title: No Time to Die (song)

text: In an interview with Zane Lowe for Apple Music, Eilish said that she and her brother Finneas O'Connell used to make up songs they thought as possible themes for the James Bond film series, while thinking they would never get such an opportunity. After her August 30 concert in Ireland's Electric Picnic, Eilish and Finneas met Bond producer Barbara Broccoli, who then invited them to compose the theme for the upcoming "No Time to Die", which they promptly accepted. They were given parts of the script and started to create the theme. The initial attempts, where Finneas tried to write the song with a guitar, stumbled on mutual writer's block by the siblings. Finneas later found a piano in the green room of a Texas arena and played a riff which would become the song's opening, and was described by Eilish as the spark for their composing process. After three days of composition, they recorded a demo in October, inside a bunk in their tour bus as it was parked in a Texas arena. Finneas added that after they finished writing, the two listened to all the previous theme songs to ensure their originality, "make sure that we weren't making something that just felt like we were copying other great songs".


title: No Time to Die (song)

text: The demo was sent to Hans Zimmer's office in Los Angeles, and was the favorite of the prospect themes that he heard. On December 19, Eilish and Finneas flew to London to work with Zimmer, recording the song with a 70-person orchestra at George Martin's AIR Studios. Eilish said the process was more collaborative than she expected, and that "Hans was incredibly—like, easy to work with." Guitarist Johnny Marr, who was performing in Zimmer's score for the movie and was brought in to play in the song, declared that "we just kept coming back to 'reduce, reduce, reduce'", wanting something that reflected the musical simplicity of Eilish's usual output, where "the power is in the intensity of the performance." After seeing a rough cut of the film, Eilish decided to add in a climactic belting of the song's title.


title: No Time to Die (song)

text: Musically, "No Time to Die" is an orchestral pop ballad with R&B influences. The track runs at 74 BPM and is in the key of E minor. It runs at four minutes and two seconds. Eilish's vocals span E3 to D5, which include a belted B4. According to Roisin O'Connor of "The Independent", the song "features classic elements of the most memorable Bond themes including a slow build; a dark, shivery theme; and dramatic orchestration". Cassie Da Costa of "The Daily Beast" said the song "begins with moody, atmospheric piano music before Billie's pop-enunciated alto vibrato creeps in with depressive yet vague observations about love, loss, and violence". The song features orchestral arrangements by Hans Zimmer as well as Johnny Marr on guitar.


title: No Time to Die (song)

text: According to Sheldon Pearce of "Pitchfork", the lyrics reflect the "betrayal hinted at in the film's trailer and embody the tension of espionage". In the chorus of the song, Eilish sings about a lover's betrayal, more specifically, Bond's belief that Madeleine betrayed him: "Was I stupid to love you?/ Was I reckless to help?/Was it obvious to everybody else/That I'd fallen for a lie?/You were never on my side/Fool me once, fool me twice/Are you death or paradise?/Now you'll never see me cry/There's just no time to die."


title: No Time to Die (song)

text: Eilish was announced as the performer of the theme song for the 25th film in the "James Bond" franchise in January 2020, initially via the franchise's official Twitter account. Eilish called the opportunity "a huge honor", and O'Connell said they "feel so so lucky to play a small role in such a legendary franchise". "No Time to Die" director Cary Joji Fukunaga described himself as a fan of the duo, and the film's producers, Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli, said the song is "impeccably crafted". At the 92nd Academy Awards, Eilish said the ballad was "written" and "done".


title: No Time to Die (song)

text: Eilish performed the song live for the first time at the 2020 Brit Awards on February 18, 2020, alongside Finneas, Zimmer and Marr.


title: No Time to Die (song)

text: The official music video for "No Time to Die" was released on October 1, 2020. The video was shot in black-and-white clip and was directed by Daniel Kleinman, who has designed every title sequence for the "James Bond" series since 1995 (with the exception of "Quantum of Solace" in 2008). In the visual, it shows Eilish singing behind an old-fashioned microphone, as she stares into the camera interspersed with scenes from the film showing James Bond (Daniel Craig) and Madeleine Swann (Léa Seydoux) engaging in a love affair. The song also shows Safin in the opening scene, and Madeleine finding his shattered mask. Justin Curto, writing for "Vulture" magazine, mentions the video has "smokey lounge-singer vibes". Rachel McRady of "Entertainment Tonight" commented that it was clear that "Madeleine betrays 007 in some way as the video continuously shares shots of the agent looking distrustful as he gazes upon his ladylove".


