title: Rijeka

text: Among the many political experiments that took place during this experience, D'Annunzio and his men undertook a first attempt to establish a movement of non-aligned nations in the so-called League of Fiume, an organisation antithetic to the Wilsonian League of Nations, which it saw as a means of perpetuating a corrupt and imperialist "status quo". The organisation was aiming primarily at helping all oppressed nationalities in their struggle for political dignity and recognition, establishing links with many movements on various continents, but it never found the necessary external support and its main legacy remains today the Regency of Carnaro's recognition of Soviet Russia, the first state in the world to have done so.


title: Rijeka

text: The Liberal Giovanni Giolitti became Premier of Italy again in June 1920; this signalled a hardening of official attitudes to D'Annunzio's "coup". On 12 November, Italy and Yugoslavia concluded the Treaty of Rapallo, which envisaged Fiume becoming an independent state, the Free State of Fiume, under a government acceptable to both powers. D'Annunzio's response was characteristically flamboyant and of doubtful judgment: his declaration of war against Italy invited the bombardment by Italian royal forces which led to his surrender of the city at the end of the year, after five days' resistance (known as Bloody Christmas). Italian troops freed the city from D'Annunzio's militias in the last days of December 1920. After a world war and additional two years of economic paralysis the city economy was nearing collapse and the population was exhausted.


title: Rijeka

text: In a subsequent democratic election the Fiuman electorate on 24 April 1921 approved the idea of a free state of Fiume-Rijeka with a Fiuman-Italo-Yugoslav consortium ownership structure for the port, giving an overwhelming victory to the independentist candidates of the Autonomist Party. Fiume became consequently a full-fledged member of the League of Nations and the ensuing election of Rijeka's first president, Riccardo Zanella, was met with official recognition and greetings from all major powers and countries worldwide. Despite many positive developments leading to the establishment of the new state's structures, the subsequent formation of a constituent assembly for the state did not put an end to strife within the city. A brief Italian nationalist seizure of power ended with the intervention of an Italian royal commissioner, and another short-lived peace was interrupted by a local Fascist putsch in March 1922 which ended with a third Italian intervention to restore the previous order. Seven months later the Kingdom of Italy itself fell under Fascist rule and Fiume's fate was therefore sealed, the Italian Fascist Party being among the strongest proponents of the annexation of Fiume to Italy. The Free State of Fiume thus was to officially become the first country victim of fascist expansionism.


title: Rijeka

text: The period of diplomatic acrimony was closed by the bilateral Treaty of Rome (27 January 1924), signed by Italy and Yugoslavia. With it the two neighbouring countries agreed to partition the territory of the small state. Most of the old Corpus Separatum territory became part of Italy, while a few Croatian/Slovenian-speaking villages to the north of the city were annexed by Yugoslavia. The annexation happened de facto on 16 March 1924, and it inaugurated about twenty years of Italian government for the city proper, to the detriment of the Croatian minority, which fell victim of discrimination and targeted assimilation policies.


title: Rijeka

text: The city became the seat of the newly formed Province of Fiume. In this period Fiume lost its commercial hinterland and thus part of its economic potential as it became a border town with little strategic importance for the Kingdom of Italy. However, since it retained the Free Port status and its iconic image in the nation-building myth, it gained many economic concessions and subsidies from the government in Rome. These included a separate tax treatment from the rest of Italy and a continuous inflow of investments from the Italian state (although not as generous as previous Hungarian ones). The city regained a good level of economic prosperity and was much richer than the surrounding Yugoslav lands, but the economic and demographic growth slowed down if compared to the previous Austro-Hungarian period.


title: Rijeka

text: At the beginning of World War II Rijeka immediately found itself in an awkward position. The city was overwhelmingly Italian, but its immediate surroundings and the city of Sušak, just across the Rječina river (today a part of Rijeka proper) were inhabited almost exclusively by Croatians and part of a potentially hostile power—Yugoslavia. Once the Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia in April 1941, the Croatian areas surrounding the city were occupied by the Italian military, setting the stage for an intense and bloody insurgency which would last until the end of the war. Partisan activity included guerrilla-style attacks on isolated positions or supply columns, sabotage and killings of civilians believed to be connected to the Italian and (later) German authorities. This, in turn, was met by stiff reprisals from the Italian and German military. On 14 July 1942, in reprisal for the killing of four civilians of Italian origin by Partisans, the Italian military killed 100 men from the suburban village of Podhum, resettling the remaining 800 people to concentration camps.


title: Rijeka

text: After the surrender of Italy to the Allies in September 1943, Rijeka and the surrounding territories were occupied and annexed by Germany, becoming part of the Adriatic Littoral Zone. Partisan activity continued and intensified. On 30 April 1944, in the nearby village of Lipa, German troops killed 263 civilians in reprisal for the killing of several soldiers during a Partisan attack.


title: Rijeka

text: The German and Italian occupiers and their local collaborators deported some 80 percent of the city's roughly 500 Jews to Auschwitz. A larger proportion of Rijeka's Jewish population was murdered in the Holocaust than that of any other city in Italian territory.


title: Rijeka

text: Because of its industries (oil refinery, torpedo factory, shipyards) and its port facilities, the city was also a target of more than 30 Anglo-American air attacks, which caused widespread destruction and hundreds of civilian deaths. Some of the heaviest bombardments happened on 12 January 1944 (attack on the refinery, part of the oil campaign), on 3–6 November 1944, when a series of attacks resulted in at least 125 deaths and between 15 and 25 February 1945 (200 dead, 300 wounded).


title: Rijeka

text: The area of Rijeka was heavily fortified even before World War II (the remains of these fortifications can be seen today on the outskirts of the city). This was the fortified border between Italy and Yugoslavia which, at that time, cut across the city area and its surroundings. As Yugoslav troops approached the city in April 1945, one of the fiercest and largest battles in this area of Europe ensued. The 27,000 German and additional Italian RSI troops fought tenaciously from behind these fortifications (renamed "Ingridstellung"—Ingrid Line—by the Germans). Under the command of the German general Ludwig Kübler they inflicted thousands of casualties on the attacking Partisans, which were forced by their superiors to charge uphill against well-fortified positions to the north and east of the city. The Yugoslav commanders did not spare casualties to speed up the capture of the city, fearing a possible English landing in area which would prevent their advance towards Trieste before the war was over. After an extremely bloody battle and heavy losses on the attackers side, the Germans were forced to retreat. Before leaving the city the German troops destroyed much of the harbour area and other important infrastructure with explosive charges. However, the German attempt to break out of the encirclement north-west of the city was unsuccessful. Of the approximately 27,000 German and other troops retreating from the city, 11,000 were killed or executed after surrendering, while the remaining 16,000 were taken as prisoners. Yugoslav troops entered Rijeka on 3 May 1945. The city had suffered extensive damage in the war. The economic infrastructure was almost completely destroyed, and of the 5,400 buildings in the city at the time, 2,890 (53%) were either completely destroyed or damaged.


title: Rijeka

text: The city's fate was once again solved by a combination of force and diplomacy. Despite insistent requests from the Fiuman government in exile collaboration with the partisans and calls to respect the city-state's internationally recognized sovereignty, and despite generous initial promises given by the Yugoslav authorities of full independence and later of extensive autonomy for the city-state (the locals were promised various degrees of autonomy at different moments during the war, most notably the possibility to be a state of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia), the city was annexed by Yugoslavia and incorporated as part of the federal state of Croatia. All the many voices of dissent within the population were silenced in the 12 months following the end of the war. The situation created by the Yugoslav forces on the ground was eventually formalized by the 1947 Paris peace treaty between Italy and the Allies on 10 February 1947, despite both the complaints by the last democratically-elected government and its president-in-exile Riccardo Zanella and the attempts of the experienced Italian foreign minister Carlo Sforza to uphold the previous Wilsonian plans for a multicultural Free State solution, with a local headquarters for the newly created United Nations. Once the change to Yugoslav sovereignty was formalized, and in particular in the years leading to the Trieste Crisis of 1954, 58,000 of the city's 66,000 inhabitants were gradually pushed either to emigrate (they became known in Italian as "esuli" or the "exiled ones" from Istria, Fiume and Dalmatia) or to endure harsh oppression by the new Yugoslav Communist regime. The Yugoslav communist party opted for a markedly Stalinist approach to solving the local ethnic question, in particular after the Autonomist sympathisers gained massive support in the first local elections held on the city's territory between 1945 and 1946.


title: Rijeka

text: The discrimination and persecution that many inhabitants experienced at the hands of Yugoslav officials, in the last days of World War II and the first years of peace, still remain painful memories for the locals and the "esuli," and are somewhat of a taboo topic for Rijeka's political milieu, which is still largely denying the events. Summary executions of alleged Fascists (often well-known anti-fascists or openly apolitical), aimed at hitting the local intellectual class, the Autonomists, the commercial classes, the former Italian public servants, the military officials and often also ordinary civilians (at least 650 executions of Italians took place after the end of the war) eventually forced most Italophones (of various ethnicities) to leave Rijeka/Fiume in order to avoid becoming victims of a harsher retaliation. The removal was a meticulously planned operation, aimed at convincing the hardly assimilable Italian part of the autochthonous population to leave the country, as testified decades later by representatives of the Yugoslav leadership.


title: Rijeka

text: The most notable victims of the political and ethnic repression of locals in this period was the Fiume Autonomists purge hitting all the autonomist figures still living in the city, and now associated in the Liburnian Autonomist Movement. The Autonomists actively helped the Yugoslav partisans in liberating the region from Fascist and Nazi occupation, and, despite receiving various promises of large political autonomy for the city, they were eventually all assassinated by the Yugoslav secret police OZNA in the days leading up to the Yugoslav army's victorious march into city and its aftermath.


