title: Sirius XM

text: After a 57-week review process, the U.S. Justice Department approved the Sirius and XM merger on March 24, 2008, concluding that satellite radio competes with terrestrial radio, online streaming, and mp3 players and tablets. On July 25, 2008, the FCC approved the merger with a 3–2 vote, determining that it was not a monopoly because of competition on the Internet. FCC chairman Kevin Martin stated, "The merger is in the public interest and will provide consumers with greater flexibility and choices".


title: Sirius XM

text: The biggest challenge for the newly unified company was selling more subscriptions with the drop in the number of cars sold annually in the U.S., the subsequent reduced demand for cars equipped with satellite radio, as well as online radio-streaming competition. Conditions of the merger included allowing any third-party company to make satellite radio devices; producing new radios that can receive both XM and Sirius channels within one year; allowing consumers to choose which channels they would like to have; freezing subscription rates for three years; setting aside 8% of its channels for noncommercial programmers; and paying US$19.7 million in fines for past rule violations. Sirius and XM began merging their channels on November 12, 2008.


title: Sirius XM

text: Each share of XM stock was replaced with 4.6 shares of Sirius stock. Each company's stockholders initially retained approximately 50% of the joined company. At the time of the merger, Sirius' top programming included channels for Howard Stern, and Martha Stewart; live NBA and NFL games; and live NASCAR races. XM's programming included channels for Willie Nelson, Opie and Anthony, Snoop Dogg, and Oprah Winfrey; and live Major League Baseball games.


title: Sirius XM

text: The National Association of Broadcasters was adamantly opposed to the merger, calling it a monopoly. Shortly after the Justice Department gave its support to the merger without restrictions, attorneys general from 11 states (Connecticut, Iowa, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, Ohio, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, Utah, and Washington) urged the FCC to impose restrictions on the merger. Several Congressional Democrats also opposed the merger, calling it anticompetitive and criticizing the Bush administration for allowing it to go through.


title: Sirius XM

text: After coming close to filing for Chapter 11 only months after the 2008 merger, having gone so far as to hire lawyers to prepare a possible bankruptcy filing, Sirius XM was able to avoid declaring bankruptcy with the assistance of a US$530 million loan from Liberty Media in February 2009, which Mel Karmazin negotiated in exchange for a 40% equity stake in Sirius XM.


title: Sirius XM

text: In the fourth quarter of 2009, Sirius XM posted a profit for the first time, with a net income of US$14.2 million. This came after net losses of US$245.8 million in the year following the merger. The company's resurgence was owed in part to the loan from Liberty Media. Increased automobile sales in the U.S. were also a factor. Sirius XM ended 2009 with 18.8 million subscribers. By the end of 2012, Sirius XM's subscriber base had grown to 23.9 million, mostly due to an increase in partnerships with automakers and car dealers; a strong push in the used-car market; and continued improved car sales in the U.S. in general. The renewal of radio show host Howard Stern's contract through 2015 (US$400 million for five years, US$100 million less than Stern's previous five-year deal) was also a factor in the company's steady growth; Stern's show attracted over 12 million listeners per week.


title: Sirius XM

text: As of 2017, Sirius XM had approximately a 75% penetration rate in the new car market. Out of that 75%, approximately 40% become subscribers. SiriusXM is available in cars from every major car company as well as in assorted trucks, boats and aircraft. The company offers trial subscriptions to new car owners, and then offers customers a variety of subscription options. There are more than 100 million cars on the road with SiriusXM radios installed.


title: Sirius XM

text: After trying for four years, on December 21, 2010, Sirius XM received approval from the FCC to add service in Alaska and Hawaii. Sirius XM announced on January 17, 2011, that it would place repeaters in those states and adjust three of its satellites to cover those areas. The move gave Sirius XM coverage in all 50 states.


title: Sirius XM

text: On January 12, 2011, XM Satellite Radio, Inc. was dissolved as a separate entity and merged into Sirius XM Radio, Inc. On April 11, 2011, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) approved the merger of Sirius and XM's Canadian affiliates in Sirius XM Canada.


title: Sirius XM

text: On April 11, 2013, a New York appeals court upheld a New York judge's ruling, from April 2012, that Howard Stern was not entitled to stock bonuses based on Sirius XM's exceeding subscriber target projections. The court ruled that subscribers to XM Satellite Radio from before the Sirius XM merger should not be counted as "Sirius subscribers" for the purposes of Stern's lawsuit. Stern argued the opposite, because his popularity had played an integral role in helping Sirius acquire XM. He had been seeking US$330 million in stock bonuses.


title: Sirius XM

text: On September 24, 2018, Sirius XM announced its intent to acquire Pandora for US$3.5 billion. The acquisition was completed on February 1, 2019. On October 19, 2020, SiriusXM announced that it completed the acquisition of Stitcher. It later purchased Conan O'Brien's digital media assets, including his podcast "Conan O'Brien Needs a Friend", for $150 million.


title: Sirius XM

text: Following the merger, Sirius CEO Mel Karmazin became CEO of the combined company, and XM chairman Gary Parsons retained his role. XM CEO and co-founder Hugh Panero stepped down in August 2007, shortly after the merger was first announced.


title: Sirius XM

text: XM Satellite Radio executives who were not offered jobs in the new combined company were assured golden parachute severance packages that had been approved in 2007. Former CEO Nate Davis received a severance package worth US$10 million. Erik Toppenberg, executive vice president of programming, received a severance package worth US$5.34 million. CFO Joseph Euteneuer received a severance package worth US$4.9 million. Vernon Irvin, chief marketing officer, received a severance package worth US$4.5 million.


title: Sirius XM

text: In November 2009, Parsons resigned as chairman of Sirius XM, receiving a payout of more than US$9 million. He was succeeded by Eddy Hartenstein, former publisher and CEO of the "Los Angeles Times". In December 2012, Mel Karmazin stepped down as Sirius XM CEO after Liberty Media gained control of 49.5% of the company. James E. Meyer was named interim CEO. On April 30, 2013, he was named permanent CEO. Also in April 2013, Liberty Media CEO Greg Maffei was named Sirius XM's chairman, succeeding Hartenstein.


title: Sirius XM

text: In October 2019, Denise Karkos was named Chief Marketing Officer and in November 2019, Alex Luke was named Senior VP of Digital Content for SiriusXM and Pandora.


title: Sirius XM

text: In September 2020, SiriusXM announced that Jennifer Witz will succeed James Meyer as the company's Chief Executive Officer once he retires by December 31, 2020. The company also hired AMC Networks Inc's Sean Sullivan as Chief Financial Officer.


title: Sirius XM

text: In December 2021, Joe Inzerillo, former CTO of Disney Streaming Services, was named the Chief Technology Officer of SiriusXM.


title: Sirius XM

text: Sirius XM radio content is available to stream online either as an add-on to existing subscriptions or as an Internet-only option.


title: Sirius XM

text: In August 2011, SiriusXM announced that the company would start offering a personalized interactive online radio experience. MySXM debuted on April 15, 2013, allowing users to fine-tune over 50 existing Sirius XM channels. MySXM is available to all Sirius XM subscribers.


title: Sirius XM

text: The internet player allows subscribers to customize most stations to their liking by adjusting settings like: familiar/hits or unfamiliar/depth, studio recordings or live performances, and new/recent or old/classic material. These customized stations also allow listeners to play music without DJ interruptions. SiriusXM apps also include an extensive lineup of archived programming on SiriusXM On Demand.


title: Sirius XM

text: On June 17, 2009, Sirius XM released an application for use on Apple's iPhone and iPod Touch, allowing its subscribers to listen to its programming on those devices. The application did not feature all of the programming available to satellite listeners. On March 17, 2011, the application was also made available for the iPad. In 2012, the application was updated for iOS and Android, featuring additional content, and the ability to pause, rewind, and fast-forward through audio streams.


title: Sirius XM

text: On February 4, 2010, the Sirius XM BlackBerry application was announced, for use on BlackBerry smartphones (the Bold, Curve, Storm, and Tour). As of April 2013, the app featured over 150 channels.


title: Sirius XM

text: On May 28, 2010, the Sirius XM application for Android smartphones was announced. As of April 2013, the app features over 130 channels.


title: Sirius XM

text: As part of Howard Stern's new five-year contract with SiriusXM, which he signed on December 9, 2010, "The Howard Stern Show", which hadn't previously been made available on mobile devices, would now be a part of Sirius XM's mobile app package.


title: Sirius XM

text: On March 18, 2015, SiriusXM released a refreshed user interface of the application on Android and iOS.


title: Sirius XM

text: As of October 2017, SiriusXM is available for streaming via custom apps on a variety of connected devices including Amazon Alexa and Fire TV, Sonos, PlayStation, Roku, and smart TVs.


title: Sirius XM

text: In May 2018, SiriusXM unveiled a new look for both the desktop web player and the mobile apps. The MySXM feature, including all the custom mixes that listeners saved over time, was removed. SiriusXM claims that they're working on a more personalized feature that will release in the upcoming months. SiriusXM later expanded their internet and mobile platforms by acquiring Pandora in February 2019.


title: Sirius XM

text: In early November 2019, SiriusXM became available to stream on all devices that use Google Assistant.


title: Sirius XM

text: In June 2022, SiriusXM streaming was added to Xfinity customers using the cable provider's X1, Xfinity Flex, and XClass TV platforms.


title: Sirius XM

text: Following the merger, Sirius XM began offering numerous new options, including "à la carte" offerings, a family-friendly version, and "mostly music" or "news, sports, and talk" packages, ranging in price from US$6.99 to US$16.99 per month.


title: Sirius XM

text: Prior to the merger, Sirius offered, for a one-time fee, a lifetime subscription for the radio unit (not the customer's lifetime). After the merger, due to changes in bundling policies and contracts, some customers who had purchased lifetime subscriptions had their service reduced or canceled, and were unable to obtain a refund.


