title: Matriarchy

text: According to William S. Turley, "the role of women in traditional Vietnamese culture was determined [partly] by ... indigenous customs bearing traces of matriarchy", affecting "different social classes" to "varying degrees". Peter C. Phan explains that "the ancient Vietnamese family system was most likely matriarchal, with women ruling over the clan or tribe" until the Vietnamese "adopt[ed] ... the patriarchal system introduced by the Chinese." That being said, even after adopting the patriarchal Chinese system, Vietnamese women, especially peasant women, still held a higher position than women in most patriarchal societies. According to Chiricosta, the legend of Âu Cơ is said to be evidence of "the presence of an original 'matriarchy' in North Vietnam and [it] led to the double kinship system, which developed there ... [and which] combined matrilineal and patrilineal patterns of family structure and assigned equal importance to both lines." Chiricosta said that other scholars relied on "this 'matriarchal' aspect of the myth to differentiate Vietnamese society from the pervasive spread of Chinese Confucian patriarchy" and that "resistance to China's colonization of Vietnam ... [combined with] the view that Vietnam was originally a matriarchy ... [led to viewing] women's struggles for liberation from (Chinese) patriarchy as a metaphor for the entire nation's struggle for Vietnamese independence." According to Keith Weller Taylor, "the matriarchal flavor of the time is ... attested by the fact that Trung Trac's mother's tomb and spirit temple have survived, although nothing remains of her father", and the "society of the Trung sisters" was "strongly matrilineal". According to Donald M. Seekins, an indication of "the strength of matriarchal values" was that a woman, Trưng Trắc, with her younger sister Trưng Nhị, raised an army of "over 80,000 soldiers ... [in which] many of her officers were women", with which they defeated the Chinese. According to Seekins, "in [the year] 40, Trung Trac was proclaimed queen, and a capital was built for her" and modern Vietnam considers the Trung sisters to be heroines. According to Karen G. Turner, in the third century A.D., Lady Triệu to personify the matriarchal culture that mitigated Confucianized patriarchal norms ... [although] she is also painted as something of a freak ... with her ... savage, violent streak."


title: Matriarchy

text: The Hopi (in what is now the Hopi Reservation in northeastern Arizona), according to Alice Schlegel, had as its "gender ideology ... one of female superiority, and it operated within a social actuality of sexual equality." According to LeBow (based on Schlegel's work), in the Hopi, "gender roles ... are egalitarian ... [and] [n]either sex is inferior." LeBow concluded that Hopi women "participate fully in ... political decision-making." According to Schlegel, "the Hopi no longer live as they are described here" and "the attitude of female superiority is fading". Schlegel said the Hopi "were and still are matrilineal" and "the household ... was matrilocal". Schlegel explains why there was female superiority as that the Hopi believed in "life as the highest good ... [with] the female principle ... activated in women and in Mother Earth ... as its source" and that the Hopi had no need for an army as they did not have rivalries with neighbors. Women were central to institutions of clan and household and predominated "within the economic and social systems (in contrast to male predominance within the political and ceremonial systems)." The Clan Mother, for example, was empowered to overturn land distribution by men if she felt it was unfair since there was no "countervailing ... strongly centralized, male-centered political structure".


title: Matriarchy

text: The Iroquois Confederacy or League, combining five to six Native American Haudenosaunee nations or tribes before the U.S. became a nation, operated by The Great Binding Law of Peace, a constitution by which women participated in the League's political decision-making, including deciding whether to proceed to war, through what may have been a matriarchy or gyneocracy. According to Doug George-Kanentiio, in this society, mothers exercise central moral and political roles. The dates of this constitution's operation are unknown; the League was formed in approximately 1000–1450, but the constitution was oral until written in about 1880. The League still exists.


title: Matriarchy

text: In our society, women are the center of all things. Nature, we believe, has given women the ability to create; therefore it is only natural that women be in positions of power to protect this function...We traced our clans through women; a child born into the world assumed the clan membership of its mother. Our young women were expected to be physically strong...The young women received formal instruction in traditional planting...Since the Iroquois were absolutely dependent upon the crops they grew, whoever controlled this vital activity wielded great power within our communities. It was our belief that since women were the givers of life they naturally regulated the feeding of our people...In all countries, real wealth stems from the control of land and its resources. Our Iroquois philosophers knew this as well as we knew natural law. To us it made sense for women to control the land since they were far more sensitive to the rhythms of the Mother Earth. We did not own the land but were custodians of it. Our women decided any and all issues involving territory, including where a community was to be built and how land was to be used...In our political system, we mandated full equality. Our leaders were selected by a caucus of women before the appointments were subject to popular review...Our traditional governments are composed of an equal number of men and women. The men are chiefs and the women clan-mothers...As leaders, the women closely monitor the actions of the men and retain the right to veto any law they deem inappropriate...Our women not only hold the reigns of political and economic power, they also have the right to determine all issues involving the taking of human life. Declarations of war had to be approved by the women, while treaties of peace were subject to their deliberations.


title: Matriarchy

text: The controversy surrounding prehistoric or "primal" matriarchy began in reaction to the book by Bachofen, "Mother Right: An Investigation of the Religious and Juridical Character of Matriarchy in the Ancient World", in 1861. Several generations of ethnologists were inspired by his pseudo-evolutionary theory of archaic matriarchy. Following him and Jane Ellen Harrison, several generations of scholars, usually arguing from known myths or oral traditions and examination of Neolithic female cult-figures, suggested that many ancient societies might have been matriarchal, or even that there existed a wide-ranging matriarchal society prior to the ancient cultures of which we are aware. According to Uwe Wesel, Bachofen's myth interpretations have proved to be untenable. The concept was further investigated by Lewis Morgan. Many researchers studied the phenomenon of matriarchy afterward, but the basis was laid by the classics of sociology. The notion of a "woman-centered" society was developed by Bachofen, whose three-volume "Myth, Religion, and Mother Right" (1861) impacted the way classicists such as Harrison, Arthur Evans, Walter Burkert, and James Mellaart looked at the evidence of matriarchal religion in pre-Hellenic societies. According to historian Susan Mann, as of 2000, "few scholars these days find ... [a "notion of a stage of primal matriarchy"] persuasive."


title: Matriarchy

text: Kurt Derungs is a non-academic author advocating an "anthropology of landscape" based on allegedly matriarchal traces in toponymy and folklore.


title: Matriarchy

text: Friedrich Engels, in 1884, claimed that, in the earliest stages of human social development, there was group marriage and that therefore paternity was disputable, whereas maternity was not, so that a family could be traced only through the female line, and claimed that this was connected with the dominance of women over men or a "Mutterrecht", which notion Engels took from Bachofen, who claimed, based on his interpretations of myths, that myths reflected a memory of a time when women dominated over men. Engels speculated that the domestication of animals increased wealth claimed by men. Engels said that men wanted control over women for use as laborers and because they wanted to pass on their wealth to their children, requiring monogamy. Engels did not explain how this could happen in a matriarchal society, but said that women's status declined until they became mere objects in the exchange trade between men and patriarchy was established, causing the global defeat of the female sex and the rise of individualism, competition, and dedication to achievement. According to Eller, Engels may have been influenced with respect to women's status by August Bebel, according to whom this matriarchy resulted in communism while patriarchy did not.


title: Matriarchy

text: Austrian writer Bertha Diener, also known as Helen Diner, wrote "Mothers and Amazons" (1930), which was the first work to focus on women's cultural history. Hers is regarded as a classic of feminist matriarchal study. Her view is that in the past all human societies were matriarchal; then, at some point, most shifted to patriarchal and degenerated. The controversy was reinforced further by the publication of "The White Goddess" by Robert Graves (1948) and his later analysis of classical Greek mythology and the vestiges of earlier myths that had been rewritten after a profound change in the religion of Greek civilization that occurred within its very early historical times. From the 1950s, Marija Gimbutas developed a theory of an "Old European culture" in Neolithic Europe which had matriarchal traits, replaced by the patriarchal system of the Proto-Indo-Europeans with the spread of Indo-European languages beginning in the Bronze Age. According to Epstein, anthropologists in the 20th century said that "the goddess worship or matrilocality that evidently existed in many paleolithic societies was not necessarily associated with matriarchy in the sense of women's power over men. Many societies can be found that exhibit those qualities along with female subordination." From the 1970s, these ideas were taken up by popular writers of second-wave feminism and expanded with the speculations of Margaret Murray on witchcraft, by the Goddess movement, and in feminist Wicca, as well as in works by Eisler, Elizabeth Gould Davis, and Merlin Stone.


title: Matriarchy

text: "A Golden Age of matriarchy" was, according to Epstein, prominently presented by Charlene Spretnak and "encouraged" by Stone and Eisler, but, at least for the Neolithic Age, has been denounced as feminist wishful thinking in "The Inevitability of Patriarchy", "Why Men Rule", "Goddess Unmasked", and "The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory" and is not emphasized in third-wave feminism. According to Eller, Gimbutas had a large part in constructing a myth of historical matriarchy by examining Eastern European cultures that she asserts, by and large, never really bore any resemblance in character to the alleged universal matriarchy suggested by Gimbutas and Graves. She asserts that in "actually documented primitive societies" of recent (historical) times, paternity is never ignored and that the sacred status of goddesses does not automatically increase female social status, and believes that this affirms that utopian matriarchy is simply an inversion of antifeminism.


title: Matriarchy

text: According to Rohrlich, "many scholars are convinced that Crete was a matriarchy, ruled by a queen-priestess" and the "Cretan civilization" was "matriarchal" before "1500 BC," when it was overrun and colonized.


title: Matriarchy

text: Also according to Rohrlich, "in the early Sumerian city-states 'matriarchy seems to have left something more than a trace.


title: Matriarchy

text: One common misconception among historians of the Bronze Age such as Stone and Eisler is the notion that the Semites were matriarchal while the Indo-Europeans practiced a patriarchal system. An example of this view is found in Stone's "When God Was a Woman", wherein she makes the case that the worship of Yahweh was an Indo-European invention superimposed on an ancient matriarchal Semitic nation. Evidence from the Amorites and pre-Islamic Arabs, however, indicates that the primitive Semitic family was in fact patriarchal and patrilineal.