title: Rijeka

text: In subsequent years, the Yugoslav authorities joined the municipalities of Fiume and Sušak and, after 1954, less than one third of the original population of the now united municipalities (mostly what was previously the Croat minority in Fiume and the majority in Sušak) remained in the city, because the old municipality of Fiume lost in these years more than 85% of the original population. The Yugoslav plans for a more obedient demographic situation in RIjeka culminated in 1954 during the Trieste crisis, when the Yugoslav Communist Party rallied many local members to ruin or destroy the most notable vestiges of the Italian/Venetian language and all bilingual inscriptions in the city (which had been legally granted a fully bilingual status after the occupation in 1945), eventually also 'de facto' (but not 'de jure') deleting bilinguilism, except in a handful of selected bilingual schools and inside the Italian Community's own building. After the war the local ethnic Italians of Rijeka left Yugoslavia for Italy (Istrian-Dalmatian exodus).


title: Rijeka

text: The city was then resettled by immigrants from various parts of Yugoslavia, once more changing heavily the city's demographics and its linguistic composition. These years coincided also with a period of general reconstruction and new program of industrialization after the destruction of the war. During the period of the Yugoslav Communist administration between the 1950s and the 1980s, the city became the main port of the Federal Republic and started to grow once again, both demographically and economically, taking advantage of the newly re-established hinterland that had been lacking during the Italian period, as well as the rebuilding after the war of its traditional manufacturing industries, its maritime economy and its port potential. This, paired with its rich commercial history, allowed the city to soon become the second richest (GDP per capita) district within Yugoslavia. However, many of these industries and companies, being based on a socialist planned economic model were not able to survive the move to a market-oriented economy in the early 1990s.


title: Rijeka

text: As Yugoslavia broke up in 1991, the former Federal State of Croatia became independent and, in the Croatian War of Independence that ensued, Rijeka became part of the newly independent Croatia. Since then, the city has stagnated economically and its demography has plunged. Some of its largest industries and employers have gone out of business, the most prominent among them being the Jugolinija shipping company, the torpedo factory, the paper mill and many other small or medium manufacturing and commercial companies. Other companies have struggled to remain economically viable (like the city's landmark 3. Maj shipyard). The number of people working in manufacturing dropped from more than 80,000 in 1990 to only 5,000 two decades later. Privatization scandals and the large scale corruption which marked Croatia's transition from socialism to capitalism as well as several years of war economy played a significant role in the collapse of the city's economy during the 1990s and early 2000s. A difficult and uncertain transition of the city's economy away from manufacturing and towards an economy based on services and tourism is still in progress.


title: Rijeka

text: In 2018, it was announced that, 65 years after the abolition of Italian as the official language of the city, new Croatian-Italian bilingual signs will be placed back in the Fiume part of the modern united municipality.


title: Rijeka

text: In 2020, Rijeka was voted the European Capital of Culture alongside Galway, with a planned program including more than 600 events of cultural and social importance.


title: Rijeka

text: The Rijeka Carnival (Croatian: "Riječki karneval") is held each year before Lent (between late January and early March) in Rijeka, Croatia. Established in 1982, it has become the biggest carnival in Croatia. Every year there are numerous events preceding the carnival itself. First the mayor of Rijeka gives the symbolic key of the city to Meštar Toni, who is "the maestro" of the carnival, and he becomes the mayor of the city during the carnival, although this is only figuratively. Same day, there is an election of the carnival queen. As all the cities around Rijeka have their own events during the carnival time, Queen and Meštar Toni are attending most of them.


title: Rijeka

text: Also, every year the Carnival charity ball is held in the Governor's palace in Rijeka. It is attended by politicians, people from sport and media life, as well as a number of ambassadors.


title: Rijeka

text: The weekend before the main event there are two other events held. One is Rally Paris–Bakar (after the Dakar Rally). The start is a part of Rijeka called Paris after the restaurant located there, and the end is in city of Bakar, located about south-east. All of the participants of the rally wear masks, and the cars are mostly modified old cars. The other event is the children's carnival, held, like the main one, on Rijeka's main walkway Korzo. The groups that participate are mostly from kindergartens and elementary schools, including groups from other parts of Croatia and neighboring countries. In 1982 there were only three masked groups on Rijeka's main walkway Korzo. In recent years, the international carnival has attracted around 15,000 participants from all over the world organized in over 200 carnival groups, with crowds of over 100,000.


title: Rijeka

text: The Croatian census recognized two settlements within the City of Rijeka - the city itself with a population of 128,384, and "Bakar" with a population of 240, which is the village of Sveti Kuzam, separate from the neighboring town of Bakar. On 27 February 2014, Rijeka city council passed a decision to annex the settlement (named "Bakar-dio (Sv. Kuzam")) to the settlement of Rijeka.


title: Rijeka

text: The following tables list the city's population, along with the population of ex-municipality (disbanded in 1995), the urban and the metropolitan area.


title: Rijeka

text: Rijeka has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa by the Köppen climate classification) with warm summers and relatively mild and rainy winters. The terrain configuration, with mountains rising steeply just a few kilometres inland from the shores of the Adriatic, provides for some striking climatic and landscape contrasts within a small geographic area. Beaches can be enjoyed throughout summer in a typically Mediterranean setting along the coastal areas of the city to the east (Pećine, Kostrena) and west (Kantrida, Preluk). At the same time, the ski resort of Platak, located only about from the city, offers alpine skiing and abundant snow during winter months (at times until early May). The Kvarner Bay and its islands are visible from the ski slopes.


title: Rijeka

text: Unlike typical mediterranean locations, Rijeka does generally not see a summer drought. Snow is rare (usually three days per year, almost always occurring in patches). There are 20 days a year with a maximum of or higher, while on one day a year the temperature does not exceed . Fog appears in about four days per year, mainly in winter. The climate is also characterized by frequent rainfall. Cold (bora) winds are common in wintertime.


title: Rijeka

text: The Port of Rijeka is the largest port in Croatia, with a cargo throughput in 2017 of 12.6 million tonnes, mostly crude oil and refined petroleum products, general cargo and bulk cargo, and 260,337 twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs). The port is managed by the Port of Rijeka Authority. The first record of a port in Rijeka date back to 1281, and in 1719, the Port of Rijeka was granted a charter as a free port. There are ferry connections between Rijeka and the surrounding islands and cities, but no direct international passenger ship connections. There are coastal lines to Split and onward to Dubrovnik, which operate twice weekly and have international connections.


title: Rijeka

text: The city is difficult to get to by air outside of the tourist season. The city's own international airport, Rijeka Airport is located on the nearby island of Krk across the tolled Krk Bridge. Buses, with a journey time of approximately 45 minutes, operate from Rijeka city center and nearby Opatija, with a schedule based on the planned arrival and departure times of flights. Handling 200,841 passengers in 2019, the facility is more of a charter airport than a serious transport hub, although various scheduled airlines have begun to service it with a comparatively large number of flights coming from airports in Germany. Most of these flights only operate during the tourist season between approximately May and October. Alternative nearby airports include Pula (around 90 minutes drive from Rijeka), Trieste (around 90 minutes), Ljubljana (around 2 hours), Zagreb (around 2 hours) and Venice (around 3 hours).


title: Rijeka

text: Rijeka has efficient road connections to other parts of Croatia and neighbouring countries. The A6 motorway connects Rijeka to Zagreb via the A1, while the A7 motorway, completed in 2004, links Rijeka with Ljubljana, Slovenia, via Ilirska Bistrica and with Trieste, Italy. The A7 acts as the Rijeka bypass motorway and facilitates access to the A8 motorway of the Istrian Y network starting with the Učka Tunnel, and linking Rijeka with Istria. As of August 2011, the bypass is being extended eastwards to the Krk Bridge area and new feeder roads are under construction.


title: Rijeka

text: Rijeka is integrated into the Croatian railway network and international rail lines. A fully electrified railway connects Rijeka to Zagreb and beyond towards Koprivnica and the Hungarian border as part of Pan-European corridor Vb. Rijeka is also connected to Trieste and Ljubljana by a separate electrified line that extends northwards from the city. Rijeka has direct connections by daily/night trains to Prague, München, Salzburg, Ljubljana, Bratislava and Brno. Construction of a new high performance railway between Rijeka and Zagreb, extending to Budapest is planned, as well as rail links connecting Rijeka to the island of Krk and between Rijeka and Pula.


title: Rijeka

text: Rijeka Bus Station is connected by regular bus lines with all major Croatian cities such as Zagreb, Osijek, Slavonski Brod, Đakovo, Nova Gradiška, Požega, Vukovar, Gospić, Karlovac, Zadar, Šibenik, Split, Makarska and Dubrovnik. Departures are frequent in the direction of Istria, the islands of Cres, Lošinj, Krk, Rab and Pag and the towns around Crikvenica, Novi Vinodolski and Senj. From international lines, there are regular departures in the direction of Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia.


title: Rijeka

text: KD Autotrolej d.o.o. is a carrier of passengers in the area of the City of Rijeka and cities / towns in the suburbs (the so-called Rijeka ring).


title: Rijeka

text: The history of Rijeka's organised sports started between 1885 and 1888 with the foundation of the Club Alpino Fiumano in 1885, the Young American Cycle Club in 1887 (the first club of this American league to be founded in a foreign land), and the Nautico Sport Club Quarnero in 1888 by the Hungarian minority of the city. Even earlier, in 1873, following the initiative by Robert Whitehead, the first football match to be disputed in today's Republic of Croatia territory was played in Rijeka: the Hungarian Railways team and the English engineers-led team of the Stabilimento Tecnico di Fiume (later Torpedo Factory of Fiume). The first football club in Fiume was founded under the name of Fiumei Atletikai Club.


title: Rijeka

text: Today, HNK Rijeka are the city's main football team. They compete in the Croatian First Football League and were the champions of Croatia in 2016–17. Until July 2015, HNK Rijeka were based at the iconic Stadion Kantrida. With Kantrida awaiting reconstruction, they are based at the newly built Stadion Rujevica, their temporary home ground located in the club's new training camp. Additionally, HNK Orijent 1919 are based in Sušak and play in the Croatian Second Football League.


title: Rijeka

text: Rijeka's other notable sports clubs include RK Zamet and ŽRK Zamet (handball), VK Primorje EB (water polo), KK Kvarner (basketball) and ŽOK Rijeka (women's volleyball).