title: Sirius XM

text: On December 4, 2014, Sirius XM Holdings agreed to a US$3.8 million settlement with 45 states and the District of Columbia, over a suit initiated by then-Ohio Attorney General Mike DeWine, stemming from the company's billing and service renewal practices. The suit alleged Sirius XM Holdings was engaged in "misleading, unfair and deceptive acts or practices in violation of state consumer protection laws", Attorney General DeWine said.


title: Sirius XM

text: SiriusXM is the exclusive home to Howard Stern, with two dedicated Howard Stern channels. SiriusXM's talk, news, and comedy programming features channels from many news outlets, including: BBC, CNBC, FOX News, CNN, MSNBC, Bloomberg, NPR, and C-SPAN. The programming also includes exclusive talk and entertainment channels such as TODAY Show Radio, Business Radio Powered By The Wharton School, "Entertainment Weekly" Radio, Faction Talk, Radio Andy, Joel Osteen Radio, and comedy from channels including Comedy Central Radio, Comedy Greats, Laugh USA, Raw Dog Comedy and George Carlin's Carlin's Corner.


title: Sirius XM

text: SiriusXM music programming includes channels dedicated to multiple decades and genres that span rock, pop, country, R&B, hip-hop, electronic dance, jazz and more, and concept-based channels, such as The Coffee House, SiriusXM Chill, Road Trip Radio, and Yacht Rock Radio.


title: Sirius XM

text: The service also features several artist-branded channels, including those for Pitbull, The Beatles, Bob Marley, Bruce Springsteen, Steven Van Zandt, Pearl Jam, Grateful Dead, Jimmy Buffett, Phish, Dave Matthews Band, Tom Petty, U2, Ozzy Osbourne, LL Cool J, Eminem, Diplo, Kenny Chesney, Willie Nelson, Kirk Franklin, Frank Sinatra, B.B. King, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Dwight Yoakam, Marky Ramone, Steve Aoki, The Tragically Hip, Chucho Valdés, and Tom Morello. On occasion, SiriusXM has offered limited edition artists channels for a specific period of time, including those for Drake, Metallica, David Bowie, Fleetwood Mac, Prince, Guns N' Roses, Led Zeppelin, George Strait, The Rolling Stones, Eagles, Queen, Beastie Boys, Coldplay, Michael Jackson, Foo Fighters, Aretha Franklin, Miles Davis, Jimi Hendrix, Billy Joel, ABBA, Alicia Keys, Neil Young, and Blue Rodeo.


title: Sirius XM

text: SiriusXM offers live play-by-play coverage of every NFL, Major League Baseball, and NBA game; every NASCAR race; PGA Tour events; and live college sports, as well as news, analysis and opinions from more than a dozen dedicated sports talk channels.


title: Sirius XM

text: SiriusXM also offers "Listen Free" events twice a year during late May-early June and late November-early December.


title: Sirius XM

text: In Canada, Sirius Canada and XM Canada were partially owned by Sirius XM (20% and 23.3% respectively) in joint ventures with Canadian companies. After the U.S. merger, the two Canadian ventures did not immediately agree to a similar merger, but instead remained in competition as distinct services. Complicating matters was that Sirius Canada has nearly 80% of the total satellite radio subscriber base in that country, and felt they deserved greater than a 50/50 split of the new company, whereas XM Canada felt their deal with the NHL – a particularly lucrative prize in Canadian sports broadcasting – also warranted a significant amount of value in the new company.


title: Sirius XM

text: On November 24, 2010, XM Radio Canada and Sirius Canada announced that they would merge their services. On April 12, 2011, the CRTC approved the companies' merger into Sirius XM Canada. John Bitove's Canadian Satellite Radio Holdings Inc., the licensee of XM Canada, gained a 30% share in the new company as its primary and controlling shareholder, while Slaight Communications and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, the current owners of Sirius Canada, each retained 20% ownership. Sirius XM's American parent company would hold 25%. The merger was completed on June 21, 2011. Sirius XM Holdings now owns a 70% equity interest and a 33% voting interest in Sirius XM Canada, as of 2020.


title: Sirius XM

text: XM and Sirius use different compression and conditional access systems, making their receivers incompatible with each other's service. A condition of the merger was that Sirius XM would bring to the market satellite radios that can receive both XM and Sirius channels within one year. The interoperable radio, called the MiRGE, was made available beginning in March 2009 but was soon discontinued after both services eliminated duplicate channels, thus removing the need for it. , Sirius XM offers radios for home, office, automotive, marine, and aviation use.


title: Sirius XM

text: SiriusXM Marine is graphic weather and fishing info for boaters. The service works with most major marine-electronics hardware companies, such as Raymarine, Furuno, Simrad and Garmin. The Marine Offshore package includes graphic weather radar, cloud-to-cloud and cloud-to-ground lightning, high-resolution coastal and offshore wave heights, direction and intervals, high-resolution sea-surface temperatures, pressure isobars, buoy data, etc.


title: Sirius XM

text: SiriusXM Aviation provides satellite-based graphic weather information for pilots, which provides better signal coverage and faster data refresh rate than land-based ADS-B service. The 2020 FAA Mandate does not require pilots to equip with ADS‑B/FIS‑B weather.


title: Sirius XM

text: SiriusXM Aviation receiver Model # SXAR1 and Garmin GDL51/GDL52 enables pilots to use an iPad or iPhone with the ForeFlight Mobile App, via Bluetooth, to view the SiriusXM Aviation in-flight weather and data delivered via satellite to monitor storm fronts, track lightning strikes, TAFs, METARs, winds and more.


title: Sirius XM

text: , there are six functional satellites in orbit: two XM, two Sirius, and two supporting both systems (one being a spare). XM-3 and XM-4 are the active satellites for the XM service and replaced the original XM-1 and XM-2 satellites (which were placed into disposal orbits). Sirius FM-5 and FM-6 function as the primaries for the Sirius side. FM-6 was launched on October 25, 2013, and was declared ready for service on December 2, 2013. The satellite initially served as an in-orbit spare while the company worked to deploy repeaters for the Sirius side, which were needed to transition to full geostationary orbit operation. In 2016, FM-6 was put into active service and officially replaced Sirius originals FM-1 through FM-3 which operated in elliptical orbit. FM-1 through FM-3 were later placed into disposal orbits. With this change, FM-5 and FM-6 exclusively serve the Sirius service, mirroring XM-3 and XM-4. Before FM-6 was launched, XM-5 was sent into orbit by Proton from Kazakhstan, on October 14, 2010. It is capable of broadcasting to either service. XM-5 serves as the in-orbit spare for the entire system and can function in place of either a Sirius or XM satellite. In late 2016, SiriusXM placed an order for two new satellites SXM-7 and SXM-8 which were intended to replace XM-3 and XM-4 and have the capability to deliver either Sirius or XM content to radio receivers. SXM-7 was launched December 13, 2020, via a SpaceX Falcon 9 (failed after being successfully placed into orbit), while SXM-8 was launched on June 6, 2021 (delayed due to failure of SXM-7).


title: Sirius XM

text: Sirius satellites broadcast within the S-band frequencies from 2.3200 to 2.3325 GHz, while XM radio uses adjacent frequencies 2.3325–2.3450 GHz.


title: Newt

text: A newt is a salamander in the subfamily Pleurodelinae. The terrestrial juvenile phase is called an eft. Unlike other members of the family Salamandridae, newts are semiaquatic, alternating between aquatic and terrestrial habitats. Not all aquatic salamanders are considered newts, however. More than 100 known species of newts are found in North America, Europe, North Africa and Asia. Newts metamorphose through three distinct developmental life stages: aquatic larva, terrestrial juvenile (eft), and adult. Adult newts have lizard-like bodies and return to the water every year to breed, otherwise living in humid, cover-rich land habitats.


title: Newt

text: Newts are threatened by habitat loss, fragmentation and pollution. Several species are endangered, and at least one species, the Yunnan lake newt, has become extinct recently.


title: Newt

text: this word was transformed irregularly into , , or . The initial "n" was added from the indefinite article "an" by provection (juncture loss) ("an eft" → "a n'eft" → ...) by the early 15th century. The form "newt" appears to have arisen as a dialectal variant of "eft" in Staffordshire, but entered Standard English by the Early Modern period (used by Shakespeare in "Macbeth" iv.1). The regular form "eft", now only used for newly metamorphosed specimens, survived alongside "newt", especially in composition, the larva being called "water-eft" and the mature form "land-eft" well into the 18th century, but the simplex "eft" as equivalent to "water-eft" has been in use since at least the 17th century.


title: Newt

text: Dialectal English and Scots also has the word "ask" (also "awsk", "esk" in Scots) used for both newts and wall lizards, from Old English "āþexe", from Proto-Germanic "*agiþahsijǭ", literally "lizard-badger" or "distaff-like lizard" (compare German "Eidechse" and "Echse", both "lizard;" "*agi-" is ultimately cognate with Greek "snake," from Proto-Indo-European "*h₁ogʷʰis"). Latin had the name "stellio" for a type of spotted newt, now used for species of the genus "Stellagama". Ancient Greek had the name , presumably for the water newt (immature newt, eft). German has , from Middle High German "mol", ":wikt:olm", like the English term of unknown etymology.


title: Newt

text: Newts are also known as "Tritones" (viz., named for the mythological Triton) in historical literature, and "triton" remains in use as common name in some Romance languages, in Greek, in Romanian, Russian, and Bulgarian. The systematic name "Tritones" was introduced alongside Pleurodelinae by Tschudi in 1838, based on the type genus named "Triton" by Laurenti in 1768. Laurenti's "Triton" was renamed to "Triturus" ("Triton-tail") by Rafinesque in 1815. Tschudi's Pleurodelinae is based on the type genus "Pleurodeles" (ribbed newt) named by Michahelles in 1830 (the name meaning "having prominent ribs," formed from "ribs" and "conspicuous").


