title: The Faerie Queene

text: A considerable part of Elizabeth Bear's "Promethean Age" series takes place in a Kingdom of Faerie which is loosely based on the one described by Spenser. As depicted by Bear, Spenser was aware of this Kingdom's existence and his work was actually a description of fact rather than invented fantasy; Queen Elizabeth I had a secret pact of mutual help with the Queen of Faerie; and such historical characters as Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare visited Faerie and had adventures there.


title: The Faerie Queene

text: According to Richard Simon Keller, George Lucas's "Star Wars" film also contains elements of a loose adaptation, as well as being influenced by other works, with parallels including the story of the Red Cross Knight championing Una against the evil Archimago in the original compared with Lucas's Luke Skywalker, Princess Leia, and Darth Vader. Keller sees extensive parallels between the film and book one of Spenser's work, stating "[A]lmost everything of importance that we see in the "Star Wars" movie has its origin in "The Faerie Queene", from small details of weaponry and dress to large issues of chivalry and spirituality".


title: The Faerie Queene

text: The Netflix series "The Crown" references "The Faerie Queene" and Gloriana in season 1 episode 10, entitled "Gloriana". In the final scene, Queen Elizabeth II, portrayed by Claire Foy, is being photographed. Prompting Her Majesty's poses, Cecil Beaton says:"All hail sage Lady, whom a grateful Isle hath blessed." Not moving, not breathing. Our very own goddess. "Glorious Gloriana". Forgetting Elizabeth Windsor now. Now only Elizabeth Regina. Yes.


title: The Faerie Queene

text: Near the end of the 1995 adaptation of "Sense and Sensibility", Colonel Brandon reads "The Faerie Queene" aloud to Marianne Dashwood.


title: The Faerie Queene

text: Quotes from the poem are used as epigraphs in "Troubled Blood" by Robert Galbraith, a pen name of J. K. Rowling.


title: The Faerie Queene

text: In the "Thursday Next" series by Jasper Fforde, Granny Next (who is an older version of Thursday Next herself) is condemned to reading the “ten most boring classics” before she can die. She finally passes away after reading "The Faerie Queene".


title: Shenyang J-8

text: The Shenyang J-8 (Chinese: 歼-8; NATO reporting name: Finback) is an interceptor aircraft developed by the 601 Institute (Shenyang) in the People's Republic of China (PRC). It was conceived in the early 1960s as a low-risk program based on enlarging the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21F, a version of which the PRC was producing as the Chengdu J-7. The original J-8 experienced protracted development due to disruption from the Cultural Revolution; the prototypes first flew in 1969 but the design was not finalized until 1979 with the aircraft entering service in 1980.


title: Shenyang J-8

text: The J-8II/J-8B (NATO reporting name: Finback-B) was a major development of the J-8 and was essentially a new aircraft. The J-8II replaced the nose air intake and its shock cone with an ogival radome and lateral air intakes to create room for a modern fire-control radar, and used more powerful engines. The aircraft started development in 1982, and was cleared for production and service in 1988. The J-8II was the basis for all later major additions to the J-8 family.


title: Shenyang J-8

text: By 1964, the Chengdu J-7 was inadequate to perform long-range, high-altitude interceptions. The Chinese Aeronautical Establishment held a conference on 25 October to discuss future fighters. The 601 Institute had two proposals; a twin-engined "scaled-up" J-7 which became the J-8, and a higher-performing single-engined option that became the Chengdu J-9. Both options were pursued. The J-8 offered lower technical risk and received higher priority and political support; the J-9 was later cancelled in 1980. The People's Liberation Army (PLA) approved the operational requirements on 17 May 1965. Huang Zhiqian and Gu Songfen became, respectively, the chief and vice chief designers.


title: Shenyang J-8

text: The J-8 was shared some features with the J-7, including the front-hinged single-piece cockpit canopy, landing gear design, and positioning of the ventral air brakes. The tail had two ventral fins similar in shape to the J-7's single ventral fin. The aircraft was powered by two Liyang WP-7B afterburning turbojets. The nose intake had a small inlet cone enclosing a radar


title: Shenyang J-8

text: rangefinder. Two Type 30-1 (Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30) cannon were mounted under the cockpit. There were three hardpoints, one under each wing and one on the centerline under the fuselage, with a total carrying capacity of 2.5 tonnes.


title: Shenyang J-8

text: The programme suffered disruptions into the 1970s. Huang was killed in an air crash in May 1965 and replaced by Wang Nanshou. Design work was completed in September and a full-size mock-up completed and reviewed by December. The Shenyang Aircraft Factory was expected to complete a prototype by the end of 1966, but Gao Fangqi - its chief engineer - died and his successor, Liu Hongzhi, was dismissed in November 1966 during the Cultural Revolution. Development was transferred to the "Joint J-8 Development Command" led by Wang Xin. The construction of two prototypes was slow due to being done "almost clandestinely"; the first, "001 Red" was built from August 1967 to June 1968. 001 Red was damaged during high-speed taxiing tests on 19 December 1968, and made its first successful flight on 5 July 1969 piloted by Yin Yuhuan. Shortly afterward, the programme stalled due to the disbanding of Flight Test Command and Shenyang's Chief Design Office The Chief Design Office was only reformed in 1979 with Gu being promoted to chief designer.


title: Shenyang J-8

text: From 1969 to 1979, 001 Red and 002 Red logged a total of only 1025 flights and 663 flight hours. Flight and static testing revealed several problems, including severe buffeting at transonic and supersonic speeds, overheating of the rear fuselage at supersonic speeds, engine unreliability, and airframe weaknesses. All were eventually resolved, although it continued to suffer poor directional stability. The design was finalized on 31 December 1979.


title: Shenyang J-8

text: The J-8 was already recognized as obsolescent when it formally entered service on 2 March 1980. Development of the improved J-8 I (later the J-8A) began at Shenyang in February 1978. The J-8 I replaced the radar rangefinder with the SR-4 radar and the capability to fire the PL-4 air-to-air missile (AAM); both radar and missile were still in development when the aircraft's specifications were approved by State Certification Commission on 2 March 1980. Ultimately, the PL-4 failed and the PL-2B and PL-5 were used instead. The cockpit used a two-piece canopy - as on the J-7 II - and a newer ejection seat. Each Type 30-1 cannon was replaced with a Type 23-III (Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-23L).


title: Shenyang J-8

text: The first prototype was completed on in May 1980 and destroyed on 25 June during its first engine run when a burst hydraulic line caused a fire in the engine bay; the J-8's hydraulic system was subsequently reworked. The second prototype first flew on 24 April 1981. Testing was completed in November 1984, and the aircraft was cleared for production on 27 June 1985. The J-8 I also fell short of contemporary requirements and only about 100 were built before production ended in 1987.


title: Shenyang J-8

text: Some were converted into the J-8 IE with the JL-7 radar from the J-7C and various avionics from the J-8 II.


title: Shenyang J-8

text: In 1980, Shenyang began investigating improving the J-8 by using ideas embodied by contemporary aircraft like the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II and the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23. Gu and He Wenzhi began design work on what became the J-8 II (later the J-8B) in 1982.


title: Shenyang J-8

text: 70% of the J-8's airframe structure and systems were reworked. The nose air intake and its shock cone were replaced with an ogival radome and lateral air intakes to create room for the larger Type 208 pulse-Doppler radar. The number of external hardpoints increased to seven; a single Type 23-III cannon was carried. The aircraft was area ruled and the powerplants replaced by the more powerful WP-13A-II turbojets. The two ventral fins under the tail were replaced by a single larger fin copied from the MiG-23; the fin folded to starboard on the ground for ground clearance. Performance was greatly improved with the higher thrust-to-weight ratio, as was handling. Improvements to manoeuvrability was limited due to the 6.9 g limit. The prototype was completed in March 1984 and made its first flight on 12 June. Production and entry into service was approved in October 1988. The greatest problems were with the avionics, particularly the radar.


title: Shenyang J-8

text: The improved J-8 IIB (or J-8B Block 02), fitted with the KLJ-1 (Type 208A) radar and avionics from the J-7C, flew in November 1989 and entered production in 1996.


title: Shenyang J-8

text: The J-8 III (later the J-8C) was an attempt to upgrade the J-8 II in the early 1990s. The Elta Electronics of Israel was contracted to adapt the EL/M-2034 radar for the aircraft, although ultimately the domestic Type 1471 radar was used. The prototypes flew with WP-13B engines as the intended Liyang WP-14 Kunlun turbojets were under development. The wing had four, rather than two, fences, and a detachable aerial refueling (IFR) probe was fitted on the starboard side. The J-8 III was certified in 1995 but production was cancelled because the WP-14 remained unavailable.


title: Shenyang J-8

text: The J-8C led to the J-8F, which started development in 1999 and first flew in 2000. The latter was equipped with the JL-10 (Type 1473) radar and WP-13B-II turbojets.


title: Shenyang J-8

text: The J-8 IV (also known as the J-8 IIA, and later as the J-8D) was a J-8 II with similar avionics to the J-8 IIB and the same detachable IFR probe as the J-8 III; the IFR probe was later modified because it generated noise in the cockpit. It first flew on 21 November 1990 and entered service in 1996; it was China's first IFR-capable fighter. The J-8 IV was used primarily by the People's Liberation Army Naval Air Force and armed with the PL-9 AAM.


title: Shenyang J-8

text: The J-8D was developed into the J-8H fighter/strike aircraft. The J-8H was equipped with the KLJ-1 (Type 1492) radar; armament was the PL-11 AAM and possibly the YJ-91 anti-radiation missile. It also had four wing fences like the J-8C. Development started in 1995 and it entered service in 2002.


title: Shenyang J-8

text: The 1986 "Peace Pearl" program with the United States included upgrading 50-55 J-8 IIs with US avionics, Martin-Baker ejection seats, and possible US engines for . Two aircraft were flown to the US for prototyping, and work was underway by the time of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre. Peace Pearl was cancelled by China in 1990; the US had permitted it to continue despite the post-Tiananmen sanctions.


