title: Ordinal number

text: If α is any ordinal and "X" is a set, an α-indexed sequence of elements of "X" is a function from α to "X". This concept, a transfinite sequence (if α is infinite) or ordinal-indexed sequence, is a generalization of the concept of a sequence. An ordinary sequence corresponds to the case α = ω, while a finite α corresponds to a tuple, a.k.a. string.


title: Ordinal number

text: Transfinite induction holds in any well-ordered set, but it is so important in relation to ordinals that it is worth restating here.


title: Ordinal number

text: That is, if "P"(α) is true whenever "P"(β) is true for all , then "P"(α) is true for "all" α. Or, more practically: in order to prove a property "P" for all ordinals α, one can assume that it is already known for all smaller .


title: Ordinal number

text: Transfinite induction can be used not only to prove things, but also to define them. Such a definition is normally said to be by transfinite recursion – the proof that the result is well-defined uses transfinite induction. Let "F" denote a (class) function "F" to be defined on the ordinals. The idea now is that, in defining "F"(α) for an unspecified ordinal α, one may assume that "F"(β) is already defined for all and thus give a formula for "F"(α) in terms of these "F"(β). It then follows by transfinite induction that there is one and only one function satisfying the recursion formula up to and including α.


title: Ordinal number

text: Here is an example of definition by transfinite recursion on the ordinals (more will be given later): define function "F" by letting "F"(α) be the smallest ordinal not in the set , that is, the set consisting of all "F"(β) for . This definition assumes the "F"(β) known in the very process of defining "F"; this apparent vicious circle is exactly what definition by transfinite recursion permits. In fact, "F"(0) makes sense since there is no ordinal , and the set is empty. So "F"(0) is equal to 0 (the smallest ordinal of all). Now that "F"(0) is known, the definition applied to "F"(1) makes sense (it is the smallest ordinal not in the singleton set ), and so on (the "and so on" is exactly transfinite induction). It turns out that this example is not very exciting, since provably for all ordinals α, which can be shown, precisely, by transfinite induction.


title: Ordinal number

text: Any nonzero ordinal has the minimum element, zero. It may or may not have a maximum element. For example, 42 has maximum 41 and ω+6 has maximum ω+5. On the other hand, ω does not have a maximum since there is no largest natural number. If an ordinal has a maximum α, then it is the next ordinal after α, and it is called a "successor ordinal", namely the successor of α, written α+1. In the von Neumann definition of ordinals, the successor of α is formula_12 since its elements are those of α and α itself.


title: Ordinal number

text: A nonzero ordinal that is "not" a successor is called a "limit ordinal". One justification for this term is that a limit ordinal is the limit in a topological sense of all smaller ordinals (under the order topology).


title: Ordinal number

text: When formula_13 is an ordinal-indexed sequence, indexed by a limit formula_14 and the sequence is "increasing", i.e. formula_15 whenever formula_16 its "limit" is defined as the least upper bound of the set formula_17 that is, the smallest ordinal (it always exists) greater than any term of the sequence. In this sense, a limit ordinal is the limit of all smaller ordinals (indexed by itself). Put more directly, it is the supremum of the set of smaller ordinals.


title: Ordinal number

text: ω is a limit ordinal because for any smaller ordinal (in this example, a natural number) there is another ordinal (natural number) larger than it, but still less than ω.


title: Ordinal number

text: Thus, every ordinal is either zero, or a successor (of a well-defined predecessor), or a limit. This distinction is important, because many definitions by transfinite recursion rely upon it. Very often, when defining a function "F" by transfinite recursion on all ordinals, one defines "F"(0), and "F"(α+1) assuming "F"(α) is defined, and then, for limit ordinals δ one defines "F"(δ) as the limit of the "F"(β) for all β<δ (either in the sense of ordinal limits, as previously explained, or for some other notion of limit if "F" does not take ordinal values). Thus, the interesting step in the definition is the successor step, not the limit ordinals. Such functions (especially for "F" nondecreasing and taking ordinal values) are called continuous. Ordinal addition, multiplication and exponentiation are continuous as functions of their second argument (but can be defined non-recursively).


title: Ordinal number

text: Any well-ordered set is similar (order-isomorphic) to a unique ordinal number formula_18; in other words, its elements can be indexed in increasing fashion by the ordinals less than formula_18. This applies, in particular, to any set of ordinals: any set of ordinals is naturally indexed by the ordinals less than some formula_18. The same holds, with a slight modification, for "classes" of ordinals (a collection of ordinals, possibly too large to form a set, defined by some property): any class of ordinals can be indexed by ordinals (and, when the class is unbounded in the class of all ordinals, this puts it in class-bijection with the class of all ordinals). So the formula_14-th element in the class (with the convention that the "0-th" is the smallest, the "1-st" is the next smallest, and so on) can be freely spoken of. Formally, the definition is by transfinite induction: the formula_14-th element of the class is defined (provided it has already been defined for all formula_23), as the smallest element greater than the formula_24-th element for all formula_23.


title: Ordinal number

text: This could be applied, for example, to the class of limit ordinals: the formula_14-th ordinal, which is either a limit or zero is formula_27 (see ordinal arithmetic for the definition of multiplication of ordinals). Similarly, one can consider "additively indecomposable ordinals" (meaning a nonzero ordinal that is not the sum of two strictly smaller ordinals): the formula_14-th additively indecomposable ordinal is indexed as formula_29. The technique of indexing classes of ordinals is often useful in the context of fixed points: for example, the formula_14-th ordinal formula_18 such that formula_32 is written formula_33. These are called the "epsilon numbers".


title: Ordinal number

text: A class formula_34 of ordinals is said to be unbounded, or cofinal, when given any ordinal formula_18, there is a formula_24 in formula_34 such that formula_38 (then the class must be a proper class, i.e., it cannot be a set). It is said to be closed when the limit of a sequence of ordinals in the class is again in the class: or, equivalently, when the indexing (class-)function formula_39 is continuous in the sense that, for formula_40 a limit ordinal, formula_41 (the formula_40-th ordinal in the class) is the limit of all formula_43 for formula_44; this is also the same as being closed, in the topological sense, for the order topology (to avoid talking of topology on proper classes, one can demand that the intersection of the class with any given ordinal is closed for the order topology on that ordinal, this is again equivalent).


title: Ordinal number

text: Of particular importance are those classes of ordinals that are closed and unbounded, sometimes called clubs. For example, the class of all limit ordinals is closed and unbounded: this translates the fact that there is always a limit ordinal greater than a given ordinal, and that a limit of limit ordinals is a limit ordinal (a fortunate fact if the terminology is to make any sense at all!). The class of additively indecomposable ordinals, or the class of formula_45 ordinals, or the class of cardinals, are all closed unbounded; the set of regular cardinals, however, is unbounded but not closed, and any finite set of ordinals is closed but not unbounded.


title: Ordinal number

text: A class is stationary if it has a nonempty intersection with every closed unbounded class. All superclasses of closed unbounded classes are stationary, and stationary classes are unbounded, but there are stationary classes that are not closed and stationary classes that have no closed unbounded subclass (such as the class of all limit ordinals with countable cofinality). Since the intersection of two closed unbounded classes is closed and unbounded, the intersection of a stationary class and a closed unbounded class is stationary. But the intersection of two stationary classes may be empty, e.g. the class of ordinals with cofinality ω with the class of ordinals with uncountable cofinality.


title: Ordinal number

text: Rather than formulating these definitions for (proper) classes of ordinals, one can formulate them for sets of ordinals below a given ordinal formula_18: A subset of a limit ordinal formula_18 is said to be unbounded (or cofinal) under formula_18 provided any ordinal less than formula_18 is less than some ordinal in the set. More generally, one can call a subset of any ordinal formula_18 cofinal in formula_18 provided every ordinal less than formula_18 is less than "or equal to" some ordinal in the set. The subset is said to be closed under formula_18 provided it is closed for the order topology "in" formula_18, i.e. a limit of ordinals in the set is either in the set or equal to formula_18 itself.


title: Ordinal number

text: There are three usual operations on ordinals: addition, multiplication, and (ordinal) exponentiation. Each can be defined in essentially two different ways: either by constructing an explicit well-ordered set that represents the operation or by using transfinite recursion. The Cantor normal form provides a standardized way of writing ordinals. It uniquely represents each ordinal as a finite sum of ordinal powers of ω. However, this cannot form the basis of a universal ordinal notation due to such self-referential representations as ε = ω. The so-called "natural" arithmetical operations retain commutativity at the expense of continuity.


title: Ordinal number

text: Interpreted as "nimbers" (a game-theoretic variant of numbers), ordinals are also subject to nimber arithmetic operations.


title: Ordinal number

text: Each ordinal associates with one cardinal, its cardinality. If there is a bijection between two ordinals (e.g. and ), then they associate with the same cardinal. Any well-ordered set having an ordinal as its order-type has the same cardinality as that ordinal. The least ordinal associated with a given cardinal is called the "initial ordinal" of that cardinal. Every finite ordinal (natural number) is initial, and no other ordinal associates with its cardinal. But most infinite ordinals are not initial, as many infinite ordinals associate with the same cardinal. The axiom of choice is equivalent to the statement that every set can be well-ordered, i.e. that every cardinal has an initial ordinal. In theories with the axiom of choice, the cardinal number of any set has an initial ordinal, and one may employ the Von Neumann cardinal assignment as the cardinal's representation. (However, we must then be careful to distinguish between cardinal arithmetic and ordinal arithmetic.) In set theories without the axiom of choice, a cardinal may be represented by the set of sets with that cardinality having minimal rank (see Scott's trick).


title: Ordinal number

text: One issue with Scott's trick is that it identifies the cardinal number formula_56 with formula_57, which in some formulations is the ordinal number formula_58. It may be clearer to apply Von Neumann cardinal assignment to finite cases and to use Scott's trick for sets which are infinite or do not admit well orderings. Note that cardinal and ordinal arithmetic agree for finite numbers.


title: Ordinal number

text: The α-th infinite initial ordinal is written formula_59, it is always a limit ordinal. Its cardinality is written formula_60. For example, the cardinality of ω = ω is formula_61, which is also the cardinality of ω or ε (all are countable ordinals). So ω can be identified with formula_61, except that the notation formula_61 is used when writing cardinals, and ω when writing ordinals (this is important since, for example, formula_64 = formula_61 whereas formula_66). Also, formula_67 is the smallest uncountable ordinal (to see that it exists, consider the set of equivalence classes of well-orderings of the natural numbers: each such well-ordering defines a countable ordinal, and formula_67 is the order type of that set), formula_69 is the smallest ordinal whose cardinality is greater than formula_70, and so on, and formula_71 is the limit of the formula_72 for natural numbers "n" (any limit of cardinals is a cardinal, so this limit is indeed the first cardinal after all the formula_72).