title: Newt

text: Newts are found in North America, Europe, North Africa and Asia. The Pacific newts ("Taricha") and the Eastern newts ("Notophthalmus") with together seven species are the only representatives in North America, while most diversity is found in the Old World: In Europe and the Middle East, the group's likely origin, eight genera with roughly 30 species are found, with the ribbed newts ("Pleurodeles") extending to northernmost Africa. Eastern Asia, from Eastern India over Indochina to Japan, is home to five genera with more than 40 species.


title: Newt

text: Newts are semiaquatic, spending part of the year in the water for reproduction and the rest of the year on land. While most species prefer stagnant water bodies such as ponds, ditches, or flooded meadows for reproduction, some species such as the Danube crested newt can also occur in slow-flowing rivers. The European brook newts ("Calotriton") and European mountain newts ("Euproctus") have even adapted to life in cold, oxygen-rich mountain streams. During their terrestrial phase, newts live in humid habitats with abundant cover such as logs, rocks, or earth holes.


title: Newt

text: Newts share many of the characteristics of their salamander kin, Caudata, including semipermeable glandular skin, four equal-sized limbs, and a distinct tail. The newt's skin, however, is not as smooth as that of other salamanders. The cells at the site of an injury have the ability to undifferentiate, reproduce rapidly, and differentiate again to create a new limb or organ. One hypothesis is that the undifferentiated cells are related to tumor cells, since chemicals that produce tumors in other animals will produce additional limbs in newts.


title: Newt

text: The main breeding season for newts (in the Northern Hemisphere) is in June and July. A single newt female can produce hundreds of eggs. For instance, the warty newt can produce 200–300 eggs (Bradford 2017). After courtship rituals of varying complexity, which take place in ponds or slow-moving streams, the male newt transfers a spermatophore, which is taken up by the female. Fertilized eggs are laid singly and are usually attached to aquatic plants. This distinguishes them from the free-floating eggs of frogs or toads, which are laid in clumps or in strings. Plant leaves are usually folded over and attached to the eggs to protect them. The larvae, which resemble fish fry but are distinguished by their feathery external gills, hatch out in about three weeks. After hatching, they eat algae, small invertebrates, or other amphibian larvae.


title: Newt

text: During the subsequent few months, the larvae undergo metamorphosis, during which they develop legs, and the gills are absorbed and replaced by air-breathing lungs. Some species, such as the North American newts, also become more brightly colored during this phase. Once fully metamorphosed, they leave the water and live a terrestrial life, when they are known as "efts." Only when the eft reaches adulthood will the North American species return to live in water, rarely venturing back onto the land. Conversely, most European species live their adult lives on land and only visit water to breed.


title: Newt

text: Many newts produce toxins in their skin secretions as a defence mechanism against predators. "Taricha" newts of western North America are particularly toxic. The rough-skinned newt "Taricha granulosa" of the Pacific Northwest produces more than enough tetrodotoxin to kill an adult human, and some Native Americans of the Pacific Northwest used the toxin to poison their enemies. However, the toxins are only dangerous if ingested or otherwise enter the body; for example, through a wound. Newts can safely live in the same ponds or streams as frogs and other amphibians or be kept as pets. The only predators of "Taricha" newts are garter snakes, some having developed a resistance to the toxin. Most newts can be safely handled, provided the toxins they produce are not ingested or allowed to come in contact with mucous membranes or breaks in the skin.


title: Newt

text: Newts form one of three subfamilies in the family Salamandridae, aside Salamandrinae and Salamandrininae. They comprise most extant species in the family, roughly 100, which are classified in sixteen genera:


title: Newt

text: "Hypselotriton" and "Liangshantriton" are regarded as separate genera by some authors, but this is not unanimous.


title: Newt

text: The term "newt" has traditionally been seen as an exclusively functional term for salamanders living in water, and not a clade. Phylogenetic analyses have however shown that species in the Salamandridae traditionally called newts do form a monophyletic group. Other, more distantly related salamander families also contain fully or in part aquatic species, such as the mole salamanders, the Proteidae, or the Sirenidae.


title: Newt

text: Classification of all genera of the Pleurodelinae subfamily after Pyron and Weins, revised by Mikko Haaramo.


title: Newt

text: Phylogenetic analyses estimated the origin of the newt subfamily in the Late Cretaceous to Eocene. Several fossil salamanders have also been referred to the Pleurodelinae, including:


title: Newt

text: The heart of newts, like that of most amphibians, consists of two atria and one ventricle. Blood flows from the anterior and posterior caval veins into the right atrium; blood that entered the heart from the left atrium is then expelled out of the ventricle. Newts do not have a coronary artery on the ventricle, due to circulation that is found in the conus arteriosus. Newts contain a special circulatory adaptation that allows them to survive ventricular penetration: when a newt's ventricle is punctured, the heart will divert the blood directly into an ascending aorta via a duct located between the ventricle and the conus arteriosus. Newts begin to regenerate the ventricle by a thickening of the epicardial layer that protrudes to allow the new vessels to form, and conclude with a regeneration of the entire myocardial wall.


title: Newt

text: In early stages of development in amphibians, ventilator gas transport and hemoglobin gas transport are independent mechanisms and not yet coupled as they are in adulthood. In juvenile amphibians, there is no cardiovascular response in conditions of hypoxia. When newts are induced into anemia, they are able to respire without the need of blood cells. In "T. carnifex", around two weeks after anemia is induced, the newts produced a mass of cells that helps to revitalize the already circulating red blood cell mass.


title: Newt

text: Adult crested newts ("Triturus cristus") were found to breathe mainly via the skin but also through the lungs and the buccal cavity. Lung breathing is mainly used when there is a lack of oxygen in the water, or at high activity such as during courtship, breeding, or feeding.


title: Newt

text: A form of compensatory respiration is the ability to release stored erythrocytes when needed, for example under hypoxia. Spleen size can increase as the temperature declines for adults – in larvae, there is no dramatic change in spleen size. During hibernation, an increase in liver pigment cells allows for storage of oxygen, as well as other important ions and free radicals.


title: Newt

text: In experiments, dehydrated eastern newts were prone to a loss of motor control: After only 22% water weight loss, newts in the aquatic phase lost their ability to remain upright and mobile. However, after adaptation to a terrestrial phase, they could lose 30% before a loss of motor control was recorded. Newts in the terrestrial phase were found to dehydrate much quicker than newts in the aquatic phase, but conversely, during rehydration, dehydrated terrestrial animals will go through water gain 5x faster than dehydrated newts that are in the aquatic phase.


title: Newt

text: In the Italian crested newt, it was shown that during winter months, prolactin is released into the circulatory system, which drives the newts into the aquatic environment and reduces the active transport of sodium ions. In contrast to prolactin, which decreases osmotic permeability, vasotocin increases the permeability and is secreted during the summer months. Arginine vasotocin not only increases cutaneous water permeability, but promotes increased cutaneous blood flow.


title: Newt

text: Thermoregulation, in combination with seasonal acclimation, describes the major mechanisms of how newts, as ectotherms cope with the changing temperatures existing in their environments. This regulation is most often achieved through behavioral thermoregulation. They are thermoconformers, which means they will acclimate to their surrounding environmental temperatures. When there is a large range of environmental temperatures, newts are insensitive to a thermal gradient profile.


title: Newt

text: To escape predators, newt larvae have been found to shift their microhabitat to a temperature range that exists outside the predator's preferred temperature range. Larvae that are in the metamorphosizing stage tend to prefer warmer temperatures than those in the stage following metamorphosis. Therefore, the larvae in this stage will undergo a much more precise thermoregulation process than those in the intermediate stage.


title: Newt

text: Reproductive females of the Italian crested newt were shown to regulate their body temperature more precisely and prefer higher temperatures than non-reproductive females and males.


title: Newt

text: Larvae, with their great number of lamellae in their gills, are more susceptible to pollutants than adults. Cadmium, a heavy metal released into the environment from industrial and consumer waste, has been shown to be detrimental to the Italian crested newt even at a concentrations below Italian and European thresholds, by disrupting the activity of the adrenal gland. In experiments allowing Italian crested newts to be exposed to nonylphenol, an endocrine disruptor common in leakage from sewers, there was a decrease in corticosterone and aldosterone, hormones produced by the adrenal gland and important for stress response.


title: Newt

text: Although some species, such as the rough-skinned newt ("Taricha granulosa") in North America or the smooth newt ("Lissotriton vulgaris") in Europe, are still relatively common, populations of newts throughout their distribution range suffer from habitat loss, fragmentation, and pollution. This affects especially the aquatic breeding sites they depend on, but also their land habitats. Several species, such as the Edough ribbed newt ("Pleurodeles poireti"), Kaiser's spotted newt ("Neurergus kaiseri"), or the Montseny brook newt ("Calotriton arnoldi") are considered threatened by the IUCN, and the Yunnan lake newt is an example of a newt species that has gone extinct recently.


title: Newt

text: Some newt populations in Europe have decreased because of pollution or destruction of their breeding sites and terrestrial habitats, and countries such as the UK have taken steps to halt their declines. In the UK, they are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and the Habitat Regulations Act 1994. It is illegal to catch, possess, or handle great crested newts without a licence, or to cause them harm or death, or to disturb their habitat in any way. The IUCN Red List categorises the species as ‘lower risk’


title: Newt

text: Although the other UK species, the smooth newt and palmate newt are not listed, the sale of either species is prohibited under the Wildlife and Countryside Act, 1981.


title: Newt

text: In Europe, nine newts are listed as "strictly protected fauna species" under appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats:


title: Newt

text: Newts, as with salamanders in general and other amphibians, serve as bioindicators because of their thin, sensitive skin and evidence of their presence (or absence) can serve as an indicator of the health of the environment. Most species are highly sensitive to subtle changes in the pH level of the streams and lakes where they live. Because their skin is permeable to water, they absorb oxygen and other substances they need through their skin. Scientists study the stability of the amphibian population when studying the water quality of a particular body of water.