title: Shenyang J-8

text: On 1 April 2001, a J-8B collided with a United States Navy Lockheed EP-3E ARIES II signals intelligence aircraft 70 miles southeast of Hainan Island. The J-8B crashed and its pilot, Wang Wei, was killed after his parachute failed to open. The EP-3E was severely damaged and made an emergency landing on Hainan; all 24 crew members survived.


title: Max Cavalera

text: Massimiliano Antonio "Max" Cavalera (; born August 4, 1969) is a Brazilian musician. He co-founded the heavy metal band Sepultura in 1984 with his brother Igor Cavalera, and was the band's lead singer and rhythm guitarist until his departure in 1996. He currently plays in the heavy metal bands Soulfly, Cavalera Conspiracy and Killer Be Killed. Cavalera was also involved in a short-lived side project called Nailbomb.


title: Max Cavalera

text: Max Cavalera's father, Graziano Cavalera, was an employee of the Italian Consulate in Belo Horizonte. He died at 41 years of age, when Max was nine years old. Cavalera's family was in a state of financial crisis and family turbulence when he formed Sepultura with his younger brother Igor. In the early 1990s, he relocated to Phoenix, Arizona. He did not begin to make spiritual music until after he quit Sepultura. His earlier lyrics for Soulfly were influenced by religion and spirituality, though he is critical of religion. His later albums, starting with "Dark Ages", began to incorporate lyrical themes of violence, warfare, anger and hatred. His albums have all been dedicated to God, and he has often been depicted by the press as a man of religion, especially in the United States, something that Cavalera himself says he does not understand:


title: Max Cavalera

text: I do hate a lot of "religion", but people like Christ – yeah they inspire me. I mean if you look at Christ, He was hanging around with the lowlifes, prostitutes and the losers you know, not going around with those high society motherfuckers you see trying to sell Jesus today!


title: Max Cavalera

text: When asked in an interview whether he was a Christian and whether Soulfly was a Christian band, he said:


title: Max Cavalera

text: No. I mean, if I was a Christian I would wear all these different kinds of omens. Because Christian people are so close-minded. A priest would not accept that. So I don't like the concept of Christianity in terms of being so close-minded. It is the same with music. Sometimes I compare preachers to close-minded musicians or close-minded listeners, who only like one kind of music. Some preachers are the same. And they don't tolerate Hindus, Buddhists or whatever. Only them. It's bullshit. So Soulfly is not a Christian band at all. Very much opposite. But we are very spiritual. Spiritual has nothing to do with Christianity anyway. It has been here since the beginning of time.


title: Max Cavalera

text: In another interview, he was asked about the Varg Vikernes church burnings. He quoted, "I support church burnings 100 percent, but why don't we just burn everything. Mosques, temples, all religious buildings." However, he later claimed his views changed about the church burnings and called them "too violent". He has stated that he does believe in God, "But it might be different than the God the preacher preaches about."


title: Max Cavalera

text: Of enduring influence to his music, is the untimely death of his stepson, Dana Wells, who was killed after the release of "Roots" in 1996. The songs "Bleed", "First Commandment", "Pain", "Tree of Pain" and "Revengeance" are tributes to Wells, as well as Deftones' song "Headup", in which Cavalera featured and co-wrote. He reunited with his brother Igor, in their band Cavalera Conspiracy, and wrote and performed on Soulfly's "Conquer", released in 2008.


title: Max Cavalera

text: In 2013, Cavalera released his autobiography, titled "My Bloody Roots"; his co-writer was the British author Joel McIver and the book's foreword was written by Dave Grohl.


title: Max Cavalera

text: Cavalera is known for playing his guitar with only four strings; with the B and high E strings opted out. The inspiration struck when he broke both strings one day and he did not bother to replace them. A friend later commented that the guitar looked better without them, thus it became his trademark. He used to play with three strings but eventually started playing with four due to Andreas Kisser writing a Sepultura song that required another string. He did go back to three temporarily when he was still doing Nailbomb.


title: Max Cavalera

text: Since 1992, Cavalera has lived in Phoenix, Arizona with his wife Gloria (b. 1953) and his five children: Igor Amadeus (b. 1995), Zyon (b. 1993), Jason (b. 1986), Richie (b. 1985), and Roxanne (b. 1983). The three eldest, Gloria's children, were adopted by Cavalera, making Cavalera their legal father. Zyon, Igor, and Richie have all collaborated with Cavalera in his various projects. Three of his sons are also active in music, with Richie fronting Incite and Igor and Zyon performing in Lody Kong. Jason tours as Zyon's drum tech, amongst other various duties behind the scenes. In 2012 and 2013, Zyon toured with Soulfly after David Kinkade's retirement, and now he is a regular member as drummer. Igor briefly filled in as bassist for Soulfly in 2015 after Tony Campos left the band, and toured as keyboardist and co-vocalist during Soulfly's "Point Blank" Tour. Igor was born with type 1 diabetes, and Max and Gloria set up the "Iggy Fund" in 1998 to help other families get necessary medicine for their children with juvenile diabetes.


title: Max Cavalera

text: Cavalera has collaborated with many different artists while in Sepultura and Soulfly. In 2003 he joined forces with former Nirvana drummer and Foo Fighters' frontman Dave Grohl to produce "Red War" for the self-titled release of Dave Grohl's metal project, Probot.


title: Max Cavalera

text: Cavalera appeared in "The Mummy Returns" in an off-camera role as the Scorpion King, providing the guttural screams for Dwayne Johnson.


title: Jim Hopper (Stranger Things)

text: James "Jim" Hopper is a fictional character from the Netflix science fiction horror drama series "Stranger Things". He is the chief of police in Hawkins, Indiana, who, throughout the first three seasons, investigates the strange occurrences in the town. Hopper is portrayed by David Harbour.


title: Jim Hopper (Stranger Things)

text: James "Jim" Hopper, nicknamed "Hop", is the chief of Hawkins Police Department. Hopper has lived in Hawkins nearly all his life, having attended high school with Joyce Byers and Bob Newby. Hopper served in the Chemical Corps during the Vietnam War, where he worked with Agent Orange, an experience he believes to have led to his daughter Sara’s fatal illness. Hopper was married to Diane and they had a daughter together, Sara. They divorced after his young daughter died of cancer, which caused him to lapse into alcohol and drug addiction to cope with the grief. For a few years after Sara's death, he was a homicide detective in New York City before moving back to Hawkins. Eventually he grows to be more responsible, saving Will Byers as well as taking Eleven in as his adopted daughter. In Season 3 he tries to break up Eleven and Mike since their relationship is moving too fast for him, while Hopper himself is falling in love with Joyce.


title: Jim Hopper (Stranger Things)

text: In Season 1, Hopper is a chainsmoking, alcoholic cop in Hawkins, Indiana. He's approached by a former high school classmate, Joyce Byers, who tells him her son, Will, has gone missing. Joyce tells Chief Hopper about the static phone call she received and suspected was Will's breathing. Hopper is reluctant to believe her but admits that the charring of the phone from the surge of electricity is unusual.


title: Jim Hopper (Stranger Things)

text: Hopper realises as the season continues that there is a vast conspiracy hiding at Hawkins Lab and he is instrumental in the mission to find and save Will.


title: Jim Hopper (Stranger Things)

text: After Eleven's apparent death, Hopper is seen leaving some food in the snowy woods, including Eggos, Eleven's favorite food.


title: Jim Hopper (Stranger Things)

text: In flashbacks, Eleven manages to escape from the Upside Down but is forced to remain hidden in Hopper's cabin in the woods to avoid government agents. Hopper forbids her from leaving or from letting Mike or anyone else know that she is still alive. In the present, the kids prepare for Halloween. Eleven asks to go trick-or-treating, but Hopper insists that she needs to remain hidden. Hopper investigates when pumpkins patches all over town suddenly start rotting. The relationship between Hopper and Eleven is strained by this isolation, even more so when he cuts the wires to the television set. Hopper and Joyce monitor Will's visits to Hawkins Lab when he exhibits signs that he is still being influenced by the Upside Down. Hopper has to be rescued from the underground tunnels when he tries to explore them alone. He is once more instrumental in solving the mystery of the demo-dogs and the pumpkin rot, and ultimately takes Eleven to the basement in Hawkins to close the gate once more. After working with Eleven to close the gate he strikes a deal to officially adopt Eleven.


title: Jim Hopper (Stranger Things)

text: At the beginning of Season 3, Eleven and Mike have been dating for 7 months, much to the dismay of Hopper, who is annoyed that Eleven and Mike are constantly together, spending all of their time alone kissing. When Hopper confesses to Joyce that he feels uncomfortable about the situation, she suggests that he should sit down and calmly talk to Eleven and Mike about how he feels. He tries to prepare a written "heart-to-heart" speech, but when he tries to give it, it backfires and Hopper resorts to verbally threatening Mike to stay away from Eleven or he will end their relationship.


title: Jim Hopper (Stranger Things)

text: Hopper's talks with Joyce lead him to become more bold in asking her on a dinner date. Joyce misses the date and Hopper finds out that she instead spent the evening with Scott Clarke, the school science teacher, asking about why her refrigerator magnets have lost their magnetism, leading Hopper to become jealous. Joyce begs Hopper to take her back to the abandoned Hawkins lab to see if there's any equipment running; while there, Hopper is attacked by Russian enforcer Grigori. Having seen Grigori before at the Mayor's office, Hopper confronts Mayor Kline about Grigori and learns that the developers of Starcourt Mall, whom Grigori works for, have also bought up several other properties in Hawkins. Hopper and Joyce visit several of the properties, finding one that serves as a front for a Russian lab. Before Grigori attacks them, Hopper and Joyce take Alexei—one of the scientists working there—as a hostage and elude Grigori. Hopper and Joyce take Alexei to conspiracy theorist Murray to help translate Alexei's Russian, learning there is a large Russian base under the mall where Russian scientists are trying to open the gate to the Upside Down. Alexei divulges to Murray how they can stop and destroy the gate.