title: Ordinal number

text: The cofinality of an ordinal formula_18 is the smallest ordinal formula_40 that is the order type of a cofinal subset of formula_18. Notice that a number of authors define cofinality or use it only for limit ordinals. The cofinality of a set of ordinals or any other well-ordered set is the cofinality of the order type of that set.


title: Ordinal number

text: Thus for a limit ordinal, there exists a formula_40-indexed strictly increasing sequence with limit formula_18. For example, the cofinality of ω is ω, because the sequence ω·"m" (where "m" ranges over the natural numbers) tends to ω; but, more generally, any countable limit ordinal has cofinality ω. An uncountable limit ordinal may have either cofinality ω as does formula_71 or an uncountable cofinality.


title: Ordinal number

text: The cofinality of 0 is 0. And the cofinality of any successor ordinal is 1. The cofinality of any limit ordinal is at least formula_1.


title: Ordinal number

text: An ordinal that is equal to its cofinality is called regular and it is always an initial ordinal. Any limit of regular ordinals is a limit of initial ordinals and thus is also initial even if it is not regular, which it usually is not. If the Axiom of Choice, then formula_81 is regular for each α. In this case, the ordinals 0, 1, formula_1, formula_67, and formula_69 are regular, whereas 2, 3, formula_71, and ω are initial ordinals that are not regular.


title: Ordinal number

text: The cofinality of any ordinal "α" is a regular ordinal, i.e. the cofinality of the cofinality of "α" is the same as the cofinality of "α". So the cofinality operation is idempotent.


title: Ordinal number

text: As mentioned above (see Cantor normal form), the ordinal ε is the smallest satisfying the equation formula_32, so it is the limit of the sequence 0, 1, formula_1, formula_88, formula_89, etc. Many ordinals can be defined in such a manner as fixed points of certain ordinal functions (the formula_90-th ordinal such that formula_32 is called formula_92, then one could go on trying to find the formula_90-th ordinal such that formula_94, "and so on", but all the subtlety lies in the "and so on"). One could try to do this systematically, but no matter what system is used to define and construct ordinals, there is always an ordinal that lies just above all the ordinals constructed by the system. Perhaps the most important ordinal that limits a system of construction in this manner is the Church–Kleene ordinal, formula_95 (despite the formula_67 in the name, this ordinal is countable), which is the smallest ordinal that cannot in any way be represented by a computable function (this can be made rigorous, of course). Considerably large ordinals can be defined below formula_95, however, which measure the "proof-theoretic strength" of certain formal systems (for example, formula_98 measures the strength of Peano arithmetic). Large countable ordinals such as countable admissible ordinals can also be defined above the Church-Kleene ordinal, which are of interest in various parts of logic.


title: Ordinal number

text: Any ordinal number can be made into a topological space by endowing it with the order topology; this topology is discrete if and only if the ordinal is a countable cardinal, i.e. at most ω. A subset of ω + 1 is open in the order topology if and only if either it is cofinite or it does not contain ω as an element.


title: Ordinal number

text: The transfinite ordinal numbers, which first appeared in 1883, originated in Cantor's work with derived sets. If "P" is a set of real numbers, the derived set "P' " is the set of limit points of "P". In 1872, Cantor generated the sets "P" by applying the derived set operation "n" times to "P". In 1880, he pointed out that these sets form the sequence "P' "⊇ ··· ⊇ "P" ⊇ "P" ⊇ ···, and he continued the derivation process by defining "P" as the intersection of these sets. Then he iterated the derived set operation and intersections to extend his sequence of sets into the infinite: "P" ⊇ "P" ⊇ "P" ⊇ ··· ⊇ "P" ⊇ ··· ⊇ "P" ⊇ ···. The superscripts containing ∞ are just indices defined by the derivation process.


title: Ordinal number

text: Cantor used these sets in the theorems: (1) If "P" = ∅ for some index α, then "P' " is countable; (2) Conversely, if "P' " is countable, then there is an index α such that "P" = ∅. These theorems are proved by partitioning "P' " into pairwise disjoint sets: "P"' = ("P' "∖ "P") ∪ ("P" ∖ "P") ∪ ··· ∪ ("P" ∖ "P") ∪ ··· ∪ "P". For β < α: since "P" contains the limit points of "P", the sets "P" ∖ "P" have no limit points. Hence, they are discrete sets, so they are countable. Proof of first theorem: If "P" = ∅ for some index α, then "P' " is the countable union of countable sets. Therefore, "P' " is countable.


title: Ordinal number

text: The second theorem requires proving the existence of an α such that "P" = ∅. To prove this, Cantor considered the set of all α having countably many predecessors. To define this set, he defined the transfinite ordinal numbers and transformed the infinite indices into ordinals by replacing ∞ with ω, the first transfinite ordinal number. Cantor called the set of finite ordinals the first number class. The second number class is the set of ordinals whose predecessors form a countably infinite set. The set of all α having countably many predecessors—that is, the set of countable ordinals—is the union of these two number classes. Cantor proved that the cardinality of the second number class is the first uncountable cardinality.


title: Ordinal number

text: Cantor's second theorem becomes: If "P' " is countable, then there is a countable ordinal α such that "P" = ∅. Its proof uses proof by contradiction. Let "P' " be countable, and assume there is no such α. This assumption produces two cases.


title: Ordinal number

text: In both cases, "P' " is uncountable, which contradicts "P' " being countable. Therefore, there is a countable ordinal α such that "P" = ∅. Cantor's work with derived sets and ordinal numbers led to the Cantor-Bendixson theorem.


title: Ordinal number

text: Using successors, limits, and cardinality, Cantor generated an unbounded sequence of ordinal numbers and number classes. The (α + 1)-th number class is the set of ordinals whose predecessors form a set of the same cardinality as the α-th number class. The cardinality of the (α + 1)-th number class is the cardinality immediately following that of the α-th number class. For a limit ordinal α, the α-th number class is the union of the β-th number classes for β < α. Its cardinality is the limit of the cardinalities of these number classes.


title: Ordinal number

text: If "n" is finite, the "n"-th number class has cardinality formula_99. If α ≥ ω, the α-th number class has cardinality formula_60. Therefore, the cardinalities of the number classes correspond one-to-one with the aleph numbers. Also, the α-th number class consists of ordinals different from those in the preceding number classes if and only if α is a non-limit ordinal. Therefore, the non-limit number classes partition the ordinals into pairwise disjoint sets.


title: Sebastian Cabot (actor)

text: Charles Sebastian Thomas Cabot (6 July 1918 – 23 August 1977) was a British actor. He is best remembered as the gentleman's gentleman, Giles French, opposite Brian Keith's character, William "Uncle Bill" Davis, in the CBS-TV sitcom "Family Affair" (1966–1971). He was also known for playing the Wazir in the film "Kismet" (1955) and Dr. Carl Hyatt in the CBS-TV series "Checkmate" (1960–1962).


title: Sebastian Cabot (actor)

text: Cabot was also a voice performer in many Disney animated films. He made one of his first contributions in "The Sword in the Stone" (1963), as both the narrator and Lord Ector. He later played Bagheera in "The Jungle Book" (1967). His longest-standing role came through the "Winnie the Pooh" series, in which he narrated "Winnie the Pooh and the Honey Tree" (1966), "Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day" (1968), "Winnie the Pooh and Tigger Too" (1974), and "The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh" (1977).


title: Sebastian Cabot (actor)

text: Charles Sebastian Thomas Cabot was born on 6 July 1918 in London, England. At the age of 14, he left school to work in an automotive garage, where he served as chauffeur and valet for British actor Frank Pettingell.


title: Sebastian Cabot (actor)

text: Cabot became interested in theatre, and after becoming acquainted with other actors and having worked for Pettingell, he joined a repertory company. Cabot admitted that in gaining employment as an actor he lied about previous acting credits. Cabot stated later in a 1968 interview that he believed acting was a type of lying, and he had gained a smoothness in his speech while serving as Pettingell's dressing room butler.


title: Sebastian Cabot (actor)

text: At this time, Cabot developed a love of cooking and, at the urging of his father, became a chef. However, after wrecking a car, Cabot left the garage and had to look for acting work on his own.


title: Sebastian Cabot (actor)

text: He initially used an agency to find acting employment. Without attending any drama school, Cabot learned the hard way, having been fired on his first day in a show called "On The Spot". However, finding more work, Cabot's confidence in his acting skills increased, and he was soon receiving personal calls for employment.


title: Sebastian Cabot (actor)

text: His formal acting career began with a bit part in "Foreign Affaires" (1935); his first screen credit was in Alfred Hitchcock's "Secret Agent" (1936). Other British films followed such as "Love on the Dole" (1941), "Pimpernel Smith" (also 1941), "Old Mother Riley Overseas" and "Old Mother Riley Detective" (both 1943) and "They Made Me a Fugitive" (1947). In 1946, he portrayed Iago in a condensed short film version of "Othello". Post-war, Cabot landed roles in such British films as "Third Time Lucky" (1949), "The Spider and the Fly" (1949), as the villainous Fouracada in "Dick Barton Strikes Back" (1949); he was also in "Ivanhoe" (1952) and "The Love Lottery" (1954). He appeared in a couple of international productions, the Spanish-UK-USA Sinbad comedy "Babes in Bagdad" (1952) and the Italian version of "Romeo and Juliet" (1954) as Lord Capulet, before moving to the United States, where he worked for Disney on "Westward Ho, the Wagons!" (1956) and as the scheming landlord Jonathan Lyte in "Johnny Tremain" (1957). In George Pal's production of H.G. Wells' "The Time Machine" (1960) he was Dr. Hillyer who doubts the time traveller's story. Meanwhile, Cabot had begun to work as a voice actor. In the 1950s he was featured in a radio show called "Horizons West," a 13-part radio drama which followed the story of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, and was the voice of Noah in the first recording of Igor Stravinsky's biblical 'musical play' "The Flood" (1962). He also did voice parts for animated films such as Disney's "The Sword In The Stone" (1963) as Sir Ector and in "The Jungle Book" (1967) as Bagheera.