title: Matriarchy

text: However, not all scholars agree. Anthropologist and Biblical scholar Raphael Patai writes in "The Hebrew Goddess" that the Jewish religion, far from being pure monotheism, contained from earliest times strong polytheistic elements, chief of which was the cult of Asherah, the mother goddess. A story in the Biblical Book of Judges places the worship of Asherah in the 12th century BC. Originally a Canaanite goddess, her worship was adopted by Hebrews who intermarried with Canaanites. She was worshipped in public and was represented by carved wooden poles. Numerous small nude female figurines of clay were found all over ancient Palestine and a seventh-century Hebrew text invokes her aid for a woman giving birth.


title: Matriarchy

text: Shekinah is the name of the feminine holy spirit who embodies both divine radiance and compassion. She comforts the sick and dejected, accompanies the Jews whenever they are exiled, and intercedes with God to exercise mercy rather than to inflict retribution on sinners. While not a creation of the Hebrew Bible, Shekinah appears in a slightly later Aramaic translation of the Bible in the first or second century C.E., according to Patai. Initially portrayed as the presence of God, she later becomes distinct from God, taking on more physical attributes.


title: Matriarchy

text: Meanwhile, the Indo-Europeans were known to have practiced multiple succession systems, and there is much better evidence of matrilineal customs among the Indo-European Celts and Germanics than among any ancient Semitic peoples.


title: Matriarchy

text: Women were running Sparta while the men were often away fighting. Gorgo, Queen of Sparta, was asked by a woman in Attica something along the lines of, "You Spartan women are the only women that lord it over your men", to which Gorgo replied: "Yes, for we are the only women that are mothers of men!"


title: Matriarchy

text: Arising in the period ranging from the Iron Age to the Middle Ages, several early northwestern European mythologies from the Irish ("e.g.", Macha and Scáthach), the Brittonic ("e.g.", Rhiannon), and the Germanic ("e.g.", Grendel's mother and Nerthus) contain ambiguous episodes of primal female power which have been interpreted as folk evidence of a real potential for matriarchal attitudes in pre-Christian European Iron Age societies. Often transcribed from a retrospective, patriarchal, Romanised, and Catholic perspective, they hint at an earlier, culturally disturbing, era when female power could have predominated. The first-century–attested historic British figure of Boudicca indicates that Brittonnic society permitted explicit female autocracy or a form of gender equality in a form which contrasted strongly with the patriarchal structure of Mediterranean civilisation.


title: Matriarchy

text: The Mosuo people are an ethnic group in southwest China. They are considered one of the most well-known matriarchal societies, although many scholars assert that they are rather matrilineal. , the sole heirs in the family are still daughters. Since the 1970s, the Mosuo people have faced significant challenges from outside pressures to the point that "their social structure has begun to erode." One significant challenge occurred from 1966 to 1976 when matrilineal societies were banned during the Cultural Revolution. Since 1990, when foreign tourism became permitted, tourists started visiting the Mosuo people. As pointed out by the Xinhau News Agency, "tourism has become so profitable that many Mosuo families in the area who have opened their homes have become wealthy." Although this revived their economy and lifted many out of poverty, it also altered the fabric of their society to have outsiders present who often look down on the Mosuo's cultural practices.


title: Matriarchy

text: In 1995, in Kenya, according to Emily Wax, Umoja, a village only for women from one tribe with about 36 residents, was established under a matriarch. It was founded on an empty piece of land by women who fled their homes after being raped by British soldiers. They formed a safe-haven in rural Samburu County in northern Kenya. Men of the same tribe established a village nearby from which to observe the women's village, the men's leader objecting to the matriarch's questioning the culture and men suing to close the women's village. As of 2019, 48 women, most of whom who have fled gender-based violence like female genital mutilation, assault, rape, and abusive marriages call Umoja home, living with their children in this all female-village. Many of these women faced stigma in their communities following these attacks and had no choice but to flee. Others sought to escape from the nearby Samburu community, which practices child marriage and female genital mutilation.  In the village, the women practice “collective economic cooperation.” The sons are obligated to move out when they turn eighteen. Not only has the Umoja village protected its members, the members have also done extensive work for gender equity in Kenya. The message of the village has spread outside of Kenya as member “Lolosoli’s passion for gender equity in Kenya has carried her to speak on social justice at the United Nations and to participate in an international women’s rights conference in South Africa.”


title: Matriarchy

text: The Khasi people live in Northeast India in the state of Meghalaya. Although largely considered matrilineal, some women's studies scholars such as Roopleena Banerjee consider the Khasi to be matriarchal. Banerjee asserts that “to assess and account a matriarchal society through the parameters of the patriarchy would be wrong” and that “we should avoid looking at history only through the colonizer/colonized boundaries.” The Khasi people consist of many clans who trace their lineage through the matriarchs of the families. A Khasi husband typically moves into his wife's home, and both wife and husband participate equally in raising their children. A Khasi woman named Passah explains that "[The father] would come to his wife's home late at night... In the morning, he's back at his mother's home to work in the fields,” showing how a man's role consists of supporting his wife and family in Khasi society. Traditionally, the youngest daughter, called the Khadduh, receives and cares for ancestral property. As of 2021, the Khasi continue to practice many female-led customs, with wealth and property being passed down through the female side of the family.


title: Matriarchy

text: Spokespersons for various indigenous peoples at the United Nations and elsewhere have highlighted the central role of women in their societies, referring to them as matriarchies, or as matriarchal in character.


title: Matriarchy

text: A legendary matriarchy related by several writers was Amazon society. According to Phyllis Chesler, "in Amazon societies, women were ... mothers and their society's only political and religious leaders", as well as the only warriors and hunters; "queens were elected" and apparently "any woman could aspire to and achieve full human expression." Herodotus reported that the Sarmatians were descendants of Amazons and Scythians, and that their females observed their ancient maternal customs, "frequently hunting on horseback with their husbands; in war taking the field; and wearing the very same dress as the men". Moreover, said Herodotus, "no girl shall wed till she has killed a man in battle". Amazons came to play a role in Roman historiography. Julius Caesar spoke of the conquest of large parts of Asia by Semiramis and the Amazons. Although Strabo was sceptical about their historicity, the Amazons were taken as historical throughout late Antiquity. Several Church Fathers spoke of the Amazons as a real people. Medieval authors continued a tradition of locating the Amazons in the North, Adam of Bremen placing them at the Baltic Sea and Paulus Diaconus in the heart of Germania.


title: Matriarchy

text: Robert Graves suggested that a myth displaced earlier myths that had to change when a major cultural change brought patriarchy to replace a matriarchy. According to this myth, in Greek mythology, Zeus is said to have swallowed his pregnant lover, the titan goddess Metis, who was carrying their daughter, Athena. The mother and child created havoc inside Zeus. Either Hermes or Hephaestus split Zeus's head, allowing Athena, in full battle armor, to burst forth from his forehead. Athena was thus described as being "born" from Zeus. The outcome pleased Zeus as it didn't fulfill the prophecy of Themis which (according to Aeschylus) predicted that Zeus will one day bear a son that would overthrow him.


title: Matriarchy

text: According to Adler, "there "is" plenty of evidence of ancient societies where women held greater power than in many societies today. For example, Jean Markale's studies of Celtic societies show that the power of women was reflected not only in myth and legend but in legal codes pertaining to marriage, divorce, property ownership, and the right to rule."


title: Matriarchy

text: The hypothesis of Basque matriarchism or theory of Basque matriarchism is a theoretical proposal launched by Andrés Ortiz-Osés that maintains that the existence of a psychosocial structure centered or focused on the matriarchal-feminine archetype (mother / woman, which finds in the archetype of the great Basque mother Mari, her precipitate as a projection of Mother Earth / nature) that "permeates, coagulates and unites the traditional Basque social group in a way that is different from the patriarchal Indo-European peoples".


title: Matriarchy

text: This mythical matriarchal conception corresponds to the conception of the Basques, clearly reflected in their mythology. The Earth is the mother of the Sun and the Moon, compared to Indo-European patriarchal conceptions, where the sun is reflected as a God, numen or male spirit. Prayers and greetings were dedicated to these two sisters at dawn and dusk, when they returned to the bosom of Mother Earth.


title: Matriarchy

text: Franz-Karl Mayr, this philosopher argued that the archetypal background of Basque mythology had to be inscribed in the context of a Paleolithic dominated by the Great Mother, in which the cycle of Mari (goddess) and her metamorphoses offers all a typical symbolism of the matriarchal-naturalistic context. According to the archetype of the Great Mother, this is usually related to fertility cults, as in the case of Mari, who is the determinant of fertility-fecundity, the maker of rain or hail, that on whose telluric forces depend the crops, in space and time, life and death, luck (grace) and misfortune.


title: Matriarchy

text: Bamberger (1974) examines several matriarchal myths from South American cultures and concludes that portraying the women from this matriarchal period as immoral often serves to restrain contemporary women in these societies.


title: Matriarchy

text: While "matriarchy" has mostly fallen out of use for the anthropological description of existing societies, it remains current as a concept in feminism.


title: Matriarchy

text: In first-wave feminist discourse, either Elizabeth Cady Stanton or Margaret Fuller (it is unclear who was first) introduced the concept of matriarchy and the discourse was joined in by Matilda Joslyn Gage. Victoria Woodhull, in 1871, called for men to open the U.S. government to women or a new constitution and government would be formed in a year; and, on a basis of equality, she ran to be elected president in 1872. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, in 1911 and 1914, argued for "a woman-centered, or better mother-centered, world" and described "government by women". She argued that a government led by either sex must be assisted by the other, both genders being "useful ... and should in our governments be alike used", because men and women have different qualities.


title: Matriarchy

text: In feminist literature, matriarchy and patriarchy are not conceived as simple mirrors of each other. While "matriarchy" sometimes means "the political rule of women", that meaning is often rejected, on the ground that matriarchy is not a mirroring of patriarchy. Patriarchy is held to be about power over others while matriarchy is held to be about power from within, Starhawk having written on that distinction and Adler having argued that matriarchal power is not possessive and not controlling, but is harmonious with nature.


title: Matriarchy

text: For radical feminists, the importance of matriarchy is that "veneration for the female principle ... somewhat lightens an oppressive system."


title: Matriarchy

text: Feminist utopias are a form of advocacy. According to Tineke Willemsen, "a feminist utopia would ... be the description of a place where at least women would like to live." Willemsen continues, among "type[s] of feminist utopias[,] ... [one] stem[s] from feminists who emphasize the differences between women and men. They tend to formulate their ideal world in terms of a society where women's positions are better than men's. There are various forms of matriarchy, or even a utopia that resembles the Greek myth of the Amazons... [V]ery few modern utopias have been developed in which women are absolute autocrats."