title: Jim Hopper (Stranger Things)

text: Hopper and Joyce bring Murray and Alexei along as they race back to Hawkins to see if their children are safe. Murray and Alexei recognize that Hopper and Joyce have unacknowledged feelings for each other. They stop at the Independence Day fair, and while Hopper and Joyce search the grounds, Murray shows Alexei around. While Murray and Alexei are enjoying the 4th of July fair, Joyce grabs Hopper's hand. Grigori arrives and kills Alexei as other Russian agents give chase to Hopper. Hopper runs away while holding hands with Joyce. Hopper bests them, and he, Joyce, and Murray race for the mall, where they reunite with the children, and learn that the giant Mind Flayer is about to attack but can be stopped if they close the gate to the Upside Down. Hopper, Joyce, and Murray offer to descend to the base and find the keys Alexei told them about to not only close the gate but destroy the equipment, which would disintegrate anyone left in the room. While waiting in a room, Joyce asks Hopper out on a date. Hopper, Joyce and Murray successfully execute their plan, but before they can close the gate Grigori arrives and fights Hopper. Hopper gets the upper hand and throws Grigori into the equipment, killing him but leaving Hopper unable to leave the room. He gives Joyce a nod, and she tearfully deactivates the machine. The gate is closed and a huge explosion occurs, appearing to disintegrate everyone in the room, including Hopper. Joyce and Murray make it to the surface and reunite with the children, and Eleven can tell from Joyce's expression that Hopper didn't make it out alive.


title: Jim Hopper (Stranger Things)

text: Three months later, Joyce and her family, along with Eleven, are preparing to move out of Hawkins, and Joyce gives Eleven the heart-to-heart speech Hopper had written. The speech explains how Hopper was fearful of seeing Eleven grow up but admitted that it was time, asking her to be careful as she matures and grows older.


title: Jim Hopper (Stranger Things)

text: Hopper is revealed to have survived the explosion beneath Starcourt Mall, only to be captured by the Russians and sent to a prison camp in Kamchatka. During his captivity, Hopper bribes and, later, befriends a guard, Dmitri Antonov, through whom he sends Joyce a note indicating he is alive. Antonov instructs Joyce and Murray to pay $40,000 USD to smuggler Yuri Ismaylov in Alaska in exchange for passage to Russia. Hopper manages to briefly escape the prison camp, but Yuri is revealed to have betrayed him and Antonov to the Russians for a larger profit, resulting in his recapture.


title: Jim Hopper (Stranger Things)

text: Hopper is imprisoned alongside Antonov, and learns that they will be fed to a Demogorgon that the Russians have in captivity. Recalling that the creature's weakness is fire, Hopper pockets a lighter and some vodka from a guard, and uses it to create a flaming spear with which he holds back the Demogorgon as it slaughters most of the other prisoners. Joyce and Murray infiltrate the prison and open a door that allows Hopper and Antonov to escape. Hopper and Joyce reunite and finally admit their romantic feelings for one another. However, the group finds more creatures from the Upside Down under study inside the prison. Hopper calls one of Owens' agents and learns that Eleven and her friends are facing another threat from the Upside Down in Hawkins. Hopper, Joyce and Murray kill the other creatures in the prison to weaken the Upside Down's "hive mind" and give the kids an advantage, while Antonov convinces Yuri to fly them home. Two days later, Hopper reunites with Eleven and the others in Hawkins, but they notice the Upside Down beginning to invade the town.


title: Jim Hopper (Stranger Things)

text: The character and Harbour's performance have received critical acclaim. In a review of the second season for RogerEbert.com, critic Brian Tallerico praised Harbour's performance, saying "David Harbour is even better this year than he was last, particularly in the final episode." Fans also praised the new look of Hopper.


title: Jim Hopper (Stranger Things)

text: Hopper's attitude and behavior in the third season attracted criticism, with many critics and fans feeling that his character had regressed into a caricature of himself when compared to the first two seasons. Vulture said of him "Normal Jim Hopper has transformed into Jerk-Ass Hopper, particularly in the early episodes of "Stranger Things 3", which makes for a jarring reintroduction to his character. In addition to his overblown objection to what is, ultimately, very chaste physical contact between Mike and El, he also gets disproportionately annoyed with Joyce when she stands him up for dinner, bickers constantly with Joyce about minor problems; physically assaults the Hawkins Mayor, Larry Kline, to extract information from him; and shows little mercy toward Alexei, the Russian scientist he and Joyce kidnap so they can figure out what the Commies are really doing in town."


title: Jim Hopper (Stranger Things)

text: There is an upcoming novel depicting Hopper, titled "The Darkness on the Edge of Town". Hopper was depicted in The Simpsons Halloween special ("Treehouse of Horror XXX") as Chief Wiggum. The character also has its own Funko Mystery Minis toy.


title: Jim Hopper (Stranger Things)

text: For his performance as Hopper, Harbour was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series at the 69th and 70th Primetime Emmy Awards. At the 75th Golden Globe Awards, he was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: In paleoanthropology, the recent African origin of modern humans, also called the "Out of Africa" theory (OOA), recent single-origin hypothesis (RSOH), replacement hypothesis, or recent African origin model (RAO), is the dominant model of the geographic origin and early migration of anatomically modern humans ("Homo sapiens"). It follows the early expansions of hominins out of Africa, accomplished by "Homo erectus" and then "Homo neanderthalensis".


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: parallel evolution in other regions of traits considered anatomically modern, but not precluding multiple admixture between "H. sapiens" and archaic humans in Europe and Asia. "H. sapiens" most likely developed in the Horn of Africa between 300,000 and 200,000 years ago, although an alternative hypothesis argues that diverse morphological features of "H. sapiens" appeared locally in different parts of Africa and converged due to gene flow between different populations within the same period. The "recent African origin" model proposes that all modern non-African populations are substantially descended from populations of "H. sapiens" that left Africa after that time.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: There were at least several "out-of-Africa" dispersals of modern humans, possibly beginning as early as 270,000 years ago, including 215,000 years ago to at least Greece, and certainly via northern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula about 130,000 to 115,000 years ago. These early waves appear to have mostly died out or retreated by 80,000 years ago.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: The most significant "recent" wave out of Africa took place about 70,000–50,000 years ago, via the so-called "Southern Route", spreading rapidly along the coast of Asia and reaching Australia by around 65,000–50,000 years ago, (though some researchers question the earlier Australian dates and place the arrival of humans there at 50,000 years ago at earliest, while others have suggested that these first settlers of Australia may represent an older wave before the more significant out of Africa migration and thus not necessarily be ancestral to the region's later inhabitants) while Europe was populated by an early offshoot which settled the Near East and Europe less than 55,000 years ago.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: In the 2010s, studies in population genetics uncovered evidence of interbreeding that occurred between "H. sapiens" and archaic humans in Eurasia, Oceania and Africa, indicating that modern population groups, while mostly derived from early "H. sapiens", are to a lesser extent also descended from regional variants of archaic humans.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: "Recent African origin," or "Out of Africa II", refers to the migration of anatomically modern humans ("Homo sapiens") out of Africa after their emergence at c. 300,000 to 200,000 years ago, in contrast to "Out of Africa I", which refers to the migration of archaic humans from Africa to Eurasia roughly 1.8 to 0.5 million years ago. Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) from southern Ethiopia is the oldest anatomically modern Homo sapiens skeleton currently known


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: (around 233,000 years old). However, there are even older "Homo sapiens" fossils from Jebel Irhoud in Morocco which exhibits a mixture of modern and archaic features at around 315,000 years old.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: Since the beginning of the 21st century, the picture of "recent single-origin" migrations has become significantly more complex, not only due to the discovery of modern-archaic admixture but also due to the increasing evidence that the "recent out-of-Africa" migration took place in a number of waves spread over a long time period.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: As of 2010, there were two main accepted dispersal routes for the out-of-Africa migration of early anatomically modern humans: via the "Northern Route" (via Nile Valley and Sinai) and the "Southern Route"


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: Beginning 135,000 years ago, tropical Africa experienced megadroughts which drove humans from the land and towards the sea shores, and forced them to cross over to other continents.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: Fossils of early "Homo sapiens" were found in Qafzeh and Es-Skhul Caves in Israel and have been dated to 80,000 to 120,000 years ago. These humans seem to have either become extinct or retreated back to Africa 70,000 to 80,000 years ago, possibly replaced by southbound Neanderthals escaping the colder regions of ice-age Europe. Hua Liu "et al." analyzed autosomal microsatellite markers dating to about 56,000 years ago. They interpret the paleontological fossil as an isolated early offshoot that retracted back to Africa.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: The discovery of stone tools in the United Arab Emirates in 2011 at the Faya-1 site in Mleiha, Sharjah, indicated the presence of modern humans at least 125,000 years ago, leading to a resurgence of the "long-neglected" North African route. This new understanding of the role of the Arabian dispersal began to change following results from archaeological and genetic studies stressing the importance of southern Arabia as a corridor for human expansions out of Africa.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: In Oman, a site was discovered by Bien Joven in 2011 containing more than 100 surface scatters of stone tools belonging to the late Nubian Complex, known previously only from archaeological excavations in the Sudan. Two optically stimulated luminescence age estimates placed the Arabian Nubian Complex at approximately 106,000 years old. This provides evidence for a distinct Stone Age technocomplex in southern Arabia, around the earlier part of the Marine Isotope Stage 5.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: According to Kuhlwilm and his co-authors, Neanderthals contributed genetically to modern humans then living outside of Africa around 100,000 years ago: humans which had already split off from other modern humans around 200,000 years ago, and this early wave of modern humans outside Africa also contributed genetically to the Altai Neanderthals. They found that "the ancestors of Neanderthals from the Altai Mountains and early modern humans met and interbred, possibly in the Near East, many thousands of years earlier than previously thought". According to co-author Ilan Gronau, "This actually complements archaeological evidence of the presence of early modern humans out of Africa around and before 100,000 years ago by providing the first genetic evidence of such populations." Similar genetic admixture events have been noted in other regions as well.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: By some 50–70,000 years ago, a subset of the bearers of mitochondrial haplogroup L3 migrated from East Africa into the Near East. It has been estimated that from a population of 2,000 to 5,000 individuals in Africa, only a small group, possibly as few as 150 to 1,000 people, crossed the Red Sea. The group that crossed the Red Sea travelled along the coastal route around Arabia and the Persian Plateau to India, which appears to have been the first major settling point. argued for the route along the southern coastline of Asia, across about , reaching Australia by around 50,000 years ago.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about wide, but 50,000 years ago sea levels were lower (owing to glaciation) and the water was much narrower. Though the straits were never completely closed, they were narrow enough to have enabled crossing using simple rafts, and there may have been islands in between. Shell middens 125,000 years old have been found in Eritrea, indicating the diet of early humans included seafood obtained by beachcombing.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: The dating of the Southern Dispersal is a matter of dispute. It may have happened either pre- or post-Toba, a catastrophic volcanic eruption that took place between 69,000 and 77,000 years ago at the site of present-day Lake Toba. Stone tools discovered below the layers of ash disposed in India may point to a pre-Toba dispersal but the source of the tools is disputed. An indication for post-Toba is haplo-group L3, that originated before the dispersal of humans out of Africa and can be dated to 60,000–70,000 years ago, "suggesting that humanity left Africa a few thousand years after Toba". Some research showing slower than expected genetic mutations in human DNA was published in 2012, indicating a revised dating for the migration to between 90,000 and 130,000 years ago. Some more recent research suggests a migration out-of-Africa of around 50,000-65,000 years ago of the ancestors of modern non-African populations, similar to most previous estimates.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: Following the fossils dating 80,000 to 120,000 years ago from Qafzeh and Es-Skhul Caves in Israel there are no "H. sapiens" fossils in the Levant until the Manot 1 fossil from Manot Cave in Israel, dated to 54,700 years ago, though the dating was questioned by . The lack of fossils and stone tool industries that can be safely associated with modern humans in the Levant has been taken to suggest that modern humans were outcompeted by Neanderthals until around 55,000 years ago, who would have placed a barrier on modern human dispersal out of Africa through the Northern Route. Climate reconstructions also support a Southern Route dispersal of modern humans as the Bab-el-Mandeb strait experienced a climate more conductive to human migration than the northern landbridge to the Levant during the major human dispersal out of Africa.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: It is thought that Australia was inhabited around 65,000–50,000 years ago. As of 2017, the earliest evidence of humans in Australia is at least 65,000 years old, while McChesney stated that