title: Newt

text: Chinese warty newts, Chinese fire belly newts, eastern newts, paddletail newts, Japanese fire belly newts, Chuxiong fire-bellied newts, "Triturus" species, emperor newts, Spanish ribbed newts (leucistic genes exist), and red-tailed knobby newts are some commonly seen newts in the pet trade. Some newts rarely seen in the pet trade are rough-skinned newts, Kaiser's spotted newts, banded newts and yellow-spotted newts.


title: Janata Dal

text: Janata Dal (“People’s Party”) was an Indian political party which was formed through the merger of Janata Party factions, the Lok Dal, Indian National Congress (Jagjivan), and the Jan Morcha united on 11 October 1988 on the birth anniversary of Jayaprakash Narayan under the leadership of V. P. Singh.


title: Janata Dal

text: V. P. Singh united the entire disparate spectrum of parties ranging from regional parties such as the Telugu Desam Party, the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, and the Asom Gana Parishad, together and formed the National Front with N. T. Rama Rao as Indian Election History President and V. P. Singh as convenor with outside support from the (Right-wing Political party) Bharatiya Janata Party and (Left-wing Political party) Communist Party of India, Communist Party of India (Marxist) led Left front. They defeated Rajiv Gandhi's Congress (I) in the 1989 parliamentary elections.


title: Janata Dal

text: His government fell after Lalu Prasad Yadav, got Advani arrested in Samastipur and stopped his "Ram Rath Yatra" which was going to Ayodhya on the site of the Babri Masjid on October 23, 1990 and the Bharatiya Janata Party withdrew support. V.P. Singh lost a parliamentary vote of confidence on November 7, 1990.


title: Janata Dal

text: In the 1991 Indian general election the Janata Dal lost power but emerged as the third largest party in Lok Sabha.


title: Janata Dal

text: Janata Dal-led United Front formed the government after the 1996 Indian general election with the outside support of the Indian National Congress. But after this the Janata Dal gradually disintegrated into various smaller factions, largely regional parties Biju Janata Dal, Rashtriya Janata Dal, Janata Dal (Secular) and Janata Dal (United).


title: Janata Dal

text: It first came to power in 1989, after allegations of corruption, known as the Bofors scandal, caused Rajiv Gandhi's Congress (I) to lose the elections. The National Front coalition that was formed consisted of the Janata Dal and a few smaller parties in the government, and had outside support from the Left Front and the Bharatiya Janata Party. V. P. Singh was the prime minister. In November 1990, this coalition collapsed, and a new government headed by Chandra Shekhar under Samajwadi Janata Party (Rashtriya) which had the support of the congress came to power for a short while. Two days before the vote, Chandra Shekhar, an ambitious Janata Dal rival who had been kept out of the National Front government, joined with Devi Lal, a former deputy prime minister under V.P. Singh, to form the Samajwadi Janata Party, with a total of just sixty Lok Sabha members. The day after the collapse of the National Front government, Chandra Shekhar informed the president that by gaining the backing of the Congress (I) and its electoral allies he enjoyed the support of 280 members of the Lok Sabha, and he demanded the right to constitute a new government. Even though his rump party accounted for only one-ninth of the members of the Lok Sabha, Chandra Shekhar succeeded in forming a new minority Government and becoming Prime Minister (with Devi Lal as deputy prime minister). However, Chandra Shekhar's government fell less than four months later, after the Congress (I) withdrew its support.


title: Janata Dal

text: Its second spell of power began in 1996, when the Janata Dal-led United Front coalition came to power, with outside support from the congress under Sitaram Kesri, choosing H. D. Deve Gowda as their prime minister. The congress withdrew their support in less than a year, hoping to gain power with the support of various United Front constituent groups, and I. K. Gujral became the next prime minister. His government too fell in a few months, and in February 1998, the Janata Dal-led coalition lost power to the Bharatiya Janata Party.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Ash Wednesday is a holy day of prayer and fasting in many Western Christian denominations. It is preceded by Shrove Tuesday and falls on the first day of Lent (the six weeks of penitence before Easter). It is observed by Catholics in the Roman Rite, Lutherans, Moravians, Anglicans, Methodists, Nazarenes, as well as by some churches in the Reformed tradition (including certain Congregationalist, Continental Reformed, and Presbyterian churches).


title: Ash Wednesday

text: As it is the first day of Lent, many Christians begin Ash Wednesday by marking a Lenten calendar, praying a Lenten daily devotional, and making a Lenten sacrifice that they will not partake of until the arrival of Eastertide.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Many Christians attend special church services, at which churchgoers receive ash on their foreheads. Ash Wednesday derives its name from this practice, which is accompanied by the words, "Repent, and believe in the Gospel" or the dictum "Remember that you are dust, and to dust you shall return." The ashes are prepared by burning palm leaves from the previous year's Palm Sunday celebrations.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Ash Wednesday is observed by numerous denominations within Western Christianity. Roman Rite Roman Catholics observe it, along with certain Protestants like Lutherans, Anglicans, some Reformed churches, some Baptists, Methodists (including Nazarenes and Wesleyans), the Evangelical Covenant Church, and some Mennonites. The Moravian Church and Metropolitan Community Churches observe Ash Wednesday. Churches in the United Protestant tradition, such as the Church of North India and United Church of Canada honour Ash Wednesday too. Some Independent Catholics, and the Community of Christ also observe it.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Reformed churches have historically not observed Ash Wednesday, nor Lent in general, due to the Reformed regulative principle of worship. Nevertheless, some churches in the Reformed tradition do observe Lent today, although often as a voluntary observance. The Reformed Church in America, for example, describes Ash Wednesday as a day "focused on prayer, fasting, and repentance." The liturgy for Ash Wednesday thus contains the following "Invitation to Observe a Lenten Discipline" read by the presider:


title: Ash Wednesday

text: The Eastern Orthodox Church does not, in general, observe Ash Wednesday; instead, Orthodox Great Lent begins on Clean Monday. There are, however, a relatively small number of Orthodox Christians who follow the Western Rite; these do observe Ash Wednesday, although often on a different day from the previously mentioned denominations, as its date is determined from the Orthodox calculation of Pascha, which may be as much as a month later than the Western observance of Easter.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Many Lent-observing denominations emphasize making a Lenten sacrifice, as well as fasting and abstinence during the season of Lent, particularly on Ash Wednesday. The First Council of Nicaea spoke of Lent as a period of fasting for forty days in advance of Easter, although it is unclear whether the prescribed fast applied to all Christians, or specifically to new Christians preparing to be baptized. Whatever the Council's original intent, this forty-day fast came into wide practice throughout the church.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: While starting a Lenten sacrifice on Ash Wednesday (e.g. giving up watching television), it is customary to pray for strength to keep it through the whole season of Lent; many often wish others for doing so as well, e.g. "May God bless your Lenten sacrifice." In many places, Christians historically abstained from food for a whole day until the evening, and at sunset, Western Christians traditionally broke the Lenten fast, which is often known as the Black Fast. In India and Pakistan, many Christians continue this practice of fasting until sunset on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, with some fasting in this manner throughout the whole season of Lent. After attending a worship service (often on Wednesday evenings), it is common for Christians of various denominations that celebrate Lent to break that day's Lenten fast together through a communal Lenten supper, which is held in the church's parish hall.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: In the Roman Catholic Church, Ash Wednesday is observed by fasting, abstinence from meat (which begins at age 14 according to canon law 1252), and repentance. On Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, Roman Catholics between the ages of 18 and 59 (whose health enables them to fast) are permitted to consume one full meal, along with two smaller meals, which together should not equal the full meal. Some Catholics will go beyond the minimum obligations put forth by the Church and undertake a complete fast or a bread and water fast until sunset. Ash Wednesday and Good Friday are also days of abstinence from meat (mammals and fowl), as are all Fridays during Lent. Some Roman Catholics continue fasting throughout Lent, as was the Church's traditional requirement, concluding only after the celebration of the Easter Vigil. Where the Ambrosian Rite is observed, the day of fasting and abstinence is postponed to the first Friday in the Ambrosian Lent, nine days later.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: A number of Lutheran parishes teach communicants to fast on Ash Wednesday, with some parishioners choosing to continue doing so throughout the entire season of Lent, especially on Good Friday. One Lutheran congregation's "A Handbook for the Discipline of Lent" recommends that the faithful "Fast on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday with only one simple meal during the day, usually without meat".


title: Ash Wednesday

text: In the Church of England, and throughout much of the Worldwide Anglican Communion, the entire forty days of Lent are designated days of fasting, while the Fridays are also designated as days of abstinence in the 1662 "Book of Common Prayer". "Saint Augustine's Prayer Book", a resource for Anglo-Catholics, defines "Fasting" as "usually meaning not more than a light breakfast, one full meal, and one half meal, on the forty days of Lent." The same text defines abstinence as refraining from flesh meat on all Fridays of the Church Year, except for those during Christmastide.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: In the Methodist tradition, John Wesley's sermons on the topic of the Sermon on the Mount stress the importance of the Lenten fast, which begins on Ash Wednesday. The United Methodist Church therefore states that:


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Rev. Jacqui King, the minister of Nu Faith Community United Methodist Church in Houston explained the philosophy of fasting during Lent as "I'm not skipping a meal because in place of that meal I'm actually dining with God".