title: Sebastian Cabot (actor)

text: About this time Cabot began taking on television work. He was the host of the syndicated "Jack the Ripper" series, and he portrayed the Count of Brisemont on "The Three Musketeers" and Andrew Crippen on "The Beachcomber".


title: Sebastian Cabot (actor)

text: He also appeared in such series as "Gunsmoke" (as the title character “Professor Jacoby”, an obnoxious, ruthless, unsympathetic photographer in the like-named S2E28’s “The Photographer”), plus in "Alfred Hitchcock Presents", "The Adventures of Hiram Holliday" (1956–57), on the detective series "Meet McGraw" (1958), in the western series "Bonanza" ("The Spanish Grant", 1960) and "Pony Express" ("The Story of Julesburg", 1960), "The Red Skelton Show" (various roles 1961–1971), and as an affable demon in "The Twilight Zone" ("A Nice Place to Visit," 1960). Cabot had a two-year period as one of the three leads as college professor Dr. Carl Hyatt on the detective show "Checkmate" (1960–1962). As "Checkmate" fit into the CBS Saturday schedule, Cabot appeared as Eric Whitaker in the 1960 episode "Five O'Clock Friday" on the ABC adventure series, "The Islanders". Cabot was a regular panellist on the television game show "Stump the Stars". He appeared on the NBC interview programme "Here's Hollywood". In 1964, he hosted the television series "Suspense" and voiced or narrated a few other film and television projects, before he was cast from 1966 to 1971 as Giles French in the CBS series "Family Affair." Cabot did not halt his other film and television work during the run of "Family Affair", but he took a leave of absence from the series at one point, Cabot was also the host of "Journey to Midnight", as well as other work from the period. He was so vividly etched as French in viewers' minds that he never shook the image even after "Family Affair" ended production in 1971. He received another role as the host (Winston Essex) of "Ghost Story" (1972), a supernatural anthology (it was retitled "Circle of Fear" after he left the show). Following the series' demise, Cabot played Kris Kringle in the television remake of "Miracle on 34th Street" (1973). The role required Cabot to shave the trademark beard he sported since 1957 as makeup crews were unable to make it look Santa-like. Cabot appeared in another Christmas project, the television film "The City That Forgot About Christmas" (1974), and narrated two more "Pooh" projects, "Winnie the Pooh and Tigger, Too!" and "The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh". He also released an album of spoken recitations of songs by Bob Dylan, as "Sebastian Cabot, actor/Bob Dylan, poet", in 1967. Two tracks from this album appear on the Rhino Records compilation "Golden Throats: The Great Celebrity Sing Off".


title: Sebastian Cabot (actor)

text: On 23 August 1977, at the age of 59, Cabot suffered a stroke at his home near Victoria, British Columbia and was taken to a Victoria hospital, where he died at the age of 59. He was cremated, and his ashes were interred in Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles.


title: Sebastian Cabot (actor)

text: On an episode of the "Late Show with David Letterman", on 12 December 2012, comedian Billy Crystal mentioned Cabot in humorous dialogue with the host David Letterman. Letterman commented that Cabot's name had not been heard in 30 years. Directly before the commercial break Sebastian Cabot's photo was shown on national television as a tribute.


title: UY Scuti

text: UY Scuti (BD-12°5055) is an extreme red hypergiant or red supergiant star in the constellation Scutum. It is considered one of the largest known stars by radius and is also a pulsating variable star, with a maximum brightness of magnitude 8.29 and a minimum of magnitude 10.56. It has an estimated radius of , thus a volume nearly 5 billion times that of the Sun. It is approximately from Earth. If placed at the center of the Solar System, its photosphere would at least engulf the orbit of Jupiter.


title: UY Scuti

text: UY Scuti was first catalogued in 1860 by German astronomers at the Bonn Observatory, who were completing a survey of stars for the "Bonner Durchmusterung Stellar Catalogue". It was designated BD-12°5055, the 5,055th star between 12°S and 13°S counting from 0h right ascension.


title: UY Scuti

text: On detection in the second survey, the star was found to have changed slightly in brightness, suggesting that it was a new variable star. In accordance with the international standard for designation of variable stars, it was called UY Scuti, denoting it as the 38th variable star of the constellation Scutum.


title: UY Scuti

text: UY Scuti is located a few degrees north of the A-type star Gamma Scuti and northeast of the Eagle Nebula. Although the star is very luminous, it is, at its brightest, only 9th magnitude as viewed from Earth, due to its distance and location in the Zone of Avoidance within the Cygnus rift.


title: UY Scuti

text: UY Scuti is a dust-enshrouded bright red supergiant and is classified as a semiregular variable with an approximate pulsation period of 740 days. Based on a radius of , this pulsation would be an overtone of the fundamental pulsation period, or it may be a fundamental mode corresponding to a smaller radius.


title: UY Scuti

text: In the summer of 2012, AMBER interferometry with the Very Large Telescope (VLT) in the Atacama Desert in Chile was used to measure the parameters of three red supergiants near the Galactic Center region: UY Scuti, AH Scorpii, and KW Sagittarii. They determined that all three stars are over 1,000 times bigger than the Sun and over 100,000 times more luminous than the Sun. The stars' sizes were calculated using the Rosseland radius, the location at which the optical depth is , with distances adopted from earlier publications. UY Scuti was found to be the largest and the most luminous of the three stars measured, at based on an angular diameter of and an assumed distance of (kpc) (about ) which was originally derived in 1970 based on the modelling of the spectrum of UY Scuti. The luminosity is then calculated to be at an effective temperature of 3,365 ± 134 K, giving an initial mass of (possibly up to for a non-rotating star).


title: UY Scuti

text: A hypothetical object travelling at the speed of light would be observed to take about seven hours to travel along UY Scuti's great circle whereas it would take 14.5 seconds to circle the Sun.


title: UY Scuti

text: Direct measurements of the parallax of UY Scuti published in the Gaia Data Release 2 give a parallax of , implying a closer distance of approximately , and consequently much lower luminosity and radius values of around and respectively. However, the Gaia parallax might be unreliable, at least until further observations, due to a very high level of astrometric noise. Gaia Early Data Release 3 has published a parallax of for this star, again with a large value for astrometric noise, rated at a significance of 122 where anything over 2 is "probably significant".


title: UY Scuti

text: UY Scuti has no known companion star and so its mass is uncertain. However, it is expected on theoretical grounds to be between . Mass is being lost at per year, leading to an extensive and complex circumstellar environment of gas and dust.


title: UY Scuti

text: Based on current models of stellar evolution, UY Scuti has begun to fuse helium, and continues to fuse hydrogen in a shell around the core. The location of UY Scuti deep within the Milky Way disc suggests that it is a metal-rich star.


title: UY Scuti

text: After fusing heavy elements, its core will begin to produce iron, disrupting the balance of gravity and radiation in its core and resulting in a core collapse supernova. It is expected that stars like UY Scuti should evolve back to hotter temperatures to become a yellow hypergiant, luminous blue variable, or a Wolf–Rayet star, creating a strong stellar wind that will eject its outer layers and expose the core, before exploding as a type IIb, IIn, or type Ib/Ic supernova.


title: Omsk

text: Omsk (; ) is the administrative center and largest city of Omsk Oblast, Russia. It is situated in southwestern Siberia, and has a population of over 1.1 million. Omsk is the third largest city in Siberia after Novosibirsk and Krasnoyarsk, and the twelfth-largest city in Russia. It is an essential transport node, serving as a train station for the Trans-Siberian Railway and as a staging post for the Irtysh River.


title: Omsk

text: During the Imperial era, Omsk was the seat of the Governor General of Western Siberia and, later, of the Governor General of the Steppes. For a brief period during the Russian Civil War in 1918–1920, it served as the capital of the anti-Bolshevik Russian State and held the imperial gold reserves.


title: Omsk

text: Omsk serves as the episcopal see of the bishop of Omsk and Tara, as well as the administrative seat of the Imam of Siberia. The mayor is Sergey Shelest.


title: Omsk

text: The city of Omsk is named after the Om river. This hydronym in the dialect of Baraba Tatars means "the quiet one".


title: Omsk

text: The creation of the Omsk fortress, like other Upper Irtysh fortresses, was caused by the urgent need to strengthen the trade route to China. The merit for their arrangement belongs entirely to the Siberian governor, Prince M.P. Gagarin. However, he also bears a large share of the responsibility. Gagarin, being the governor in Nerchinsk, and then the head of the Siberian order and the Siberian province, devoted a lot of time and effort to trade with China. And above all, the organization of the trade route to this country. The main route passed from Tobolsk down the Irtysh, then up the Ob, then along the Ket portage to the Yenisei and further to the border with China. The journey was long, difficult, and expensive. There was also a second option - up the Irtysh, two times shorter and much easier. Kalmyk, Kyrgyz-Kaisak and Chinese chiefs were interested in this route as they all had their share of international trade. However, above the mouth of the Ob, trade caravans were attacked by free detachments of Kalmyks (Oirats) and Kirghiz-Kaisaks, which their rulers could not cope with. A reliable guard was needed with its placement in stationary fortifications.


title: Omsk

text: One way or another, the Siberian governor achieved in May 1714 the tsar's consent to build fortresses along the Irtysh and further to the existing trade route: In his report to the tsar on May 22, 1714, Gagarin substantiated the need to build fortresses along the Irtysh by the need to ensure communication and safety of the expedition going to the city of Yarkand for the golden sand. The gold deposit was located behind the Tien Shan ridges, on the territory of a neighboring state, in the Taklamakan Desert. Prince Gagarin understood the consequences of this adventure, which, with a positive result, threatened a military conflict with China and Dzungaria. Of course, the Siberian governor did not expect the military expedition to reach Yarkand. It was almost impossible and unnecessary. But the fortresses along the trade route would remain. And indeed, they stayed. The tsar believed the governor and signed a decree on organizing an expedition under the command of a former captain of the Guards, Army Lieutenant Colonel Ivan Bukholts and, accordingly, about the construction of fortresses along the Irtysh, above Yamyshev.