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: Fossils from Lake Mungo, Australia, have been dated to about 42,000 years ago. Other fossils from a site called Madjedbebe have been dated to at least 65,000 years ago., though some researchers doubt this early estimate and date the Madjedbebe fossils at about 50,000 years ago at the oldest.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: Phylogenetic data suggests that an early Eastern Eurasian lineage trifurcated somewhere in eastern South Asia, and gave rise to the Australo-Papuans, the AASI, as well as East/Southeast Asians, although Australo-Papuans may have also received some gene flow from an earlier group (xOoA), around 2%, next to additional archaic admixture in the Sahul region.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: According to one study, Australo-Papuans (such as the indigenous people of New Guinea and Aboriginal Australians) could have either formed from a mixture between an East Eurasian lineage and lineage basal to West and East Asians, or as a sister lineage of East Asians with or without a minor basal OoA or xOoA contribution.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: A Holocene hunter-gatherer sample (Leang_Panninge) from South Sulawesi was found to be genetically in between East-Eurasians and Australo-Papuans. The sample could be modeled as ~50% Papuan-related and ~50% Basal-East Asian-related (Andamanese Onge or Tianyuan). The authors concluded that Basal-East Asian ancestry was far more widespread and the peopling of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania was more complex than previously anticipated.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: In China, the Liujiang man () is among the earliest modern humans found in East Asia. The date most commonly attributed to the remains is 67,000 years ago. High rates of variability yielded by various dating techniques carried out by different researchers place the most widely accepted range of dates with 67,000 BP as a minimum, but do not rule out dates as old as 159,000 BP. claim that modern human teeth have been found in China dating to at least 80,000 years ago.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: Tianyuan man from China has a probable date range between 38,000 and 42,000 years ago, while Liujiang man from the same region has a probable date range between 67,000 and 159,000 years ago. According to 2013 DNA tests, Tianyuan man is related "to many present-day Asians and Native Americans". Tianyuan is similar in morphology to Liujiang man, and some Jōmon period modern humans found in Japan, as well as modern East and Southeast Asians.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: A 2021 study about the population history of Eastern Eurasia, concluded that distinctive Basal-East Asian (East-Eurasian) ancestry originated in Mainland Southeast Asia at ~50,000BC from a distinct southern Himalayan route, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: Genetic studies concluded that Native Americans descended from a single founding population that initially split from a Basal-East Asian source population in Mainland Southeast Asia around 36,000 years ago, at the same time at which the proper Jōmon people split from Basal-East Asians, either together with Ancestral Native Americans or during a separate expansion wave. They also show that the basal northern and southern Native American branches, to which all other Indigenous peoples belong, diverged around 16,000 years ago. An indigenous American sample from 16,000BC in Idaho, which is craniometrically similar to modern Native Americans as well as Paleosiberias, was found to had largely East-Eurasian ancestry and showed high affinity with contemporary East Asians, as well as Jōmon period samples of Japan, confirming that Ancestral Native Americans split from an East-Eurasian source population in Eastern Siberia.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: According to , an early offshoot from the southern dispersal with haplogroup N followed the Nile from East Africa, heading northwards and crossing into Asia through the Sinai. This group then branched, some moving into Europe and others heading east into Asia. This hypothesis is supported by the relatively late date of the arrival of modern humans in Europe as well as by archaeological and DNA evidence. Based on an analysis of 55 human mitochondrial genomes (mtDNAs) of hunter-gatherers, argue for a "rapid single dispersal of all non-Africans less than 55,000 years ago."


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: The first lineage to branch off from Mitochondrial Eve was L0. This haplogroup is found in high proportions among the San of Southern Africa and the Sandawe of East Africa. It is also found among the Mbuti people. These groups branched off early in human history and have remained relatively genetically isolated since then. Haplogroups L1, L2 and L3 are descendants of L1–L6, and are largely confined to Africa. The macro haplogroups M and N, which are the lineages of the rest of the world outside Africa, descend from L3. L3 is about 70,000 years old, while haplogroups M and N are about 65–55,000 years old. The relationship between such gene trees and demographic history is still debated when applied to dispersals.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: Of all the lineages present in Africa, the female descendants of only one lineage, mtDNA haplogroup L3, are found outside Africa. If there had been several migrations, one would expect descendants of more than one lineage to be found. L3's female descendants, the M and N haplogroup lineages, are found in very low frequencies in Africa (although haplogroup M1 populations are very ancient and diversified in North and North-east Africa) and appear to be more recent arrivals. A possible explanation is that these mutations occurred in East Africa shortly before the exodus and became the dominant haplogroups thereafter by means of the founder effect. Alternatively, the mutations may have arisen shortly afterwards.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: Results from mtDNA collected from aboriginal Malaysians called Orang Asli indicate that the hapologroups M and N share characteristics with original African groups from approximately 85,000 years ago, and share characteristics with sub-haplogroups found in coastal south-east Asian regions, such as Australasia, the Indian subcontinent and throughout continental Asia, which had dispersed and separated from their African progenitor approximately 65,000 years ago. This southern coastal dispersal would have occurred before the dispersal through the Levant approximately 45,000 years ago. This hypothesis attempts to explain why haplogroup N is predominant in Europe and why haplogroup M is absent in Europe. Evidence of the coastal migration is thought to have been destroyed by the rise in sea levels during the Holocene epoch. Alternatively, a small European founder population that had expressed haplogroup M and N at first, could have lost haplogroup M through random genetic drift resulting from a bottleneck (i.e. a founder effect).


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: The group that crossed the Red Sea travelled along the coastal route around Arabia and Persia until reaching India. Haplogroup M is found in high frequencies along the southern coastal regions of Pakistan and India and it has the greatest diversity in India, indicating that it is here where the mutation may have occurred. Sixty percent of the Indian population belong to Haplogroup M. The indigenous people of the Andaman Islands also belong to the M lineage. The Andamanese are thought to be offshoots of some of the earliest inhabitants in Asia because of their long isolation from the mainland. They are evidence of the coastal route of early settlers that extends from India to Thailand and Indonesia all the way to eastern New Guinea. Since M is found in high frequencies in highlanders from New Guinea and the Andamanese and New Guineans have dark skin and Afro-textured hair, some scientists think they are all part of the same wave of migrants who departed across the Red Sea ~60,000 years ago in the Great Coastal Migration. The proportion of haplogroup M increases eastwards from Arabia to India; in eastern India, M outnumbers N by a ratio of 3:1. Crossing into Southeast Asia, haplogroup N (mostly in the form of derivatives of its R subclade) reappears as the predominant lineage. M is predominant in East Asia, but amongst Indigenous Australians, N is the more common lineage. This haphazard distribution of Haplogroup N from Europe to Australia can be explained by founder effects and population bottlenecks.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: A 2002 study of African, European and Asian populations, found greater genetic diversity among Africans than among Eurasians, and that genetic diversity among Eurasians is largely a subset of that among Africans, supporting the out of Africa model. A large study by Coop "et al". (2009) found evidence for natural selection in autosomal DNA outside of Africa. The study distinguishes non-African sweeps (notably KITLG variants associated with skin color), West-Eurasian sweeps (SLC24A5) and East-Asian sweeps (MC1R, relevant to skin color). Based on this evidence, the study concluded that human populations encountered novel selective pressures as they expanded out of Africa. MC1R and its relation to skin color had already been discussed by . According to this study, Papua New Guineans continued to be exposed to selection for dark skin color so that, although these groups are distinct from Africans in other places, the allele for dark skin color shared by contemporary Africans, Andamanese and New Guineans is an archaism. suggest convergent evolution. A 2014 study by Gurdasani et al. indicates that the higher genetic diversity in Africa was further increased in some regions by relatively recent Eurasian migrations affecting parts of Africa.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: Another promising route towards reconstructing human genetic genealogy is via the JC virus (JCV), a type of human polyomavirus which is carried by 70–90 percent of humans and which is usually transmitted vertically, from parents to offspring, suggesting codivergence with human populations. For this reason, JCV has been used as a genetic marker for human evolution and migration. This method does not appear to be reliable for the migration out of Africa, in contrast to human genetics, JCV strains associated with African populations are not basal. From this conclude that either a basal African strain of JCV has become extinct or that the original infection with JCV post-dates the migration from Africa.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: Evidence for archaic human species (descended from "Homo heidelbergensis") having interbred with modern humans outside of Africa, was discovered in the 2010s. This concerns primarily Neanderthal admixture in all modern populations except for Sub-Saharan Africans but evidence has also been presented for Denisova hominin admixture in Australasia (i.e. in Melanesians, Aboriginal Australians and some Negritos). The rate of Neanderthal admixture to European and Asian populations as of 2017 has been estimated at between about 2–3%. Archaic admixture in some Sub-Saharan African populations hunter-gatherer groups (Biaka Pygmies and San), derived from archaic hominins that broke away from the modern human lineage around 700,000 years, was discovered in 2011. The rate of admixture was estimated at 2%. Admixture from archaic hominins of still earlier divergence times, estimated at 1.2 to 1.3 million years ago, was found in Pygmies, Hadza and five Sandawe in 2012.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: From an analysis of Mucin 7, a highly divergent haplotype that has an estimated coalescence time with other variants around 4.5 million years BP and is specific to African populations is inferred to have been derived from interbreeding between African modern and archaic humans.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: In addition to genetic analysis, Petraglia "et al." also examines the small stone tools (microlithic materials) from the Indian subcontinent and explains the expansion of population based on the reconstruction of paleoenvironment. He proposed that the stone tools could be dated to 35 ka in South Asia, and the new technology might be influenced by environmental change and population pressure.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: The cladistic relationship of humans with the African apes was suggested by Charles Darwin after studying the behaviour of African apes, one of which was displayed at the London Zoo. The anatomist Thomas Huxley had also supported the hypothesis and suggested that African apes have a close evolutionary relationship with humans. These views were opposed by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel, who was a proponent of the Out of Asia theory. Haeckel argued that humans were more closely related to the primates of South-east Asia and rejected Darwin's African hypothesis.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: In the "Descent of Man", Darwin speculated that humans had descended from apes, which still had small brains but walked upright, freeing their hands for uses which favoured intelligence; he thought such apes were African:


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: In 1871, there were hardly any human fossils of ancient hominins available. Almost fifty years later, Darwin's speculation was supported when anthropologists began finding fossils of ancient small-brained hominins in several areas of Africa (list of hominina fossils). The hypothesis of "recent" (as opposed to archaic) African origin developed in the 20th century. The "Recent African origin" of modern humans means "single origin" (monogenism) and has been used in various contexts as an antonym to polygenism. The debate in anthropology had swung in favour of monogenism by the mid-20th century. Isolated proponents of polygenism held forth in the mid-20th century, such as Carleton Coon, who thought as late as 1962 that "H. sapiens" arose five times from "H. erectus" in five places.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: The historical alternative to the recent origin model is the multiregional origin of modern humans, initially proposed by Milford Wolpoff in the 1980s. This view proposes that the derivation of anatomically modern human populations from "H. erectus" at the beginning of the Pleistocene 1.8 million years BP, has taken place within a continuous world population. The hypothesis necessarily rejects the assumption of an infertility barrier between ancient Eurasian and African populations of "Homo". The hypothesis was controversially debated during the late 1980s and the 1990s. The now-current terminology of "recent-origin" and "Out of Africa" became current in the context of this debate in the 1990s. Originally seen as an antithetical alternative to the recent origin model, the multiregional hypothesis in its original "strong" form is obsolete, while its various modified weaker variants have become variants of a view of "recent origin" combined with archaic admixture. Stringer (2014) distinguishes the original or "classic" Multiregional model as having existed from 1984 (its formulation) until 2003, to a "weak" post-2003 variant that has "shifted close to that of the Assimilation Model".


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: In the 1980s, Allan Wilson together with Rebecca L. Cann and Mark Stoneking worked on genetic dating of the matrilineal most recent common ancestor of modern human populations (dubbed "Mitochondrial Eve"). To identify informative genetic markers for tracking human evolutionary history, Wilson concentrated on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), passed from mother to child. This DNA material mutates quickly, making it easy to plot changes over relatively short times. With his discovery that human mtDNA is genetically much less diverse than chimpanzee mtDNA, Wilson concluded that modern human populations had diverged recently from a single population while older human species such as Neanderthals and "Homo erectus" had become extinct. With the advent of archaeogenetics in the 1990s, the dating of mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal haplogroups became possible with some confidence. By 1999, estimates ranged around 150,000 years for the mt-MRCA and 60,000 to 70,000 years for the migration out of Africa.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: From 2000 to 2003, there was controversy about the mitochondrial DNA of "Mungo Man 3" (LM3) and its possible bearing on the multiregional hypothesis. LM3 was found to have more than the expected number of sequence differences when compared to modern human DNA (CRS). Comparison of the mitochondrial DNA with that of ancient and modern aborigines, led to the conclusion that Mungo Man fell outside the range of genetic variation seen in Aboriginal Australians and was used to support the multiregional origin hypothesis. A reanalysis on LM3 and other ancient specimens from the area published in 2016, showed it to be akin to modern Aboriginal Australian sequences, inconsistent with the results of the earlier study.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: As current estimates on the male most recent common ancestor ("Y-chromosomal Adam" or Y-MRCA) converge with estimates for the age of anatomically modern humans


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: and well predate the Out of Africa migration, geographical origin hypotheses continue to be limited to the African continent.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: The most basal lineages have been detected in West, Northwest and Central Africa, suggesting plausibility for the Y-MRCA living in the general region of "Central-Northwest Africa".


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: Another study finds a plausible placement in "the north-western quadrant of the African continent" for the emergence of the A1b haplogroup. The 2013 report of haplogroup A00 found among the Mbo people of western present-day Cameroon is also compatible with this picture.


title: Recent African origin of modern humans

text: The revision of Y-chromosomal phylogeny since 2011 has affected estimates for the likely geographical origin of Y-MRCA as well as estimates on time depth. By the same reasoning, future discovery of presently-unknown archaic haplogroups in living people would again lead to such revisions. In particular, the possible presence of between 1% and 4% Neanderthal-derived DNA in Eurasian genomes implies that the (unlikely) event of a discovery of a single living Eurasian male exhibiting a Neanderthal patrilineal line would immediately push back T-MRCA ("time to MRCA") to at least twice its current estimate. However, the discovery of a Neanderthal Y-chromosome by Mendez "et al". A 2016 study suggests the extinction of Neanderthal patrilineages, as the lineage inferred from the Neanderthal sequence is outside of the range of contemporary human genetic variation. Questions of geographical origin would become part of the debate on Neanderthal evolution from "Homo erectus".


title: Deep Rock Galactic

text: Deep Rock Galactic is a cooperative first-person shooter video game developed by Danish studio Ghost Ship Games and published by Coffee Stain Publishing. "Deep Rock Galactic" was fully released on May 13, 2020 for Windows and Xbox One after spending two years in early access. The game was later released for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 in January 2022, and for Xbox Series X/S in September 2022.


title: Deep Rock Galactic

text: Players take control of a dwarf employed by Deep Rock Galactic, an intergalactic mining corporation operating on Hoxxes IV, an alien planet whose caves are rich in minerals but filled with hostile wildlife and environmental hazards. Players can team up with up to three other dwarfs on missions into the planet, where they must navigate procedurallly generated caves, complete objectives, and collect resources while fighting alien swarms.


title: Deep Rock Galactic

text: "Deep Rock Galactic" received positive reviews by critics, who praised its class-based gameplay and atmosphere. The game has sold over 4 million units as of June 2022, and is part of the Xbox Game Pass subscription service since November 2020. It was also available to PlayStation Plus subscribers during the month of its release.


title: Deep Rock Galactic

text: "Deep Rock Galactic" is a cooperative first-person shooter video game in which players take control of one of four dwarves, separated into four different classes: Scout, Engineer, Gunner, and Driller. Players can embark on missions solo or with up to three other players. When playing solo, players can choose to be accompanied by a drone which assists with objectives and combat.


title: Deep Rock Galactic

text: Missions take place in fully destructible, procedurally generated cave systems with varying terrain generation, objectives, hazards, and enemies depending on the selected biome and mission type. Upon landing in a cave via an orbital drop pod, players must complete mission objectives, such as mining resources or repairing abandoned equipment. While doing so, they must fight hostile aliens, manage a limited supply of ammunition, and navigate the cave. Once the primary objective is completed, players can start an extraction sequence, where the dwarves must make it to an escape pod in order to safely exit the cave along with all collected resources.


title: Deep Rock Galactic

text: Each class is equipped with a unique loadout of weapons and tools. By synergizing each class' capabilities, it is often faster and more efficient to navigate the cave, complete objectives, and fight enemies. For example, the Engineer class can place platforms on walls, while the Scout class has a personal grappling hook. In order to mine a difficult-to-reach mineral deposit high up on a wall, an Engineer could place a platform beneath the deposit and a Scout could then grapple up to it.


title: Deep Rock Galactic

text: The game features progression systems outside of gameplay. Players can purchase new weapons, equipment upgrades, and cosmetics for each dwarf using credits and crafting minerals obtained from missions. By completing challenges, players can also acquire perks; these give dwarves additional abilities, such as increased run speed. Since 2021, there have been seasonal events in which players can unlock items via a free battle pass-like system.


title: Deep Rock Galactic

text: "Deep Rock Galactic" is the first game developed by Ghost Ship Games. The team has stated that they took inspiration from both "Minecraft" and "Left 4 Dead", and felt that a problem with "Left 4 Dead" was that it was unbalanced for new players who wanted to play with veterans, as such they wanted to design a game where all teammates would be on even footing regardless of experience.


title: Deep Rock Galactic

text: "Deep Rock Galactic" entered early access on February 28, 2018, where it stayed for two years prior to its full release in 2020. Ghost Ship Games used the early access model to get community feedback in order to determine which features to prioritize. The low-poly art style was chosen for its efficiency in adding content. The most difficult part of development was creating the procedural world generator. "Deep Rock Galactic" used Unreal Engine for development and was made with the engine's Blueprint scripting.


title: Deep Rock Galactic

text: The game continues to be developed, with intermittent updates adding new biomes, equipment, and accessories. Since November 4th, 2021, Ghost Ship Games have begun releasing content in themed season updates. These center around new enemy types and add new equipment, missions, and cosmetics. Currently, the game is on Season 3, released on November 3rd, 2022 for PC.