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Members of the Moravian Church may voluntarily fast during the season of Lent, along with making a Lenten sacrifice for the season as a form of penitence.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Lent is 40 days long, not including Sundays; according to the calendar, that means the season is 46 days long overall. Lent begins on Ash Wednesday and ends on Holy Saturday (in the Moravian Church, Lutheran Church, Anglican Church, Methodist Church, Reformed Churches (Continental Reformed, Presbyterian and Congregationalist), Western Rite Orthodox Church, and United Protestant Churches) or at the start of the Easter Triduum on the evening of Maundy Thursday in the Catholic Church. Ash Wednesday is always 46 days before Easter, and Easter is determined as the Sunday following the first full moon that happens on or after the March equinox, which is always March 21 in the Christian Church calendars.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Ashes are ceremonially placed on the heads of Christians on Ash Wednesday, either by being sprinkled over their heads or, in English-speaking countries, more often by being marked on their foreheads as a visible cross. The words (based on Genesis 3:19) used traditionally to accompany this gesture are, ""Memento, homo, quia pulvis es, et in pulverem reverteris."" ("Remember, man, that thou art dust, and to dust thou shalt return.") This custom is credited to Pope Gregory I the Great (c. 540–604)., although this is probably incorrect since Ash Wednesday was not part of Lent in his time. In the 1969 revision of the Roman Rite, an alternative formula (based on Mark 1:15) was introduced and given first place "Repent, and believe in the Gospel" and the older formula was translated as "Remember that you are dust, and to dust you shall return." The old formula, based on the words spoken to Adam and Eve after their sin, reminds worshippers of their sinfulness and mortality and thus, implicitly, of their need to repent in time.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Various manners of placing the ashes on worshippers' heads are in use within the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, the two most common being to use the ashes to make a cross on the forehead and sprinkling the ashes over the crown of the head. Originally, the ashes were strewn over men's heads, but, probably because women had their heads covered in church, were placed on the foreheads of women. In the Catholic Church the manner of imposing ashes depends largely on local custom, since no fixed rule has been laid down. Although the account of Ælfric of Eynsham shows that in about the year 1000 the ashes were "strewn" on the head, the marking of the forehead is the method that now prevails in English-speaking countries and is the only one envisaged in the "Occasional Offices" of the Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea, a publication described as "noticeably Anglo-Catholic in character". In its ritual of "Blessing of Ashes", this states that "the ashes are blessed at the beginning of the Eucharist; and after they have been blessed they are placed on the forehead of the clergy and people." The Ash Wednesday ritual of the Church of England, Mother Church of the Anglican Communion, contains "The Imposition of Ashes" in its Ash Wednesday liturgy. On Ash Wednesday, the Pope, the Bishop of Rome, traditionally takes part in a penitential procession from the Church of Saint Anselm to the Basilica of Santa Sabina, where, in accordance with the custom in Italy and many other countries, ashes are sprinkled on his head, not smudged on his forehead, and he places ashes on the heads of others in the same way.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: The Anglican ritual, used in Papua New Guinea states that, after the blessing of the ashes, "the priest marks his own forehead and then the foreheads of the servers and congregation who come and kneel, or stand, where they normally receive the Blessed Sacrament." The corresponding Catholic ritual in the Roman Missal for celebration within Mass merely states: "Then the Priest places ashes on the head of those present who come to him, and says to each one ..." Pre-1970 editions had much more elaborate instructions about the order in which the participants were to receive the ashes, but again without any indication of the form of placing the ashes on the head.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: The 1969 revision of the Roman Rite inserted into the Mass the solemn ceremony of blessing ashes and placing them on heads, but also explicitly envisaged a similar solemn ceremony outside of Mass. The Book of Blessings contains a simple rite. While the solemn rite would normally be carried out within a church building, the simple rite could appropriately be used almost anywhere. While only a priest or deacon may bless the ashes, laypeople may do the placing of the ashes on a person's head. Even in the solemn rite, lay men or women may assist the priest in distributing the ashes. In addition, laypeople take blessed ashes left over after the collective ceremony and place them on the head of the sick or of others who are unable to attend the blessing. (In 2014, Anglican Liverpool Cathedral likewise offered to impose ashes within the church without a solemn ceremony.)


title: Ash Wednesday

text: In addition, those who attend such Catholic services, whether in a church or elsewhere, traditionally take blessed ashes home with them to place on the heads of other members of the family, and it is recommended to have envelopes available to facilitate this practice. At home the ashes are then placed with little or no ceremony.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Unlike its discipline regarding sacraments, the Catholic Church does not exclude anyone from receiving sacramentals, such as the placing of ashes on the head, even those who are not Catholics and perhaps not even baptized. Even those who have been excommunicated and are therefore forbidden to "celebrate" sacramentals are not forbidden to "receive" them. After describing the blessing, the rite of Blessing and Distribution of Ashes (within Mass) states: "Then the Priest places ashes on the heads of all those present who come to him." The Catholic Church does not limit distribution of blessed ashes to within church buildings and has suggested the holding of celebrations in shopping centres, nursing homes, and factories. Such celebrations presume preparation of an appropriate area and include readings from Scripture (at least one) and prayers, and are somewhat shorter if the ashes are already blessed.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: The Catholic Church and the Methodist Church say that the ashes should be those of palm branches blessed at the previous year's Palm Sunday service, while a Church of England publication says they "may be made" from the burnt palm crosses of the previous year. These sources do not speak of adding anything to the ashes other than, for the Catholic liturgy, a sprinkling with holy water when blessing them. An Anglican website speaks of mixing the ashes with a small amount of holy water or olive oil as a fixative.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Where ashes are placed on the head by smudging the forehead with a sign of the cross, many Christians choose to keep the mark visible throughout the day. The churches have not imposed this as an obligatory rule, and the ashes may even be wiped off immediately after receiving them; but some Christian leaders, such as Lutheran pastor Richard P. Bucher and Catholic bishop Kieran Conry, recommend keeping the ashes on the forehead for the rest of the day as a public profession of the Christian faith. Morgan Guyton, a Methodist pastor and leader in the Red-Letter Christian movement, encourages Christians to wear their ashed cross throughout the day as an exercise of religious freedom.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Since 2007, some members of major Christian Churches in the United States, including Anglicans, Lutherans, and Methodists, have participated in 'Ashes to Go' activities, in which clergy go outside of their churches to public places, such as city centres, sidewalks and railroad stations, to distribute ashes to passers-by, even to people waiting in their cars for a stoplight to change. The Anglican priest Emily Mellott of Calvary Church in Lombard took up the idea and turned it into a movement, stated that the practice was also an act of evangelism. Anglicans and Catholics in parts of the United Kingdom such as Sunderland, are offering Ashes to Go together: Marc Lyden-Smith, the priest of Saint Mary's Church, stated that the ecumenical effort is a "tremendous witness in our city, with Catholics and Anglicans working together to start the season of Lent, perhaps reminding those who have fallen away from the Church, or have never been before, that the Christian faith is alive and active in Sunderland." The Catholic Student Association of Kent State University, based at the University Parish Newman Center, offered ashes to university students who were going through the Student Center of that institution in 2012, and Douglas Clark of St. Matthew's Roman Catholic Church in Statesboro, among others, have participated in Ashes to Go. On Ash Wednesday 2017, Father Paddy Mooney, the priest of St Patrick's Roman Catholic Church in the Irish town of Glenamaddy, set up an Ashes to Go station through which commuters could drive and receive ashes from their car; the parish church also had "drive-through prayers during Lent with people submitting requests into a box left in the church grounds without having to leave their car". Reverend Trey Hall, pastor of Urban Village United Methodist Church, stated that when his local church offered ashes in Chicago "nearly 300 people received ashesincluding two people who were waiting in their car for a stoplight to change." In 2013, churches not only in the United States, but also at least one church each in the United Kingdom, Canada and South Africa, participated in Ashes to Go. Outside of their church building, Saint Stephen Martyr Lutheran Church in Canton offered Ashes to Go for "believers whose schedules make it difficult to attend a traditional service" in 2016. In the United States itself 34 states and the District of Columbia had at least one church taking part. Most of these churches (parishes) were Episcopal, but there were also several Methodist churches, as well as Presbyterian and Catholic churches.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Robin Knowles Wallace states that the traditional Ash Wednesday church service includes Psalm 51 (the "Miserere"), prayers of confession and the sign of ashes. No single one of the traditional services contains all of these elements. The Anglican church's traditional Ash Wednesday service, titled "A Commination", contains the first two elements, but not the third. On the other hand, the Catholic Church's traditional service has the blessing and distribution of ashes but, while prayers of confession and recitation of Psalm 51 (the first psalm at Lauds on all penitential days, including Ash Wednesday) are a part of its general traditional Ash Wednesday liturgy, they are not associated specifically with the rite of blessing the ashes. The rite of blessing has acquired an untraditionally weak association with that particular psalm only since 1970, when it was inserted into the celebration of Mass, at which a few verses of Psalm 51 are used as a responsorial psalm. Where the traditional Gregorian Chants are still used, the psalm continues to enjoy a prominent place in the ceremony.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: In the mid-16th century, the first Book of Common Prayer removed the ceremony of the ashes from the liturgy of the Church of England and replaced it with what would later be called the Commination Office. In that 1549 edition, the rite was headed: "The First Day of Lent: Commonly Called Ash-Wednesday". The ashes ceremony was not forbidden, but was not included in the church's official liturgy. Its place was taken by reading biblical curses of God against sinners, to each of which the people were directed to respond with Amen. The text of the "Commination or Denouncing of God's Anger and Judgments against Sinners" begins: "In the primitive Church there was a godly discipline, that, at the beginning of Lent, such persons as stood convicted of notorious sin were put to open penance, and punished in this world, that their souls might be saved in the day of the Lord; and that others, admonished by their example, might be the more afraid to offend. Instead whereof, until the said discipline may be restored again, (which is much to be wished,) it is thought good that at this time (in the presence of you all) should be read the general sentences of God's cursing against impenitent sinners". In line with this, Joseph Hooper Maude wrote that the establishment of "The Commination" was due to a desire of the reformers "to restore the primitive practice of public penance in church". He further stated that "the sentences of the greater excommunication" within "The Commination" corresponded to those used in the ancient Church. The Anglican Church's Ash Wednesday liturgy, he wrote, also traditionally included the "Miserere", which, along with "what follows" in the rest of the service (lesser Litany, Lord's Prayer, three prayers for pardon and final blessing), "was taken from the Sarum services for Ash Wednesday". From the Sarum Rite practice in England the service took Psalm 51 and some prayers that in the Sarum Missal accompanied the blessing and distribution of ashes. In the Sarum Rite, the "Miserere" psalm was one of the seven penitential psalms that were recited at the beginning of the ceremony. In the 20th century, the Episcopal Church introduced three prayers from the Sarum Rite and omitted the Commination Office from its liturgy.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: In some of the low church traditions, other practices are sometimes added or substituted, as other ways of symbolizing the confession and penitence of the day. For example, in one common variation, small cards are distributed to the congregation on which people are invited to write a sin they wish to confess. These small cards are brought forth to the altar table where they are burned.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: In the Victorian era, theatres refrained from presenting costumed shows on Ash Wednesday, so they provided other entertainment, as mandated by the Church of England (Anglican Church).