title: Matriarchy

text: A minority of feminists, generally radical, have argued that women should govern societies of women and men. In all of these advocacies, the governing women are not limited to mothers:


title: Matriarchy

text: Some fiction caricatured the current gender hierarchy by describing a matriarchal alternative without advocating for it. According to Karin Schönpflug, "Gerd Brantenberg's "Egalia's Daughters" is a caricature of powered gender relations which have been completely reversed, with the female sex on the top and the male sex a degraded, oppressed group"; "gender inequality is expressed through power inversion" and "all gender roles are reversed and women rule over a class of intimidated, effeminate men". ""Egalia" is not a typical example of gender inequality in the sense that a vision of a desirable matriarchy is created; "Egalia" is more a caricature of male hegemony by twisting gender hierarchy but not really offering a 'better world.


title: Matriarchy

text: On egalitarian matriarchy, Heide Göttner-Abendroth's International Academy for Modern Matriarchal Studies and Matriarchal Spirituality (HAGIA) organized conferences in Luxembourg in 2003 and Texas in 2005, with papers published. Göttner-Abendroth argued that "matriarchies are all egalitarian at least in terms of gender—they have no gender hierarchy ... [, that, f]or many matriarchal societies, the social order is completely egalitarian at both local and regional levels", that, "for our own path toward new egalitarian societies, we can gain ... insight from ... ["tested"] matriarchal patterns", and that "matriarchies are not abstract "utopias", constructed according to philosophical concepts that could never be implemented."


title: Matriarchy

text: According to Eller, "a deep distrust of men's ability to adhere to" future matriarchal requirements may invoke a need "to retain at least some degree of female hegemony to insure against a return to patriarchal control", "feminists ... [having] the understanding that female dominance is better for society—and better for men—than the present world order", as is equalitarianism. On the other hand, Eller continued, if men can be trusted to accept equality, probably most feminists seeking future matriarchy would accept an equalitarian model.


title: Matriarchy

text: "Demographic[ally]", "feminist matriarchalists run the gamut" but primarily are "in white, well-educated, middle-class circles"; many of the adherents are "religiously inclined" while others are "quite secular".


title: Matriarchy

text: Biology as a ground for holding either males or females superior over the other has been criticized as invalid, such as by Andrea Dworkin and by Robin Morgan. A claim that women have unique characteristics that prevent women's assimilation with men has been apparently rejected by Ti-Grace Atkinson. On the other hand, not all advocates based their arguments on biology or essentialism.


title: Matriarchy

text: A criticism by Mansfield of choosing who governs according to gender or sex is that the best qualified people should be chosen, regardless of gender or sex. On the other hand, Mansfield considered merit insufficient for office, because a legal right granted by a sovereign ("e.g.", a king), was more important than merit.


title: Matriarchy

text: Diversity within a proposed community can, according to Becki L. Ross, make it especially challenging to complete forming the community. However, some advocacy includes diversity, in the views of Dworkin and Farley.


title: Matriarchy

text: Prof. Christine Stansell, a feminist, wrote that, for feminists to achieve state power, women must democratically cooperate with men. "Women must take their place with a new generation of brothers in a struggle for the world's fortunes. Herland, whether of virtuous matrons or daring sisters, is not an option... [T]he well-being and liberty of women cannot be separated from democracy's survival." ("Herland" was feminist utopian fiction by Charlotte Perkins Gilman in 1911, featuring a community entirely of women except for three men who seek it out, strong women in a matriarchal utopia expected to last for generations, although Charlotte Perkins Gilman was herself a feminist advocate of society being gender-integrated and of women's freedom.)


title: Matriarchy

text: Other criticisms of superiority are that it is reverse sexism or discriminatory against men, it is opposed by most people including most feminists, women do not want such a position, governing takes women away from family responsibilities, women are too likely to be unable to serve politically because of menstruation and pregnancy, public affairs are too sordid for women and would cost women their respect and femininity (apparently including fertility), superiority is not traditional, women lack the political capacity and authority men have, it is impractical because of a shortage of women with the ability to govern at that level of difficulty as well as the desire and ability to wage war, women are less aggressive, or less often so, than are men and politics is aggressive, women legislating would not serve men's interests or would serve only petty interests, it is contradicted by current science on genderal differences, it is unnatural, and, in the views of a playwright and a novelist, "women cannot govern on their own." On the other hand, another view is that "women have 'empire' over men" because of nature and "men ... are actually obeying" women.


title: Matriarchy

text: Pursuing a future matriarchy would tend to risk sacrificing feminists' position in present social arrangements, and many feminists are not willing to take that chance, according to Eller. "Political feminists tend to regard discussions of what utopia would look like as a good way of setting themselves up for disappointment", according to Eller, and argue that immediate political issues must get the highest priority.


title: Matriarchy

text: "Matriarchists", as typified by comic character Wonder Woman, were criticized by Kathie Sarachild, Carol Hanisch, and some others.


title: Matriarchy

text: Some theologies and theocracies limit or forbid women from being in civil government or public leadership or forbid them from voting, effectively criticizing and forbidding matriarchy. Within none of the following religions is the respective view necessarily universally held:


title: Matriarchy

text: According to Eller, feminist thealogy conceptualized humanity as beginning with "female-ruled or equalitarian societies", until displaced by patriarchies, and that in the millennial future gynocentric,' life-loving values" will return to prominence. This, according to Eller, produces "a virtually infinite number of years of female equality or superiority coming both at the beginning and end of historical time".


title: Matriarchy

text: Among criticisms is that a future matriarchy, according to Eller, as a reflection of spirituality, is conceived as ahistorical, and thus may be unrealistic, unreachable, or even meaningless as a goal to secular feminists.


title: Matriarchy

text: Matriarchy may also refer to non-human animal species in which females hold higher status and hierarchical positions, such as among spotted hyenas, elephants, lemurs, naked mole rats, and bonobos. The social structure of European bison herds has also been described by specialists as a matriarchy – the cows of the group lead it as the entire herd follows them to grazing areas. Though heavier and larger than the females, the older and more powerful males of the European bison usually fulfill the role of satellites that hang around the edges of the herd. Apart from the mating season when they begin to compete with each other, European bison bulls serve a more active role in the herd only once a danger to the group's safety appears.


title: Jackée Harry

text: Jacqueline Yvonne Harry (born August 14, 1956) is an American actress, comedian, and television personality. She is known for her starring roles as Sandra Clark, the nemesis of Mary Jenkins (played by Marla Gibbs), on the NBC TV series "227" (1985–1990), and as Lisa Landry on the ABC/The WB sitcom "Sister, Sister" (1994–1999). She is noted for being the first African-American to win a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series.


title: Jackée Harry

text: She also starred in the 1992 film "Ladybugs", opposite Rodney Dangerfield. Since March 2021, she has played Paulina Price on the NBC soap opera, "Days of Our Lives".


title: Jackée Harry

text: Harry was born in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, in 1956 to an Afro-Trinidadian mother and African American father and raised in Harlem, New York. She began studying acting at the High School of the Performing Arts in midtown Manhattan in New York City. Harry graduated from Long Island University with a Bachelor of Arts degree in education and worked as a teacher of American history at Brooklyn Technical High School for two years before beginning a career on the New York stage.


title: Jackée Harry

text: In 1978, Harry made her Broadway debut in "A Broadway Musical". Throughout the 1980s she starred in numerous productions both on and off Broadway and in national touring productions. In 1994, Harry made her return to the theater by starring as Billie Holiday in the play "Lady Day at Emerson's Bar and Grill". Following that stage production, she fulfilled the role of "madam who runs a bordello" in the Broadway musical "The Boys from Syracuse". In the mid 2000s, she appeared in stage productions of "The Sunshine Boys", "Damn Yankees", and "A Christmas Carol". She also toured nationally in JD Lawrence's "The Clean Up Woman".


title: Jackée Harry

text: Harry made her television acting debut in 1983 on "Another World" as Lily Mason, a role she continued until 1986. In 1984, she made her motion pictures debuts with bit parts in "Moscow on the Hudson" and "The Cotton Club". In 1985, Harry began a co-starring role as Sandra Clark on the NBC sitcom "227". Her mother, Flossie, celebrated her getting the role but died before the show started airing. During the series' run, Harry and Marla Gibbs began feuding privately over who was the series' lead. They have since reconciled and collaborated on a number of projects. Her performance on "227" inspired NBC producers to create a television pilot for her entitled "Jackée". Although the pilot episode was a success with audiences, the series did not last and the episode is now shown as an episode of "227".


title: Jackée Harry

text: After leaving "227" in 1989, Harry starred opposite Oprah Winfrey in "The Women of Brewster Place", an adaptation of Gloria Naylor's novel of the same name. In 1990, she headlined an NBC comedy pilot from Witt/Thomas titled "We'll Take Manhattan"; it aired as a summer special that year, but did not make it to series. In late 1991, she joined the cast of "The Royal Family" after the star, Redd Foxx, unexpectedly died. She starred opposite two-time "227" guest-star Della Reese, but the series faltered in the ratings and was not renewed for a second season. In 1992, she starred as the assistant coach in "Ladybugs". Harry served as a guest panelist on the 2000 revival of "To Tell the Truth" and appeared on the second season of VH1's "Celebrity Fit Club 2" in 2005. From 1994 until 1999, Harry played Lisa Landry, the adoptive mother of Tia Mowry's character, on the sitcom "Sister, Sister".


title: Jackée Harry

text: She had a recurring role as Vanessa on the UPN/The CW series "Everybody Hates Chris" and had a recurring role on the BET Series "Let's Stay Together". From 2012 to 2015, she starred in Byron Allen's sitcom "The First Family". In 2013, she appeared in the pilot episode of the Disney sitcom "Girl Meets World", as well as the episodes "Girl Meets Crazy Hat" and "Girl Meets Demolition". That same year, she also joined Gibbs in the movie "Forbidden Woman". In 2014, she made a guest appearance on "Instant Mom" as her character Lisa Landry. She appeared in the "2 Broke Girls" episode "And the Sax Problem" in 2016, as Earl's (Garrett Morris) ex-girlfriend.