title: Deep Rock Galactic

text: The Early Access version of "Deep Rock Galactic" was well received by critics, who praised the game's atmosphere and challenging levels. Multiple reviewers compared parts of the experience to "Left 4 Dead". The full version of the game was released on May 13, 2020. On Metacritic, the game has a score of 85, indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: Deep Rock Galactic

text: Nic Reuben of Rock, Paper, Shotgun enjoyed how the game's classes meshed well together, and were each viable for co-op, saying that ""each class is both viable and enjoyable"". Matt Miller of "Game Informer" appreciated how the unique secondary objectives gave the game a risk/reward dynamic.


title: Deep Rock Galactic

text: Phil Iwaniuk, writing for "PC Gamer", enjoyed the tension that the exfiltration phase brought to each mission, and the persistent upgrades that let the player customize their dwarf. Leana Hafer of "IGN" praised the distinct abilities of each of the dwarves and the low-poly visual style, but criticized the game for its connection issues, saying "About one in every five missions, I’d run into connection issues that could cause other players to lag severely and disconnect."


title: Deep Rock Galactic

text: Ghost Ship Games said that "Deep Rock Galactic" had sold over 2 million units by January 2021, 3 million sales by November 2021, and 4 million copies by June 2022.


title: Deep Rock Galactic

text: In March 2021, Ghost Ship Games and Coffee Stain Publishing won Indie Game of the Year and Excellence in Multiplayer awards at South by Southwest.


title: Exsanguination

text: Exsanguination is death caused by loss of blood. Depending upon the health of the individual, people usually die from losing half to two-thirds of their blood; a loss of roughly one-third of the blood volume is considered very serious. Even a single deep cut can warrant suturing and hospitalization, especially if trauma, a vein or artery, or another comorbidity is involved. The word comes from the Latin 'sanguis', meaning blood.


title: Exsanguination

text: Exsanguination is used as a method of slaughter. Before the fatal incision is made, the animal will be rendered insensible to pain by various methods, including captive bolt, electricity, or chemical. Electricity is used mostly to incapacitate swine, poultry, and domestic sheep, whereas a chemical is used for injured livestock.


title: Exsanguination

text: Without prior sedation, stunning, or anesthetic, this method of slaughter may cause a high degree of anxiety, depending on the process. The way animals are handled and restrained prior to slaughter likely has a greater impact on their welfare than whether or not they are stunned. If done badly, there can be a large element of cruelty involved, whereas being killed under the correct conditions gives the animal no pain or suffering.


title: Exsanguination

text: Continued pumping operation of the heart during exsanguination increases the rate of depletion, and thus hastens death, by raising the fluid pressure of the blood. Because the heart operates like a positive displacement pump, reduction of blood volume will not affect efficiency of cardiac output. Deprivation of blood to the heart does gradually result in diminished function, but concurrently with similar death of other parts in the body.


title: Exsanguination

text: Quickly after the animal is incapacitated, it is put on the ground on top of an orange cloth, then a very sharp knife, in an orientation parallel to the ground, is inserted through the skin just in front of the point of the jaw and below the vertebrate. From this position, the knife is drawn forward away from the spine to sever the jugular veins, carotid arteries, and trachea. Properly performed, blood will flow freely and death will occur within seconds. Sheep and duck will reach heart and liver malfunction, leading to death, in under 10 seconds; larger animals, notably cattle may take up to 40 seconds to reach brain death. This period may extend to a couple of minutes if complications, such as arterial occlusion, occur. However, the animal's inverted position allows blood to flow more precipitously and thus makes an animal regaining consciousness before it is fully exsanguinated highly unlikely. In any case, animal welfare advisory councils clearly emphasize that the time from incapacitation to start of exsanguination should be prompt, recommending a time under 15 seconds.


title: Exsanguination

text: Beyond the initial cost of purchasing a captive bolt, continued usage of the method is very inexpensive. The animal is incapacitated for the duration of the procedure, so it is one of the safest methods for the slaughterer.


title: Exsanguination

text: Jewish kashrut (kosher) and Islamic dhabihah (halal) dietary laws mandate that slaughter is performed with a cut that immediately severs the esophagus, trachea, and the large blood vessels in the neck, causing loss of consciousness and death by exsanguination. The double-edged pointed knife is prohibited. Instead, a long knife with a squared off end is used that in Jewish law must be at least twice the width of the animal's neck. The operation of sticking or exsanguination is executed faster than when using the pointed knife, as four large blood vessels in the neck are severed simultaneously.


title: Exsanguination

text: In Islamic and Jewish law, captive bolts and other methods of pre-slaughter paralysis are not permissible, as consumption of animals found dead are regarded as carrion and stunned animals that are later killed fall into this category. Various halal food authorities have more recently permitted the use of a recently developed fail-safe system of head-only stunning using a mushroom shaped hammer head that delivers a blow that is not fatal, proved by it being possible to reverse the procedure and revive the animal after the shock.


title: Exsanguination

text: Such methods, particularly involving unstunned animals, have been criticized by veterinarians and animal welfare organizations, among others. Prohibitions against unstunned slaughter have been enacted in several countries. See Animal welfare controversies in shechita for further information.


title: Third Servile War

text: The Third Servile War, also called the Gladiator War and the War of Spartacus by Plutarch, was the last in a series of slave rebellions against the Roman Republic known as the Servile Wars. This third rebellion was the only one that directly threatened the Roman heartland of Italy. It was particularly alarming to Rome because its military seemed powerless to suppress it.


title: Third Servile War

text: The revolt began in 73 BC, with the escape of around 70 slave gladiators from a gladiator school in Capua. They easily defeated the small Roman force sent to recapture them, and within two years, they had been joined by some 120,000 men, women, and children. The able-bodied adults of this large group were a surprisingly effective armed force that repeatedly showed they could withstand or defeat the Roman military, from the local Campanian patrols to the Roman militia and even to trained Roman legions under consular command. This army of slaves roamed across Italia, raiding estates and towns with relative impunity, sometimes dividing into separate but connected bands with several leaders, including the famous former gladiator Spartacus.


title: Third Servile War

text: The Roman Senate grew increasingly alarmed at the slave-army's depredations and continued military successes. Eventually Rome fielded an army of eight legions under the harsh but effective leadership of Marcus Licinius Crassus that destroyed the army of slaves in 71 BC. This happened after a long and bitter fighting retreat before the legions of Crassus and after the rebels realized that the legions of Pompey and Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus were moving in to entrap them. The armies of Spartacus launched their full strength against Crassus's legions and were utterly defeated. Of the survivors, some 6,000 were crucified along the Appian Way.


title: Third Servile War

text: Plutarch's account of the revolt suggests that the slaves simply wished to escape to freedom and leave Roman territory by way of Cisalpine Gaul. Appian and Florus describe the revolt as a civil war in which the slaves intended to capture the city of Rome. The Third Servile War had significant and far-reaching effects on Rome's broader history. Pompey and Crassus exploited their successes to further their political careers, using their public acclaim and the implied threat of their legions to sway the consular elections of 70 BC in their favor. Their actions as consuls greatly furthered the subversion of Roman political institutions and contributed to the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.


title: Third Servile War

text: To varying degrees throughout Roman history, the existence of a pool of inexpensive labor in the form of slaves was an important factor in the economy. Slaves were acquired for the Roman workforce through a variety of means, including purchase from foreign merchants and the enslavement of foreign populations through military conquest. With Rome's heavy involvement in wars of conquest in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, from tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves at a time were imported into the Roman economy from various European and Mediterranean acquisitions. While there was limited use for slaves as servants, craftsmen, and personal attendants, vast numbers of slaves worked in mines and on the agricultural lands of Sicily and southern Italy.


title: Third Servile War

text: For the most part, slaves were treated harshly and oppressively during the Roman republican period. Under Republican law, a slave was property, not a person. Owners could abuse, injure or even kill their own slaves without legal consequence. While there were many grades and types of slaves, the lowest—and most numerous—grades who worked in the fields and mines were subject to a life of hard physical labor.


title: Third Servile War

text: The large size and oppressive treatment of the slave population led to rebellions. In 135 BC and 104 BC, the First and Second Servile Wars erupted in Sicily, where small bands of rebels found tens of thousands of willing followers wishing to escape the oppressive life of a Roman slave. While these were considered serious civil disturbances by the Roman Senate, taking years and direct military intervention to quell, they were never considered a serious threat to the Republic. The Roman heartland had never seen a slave uprising, nor had slaves ever been seen as a potential threat to the city of Rome. This changed with the Third Servile War.


title: Third Servile War

text: In the Roman Republic of the 1st century BC, gladiatorial games were one of the more popular forms of entertainment. In order to supply gladiators for the contests, several training schools, or "ludi", were established throughout Italy. In these schools, prisoners of war and condemned criminals—who were considered slaves—were taught the skills required to fight in gladiatorial games. In 73 BC, a group of some 200 gladiators in the Capuan school owned by Lentulus Batiatus plotted an escape. When their plot was betrayed, a force of about 70 men seized kitchen implements ("choppers and spits"), fought their way free from the school, and seized several wagons of gladiatorial weapons and armor.


title: Third Servile War

text: Once free, the escaped gladiators chose leaders from their number, selecting two Gallic slaves—Crixus and Oenomaus—and Spartacus, who was said either to be a Thracian auxiliary from the Roman legions later condemned to slavery, or a captive taken by the legions. There is some question as to Spartacus's nationality. A "Thraex" was a type of gladiator in Rome, so "Thracian" may simply refer to the style of gladiatorial combat in which he was trained. On the other hand, names nearly identical to Spartacus were recorded among five out of twenty Thracian Odrysae rulers of Bosporan kingdom beginning with Spartokos I the founder of the Spartocid dynasty. The name came from the Thracian words *"sparas" "spear, lance" and *"takos" "famous" and thus meant "renowned by the spear".


title: Third Servile War

text: These escaped slaves were able to defeat a small force of troops sent after them from Capua, and equip themselves with captured military equipment as well as their gladiatorial weapons. Sources are somewhat contradictory on the order of events immediately following the escape, but they generally agree that this band of escaped gladiators plundered the region surrounding Capua, recruited many other slaves into their ranks, and eventually retired to a more defensible position on Mount Vesuvius.