title: Ash Wednesday

text: In Iceland, children "pin small bags of ashes on the back of some unsuspecting person", dress up in costumes, and sing songs for candy.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Ashes were used in ancient times to express grief. When Tamar was raped by her half-brother, "she sprinkled ashes on her head, tore her robe, and with her face buried in her hands went away crying" (). The gesture was also used to express sorrow for sins and faults. Ashes could be symbolic of the old sinful self dying and returning to the dust. In Job , Job says to God: "I have heard of thee by the hearing of the ear: but now mine eye seeth thee. Wherefore I abhor myself, and repent in dust and ashes." The prophet Jeremiah calls for repentance by saying: "O daughter of my people, gird on sackcloth, roll in the ashes" (Jer 6:26). The prophet Daniel recounted pleading to God: "I turned to the Lord God, pleading in earnest prayer, with fasting, sackcloth and ashes" (Daniel 9:3). Just prior to the New Testament period, the rebels fighting for Jewish independence, the Maccabees, prepared for battle using ashes: "That day they fasted and wore sackcloth; they sprinkled ashes on their heads and tore their clothes" (1 Maccabees 3:47; see also 4:39).


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Examples of the practice among Jews are found in several other books of the Bible, including Numbers , , Jonah , Book of Esther , and Hebrews . Jesus is quoted as speaking of the practice in Matthew and Luke : "If the mighty works done in you had been done in Tyre and Sidon, they would have repented long ago (sitting) in sackcloth and ashes."


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Christians continued the practice of using ashes as an external sign of repentance. Tertullian (c. 225) said that confession of sin should be accompanied by lying in sackcloth and ashes. The historian Eusebius (c. 260/265339/340) recounts how a repentant apostate covered himself with ashes when begging Pope Zephyrinus to readmit him to communion.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: John W. Fenton writes that "by the end of the 10th century, it was customary in Western Europe (but not yet in Rome) for all the faithful to receive ashes on the first day of the Lenten fast. In 1091, this custom was then ordered by Pope Urban II at the council of Benevento to be extended to the church in Rome. Not long after that, the name of the day was referred to in the liturgical books as "Feria Quarta Cinerum" (i.e., Ash Wednesday)."


title: Ash Wednesday

text: The public penance that grave sinners underwent before being admitted to Holy Communion just before Easter lasted throughout Lent, on the first day of which they were sprinkled with ashes and dressed in sackcloth. When, towards the end of the first millennium, the discipline of public penance was dropped, the beginning of Lent, seen as a general penitential season, was marked by sprinkling ashes on the heads of all. This practice is found in the Gregorian Sacramentary of the late 8th century. About two centuries later, Ælfric of Eynsham, an Anglo-Saxon abbot, wrote of the rite of strewing ashes on heads at the start of Lent.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: The article on Ash Wednesday in the "Encyclopædia Britannica" Eleventh Edition states that, after the Protestant Reformation, the ashes ceremony was not forbidden in the Church of England; liturgical scholar Blair Meeks notes that the Lutheran and Anglican denominations "never lapsed in this observance". It was even prescribed under King Henry VIII in 1538 and under King Edward VI in 1550, but it fell out of use in many areas after 1600. In 1536, the Ten Articles issued by authority of Henry VIII commended "the observance of various rites and ceremonies as good and laudable, such as clerical vestments, sprinkling of holy water, bearing of candles on Candlemas-day, giving of ashes on Ash-Wednesday". After Henry's death in January 1547, Thomas Cranmer, within the same year, "procured an order from the Council to forbid the carrying of candles on Candlemas-day, and the use of ashes on Ash-Wednesday, and of palms on Palm-Sunday, as superstitious ceremonies", an order that was issued only for the ecclesiastical province of Canterbury, of which Cranmer was archbishop. "The Church Cyclopædia" states that the "English office had adapted the very old Salisbury service for Ash-Wednesday, prefacing it with an address and a recital of the curses of Mount Ebal, and then with an exhortation uses the older service very nearly as it stood." The new Commination Office had no blessing of ashes and therefore, in England as a whole, "soon after the Reformation, the use of ashes was discontinued as a 'vain show' and Ash Wednesday then became only a day of marked solemnity, with a memorial of its original character in a reading of the curses denounced against impenitent sinners". The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America, in the 19th century, observed Ash Wednesday: "as a day of fasting and humiliation, wherein we are publicly to confess our sins, meekly to implore God's mercy and forgiveness, and humbly to intercede for the continuance of his favour". In the 20th century, the Book of Common Prayer provided prayers for the imposition of ashes.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Monte Canfield and Blair Meeks state that after the Protestant Reformation, Lutherans and Anglicans kept the rite of blessing and distributing ashes to the faithful on Ash Wednesday, and that the Protestant denominations that did not keep it, such as the Methodists, encouraged its use "during and after the ecumenical era that resulted in the Vatican II proclamations". Jack Kingsbury and Russell F. Anderson likewise state that the practice was continued among some Lutherans and Anglicans.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: As part of the liturgical revival ushered in by the ecumenical movement, the practice was encouraged in Protestant churches, including the Methodist Church. It has also been adopted by Anabaptist and Reformed churches and some less liturgical denominations.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: The Eastern Orthodox churches generally do not observe Ash Wednesday, although in recent times, the creation of the Antiochian Western Rite Vicariate has led to the observance of Ash Wednesday among Western Orthodox parishes. In this tradition, ashes "may be distributed outside of the mass or any liturgical service" although "commonly the faithful receive their ashes immediately before the Ash Wednesday mass". In Orthodoxy, historically, "serious public sinners in the East also donned sackcloth, including those who made the Great Fast a major theme of their entire lives such as hermits and desert-dwellers." Byzantine Rite Catholics, although in the United States use "the same Gregorian calendar as the Roman Catholic rite", do not practice the distribution of ashes as it is "not part of their ancient tradition".


title: Ash Wednesday

text: In the Ambrosian Rite, ashes are blessed and placed on the heads of the faithful not on the day that elsewhere is called Ash Wednesday, but at the end of Mass on the following Sunday, which in that rite inaugurates Lent, with the fast traditionally beginning on Monday, the first weekday of the Ambrosian Lent.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Ash Wednesday is exactly 46 days before Easter Sunday, a moveable feast based on the cycles of the moon. The earliest date Ash Wednesday can occur is 4 February (which is only possible during a common year with Easter on 22 March), which happened in 1598, 1693, 1761 and 1818 and will next occur in 2285. The latest date Ash Wednesday can occur is 10 March (when Easter Day falls on 25 April) which occurred in 1666, 1734, 1886 and 1943 and will next occur in 2038.


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Since the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in 1582, Ash Wednesday has never occurred on Leap Year Day (29 February) but it will do so for the first time in 2096. The only other years of the third millennium that will have Ash Wednesday on 29 February are 2468, 2688, 2840 and 2992. (Ash Wednesday falls on 29 February if and only if Easter is on 15 April in a leap year.)


title: Ash Wednesday

text: Ash Wednesday marks the start of a 40-day period which is an allusion to the separation of Jesus in the desert to fast and pray. During this time he was tempted. , , and . While not specifically instituted in the Bible text, the 40-day period of fast and pray is also analogous to the 40 days during which Moses repented and fasted in response to the making of the Golden calf (Exo. 34:27–28). (Jews today follow a 40-day period of repenting in preparation for and during the High Holy Days from Rosh Chodesh Elul to Yom Kippur.)


title: Ash Wednesday

text: In the Republic of Ireland, Ash Wednesday is National No Smoking Day. The date was chosen because quitting smoking ties in with giving up a luxury for Lent, and because of the link between ash and smoking. In the United Kingdom, No Smoking Day was held for the first time on Ash Wednesday in 1984 but is now fixed as the second Wednesday in March.


title: Education in South Korea

text: Education in South Korea is provided by both public schools and private schools. Both types of schools receive funding from the government, although the amount that the private schools receive is less than the amount of the state schools.


title: Education in South Korea

text: South Korea is one of the top-performing OECD countries in reading, literacy, mathematics and sciences with the average student scoring about 519, compared with the OECD average of 493, which ranks Korean education at ninth place in the world. The country has one of the world's highest-educated labor forces among OECD countries. South Korea is well known for its high standards about education, which has come to be called "education fever". The nation is consistently ranked amongst the top for global education.


title: Education in South Korea

text: Higher education is a overwhelmingly serious issue in South Korean society, where it's viewed as one of the fundamental capstone of South Korean life. Education is regarded as a high priority for South Korean families, as success in education is crucial for improving one's socioeconomic position in South Korean society. Academic success is often a source of pride for families and within South Korean society at large. South Koreans view education as the main propeller of social mobility for themselves and their family as a gateway to the South Korean middle class. Graduating from a top university is the ultimate indication of prestige, high socioeconomic status, promising marriage prospects, and a prestigious and respectable white collar career path. Many South Korean parents hold high educational expectations for their children, emphasize academic achievement and actively monitor in their children's academic performance by ensuring that their children receive top grades in school to have the potential to qualify and enroll in the nation's most prestigious universities. To uphold the family honor and tradition, many South Korean children are expected to go to university and pursue a prestigious white-collar occupation as their future career choice. An average South Korean child's life revolves around education as the parental demands to succeed academically is deeply ingrained in South Koreans from an early age. Students are faced with immense pressure to succeed academically from their parents, teachers, peers and society. This is largely a result of a society that has emphasized a great premium of importance on higher education, as those lacking formal university education often face social prejudice as well as significant life-long consequences such as stagnant and lower socioeconomic status, diminishing marriage prospects, and low probabilities of securing a respectable white collar and professional career path.