title: Rijeka

text: Rijeka hosted the 2008 European Short Course Swimming Championships. In its more than 80 years of history, LEN had never seen so many records set as the number of them set at "Bazeni Kantrida" (Kantrida Swimming Complex). A total of 14 European records were set of which 10 world records and even 7 world-best times. This championship also presented a record in the number of participating countries. There were more than 600 top athletes, from some 50 European countries. Swimmers from 21 nations won medals and 40 of the 51 national member Federations of LEN were present in Rijeka.


title: Rijeka

text: The German western Winnetou movies from the 1960s, based on Karl May novels, were in part filmed on location in the outskirts of Rijeka.


title: Rijeka

text: Marvel's villain Purple Man originates from this city, and Rijeka has been present in many of the character's stories.


title: Rijeka

text: The 1980s American TV series "The Winds of War" was in part filmed in Rijeka and the surrounding areas.


title: Rijeka

text: A stylised version of Fiume during the 1920s was one of the main settings in the 1992 movie "Porco Rosso" by world acclaimed Japanese director Hayao Miyazaki, as the town in front of which the fantastical "Hotel Adriano" is found and to which it is connected by a boat service taken by the protagonist.


title: Rijeka

text: Bruce Sterling's November 2016 novel, written in collaboration with Warren Ellis, "Pirate Utopia", a dieselpunk alternative history, is set in Fiume (now Rijeka) in 1920 during the short-lived Italian Regency of Carnaro.


title: Rijeka

text: The TV series "Novine" ("The Paper"), which has been streaming on Netflix since April 2018, is based in Rijeka and the city was used as the main filming location.


title: Rijeka

text: Recently Rijeka - with its historic industrial sites, unusual hilly setting, sweeping views and retro architecture - has become a popular location for the filming of TV-advertisements. Examples include advertisements for the Belgian internet provider Telenet, Japanese tire manufacturer Bridgestone, German retail chain DM, Japanese Honda Civic Type R cars, Ukrainian seafood restaurant chain Flagman, Slovenian soft drink brand Cockta, German car manufacturer Mercedes and others.


title: Donald Sutherland filmography

text: Donald Sutherland's career spans almost 60 years. He has been nominated for eight Golden Globe Awards, winning two for his performances in the television films "Citizen X" (1995) and "Path to War" (2002); the former also earned him a Primetime Emmy Award. An inductee of the Hollywood Walk of Fame and Canadian Walk of Fame, he also received a Canadian Academy Award for the drama film "Threshold" (1981). Multiple film critics and media outlets have cited him as one of the best actors never to have received an Academy Award nomination. In 2017, he received an Academy Honorary Award for his contributions to cinema. In 2021, he won the Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Movie/Miniseries for his work in the HBO miniseries "The Undoing" (2020).


title: Donald Sutherland filmography

text: Sutherland rose to fame after starring in films including "The Dirty Dozen" (1967), "M*A*S*H" (1970), "Kelly's Heroes" (1970), "Klute" (1971), "Don't Look Now" (1973), "Fellini's Casanova" (1976), "1900" (1976), "The Eagle Has Landed" (1976), "Animal House" (1978), "Invasion of the Body Snatchers" (1978), "Ordinary People" (1980), and "Eye of the Needle" (1981). He later went on to star in many other films where he appeared either in leading or supporting roles such as "A Dry White Season" (1989), "JFK" (1991), "Outbreak" (1995), "A Time to Kill" (1996), "Without Limits" (1998), "Space Cowboys" (2000), "Big Shot's Funeral" (2001), "The Italian Job" (2003), "Cold Mountain" (2003), "Pride & Prejudice" (2005), "Aurora Borealis" (2006) and "The Hunger Games" franchise (2012–2015).


title: Autodidacticism

text: Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) or self-education (also self-learning and self-teaching) is education without the guidance of masters (such as teachers and professors) or institutions (such as schools). Generally, autodidacts are individuals who choose the subject they will study, their studying material, and the studying rhythm and time. Autodidacts may or may not have formal education, and their study may be either a complement or an alternative to formal education. Many notable contributions have been made by autodidacts.


title: Autodidacticism

text: The term has its roots in the Ancient Greek words (, ) and (, ). The related term "didacticism" defines an artistic philosophy of education.


title: Autodidacticism

text: Various terms are used to describe self-education. One such is heutagogy, coined in 2000 by Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon of Southern Cross University in Australia; others are self-directed learning and self-determined learning. In the heutagogy paradigm, a learner should be at the centre of their own learning.


title: Autodidacticism

text: Autodidacticism is sometimes a complement of modern formal education. As a complement to formal education, students would be encouraged to do more independent work. The Industrial Revolution created a new situation for self-directed learners.


title: Autodidacticism

text: Before the twentieth century, only a small minority of people received an advanced academic education. As stated by Joseph Whitworth in his influential report on industry dated from 1853, literacy rates were higher in the United States. However, even in the U.S., most children were not completing high school. High school education was necessary to become a teacher. In modern times, a larger percentage of those completing high school also attended college, usually to pursue a professional degree, such as law or medicine, or a divinity degree.


title: Autodidacticism

text: Collegiate teaching was based on the classics (Latin, philosophy, ancient history, theology) until the early nineteenth century. There were few if any institutions of higher learning offering studies in engineering or science before 1800. Institutions such as the Royal Society did much to promote scientific learning, including public lectures. In England, there were also itinerant lecturers offering their service, typically for a fee.


title: Autodidacticism

text: Prior to the nineteenth century, there were many important inventors working as millwrights or mechanics who, typically, had received an elementary education and served an apprenticeship. Mechanics, instrument makers and surveyors had various mathematics training. James Watt was a surveyor and instrument maker and is described as being "largely self-educated". Watt, like some other autodidacts of the time, became a Fellow of the Royal Society and a member of the Lunar Society. In the eighteenth century these societies often gave public lectures and were instrumental in teaching chemistry and other sciences with industrial applications which were neglected by traditional universities. Academies also arose to provide scientific and technical training.


title: Autodidacticism

text: Years of schooling in the United States began to increase sharply in the early twentieth century. This phenomenon was seemingly related to increasing mechanization displacing child labor. The automated glass bottle-making machine is said to have done more for education than child labor laws because boys were no longer needed to assist. However, the number of boys employed in this particular industry was not that large; it was mechanization in several sectors of industry that displaced child labor toward education. For males in the U.S. born 1886–90, years of school averaged 7.86, while for those born in 1926–30, years of school averaged 11.46.


title: Autodidacticism

text: One of the most recent trends in education is that the classroom environment should cater towards students' individual needs, goals, and interests. This model adopts the idea of inquiry-based learning where students are presented with scenarios to identify their own research, questions and knowledge regarding the area. As a form of discovery learning, students in today's classrooms are being provided with more opportunity to "experience and interact" with knowledge, which has its roots in autodidacticism.


title: Autodidacticism

text: Successful self-teaching can require self-discipline and reflective capability. Some research suggests that the ability to regulate one's own learning may need to be modeled to some students so that they become active learners, while others learn dynamically via a process outside of conscious control. To interact with the environment, a framework has been identified to determine the components of any learning system: a reward function, incremental action value functions and action selection methods. Rewards work best in motivating learning when they are specifically chosen on an individual student basis. New knowledge must be incorporated into previously existing information as its value is to be assessed. Ultimately, these scaffolding techniques, as described by Vygotsky (1978) and problem solving methods are a result of dynamic decision making.


title: Autodidacticism

text: In his book "Deschooling Society", philosopher Ivan Illich strongly criticized 20th-century educational culture and the institutionalization of knowledge and learning - arguing that institutional schooling as such is an irretrievably flawed model of education - advocating instead ad-hoc co-operative networks through which autodidacts could find others interested in teaching themselves a given skill or about a given topic, supporting one another by pooling resources, materials, and knowledge.


title: Autodidacticism

text: Secular and modern societies have given foundations for new systems of education and new kinds of autodidacts. As Internet access has become more widespread, websites such as YouTube, Udemy, Udacity and Khan Academy have developed as learning centers for many people to actively and freely learn together. Organizations like The Alliance for Self-Directed Education (ASDE) have been formed to publicize and provide guidance for self-directed education.


title: Autodidacticism

text: The first philosophical claim supporting an autodidactic program to the study of nature and God was in the philosophical novel "Hayy ibn Yaqdhan" (Alive son of the Vigilant), whose titular hero is considered the archetypal autodidact. The story is a medieval autodidactic utopia, a philosophical treatise in a literary form, which was written by the Andalusian philosopher Ibn Tufail in the 1160s in Marrakesh. It is a story about a feral boy, an autodidact prodigy who masters nature through instruments and reason, discovers laws of nature by practical exploration and experiments, and gains "summum bonum" through a mystical mediation and communion with God. The hero rises from his initial state of "tabula rasa" to a mystical or direct experience of God after passing through the necessary natural experiences. The focal point of the story is that human reason, unaided by society and its conventions or by religion, can achieve scientific knowledge, preparing the way to the mystical or highest form of human knowledge.


title: Autodidacticism

text: Commonly translated as "The Self-Taught Philosopher" or "The Improvement of Human Reason", Ibn-Tufayl's story Hayy Ibn-Yaqzan inspired debates about autodidacticism in a range of historical fields from classical Islamic philosophy through Renaissance humanism and the European Enlightenment. In his book "Reading Hayy Ibn-Yaqzan: a Cross-Cultural History of Autodidacticism," Avner Ben-Zaken showed how the text traveled from late medieval Andalusia to early modern Europe and demonstrated the intricate ways in which autodidacticism was contested in and adapted to diverse cultural settings.


title: Autodidacticism

text: Autodidacticism apparently intertwined with struggles over Sufism in twelfth-century Marrakesh; controversies about the role of philosophy in pedagogy in fourteenth-century Barcelona; quarrels concerning astrology in Renaissance Florence in which Pico della Mirandola pleads for autodidacticism against the strong authority of intellectual establishment notions of predestination; and debates pertaining to experimentalism in seventeenth-century Oxford. Pleas for autodidacticism echoed not only within close philosophical discussions; they surfaced in struggles for control between individuals and establishments.