title: Third Servile War

text: As the revolt and raids were occurring in Campania, which was a vacation region of the rich and influential in Rome, and the location of many estates, the revolt quickly came to the attention of Roman authorities. They initially viewed the revolt more as a major crime wave than an armed rebellion.


title: Third Servile War

text: However, later that year, Rome dispatched a military force under praetorian authority to put down the rebellion. A Roman praetor, Gaius Claudius Glaber, gathered a force of 3,000 men, not regular legions, but a militia "picked up in haste and at random, for the Romans did not consider this a war yet, but a raid, something like an attack of robbery." Glaber's forces besieged the slaves on Mount Vesuvius, blocking the only known way down the mountain. With the slaves thus contained, Glaber was content to wait until starvation forced the slaves to surrender.


title: Third Servile War

text: While the slaves lacked military training, Spartacus' forces displayed ingenuity in their use of available local tools, and in their use of clever, unorthodox tactics when facing the disciplined Roman infantry. In response to Glaber's siege, Spartacus' men made ropes and ladders from vines and trees growing on the slopes of Vesuvius and used them to rappel down the cliffs on the side of the mountain opposite Glaber's forces. They moved around the base of Vesuvius, outflanked the army, and annihilated Glaber's men.


title: Third Servile War

text: A second expedition, under the praetor Publius Varinius, was then dispatched against Spartacus. For some reason, Varinius seems to have split his forces under the command of his subordinates Furius and Cossinius. Plutarch mentions that Furius commanded some 2,000 men, but neither the strength of the remaining forces, nor whether the expedition was composed of militia or legions, appears to be known. These forces were also defeated by the army of escaped slaves: Cossinius was killed, Varinius was nearly captured, and the equipment of the armies was seized by the slaves.


title: Third Servile War

text: With these victories, more and more slaves flocked to the Spartacan forces, as did "many of the herdsmen and shepherds of the region", swelling their ranks to some 70,000. The rebel slaves spent the winter of 73–72 BC training, arming and equipping their new recruits, and expanding their raiding territory to include the towns of Nola, Nuceria, Thurii and Metapontum.


title: Third Servile War

text: The victories of the rebel slaves did not come without a cost. At some time during these events, one of their leaders, Oenomaus, was lost—presumably in battle—and is not mentioned further in the histories.


title: Third Servile War

text: By the end of 73 BC, Spartacus and Crixus were in command of a large group of armed men with a proven ability to withstand Roman armies. What they intended to do with this force is somewhat difficult for modern readers to determine. Since the Third Servile War was ultimately an unsuccessful rebellion, no firsthand account of the slaves' motives and goals exists, and historians writing about the war propose contradictory theories.


title: Third Servile War

text: Many popular modern accounts of the war claim that there was a factional split in the escaped slaves between those under Spartacus, who wished to escape over the Alps to freedom, and those under Crixus, who wished to stay in southern Italy to continue raiding and plundering. This appears to be an interpretation of events based on the following: the regions that Florus lists as being raided by the slaves include Thurii and Metapontum, which are geographically distant from Nola and Nuceria.


title: Third Servile War

text: This indicates the existence of two groups: Lucius Gellius eventually attacked Crixus and a group of some 30,000 followers who are described as being separate from the main group under Spartacus. Plutarch describes the desire of some of the escaped slaves to plunder Italy, rather than escape over the Alps. While this factional split is not contradicted by classical sources, there does not seem to be any direct evidence to support it.


title: Third Servile War

text: Fictional accounts sometimes portray the rebelling slaves as ancient Roman freedom fighters, struggling to change a corrupt Roman society and to end the Roman institution of slavery. Although this is not contradicted by classical historians, no historical account mentions that the goal of the rebel slaves was to end slavery in the Republic, nor do any of the actions of rebel leaders, who themselves committed numerous atrocities, seem specifically aimed at ending slavery.


title: Third Servile War

text: Even classical historians, who were writing only years after the events themselves, seem to be divided as to what the motives of Spartacus were. Appian and Florus write that he intended to march on Rome itself—although this may have been no more than a reflection of Roman fears. If Spartacus did intend to march on Rome, it was a goal he must have later abandoned. Plutarch writes that Spartacus merely wished to escape northwards into Cisalpine Gaul and disperse his men back to their homes.


title: Third Servile War

text: It is not certain that the slaves were a homogeneous group under the leadership of Spartacus, although this is implied by the Roman historians. Certainly other slave leaders are mentioned—Crixus, Oenomaus, Gannicus, and Castus—and it cannot be told from the historical evidence whether they were aides, subordinates, or even equals leading groups of their own and traveling in convoy with Spartacus' people.


title: Third Servile War

text: In the spring of 72 BC, the escaped slaves left their winter encampments and began to move northwards towards Cisalpine Gaul. The Senate, alarmed by the size of the revolt and the defeat of the praetorian armies of Glaber and Varinius, dispatched a pair of consular legions under the command of Lucius Gellius and Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus. Initially, the consular armies were successful. Gellius engaged a group of about 30,000 slaves, under the command of Crixus, near Mount Garganus and killed two-thirds of the rebels, including Crixus.


title: Third Servile War

text: At this point, there is a divergence in the classical sources as to the course of events, which do not correspond until the entry of Marcus Licinius Crassus into the war. The two most comprehensive (extant) histories of the war by Appian and Plutarch detail very different events. Neither account directly contradicts the other but simply reports different events, ignoring some events in the other account and reporting events that are unique to that account.


title: Third Servile War

text: According to Appian, the battle between Gellius' legions and Crixus' men near Mount Garganus was the beginning of a long and complex series of military maneuvers that almost resulted in the Spartacan forces attacking the city of Rome. After his victory over Crixus, Gellius moved northwards, following the main group of slaves under Spartacus who were heading for Cisalpine Gaul. The army of Lentulus was deployed to bar Spartacus' path and the consuls hoped to trap the rebel slaves between them. Spartacus' army met Lentulus' legion, defeated it, turned and destroyed Gellius' army, forcing the Roman legions to retreat in disarray.


title: Third Servile War

text: Appian claims that Spartacus executed some 300 captured Roman soldiers to avenge the death of Crixus, forcing them to fight each other to the death as gladiators. Following this victory, Spartacus pushed northwards with his followers (some 120,000) as fast as he could travel, "having burned all his useless material, killed all his prisoners and butchered his pack-animals in order to expedite his movement".


title: Third Servile War

text: The defeated consular armies fell back to Rome to regroup while Spartacus' followers moved northwards. The consuls again engaged Spartacus at the Battle of Picenum somewhere in the Picenum region and were defeated again. Appian claims that at this point Spartacus changed his intention of marching on Rome—implying this was Spartacus' goal following the confrontation in Picenum—as "he did not consider himself ready as yet for that kind of a fight, as his whole force was not suitably armed, for no city had joined him but only slaves, deserters, and riff-raff". Spartacus decided to withdraw into southern Italy again. The serviles seized the town of Thurii and the surrounding countryside, arming themselves, raiding the surrounding territories, trading plunder with merchants for bronze and iron (with which to manufacture more arms) and clashing occasionally with Roman forces which were invariably defeated.


title: Third Servile War

text: Plutarch's description of events differs significantly from Appian's. According to Plutarch, after the battle between Gellius' legion and Crixus's men (whom Plutarch describes as "Germans") near Mount Garganus, Spartacus' men engaged the legion commanded by Lentulus, defeated it, seized the Roman supplies and equipment, then pushed into northern Italy. After this defeat, both consuls were relieved of command of their armies by the Roman Senate and recalled to Rome. Plutarch does not mention Spartacus engaging Gellius' legion at all, nor of Spartacus facing the combined consular legions in Picenum.


title: Third Servile War

text: Plutarch then goes on to detail a conflict not mentioned in Appian's history. According to Plutarch, Spartacus' army continued northwards to the region around Mutina (modern Modena). There, a Roman army of some 10,000 soldiers, led by the governor of Cisalpine Gaul, Gaius Cassius Longinus attempted to bar Spartacus' progress and was also defeated. Plutarch makes no further mention of events until the initial confrontation between Marcus Licinius Crassus and Spartacus in the spring of 71 BC, omitting the march on Rome and the retreat to Thurii described by Appian. As Plutarch describes Crassus forcing Spartacus' followers to retreat southwards from Picenum, it could be inferred that the rebel slaves approached Picenum from the south in early 71 BC, implying that they withdrew from Mutina into southern or central Italy for the winter of 72–71 BC. Why they might do so, when there was apparently no reason for them not to escape over the Alps—Spartacus' goal according to Plutarch—is not explained.


title: Third Servile War

text: Despite the contradictions in the classical sources regarding the events of 72 BC, there seems to be general agreement that Spartacus and his followers were in the south of Italy in early 71 BC. The Senate, alarmed at the apparently unstoppable rebellion, gave the task of putting it down to Marcus Licinius Crassus. Crassus had been a field commander under Lucius Cornelius Sulla during the civil war between Sulla and the Marian faction in 82 BC and had served under Sulla during the dictatorship that followed.


title: Third Servile War

text: Crassus was given a praetorship and assigned six new legions in addition to the two formerly consular legions of Gellius and Lentulus, giving him an estimated army of some 32,000–48,000 trained Roman infantry plus auxiliaries (there being quite a range in the size of Republican legions). Crassus treated his legions with harsh, even brutal, discipline, reviving the punishment of unit decimation within his army. Appian is uncertain whether he decimated the two consular legions for cowardice when he was appointed their commander or whether he had his "entire" army decimated for a later defeat (an event in which up to 4,000 legionaries would have been executed).


title: Third Servile War

text: Plutarch only mentions the decimation of 50 legionaries of one cohort as punishment after Mummius' defeat in the first confrontation between Crassus and Spartacus. Regardless of events, Crassus' treatment of his legions proved that "he was more dangerous to them than the enemy" and spurred them on to victory rather than running the risk of displeasing their commander.


