blown ("hoist") off the ground by his own bomb (a "petard" is a small explosive device), and indicates an ironic reversal, or poetic justice.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: The phrase occurs in a central speech in the play in which Hamlet has discovered a plot on his life by Claudius and resolves to respond to it by letting the plotter be "Hoist with his own petard". Although the now-proverbial phrase is the best known part of the speech, it and the later sea voyage and pirate attack are central to critical arguments regarding the play.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: The phrase, and its containing speech, exist in only one of three early printed versions of the play—the second quarto edition—and scholars are divided on whether this is indicative of authorial intent, or a mere artifact of playhouse practicalities.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: In the centuries since the publication of "Hamlet", "hoist by" (as in "hoist by ones own petard") has replaced the original "hoist with" as the most common vernacular form of the idiom, with both forms being recognised by many dictionaries as interchangeable.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: The phrase occurs in "Hamlet" Act 3, Scene 4, as a part of one of Hamlet's speeches in the Closet Scene. Hamlet has been acting mad to throw off suspicion that he is aware that his uncle, Claudius, has murdered his father and married his mother, Queen Gertrude, in order to usurp the throne. In the Closet Scene, Polonius, at Claudius' behest, has hidden himself behind an arras in Gertrude's chambers to listen in as Gertrude scolds Hamlet for his mad antics, hoping to determine whether he is truly mad or merely pretending. On revealing his presence, Hamlet kills him thinking him to be Claudius. Hamlet then accuses Gertrude of complicity in his father's murder, but when she protests her innocence, the two of them begin to conspire to reveal Claudius's guilt.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: Having previously been ordered to travel to England on a pretext, accompanied by Rosencrantz and Guildenstern carrying letters to the King of England, Hamlet tells his mother:


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: The letters contain a request from King Claudius to the King of England to have Prince Hamlet killed, but Hamlet manages to modify them during the journey so that they instead request the deaths of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. Hamlet is thus able to return to Denmark in secret to seek his revenge.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: "Hamlet" exists in several early versions: the first quarto edition (Q1, 1603), the second quarto (Q2, 1604), and the First Folio (F, 1623). Q1 and F do not contain this speech, although both include a form of The Closet Scene, so the 1604 Q2 is the only early source for the quote.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: The omission of this speech—as well as the long soliloquy in Act 4, Scene 4—is generally considered to have been cut in the playhouse for various practical reasons. But in the 1985 Cambridge Shakespeare edition of the play, Philip Edwards argued that these were deliberate cuts by Shakespeare. For Hamlet, famously procrastinating about his revenge, to suddenly show such resolve and a concrete plan to do away with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern is out of character, and, as the plan outlined is what ends up happening in the play, the speech gives away the plot and lessens the suspense. It is also a plot hole in that Hamlet, at this point in the play, has no way of actually knowing that Claudius plans to have him killed in England, nor even that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are to be his travelling companions. The audience is aware that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are to be his companions, as they have seen Claudius instructing them so at the beginning of Act 3, Scene 3, but the plot to have him killed is otherwise not discussed until Act 4, Scene 3.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: G.R. Hibbard, in The Oxford Shakespeare edition, agrees with Edwards that the omission of the speech increases the suspense in the F version. However, Ann Thompson and Neil Taylor, in The Arden Shakespeare third series edition, point out that Hamlet is not specifically planning to kill Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, he merely resolves to outwit them. For example, in the 1964 film adaptation by Grigori Kozintsev the speech is moved to the (later) point in the film where Hamlet describes how he outwitted Rosencrantz and Guildenstern.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: The word "hoist" here is the past participle of the now-archaic verb "hoise" (since Shakespeare's time, "hoist" has become the present tense of the verb, with "hoisted" the past participle), and carries the meaning "to lift and remove".


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: A "petard" is a "small bomb used to blow in doors and breach walls" and comes from the French , which, through Middle French () and Old French (), ultimately comes from the Latin ("to break wind") or, much more commonly, the slang form "to fart". Although Shakespeare's audiences were probably not familiar with the origin of the word, the related French word was in common use in English by the 17th century meaning "gun shot of farting" making it appear likely that the double-meaning was intended by the Bard as a joke.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: "Enginer", although the origin of the modern "engineer", had the meaning specifically of a military engineer or a sapper: someone who works with military engines (mines, grenades, siege engines). The word should be pronounced with the stress on the first syllable.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: The phrase itself is a variation on two earlier proverbial expressions: "The fowler is caught in his own net" and "To beat one at his own weapon".