title: No Time to Die (song)

text: Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" gave an overall positive review, stating that "No Time to Die" is a "confident", and "appealing addition to the Bond theme canon." Chris Willman, writing for "Variety", wrote that the track was one of the better James Bond themes to be written in the last 25 to 30 years. Roisin O'Connor of "The Independent" stated that "'No Time to Die' is one of the best Bond theme songs we've had in some time." Alexa Camp of "Slant Magazine" said, "the lush, darkly cinematic track falls in line with past 007 themes". Cassie Da Costa of "The Daily Beast" described the song as "not at the level" of Shirley Bassey's "Goldfinger" and Nancy Sinatra's "You Only Live Twice", and said it was certainly not "Eilish's best, but as of late, the Bond universe has been perfectly satisfied with good enough."


title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica

text: ' (English: "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy") often referred to as simply the ' (), is a book by Isaac Newton that expounds Newton's laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation. The "Principia" is written in Latin and comprises three volumes, and was first published on 5 July 1687.


text: The is considered one of the most important works in the history of science. The French mathematical physicist Alexis Clairaut assessed it in 1747: "The famous book of "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" marked the epoch of a great revolution in physics. The method followed by its illustrious author Sir Newton ... spread the light of mathematics on a science which up to then had remained in the darkness of conjectures and hypotheses."


text: A more recent assessment has been that while acceptance of Newton's laws was not immediate, by the end of the century after publication in 1687, "no one could deny that" (out of the ) "a science had emerged that, at least in certain respects, so far exceeded anything that had ever gone before that it stood alone as the ultimate exemplar of science generally".


text: The forms the foundation of classical mechanics. Among other achievements, it explains Johannes Kepler's laws of planetary motion, which Kepler had first obtained empirically. In formulating his physical laws, Newton developed and used mathematical methods now included in the field of calculus, expressing them in the form of geometric propositions about "vanishingly small" shapes. In a revised conclusion to the , Newton emphasized the empirical nature of the work with the expression "Hypotheses non fingo" ("I frame/feign no hypotheses").


text: After annotating and correcting his personal copy of the first edition, Newton published two further editions, during 1713 with errors of the 1687 corrected, and an improved version of 1726.


text: The "Principia" deals primarily with massive bodies in motion, initially under a variety of conditions and hypothetical laws of force in both non-resisting and resisting media, thus offering criteria to decide, by observations, which laws of force are operating in phenomena that may be observed. It attempts to cover hypothetical or possible motions both of celestial bodies and of terrestrial projectiles. It explores difficult problems of motions perturbed by multiple attractive forces. Its third and final book deals with the interpretation of observations about the movements of planets and their satellites.


text: The opening sections of the "Principia" contain, in revised and extended form, nearly all of the content of Newton's 1684 tract "De motu corporum in gyrum".


text: The "Principia" begin with "Definitions" and "Axioms or Laws of Motion", and continues in three books:


text: Book 1, subtitled "De motu corporum" ("On the motion of bodies") concerns motion in the absence of any resisting medium. It opens with a collection of mathematical lemmas on "the method of first and last ratios", a geometrical form of infinitesimal calculus.


text: The second section establishes relationships between centripetal forces and the law of areas now known as Kepler's second law (Propositions 1–3), and relates circular velocity and radius of path-curvature to radial force (Proposition 4), and relationships between centripetal forces varying as the inverse-square of the distance to the center and orbits of conic-section form (Propositions 5–10).


text: Propositions 11–31 establish properties of motion in paths of eccentric conic-section form including ellipses, and their relation with inverse-square central forces directed to a focus, and include Newton's theorem about ovals (lemma 28).