title: Autodidacticism

text: In the story of Black American self-education, Heather Andrea Williams presents a historical account to examine Black American's relationship to literacy during slavery, the Civil War and the first decades of freedom. Many of the personal accounts tell of individuals who have had to teach themselves due to racial discrimination in education.


title: Autodidacticism

text: Many successful and influential architects, such as Mies van der Rohe, Frank Lloyd Wright, Violet-Le-Duc, Tadao Ando were self-taught.


title: Autodidacticism

text: There are very few countries allowing autodidacticism in architecture today. The practice of architecture or the use of the title "architect", are now protected in most countries.


title: Autodidacticism

text: Self-taught architects have generally studied and qualified in other fields such as engineering or arts and crafts. Jean Prouvé was first a structural engineer. Le Corbusier had an academic qualification in decorative arts. Tadao Ando started his career as a draftsman, and Eileen Gray studied fine arts.


title: Autodidacticism

text: When a political state starts to implement restrictions on the profession, there are issues related to the rights of established self-taught architects. In most countries the legislation includes a grandfather clause, authorising established self-taught architects to continue practicing. In the UK, the legislation, allowed self-trained architects with 2 years of experience to register. In France, it allowed self-trained architects with 5 years of experience to register. In Belgium, the law allowed experienced self-trained architects in practice to register. In Italy, it allowed self-trained architects with 10 years of experience to register. In The Netherlands, the ""wet op de architectentitel van 7 juli 1987"" along with additional procedures, allowed architects with 10 years of experience and architects aged 40 years old or over, with 5 years of experience, to access the register.


title: Autodidacticism

text: However, other sovereign states chose to omit such a clause, and many established and competent practitioners were stripped of their professional rights. In the Republic of Ireland, a group named "Architects' Alliance of Ireland" is defending the interests of long-established self-trained architects who were recently deprived of their rights to practice as per Part 3 of the Irish Building Control Act 2007.


title: Autodidacticism

text: Theoretical research such as ""Architecture of Change, Sustainability and Humanity in the Built Environment"" or older studies such as "Vers une Architecture" from Le Corbusier describe the practice of architecture as an environment changing with new technologies, sciences, and legislation. All architects must be autodidacts to keep up to date with new standards, regulations, or methods.


title: Autodidacticism

text: Self-taught architects such as Eileen Gray, Luis Barragán, and many others, created a system where working is also learning, where self-education is associated with creativity and productivity within a working environment.


title: Autodidacticism

text: While he was primarily interested in naval architecture, William Francis Gibbs learned his profession through his own study of battleships and ocean liners. Through his life he could be seen examining and changing the designs of ships that were already built, that is, until he started his firm Gibbs and Cox.


title: Autodidacticism

text: The role of self-directed learning continues to be investigated in learning approaches, along with other important goals of education, such as content knowledge, epistemic practices and collaboration. As colleges and universities offer distance learning degree programs and secondary schools provide cyber school options for K-12 students, technology provides numerous resources that enable individuals to have a self-directed learning experience. Several studies show these programs function most effectively when the "teacher" or facilitator is a full owner of virtual space to encourage a broad range of experiences to come together in an online format. This allows self-directed learning to encompass both a chosen path of information inquiry, self-regulation methods and reflective discussion among experts as well as novices in a given area. Furthermore, massive open online courses (MOOCs) make autodidacticism easier and thus more common.


title: Autodidacticism

text: A 2016 Stack Overflow poll reported that due to the rise of autodidacticism, 69.1% of software developers appear to be self-taught.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: Pembrolizumab, sold under the brand name Keytruda, is a humanized antibody used in cancer immunotherapy that treats melanoma, lung cancer, head and neck cancer, Hodgkin lymphoma, stomach cancer, cervical cancer, and certain types of breast cancer. It is given by slow injection into a vein.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: Common side effects include fatigue, musculoskeletal pain, decreased appetite, itchy skin (pruritus), diarrhea, nausea, rash, fever (pyrexia), cough, difficulty breathing (dyspnea), constipation, pain, and abdominal pain. It is an IgG4 isotype antibody that blocks a protective mechanism of cancer cells and thereby, allows the immune system to destroy them. It targets the programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) receptor of lymphocytes. It works by targeting the cellular pathway of proteins found on the body's immune cells and some cancer cells, known as PD-1/PD-L1.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: Pembrolizumab was approved for medical use in the United States in 2014. In 2017, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved it for any unresectable or metastatic solid tumor with certain genetic anomalies (mismatch repair deficiency or microsatellite instability). It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: , pembrolizumab is used via intravenous infusion to treat inoperable or metastatic melanoma, metastatic non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) in certain situations, as a first-line treatment for metastatic bladder cancer in patients who cannot receive cisplatin-based chemotherapy and have high levels of PD-L1, as a second-line treatment for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), after platinum-based chemotherapy, for the treatment of adult and pediatric patients with refractory classic Hodgkin's lymphoma (cHL), and recurrent locally advanced or metastatic esophageal squamous cell carcinoma.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: For NSCLC, pembrolizumab is used in combination with chemotherapy (for all PD-L1, a PD-1 receptor ligand, levels) or by itself as a first-line treatment if the cancer expresses (≥1%) PD-L1 and the cancer has no mutations in EGFR or in ALK; if chemotherapy has already been administered, then pembrolizumab can be used as a second-line treatment, but if the cancer has EGFR or ALK mutations, agents targeting those mutations should be used first. Assessment of PD-L1 expression must be conducted with a validated and approved companion diagnostic.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In 2017, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved pembrolizumab for any unresectable or metastatic solid tumor with certain genetic anomalies (mismatch repair deficiency or microsatellite instability). This was the first time the FDA approved a cancer drug based on tumor genetics rather than tissue type or tumor site; therefore, pembrolizumab is a so-called tissue-agnostic drug.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In June 2020, the U.S. FDA approved a new indication for pembrolizumab as the first-line treatment for people with unresectable or metastatic microsatellite instability-high (MSI‑H) or mismatch repair deficient (dMMR) colorectal cancer. The approval marks the first immunotherapy approved for that population in the US as a first-line treatment and which is administered to people without also giving chemotherapy.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In March 2021, the U.S. FDA approved pembrolizumab in combination with platinum and fluoropyrimidine-based chemotherapy to treat metastatic or locally advanced esophageal or gastroesophageal (GEJ) (tumors with epicenter 1 to 5 centimeters above the gastroesophageal junction) carcinoma in people who are not candidates for surgical resection or definitive chemoradiation. Efficacy was evaluated in KEYNOTE-590 (NCT03189719), a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled trial that enrolled 749 participants with metastatic or locally advanced esophageal or gastroesophageal junction carcinoma who were not candidates for surgical resection or definitive chemoradiation.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In May 2021, the U.S. FDA approved pembrolizumab in combination with trastuzumab, fluoropyrimidine- and platinum-containing chemotherapy for the first-line treatment of people with locally advanced unresectable or metastatic HER2 positive gastric or gastroesophageal junction (GEJ) adenocarcinoma. Approval was based on the prespecified interim analysis of the first 264 participants of the ongoing KEYNOTE-811 (NCT03615326) trial, a multicenter, randomized, double‑blind, placebo‑controlled trial in people with HER2‑positive advanced gastric or gastroesophageal junction (GEJ) adenocarcinoma who had not previously received systemic therapy for metastatic disease.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In July 2021, the U.S. FDA approved pembrolizumab for high-risk, early-stage, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) in combination with chemotherapy as neoadjuvant treatment, and then continued as a single agent as adjuvant treatment after surgery. The FDA also granted regular approval to pembrolizumab in combination with chemotherapy for people with locally recurrent unresectable or metastatic TNBC whose tumors express PD-L1 (Combined Positive Score [CPS] ≥10) as determined by an FDA approved test.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In November 2021, the U.S. FDA approved pembrolizumab for the adjuvant treatment of people twelve years of age and older with stage IIB or IIC melanoma following complete resection.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: If a person is taking corticosteroids or immunosuppressants, those drugs should be stopped before starting pembrolizumab because they may interfere with pembrolizumab; they may be used after pembrolizumab is started to deal with immune-related adverse effects.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: Women of child-bearing age should use contraception when taking pembrolizumab; it should not be administered to pregnant women because animal studies have shown that it can reduce tolerance to the fetus, increasing the risk of miscarriage. It is not known whether pembrolizumab is present in breast milk.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: , the drug had not been tested in people with active infections (including any HIV, hepatitis B or hepatitis C infection), kidney or liver disease, active Central nervous system (CNS) metastases, active systemic autoimmune disease, interstitial lung disease, prior pneumonia, and people with a history of severe reaction to another monoclonal antibody.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: People have had severe infusion-related reactions to pembrolizumab. There have also been severe immune-related adverse effects including lung inflammation (including fatal cases) and inflammation of endocrine organs that caused inflammation of the pituitary gland, of the thyroid (causing both hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism in different people), and pancreatitis that caused Type 1 diabetes and diabetic ketoacidosis; some people have had to go on lifelong hormone therapy as a result (e.g. insulin therapy or thyroid hormones). People have also had colon inflammation, liver inflammation, kidney inflammation due to the drug.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: The common adverse reactions have been fatigue (24%), rash (19%), itchiness (pruritus) (17%), diarrhea (12%), nausea (11%) and joint pain (arthralgia) (10%).