title: Jackée Harry

text: On December 8, 2020, during an appearance on "Today", Harry announced that she was set to join the cast of the soap opera "Days of Our Lives". Harry was cast as Paulina Price, the aunt of established character Lani Price-Grant (Sal Stowers). When the series was renewed for two additional seasons in 2021, Harry was placed on contract with the series. On July 25, 2021, she appeared on "Celebrity Family Feud".


title: Jackée Harry

text: Harry has one child and was once married to arranger and conductor Jerry Jemmott. In 1996, Harry married Elgin Charles Williams; they later divorced in 2003. During their marriage, Harry and Williams adopted a son, Frank, in 1997.


title: Balto (film)

text: Balto is a 1995 animated adventure film directed by Simon Wells, produced by Amblin Entertainment and distributed by Universal Pictures. The film, which stars the voices of Kevin Bacon, Bridget Fonda, Jim Cummings, Phil Collins and Bob Hoskins, is loosely based on the true story of the eponymous dog who helped save children infected with diphtheria in the 1925 serum run to Nome. Though primarily an animated film, it uses a live-action framing device that takes place in New York City's Central Park and features Miriam Margolyes.


title: Balto (film)

text: "Balto" was the third and final feature produced by Steven Spielberg's UK-based Amblimation studio before it became DreamWorks Animation, which would later be acquired by Universal's parent company NBCUniversal in 2016. Although the film was a major financial disappointment (it was overshadowed by the success of Pixar's "Toy Story"), its subsequent sales on home video led to two direct-to-video sequels: "" (2002) and "" (2005), though none of the original voice cast reprised their roles.


title: Balto (film)

text: In New York City, an elderly woman and her granddaughter are walking through Central Park, looking for a memorial statue. As they seat themselves for a rest, the grandmother recounts a story about Nome, Alaska.


title: Balto (film)

text: In 1925, Balto, a wolfdog hybrid, lives on the outskirts of Nome with his adoptive father, a snow goose named Boris, and two polar bears, Muk and Luk. Being a half-breed, Balto is ridiculed by dogs and humans alike. His only friend in town is a red husky named Jenna who Balto has a crush on and is challenged by the town's favorite sled dog, Steele, a fierce and arrogant Alaskan Malamute.


title: Balto (film)

text: That night, all the children, including Jenna's owner, Rosy, fall ill with diphtheria. Severe winter weather conditions prevent medicine from being brought by air or sea, and the closest rail line ends in Nenana. A dog race is held to determine the best-fit dogs for a sled dog team to get the medicine. Balto enters and wins, but Steele exposes his wolf-dog heritage, resulting in him being disqualified. The team departs that night with Steele in the lead and picks up the medicine successfully, but on the way back, conditions deteriorate and the disoriented team ends up stranded at the base of a steep slope with the musher knocked unconscious.


title: Balto (film)

text: When the word reaches Nome, Balto sets out in search of them with Boris, Muk and Luk. On the way, they are attacked by a huge grizzly bear, but Jenna, who followed their tracks, intervenes. The bear pursues Balto out onto a frozen lake, where it falls through the ice and drowns, while Muk and Luk save Balto from a similar fate. However, Jenna got injured and cannot continue on. Balto instructs Boris and the polar bears to take her back home while he continues on alone. Balto eventually finds the team, but Steele refuses his help and attacks him until he loses his balance and falls off a cliff. Balto takes charge of the team, but an unrelenting Steele throws them off the trail and they lose their way again. While attempting to save the medicine from falling down a cliff, Balto himself falls.


title: Balto (film)

text: Back in Nome, Jenna is explaining Balto's mission to the other dogs when Steele returns, claiming the entire team, including Balto, is dead. However, Jenna sees through his deception and assures Balto will return with the medicine. Using a trick Balto showed her earlier, she places broken colored glass bottles on the outskirts of town and shines a lantern on them to simulate the lights of an aurora, hoping it will help guide Balto home. When Balto regains consciousness, he is ready to give up hope, but when a large, white wolf appears and he notices the medicine crate still intact nearby, he realizes that his part-wolf heritage is a strength, not a weakness and drags the medicine back up the cliff to the waiting team. Using his advanced senses, Balto is able to filter out the false markers Steele created.


title: Balto (film)

text: After encountering further challenges, and losing only one vial, Balto and the sled team finally make it back to Nome. A pity-playing Steele is exposed as a liar and abandoned by the other dogs, ruining his reputation. Reunited with Jenna and his friends, Balto earns respect from both the dogs and the humans. He visits a cured Rosy, who thanks him for saving her. Back in the present day, the elderly woman and her granddaughter finally find the memorial commemorating Balto, and she explains that the Iditarod trail covers the same path that Balto and his team took from Nenana to Nome. The woman, who is actually Rosy, repeats the same line, "Thank you, Balto. I would have been lost without you," before walking off to join her granddaughter and her Siberian Husky, Blaze. The Balto statue stands proudly in the sunlight.


title: Balto (film)

text: Production and development on "Balto" began in May 1989 at Universal City Studios and Amblin Entertainment in Universal City, California, along with "" (1991) and "We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story" (1993). Voice-recording sessions took place at The Bridge Facilities in London (now folded into Miloco Studios and renamed The Bridge Writing Studio) between late 1992 and early 1993. Brendan Fraser was originally cast as Steele, because director Simon Wells had envisioned Steele as a school quarterback jock carried away by his sense of importance, and felt that Fraser fit that personality well. According to Wells, "I liked Brendan a great deal, and we did one recording session with him that was terrific." However, executive producer Steven Spielberg wanted a clearer sense of Steele's "inherent evil", so Fraser was replaced by Jim Cummings. Wells stated that Cummings "did a fantastic job, and totally made the character live, so I don't regret the choice."


title: Balto (film)

text: After the actors recorded their voices, animating and filming commenced at Amblimation in London on March 1, 1993. To have a source for the dogs' character animation to be based on, the filmmakers brought in about seven Siberian Huskies and videotaped them walking around in the studio. Although most of the film's animation was hand-drawn, the animators used Toonz to improve the graphics, and also created the snowstorms using an early CGI particle animation system. Additional animation was done by the Danish studio A. Film Production. James Horner composed the film's music, including the film's only song, "Reach for the Light", sung by Steve Winwood, which plays over the film's closing credits.


title: Balto (film)

text: The film's live-action prologue and epilogue segments were filmed in Central Park in Fall 1994. The role as elderly Rosy's granddaughter's husky, Blaze, was played by two light red blue-eyed Siberian Huskies.


title: Balto (film)

text: The film was theatrically released in the United States on December 22, 1995 and then international theatres on January 13, 1996 when it first premiered in Brazil. Its release was vastly overshadowed by that of Pixar Animation Studios' first film, "Toy Story," which had premiered a month earlier.


title: Balto (film)

text: The film ranked 15th on its opening weekend and earned $1.5 million from a total of 1,427 theaters. The film also ranked 7th among G-rated movies in 1995. Its total domestic gross was $11,348,324. Despite being a disappointment at the box-office, it was much more successful in terms of video sales. These strong video sales led to the release of two direct-to-video sequels: "" and "Balto III: Wings of Change" being created, though neither sequel received as strong a reception as the original film.


title: Balto (film)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 56% based on 25 reviews, with an average rating of 5.90/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Balto" is a well-meaning adventure with spirited animation, but mushy sentimentality and bland characterization keeps it at paw's length from more sophisticated family fare." Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film a positive review, describing the film as "a kids' movie, simply told, with lots of excitement and characters you can care about" and praised every thrilling scene.


title: Balto (film)

text: "Balto" was released on VHS and Laserdisc on April 2, 1996, by MCA/Universal Home Video in North America and CIC Video internationally. The VHS version was made available once more on August 11, 1998, under the Universal Family Features label.


title: Balto (film)

text: The film was released on DVD on February 19, 2002, which includes a game, "Where is the Dog Sled Team?". This version was reprinted along with other Universal films such as "An American Tail", "" and "The Land Before Time". It was initially released in widescreen on Blu-ray for the first time exclusively at Walmart retailers on April 4, 2017 before its wide release on July 4, 2017.


title: Balto (film)

text: Balto: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the soundtrack of the film, composed by James Horner. The soundtrack was released on December 4, 1995 by MCA. It includes the film's only song, "Reach for the Light" performed by Steve Winwood.


title: Balto (film)

text: The film received five Annie Award nominations, including Best Animated Feature, but lost to "Toy Story".


title: Balto (film)

text: Two fictional direct-to-video sequels of the film followed, made by Universal Cartoon Studios with their animation done overseas by the Taiwanese studio Wang Film Productions, as Amblimation had gone out of business. Due to the sequels being completely fictional and having a completely different crew, Kevin Bacon, Bob Hoskins, Bridget Fonda, and Phil Collins did not reprise their roles in either of them. Instead, Bacon was replaced by Maurice LaMarche as the voice of Balto, Hoskins was replaced by Charles Fleischer as the voice of Boris, Fonda was replaced by Jodi Benson as the voice of Jenna, and Collins was replaced by Kevin Schon as the voices of Muk and Luk. In addition, numerous supporting characters from the original (such as Steele, Nikki, Kaltag and Star) either did not return in the sequels or became background characters in them. The first sequel, "," was released in 2002 and follows the adventures of one of Balto and Jenna's pups, Aleu, who sets off to discover her wolf heritage. The second, "Balto III: Wings of Change", was released in 2005. The storyline follows the same litter of pups from "Balto II", but focuses on another pup, Kodi, who is a member of a U.S. Mail dog sled delivery team, and is in danger of getting put out of his job by Duke, a pilot of a mail delivery bush plane, as characters from the first sequel could not be brought back owing to Mary Kay Bergman’s suicide in 1999, causing "Balto II" to be delayed for two years. Unlike the original film, neither of the sequels took any historical references from the true story of Balto and contain no live action sequences.


title: Paris FC

text: Paris Football Club (), commonly referred to as Paris FC or simply PFC, is a French professional football club based in Paris, that competes in the Ligue 2, the second tier of French football. Paris FC play their home matches at the Stade Charléty, which is located in the 13th arrondissement of Paris.


title: Paris FC

text: Founded in 1969, the club merged with Stade Saint-Germain to form Paris Saint-Germain in 1970. In 1972, the club split from Paris Saint-Germain resulting in the current Paris FC. Unlike its counterpart, which has gone on to establish a solid foundation, Paris FC has struggled to establish itself, having spent the majority of its existence playing in the amateur divisions. The club's highest honour to date was winning its group in the Championnat de France amateur in 2006. Paris FC last played in Ligue 1 in the 1978–79 season.