text: Propositions 43–45 are demonstration that in an eccentric orbit under centripetal force where the apse may move, a steady non-moving orientation of the line of apses is an indicator of an inverse-square law of force.


text: Book 1 contains some proofs with little connection to real-world dynamics. But there are also sections with far-reaching application to the solar system and universe:


text: Propositions 57–69 deal with the "motion of bodies drawn to one another by centripetal forces". This section is of primary interest for its application to the Solar System, and includes Proposition 66 along with its 22 corollaries: here Newton took the first steps in the definition and study of the problem of the movements of three massive bodies subject to their mutually perturbing gravitational attractions, a problem which later gained name and fame (among other reasons, for its great difficulty) as the three-body problem.


text: Propositions 70–84 deal with the attractive forces of spherical bodies. The section contains Newton's proof that a massive spherically symmetrical body attracts other bodies outside itself as if all its mass were concentrated at its centre. This fundamental result, called the Shell theorem, enables the inverse square law of gravitation to be applied to the real solar system to a very close degree of approximation.


text: Part of the contents originally planned for the first book was divided out into a second book, which largely concerns motion through resisting mediums. Just as Newton examined consequences of different conceivable laws of attraction in Book 1, here he examines different conceivable laws of resistance; thus discusses resistance in direct proportion to velocity, and goes on to examine the implications of resistance in proportion to the square of velocity. Book 2 also discusses (in ) hydrostatics and the properties of compressible fluids; Newton also derives Boyle's law. The effects of air resistance on pendulums are studied in , along with Newton's account of experiments that he carried out, to try to find out some characteristics of air resistance in reality by observing the motions of pendulums under different conditions. Newton compares the resistance offered by a medium against motions of globes with different properties (material, weight, size). In Section 8, he derives rules to determine the speed of waves in fluids and relates them to the density and condensation (Proposition 48; this would become very important in acoustics). He assumes that these rules apply equally to light and sound and estimates that the speed of sound is around 1088 feet per second and can increase depending on the amount of water in air.


text: Less of Book 2 has stood the test of time than of Books 1 and 3, and it has been said that Book 2 was largely written to refute a theory of Descartes which had some wide acceptance before Newton's work (and for some time after). According to Descartes's Cartesian theory of vortices, planetary motions were produced by the whirling of fluid vortices that filled interplanetary space and carried the planets along with them. Newton wrote at the end of Book 2 his conclusion that the hypothesis of vortices was completely at odds with the astronomical phenomena, and served not so much to explain as to confuse them.


text: Book 3, subtitled "De mundi systemate" ("On the system of the world"), is an exposition of many consequences of universal gravitation, especially its consequences for astronomy. It builds upon the propositions of the previous books, and applies them with further specificity than in Book 1 to the motions observed in the Solar System. Here (introduced by Proposition 22, and continuing in Propositions 25–35) are developed several of the features and irregularities of the orbital motion of the Moon, especially the variation. Newton lists the astronomical observations on which he relies, and establishes in a stepwise manner that the inverse square law of mutual gravitation applies to Solar System bodies, starting with the satellites of Jupiter and going on by stages to show that the law is of universal application. He also gives starting at Lemma 4 and Proposition 40 the theory of the motions of comets, for which much data came from John Flamsteed and Edmond Halley, and accounts for the tides, attempting quantitative estimates of the contributions of the Sun and Moon to the tidal motions; and offers the first theory of the precession of the equinoxes. Book 3 also considers the harmonic oscillator in three dimensions, and motion in arbitrary force laws.


text: In Book 3 Newton also made clear his heliocentric view of the Solar System, modified in a somewhat modern way, since already in the mid-1680s he recognised the "deviation of the Sun" from the centre of gravity of the Solar System. For Newton, "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World", and that this centre "either is at rest, or moves uniformly forward in a right line". Newton rejected the second alternative after adopting the position that "the centre of the system of the world is immoveable", which "is acknowledg'd by all, while some contend that the Earth, others, that the Sun is fix'd in that centre". Newton estimated the mass ratios Sun:Jupiter and Sun:Saturn, and pointed out that these put the centre of the Sun usually a little way off the common center of gravity, but only a little, the distance at most "would scarcely amount to one diameter of the Sun".