title: Pembrolizumab

text: Other adverse effects occurring in between 1% and 10% of people taking pembrolizumab have included anemia, decreased appetite, headache, dizziness, distortion of the sense of taste, dry eye, high blood pressure, abdominal pain, constipation, dry mouth, severe skin reactions, vitiligo, various kinds of acne, dry skin, eczema, muscle pain, pain in a limb, arthritis, weakness, edema, fever, chills, myasthenia gravis, and flu-like symptoms.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: Pembrolizumab is a therapeutic antibody that binds to and blocks PD-1 located on lymphocytes. This receptor is generally responsible for preventing the immune system from attacking the body's own tissues; it is a so-called immune checkpoint. Normally, the PD-1 receptor on activated T-cells binds to the PD-L1 or PD-L2 ligands present on normal cells in the body, deactivating any potential cell-mediated immune response against these cells. Many cancers make proteins such as PD-L1 that also bind to the PD-1 receptor, thus shutting down the ability of the body to kill the cancer. Pembrolizumab works by inhibiting lymphocytes' PD-1 receptors, blocking the ligands that would deactivate it and prevent an immune response. This allows the immune system to target and destroy cancer cells, but also blocks a key mechanism preventing the immune system from attacking the body itself. This checkpoint inhibitor function of pembrolizumab thus has immune-dysfunction side effects as a result.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: Tumors often have mutations that cause impaired DNA mismatch repair. This in turn often results in microsatellite instability allowing the tumor to generate numerous mutant proteins that could serve as tumor antigens, triggering an immune response against the tumor. By preventing the self-checkpoint system from blocking the T-cells, pembrolizumab appears to facilitate clearance of any such tumor by the immune system.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: Since pembrolizumab is cleared from the circulation through non-specific catabolism, no metabolic drug interactions are expected and no studies were done on routes of elimination. The systemic clearance [rate] is about 0.2 L/day and the terminal half-life is about 25 days.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: Pembrolizumab is an immunoglobulin G4, with a variable region against the human PD-1 receptor, a humanized mouse monoclonal [228-L-proline(H10-S>P)]γ4 heavy chain (134-218') disulfide and a humanized mouse monoclonal κ light chain dimer (226-226":229-229")-bisdisulfide.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: Pembrolizumab was invented by scientists at Organon after which they worked with Medical Research Council Technology (which became LifeArc) starting in 2006, to humanize the antibody; Schering-Plough acquired Organon in 2007, and Merck & Co. acquired Schering-Plough two years later. Inventors Gregory Carven, Hans van Eenennaam and Gradus Dulos were recognized as Inventors of the Year by the Intellectual Property Owners Education Foundation in 2016.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: The development program for pembrolizumab was seen as high priority at Organon, but low at Schering and later Merck. In early 2010, Merck terminated development and began preparing to out-license it. Later, in 2010, scientists from Bristol Myers Squibb published a paper in "The New England Journal of Medicine" showing that their checkpoint inhibitor, ipilimumab (Yervoy), had shown strong promise in treating metastatic melanoma and that a second Bristol Myers Squibb checkpoint inhibitor, nivolumab (Opdivo), was also promising. Merck at that time had little commitment or expertise in either oncology or immunotherapy, but understood the opportunity and reacted strongly, reactivating the program and filing its IND by the end of 2010. As one example, Martin Huber was one of the few senior people at Merck with strong experience in lung cancer drug development, but had been promoted to senior management and was no longer involved in product development. He stepped down from his role to lead clinical development of pembrolizumab for lung cancer.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: Scientists at the company argued for developing a companion diagnostic and limiting testing of the drug only to patients with biomarkers showing they were likely to respond, and received agreement from management. Some people, including shareholders and analysts, criticized this decision as it limited the potential market size for the drug, while others argued it increased the chances of proving the drug would work and would make clinical trials faster. (The trials would need fewer patients because of the likelihood of greater effect size.) Moving quickly and reducing the risk of failure was essential for catching up with Bristol-Myers Squibb, which had an approximate five year lead over Merck. The phase I study started in early 2011, and Eric Rubin, who was running the melanoma trial, argued for and was able to win expansion of the trial until it reached around 1300 people. This was the largest Phase I study ever run in oncology, with the patients roughly divided between melanoma and lung cancer.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In 2013, Merck quietly applied for and won a breakthrough therapy designation for the drug. This regulatory pathway was new at the time and not well understood. One of its advantages is that the US FDA holds more frequent meetings with drug developers, reducing the risk of developers of making mistakes or misunderstandings arising from the differences between regulators' expectations and what the developers want to do. This was Merck's first use of the designation and the reduction in regulatory risk was one of the reasons management was willing to put company resources into development.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In 2013, the United States Adopted Name (USAN) name was changed from lambrolizumab to pembrolizumab. In that year clinical trial results in advanced melanoma were published in "The New England Journal of Medicine". This was part of the large Phase I NCT01295827 trial.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In September 2014, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved pembrolizumab under the Fast Track Development Program. It is approved for use following treatment with ipilimumab, or after treatment with ipilimumab and a BRAF inhibitor in advanced melanoma patients who carry a BRAF mutation.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: , the only PD-1/PD-L1 targeting drugs on the market are pembrolizumab and nivolumab, with clinical developments in the class of drugs receiving coverage in "The New York Times".


title: Pembrolizumab

text: By April 2016, Merck applied for approval to market the drug in Japan and signed an agreement with Taiho Pharmaceutical to co-promote it there.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In October 2015, the US FDA approved pembrolizumab for the treatment of metastatic non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) in people whose tumors express PD-L1 and who have failed treatment with other chemotherapeutic agents.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In July 2016, the US FDA accepted for priority review an application for recurrent or metastatic head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) after a platinum-based chemotherapy. They granted accelerated approval to pembrolizumab as a treatment for patients with recurrent or metastatic (HNSCC) ("regardless of PD-L1 staining") following progression on a platinum-based chemotherapy, based on objective response rates (ORR) in the Phase Ib KEYNOTE-012 study in August of the same year.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In May 2017, pembrolizumab received an accelerated approval from the US FDA for use in any unresectable or metastatic solid tumor with DNA mismatch repair deficiencies or a microsatellite instability-high state (or, in the case of colon cancer, tumors that have progressed following chemotherapy). This approval marked the first instance in which the FDA approved marketing of a drug based only on the presence of a genetic mutation, with no limitation on the site of the cancer or the kind of tissue in which it originated. The approval was based on a clinical trial of 149 patients with microsatellite instability-high or mismatch repair deficient cancers who enrolled on one of five single-arm trials. Ninety patients had colorectal cancer, and 59 patients had one of 14 other cancer types. The objective response rate for all patients was 39.6%. Response rates were similar across all cancer types, including 36% in colorectal cancer and 46% across the other tumor types. Notably, there were 11 complete responses, with the remainder partial responses. Responses lasted for at least six months in 78% of responders. Because the clinical trial was fairly small, Merck is obligated to conduct further post-marketing studies to ensure that the results are valid. Pembrolizumab was granted orphan drug designation for SCLC in October 2017.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In June 2018, the US FDA approved pembrolizumab for use in both advanced cervical cancer for PD-L1 positive patients and for the treatment of adult and pediatric patients with refractory primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma (PMBCL), or who have relapsed after two or more prior lines of therapy.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In August 2018, the US FDA updated the prescribing information for pembrolizumab to require the use of an FDA-approved companion diagnostic test to determine PD-L1 levels in tumor tissue from patients with locally advanced or metastatic urothelial cancer who are cisplatin-ineligible. On 16 August 2018, the FDA approved the Dako PD-L1 IHC 22C3 PharmDx Assay (Dako North America, Inc.) as a companion diagnostic to select patients with locally advanced or metastatic urothelial carcinoma who are cisplatin-ineligible for treatment with pembrolizumab. The 22C3 assay determines PD-L1 expression by using a combined positive score (CPS) assessing PD-L1 staining in tumor and immune cells. , pembrolizumab is indicated for the treatment of those with locally advanced or metastatic urothelial carcinoma who are not eligible for cisplatin-containing chemotherapy and whose tumors express PD-L1 [Combined Positive Score (CPS) ≥ 10] as determined by an FDA-approved test, or in patients who are not eligible for any platinum-containing chemotherapy regardless of PD-L1 status.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In November 2018, the US FDA granted accelerated approval to pembrolizumab for those with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) who have been previously treated with sorafenib.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In February 2019, the US FDA approved pembrolizumab for the adjuvant treatment of patients with melanoma with involvement of lymph node(s) following complete resection. The FDA granted the application orphan drug designation.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In June 2019, the US FDA granted accelerated approval to pembrolizumab for those with metastatic small cell lung cancer (SCLC) with disease progression on or after platinum-based chemotherapy and at least one other prior line of therapy, and the FDA approved pembrolizumab for the first-line treatment of patients with metastatic or unresectable recurrent head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Pembrolizumab was approved for use in combination with platinum and fluorouracil (FU) for all patients and as a single agent for patients whose tumors express PD‑L1 (Combined Positive Score [CPS] ≥1) as determined by an FDA‑approved test. The FDA also expanded the intended use for the PD-L1 IHC 22C3 pharmDx kit to include use as a companion diagnostic device for selecting patients with HNSCC for treatment with pembrolizumab as a single agent.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In July 2019, the US FDA approved pembrolizumab for patients with recurrent, locally advanced or metastatic, squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus (ESCC) whose tumors express PD-L1 (Combined Positive Score [CPS] ≥10), as determined by an FDA-approved test, with disease progression after one or more prior lines of systemic therapy. The FDA also approved a new use for the PD-L1 IHC 22C3 pharmDx kit as a companion diagnostic device for selecting patients for the above indication.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In June 2020, the US FDA approved pembrolizumab as monotherapy for the treatment of adults and children with unresectable or metastatic tumor mutational burden-high (TMB-H) [≥10 mutations/megabase (mut/Mb)] solid tumors, as determined by an FDA-approved test, that have progressed following prior treatment and who have no satisfactory alternative treatment options.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In March 2021, the accelerated approval indication in the US for the treatment of people with metastatic small cell lung cancer (SCLC) was removed.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: It was added to the Cancer Drugs Fund list of the English NHS in November 2022 after a "confidential" deal with manufacturer MSD.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In 2015, Merck reported results in 13 cancer types; much attention was given to early results in head and neck cancer.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: , pembrolizumab was in Phase IB clinical trials for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), gastric cancer, urothelial cancer, and head and neck cancer (all under the "Keynote-012" trial) and in Phase II trial for TNBC (the "Keynote-086" trial). At ASCO, in June 2016, Merck reported that the clinical development program was directed to around 30 cancers and that it was running over 270 clinical trials (around 100 in combination with other treatments) and had four registration-enabling studies in process.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: Results of a Phase III clinical trial in triple-negative breast cancer were reported in "Annals of Oncology" in October 2019.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: Results of a Phase II clinical trial in Merkel-cell carcinoma were reported in "The New England Journal of Medicine" in June 2016.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: Results of a clinical trial in people with untreatable metastases arising from various solid tumors were published in "Science" in 2017.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: A clinical Phase III trial in combination with epacadostat, an Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO1) inhibitor to treat melanoma was completed in 2019.