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: The "letters" referred to in the first line are the letters from Claudius to the King of England with the request to have Hamlet killed, and the "schoolfellows" are Rosencrantz and Guildenstern who went to school with Hamlet at Wittenberg. Hamlet says he will trust them as "adders fanged", that is as much as one would trust a pair of venomous snakes. That they "bear the mandate"—carry the letters of the diplomatic mission to England—is in itself suspicious according to Hibbard: such letters would usually be carried by the most senior member, Hamlet, rather than the two underlings. Thompson and Taylor disagree, as it might simply mean that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern have been ordered by Claudius to go. That they "must sweep my way" means that they must prepare the way for Hamlet, and the way they "sweep" is to "marshal [him] to knavery": conduct him to some kind of trick, villainy, or trap. The word "marshal" here begins a string of military metaphors: Hamlet sees his contest of wits with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern in terms of siege warfare. Hamlet's response is to say "Let it work"; to let their plan unfold.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: His resolve in the fifth and sixth lines—continuing the military metaphor—is to have them blown up with their own bomb that they had intended for him. Unless it "shall go hard"—unless he has very bad luck—he will "delve[...] below their mines / And blow them at the moon." "Mines" here are the tunnels used in siege warfare to attack a fortified town, and later the explosives used in such tunnels. In the last two lines he savours the competition of two practitioners of cunning and schemes meeting head on, continuing the martial metaphor of mining and counter-mining.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: The speech is a central exemplar of a general theme or pattern in "Hamlet": ironic reversal. Throughout the play the pattern unfolds repeatedly: his enemies employ a stratagem against Hamlet, but fail, and he then turns the stratagem back on them. For instance, when verbally sparring with Claudius in Act 1, Scene 2, Hamlet turns his own words back against him:


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: When Claudius invokes their kinship, Hamlet puns on kin—kind; and when Claudius invokes a weather metaphor for a gloomy disposition, Hamlet's counter has three distinct meanings: literally that he is not under a cloud but actually too much in the sun; that Claudius' constant invocation of "son" (which Hamlet puns as "sun") is getting wearisome; and that he feels he spends too much time in the presence of the king ("the sun"). Similarly in the Closet Scene:


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: For each verbal attack by Gertrude, Hamlet counters by turning her own words back at her. The plotters' plan was to have Gertrude, his mother, scold him for his antics while Polonius listened from hiding, in the hopes of learning whether Hamlet is truly mad or merely pretending. Instead the conversation ends with Polonius dead and Gertrude convinced of Claudius' guilt and her own culpability.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: In order to catch out Hamlet, Claudius and Polonius have Ophelia put on a show for him; whereas Hamlet uses the play-within-the-play "The Mousetrap" to "catch the conscience of the king". When Claudius plans to ship Hamlet off to be killed in England, Hamlet manages to thwart him and returns in a larger pirate ship. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are to deliver a letter requesting Hamlet's death, but Hamlet switches it out for one that requests Rosencrantz and Guildenstern's deaths.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: In the final scene, Laertes applies poison to his rapier in order to kill Hamlet, but Hamlet ends up killing Laertes with that same poisoned rapier. And in the end, he kills Claudius with the same rapier and poisoned wine that were Claudius's intended weapons against Hamlet.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: Ironic reversal was well-known in sixteenth-century England, and Elizabethan theatre inherited the tradition from both Latin comedy and Christian thought. It was so common as to constitute convention, and an early example is from "The Jew of Malta" (1589–90): Barabas the Jew lays a trap involving a collapsing floor but falls through it himself and lands in a cauldron he had prepared for stewing Turks. In "Ironic Reversal in "Hamlet"" (1966), Thomas F. Van Laan argues that even further than the general Elizabethan dramatic convention, in "Hamlet" it is "… central and substantive. It lies at the heart of the play's mystery; it constitutes, in fact, a portion of that mystery."