text: The sequence of definitions used in setting up dynamics in the "Principia" is recognisable in many textbooks today. Newton first set out the definition of mass


text: This was then used to define the "quantity of motion" (today called momentum), and the principle of inertia in which mass replaces the previous Cartesian notion of "intrinsic force". This then set the stage for the introduction of forces through the change in momentum of a body. Curiously, for today's readers, the exposition looks dimensionally incorrect, since Newton does not introduce the dimension of time in rates of changes of quantities.


text: He defined space and time "not as they are well known to all". Instead, he defined "true" time and space as "absolute" and explained:


text: To some modern readers it can appear that some dynamical quantities recognised today were used in the "Principia" but not named. The mathematical aspects of the first two books were so clearly consistent that they were easily accepted; for example, Locke asked Huygens whether he could trust the mathematical proofs, and was assured about their correctness.


text: However, the concept of an attractive force acting at a distance received a cooler response. In his notes, Newton wrote that the inverse square law arose naturally due to the structure of matter. However, he retracted this sentence in the published version, where he stated that the motion of planets is consistent with an inverse square law, but refused to speculate on the origin of the law. Huygens and Leibniz noted that the law was incompatible with the notion of the aether. From a Cartesian point of view, therefore, this was a faulty theory. Newton's defence has been adopted since by many famous physicists—he pointed out that the mathematical form of the theory had to be correct since it explained the data, and he refused to speculate further on the basic nature of gravity. The sheer number of phenomena that could be organised by the theory was so impressive that younger "philosophers" soon adopted the methods and language of the "Principia".


text: Perhaps to reduce the risk of public misunderstanding, Newton included at the beginning of Book 3 (in the second (1713) and third (1726) editions) a section titled "Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy". In the four rules, as they came finally to stand in the 1726 edition, Newton effectively offers a methodology for handling unknown phenomena in nature and reaching towards explanations for them. The four Rules of the 1726 edition run as follows (omitting some explanatory comments that follow each):


text: This section of Rules for philosophy is followed by a listing of "Phenomena", in which are listed a number of mainly astronomical observations, that Newton used as the basis for inferences later on, as if adopting a consensus set of facts from the astronomers of his time.


text: Both the "Rules" and the "Phenomena" evolved from one edition of the "Principia" to the next. Rule 4 made its appearance in the third (1726) edition; Rules 1–3 were present as "Rules" in the second (1713) edition, and predecessors of them were also present in the first edition of 1687, but there they had a different heading: they were not given as "Rules", but rather in the first (1687) edition the predecessors of the three later "Rules", and of most of the later "Phenomena", were all lumped together under a single heading "Hypotheses" (in which the third item was the predecessor of a heavy revision that gave the later Rule 3).


text: From this textual evolution, it appears that Newton wanted by the later headings "Rules" and "Phenomena" to clarify for his readers his view of the roles to be played by these various statements.


text: In the third (1726) edition of the "Principia", Newton explains each rule in an alternative way and/or gives an example to back up what the rule is claiming. The first rule is explained as a philosophers' principle of economy. The second rule states that if one cause is assigned to a natural effect, then the same cause so far as possible must be assigned to natural effects of the same kind: for example respiration in humans and in animals, fires in the home and in the Sun, or the reflection of light whether it occurs terrestrially or from the planets. An extensive explanation is given of the third rule, concerning the qualities of bodies, and Newton discusses here the generalisation of observational results, with a caution against making up fancies contrary to experiments, and use of the rules to illustrate the observation of gravity and space.


text: Isaac Newton's statement of the four rules revolutionised the investigation of phenomena. With these rules, Newton could in principle begin to address all of the world's present unsolved mysteries. He was able to use his new analytical method to replace that of Aristotle, and he was able to use his method to tweak and update Galileo's experimental method. The re-creation of Galileo's method has never been significantly changed and in its substance, scientists use it today.


text: The "General Scholium" is a concluding essay added to the second edition, 1713 (and amended in the third edition, 1726). It is not to be confused with the "General Scholium" at the end of Book 2, Section 6, which discusses his pendulum experiments and resistance due to air, water, and other fluids.