title: Pembrolizumab

text: In January 2022, Neoleukin Therapeutics announced a collaboration with Merck for a combination clinical trial of Merck's Pembrolizumab and Neoleukin's NL-201, a "de novo" protein undergoing a Phase I clinical trial in patients with advanced, relapsed or refractory solid tumors.


title: Brennan Johnson

text: Brennan Price Johnson (born 23 May 2001) is a professional footballer who plays as a forward for club Nottingham Forest and the Wales national team.


title: Brennan Johnson

text: After joining the Nottingham Forest academy from Dunkirk at eight years old, Johnson made his professional debut aged eighteen, appearing for the club on 3 August 2019 as an 88th-minute substitute in a 2–1 loss against West Bromwich Albion on the opening day of the season.


title: Brennan Johnson

text: Johnson's first professional goal for Nottingham Forest came in a 1–1 draw against local rivals Derby County on 28 August 2021. Forest experienced an upturn of form after the appointment of Steve Cooper, replacing Chris Hughton, and after scoring one goal and providing two assists in a month where Forest had three wins, Johnson was awarded the EFL Young Player of the Month award for September 2021. Johnson was awarded the EFL Championship Player of the Month award for April 2022 after his four goals and four assists fired Forest into the play-offs, narrowly missing out on automatic promotion. Johnson ended the season as Forest's highest goalscorer with 19 in all competitions, including in both semi-final legs of their successful play-off campaign. He was crowned EFL Championship Young Player of the Season.


title: Brennan Johnson

text: On 1 July 2022, Johnson signed a new four-year contract with Nottingham Forest, keeping him at the club until 2026.


title: Brennan Johnson

text: On 25 September 2020, Johnson joined Lincoln City on a season-long loan. Two days later, he would make his first appearance for Lincoln, coming off the bench against Charlton Athletic. He scored his first professional goal against Plymouth Argyle, heading in from close range.


title: Brennan Johnson

text: In April 2021, Johnson scored his first career hat-trick in a match against Milton Keynes Dons, taking Johnson just 11 minutes to accomplish this feat.


title: Brennan Johnson

text: Johnson was eligible to represent England, Jamaica and Wales at international level. He played for England under-17s before switching to Wales in 2018. In September 2020 Johnson was called up to the senior Wales squad for the first time.


title: Brennan Johnson

text: Johnson made his Wales debut in a 0–0 draw against the USA on 12 November 2020. He made his first start for Wales against Finland on 1 September 2021, in which he won a penalty. Johnson scored his first goal for Wales on 11 June 2022 in a 1–1 UEFA Nations League draw against Belgium. In November 2022 he was named in the Wales squad for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar.


title: Platform as a service

text: Platform as a service (PaaS) or application platform as a service (aPaaS) or platform-based service is a category of cloud computing services that allows customers to provision, instantiate, run, and manage a modular bundle comprising a computing platform and one or more applications, without the complexity of building and maintaining the infrastructure typically associated with developing and launching the application(s); and to allow developers to create, develop, and package such software bundles.


title: Platform as a service

text: The first public platform as a service was Zimki, launched by Fotango, a London-based company owned by Canon Europe. It was developed in 2005, had a beta launch in March 2006 and a public launch at EuroOSCON in 2006.


title: Platform as a service

text: At the time of its closure, Zimki had several thousand developer accounts. It had demonstrated the technical viability of Platform as a Service, but also provided the first example of the perils of being dependent on a single provider. This was highlighted when the CEO (Simon Wardley, known for Wardley maps) announced at OSCON 2007 that Zimki would no longer be open-sourced and discussed the future of what was then called framework-as-a-service (later called platform-as-a-service) covering the importance of a market of providers based on an open-source reference model.


title: Platform as a service

text: The original intent of PaaS was to simplify the writing of code, with the infrastructure and operations handled by the PaaS provider. Originally, all PaaSes were in the public cloud. Because many companies did not want to have everything in the public cloud, private and hybrid PaaS options (managed by internal IT departments) were created.


title: Platform as a service

text: PaaS provides an environment for developers and companies to create, host and deploy applications, saving developers from the complexities of infrastructure (setting up, configuring and managing elements such as servers and databases). PaaS can improve the speed of developing an app, and allow its user to focus on the application itself. With PaaS, the customer manages applications and data, while the provider (in public PaaS) or IT department (in private PaaS) manages runtime, middleware, operating system, virtualization, servers, storage and networking. Development tools provided by the vendor are customized according to the needs of the user. The user can choose to maintain the software, or have the vendor maintain it.


title: Platform as a service

text: PaaS offerings may also include facilities for application design, application development, testing and deployment, as well as services such as team collaboration, web service integration, and marshalling, database integration, security, scalability, storage, persistence, state management, application versioning, application instrumentation, and developer community facilitation. Besides the service engineering aspects, PaaS offerings include mechanisms for service management, such as monitoring, workflow management, discovery and reservation.


title: Platform as a service

text: The advantages of PaaS are primarily that it allows for higher-level programming with dramatically reduced complexity; the overall development of the application can be more effective, as it has built-in/self up-and-down ramping infrastructure resources; and maintenance and enhancement of the application is thus easier.


title: Platform as a service

text: Disadvantages of various PaaS providers as cited by their users include increased pricing at larger scales, lack of operational features, reduced control, and the difficulties of traffic routing systems.


title: Platform as a service

text: There are several types of PaaS, including public, private and hybrid. PaaS was originally intended for applications on public cloud services, before expanding to include private and hybrid options.


title: Platform as a service

text: Public PaaS is derived from software as a service (SaaS), and is situated in cloud computing between SaaS and infrastructure as a service (IaaS). SaaS is software hosted in the cloud so that it does not take up hard drive space on the computers of users. IaaS provides virtual hardware from a provider with adjustable scalability. With IaaS, the user still has to manage the server, whereas with PaaS the server management is done by the provider.


title: Platform as a service

text: A private PaaS can typically be downloaded and installed either in a company's on-premises data center, or in a public cloud. Once the software is installed on one or more machines, the private PaaS arranges the application and database components into a single hosting platform.


title: Platform as a service

text: A communications platform as a service (CPaaS) is a cloud-based platform that enables developers to add real-time communications features (voice, video, and messaging) in their own applications without building back-end infrastructure and interfaces. Also, CPaaS and hardware and software specifications are specifically designed to support (tele)communications applications. These applications and their usage are much more sensitive to jitter, latency and packet losses. Hosted PBX, cellular networks, (near real-time) applications typically are deployed on CPaaS platforms.


title: Platform as a service

text: Initiated in 2012, mobile PaaS (mPaaS) provides development capabilities for mobile app designers and developers. The Yankee Group identified mPaaS as one of its themes for 2014.


title: Platform as a service

text: Open PaaS does not include hosting but provides open-source software allowing a PaaS provider to run applications in an open-source environment, such as Google App Engine. Some open platforms let the developer use any programming language, database, operating system or server to deploy their applications.


title: Platform as a service

text: There are various types of PaaS providers. All offer application hosting and a deployment environment, along with various integrated services. Services offer varying levels of scalability and maintenance. Developers can write an application and upload it to a PaaS that supports their software language of choice, and the application runs on that PaaS.


title: Sergeant major

text: In 16th century Spain, the ("sergeant major") was a general officer. He commanded an army's infantry, and ranked about third in the army's command structure; he also acted as a sort of chief of staff to the army's commander.


title: Sergeant major

text: In the 17th century, sergeant majors appeared in individual regiments. These were field officers, third in command of their regiments (after their colonels and lieutenant colonels), with a role similar to the older, army-level sergeant majors (although obviously on a smaller scale). The older position became known as "sergeant major general" to distinguish it. Over time, the term "sergeant" was dropped from both titles, giving rise to the modern ranks of major and major general.


title: Sergeant major

text: The full title of sergeant major fell out of use until the latter part of the 18th century, when it began to be applied to the senior non-commissioned officer of an infantry battalion or cavalry regiment. It is about this time that the U.S. and British histories of the title diverge, with the American Revolutionary War.


title: Sergeant major

text: A sergeant major is an appointment, not a rank. It is normally held by the senior warrant officer of an army or marine unit. These appointments are made at several levels, for example: the senior warrant officer of a company, battery or squadron; or the senior warrant officer of a battalion or regiment. The title normally consists of the unit title (e.g. 'company') followed by 'sergeant major', and abbreviated by the initials (e.g. CSM). A sergeant major of a regiment or battalion is known as a regimental sergeant major, rather than a "regiment sergeant major" or "battalion sergeant major".


title: Sergeant major

text: The sergeant-major of a unit is responsible to the commanding officer for advising them on matters relating to non-commissioned members (NCMs) of that unit. Sergeant majors are normally addressed as "sir" or "ma'am" by subordinates, and as "sergeant major", by their full title (or its abbreviation), or as "Mr" or "Ms" by superiors.


title: Sergeant major

text: In the British Armed Forces, the plural is "sergeant majors" and not "sergeants major" as it is in the United States.