title: Paris FC

text: Though Paris FC have struggled domestically, the club has served as a springboard for several youth players who have gone on to have successful professional careers. Notable players who started their careers at the club includes Jean-Christophe Thouvenel, Mamadou Sakho, Tijani Belaid, Aymen Belaïd, Gabriel Obertan and Ibrahima Konaté. Sakho, Konaté, and the Belaïd brothers have since become senior internationals for their respective national teams, while Thouvenel went on to win a gold medal at the 1984 Summer Olympics. Manager Roger Lemerre started his managerial career with the club before leading France to titles at UEFA Euro 2000 and the 2001 FIFA Confederations Cup.


title: Paris FC

text: In an effort to re-launch professional football in the city of Paris, Paris Football Club was founded on 1 August 1969. The objective of the club was to be playing in the first division by 1970. An attempted merger with CS Sedan Ardennes was refused so Paris went looking in the second division and, subsequently, merged with Stade Saint-Germain to form Paris Saint-Germain, the professional club that plays in Ligue 1. The current incarnation of Paris FC came into being in 1972 when the club split from Paris Saint-Germain after coming under pressure from the capital city's mayor, who refused to support a non-Parisian club (the club had originally been situated in nearby Saint-Germain-en-Laye). As a result, a bitter split occurred and both Paris FC and Paris Saint-Germain remained as separate football club with the main agreement being that Paris FC had the right to keep the splitting entity's first division and professional status, as well as all the professional players. Paris Saint-Germain were, on the other hand, administratively relegated to the third division and given all the former entity's amateur players.


title: Paris FC

text: At the beginning of the 1972–73 season, Paris were playing in the first division hosting matches at the Parc des Princes. Two seasons later, the club was relegated to the second division, which coincided with Paris Saint-Germain's rise to top-flight and the acquisition of the Parc des Princes. After four years of playing in Division 2, Paris returned to the first division for the 1978–79 season. However, the season was a difficult one and resulted in the club falling back to Division 2 after one season. Paris FC have since yet to return to the top-flight league of France.


title: Paris FC

text: In 1983, Paris FC, then led by the industrialist Jean-Luc Lagardère, merged with Racing Club de France. While Racing remained in the first division, the remaining entity that was PFC was administratively relegated to the fourth division. Due to having limited resources, Paris fell to the Division d'Honneur after one season and, subsequently, spent four seasons in the fifth division before returning to Division 4 in 1988. Another promotion the following season saw Paris earn a place in Division 3. Paris remained in the division for 12 years becoming inaugural members of the Championnat National in the process. In 2000, the club finished 17th and were relegated to the Championnat de France amateur. Paris spent six years in the league before returning to National for the 2006–07 season. After a successful 2014–15 campaign, the club gained promotion to Ligue 2, the French second division, alongside its local rival Red Star F.C. However, it would stay in Ligue 2 for only one year and was relegated back to the Championnat National for the 2016–17 season.


title: Paris FC

text: In the 2016–17 season, Paris FC made the playoff/relegation final against US Orleans but lost over the two legged game on aggregate. Paris FC were then administratively promoted to Ligue 2 after SC Bastia were demoted to the third division for financial irregularities. For the 2017/2018 Ligue 2 season, Paris FC finished 8th on the table but at one stage occupied the promotion places.


title: Paris FC

text: In the 2018–19 season, Paris finished 4th and contested the plays-offs against RC Lens, but lost the penalty shoot-out after a 1–1 draw.


title: Paris FC

text: On 30 April 2021 Paris FC, along with Angers, were handed a transfer ban by FIFA for violation of regulations regarding relay transfers in August 2020. The ban was effective for the summer 2021 transfer window.


title: Paris FC

text: Since July 2020, a new strategic economic partner has joined Paris FC to support the club's development and ambitions: the Kingdom of Bahrain. The deal was completed with a capital increase to improve finances of the club, giving the kingdom 20 percent of the equity. , the founder of the December 1983 established "Alpha Group" () which owns its subsidiary the consulting and auditing firm "Alpha-Secafi", remains the main shareholder with a contribution of 77 percent. In addition to this investment, the Kingdom of Bahrain becomes the main sponsor of the club.


title: Paris FC

text: The Council of Paris was to vote on renewing the yearly subvention that the City of Paris allocates to the Paris Club, several non-profit organizations based in Paris, including ADHRB called for the City of Paris to hold a dialogue on the abuse of human rights and death penalty practiced in the Kingdom of Bahrain, a 20% share holder of the club. The Council of Paris accused the kingdom of distracting general public from its abuses via a popular sport like football, committing a practice called ‘Sport-Whitewashing’ or ‘Sportwashing’. The council also demanded the release of detainees put on death row by Bahrain on the basis of confessions acquired via torture methods. As one of the oldest partners of the Paris FC club, Mairie de Paris was called for pursuing its commitment towards the defense of human rights.


title: Paris FC

text: The NGOs had highlighted the human rights records and the sportswashing attempts of Bahrain, under which the club's jerseys promoted “Victorious Bahrain” and the grounds of Charléty stadium had “Explore Bahrain” advertisements. Such publicity was considered inappropriate, as Bahrain was seen as a repressive regime. Following the appeal from the NGOs, the Council of Paris voted an amendment for the allocation of a subsidy of €500,000 to the club. In the amendment, all the issues were kept in mind to ensure the inclusion of an “organization of additional actions to raise awareness of human rights and fight against all forms of discrimination”. Besides, the mention of private financial partnerships in the amendment was believed to prompt a withdrawal of the “Explore Bahrain” advertising panels in the Charléty stadium.


title: Paris FC

text: The club used to be the biggest and most well supported in the city, with over 20,000 supporter members at the time of the club's formation.


title: Paris FC

text: In 1970 the club merged with Stade Saint-Germain to form Paris Saint-Germain F.C., but quickly left the merger. In the 1973 season, the first after leaving, the club still averaged an attendance of 13,202. However, after that, the two clubs' fortunes varied drastically, and as PSG's popularity rose, PFC fell into obscurity and languished in the amateur divisions. It is only when it reached the third tier its popularity started growing again, however the club currently only attracts in the region of a few hundred to very low thousands fans for each match.


title: Paris FC

text: In 2000s the club used to have a supporter group called "Blue Wolves" founded in 2008. Officially apolitical, they tended to have right-wing views. However they were disbanded in 2010 after several hooligan incidents occurred, the last of which during a match against FC Gueugnon.


title: Paris FC

text: They were replaced by the group "Old Clan", founded in 2010, and ultras group "Ultras Lutetia" founded in the summer of 2014. After the expulsion of PSG fans from Parc des Princes in 2010, PFC has attracted some of that support, particularly from the left-wing group "Virage Auteuil", but also a few from right-wing group "Boulogne Boys".


title: Paris FC

text: The club has rivalries with fellow neighbours US Créteil and Red Star F.C. with whom they contest the Parisian derbies. Although both clubs are officially apolitical, due to Red Star fans left-wing political tendencies and PFC's past right-wing political tendencies, the derby is particularly fierce. The derby with US Créteil is a geographical one as both clubs play in the southern suburbs of Paris.


title: Paris FC

text: Below are the notable former players who have represented Paris and its predecessors in league and international competition since the club's foundation in 1969. To appear in the section below, a player must have played in at least 80 official matches for the club.


title: British cuisine

text: British cuisine is the specific set of cooking traditions and practices associated with the United Kingdom. Historically, British cuisine meant "unfussy dishes made with quality local ingredients, matched with simple sauces to accentuate flavour, rather than disguise it". International recognition of British cuisine was historically limited to the full breakfast and the Christmas dinner. However, Celtic agriculture and animal breeding produced a wide variety of foodstuffs for indigenous Celts. Wine and words such as beef and mutton were brought to Britain by the Normans while, Anglo-Saxon England developed meat and savoury herb stewing techniques before the practice became common in Europe. The Norman conquest introduced exotic spices into Great Britain in the Middle Ages.


title: British cuisine

text: The pub is an important aspect of British culture and cuisine, and is often the focal point of local communities. Referred to as their "local" by regulars, pubs are typically chosen for their proximity to home or work, the availability of a particular beer or ale or a good selection, good food, a social atmosphere, the presence of friends and acquaintances, and the availability of pub games such as darts or snooker. Pubs will often screen sports events, such as English Premier League and Scottish Premier League games (or for international tournaments, the FIFA World Cup). In recent years, some pubs have adapted to a culture in which fewer young people enjoy drinking alcohol or will not consume it in the same quantities as in the past.


title: British cuisine

text: New foodstuffs have arrived over the millennia, from sausages in Roman times, and rice, sugar, oranges, and spices from Asia in the Middle Ages, to New World beans and potatoes in the Columbian exchange after 1492, and spicy curry sauces from India in the 18th and 19th centuries. Many vegetables you see today in British cuisine you see today such as cabbage, peas, and cherries, were also brought as crops by the Romans.


title: British cuisine

text: More recently, Indian cuisine has brought wide variety of food to Britain and was not only consumed in its native form, but was adapted to suit British tastes, dishes such as chicken tikka masala, balti dishes, kedgeree, mulligatawny soup and even coronation chicken all took their inspiration from the food brought to Britain from India.


title: British cuisine

text: Traditional British dishes include full breakfast, roast dinner, fish and chips, and shepherd's pie. Traditional British deserts include trifle, scones, apple pie and Victoria sponge cake. British cuisine has distinctive national varieties in the form of English, Scottish, Welsh and Northern Irish cuisines. Modern British cuisine has also been strongly influenced by other cuisines from around the world, and has in turn strongly influenced the cuisines of many other cultures around the world too.


title: British cuisine

text: Cider is an ancient British beverage. The first recorded reference to cider dates back to Julius Caesar’s first attempt to invade Britain in 55 BCE where he found the native Celts fermenting crabapples. He would take the discovery back through continental Europe with his retreating troops.


title: British cuisine

text: In Roman times, further foods were introduced, such as sausages, rabbit, herbs and spices from further south in the Roman empire such as chives and coriander, and wine, which was produced in Britain in vineyards as far north as Northamptonshire and Lincolnshire.


title: British cuisine

text: Prior to and after the Norman conquest of England in 1066, British food mostly consisted of vegetables, cereals and mutton.