title: Education in South Korea

text: In 2016, the country spent 5.4% of its GDP on all levels of education – roughly 0.4 percentage points above the OECD average. A strong investment in education, a militant drive and desire to achieve academic success, as well as the passion for academic excellence has helped the resource poor country rapidly grow its economy over the past 70 years from the effects of the Korean War. South Korea's zeal for education and its students' desires to get into a prestigious university is one of the highest in the world, as the entrance into a top tier higher educational institution leads to a prestigious, secure and well-paid professional white collar job with the South Korean government, bank, or a well-known South Korean conglomerate company such as Samsung, Hyundai and LG Electronics. With incredible pressure on high school students to secure places at the nation's best universities, its institutional reputation, campus facilities and equipment, endowment, faculty, and alumni networks are strong predictors of future career prospects. The top three universities in South Korea, often referred to as "SKY", are Seoul National University, Korea University and Yonsei University. Intense competition and pressure to earn the highest grades is deeply ingrained in the psyche of South Korean students at a young age. Yet with only so many places at universities and even fewer places at top-tier companies, many young South Koreans remain disappointed and are often unwilling to lower their sights with the result of many feeling as underachievers as not commensurate with the amount of effort that they put in. There is a major cultural taboo in South Korean society attached to those who have not achieved formal university education, as those who don't hold university degrees face social prejudice and are often looked down by others as second-class citizens, resulting fewer opportunities for employment, improvement of one's socioeconomic position, and auspicious prospects for marriage.


title: Education in South Korea

text: International reception on the South Korean education system has been divided. It has been praised for various reasons, including its comparatively high test results and its major role in ushering South Korea's economic development while creating one of the world's most educated workforces. South Korea's highly enviable academic performance has gotten British education ministers actively remodeling their own curriculums and exams to try to emulate Korea's militant drive and passion for excellence and high educational achievement. Former U.S. President Barack Obama has also praised the country's rigorous school system, where over 80 percent of South Korean high school graduates go on to enroll at a university. The nation's high university entrance rate has created a highly skilled workforce making South Korea among the most highly educated countries in the world with the one of the highest percentage of its citizens per capita holding a tertiary education degree. Large majorities of South Korean students go on to enroll in some form of tertiary education and leave higher education graduating with a tertiary qualification. In 2017, South Korea ranked fifth for the percentage of 25 to 64-year-olds that have attained tertiary education with 47.7 percent. 69.8 percent of South Koreans aged 25 to 34 years old have completed some form of tertiary education with 34.2 percent of South Koreans aged 25 to 64 having attained a bachelor's degree which is one of the highest among OECD countries.


title: Education in South Korea

text: The system's rigid and hierarchical structure has been criticized for stifling creativity and innovation; described as intensely and "brutally" competitive, The system is often blamed for the high suicide rate in South Korea, particularly the growing rates among those aged 10–19. Various media outlets attribute the nation's high suicide rate on the nationwide anxiety around the country's college entrance exams, which determine the trajectory of students' entire lives and careers, though teenage suicide rates (ages 15–19) still remain below those of the United States and Canada. Former South Korean "hagwon" teacher Se-Woong Koo wrote that the South Korean education system amounts to child abuse and that it should be "reformed and restructured without delay". The system has also been criticized for producing an excess supply of university graduates creating an overeducated and underemployed labor force; in the first quarter of 2013 alone, nearly 3.3 million South Korean university graduates were jobless, leading many graduates overqualified for jobs requiring less education. Further criticism has been stemmed for causing labor shortages in various skilled blue collar labor and vocational occupations, where many go unfilled as the negative social stigma associated with vocational careers and not having a university degree continues to remain deep-rooted in South Korean society.


title: Education in South Korea

text: Education has been present throughout the history of Korea (1945–present). Public schools and private schools have both been present. Modern reforms to education began in the late 19th century. Since its early history, Korean education has been influenced significantly by Confucian values particularly in its emphasis of formal learning and scholarship through China more than fifteen centuries ago. Confucianism instilled facilities like governance of men by merit, social mobility through education, and the civil examination system based on the system that was developed in China during the Tang Dynasty. As a result, written word and mastery of Chinese classics and literacy became the primary method in choosing individuals for bureaucratic positions, gaining them a respective social status and privileges.


title: Education in South Korea

text: The Chosun period was significant in shaping the dynamics and foundation of the Korean education system in that it established schools that ingrained loyalty, orthodoxy, and motivation for official recruitment into its students. The primary means to receive an education during the Chosun period were through village schools (sodang; sojae) and through private tutoring. The sodang was the most common method of formal education in Korea until the late twentieth century, and was usually available only to a handful of neighborhood boys starting at around age seven. In the middle of the sixteenth century, however, the role of official schools gradually declined with the emergence of private academies (sowon), which usually functioned as rural retreats and centers of learning until the majority of them were closed in the 1870s in an effort to centralize authority.


title: Education in South Korea

text: Preparing students for competitive examinations were pronounced during the Chosun era as a means of social mobility and selection of official positions, and remained a basic tenet in Korean education throughout its history. However, this extreme emphasis on education and meritocracy was contrasted by hereditary aristocracy during the Chosun period, where bloodlines and kinship were particularly pronounced. Due to Confucian influences, however, education was able to maintain a fairly equalizing presence over society because of its belief in each individual being capable of benefitting from formal education and achieving enlightenment. Education was also dominated by the exalted scholar-teacher relationship, where teachers held almost a sacred status and were seen as a principal source of ethical counsel. This convention also engendered the tradition of "remonstrance", which obligated the scholar to criticize the actions of the government and even the king in order to avoid threatening the Confucian-inspired concept of the moral order of the universe.


title: Education in South Korea

text: The dynastic period did not prioritize special or technical training, and thus a preference for a non-specialized and literary education has remained in Korea. Many of these developments were pronounced towards the end of the 19th century when the Chosun dynasty began implementing a Western-style education system as a result of the intrusion of foreign powers into Korea. By 1904, public education was largely confined to Seoul, which was generally resisted by the public as well as government officials. This maintained the dominance of sodang and other traditional institutions as the primary means to receive a formal education. However, as a result of financial support from members of the royal family and American missionary activities and schools, the number of schools began to increase in the early 1900s. As a means to promote basic literacy among its citizens, Korea also introduced mixed script of Hangeul and Chinese characters into its instruction.


title: Education in South Korea

text: During the Japanese occupation (1905–1945), Korea was able to establish a comprehensive and modern system of national education through centralization and deliberate planning of integrating Japanese occupational professionalism and values. However, there were severe restrictions like the lack of access to education beyond the elementary level for Koreans and the manipulation of education to indoctrinate Korean subjects to be loyal to the Japanese empire, which led to turmoil and discontent among Koreans who were forced to assimilate. The Japanese emphasized low-level and non-professional track schooling for Koreans which was pronounced by the Educational Ordinance of 1911, where Japanese residents had fourteen years of schooling available while Koreans only had eight years available to them, unless they were civil servants wherein eleven was the maximum. Schooling was primarily based on Japanese values, literacy, and history as an attempt to make young Koreans loyal to the Japanese state and indirectly wipe out Korean culture and history. As a minor development, the Educational Ordinance of 1922 was enacted, which reopened the Seoul Teachers' School, extended elementary and secondary education, and added college preparatory or advanced technical training to the curriculum.


title: Education in South Korea

text: Higher education became a central issue for upper-class and upwardly mobile Koreans, who were provided very limited access to these institutions as well as positions of administration and teaching. Furthermore, with the introduction of the Educational Ordinance of 1938, Korean schools were to be identical to Japanese ones in organization and curriculum, which made education a highly militarized and regimented tool for forced assimilation and militarization. These last few years of Japanese rule pronounced the discontent of Koreans whose social and political climates had been deeply affected.


title: Education in South Korea

text: After Gwangbokjeol and the liberation from Japan, the Korean government began to study and discuss for a new philosophy of education. The new educational philosophy was created under the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK) with a focus on democratic education. The new system attempted to make education available to all students equally and promote the educational administration to be more self-governing. It also emphasized a decentralized education which local and community control in order to maintain educational autonomy from authoritarian policies. Specific policies included: re-educating teachers, lowering functional illiteracy by educating adults, restoration of the Korean language for technical terminology, and expansion of various educational institutions. This system did not instigate radical change, however, to the extent that it maintained the centralized and authoritarian administration created by the Japanese with no meaningful changes. It did, however, abet in the Koreanization of South Korean education through the initiative of Korean leaders by promoting Hangeul, removing Japanese instruction practices, and emphasizing Korean history, geography, and literature. Aside from these developments, the most striking feature of the U.S. military occupation was the significant expansion of schooling and the student population.


title: Education in South Korea

text: Following the Korean War, the government of Syngman Rhee reversed many of these reforms after 1948, when only primary schools remained in most cases coeducational and, because of a lack of resources, education was compulsory only up to the sixth grade. In 1948, the prevalent debate in South Korean education was whether to maintain an elitist multitrack path based on the prewar Japanese colonial model, or adopt an open American system that avoided early tracking and did not terminalize primary or secondary education.