text: Here Newton used the expression hypotheses non fingo, "I formulate no hypotheses", in response to criticisms of the first edition of the "Principia". (""Fingo"" is sometimes nowadays translated "feign" rather than the traditional "frame," although "feign" does not properly translate "fingo"). Newton's gravitational attraction, an invisible force able to act over vast distances, had led to criticism that he had introduced "occult agencies" into science. Newton firmly rejected such criticisms and wrote that it was enough that the phenomena implied gravitational attraction, as they did; but the phenomena did not so far indicate the cause of this gravity, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things not implied by the phenomena: such hypotheses "have no place in experimental philosophy", in contrast to the proper way in which "particular propositions are inferr'd from the phenomena and afterwards rendered general by induction".


text: Newton also underlined his criticism of the vortex theory of planetary motions, of Descartes, pointing to its incompatibility with the highly eccentric orbits of comets, which carry them "through all parts of the heavens indifferently".


text: Newton also gave theological argument. From the system of the world, he inferred the existence of a god, along lines similar to what is sometimes called the argument from intelligent or purposive design. It has been suggested that Newton gave "an oblique argument for a unitarian conception of God and an implicit attack on the doctrine of the Trinity". The General Scholium does not address or attempt to refute the church doctrine; it simply does not mention Jesus, the Holy Ghost, or the hypothesis of the Trinity.


text: In January 1684, Edmond Halley, Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke had a conversation in which Hooke claimed to not only have derived the inverse-square law but also all the laws of planetary motion. Wren was unconvinced, Hooke did not produce the claimed derivation although the others gave him time to do it, and Halley, who could derive the inverse-square law for the restricted circular case (by substituting Kepler's relation into Huygens' formula for the centrifugal force) but failed to derive the relation generally, resolved to ask Newton.


text: Halley's visits to Newton in 1684 thus resulted from Halley's debates about planetary motion with Wren and Hooke, and they seem to have provided Newton with the incentive and spur to develop and write what became "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica". Halley was at that time a Fellow and Council member of the Royal Society in London (positions that in 1686 he resigned to become the Society's paid Clerk). Halley's visit to Newton in Cambridge in 1684 probably occurred in August. When Halley asked Newton's opinion on the problem of planetary motions discussed earlier that year between Halley, Hooke and Wren, Newton surprised Halley by saying that he had already made the derivations some time ago; but that he could not find the papers. (Matching accounts of this meeting come from Halley and Abraham De Moivre to whom Newton confided.) Halley then had to wait for Newton to "find" the results, and in November 1684 Newton sent Halley an amplified version of whatever previous work Newton had done on the subject. This took the form of a 9-page manuscript, "De motu corporum in gyrum" ("Of the motion of bodies in an orbit"): the title is shown on some surviving copies, although the (lost) original may have been without a title.


text: Newton's tract "De motu corporum in gyrum", which he sent to Halley in late 1684, derived what is now known as the three laws of Kepler, assuming an inverse square law of force, and generalised the result to conic sections. It also extended the methodology by adding the solution of a problem on the motion of a body through a resisting medium. The contents of "De motu" so excited Halley by their mathematical and physical originality and far-reaching implications for astronomical theory, that he immediately went to visit Newton again, in November 1684, to ask Newton to let the Royal Society have more of such work. The results of their meetings clearly helped to stimulate Newton with the enthusiasm needed to take his investigations of mathematical problems much further in this area of physical science, and he did so in a period of highly concentrated work that lasted at least until mid-1686.


text: Newton's single-minded attention to his work generally, and to his project during this time, is shown by later reminiscences from his secretary and copyist of the period, Humphrey Newton. His account tells of Isaac Newton's absorption in his studies, how he sometimes forgot his food, or his sleep, or the state of his clothes, and how when he took a walk in his garden he would sometimes rush back to his room with some new thought, not even waiting to sit before beginning to write it down. Other evidence also shows Newton's absorption in the "Principia": Newton for years kept up a regular programme of chemical or alchemical experiments, and he normally kept dated notes of them, but for a period from May 1684 to April 1686, Newton's chemical notebooks have no entries at all. So it seems that Newton abandoned pursuits to which he was formally dedicated, and did very little else for well over a year and a half, but concentrated on developing and writing what became his great work.