title: Omsk

text: on January 2, 1716, Matvey Petrovich Gagarin took up his governor's duties and again actively took up the construction of fortresses in Siberia, including on Lake Kosogol, on the Yenisei and Irtysh rivers. Between January 8 and 10, 1716, the prince meets with the king and makes an offering to him in the form of a golden collection from the ancient burial mounds plundered along the Ishim and Irtysh. At the meeting, Gagarin reported to Peter about his plans for the development of Siberia and received the tsar's permission, presumably in the form of the highest resolution. On January 27, 1716, Peter I left for Europe, where he stayed until October 1717 and stopped receiving timely and reliable information from Siberia. In January 1716, Gagarin (with reference to the tsar's decree) issued his own orders for the construction of a fortress on the frontier Kosogol lake and in April on the construction of fortresses on the Upper Yenisei.


title: Omsk

text: On April 28, the Buholz detachment abandoned the Yamyshev fortress and moved down the Irtysh to the territory of the Tarsky district. Gagarin assessed the situation and gave instructions to Lieutenant Colonel Buholz and the Tara commandant about building a fortress at the mouth of the Om and sent recruits to reinforce them. By the end of 1716, the first fortress (fortified place) was built in the area of the modern river station. It consisted of an earthen pentagonal fortress, powder and food stores, barracks for soldiers, houses for officers. The first Omsk fortress (fortified place) was practically a copy of the fortress, erected in 1715 near Yamyshevskoye Lake. And, accordingly, it carried the main drawback: the fortifications were scattered, the outer fence was weak. When the enemy attacked, the entire garrison would have to defend the fortress objects separately from each other, which happened in 1716 during the defense of the Yamyshevskaya fortress. The unsuccessful layout of the first Yamyshev and Omsk fortresses was explained, first of all, by the lack of fortification experience among the construction managers.


title: Omsk

text: At the beginning of 1717, the dragoon captain Ilya Gavrilovich Aksakov was invited from Russia. The Governor confers a major on him and directs him to supervise the construction of a new (second) fortress at the mouth of the Om.


title: Omsk

text: In the summer of the same year, the Omsk garrison under the command of Stupin went to the upper Irtysh to build fortresses. Lieutenant Colonel Ivan Buholz categorically refused to lead a new expedition and in March 1717 was sent from Tobolsk to the capital. There is very little information about the foundation of the Omsk settlement and the construction of the second fortress. One of the most valuable sources of information is the inventory of documents of the Tara Chancellery, copied for Professor G.F. Miller in 1734. This inventory was mentioned by Professor in 1960, and in 2015 it was published by the Barnaul scientists V.B. Borodaev and A.V. Kontev. However, there are no drawings and, accordingly, it is not known where and how the new city (fortress) should be built. From Tara to the Omsk fortress, a drawing was sent "On the structure of the Omsk fortress beyond the Omya river prison and courtyards in a line." In 1722 this drawing was used by the captain-engineer Paul de Grange in the development of the plan of the fortress on the right bank of the Om. At the end of the summer of 1717, Gagarin ordered the production of six bells for the Yamyshevskaya and Omsk fortresses. Bells were made by the military department and in an amount of three pieces per fortress. According to the drawing of the Omsk fortress in 1717, these are: a triangular guard redoubt at the mouth of the Om; a quadrangular fort at the crossing over the Om and a pentagonal fortress on the yar. At the beginning of 1718, seven bells were made. Perhaps the seventh was intended for the Omsk Sloboda, on the right bank of the Om. There is no information yet whether the quadrangular fort and the triangular redoubt were built. However, it is known for sure that the fortress (defensive structure) was built pentagonal, although not as regular in shape as in the drawing. This is evident from the plans of 1745 and 1755. At the same time, the entire settlement (Omsk fortress, including the Cossack settlement and the main defensive structure) had the shape of an irregular, broken quadrangle.


title: Omsk

text: In 1768 Om fortress was relocated. The original Tobolsk and the restored Tara gates, along with the original German Lutheran Church and several public buildings are left from that time. Omsk was granted town status in 1782.


title: Omsk

text: In 1822 Omsk became an administrative capital of Western Siberia and later in 1882 the center of the vast Steppes region (today the northern part of Kazakhstan) and Akmolinsk Oblast, in particular acquiring several churches and cathedrals of various denominations, mosques, a synagogue, the governor-general's mansion, and a military academy. But as the frontier receded and its military importance diminished, the town fell into lethargy. For that time Omsk became a major center of the Siberian exile. From 1850 to 1854 Fyodor Dostoyevsky served his sentence in an Omsk katorga prison.


title: Omsk

text: Inside the Omsk settlement (the city of Omsk), a military settlement - the Omsk fortress - lived its own life for about 150 years. By 1845, the structures of the Omsk fortress were half destroyed, which prompted the engineering department of the military department to petition for the abolition of the fortress. In 1864 the fortress was abolished.


title: Omsk

text: Development of the city was catalyzed with the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway in the 1890s that affected significance of Omsk as a logistic hub. Many trade companies established stores and offices in Omsk defining the character of the city center. British, Dutch, and German consulates were established roughly at the same time in order to represent their commercial interests. The pinnacle of development for pre-revolutionary Omsk was the Siberian Exposition of Agriculture and Industry in 1910. Popularity of the World Fairs contributed to the image of Omsk as the "Chicago of Siberia".


title: Omsk

text: Soon after the October Revolution, anti-Bolshevik White forces seized control of Omsk. The "Provisional All-Russian Government" was established here in 1918, headed by the Arctic explorer and decorated war hero Admiral Kolchak. Omsk was proclaimed the capital of Russia, and its central bank was tasked with safekeeping the former empire's gold reserves. These were guarded by a garrison of former Czechoslovakian POWs trapped in Siberia by the chaos of World War I and the subsequent Revolution. Omsk became a prime target for the Red Army leadership, which viewed it as a major target of their Siberian campaign and eventually forced Kolchak and his government to abandon the city and retreat along the Trans-Siberian eastward to Irkutsk. Bolshevik forces entered the city in 1919.


title: Omsk

text: The Soviet government preferred the young Novonikolayevsk (later known as Novosibirsk) as the administrative center of Western Siberia, prompting the mass transfer of administrative, cultural, and educational functions from Omsk. This somewhat stunted Omsk's growth and sparked a continuing rivalry between the two cities. Omsk received new life as a result of World War II. Because it was both far from the fighting and had a well-developed infrastructure, Omsk provided a perfect haven for much of the industry evacuated away from the frontlines in 1941. Additionally, contingency plans were made to transfer the provisional Soviet capital to Omsk in the event of a German victory during the Battle of Moscow (October 1941 to January 1942). At the end of the war, Omsk remained a major industrial center, subsequently becoming a leader in Soviet military production.


title: Omsk

text: Military industries which moved to Omsk included part of the OKMO tank-design bureau in 1941, and S.M. Kirov Factory no. 185 from Chelyabinsk, in 1962. The Kirov Factory and Omsk Transmash design bureau (KBTM) produced T-80 tanks from the 1970s, and were responsible for the BTR-T, TOS-1, and the prototype Black Eagle tank. Omsk Transmash declared bankruptcy in 2002.


title: Omsk

text: In the 1950s, following the development of the oil and natural-gas field in Siberia, an oil-refining complex was built, along with an entire "town of oil workers", expanding Omsk northward along the Irtysh. It is currently the largest such complex in Russia. Gazprom Neft, the parent company, is the largest employer in the city, wielding its tax rates as leverage in negotiations with municipal and regional authorities. The nearby parts of the city close to the complex were nicknamed Neftezovodskaya by local workers of the oil-refining complex.


title: Omsk

text: Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Omsk experienced a period of economic instability and political stagnation. Most of the city's large businesses, which had previously been state owned, were fought over by members of the former party elite, the emerging nouveau riche, and fast growing criminal syndicates. The most notorious cases involved the privatization of Sibneft, a major oil company, which dragged on for several years. Until the end of the 1990s, political life in Omsk was defined by an ongoing feud between the oblast and city authorities. The resulting conflict made at least two points of view available to the public and served as the impetus for some improvements to the city's infrastructure and cultural life. These included the construction of new leisure parks and the renovation of the city's historic center, the establishment of the annual Siberian International Marathon, and of the annual City Days Festival. Despite this, internal political competition drained the Omsk's resources and served as a major obstacle for smooth government operations and city development.


title: Omsk

text: Omsk is situated in the south of the West Siberian Plain along the banks of the north-flowing Irtysh at its confluence with the Om River. The city has an elevation of above mean sea level at its highest point.


title: Omsk

text: Omsk is an important railroad hub, and is the junction point for the northern and southern branches of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The city also serves as a major hub for the regional highway network. River-port facilities handle both passengers and freight, giving the city access to navigating the extensive waterways of the Irtysh and Ob River. The waterways connect Omsk with the coal and mineral-mining towns further up the river in Kazakhstan, as well as with the oil, natural gas and lumber operations of northern Siberia. Omsk is served by the Tsentralny Airport, which offers access to domestic and international (primarily, German and Kazakh) destinations, making the city an important aviation hub for Siberia and the Russian Far East.


title: Omsk

text: Omsk has a humid continental climate (Köppen "Dfb") characterized by dramatic seasonal swings of weather. Average daily temperatures, taken over the past three decades, are for July and for January, although temperatures can very rarely reach in the summer and very rarely drop to in the winter. On average, Omsk sees over 300 sunny days a year (2201 hours). The average annual precipitation is .


title: Omsk

text: Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the city of oblast significance of Omsk—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of oblast significance of Omsk is incorporated as Omsk Urban Okrug.


title: Omsk

text: The population in Omsk had been steadily rising, according to the records: from 31,000 in 1881 to 53,050 in 1900 and to 1,148,418 in 1989. The 2002 Census recorded that the population had declined to 1,134,016, but it rebounded marginally, according to the 2010 Census, which listed the population of 1,154,116.


title: Omsk

text: The architectural centerpiece of the city is an ensemble of buildings along Lyubinsky Avenue/Lenina Street, anchored by the former Gostiny Dvor, and flanked by two chapels. The area is an eclectic mix of architectural styles, dominated by Art-Nouveau, Neoclassical and Second Empire.


title: Omsk

text: Closer to the confluence of the Om and the Irtysh are the few surviving sombre buildings of the 18th-century fortress. The largest and most opulent church in the city is the Dormition Cathedral, a five-domed edifice in the Russian Revival style, consecrated in 1896, demolished by the Soviets, and restored in the first decade of the 21st century.


title: Omsk

text: Another area of interest is Nikolsky Avenue-Krasnykh Zor Street, where a line of merchants' wooden houses still stands. The street leads to the Neoclassical cathedral of St. Nicholas, which was commissioned by the Cossacks, designed by Vasily Stasov and consecrated in 1840. It contains various relics of the Siberian Cossacks.