title: Third Servile War

text: When the forces of Spartacus moved northwards once again, Crassus deployed six of his legions on the borders of the region (Plutarch claims the initial battle between Crassus' legions and Spartacus' followers occurred near the Picenum region, Appian claims it occurred near the region of Samnium). Crassus detached two legions under his legate, Mummius, to maneuver behind Spartacus but gave them orders not to engage the rebels. When an opportunity presented itself, Mummius disobeyed, attacked the Spartacist forces and was routed. Despite this initial loss, Crassus engaged Spartacus and defeated him, killing some 6,000 of the rebels.


title: Third Servile War

text: The tide seemed to have turned in the war. Crassus' legions were victorious in several more engagements, killing thousands of the rebel slaves and forcing Spartacus to retreat south through Lucania to the straits near Messina. According to Plutarch, Spartacus made a bargain with Cilician pirates to transport him and some 2,000 of his men to Sicily, where he intended to incite a slave revolt and gather reinforcements. He was betrayed by the pirates, who took payment and then abandoned the rebel slaves. Minor sources mention that there were some attempts at raft and shipbuilding by the rebels as a means to escape but that Crassus took unspecified measures to ensure the rebels could not cross to Sicily and their efforts were abandoned. Spartacus' forces retreated towards Rhegium, Crassus' legions following; upon arrival Crassus built fortifications across the isthmus at Rhegium, despite harassing raids from the rebel slaves. The rebels were under siege and cut off from their supplies.


title: Third Servile War

text: The legions of Pompey were returning to Italy, having put down the rebellion of Quintus Sertorius in Hispania. Sources disagree on whether Crassus had requested reinforcements or whether the Senate simply took advantage of Pompey's return to Italy but Pompey was ordered to bypass Rome and head south to aid Crassus. The Senate also sent reinforcements under the command of "Lucullus", mistakenly thought by Appian to be Lucius Licinius Lucullus, commander of the forces engaged in the Third Mithridatic War but who appears to have been the proconsul of Macedonia, Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus, the former's younger brother. With Pompey's legions marching from the north and Lucullus' troops landing in Brundisium, Crassus realized that if he did not put down the slave revolt quickly, credit for the war would go to the general who arrived with reinforcements and he spurred his legions on to end the conflict quickly.


title: Third Servile War

text: Hearing of the approach of Pompey, Spartacus tried to negotiate with Crassus to bring the conflict to a close before Roman reinforcements arrived. When Crassus refused, Spartacus and his army broke through the Roman fortifications and headed up the Bruttium peninsula with Crassus's legions in pursuit. The legions managed to catch a portion of the rebels – under the command of Gannicus and Castus – separated from the main army, killing 12,300.


title: Third Servile War

text: Even though Spartacus had lost many men, Crassus' legions had also suffered greatly. The Roman forces under the command of a cavalry officer named Lucius Quinctius were destroyed when some of the escaped slaves turned to meet them. The rebel slaves were not a professional army and had reached their limit. They were unwilling to flee any farther and groups of men were breaking away from the main force to independently attack Crassus's legions.


title: Third Servile War

text: With discipline breaking down, Spartacus turned his forces around and brought his entire strength to bear on the legions. In this last stand, the Battle of the Silarius River, Spartacus' forces were routed, the vast majority of them being killed on the battlefield. All the ancient historians stated that Spartacus was also killed on the battlefield but his body was never found.


title: Third Servile War

text: The rebels of the Third Servile War were annihilated by Crassus. Pompey's forces did not directly engage Spartacus's forces but his legions moving from the north were able to capture some 5,000 rebels fleeing the battle, "all of whom he slew". After this action, Pompey sent a dispatch to the Senate, saying that while Crassus certainly had conquered the slaves in open battle, he had ended the war, thus claiming a large portion of the credit and earning the enmity of Crassus. While most of the rebel slaves were killed on the battlefield, some 6,000 survivors were captured by the legions of Crassus. All 6,000 were crucified along the Appian Way from Rome to Capua.


title: Third Servile War

text: Pompey and Crassus reaped political benefit for having put down the rebellion; both returned to Rome with their legions and refused to disband them, instead camping outside Rome. Both men stood for the consulship of 70 BC, even though Pompey was ineligible because of his youth and lack of service as praetor or quaestor. Both men were elected consul for 70 BC, partly due to the implied threat of their armed legions encamped outside the city.


title: Third Servile War

text: It is difficult to determine the extent to which the events of this war contributed to changes in attitudes toward, use of, and legal rights accorded to Roman slaves. However, the end of the Servile Wars seems to have coincided with the end of the period of the most prominent use of slaves in Rome and the beginning of a new perception of slaves within Roman society and law.


title: Third Servile War

text: Certainly the revolt had shaken the Roman people, who "out of sheer fear seem to have begun to treat their slaves less harshly than before". The wealthy owners of the latifundia began to reduce the number of agricultural slaves, opting to employ the large pool of formerly dispossessed freemen in sharecropping arrangements. With the end of Augustus' reign (27 BC – 14 AD), the major Roman wars of conquest ceased until the reign of Emperor Trajan (reigned 98–117 AD) and with them ended the supply of plentiful and inexpensive slaves through military conquest. This era of peace further promoted the use of freedmen as laborers in agricultural estates.


title: Third Servile War

text: The legal status and rights of Roman slaves also began to change. During the time of Emperor Claudius (reigned 41–54 AD), a constitution was enacted that made the killing of an old or infirm slave an act of murder and decreed that if such slaves were abandoned by their owners, they became freedmen. Under Antoninus Pius (reigned 138–161 AD), laws further extended the rights of slaves, holding owners responsible for the killing of slaves, forcing the sale of slaves when it could be shown that they were being mistreated and providing a (theoretically) neutral third party to which a slave could appeal. While these legal changes occurred much too late to be "direct" results of the Third Servile War, they represent the legal codification of changes in the Roman attitude toward slaves that evolved over decades.


title: Third Servile War

text: The Third Servile War was the last servile war and Rome did not see another slave uprising of this magnitude again.


title: Chris Rock filmography

text: Rock started his career as a cast member on "Saturday Night Live" from 1990 to 1993 alongside Adam Sandler, David Spade, and Chris Farley. He also starred on "In Living Color" from 1993 to 1994, and "The Chris Rock Show" from 1997 to 2000. During this time Rock gained stardom as a standup comedian releasing several comedy albums including "Born Suspect" (1991), "Roll with the New" (1997), and "Bigger & Blacker" (1999). He started his film career with minor film roles such as "Beverly Hills Cop II" (1987) before appearing in "Lethal Weapon 4" (1998), "Dogma" (1999), and "Nurse Betty" (2000).


title: Chris Rock filmography

text: In 2001, Rock wrote, executive produced and starred in "Down to Earth" (2001), and starred and produced "Pootie Tang" (2001). Both of these projects he worked with Louis C.K. In 2003 he made his directorial debut with the political satire "Head of State" (2003), followed by his film as a director "I Think I Love My Wife" (2007), and "Top Five" (2014). He also starred in the comedies "Death at a Funeral" (2010), "Grown Ups" (2010), its 2013 sequel, and "Dolemite Is My Name" (2019). He has also appeared in the Netflix films starring Adam Sandler; "Sandy Wexler" (2017), and "The Week Of" (2018).


title: Chris Rock filmography

text: Rock has also made appearances in a variety of television shows including "Louie" (2011–2012), "Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee" (2013), "Broad City" (2015), "Empire" (2015), and "Fargo" (2020). He also appeared as himself in the documentaries "The N-Word" (2004), "The Aristocrats" (2005), and "Good Hair" (2009). He also is known for his vocal performances as titular protagonist of "Osmosis Jones" (2001), Marty the Zebra in DreamWorks Animation's "Madagascar" film franchise (2005-2012) and as Mooseblood in Jerry Seinfeld's "Bee Movie" (2007).


title: Roy Clark

text: Roy Linwood Clark (April 15, 1933 – November 15, 2018) was an American singer and musician. He is best known for having hosted "Hee Haw", a nationally televised country variety show, from 1969 to 1997. Clark was an important and influential figure in country music, both as a performer and in helping to popularize the genre.


title: Roy Clark

text: During the 1970s, Clark frequently guest-hosted for Johnny Carson on "The Tonight Show" and enjoyed a 30-million viewership for "Hee Haw". Clark was highly regarded and renowned as a guitarist, banjo player, and fiddler. He was skilled in the traditions of many genres, including classical guitar, country music, Latin music, bluegrass, and pop. He had hit songs as a pop vocalist (e.g., "Yesterday, When I Was Young" and "Thank God and Greyhound"), and his instrumental skill had an enormous effect on generations of bluegrass and country musicians. He became a member of the Grand Ole Opry in 1987, and, in 2009, was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame. He published his autobiography, "My Life—in Spite of Myself", in 1994.


title: Roy Clark

text: Clark was born April 15, 1933, in Meherrin, Virginia, one of five children born to Hester Linwood Clark and Lillian Clark (Oliver). His father was a tobacco farmer. He spent his childhood in Meherrin and New York City, where his father moved the family to take jobs during the Great Depression. When Clark was 11 years old, his family moved to a home on 1st Street SE in the Washington Highlands neighborhood of Washington, D.C., after his father found work at the Washington Navy Yard.


title: Roy Clark

text: Clark's father was a semi-professional musician who played banjo, fiddle, and guitar, and his mother played piano. The first musical instrument Clark ever played was a four-string cigar box with a ukulele neck attached to it, which he picked up in elementary school. His father taught Clark to play guitar when Roy was 14 years old, and soon Clark was playing banjo, guitar, and mandolin. "Guitar was my real love, though," Clark later said. "I never copied anyone, but I was certainly influenced by them; especially by George Barnes. I just loved his swing style and tone." Clark also found inspiration in other local D.C. musicians. "One of the things that influenced me growing up around Washington, D.C., in the '50s was that it had an awful lot of good musicians. And I used to go in and just steal them blind. I stole all their licks. It wasn't until years later that I found out that a lot of them used to cringe when I'd come in and say, 'Oh, no! Here comes that kid again.'" As for his banjo style, Clark said in 1985, "When I started playing, you didn't have many choices to follow, and Earl Scruggs was both of them." Clark won the National Banjo Championship in 1947 and 1948, and briefly toured with a band when he was 15.