title: Sergeant major

text: The most senior warrant officer in the Australian Army holds the unique rank of warrant officer (introduced in 1991 and senior to WO1) and the appointment of Regimental Sergeant Major of the Army (RSM-A). The RSM-A is responsible to the Chief of Army, but responsive to all ranks across the Army. The RSM-A is a member of the personal staff of the Chief of Army. The post of RSM-A has existed since January 1983 and was held by a WO1 until 1991. The RSM-A is the equivalent of the Royal Australian Navy's Warrant Officer of the Navy (WO-N) and the Royal Australian Air Force's Warrant Officer of the Air Force (WOFF-AF).


title: Sergeant major

text: The RSM-A's primary role is to represent to the Chief of Army and others, the solicited and unsolicited views, concerns and opinions of soldiers in the army, but also carry the Chief of Army's message down and across the ranks.


title: Sergeant major

text: The appointment of sergeant major is given to the senior non-commissioned member within sub-units, units and some formations of the Canadian Army. The regimental sergeant-major is the senior sergeant major in a unit, such as armoured, artillery, engineer, and signal regiments, and infantry and service battalions. This appointment is normally held by a chief warrant officer.


title: Sergeant major

text: Within sub-units (such as armoured squadrons and infantry companies) the sub-unit sergeant-major generally holds the rank of master warrant officer and is known as a squadron or company sergeant major depending and are addressed as "Sergeant-Major" (i.e. "SSM", "CSM", "BSM", etc.), "Mr", or "Ms" by officers and "Sir" or "Ma'am" by subordinates with the same conventions are used for regimental sergeant majors.


title: Sergeant major

text: In some unusual cases, a chief petty officer 1st class or chief petty officer 2nd class in the Royal Canadian Navy may succeed to a sergeant major's position, especially in units with a large number of "purple trades", such as service battalions. The forms of address generally remain the same, except that chief petty officers 1st and 2nd class are never addressed as "Sir" or "Ma'am", but as "Chief". Sergeant majors do not form part of the formation, unit, or sub-unit chain of command, as their role is to advise their commander on matters pertaining to the organization's non-commissioned members.


title: Sergeant major

text: Sergeant major is a rank in the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. While technically it is the 6th level of rank, below corps sergeant major and above staff sergeant major, it, along with the other two, are specialized ranks and not part of the normal progression, which would proceed from staff sergeant to inspector.


title: Sergeant major

text: A sergeant major appointment exists in each military unit from company to division/formation. Their main job is to assist the commander in the discipline and welfare of the enlisted men. Their authority and responsibility at parades and ceremonies extends over even commissioned officers while on the parade square. In the Singapore Armed Forces, two kinds of sergeant major exist, a regimental sergeant major and a company sergeant major. A regimental sergeant major may be placed in charge of a battalion, brigade, division or service level. A regimental sergeant major could also be appointed as RSM for a vocation, i.e. infantry vocation/formation sergeant major. This appointment is usually held by a senior warrant officer or a master warrant officer, although at times a 1st warrant officer may be appointed. A company sergeant major may be a 1WO, 2WO and 3WO. Sometimes, a master sergeant or a staff sergeant may be appointed. Military Experts of rank ME 3 could also be sergeant majors, in-charge of logistical units or naval units. This practice is also mirrored in the National Cadet Corps with the master sergeant or staff sergeant being appointed as unit sergeant major. In schools with more than one NCC unit, i.e. having a land as well as a sea unit, an RSM might be appointed from either unit.


title: Sergeant major

text: In Sri Lanka, the rank of sergeant major exists in the Sri Lanka Army and Sri Lanka Police Service. In the army, a warrant officer 2nd class is known as a sergeant major; while a warrant officer 1st class is a regimental sergeant major. In the police, the most senior non-gazetted officer rank is police sergeant major.


title: Sergeant major

text: As described above, sergeant-major is not a rank, but an appointment held by a warrant officer class 1 or warrant officer class 2. Regardless of the appointment, the warrant officer is addressed as "sergeant-major".


title: Sergeant major

text: The rank was established in the Union Defence Forces in 1913, in a single class. The rank badge was a crown, senior appointments being indicated by a wreath around the badge.


title: Sergeant major

text: The rank was divided into two classes in 1921. The national coat of arms was assigned as the badge of the 1st class, and the crown was assigned to the 2nd class. In both classes, senior appointments were indicated by a wreath around the badge.


title: Sergeant major

text: From 1957 to 2002, all warrant officers 1st class wore the wreathed coat of arms, and the warrant officer 2nd class wore the plain coat of arms. Since 2002, all warrant officers have worn the new national coat of arms, the classes and appointments being indicated by the shape of the surrounding frame, and the addition of stars and crossed swords above the arms.


title: Sergeant major

text: Up until 1 June 2008, the highest appointment (level 1), that was held by a warrant officer class 1 was the Sergeant-Major of the South African National Defence Force.


title: Sergeant major

text: The South African Air Force had a similar structure for its warrant officers who are also addressed as "sergeant-major".


title: Sergeant major

text: In the British Army and Royal Marines, company/battery/squadron sergeant major is an appointment for a WO2 and regimental sergeant major is a WO1 appointment.


title: Sergeant major

text: Due to differences in nomenclature between Regiments and Corps, sergeant majors' titles do vary; squadron sergeant major and battery sergeant major for instance would be found in the cavalry and Royal Artillery respectively, and in the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, there are the appointments of artificer sergeant major.


title: Sergeant major

text: Sergeant major instructor is an appointment held by warrant officers class 1 in the Small Arms School Corps and the Army Physical Training Corps and by some WO1s in the Royal Engineers. It is also an appointment held by some of the civilian adult instructors in the Army Cadet Force.


title: Sergeant major

text: A machinist sergeant-major (MSM) is a specialist most often found in the Corps of Royal Engineers or the Royal Army Service Corps, and was the title of one of the major characters in the book and the film based on it, "Ice Cold in Alex".


title: Sergeant major

text: For the use of "sergeant major" as a form of address, see the articles on regimental and company sergeant majors, and that on staff sergeants.


title: Sergeant major

text: The posts of regimental and squadron corporal major are the Household Cavalry's equivalent of sergeant majors, as the Household Cavalry traditionally does not have ranks named sergeant. The Rifles use the spelling serjeant major, in common with the spelling used for serjeant and colour serjeant.


title: Sergeant major

text: The first British use of the term was around 1680 and was applied to the senior sergeant in the colonel's company of an infantry regiment, but it wasn't formalised until 1797, when the sergeant major was added to the battalion or regimental staff. When chevrons were introduced as badges of rank, he wore four, later under a crown.


title: Sergeant major

text: In 1813, cavalry regiments introduced the troop sergeant major to replace the quartermaster as the senior NCO of a troop; this required the existing position to be explicitly redesignated the regimental sergeant major. Later, the rise of the squadron as the principal sub-regimental unit saw the corresponding introduction of the squadron sergeant major. The infantry, however, hung on to the undifferentiated, one-per-battalion sergeant major until the eve of the First World War, when the introduction of the company sergeant major forced them to adopt the RSM title as well. (As an infantry regiment could be, and usually was, made up of a number of battalions, one would logically expect the new title to be "battalion sergeant major" rather than "regimental sergeant major". Perhaps the infantry felt this would imply a lower status than their cavalry equivalents.)


title: Sergeant major

text: In 1881, the cavalry RSM and infantry sergeant major were among a number of senior non-commissioned positions that were confirmed with warrants, making them warrant officers. This was extended and rationalised in 1915, with the introduction of the new ranks of warrant officer class I (WOI) and warrant officer class II (WOII). RSM became an appointment of the former, CSM and SSM of the latter.


title: Sergeant major

text: The Royal Marines continued to use a single rank of sergeant major, equating to warrant officer class I, until after the Second World War, when they adopted the Army system.


title: Sergeant major

text: The Royal Flying Corps and its successor the Royal Air Force used the ranks of sergeant-major 1st and 2nd class instead of warrant officer class I and II until the 1930s, when the RAF adopted the Army-style ranks. The RAF has not used sergeant major as either a rank or an appointment since that time.


title: Sergeant major

text: In France, the rank of "sergent-major" (distinct from the rank of "major") was created in 1776. He was the highest ranked non-commissioned officer () in the infantry company; the equivalent in the cavalry was the "maréchal-des-logis-chef". The sergeant-major was charged with the administration of the company. Under the Ancien Regime, the equivalent at the general staff headquarters of the regiment was the "adjudant sous-officiers", a rank which was also established in 1776, who was the senior NCO of the regiment.


title: Sergeant major

text: Following the reforms of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, it became harder to ascend to the officer corps, due to primarily age restrictions. With the addition of an "adjudant" (warrant officer) in each company, the sergeant-major became limited to purely administrative functions.


title: Sergeant major

text: The rank was replaced with that of "sergent-chef" in 1928. The rank was re-established from 1942 until 1962 between "sergent-chef" and "adjudant" as the NCO in charge of the accounting responsibility of the company. There were no promotions to sergeant-major after 1964 and the rank was formally abolished in 1971. The last NCO to have held the rank retired in 1985.


title: Sergeant major

text: Notable soldiers who held the rank of sergeant-major included Marshal of France François Achille Bazaine, Édouard Husband, and Henri Tonel.


title: Sergeant major

text: In the Indonesian Armed Forces, the rank is known as "sersan mayor" and is the most senior sergeant rank.


title: Sergeant major

text: The רב-סמל מתקדם ("Rav samal mitkadem", "sergeant major") and the רב-סמל בכיר ("Rav samal bakhír", "command sergeant major") are both non-commissioned officers (נגדים) ranks in the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). Because the IDF is an integrated force, they have a unique rank structure. IDF ranks are the same in all services (army, navy, air force, etc.). The ranks are derived from those of the paramilitary Haganah developed in the British Mandate of Palestine period to protect the Yishuv. This origin is reflected in the slightly compacted IDF rank structure.


title: Sergeant major

text: In the U.S. Army, sergeant major (SGM) refers to both a military rank and a personnel slot, or position title. It is the highest enlisted rank, just above first sergeant and master sergeant, with a pay grade of E–9, NATO rank OR–9.