title: British cuisine

text: In the Middle Ages, the Anglo-Saxons introduced bacon to Britain sometime during the 1st millennium AD. The Norman conquest reintroduced spices and continental influences into Great Britain in the Middle Ages; oranges arrived in the late 13th century, sugar cane in the 14th, and carrots in the 15th century.


title: British cuisine

text: With the Western exploration of the New World in 1492, the Columbian exchange led to the arrival in Europe of many new foods, including refined sugar, the potato, the banana and chocolate. The growth in worldwide trade brought foods and beverages from the Old World too, including tea and coffee. Developments in plant breeding greatly increased the number of fruit and vegetable varieties.


title: British cuisine

text: The turkey was introduced to Britain in the 16th century, but its use for Christmas dinner, with Christmas pudding for dessert, was a 19th-century innovation. Other traditional British dishes, like fish and chips and the full breakfast, rose to prominence in the Victorian era; while they have a status in British culture, they are not necessarily a large part of many people's diets.


title: British cuisine

text: During the World Wars of the 20th century difficulties of food supply were countered by measures such as rationing. Rationing continued for nearly ten years after the Second World War, and in some aspects was stricter than during wartime, so that a whole generation was raised without access to many previously common ingredients, possibly contributing to a decline of British cuisine. Writing in the 1960s about British cuisine in the 1950s, the "Good Food Guide" called the food of the 1950s "intolerable" due to a shortage of real ingredients such as butter, cream or meat. A hunger for cooking from abroad was satisfied by writers such as Elizabeth David, who from 1950 produced evocative books, starting with "A Book of Mediterranean Food", whose ingredients were then often impossible to find in Britain.


title: British cuisine

text: By the 1960s foreign holidays, and foreign-style restaurants in Britain, widened the popularity of foreign cuisine. This movement was assisted by celebrity chefs – on television and in their books – such as Fanny Cradock, Clement Freud, Robert Carrier, Keith Floyd, Gary Rhodes, Delia Smith, Gordon Ramsay, Ainsley Harriott, Nigella Lawson, Simon Hopkinson, Nigel Slater and Jamie Oliver.


title: British cuisine

text: From the 1970s, the availability and range of good quality fresh products increased, and the British population became more willing to vary its diet. Modern British cooking draws on influences from Mediterranean, and more recently, Middle Eastern and Asian cuisines. In the 1990s and early 2000s, a form of "virtuous eclecticism" emerged in discourse around British cuisine, arguing that British cuisine can be distinguished by its apparently unique ability to draw from other cultures.


title: British cuisine

text: Furthermore, from the 1970s there was an increased push to recognise a distinctly British cuisine. The English Tourist Board campaigned for restaurants to include more British historical and regional dishes on their menus. In the 1980s, in the face of globalisation - which made foreign cuisines and imported produce more widely available in the UK - a style of cooking known as Modern British Cooking emerged in an effort to construct a national cuisine for the tourist industry. This new style of cooking focused on the garden and vegetables.


title: British cuisine

text: In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Colonial British Empire began to be influenced by India's elaborate food tradition with strong spices and herbs. Traditional British cuisine was modified with the addition of Indian-style spices and ingredients such as rice, creating dishes such as kedgeree (1790) and mulligatawny soup (1791).


title: British cuisine

text: Curry became popular in Britain by the 1970s, when some restaurants that originally catered mainly to Indians found their clientele diversifying. Chicken tikka masala, a mildly spiced dish in a creamy sauce, invented around 1971 in Britain, has been called "a true British national dish."


title: British cuisine

text: British culinary preferences have continued to evolve in the 21st century. Many people in a 2021 survey had never eaten such traditional favourites as toad in the hole, spotted dick, Scotch eggs, black pudding, or bubble and squeak, and a minority did not believe these dishes existed.


title: British cuisine

text: In September 2022, Debora Robertson wrote in the Daily Telegraph that the 21st century has seen 'a revolution in British dining, fine and otherwise'.


title: British cuisine

text: According to Warde, three definitions of British cuisine in response to globalisation predominate. Modern British Cooking draws on Britain's culinary history to create a new British traditional cuisine. Virtuous eclecticism highlights the melting pot of different national cuisines present in the UK. Another draws on popular, common products to produce a form of historical continuity between historical and modern cuisines.


title: British cuisine

text: Internationally, British food tends to have a perception of being "terrible": bland, soggy, overcooked and visually unappealing. The reason for this is debated. One popular season is that British culinary traditions were strong before the mid-20th century, when British cuisine suffered due to wartime rationing. A lot of myths about British food originate from this period. An alternative hypothesis is that British people are "too repressed" to cook properly and that British culture is not adept to serving lavish meals.


title: British cuisine

text: According to a survey by YouGov, the most popular British food is the Yorkshire pudding, which over 85% of Brits say they like, closely followed by Sunday roasts and fish and chips. The least popular was jellied eels, which only 6% of those who had tried it liked. Scones and Victoria sponge are the most popular sweet foods, while the Deep-fried Mars bar is the least popular.


title: British cuisine

text: Curries are a large part of British cuisine, with cooks in the United Kingdom creating curries distinct to the country. Chicken tikka masala, which comprises 15 percent of orders in British Indian restaurants, was called "a true British national dish" by the Foreign Secretary Robin Cook in 2001. Generally, British curries are thicker and sweeter than their Indian counterparts. Furthermore, curry sauces in Britain are interchangeable between meats, while in India different meats have non-interchangeable sauces. A key ingredient to a British curry is curry powder, a "British concoction" of spices.


title: British cuisine

text: English cuisine has distinctive attributes of its own, but also shares much with wider British cuisine, partly through the importation of ingredients and ideas from North America, China, and India during the time of the British Empire and as a result of post-war immigration. Some traditional meals, such as sausages, bread and cheese, roasted and stewed meats, meat and game pies, boiled vegetables and broths, and freshwater and saltwater fish have ancient origins. The 14th-century English cookbook, the "Forme of Cury", contains recipes for these, and dates from the royal court of Richard II.


title: British cuisine

text: Northern Ireland's culinary heritage has its roots in the staple diet of generations of farming families—bread and potatoes. Historically, limited availability of ingredients and low levels of immigration resulted in restricted variety and relative isolation from wider international culinary influences. The 21st century has seen significant improvements in local cuisine, characterised by an increase in the variety, quantity and quality of gastropubs and restaurants. There are currently two Michelin star restaurants in Northern Ireland, both of which specialise in traditional dishes made using local ingredients.


title: British cuisine

text: Scottish cuisine shares more with Scandinavia than with England. Traditional Scottish dishes include bannock, brose, cullen skink, Dundee cake, haggis, marmalade, porridge, and Scotch broth. The cuisines of the northern islands of Orkney and Shetland are distinctively different from that of mainland Scotland. The nation is known for its whiskies.


title: British cuisine

text: Welsh cuisine in the Middle Ages was limited in range; Gerald of Wales, chaplain to Henry II, wrote after an 1188 tour that "The whole population lives almost entirely on oats and the produce of their herds, milk, cheese and butter. You must not expect a variety of dishes from a Welsh kitchen, and there are no highly-seasoned titbits to whet your appetite."


title: British cuisine

text: The cuisine includes recipes for Welsh lamb, and dishes such as cawl, Welsh rarebit, laverbread, Welsh cakes, bara brith and Glamorgan sausage.


title: British cuisine

text: The UK has had availability of a large variety of foreign cuisines since the post-war period. In 1970, the "Good Food Guide" stated: "London now has a richer variety of restaurants than any other city on Earth". In 1995, the "Good Food Guide" argued that the fusion of national cuisines "could only happen here", as Britain is a melting pot without as distinct of a national cuisine as other such countries.


title: Just Dance (video game series)

text: Just Dance is a rhythm game series developed and published by Ubisoft. The original "Just Dance" game was released on the Wii in 2009 in North America, Europe, and Australia.


title: Just Dance (video game series)

text: "Just Dance" is a motion-based dance video game for multiple players, with each game including a collection of classic and modern songs each with its own dance choreographies. During each song, players mirror a dance performed by dancers on the screen, following moves that appear as pictorials on the bottom right corner of the screen, and are awarded for their accuracy. Additionally, there are gold moves in which players must strike a pose or complete the hardest move in the dance in order to earn bonus points. Players are given ranks based on how well they do. Depending on the game and system it is played on, the game can be played with either motion controllers or camera devices (such as the Wii Remote and Kinect), or using an app downloaded on a smart device. The game can be played by up to six players at once on eighth- and ninth-generation consoles, as well as the PC version of "Just Dance 2017" and the Stadia version of "Just Dance 2020" to "Just Dance 2022", with support for a gamepad and a keyboard used to navigate the menus. This excludes Dance Crew routines for Kinect users for the Xbox One version, as well as Wii Remote users for the Wii U version, and PlayStation Move users for the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 versions, which are limited to four players. Seventh generation consoles and the Wii U versions of "Just Dance 4" to "Just Dance 2015" and the Wii U version of "Just Dance 2019" are also limited to four players.


title: Just Dance (video game series)

text: "Just Dance 2014": 71 out of 100 (Xbox One), 72 out of 100 (Wii U), 75 out of 100 (PS4), 77 out of 100 (PS3), and 79 out of 100 (Xbox 360)


title: Just Dance (video game series)

text: On 14 January 2019, "Deadline" reported that Screen Gems has acquired motion picture rights to "Just Dance" with Jason Altman and Margaret Boykin from Ubisoft Film & Television set to produce alongside Jodi Hildebrand and Will Gluck of Olive Bridge Entertainment.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair (, ) is the flag carrier and largest airline of Finland, with its headquarters in Vantaa on the grounds of Helsinki Airport, its hub. Finnair and its subsidiaries dominate both domestic and international air travel in Finland. Its major shareholder is the government of Finland, which owns 55.9% of its shares (as of 2014). Finnair is a member of the Oneworld airline alliance.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair is the sixth oldest airline in continuous operation and is consistently listed as one of the safest in the world. The company slogans are "Designed for you" and "The Nordic Way."


title: Finnair

text: In 1923, consul Bruno Lucander founded Finnair as Aero O/Y ("Aero Ltd"). The company code, "AY", stands for Aero Osake-yhtiö ("yhtiö" means "company" in Finnish). Lucander had previously run the Finnish operations of the Estonian airline Aeronaut. In mid-1923 he concluded an agreement with Junkers Flugzeugwerke AG to provide aircraft and technical support in exchange for a 50% ownership in the new airline. The charter establishing the company was signed in Helsinki on 12 September 1923, and the company was entered into the trade register on 11 December 1923. The first flight was on 20 March 1924 from Helsinki to Tallinn, Estonia, on a Junkers F.13 aircraft equipped with floats. The seaplane service ended in 1936 following the construction of the first aerodromes in Finland.