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: A central critical question in "Hamlet" is the degree to which Hamlet hesitates and procrastinates, or whether he is coldly determining Claudius's guilt and waiting for an opportunity to exact his revenge. One pivotal point in this question is the "Hoist with his own petard" speech: does it indicate merely that Hamlet suspects the plot against him and means to be on guard, or does it indicate that he has already planned a counter to it? In 1870, George Henry Miles published "A Review of "Hamlet"" in which he argued that the pirates that attack Hamlet's ship on the way to England, and on which he escapes and returns to Denmark, was not a chance encounter but rather a counter-plot planned ahead of time by Hamlet himself. According to Miles', the "Hoist with his own petard" speech is indicative of premeditation from Hamlet: it outlines future events and these are what actually turn out to take place. He particularly rests his argument on the "When in one line two crafts directly meet" line, seeing in it a pun on "crafts" ("stratagems" and "ships") indicating that Hamlet knows in advance that the two ships will encounter each other on the journey.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: William Witherle Lawrence, writing in 1944, dismissed the idea: "Little time need be wasted on the absurd idea that the pirate attack was not accidental, but planned by Hamlet." Writing in 1975, Martin Stevens attempted to revive the idea, but most critics who have addressed the issue have sided with Lawrence. However, their main argument against the idea has been based on the idea that the meaning of the word "craft" to mean "ship" was not in use until 1671, based on the Oxford English Dictionary entry's earliest dating for the word. In 1999 David Farley-Hills published an article in "The Review of English Studies" demonstrating that the relevant meaning was attested as early as 1450. He goes on to make an argument that the pirates were in collusion with Hamlet, and the attack a part of his plan already in mind during the speech in Act 3, Scene 4.


title: Hoist with his own petard

text: All references to "Hamlet", unless otherwise specified, are taken from the Folger Shakespeare Library's "Folger Digital Editions" texts edited by Barbara Mowat, Paul Werstine, Michael Poston, and Rebecca Niles. Under their referencing system, 3.4.225 means act 3, scene 4, line 225.


title: Abu Sayyaf

text: Abu Sayyaf (; ; ', ASG), officially known by the Islamic State as the Islamic State – East Asia Province"', is a Jihadist militant and pirate group that follows the Wahhabi doctrine of Sunni Islam. It is based in and around Jolo and Basilan islands in the southwestern part of the Philippines, where for more than four decades, Moro groups have been engaged in an insurgency seeking to make Moro Province independent. The group is considered violent and was responsible for the Philippines' worst terrorist attack, the bombing of MV "Superferry 14" in 2004, which killed 116 people. The name of the group is derived from the Arabic (); "father of"), and (; "swordsmith"). , the group is estimated to have less than 50 members, down from 1,250 in 2000. They use mostly improvised explosive devices, mortars and automatic rifles.


title: Abu Sayyaf

text: Since its inception in 1989, the group has carried out bombings, kidnappings, assassinations and extortion. They have been involved in criminal activities, including rape, child sexual assault, forced marriage, drive-by shootings and drug trafficking. The goals of the group "appear to have alternated over time between criminal objectives and a more ideological intent".


title: Abu Sayyaf

text: The group has been designated as a terrorist group by Australia, Canada, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and the United States. From January 15, 2002, to February 24, 2015, fighting Abu Sayyaf became a mission of the American military's Operation Enduring Freedom and part of the Global War on Terrorism. Several hundred United States soldiers were stationed in the area to mainly train local forces in counter-terror and counterguerrilla operations, but, following a status of forces agreement and under Philippine law, they were not allowed to engage in direct combat.


title: Abu Sayyaf

text: The group was founded by Abdurajak Abubakar Janjalani, and led after his death in 1998 by his younger brother Khadaffy Janjalani until his death in 2006. On July 23, 2014, Isnilon Hapilon, one of the group's leaders, swore an oath of loyalty to Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, the leader of the Islamic State (IS). In September 2014, the group began kidnapping people for ransom, in the name of the IS.