text: The first of the three constituent books was sent to Halley for the printer in spring 1686, and the other two books somewhat later. The complete work, published by Halley at his own financial risk, appeared in July 1687. Newton had also communicated "De motu" to Flamsteed, and during the period of composition, he exchanged a few letters with Flamsteed about observational data on the planets, eventually acknowledging Flamsteed's contributions in the published version of the "Principia" of 1687.


text: The process of writing that first edition of the "Principia" went through several stages and drafts: some parts of the preliminary materials still survive, while others are lost except for fragments and cross-references in other documents.


text: Surviving materials show that Newton (up to some time in 1685) conceived his book as a two-volume work. The first volume was to be titled "De motu corporum, Liber primus", with contents that later appeared in extended form as Book 1 of the "Principia".


text: A fair-copy draft of Newton's planned second volume "De motu corporum, Liber Secundus" survives, its completion dated to about the summer of 1685. It covers the application of the results of "Liber primus" to the Earth, the Moon, the tides, the Solar System, and the universe; in this respect, it has much the same purpose as the final Book 3 of the "Principia", but it is written much less formally and is more easily read.


text: It is not known just why Newton changed his mind so radically about the final form of what had been a readable narrative in "De motu corporum, Liber Secundus" of 1685, but he largely started afresh in a new, tighter, and less accessible mathematical style, eventually to produce Book 3 of the "Principia" as we know it. Newton frankly admitted that this change of style was deliberate when he wrote that he had (first) composed this book "in a popular method, that it might be read by many", but to "prevent the disputes" by readers who could not "lay aside the[ir] prejudices", he had "reduced" it "into the form of propositions (in the mathematical way) which should be read by those only, who had first made themselves masters of the principles established in the preceding books". The final Book 3 also contained in addition some further important quantitative results arrived at by Newton in the meantime, especially about the theory of the motions of comets, and some of the perturbations of the motions of the Moon.


text: The result was numbered Book 3 of the "Principia" rather than Book 2 because in the meantime, drafts of "Liber primus" had expanded and Newton had divided it into two books. The new and final Book 2 was concerned largely with the motions of bodies through resisting mediums.


text: But the "Liber Secundus" of 1685 can still be read today. Even after it was superseded by Book 3 of the "Principia", it survived complete, in more than one manuscript. After Newton's death in 1727, the relatively accessible character of its writing encouraged the publication of an English translation in 1728 (by persons still unknown, not authorised by Newton's heirs). It appeared under the English title "A Treatise of the System of the World". This had some amendments relative to Newton's manuscript of 1685, mostly to remove cross-references that used obsolete numbering to cite the propositions of an early draft of Book 1 of the "Principia". Newton's heirs shortly afterwards published the Latin version in their possession, also in 1728, under the (new) title "De Mundi Systemate", amended to update cross-references, citations and diagrams to those of the later editions of the "Principia", making it look superficially as if it had been written by Newton after the "Principia", rather than before. The "System of the World" was sufficiently popular to stimulate two revisions (with similar changes as in the Latin printing), a second edition (1731), and a "corrected" reprint of the second edition (1740).


text: The text of the first of the three books of the "Principia" was presented to the Royal Society at the close of April 1686. Hooke made some priority claims (but failed to substantiate them), causing some delay. When Hooke's claim was made known to Newton, who hated disputes, Newton threatened to withdraw and suppress Book 3 altogether, but Halley, showing considerable diplomatic skills, tactfully persuaded Newton to withdraw his threat and let it go forward to publication. Samuel Pepys, as president, gave his imprimatur on 30 June 1686, licensing the book for publication. The Society had just spent its book budget on "De Historia piscium", and the cost of publication was borne by Edmund Halley (who was also then acting as publisher of the "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society"): the book appeared in summer 1687. After Halley had personally financed the publication of "Principia", he was informed that the society could no longer afford to provide him the promised annual salary of £50. Instead, Halley was paid with leftover copies of "De Historia piscium".