title: Finnair

text: Air raids on Helsinki and other Finnish cities made World War II a difficult period for the airline. Half of the fleet was requisitioned by the Finnish Air Force and it was estimated that, during the Winter War in 1939 and 1940, half of the airline's passengers from other Finnish cities were children being evacuated to Sweden.


title: Finnair

text: The Finnish government wanted longer routes, so it acquired a majority stake in the company in 1946 and re-established services to Europe in November 1947, initially using the Douglas DC-3. In 1953, the airline began branding itself as Finnair. The Convair 440 twin-engined pressurised airliner was acquired from January 1953 and these faster aircraft were operated on the company's longer routes as far as London.


title: Finnair

text: In 1961, Finnair joined the jet age by adding Rolls-Royce Avon-engined Caravelles to its fleet. These were later exchanged with the manufacturer for Pratt & Whitney JT8D-engined Super Caravelles. In 1962, Finnair acquired a 27% controlling interest in a private Finnish airline, Kar-Air. Finnair Oy became the company's official name on 25 June 1968. In 1969, it took possession of its first U.S. made jet, a Douglas DC-8. The first transatlantic service to New York was inaugurated on 15 May 1969. In the 1960s, Finnair's head office was in Helsinki.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair received its first wide-body aircraft in 1975, two DC-10-30 planes. The first of these arrived on 4 February 1975 and entered service on 14 February 1975, flying between Helsinki and New York, later between Helsinki and Las Palmas.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair created Finnaviation was established in 1979. It was formed from the reorganisation of Wihuri OY Finnwings (which had started services in 1950 as Lentohuolto OY) and its merging with Nordair OY. Scheduled domestic services began in October 1979. In the early 1980s Finnair held a 60% shareholding. Finnaviation was eventually completely merged into Finnair.


title: Finnair

text: In 1981, Finnair opened routes to Seattle and Los Angeles. Finnair became the first operator to fly non-stop from Western Europe to Japan, operating Helsinki–Tokyo flights with a modified McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30ER in April 1983. Until then, flights had to go via Moscow (Aeroflot, SAS, BA) or Anchorage (most carriers) due to Soviet airspace restrictions, but Finnair circumvented these by flying directly north from Helsinki, over the North Pole and back south through the Bering Strait, avoiding Soviet airspace. However, Finnair did not have to make a roundabout because of the Soviet regulation on this route, but the Japanese authorities demanded it (what JAL requested strongly). The aircraft was fitted with extra fuel tanks, taking 13 hours for the trip. The routes through Soviet airspace and with a stopover in Moscow also took 13 hours, but flights with a stopover in Anchorage took up to 16 hours, giving Finnair a competitive edge. In the spring of 1986, Soviet regulators finally cleared the way for Air France and Japan Airlines to fly nonstop Paris-Tokyo services over Soviet airspace, putting Finnair at a disadvantage.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair launched a Helsinki-Beijing route in 1988, making Finnair the first Western European carrier to fly non-stop between Europe and China. In 1989, Finnair became the launch customer for the McDonnell Douglas MD-11, the first of which was delivered on 7 December 1990. The first revenue service with the MD-11 took place on 20 December 1990, with OH-LGA operating a flight from Helsinki to Tenerife in the Canary Islands.


title: Finnair

text: In 1997, the subsidiaries Kar-Air and Finnaviation became wholly owned by Finnair, and were integrated into the mainline operations. On 25 September 1997, the company's official name was changed to Finnair Oyj.


title: Finnair

text: In 1999, Finnair joined the Oneworld airline alliance. In 2001, Finnair reused the name "Aero" when establishing Aero Airlines, a subsidiary airline based in Tallinn, Estonia.


title: Finnair

text: In 2003, Finnair acquired ownership of the Swedish low-cost airline, FlyNordic, which operated mainly within Scandinavia. In 2007, Finnair sold all its shares in FlyNordic to Norwegian Air Shuttle. As part of the transaction, Finnair acquired 4.8% of the latter company, becoming its third largest shareholder. Finnair later sold their shares in 2013.


title: Finnair

text: On 8 March 2007, Finnair became the first airline to order the Airbus A350 XWB aircraft, placing an order for 11 Airbus A350 XWB (plus 8 options), with delivery started in 2015.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair has suffered from many labour disputes in this period, resulting from cost-cutting measures prompted by competition from budget airlines.


title: Finnair

text: On 1 December 2011, Finnair transferred its baggage and apron services to Swissport International as per a five-year agreement signed on 7 November 2011.


title: Finnair

text: As of 2022, it transported about 2.9 million passengers, a substantial decrease from 2019 as COVID-19 pandemic shut down airports and airlines due to travel restrictions. At the end of 2022, the airline employed 5,325 people on average.


title: Finnair

text: The group's parent company is Finnair Plc, which is listed on the Nasdaq Helsinki Stock Exchange and domiciled in Helsinki at the registered address Tietotie 9, Vantaa.


title: Finnair

text: The State of Finland is the major shareholder (55.8% as of 2014), with no other shareholder owning more than 5% of shares.


title: Finnair

text: Two subsidiary companies, Finnair Cargo Oy and Finnair Cargo Terminal Operations Oy, form Finnair's cargo business. The offices of both companies are at Helsinki Airport. Finnair Cargo uses Finnair's fleet on its cargo operations.


title: Finnair

text: Nordic Regional Airlines (Norra) is 40% owned by Finnair. The airline uses a fleet of ATR 72-500 aircraft in its own livery, leased from Finnair, and Embraer 190 aircraft, painted in Finnair livery. The airline began operations on 20 October 2011 as a joint venture between Flybe and Finnair. The airline has operated under Finnair's flight code since 1 May 2015.


title: Finnair

text: In 2013, Finnair opened its new head office, known as House of Travel and Transportation (or "HOTT"), on what used to be a car park right next to its previous head office located in Tietotie 11, on the grounds of Helsinki Airport. The construction of HOTT began in July 2011 and finished on time in June 2013. The previous head office had been in use since 1994, then replacing a head office located in Helsinki city centre.


title: Finnair

text: The company revealed a new livery in December 2010. Major changes include a restyled and larger lettering on the aircraft body, repainting of the engines in white, and a reversal of the color scheme for the tail fin favoring a white background with a blue stylized logo. The outline of the globe was also removed from the tail fin.


title: Finnair

text: The current uniform was designed by Ritva-Liisa Pohjalainen and launched in December 2011. Finnair has codes to indicate the rank of crew members: One stripe in the sleeve (or epaulettes in the case of male crew wearing vests) for normal Cabin Crew, two stripes for Senior Cabin Crew (only for outsourced Spanish crew) acting as a Purser, and three stripes for a Purser/Chief Purser. Additionally, some female Pursers have a white vertical stripe on their dresses or blouses indicating their years of service. Finnair requires its cabin crew to wear gloves during take-off and landing for safety reasons. Finnair's previous cabin crew uniform was named the fifth most stylish uniform by the French magazine "Bon Voyage".


title: Finnair

text: Finnair has several partnerships with following companies and airlines including Alaska Airlines, American Airlines, British Airways, Deutsche Bahn (DB), Chinese JD.com, Japan Airlines and Marimekko.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair had a Weibo account for Chinese customers. Sheng Wei, author of the 2015 thesis "Brand Image of Finnair Among Young Wealthy Chinese People in Chinese Social Media," stated that it was not often updated. In 2017 it began allowing customers to pay with Alipay, another Chinese service.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair flies from its Helsinki hub to over 130 destinations in over 40 countries in Asia, Europe and North America. In contrast with several other major European airlines, Finnair has developed its main long-haul market not in North America but in Asia, where the airline has around 20 destinations. Nevertheless, Finnair also serves eight North American destinations: five in the United States and one each in Mexico, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic. Previously the airline has served Africa and South America, including countries such as Egypt, Colombia, and Brazil, but primarily on a leisure basis. Nearly half of Finnair's destinations are operated on a seasonal basis, but recently the airline has been switching those destinations to year-round service. Finnair has over 10 domestic destinations. Some domestic flights are operated in co-operation with or completely by the airline's subsidiary Nordic Regional Airlines.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair does not face direct competition on any long-haul route the airline operates as Finnair is the sole operator on all routes (except for Tokyo which is operated in cooperation with Oneworld partner Japan Airlines and Shanghai in cooperation with Juneyao Air). In Asia, China and Japan are the two main markets, but other countries, such as South Korea, Thailand, and Singapore, are also important to the airline. In summer 2018, Finnair operated up to 97 weekly flights to Asia. The airline plans to extend its network in Asia in the future with new destinations and additional flights as well as considers adapting narrow-body aircraft on some flights to smaller Asian cities. In August 2018, Finnair announced capacity increases in Asia, where flights to Hong Kong increased from 10 to 14 flights a week and to Osaka, there are ten weekly flights instead of seven. In the summer season of 2019, Tokyo and Hong Kong were the largest long-haul routes by capacity. In the United States, Finnair has five destinations including Chicago, Miami, New York, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. The airline has recently expanded the offering to the U.S. by opening new routes and additional frequencies. As of 31 March 2019, Finnair has been flying to Los Angeles with Airbus A350 aircraft.


title: Finnair

text: Additionally, Finnair opened a new route to Beijing Daxing on 3 November 2019, while retaining its flights to Beijing Capital. The carrier planned to serve Busan and Tokyo Haneda from the end of March 2020 but service launches have been postponed to the beginning of 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Finnair

text: In 2021, Finnair opened five routes from Stockholm Arlanda to Bangkok and Phuket in Thailand, as well as New York-JFK, Miami and Los Angeles in the United States.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair announced a new route to Dallas Fort-Worth International Airport in 2022. Finnair is also reintroducing flights to Seattle in 2022.