title: Omsk

text: Also an important sigh-seen of the city is the Achair Women's Monastery in the name of the Life-giving Cross of the Lord. It is known for a spring with healing mineral water (+37 degrees) on its territory, which was consecrated on September 14, 1993, by Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow.


title: Omsk

text: As a prominent educational center, Omsk has a number of museums, theaters, music venues, and educational institutions.


title: Omsk

text: Theaters include the Omsk Opera, The Omsk Theater of Drama, The Omsk Circus, Omsk State Music Theater, and a number of smaller venues.


title: Omsk

text: Omsk is a major rail, road, and air hub. The city is served by a station on the Trans-Siberian Railway, and by the Tsentralny Airport. Omsk possesses a river port on the Irtysh, offering service to domestic destinations and to cities within Kazakhstan. Additionally, Omsk is located in European route E30(in Russia R254 highway)that provide access to all of Europe.


title: Omsk

text: Municipal Transport consists of a large bus and trolley, and tram networks, although the latter of these has deteriorated severely since the collapse of the USSR. "marshrutkas" (shared taxis) supplement municipal transit networks.


title: Omsk

text: A Metro system, proposed in the late 1980s, but postponed for lack of funds, is currently under construction, with the Metro bridge over the Irtysh River. The bridge is already opened for cars (upper level), but the metro (lower level) is still under construction. As a first step, one short line will connect the districts in the northwest with the city center. As of 2017, only one station is open and serves as a pedestrian subway.


title: Nagant M1895

text: The Nagant M1895 Revolver is a seven-shot, gas-seal revolver designed and produced by Belgian industrialist Léon Nagant for the Russian Empire.


title: Nagant M1895

text: The Nagant M1895 was chambered for a proprietary cartridge, 7.62×38mmR, and featured an unusual "gas-seal" system, in which the cylinder moved forward when the gun was cocked, to close the gap between the cylinder and the barrel, providing a boost to the muzzle velocity of the bullet and allowing the weapon to be suppressed (an unusual characteristic for a revolver). In fact, a 38mm long shell covers the whole bullet for this very purpose as well. This way, early Nagant users would avoid dealing with gases of black powder.


title: Nagant M1895

text: Léon Nagant and his brother Émile were well known in the Russian Tsar's court and military administration because of the part they had played in the design of the Russian service rifle, the Mosin–Nagant Model 1891. The Nagant M1895 was adopted as the standard issue side arm for the Imperial Russian Army and police officers, where it replaced earlier Smith & Wesson models such as the Model 3.


title: Nagant M1895

text: Production began in Liège, Belgium; however Russia purchased the manufacturing rights in 1898, and moved production to the Tula Arsenal in Russia, and was soon producing 20,000 examples per year.


title: Nagant M1895

text: Until 1918 it was produced in two versions: a double-action version for officers, and a cheaper single-action version for the lower ranks. It continued to be used after the Russian Revolution by the Red Army and Soviet security forces. The distinctive shape and name helped it achieve cult status in Russia and in the early 1930s the presentation of a Nagant M1895 revolver with an embossed Red Star was one of the greatest honors that could be bestowed on a Party Member. The common Russian name for the revolver, наган ("nagan") became synonymous with the concept of the revolver in general and was applied to such weapons regardless of actual make or model.


title: Nagant M1895

text: As early as 1933 the M1895 had started to be replaced by the Tokarev semi-automatic pistol but was never fully replaced until the Makarov pistol in 1952. It was still produced and used in great numbers during World War II and


title: Nagant M1895

text: remained in use with the Russian Railways, postal service, and some remote police forces for many years. In the Russian Federation, it was only retired from use with postal security service in 2003, and from bailiff security service (Федеральная служба судебных приставов) in 2009.


title: Nagant M1895

text: Revolvers typically have a small gap (sometimes called the flash gap) between the cylinder and the barrel to allow the cylinder to revolve. The bullet must "jump" this gap when fired, which can have an adverse effect on accuracy, especially if the barrel and chamber are misaligned. The gap also is a path for the escape of high pressure hot gases. Expensive revolvers such as Korth and Manurhin are hand-fitted, keeping the gap to a minimum. Mass-produced revolvers may have a gap as large as 0.25mm.


title: Nagant M1895

text: The M1895 by contrast, has a mechanism which, as the hammer is cocked, first turns the cylinder and then moves it forward, closing the gap between the cylinder and the barrel. The cartridge, also unique, plays an important part in sealing the gun to prevent the escape of propellant gases. The bullet is deeply seated, entirely within the cartridge case, and the case is slightly reduced in diameter at its mouth. The barrel features a short conical section at its rear; this accepts the mouth of the cartridge, completing the gas seal. By sealing the gap, the velocity of the bullet is increased by 15 to 45 m/s (50 to 150 ft/s.) This feature also eliminates the possibility of injury from gases escaping through the gap, which can injure a finger if the user holds the gun with a finger positioned beside the gap.


title: Nagant M1895

text: The disadvantage of this design is that Nagant revolvers were laborious and time-consuming to reload, with the need to manually eject each of the used cartridges, and reload one cartridge at a time through a loading gate. At the time the revolver was designed, this system was obsolete. In British service the Webley Revolver uses a top-break cylinder and star extractor to simultaneously eject all spent cartridges and in American service the Smith & Wesson Model 10 uses a swing-out cylinder and star extractor to simultaneously eject all spent cartridges; therefore replacing older single-action revolvers with a side-loading gate and ejector rod to remove spent cartridges individually in succession. However, the Nagant design did have the advantage of requiring less machining than more modern designs.


title: Nagant M1895

text: The Nagant M1895 was made in both single-action and double-action models before and during World War I; they are known colloquially as the “Private's model” and the “Officer’s model”, respectively. Production of the single-action model seems to have stopped after 1918, with some exceptions, including examples made for target competition. Most single-action revolvers were later converted to double-action, making original single-action revolvers rather rare.


title: Nagant M1895

text: Whether fired in single action or double action, the Nagant M1895 has a markedly heavy trigger pull (about ~12 lbs for single and ~20 lbs for double). Enthusiasts have been able to adjust the pull by adjusting the V shaped spring, either by grinding it or shimming it.


title: Nagant M1895

text: The M1895 revolver was used extensively by the Russian Imperial Army and later by the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution. In Russian service, it was known for its extreme sturdiness and ability to withstand abuse. As one former Imperial Russian officer stated, "if anything went wrong with the M1895, you could fix it with a hammer"


title: Nagant M1895

text: It was widely employed by the Bolshevik secret police, the Cheka, as well as its Soviet successor agencies, the OGPU and NKVD. Seven Nagant revolvers were used by communist revolutionaries to execute the Russian imperial family and their servants in July 1918. In the police role, it was frequently seen with a cut-down barrel to aid in concealment by plainclothes agents. Despite the advent of the more modern Soviet TT pistol, the M1895 remained in production and use throughout World War II.


title: Nagant M1895

text: The Nagant's sealed firing system meant that the Nagant revolver, unlike most other revolvers, could make effective use of a sound suppressor, and suppressors were sometimes fitted to it.


title: Nagant M1895

text: Suppressed M1895 Nagant revolvers, modified in clandestine workshops, also turned up in the hands of Viet Cong guerrillas during the Vietnam War as assassination weapons. There is an example of a suppressed Nagant M1895 in the CIA Museum in Langley, Virginia, USA.


title: Nagant M1895

text: The weapon has been considered to be "antique" in Belgium so it became legal to be in possession of the weapon. In 2013 the weapon was again prohibited. Nagant revolvers have been found with the terrorist Amédy Coulibaly in 2015 and with a Dutch arms dealer.


title: Nagant M1895

text: 7.62mm Nagant is also known as 7.62×38mmR (Rimmed) or "Cartridge, Type R". The projectile is seated below the mouth of the cartridge, with the cartridge crimp sitting just above the bullet. When fired, the crimp expands into the forcing cone, completing the gas seal and ostensibly increasing muzzle velocity by approximately 75 ft/s.


title: Nagant M1895

text: Aftermarket cylinders for .32 can be installed, allowing the Nagant to safely fire .32 H&R Magnum or .32 ACP. Shooting any ammunition other than the 7.62x38mmR cartridge with the original cylinder can cause bodily injury from bullet shrapnel or escaping gas, and the excessive pressures produced by some .32 ammunition could also cause catastrophic failure of the cylinder or frame.


title: Nagant M1895

text: Proper fitting ammunition can be reloaded from .32-20 Winchester brass by using the Lee Nagant die set or .30" carbine dies and 9mm Luger shell-holders in the reloading press. This allows the reloaders to work up a load that fits their needs and is specific for the Nagant. While this eliminates the bulged/split/stuck cases experienced when using .32 S&W and .32 H&R, the gas seal that made the Nagant famous will still not fully function as the .32-20 is not long enough to protrude past the cylinder like the original Nagant ammunition.


title: Nagant M1895

text: Other Nagant revolver designs were also adopted by police and military services of Sweden (7.5mm M1887), Norway (M1893), Poland (Nagant wz. 30), and Greece ( M1895).


title: Nagant M1895

text: The Swedish and Norwegian Nagants used a different cartridge, the 7.5 mm Nagant. This ammunition is interchangeable with the 7.5mm 1882 Ordnance (aka Swiss 7.5mm revolver).


title: Starvation

text: Starvation is a severe deficiency in caloric energy intake, below the level needed to maintain an organism's life. It is the most extreme form of malnutrition. In humans, prolonged starvation can cause permanent organ damage and eventually, death. The term inanition refers to the symptoms and effects of starvation. Starvation may also be used as a means of torture or execution.


title: Starvation

text: According to the World Health Organization (WHO), hunger is the single gravest threat to the world's public health. The WHO also states that malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases. Undernutrition is a contributory factor in the death of 3.1 million children under five every year. Figures on actual starvation are difficult to come by, but according to the Food and Agriculture Organization, the less severe condition of undernourishment currently affects about 842 million people, or about one in eight (12.5%) people in the world population.


title: Starvation

text: The bloated stomach represents a form of malnutrition called kwashiorkor. The exact pathogenesis of kwashiorkor is not clear, as initially it was thought to relate to diets high in carbohydrates (e.g. maize) but low in protein. While many patients have low albumin, this is thought to be a consequence of the condition. Possible causes such as aflatoxin poisoning, oxidative stress, immune dysregulation, and altered gut microbiota have been suggested. Treatment can help mitigate symptoms such as the pictured weight loss and muscle wasting, however prevention is of utmost importance.