title: Education in South Korea

text: During the years when Rhee and Park Chung Hee were in power, the control of education was gradually taken out of the hands of local school boards and concentrated in a centralized Ministry of Education. In the late 1980s, the ministry was responsible for administration of schools, allocation of resources, setting of enrollment quotas, certification of schools and teachers, curriculum development (including the issuance of textbook guidelines), and other basic policy decisions. Provincial and special city boards of education still existed. Although each board was composed of seven members who were supposed to be selected by popularly elected legislative bodies, this arrangement ceased to function after 1973. Subsequently, school board members were approved by the minister of education. In high school they would call it year one grade (9th grader) and year 2 would be (10th grader) and so on. Therefore, a multitrack and single secondary school system prevailed, largely due to the fact that administrators did not want to divide institutions, and parents were not receptive to the idea of two entrance exams. The outcome the 1950 MOE proposal for a uniform system was a 6-4-3-4 academic schedule, which entailed 6 years of primary school, 4 years of middle school, 3 years of vocational or academic high school, and 4 years of college or university. A complex system of technical and vocational training was also added to educational policy, where children were able to decide on an academic versus a vocational route early on in their academic career. Many opposers of this policy actually viewed it as positive because they believed that the academic route would seem more prolific and parents and students would be willing to pursue it more than the vocational route. Furthermore, even though a few local school boards were established toward the late 1940s, they were not appreciated by many Koreans because there was a widespread notion that a uniform and centrally controlled system is best. A rigorous and uniform national curriculum was established in the mid-1950s and there were significant efforts to make school accessible for everyone, especially in the context of Rhee's declaration of compulsory universal literacy and basic education. While universal basic education eliminated disparities between classes, competition became very fierce due to restricted entry into higher academic tiers, which contributed to the predominant "education fever" that is still prevalent in South Korea.


title: Education in South Korea

text: In the 1960s, there was a difficulty in harnessing the demand for education towards the needs of an industrializing economy, which caused a growth in private foundations in order to supply the public demand for schooling. Furthermore, the 60s and 70s were characterized by a large demand to direct educational development to economic development, which necessitated a greater emphasis on vocational and technical training rather than academic training in order to help citizens gain skills that would supply the country's economic needs. Even though there were major criticisms on behalf of the public for this emphasis on vocational training due to a clashing with Confucian values, the state continued to strengthen vocational education, especially after the shift in industrialization to heavy chemical and machine industries in the 70s. The 1960s and 70s experienced turmoil in education systems due to public resistance and the uncooperativeness of private schools with the state as they attempted to supply public demand. While the state was able to fulfill many of its economic goals, it came at a great social and political cost like the depopulation of rural areas and President Park's assassination.


title: Education in South Korea

text: Most observers agree that South Korea's spectacular progress in modernization and economic growth since the Korean War is largely attributable to the willingness of individuals to invest a large amount of resources in education: the improvement of "human capital". The traditional esteem for the educated man, now extends to scientists, technicians, and others working with specialized knowledge. Highly educated technocrats and economic planners could claim much of the credit for their country's economic successes since the 1960s. Scientific professions were generally regarded as the most prestigious by South Koreans in the 1980s.


title: Education in South Korea

text: Statistics demonstrate the success of South Korea's national education programs. In 1945 the adult literacy rate was estimated at 22 percent; by 1970 adult literacy was 87.6 percent and, by the late 1980s, sources estimated it at around 93 percent. Although only primary school (grades one through six) was compulsory, percentages of age-groups of children and young people enrolled in secondary level schools were equivalent to those found in industrialized countries, including Japan. Approximately 4.8 million students in the eligible age-group were attending primary school in 1985. The percentage of students going on to optional middle school the same year was more than 99 percent. Approximately 34 percent, one of the world's highest rates of secondary-school graduates attended institutions of higher education in 1987, a rate similar to Japan's (about 30 percent) and exceeding Britain's (20 percent).


title: Education in South Korea

text: Government expenditure on education has been generous. In 1975, it was 220 billion won, the equivalent of 2.2 percent of the gross national product, or 13.9 percent of total government expenditure. By 1986, education expenditure had reached 3.76 trillion won, or 4.5 percent of the GNP, and 27.3 percent of government budget allocations.


title: Education in South Korea

text: The 1980s and 1990s marked an era of democratization and economic prosperity in South Korea, partly due to the "education fever". In 1991, for the first time in thirty years, the country elected provincial and city councils in order to localize education, and leaders like Kim Young Sam and Kim Dae Jung were able to enact major overhauls to the education system in order to accommodate democratization through methods like abolishing on-campus ROTCS training and political mobilization of students, legalization of teacher unions, and removing anti-communist texts. The MOE began to shift away from a uniform curriculum by allowing school boards to implement some minor variations in instructional content. Literacy became virtually universal in South Korea while it rose up in international ranks in math and science, especially.


title: Education in South Korea

text: Despite South Korea's transition to democracy, traditional and Confucian values remained very strong. Overall, the huge strides in educational development came at the cost of intense pressure among students, high suicide rates, and family financial struggles through investment in schooling and private tutoring. However, Korea is shifting away from fully academic-based education to competency-based education. (So, K., & Kang, J. (2014)


title: Education in South Korea

text: Student activism has a long and honorable history in Korea. Students in Joseon secondary schools often became involved in the intense factional struggles of the scholar-official class. Students played a major role in Korea's independence movement, particularly on 1 March 1919, which was a protest based on students' growing resentment towards restrictive, discriminatory, and hostile Japanese occupation and instruction practices. Students were also heavily involved in repeated national efforts and demonstrations against Japanese policies, with instances like the Gwangju Student Movement in 1929 and the 10 June 1926 funeral line protest.


title: Education in South Korea

text: Students protested against the regimes of Syngman Rhee and Park Chung-hee during the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. Observers noted, however, that while student activists in the past generally embraced liberal and democratic values, the new generation of militants in the 1980s were far more radical. Most participants adopted some version of the minjung ideology but was also animated by strong feelings of popular nationalism and xenophobia.


title: Education in South Korea

text: One of the most extreme and landmark movements was the Gwangju Massacre in 1980, where students were driven by a strong will to rebel through Marxist influences against the martial law government. This radicalism was paralleled by the communist sympathizing and radicalism of students in the 1940s and 50s as a result of American occupation.


title: Education in South Korea

text: The most militant university students, perhaps about 5 percent of the total enrollment at Seoul National University and comparable figures at other institutions in the capital during the late 1980s, were organized into small circles or cells rarely containing more than fifty members. Police estimated that there were 72 such organizations of varying orientation, having the change of curriculum and education system of South Korea people have been enriched in an imaginary way that makes them propel in all their studies.


title: Education in South Korea

text: Following the assumption of power by General Chun Doo-hwan in 1980, the Ministry of Education implemented a number of reforms designed to make the system more fair and to increase higher education opportunities for the population at large. In a very popular move, the ministry dramatically increased enrollment at large.


title: Education in South Korea

text: Social emphasis on education was not without its problems, as it tended to accentuate class differences. In the late 1980s, a college degree was considered necessary for entering the middle class; there were no alternative pathways of social advancement, with the possible exception of a military career, outside higher education. People without a college education, including skilled workers with vocational school backgrounds, often were treated as second-class citizens by their white-collar, college-educated managers, despite the importance of their skills for economic development. Intense competition for places at the most prestigious universities—the sole gateway into elite circles—promoted, like the old Confucian system, a sterile emphasis on rote memorization in order to pass secondary school and college entrance examinations. Particularly after a dramatic expansion of college enrollments in the early 1980s, South Korea faced the problem of what to do about a large number of young people staying in school for a long time, usually at great sacrifice to themselves and their families, and then faced with limited job opportunities because their skills were not marketable.


title: Education in South Korea

text: The number of private kindergartens have increased as a result of more women entering the workforce, growth in the number of nuclear families where a grandparent is often unavailable to take care of children, and the feeling that kindergarten might give children an "edge" in later educational competition. Many students in Korea start kindergarten at the Western age of three and will, therefore, continue to study in kindergarten for three or four years, before starting their 'formal education' in 'grade one' of primary school. Many private kindergartens offer their classes in English to give students a 'head-start' in the mandatory English education they would receive later in public school. Kindergartens often pay homage to the expectations of parents with impressive courses, graduation ceremonies, complete with diplomas and gowns. Korean kindergartens are expected to start teaching basic maths, reading and writing to children, including education on how to count, add, subtract, and read and write in Korean, and often in English and Chinese. Children in Korean kindergartens are also taught using games focused on education and coordination, such as "playing doctor" to teach body parts, food and nutrition, and work positions for adults. Songs, dances, and memorization are a big part of Korean kindergarten education.


title: Education in South Korea

text: Elementary schools (, "chodeung hakgyo") consists of grades one to six (age 8 to age 13 in Korean years—7 to 12 in western years). The South Korean government changed its name to the current form from "Citizens' school" (.


title: Education in South Korea

text: In elementary school, students learn the following subjects. The curriculum differs from grades 1–2 to grades 3–6.


title: Education in South Korea

text: Usually, the class teacher covers most of the subjects; however, there are some specialised teachers in professions such as physical education and foreign languages, including English.


title: Education in South Korea

text: Those who wish to become a primary school teacher must major in primary education, which is specially designed to cultivate primary school teachers. In Korea, most of the primary teachers are working for public primary schools.


title: Education in South Korea

text: Because corporal punishment has been officially and legally prohibited in every classroom since 2011, many teachers and some parents raised with corporal punishment are becoming more concerned about what they see as worsening discipline problems. Some teachers continue to use corporal punishment discreetly.


title: Education in South Korea

text: In 1987, there were approximately 4,895,354 students enrolled in middle schools and high schools, with approximately 150,873 teachers. About 69 percent of these teachers were male. About 98% of Korean students finish secondary education. The secondary-school enrollment figure also reflected changing population trends—there were 3,959,975 students in secondary schools in 1979. Given the importance of entry into higher education, the majority of students attended general or academic high schools in 1987: 1,397,359 students, or 60 percent of the total, attended general or academic high schools, as compared with 840,265 students in vocational secondary schools. Vocational schools specialized in a number of fields: primarily agriculture, fishery, commerce, trades, merchant marine, engineering, and the arts.