title: Finnair

text: In addition to the above codeshares, Finnair has joint venture agreements with the following airlines:


title: Finnair

text: Finnair received its first narrow-body aircraft manufactured by Airbus, the Airbus A321, on 28 January 1999. Now the airline operates a fleet of up to 19 A321s. The first Airbus A319 aircraft was delivered to Finnair on 20 September 1999. Since then, Finnair has received 11 A319s, but three of them are now retired. Finnair utilizes Airbus A319, A320, and A321 aircraft on domestic and European flights. The Airbus A321-231, which are equipped with winglets, is also used on some long-haul flights such as to Dubai. ATR 72-500 and Embraer 190 are operated by Nordic Regional Airlines and are also used on domestic and European flights.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair received its first Airbus A330-300s on 27 March 2009. Now the airline has eight of them in its fleet. As of April 2019, the airline utilizes A330 on intercontinental flights from Helsinki to Chicago, Chongqing, Delhi, Fukuoka, Miami, Nagoya, Nanjing, New York, Puerto Plata, San Francisco and Xi'an. The A330s are powered by General Electric CF6-80E1 engines. The aircraft are also being used on European services to Brussels, London and Málaga.


title: Finnair

text: On 8 March 2007, Finnair firmed up its orders for 11 Airbus A350 aircraft with 8 options. On 3 December 2014, it was announced that Finnair had firmed up the contract for 8 additional Airbus A350 aircraft deliveries starting in 2018. On 13 August 2014, Finnair announced plans to initially deploy its A350 aircraft on services to Bangkok, Beijing and Shanghai from 2015, with A350 services to Hong Kong and Singapore to be added in 2016. As of April 2019, Finnair operates the Airbus A350 to Bangkok, Beijing, Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Ho Chi Minh City, Krabi, Los Angeles, Nagoya, Osaka, Phuket, Puerto Vallarta, Seoul, Shanghai, Singapore and Tokyo. Finnair also operated A350 aircraft on several flights to New York in January 2016 and became the first European airline to operate the A350 to the United States. Finnair sometimes uses the A350 on the morning AY1331 flight from Helsinki to London–Heathrow to carry extra freight as well. Also, AY121/122 operating to New Delhi is also being served by the A350 as of 1 Nov 2022.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair took delivery of its first A350 aircraft on 7 October 2015, becoming the third airline to operate the aircraft, after Qatar Airways and Vietnam Airlines. According to the current delivery schedule, it will receive two A350 aircraft per year in 2019, 2020, and 2021, and one in 2022. Altogether, Finnair will have 19 A350 aircraft in 2022.


title: Finnair

text: Due to an aging narrow-body fleet, Finnair plans to retire the Airbus A320 family and replace them with new generation aircraft. The airline estimates to invest up to €4 billion in fleet renewal between 2020 and 2025. Revealed at its Capital Markets Day on November 12, 2019, Finnair plans to grow the size of its fleet from the current 83 (as of November 2019) to approximately 100 by 2025, of which 70% is planned to be narrow-body aircraft and 30% wide-body aircraft. One-third of the total investment sum would be used for growth, while two-thirds would be to replace the current fleet. According to Bloomberg, Finnair will replace the old aircraft with either Airbus A320neo family or Boeing 737 MAX new-generation aircraft. The carrier has also revealed that it is looking for suitable narrow-body aircraft for long-haul use.


title: Finnair

text: On 18 December 2015, Finnair decided to improve the space efficiency of its current Airbus narrow-body fleet due to a growing need for feeder traffic capacity. The value of the investment is approximately EUR 40 million, and it includes 22 narrow-body Airbus aircraft in Finnair's fleet. The cabin layout change excludes five A321 aircraft, which are already configured according to the plan, having 209 seats. The cabin reconfiguration was estimated to take two weeks per aircraft during 2017. The reconfiguration adds 6 to 13 seats depending on the aircraft type, increasing the passenger capacity of Finnair's Airbus narrow-body fleet as measured by available seat kilometers by close to 4 percent. Finnair also planned to increase its narrow-body fleet. As a first step, Finnair leased eight Airbus A321 narrow-body aircraft from BOC Aviation.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair has occasionally suffered from aircraft shortages and therefore has resorted to leased and wet-leased aircraft. For instance, in March 2016, Finnair announced it would lease two Airbus A321 aircraft from Air Berlin for Finnair's European operations. These two aircraft were delivered in late April 2016 to Finnair. The airline used these A321s on flights from Helsinki to Amsterdam, Berlin, Copenhagen, Dubrovnik, Düsseldorf, Ljubljana, Paris, Split, Vienna, and Zürich. On 15 December 2016, Finnair announced it would lease two Airbus A321s from CDB Aviation Lease Finance. The first aircraft was scheduled for delivery to Finnair for the 2017/2018 winter season and the second for the 2018 summer season. Seven of the ordered aircraft were delivered in 2017.


title: Finnair

text: The Finnair-branded short-haul network also includes 24 regional aircraft operated by Nordic Regional Airlines (12 ATR 72 and 12 E-190).


title: Finnair

text: Finnair announced the order for 11 Airbus A350 XWB aircraft and 8 options on 8 March 2007. Finnair planned to retire older Airbus A340 aircraft by the end of 2017 and replace them with brand new A350 aircraft. As of 1 February 2017, all Airbus A340 aircraft are withdrawn from the fleet. The very last A340 (OH-LQE) operated its last flight from Tokyo to Helsinki on 1 February 2017. Finnair firmed up orders for eight additional A350 aircraft on 3 December 2014. The first A350 was delivered to Finnair in October 2015 and the airline became the first European operator of the Airbus A350.


title: Finnair

text: As of November 2019, Finnair had 14 A350-900s, with a further 5 to be delivered between 2020 and 2022. The Finnish flag carrier also has considered switching some of the orders for the Airbus A350-900 to the Airbus A350-1000 aircraft but decided to keep the orders for only the A350-900. At the beginning of 2017, Finnair revealed plans to add more seats to some of the Airbus A350 aircraft in order to increase capacity by up to 13%. The new seat configuration has 32 seats in Business Class, 42 seats in Economy Comfort Class, and 262 in Economy Class, a total of 336 seats. This second seat configuration was initially planned to be used on routes with less business class demand such as Bangkok, Beijing, and Seoul, as well as on routes to leisure destinations but they have also been utilized on other busy routes such as Shanghai, Osaka, and Tokyo.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair has modified its previous fleet plan to retire two of Airbus A330 aircraft, which was established in 2014. The 2016 fleet plan now involves keeping its A330 fleet as its A350s are delivered, rather than withdrawing two of them in 2017, and shall retire those aircraft in the 2020s at the earliest. The airline's plan to retire two A330s was not the only change that was planned. Under the previous plan, the long-haul fleet was to grow by one per year, from 15 in 2015 to 20 in 2020. Under the 2016 plan, it was planned to grow to 22 in 2020, and to 26 in 2023. However, should market conditions be weaker than expected, Finnair has the flexibility to return the wide-body fleet to a total of 15 aircraft in 2019 and to maintain it at this level through to 2023. Some of the new A350 aircraft will increase the number of aircraft operated by Finnair.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair's current special liveries are Marimekko "Kivet", Marimekko 50th Anniversary "Unikko”, Oneworld liveries, and the Christmas special “Reindeer” liveries. Past Finnair special liveries include "Marimekko Unikko", "Moomins", "Santa Claus", 1950s retro livery and Angry Birds.


title: Finnair

text: In the early 1980s the fleet of the Finnaviation subsidiary consisted of: an Aero Commander 690, a Beech 95-A55 Baron, Cessna F150J (2), a Cessna 401B, a Cessna F172M, a Cessna 401A, Cessna 404 Titan (2), a Cessna 441 Conquest, a Cessna 402B, a Cessna 425 Corsair, a Cessna F172P, Cessna F152 (2), Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante (3), a Dassault Falcon 200, a Piper PA-28-140 Cherokee, a Piper PA-32-300 Cherokee Six and a Cessna T188C Husky.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair's frequent-flyer programme is called Finnair Plus. Passengers are awarded points based on the type and class of flight flown. Once enough kilometers are banked into the passenger's account, a membership tier (Basic, Silver, Gold, Platinum or Platinum Lumo) is awarded. There is a Junior tier exclusively for minors. Silver, Gold, Platinum, and Platinum Lumo members have privileges such as premium check-in desks and priority boarding.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair offers frequent-flyer partnerships with Nordic Regional Airlines (only for the 2000 flight number series, not for domestic flights) in addition to those in the Oneworld alliance:


title: Finnair

text: In addition to earning points on flights with Finnair and its partner airlines, Finnair Plus members can earn points through various hotel and car rental partners in Finland and around the world along with other service partners.


title: Finnair

text: Business class is offered on the entire Airbus-fleet. On long-haul aircraft, the seats are equipped with personal in-flight entertainment. Zodiac Cirrus III seats are fitted in Business Class on all wide-body aircraft. Each seat has direct aisle access and reclines to a 78-inch full flat bed. In February 2022, Finnair unveiled new long-haul business class seats, alongside the debut of a premium economy cabin. The seats are based on the Collins Aerospace's Aerospace AirLounge. The seats are enclosed in a shell with no recline capabilities. According to the airline, this allows passengers to choose a wide variety of sitting and sleeping positions.


title: Finnair

text: Premium economy is new Finnair's new premium economy debuting in February 2022 that currently rolled out on the Airbus A330s and A350s. The seats are based on the Vector Premium by HAECO.


title: Finnair

text: Economy Comfort is Finnair's new premium economy product debuting on long haul aircraft in December 2014. It will not be a separate class but more of an upgraded economy product, much like Delta's Comfort+ class. Economy Comfort seats will be located in the first 5 rows of economy providing 34–36" of pitch (3–5" more pitch than standard economy seats) and a comfier headrest, plus noise canceling headphones and a comfort kit. Seats will be free to Finnair Plus and oneworld elites and passengers with a full fare coach ticket, and available to all other customers for a fee.


title: Finnair

text: Finnair operates three of its own lounges at Helsinki Airport. One is accessible in the Schengen Area by travelers in Finnair's Business Class, Gold and Platinum of the Finnair Plus program members as well as Oneworld Sapphire and Emerald members. The two other are located in the non-Schengen area and the Finnair Business Lounge has the same access criteria as the one in the Schengen area except Japan Airlines Business Class passengers also have access. In June 2019, the new Finnair Platinum Wing lounge was opened in the non-Schengen area. Replacing the previous Premium Lounge, this lounge is exclusively for Finnair Plus Platinum and OneWorld Emerald passengers. Passengers in business class, as well as Finnair Plus Gold members and OneWorld Sapphire passengers are able to use the Business Class Lounge. The non-Schengen lounges have a Finnish sauna. The remaining international destinations are served with contract lounges.