title: Starvation

text: Without any food, humans usually die in around 2 months. There was a surprising case when someone survived 382 days. Lean people can usually survive with a loss of up to 18% of their body mass. Obese people can tolerate more, possibly over 20%. Females survive longer than males.


title: Starvation

text: The beginning stages of starvation impact mental status and behaviours. These symptoms show up as irritable mood, fatigue, trouble concentrating, and preoccupation with food thoughts. People with those symptoms tend to be easily distracted and have no energy.


title: Starvation

text: As starvation progresses, the physical symptoms set in. The timing of these symptoms depends on age, size, and overall health. It usually takes days to weeks, and includes weakness, fast heart rate, shallow breaths that are slowed, thirst, and constipation. There may also be diarrhea in some cases. The eyes begin to sink in and glass over. The muscles begin to become smaller and muscle wasting sets in. One prominent sign in children is a swollen belly. Skin loosens and turns pale in color, and there may be swelling of the feet and ankles.


title: Starvation

text: Symptoms of starvation may also appear as a weakened immune system, slow wound healing, and poor response to infection. Rashes may develop on the skin. The body directs any nutrients available to keeping organs functioning.


title: Starvation

text: The symptoms of starvation show up in three stages. Phase one and two can show up in anyone that skips meals, diets, and goes through fasting. Phase three is more severe, can be fatal, and results from long-term starvation.


title: Starvation

text: Phase one: When meals are skipped, the body begins to maintain blood sugar levels by degrading glycogen in the liver and breaking down stored fat and protein. The liver can provide glucose for the first few hours. After that, the body begins to break down fat and protein. The body uses Fatty acids as an energy source for muscles but lowers the amount of glucose sent to the brain. Another chemical that comes from fatty acids is glycerol. It can be used as glucose for energy but eventually runs out.


title: Starvation

text: Phase two: Phase two can last for weeks at a time. In this phase, the body mainly uses stored fat for energy. The breakdown occurs in the liver and turns fat into ketones. After fasting for one week, the brain will use these ketones and any available glucose. Using ketones lowers the need for glucose, and the body slows the breakdown of proteins.


title: Starvation

text: Phase three: By this point, the fat stores are gone, and the body begins to turn to stored protein for energy. This means it needs to break down muscle tissues full of protein; the muscles break down very quickly. Protein is essential for cells to work correctly, and when it runs out, the cells can no longer function.


title: Starvation

text: The cause of death due to starvation is usually an infection or the result of tissue breakdown. This is due to the body becoming unable to produce enough energy to fight off bacteria and viruses. The final stage of starvation includes signals like hair color loss, skin flaking, swelling in the extremities, and a bloated belly. Even though they may feel hunger, people in the final stage of starvation usually cannot eat enough food to recover.


title: Starvation

text: The body expends more energy than it takes in. This imbalance can arise from one or more medical conditions or circumstantial situations, which can include:


title: Starvation

text: With a typical high-carbohydrate diet, the human body relies on free blood glucose as its primary energy source. Glucose can be obtained directly from dietary sugars and by the breakdown of other carbohydrates. In the absence of dietary sugars and carbohydrates, glucose is obtained from the breakdown of stored glycogen. Glycogen is a readily-accessible storage form of glucose, stored in notable quantities in the liver and skeletal muscle.


title: Starvation

text: After the exhaustion of the glycogen reserve, and for the next two to three days, fatty acids become the principal metabolic fuel. At first, the brain continues to use glucose. If a non-brain tissue is using fatty acids as its metabolic fuel, the use of glucose in the same tissue is switched off. Thus, when fatty acids are being broken down for energy, all of the remaining glucose is made available for use by the brain.


title: Starvation

text: After two or three days of fasting, the liver begins to synthesize ketone bodies from precursors obtained from fatty acid breakdown. The brain uses these ketone bodies as fuel, thus cutting its requirement for glucose. After fasting for three days, the brain gets 30% of its energy from ketone bodies. After four days, this may increase to 70% or more. Thus, the production of ketone bodies cuts the brain's glucose requirement from 80 g per day to 30 g per day, about 35% of normal, with 65% derived from ketone bodies. But of the brain's remaining 30 g requirement, 20 g per day can be produced by the liver from glycerol (itself a product of fat breakdown). This still leaves a deficit of about 10 g of glucose per day that must be supplied from another source; this other source will be the body's own proteins.


title: Starvation

text: After exhaustion of fat stores, the cells in the body begin to break down protein. This releases alanine and lactate produced from pyruvate, which can be converted into glucose by the liver. Since much of human muscle mass is protein, this phenomenon is responsible for the wasting away of muscle mass seen in starvation. However, the body is able to choose which cells will break down protein and which will not. About 2–3 g of protein has to be broken down to synthesize 1 g of glucose; about 20–30 g of protein is broken down each day to make 10 g of glucose to keep the brain alive. However, this number may decrease the longer the fasting period is continued, in order to conserve protein.


title: Starvation

text: Starvation ensues when the fat reserves are completely exhausted and protein is the only fuel source available to the body. Thus, after periods of starvation, the loss of body protein affects the function of important organs, and death results, even if there are still fat reserves left. In a leaner person, the fat reserves are depleted faster, and the protein, sooner, therefore death occurs sooner.) Ultimately, the cause of death is in general cardiac arrhythmia or cardiac arrest, brought on by tissue degradation and electrolyte imbalances. Conditions like metabolic acidosis may also kill starving people.


title: Starvation

text: Starvation can be caused by factors beyond the control of the individual. The Rome Declaration on World Food Security outlines several policies aimed at increasing food security and, consequently, preventing starvation. These include:


title: Starvation

text: Supporting farmers in areas of food insecurity through such measures as free or subsidized fertilizers and seeds increases food harvest and reduces food prices.


title: Starvation

text: Patients that suffer from starvation can be treated, but this must be done cautiously to avoid refeeding syndrome. Rest and warmth must be provided and maintained. Food can be given gradually in small quantities. The quantity of food can be increased over time. Proteins may be administered intravenously to raise the level of serum proteins. For worse situations, hospice care and opioid medications can be used.


title: Starvation

text: Many organizations have been highly effective at reducing starvation in different regions. Aid agencies give direct assistance to individuals, while political organizations pressure political leaders to enact more macro-scale policies that will reduce famine and provide aid.


title: Starvation

text: According to estimates by the Food and Agriculture Organization, between 720 and 811 million people were affected by hunger globally in 2020. This was a decrease from estimated 925 million in 2010 and roughly 1 billion in 2009. In 2007, 923 million people were reported as being undernourished, an increase of 80 million since 1990–92.


title: Starvation

text: An estimated 820 million people did not have enough to eat in 2018, up from 811 million in the previous year, which is the third year of increase in a row.


title: Starvation

text: As the definitions of starving and malnourished people are different, the number of starving people is different from that of malnourished. Generally, far fewer people are starving than are malnourished.


title: Starvation

text: The proportion of malnourished and starving people in the world has been more or less continually decreasing for at least several centuries. This is due to an increasing supply of food and to overall gains in economic efficiency. In 40 years, the proportion of malnourished people in the developing world has been more than halved. The proportion of starving people has decreased even faster.


title: Starvation

text: Historically, starvation has been used as a death sentence. From the beginning of civilization to the Middle Ages, people were immured, and died for want of food.


title: Starvation

text: In ancient Greco-Roman societies, starvation was sometimes used to dispose of guilty upper-class citizens, especially erring female members of patrician families. In the year 31, Livilla, the niece and daughter-in-law of Tiberius, was discreetly starved to death by her mother for her adulterous relationship with Sejanus and for her complicity in the murder of her own husband, Drusus the Younger.


title: Starvation

text: Another daughter-in-law of Tiberius, named Agrippina the Elder (a granddaughter of Augustus and the mother of Caligula), also died of starvation, in 33 AD; however, it is unclear if her starvation was self-inflicted.


title: Starvation

text: A son and daughter of Agrippina were also executed by starvation for political reasons; Drusus Caesar, her second son, was put in prison in 33 AD, and starved to death by orders of Tiberius (he managed to stay alive for nine days by chewing the stuffing of his bed); Agrippina's youngest daughter, Julia Livilla, was exiled on an island in 41 by her uncle, Emperor Claudius, and her death by starvation was arranged by the empress Messalina.


title: Starvation

text: It is also possible that Vestal Virgins were starved when found guilty of breaking their vows of celibacy.


title: Starvation

text: Ugolino della Gherardesca, his sons, and other members of his family were immured in the Muda, a tower of Pisa, and starved to death in the thirteenth century. Dante, his contemporary, wrote about Gherardesca in his masterpiece "The Divine Comedy".


title: Starvation

text: In Sweden in 1317, King Birger of Sweden imprisoned his two brothers for a coup they had staged several years earlier (Nyköping Banquet). According to legend they died of starvation a few weeks later, since their brother had thrown the prison key in the castle moat.


title: Starvation

text: In Cornwall in the UK in 1671, John Trehenban from St Columb Major was condemned to be starved to death in a cage at Castle An Dinas for the murder of two girls.


title: Starvation

text: The Makah, a Native American tribe inhabiting the Pacific Northwest near the modern border of Canada and the United States, practiced death by starvation as a punishment for slaves.


title: Starvation

text: Many of the prisoners in the Nazi concentration camps were murdered through deliberate maltreatment, disease, starvation, and overwork, or were executed as unfit for labor. Many occupants of ghettos in eastern Europe also starved to death, most notoriously in the Warsaw Ghetto in German-occupied Poland. Prisoners were transported in inhumane conditions by rail freight cars, in which many died before reaching their destination. The prisoners were confined to the cattle cars for days or even weeks, with little or no food or water. Many died of dehydration in the intense heat of summer or froze to death in winter. Nazi concentration camps in Europe from 1933 to 1945 deliberately underfed prisoners, who were at the same time forced to perform heavy labour. Their diet was restricted to watery vegetable soup and a little bread, with little to no dietary fats, proteins or other essential nutrients. Such treatment led to loss of body tissues, and when prisoners became skeletal, the so-called Muselmann were murdered by gas or bullets when examined by camp doctors.


title: Starvation

text: Starvation was also used as a punishment where victims were locked into a small cell until dead, a process which could take many days.