title: Abu Sayyaf

text: In the early 1970s, the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) was the main Muslim rebel group fighting in Basilan and Mindanao. Abdurajik Abubakar Janjalani, the older brother of Khadaffy Janjalani, had been a teacher from Basilan, who studied Islamic theology and Arabic in Libya, Syria and Saudi Arabia during the 1980s. Abdurajik went to Afghanistan to fight against the Soviet Union and the Afghan government during the Soviet–Afghan War. During that period, he is alleged to have met Osama Bin Laden and been given $6 million to establish a more Islamic group drawn from the MNLF. The Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) was established in 1989 in part in response. Both Abdurajik Abubakar and Khadaffy were natives of Isabela City, one of the poorest cities of the Philippines. Located on the northwestern part of Basilan, Isabela is the capital of the province. Isabela City is administered under the Zamboanga Peninsula political region north of Basilan, while the rest of the island province of Basilan is since 1996 governed as part of ARMM to the east.


title: Abu Sayyaf

text: In the early 1990s, MNLF moderated into an established political government, the ARMM. It was established in 1989, fully institutionalized by 1996, and became the ruling government in southern Mindanao. When Abdurajik returned to Basilan island in 1990, he gathered radical members of the old MNLF who wanted to resume armed struggle and in 1991 established the Abu Sayyaf. Janjalani was funded by a Saudi Islamist, Mohammed Jamal Khalifa, who came to the Philippines in 1987 or 1988 and was head of the Philippine branch of the International Islamic Relief Organization foundation. A defector from Abu Sayyaf told Filipino authorities, "The IIRO was behind the construction of Mosques, school buildings, and other livelihood projects" but only "in areas penetrated, highly influenced and controlled by the Abu Sayyaf". According to the defector, "Only 10 to 30% of the foreign funding goes to the legitimate relief and livelihood projects and the rest go to terrorist operations". Khalifa married a local woman, Alice "Jameelah" Yabo.


title: Abu Sayyaf

text: By 1995, Abu Sayyaf was active in large-scale bombings and attacks. The first attack was the assault on the town of Ipil in Mindanao in April 1995. This year marked the escape of 20-year-old Khadaffy Janjalani from Camp Crame in Manila along with another member named Jovenal Bruno. On December 18, 1998, Abdurajik was killed in a gun battle with the Philippine National Police on Basilan Island. He is thought to have been about 39.


title: Abu Sayyaf

text: The death of Aburajik marked a turning point in Abu Sayyaf operations. The group shifted to kidnappings, murders, and robberies, under younger brother Khadaffy. Basilan, Jolo, and Sulu experienced some of the fiercest fights between government troops and Abu Sayyaf through the early 1990s. Abu Sayyaf primarily operates in the southern Philippines with members traveling to Manila and other provinces. It was reported that Abu Sayyaf began expanding into neighboring Malaysia and Indonesia by the early 1990s. Abu Sayyaf is one of the smallest, but strongest of the Philippine Islamist separatist groups. Some Abu Sayyaf members studied or worked in Saudi Arabia and developed ties to mujahadeen, while fighting and training in the war against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Abu Sayyaf proclaimed themselves to be mujahideen and freedom fighters.


title: Abu Sayyaf

text: Until his death in a gun battle on September 4, 2006, Khaddafy Janjalani was considered the nominal leader of the group by the Armed Forces of the Philippines. Then 23-year-old Khadaffy took leadership of one of the Abu Sayyaf's factions in an internecine struggle. He then worked to consolidate his leadership, causing the group to appear inactive for a period. After his leadership was secured, Abu Sayyaf began a new strategy, taking hostages. The group's motive for kidnapping became more financial than religious during this period, according to locals. Hostage money probably provides the group's financing.


title: Abu Sayyaf

text: Abu Sayyaf expanded its operations to Malaysia in 2000, when it abducted foreigners from two resorts. This action was condemned by most Islamic leaders. It was responsible for the kidnapping and murder of more than 30 foreigners and Christian clerics and workers, including Martin and Gracia Burnham. An influential commander named Abu Sabaya was killed at sea in June 2002 while trying to evade local forces. His death is considered a crucial turning point for the group, as the number of operatives working for Abu Sayyaf sharply decreased from 1100 in 2001 to 450 in late 2002, and had since been stagnant for the next ten years.