title: Sergeant major

text: The leadership variation – command sergeant major (CSM) – is the senior enlisted advisor to the commanding officer. The leadership position carries with it certain ceremonial functions such as caring for the unit's colors (flag). Additionally, CSMs serve as monitors of, and advocates for, the enlisted soldiers in the command. This position mostly exists in units of battalion size and larger.


title: Sergeant major

text: SGMs and CSMs serving in nominative positions (a position rated by a general officer or a civilian on the senior executive service payscale) will wear the nominative senior enlisted leader insignia. All other Sergeants Major serving commanders at or below Colonel wear their designated branch insignia.


title: Sergeant major

text: Both the SGM and CSM are referred to, and addressed as, "Sergeant Major". The Sergeant Major of the Army is a separate and unique position, but is still addressed as "Sergeant Major".


title: Sergeant major

text: In the United States Marine Corps, sergeant major is the ninth and highest enlisted rank, just above first sergeant, and equal in pay grade to master gunnery sergeant, although the two have different responsibilities. Sergeant major is both a rank and a billet (job). Marine Corps sergeants major serve as the senior enlisted marine in the Corps' units of battalion, squadron or higher echelon, as the unit commander's senior enlisted advisor and to handle matters of discipline and morale among the enlisted marines. Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps is a separate and unique position.


title: Sergeant major

text: The first official U.S. use of the term was in 1776, when a sergeant major was appointed to the headquarters of each infantry battalion (or regiment, the two designations being used interchangeably) of the Continental Army. The original insignia of rank was an epaulette, or strip, of red cloth sewn on each shoulder of the uniform coat. In the years between 1776 and 1851, the sergeant major rank insignia went through several changes until the "classic" pattern worn during the Civil War and throughout the Indian Wars was adopted. Generally, these styles included either staff non-commissioned officer (SNCO) epaulettes, chevrons, or a combination of both. (During this period, the rank insignia for the several SNCO ranks of sergeant major, quartermaster sergeant, drum major, and fife major were identical.) In 1821, SNCOs received a single yellow chevron, point up, above the elbow on each sleeve. (Company grade officers, including the new officer grade of "adjutant", ranking above captain and below major, and non-commissioned officers or NCOs, viz., sergeants and corporals, all received chevrons of various colors, materials, patterns, and placement as their insignia of rank.) In 1825, the sergeant major chevron insignia was changed to be identical to that of the adjutant, by adding an inverted arc below the chevron (very similar in design to the modern private first class insignia), although in a different color (yellow vice gold or silver) and material (worsted vice lace) than that of the officer rank. In 1832, SNCOs returned to a rank insignia denoted by elaborate epaulettes without the chevrons. All SNCOs and NCOs returned to having chevrons as their rank insignia in 1847, when a completely new system of insignia was introduced. This was the first implementation of the three chevrons over three arcs design (with the chevrons worn point-up) of the "traditional" sergeant major rank insignia. (The quartermaster finally received a distinctive rank insignia—three chevrons over three horizontal bars—and for the first time, the first sergeant, or orderly sergeant, received a distinctive rank insignia—three chevrons surmounting a lozenge.) Finally, in 1851, the Army inverted the SNCO and NCO insignia again to be point-down. (Perrenot, 2011)


title: Sergeant major

text: The rank was in use by both the Union Army and the Confederate Army during the American Civil War. At that time, it was the highest enlisted rank, being just above quartermaster sergeant. The same rank insignia, three point-down chevrons under three arcs, was used by both armies. Both armies varied the color of the stripes by assigning red for artillery, yellow for cavalry, and blue for infantry. Some Confederate militia units varied these colors even farther and had other colors, including black stripes, for various units.


title: Sergeant major

text: In 1920, with the standardization of the army's enlisted pay grades, it ceased to be a title of rank or grade. However, it survived as the job title of the senior NCO of a battalion and was re-introduced as a rank in 1958 when Congress authorized the E–8 and E–9 pay grades (P.L. 85-422, 72 Stat. 122). This new iteration of sergeant major as a discrete grade of rank saw the new rank insignia of three chevrons above three arcs with a five pointed star between the chevrons and arcs. In that law (as amended), the authorized daily average number of enlisted members on active duty in an armed force in pay grade E–9 in a fiscal year may not be more than 1.25 percent, respectively, of the number of enlisted members of that armed force, subject to certain exceptions. A new insignia was authorized by DA Message 865848, 28 May 1968, for sergeants major assigned at the principal NCO of battalion and higher level command (viz., command sergeants major). This insignia was the same as the sergeant major insignia except the star was small and a wreath was placed around the star.


title: Sergeant major

text: The appointment of Sergeant Major of the Army was created on July 4, 1966, and in 1979 received the unique grade of rank insignia of three chevrons above three arcs with two stars centered between the bottom chevron and the upper arc. In 1994 The insignia for Sergeant Major of the Army was changed to add the Coat of Arms of the United States between the two stars in the center of the insignia. The pin-on insignia is polished gold-plated with a black enamel background.


title: Sergeant major

text: The U.S. Marine Corps' first sergeant major was Archibald Sommers, appointed on January 1, 1801. This was originally a solitary post, similar to the modern Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps, but by 1899 there were five sergeants major. The title was abolished in 1946, but re-introduced as a rank in 1954. The post of Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps was established in 1957, as the senior enlisted advisor to the Commandant of the Marine Corps.


title: Lakhta Center

text: The Lakhta Center () is an 87-story skyscraper built in the northwestern neighbourhood of Lakhta in Saint Petersburg, Russia. Standing tall, it is the tallest building in Russia, the tallest building in Europe, and the sixteenth-tallest building in the world. It is also the second-tallest structure in Russia and Europe, behind the Ostankino Tower in Moscow, in addition to being the second-tallest twisted building and the northernmost skyscraper in the world.


title: Lakhta Center

text: Construction of Lakhta Center started on 30 October 2012, with the building topping out on 29 January 2018. It surpassed the Vostok Tower of the Federation Towers in Moscow as the tallest building in Russia and Europe on 5 October 2017. The centre is designed for large-scale mixed-use development, consisting of public facilities and offices. First designed by British architectural firm RMJM, the project was then continued by Gorproject (2011–2017) under the main contractor, Turkish company Rönesans Holding.


title: Lakhta Center

text: On 24 December 2018, Lakhta Center was certified according to the criteria of ecological efficiency at LEED Platinum. In August 2021, Gazprom, formerly headquartered in Moscow, completed its re-registration process in Saint Petersburg. The new address of the company is at the Lakhta Center Multifunctional Complex.


title: Lakhta Center

text: The predecessor of the tower, the Okhta Center, was originally planned to be more centrally located in the city center of St. Petersburg. As the historical center has been a World Heritage Site since 1990, The World Heritage Committee opposed the construction of the 400-metre tower as it would affect the cityscape of historic Saint Petersburg. In December 2006 UNESCO World Heritage Centre Director Francesco Bandarin reminded Russia about its obligations to preserve it and expressed concern over the project. In 2007, the World Monuments Fund placed the historic skyline of St. Petersburg on its 2008 Watch List of 100 Most Endangered Sites due to the potential construction of the building. Due to this sizeable backlash on the original proposition, the Okhta Center, which had been planned by Gazprom to be in front of Smolny Cathedral, was moved to Lakhta. Plans for a new metro station in the area were announced in March 2012. The station was originally included in the 1980 city development plan of Leningrad but had not been built before.


title: Lakhta Center

text: The permit for construction of the first stage of Lakhta Center, which included the skyscraper and stylobate, was obtained on 17 August 2012.


title: Lakhta Center

text: Project management is being done by AECOM. German company Josef Gartner was in charge of the glazing of the skyscraper.


title: Lakhta Center

text: Zero cycle works started on 30 October 2012. The main contractor for the construction of Lakhta Center, Rönesans Holding, was selected on 22 April 2014.


title: Lakhta Center

text: In addition to the tower, the complex contains multiple other buildings. The multi-functional building (MFZ) consists of two buildings, North and South, which are united by a common foundation, stylobate and roof. The building resembles a boomerang. It has a variable number of storeys with a height difference from 7 to 17 floors, with the peak height being a little more than 80 meters. The structure is approximately 300 meters long. The complex also has a third building, which consists of two separate wings connected by a courtyard. The MFZ contains a planetarium, which has a holding capacity of 140 people.


title: Lakhta Center

text: The Lakhta Center contains offices, a co-working center, a sports center, a children's science center, and a conference center. The project includes 1,500 square meters of indoor exhibition space. Part of the open area will be used to demonstrate art, installations and sculptures.


title: Lakhta Center

text: The design of the tower contains several green and energy-saving technologies, which earned it a LEED Platinum certificate. Excess heat generated by technical equipment is used to heat the premises. The skyscraper also uses equipment with reduced noise levels along with noise suppressors, sound-proof curtain walls and floating floors.


title: Lakhta Center

text: Due to the peculiarities of the highly humid and windy climate in the North Western region of Russia, the possibility of icing up of buildings is relatively high. In order to prevent complete icing up of the tower's spire, engineers changed glassing to metal gauze. Glass at high floors will be heated to prevent ice accumulation, ensuring good visibility.


title: Lakhta Center

text: In order to provide Lakhta Center and adjoining areas with electricity without imposing any extra burden on existing infrastructure, a new standalone power substation will be constructed.


title: Lakhta Center

text: Two traffic circles are to be built near Lakhta Center, which will become part of the М32А highway in the future.


title: Lakhta Center

text: A light rail service from Finland Railway Station and a new tram line from Primorskaya underground station will be built to serve Lakhta Center. Plans are ongoing to build a new underground station with the working title of "Lakhta". Bicycle lanes near Lakhta Center with 90 parking places for bicycles are also planned.


title: Lakhta Center

text: Lakhta Center received the Emporis Skyscraper Awards' "Skyscraper of the Year"-award in 2020. On May 20, 2021, the skyscraper won the facade engineering category award at the CTBUH Awards. The building also received 2 other Awards of Excellence that year: the structural engineering and geotechnical engineering awards. In October 2021, IFC Lakhta Center won the Grand Prix of Russia's largest engineering and architectural award 100 + Awards