title: Starvation

text: Saint Maximilian Kolbe, a martyred Polish friar, underwent a sentence of starvation in Auschwitz concentration camp in 1941. Ten prisoners had been condemned to death by starvation in the wake of a successful escape from the camp. Kolbe volunteered to take the place of a man with a wife and children. After two weeks of starvation, Kolbe and three other inmates remained alive; they were then executed with injections of phenol.


title: The Last Castle

text: The Last Castle is a 2001 American action drama film directed by Rod Lurie, starring Robert Redford, James Gandolfini, Mark Ruffalo and Delroy Lindo. The film portrays a struggle between inmates and the warden of a military prison, based on the United States Disciplinary Barracks at Fort Leavenworth. A highly decorated U.S. Army Lieutenant General, court martialed and sentenced for insubordination, challenges the prison commandant, a colonel, over his treatment of the prisoners. After mobilizing the inmates, the former general leads an uprising aiming to seize control of the prison.


title: The Last Castle

text: The film was released in the United States on October 19, 2001. It received mixed reviews from critics and was a box-office bomb, grossing just $27 million against its $72 million budget.


title: The Last Castle

text: Lieutenant General Eugene Irwin is brought to a maximum security military prison to begin a ten-year sentence for deciding to send U.S. troops on a mission in Burundi, violating a presidential order and resulting in the deaths of eight soldiers.


title: The Last Castle

text: Colonel Winter, the prison's commandant, greatly admires Irwin, until Irwin criticizes his much-prized military artifacts collection, calling it something no actual battlefield veteran would ever have. Offended Winter, who has never seen combat, resents the remark. He then opposes what he perceives as Irwin's attempt to change the attitudes of the prisoners, his admiration for Irwin fading fast.


title: The Last Castle

text: On one occasion, Irwin is reprimanded after stopping a guard from clubbing a prisoner, Corporal Ramon Aguilar, who had mistakenly saluted Irwin in the prison yard, violating a tenet of Winter's methods for running the prison, that the prisoners are no longer soldiers and therefore should stop acting as such.


title: The Last Castle

text: Continuing to observe cruel acts, Irwin attempts to unify the prisoners by building a "castle wall" of stone and mortar at the facility, which in many ways resembles a medieval castle. Envying the respect Irwin is clearly receiving, Winter orders his guards to destroy the wall. When Aguilar, an integral leader in the wall's construction, blocks the bulldozer, Winter orders sadistic sharpshooter Cpl. Zamorro via a coded hand gesture to fire a normally non-lethal rubber bullet directly at Aguilar's head, killing him.


title: The Last Castle

text: After the wall is destroyed, Irwin and the inmates pay final respects to Aguilar in formation. Winter later offers some small concessions to Irwin, who rejects them as flimsy, and calls him a disgrace to the uniform, demanding his resignation.


title: The Last Castle

text: The prisoners begin to behave like soldiers around Irwin, using code words and gestures. An infuriated Winter reaches out to Yates, an anti-social prisoner and a former officer and Apache helicopter pilot convicted of running a drug-smuggling ring. Bribed to inform about Irwin's plans for a reduced sentence, Yates informs Winter that Irwin intends to take over the prison, then raise the U.S. flag upside down to signal distress.


title: The Last Castle

text: Irwin organizes a plot to throw the prison into chaos. His intent is to show a friend, Brigadier General Wheeler, Winter's superior officer, that Winter is unfit and should be removed from command under the Uniform Code of Military Justice. During a visit, Winter receives a letter demanding that he resign, or the prisoners will kidnap Wheeler.


title: The Last Castle

text: After ordering his men into action, Winter discovers that the scheme was just a bluff. Irwin uses the event to gain intelligence on how the prison guards would react during an actual uprising. Wheeler, who has made it clear that he hates Winter, nevertheless respects Winter's argument that Wheeler has no idea what running a military prison is like; he offers to transfer Irwin to another prison if Winter requests it, but Winter declines.


title: The Last Castle

text: Yates discreetly steals a U.S. flag from the warden's office during one of his visits and reveals he is on Irwin's side; Winter orders all the prisoners to be outside in the yard in an attempt to prevent their plot, but this was part of their plan as well, and the riot commences.


title: The Last Castle

text: Using improvised weapons, the prisoners capture an armored vehicle and the prison helicopter, which Yates uses to kill Zamorro. The prisoners call Wheeler's headquarters and inform him of the riot. Winter has little time to regain control before Wheeler will arrive to see the prison under siege, so he orders that live ammunition be used against the prisoners.


title: The Last Castle

text: Winter knows from Yates that Irwin ultimately plans to raise the American flag upside down, signaling distress. Irwin's men create havoc, but ultimately are confronted by overwhelming numbers of guards armed with live ammunition. Winter orders the men to lie down, but they refuse. He orders them again, warning them that the sharpshooters positioned above them will fire if they do not obey. Just before he gives the order, Irwin orders his fellow prisoners to lie down. Winter then tells Irwin to return his flag, but Irwin replies, "It's not your flag", before he turns and begins walking toward the flagpole in order to raise it.


title: The Last Castle

text: An increasingly unsettled Winter tells Irwin, "You will not raise that flag upside down," but Irwin continues walking, despite Winter's orders to cease and desist. Seeing that Irwin is ignoring him, Winter orders the shooters to fire on Irwin, but they do not. He orders them repeatedly, trying to stop Irwin from raising the flag upside down, but after Winter's men, including Captain Peretz, disobey his orders and refuse to kill Irwin, Winter fatally shoots Irwin in the back as he lifts the flag. As his life ebbs away, Irwin continues to raise the flag.


title: The Last Castle

text: Peretz places Winter under arrest for shooting Irwin. The prisoners, now standing again, begin to salute the flag. Astonishingly, Winter notices that Irwin has actually raised the flag correctly, meaning that he had shot Irwin fruitlessly. The flag flies above the prison's walls as General Wheeler arrives. Colonel Winter is led away in handcuffs. The inmates build a new wall as a memorial to their fallen comrades. Aguilar and Irwin's names are among those carved onto the castle's wall.


title: The Last Castle

text: The film was shot mainly at the 103-year-old former Tennessee State Prison in Nashville, which had previously been used for filming in "The Green Mile" and "Last Dance", and was chosen because of its Gothic and castle-like appearance. The state of Tennessee offered to provide the location rent-free, with exemption from the state's 6 percent state sales tax. James Gandolfini earned $5 million for co-starring in the film after finishing the third season of "The Sopranos" in March 2001.


title: The Last Castle

text: A crew of 150 worked on refurbishing existing buildings and constructing new buildings in a time limit of nine weeks. A wall long and high was built, serving as the prison's entrance. A metal walkway and two towers were also built as vantage points for the guards. The film required an office with a large window through which the warden could watch the inmates; this was constructed by the production crew. Director Rod Lurie insisted on having the prisoners' cells face each other, but this is not the case at the Tennessee State Prison. To solve the problem, production designer Kirk Petruccelli created cells in a warehouse near the prison.


title: The Last Castle

text: To show the balance of power, the film crew used multiple cinematography techniques involving different displays of color, lighting, camera and costumes. In the warden's office intense color was used to reflect freedom or power, in contrast to the washed-out colors from the less powerful yard. The contrasts shift as the story progresses, showing the increasing power of the prisoners. The American flag in the yard is described by Petruccelli as "the heart of The Castle" and is the only exemption to the washed-out color palette.


title: The Last Castle

text: Cinematographer Shelly Johnson, in collaboration with director Lurie and the design team, also used lighting and camerawork to signify the shifting of powers. For example, the yard is at first naturally lit and more influenced by daylight, in contrast to Winter's office, which is artificially illuminated by lamps. As the film progresses, the office is more fully infiltrated by exterior light through a broken window. The shift of power is also emphasized through camera techniques. Hand-held cameras were used when filming in the yard to make the audience feel as if they were "participants in the action". However, a very precise, sterile camera composition was used in the warden's office. The prisoners' world gets more precise during the film, while the colonel's world is filmed more loosely.


title: The Last Castle

text: Costume designer Ha Nguyen also demonstrates this contrast in the clothing of the cast. The film starts with the prisoners having their clothing divided by ethnicity, with African Americans wearing different headwear, Latinos wearing vests and various arm accessories, and the White Americans in cut-off T-shirts. After the arrival of General Irwin, the prisoners start wearing more similar clothing in a "sharp military manner". The uniforms of the prisoners change from the usual chocolate brown color to light grey, because of its muddled look on film and excessive darkness in some scenes. Ha Nguyen also contrasted the non-battlefield ribbons found on Colonel Winter's uniform with the battlefield medals found on General Irwin's uniform (seen only in the opening scene as Irwin is inducted into the prison).


title: The Last Castle

text: The wall created by the prisoners in the middle of the yard also represents change and incarnation. What is at first a "discombobulated mess" representing the lack of unity among prisoners later becomes a perfect wall, a "powerful symbol of the results of [Irwin's] leadership".


title: The Last Castle

text: Special effects supervisor Burt Dalton and stunt coordinator Mic Rodger created the battle weapons used in the final scenes. The trebuchet, used by prisoners to throw rocks, was capable of throwing a rock a distance of with an accuracy of ten feet around the target. The water cannon had the power to shoot of water per second. Some of the cast did their own stunts, including Mark Ruffalo, who performed one scene hanging from a helicopter. Interiors of the helicopter were not created with blue screen effects; instead, a special gimbal was used to hold a full-sized Huey-A type military helicopter. The gimbal was capable of rotating the helicopter 360 degrees and vertically moving it 20 feet. The gimbal was controlled by a computer, allowing Dalton to precisely set speed and movement; this ensured precise repeatability for multiple takes.


title: The Last Castle

text: Prior to release, DreamWorks pulled the original poster from circulation, which depicted an American flag flying upside down (a standard distress call), due to concerns about public sensitivity related to the September 11 attacks.


title: The Last Castle

text: The film was released on October 19, 2001, in 2,262 North American theaters, grossing $7,088,213 on its opening weekend with an average of $3,133 per theater. The release spanned 63 days (9 weeks), closing on December 20, 2001, with a total domestic gross of $18,244,060. The film grossed $9,398,647 overseas, with the lowest earning in Egypt ($5,954) and the highest ($1,410,528) in Germany.


title: The Last Castle

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 52% based on 114 reviews, with an average rating of 5.5/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""The Last Castle" is well acted and rousing for the most part, but the story cannot stand up to close scrutiny." At Metacritic, a rating website which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 42 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: The Last Castle

text: Mick LaSalle from the "San Francisco Chronicle" mentioned the cast, describing Redford as "no George C. Scott" and Gandolfini as an unusual choice to play an icy intellectual. LaSalle stated that "'The Last Castle', on the surface, seems like a naive film about a great leader's capacity to inspire", but at closer look "seems to mean one thing but means another upon reflection". Roger Ebert from the "Chicago Sun-Times" saw it as "a dramatic, involving story" but criticized its "loopholes and lapses." Ebert noted that Irwin is no less evil than Winter and that they both "delight in manipulating those they can control." He pointed out that the film fails to portray how the prisoners manufacture the weapons and hide them under Winter's observation.


title: The Last Castle

text: It received 3 out of 5 stars on IGN; the review noted that though a well paced and well acted film, it "suffers from this overall militaristic, streamlined approach."


title: The Last Castle

text: Kenneth Turan of the "Los Angeles Times" said the film's "pretensions lead to a slow, even stately pace, what should be crackling confrontations between Irwin and Winter end up playing more like a tea party than a Wagnerian battle of wills."


title: The Last Castle

text: Owen Gleiberman of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the movie a "C-plus" grade, writing: "As staged by Lurie, the drama has all the subtlety and surprise of a showdown between the sissy-bully son of Captain Queeg and a hero who's like a fusion of Brubaker, Spartacus, and Norma Rae."


title: The Last Castle

text: "Variety" wrote: "Much of the potential dramatic juice has been drained out of "The Last Castle", a disappointingly pedestrian prison meller that falls between stools artistically and politically."


title: The Last Castle

text: Claudia Puig of "USA Today" criticized the writing, citing "a losing battle with an implausible script."


title: The Last Castle

text: Elvis Mitchell of "The New York Times" wrote: "The movie is exuberant, strapping and obvious—a problem drama suffering from a steroid overdose."


title: The Last Castle

text: "The Last Castle" won the Taurus World Stunt Award for best fire stunt and was nominated for best aerial work and best stunt coordination sequence. Clifton Collins, Jr. was nominated for an ALMA Award in the "Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture" category.


title: Jennifer Lien

text: Jennifer Anne Lien (born August 24, 1974) is an American former actress known for playing the alien Kes on the television series "."


title: Jennifer Lien

text: Lien was born August 24, 1974, in Illinois, the youngest of three children, and joined the Illinois Theatre Center at the age of 13.


title: Jennifer Lien

text: In a 1992 interview, Lien said: "My childhood was wild because I was very uncomfortable living where I lived (the South Side of Chicago). It was very industrial – if you didn’t fit in you got your ass kicked. I was just my own person, and I adopted this really tough skin because I had to if I wanted to survive. A lot of my friends were into drugs, and I saw a lot of them die." In a 1993 interview, Lien said:


title: Jennifer Lien

text: Lien's first television appearance was in a bubble gum commercial playing twins. Her first appearance on a television series was as a music academy student in a 1990 episode of "Brewster Place", starring Oprah Winfrey. The same year she provided her voice for the dubbed English language version of "Baby Blood", a French horror film. Lien moved to New York in 1991 after she was cast as Hannah Moore on the soap opera "Another World". She attended and graduated from the Professional Children's School while working on this series.


title: Jennifer Lien

text: In a 1992 interview, Lien said: "A couple of years ago, I was trying to get an audition for a baseball movie, so I said that I could play baseball. We'd always played a lot while I was growing up, like in the backyard. But when I showed up at the audition, I was faced with these Goliath-like, testosterone women who could "really" play. I did survive the two days of training and auditions, but I basically pulled every muscle in my body!"


title: Jennifer Lien

text: In 1993, Lien was cast as Roanne in "Phenom", a sitcom starring Judith Light. She also participated in the recording of Adam Sandler's comedy album "They're All Gonna Laugh At You" in which she played the part of the Valedictorian on the track "The Buffoon And The Valedictorian", as well as one of the daughters on the track "Oh, mom..."


title: Jennifer Lien

text: In 1994, Lien was cast as Kes on "". Her character is an Ocampan, a species in the "Star Trek" universe that lives for only eight to nine years, who joins the starship's crew after it is stranded 70,000 light-years from Earth.


title: Jennifer Lien

text: Richard Lutz wrote, "The medical personnel in "Star Trek" best embody the humane values embedded in this franchise; the most notable of which is Kes, thanks in large part to Jennifer Lien whose remarkable performance brought to life a beautiful child-like being (Ocampa) whose short lifespan and humanity reminds us that the most important element in a life worth living is a loving connection with our fellow human beings."


title: Jennifer Lien

text: The showrunners reluctantly terminated Lien's contract as a member of "Voyager's" main cast due to unresolved personal issues that negatively impacted her performances. She was replaced by a new character, Seven of Nine, played by Jeri Ryan. In 2000, Lien returned as a guest actor for a season six episode titled "".


title: Jennifer Lien

text: After "Voyager", Lien appeared in the movie "American History X" as Edward Norton's younger sister. In 1998, she appeared in "SLC Punk!" playing Sandy, the wild girlfriend of Matthew Lillard's character. She also voiced Agent "L" for the first three seasons of "" (1997–1999) and the first seven episodes of the 2000 season.


title: Jennifer Lien

text: Lien has attended science fiction conventions in relation to her role as Kes when she was working on "Voyager" and after her film career ended.


title: Jennifer Lien

text: Lien is married to writer and filmmaker Phil Hwang; their son, Jonah, was born on September 5, 2002. Upon his birth, Lien retired from acting and voice-over work but was credited as executive producer on her husband's 2008 film "Geek Mythology". In August 2010, Lien said she intended to work as a nutritionist after completing her studies.


title: Jennifer Lien

text: In a 2000 interview, Lien said that she liked every kind of music, and that she played the trombone, which she started in high school. She said she supported charities helping people with AIDS and had worked with Camp 40, of which she said: "I want to be doing what I can for people who need it."


title: Jennifer Lien

text: Between 2015 and 2018, Lien was arrested and charged with a variety of offenses, several of which were later dropped. The court eventually ordered her to undergo mental health treatment.


title: Queerbaiting

text: Queerbaiting is a marketing technique for fiction and entertainment in which creators hint at, but then do not depict, same-sex romance or other LGBTQ+ representation. The purpose is to attract ("bait") a LGBTQ+ or straight ally audience with the suggestion or possibility of relationships or characters that appeal to them.


title: Queerbaiting

text: Queerbaiting has been observed in popular culture and fiction such as films, television series, books, music, ads, various forms of media, but also in celebrities who convey an ambiguous sexual identity through their works and statements. The term arose in and has been popularized through discussions in Internet fandom since the early 2010s. It comes from a larger history of LGBTQ+ discourse in media representation dating back to the 1970s from subtle marketing to LGBTQ+ people through commercials and books.


title: Queerbaiting

text: Queer fans have reacted with concern and anger to an identity they consider defining being used as a mere marketing ploy, a plaything for creatives, a mark of "edginess", or a commodity.


title: Queerbaiting

text: Fans have derided, for instance, queer characters being used as plot devices rather than as characters for their own sake. For instance, "Glee", a series with many queer series regulars, was criticized by fans for presenting "superficial stereotypes of queerness for dramatic effect".


title: Queerbaiting

text: Queer fans consider queerbaiting as "a way to throw us a bone when we normally wouldn't have anything, to acknowledge that we're there in the audience when the powers that be would prefer to ignore us". Emmet Scout wrote that "queerbaiting works on its audience because it offers the suggestion that queer people do have a vital place in these stories, that they might even be the defining figures, the heroes. The suggestion—but not the reality." Rose Bridges summarized the practice's effect on queer fans as receiving "just enough [representation] to keep us interested, but not enough to satisfy us and make us truly represented."


title: Queerbaiting

text: Critics of those who engage in queerbaiting discourse point to its similarity, and perhaps confusion by audiences, with subtext. Subtext became popular in media, especially in film, during the 1930s due to the Hays Code which limited what can be shown on screen. The use of subtext has been a literary ploy to tell a variety of stories since. However, those who engage with queerbaiting discourse argue that LGBT representation no longer needs to be in the shadows of media. Instead of adding artistic value, queer fans view this tactic as perpetuating LGBT marginalization.


title: Queerbaiting

text: According to media scholars, the perceived increase in queerbaiting reflects a shift towards a more positive perception of queer relationships in modern societies—and therefore, in a sense, societal progress. However, the same societal shift has also increased expectations by queer fans as to the quality and authenticity of queer representation—they demand not just any representation at all, but rather "respectful and meaningful depictions" of their relationships. That is why, according to media researcher Eve Ng, the ambiguous sexuality projected by twentieth-century entertainers such as David Bowie, Elton John and Madonna was not scrutinized to the same degree as that of their successors.


title: Queerbaiting

text: Various businesses and corporations, such as Starbucks, Ben & Jerry's, and Tylenol have showcased queer people and queer families in advertisements, helping to normalize and increase awareness surrounding the queer community. Although greater awareness for queer people is a positive side effect of queerbaiting, typical depictions of the queer community within advertisements include homogenous white middle-class individuals/couples.


title: Queerbaiting

text: Queerbaiting has brought the spending power of the queer community to light, and businesses make economic decisions that promote and support the queer community and its representation that ultimately entices the pink dollar. Terms associated with the queer community, like "pink money", have shown the importance of queer people within an economy and a society.


title: Queerbaiting

text: In May 2020, reviewer Sophie Perry, writing for a lesbian lifestyle magazine, "Curve", noted how queerbaiting has long endured in LGBT representation, noting how She-Ra and Harley Quinn both had same-sex kisses, happening within stories that could have turned out to be "typical queerbaiting" but did not. Perry added that the "queer conclusion" of the show is thanks to ND Stevenson, describing it as very different from the conclusion of "The Legend of Korra", which confirmed Korra and Asami's relationship but left it "purposefully ambiguous" so it could air on a children's network. She concluded by calling "She-Ra and the Princesses of Power" culturally significant, and added that as more creative queer people come to the fore, inevitably queerbaiting will "become a thing of the past".


title: Queerbaiting

text: In March 2021, a writer for "Vanity Fair", Joanna Robinson asked when "queer coding" veers into the territory of "queer baiting", with Dana Terrace saying it happens a "lot in modern anime", and Robinson saying this is also seen in shows like the end of "Supernatural" or the "hubbub around Finn and Poe in "The Rise of Skywalker"".