text: Nicolaus Copernicus had moved the Earth away from the center of the universe with the heliocentric theory for which he presented evidence in his book "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" ("On the revolutions of the heavenly spheres") published in 1543. Johannes Kepler wrote the book "Astronomia nova" ("A new astronomy") in 1609, setting out the evidence that planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus, and that planets do not move with constant speed along this orbit. Rather, their speed varies so that the line joining the centres of the sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times. To these two laws he added a third a decade later, in his 1619 book "Harmonices Mundi" ("Harmonies of the world"). This law sets out a proportionality between the third power of the characteristic distance of a planet from the Sun and the square of the length of its year.


text: The foundation of modern dynamics was set out in Galileo's book "Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo" ("Dialogue on the two main world systems") where the notion of inertia was implicit and used. In addition, Galileo's experiments with inclined planes had yielded precise mathematical relations between elapsed time and acceleration, velocity or distance for uniform and uniformly accelerated motion of bodies.


text: Descartes' book of 1644 "Principia philosophiae" ("Principles of philosophy") stated that bodies can act on each other only through contact: a principle that induced people, among them himself, to hypothesize a universal medium as the carrier of interactions such as light and gravity—the aether. Newton was criticized for apparently introducing forces that acted at distance without any medium. Not until the development of particle theory was Descartes' notion vindicated when it was possible to describe all interactions, like the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental interactions, using mediating gauge bosons and gravity through hypothesized gravitons.


text: Newton had studied these books, or, in some cases, secondary sources based on them, and taken notes entitled "Quaestiones quaedam philosophicae" ("Questions about philosophy") during his days as an undergraduate. During this period (1664–1666) he created the basis of calculus, and performed the first experiments in the optics of colour. At this time, his proof that white light was a combination of primary colours (found via prismatics) replaced the prevailing theory of colours and received an overwhelmingly favourable response, and occasioned bitter disputes with Robert Hooke and others, which forced him to sharpen his ideas to the point where he already composed sections of his later book "Opticks" by the 1670s in response. Work on calculus is shown in various papers and letters, including two to Leibniz. He became a fellow of the Royal Society and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics (succeeding Isaac Barrow) at Trinity College, Cambridge.


text: In the 1660s Newton studied the motion of colliding bodies, and deduced that the centre of mass of two colliding bodies remains in uniform motion. Surviving manuscripts of the 1660s also show Newton's interest in planetary motion and that by 1669 he had shown, for a circular case of planetary motion, that the force he called "endeavour to recede" (now called centrifugal force) had an inverse-square relation with distance from the center. After his 1679–1680 correspondence with Hooke, described below, Newton adopted the language of inward or centripetal force. According to Newton scholar J. Bruce Brackenridge, although much has been made of the change in language and difference of point of view, as between centrifugal or centripetal forces, the actual computations and proofs remained the same either way. They also involved the combination of tangential and radial displacements, which Newton was making in the 1660s. The difference between the centrifugal and centripetal points of view, though a significant change of perspective, did not change the analysis. Newton also clearly expressed the concept of linear inertia in the 1660s: for this Newton was indebted to Descartes' work published 1644.


text: Hooke published his ideas about gravitation in the 1660s and again in 1674. He argued for an attracting principle of gravitation in "Micrographia" of 1665, in a 1666 Royal Society lecture "On gravity", and again in 1674, when he published his ideas about the "System of the World" in somewhat developed form, as an addition to "An Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth from Observations". Hooke clearly postulated mutual attractions between the Sun and planets, in a way that increased with nearness to the attracting body, along with a principle of linear inertia. Hooke's statements up to 1674 made no mention, however, that an inverse square law applies or might apply to these attractions. Hooke's gravitation was also not yet universal, though it approached universality more closely than previous hypotheses. Hooke also did not provide accompanying evidence or mathematical demonstration. On these two aspects, Hooke stated in 1674: "Now what these several degrees [of gravitational attraction] are I have not yet experimentally verified" (indicating that he did not yet know what law the gravitation might follow); and as to his whole proposal: "This I only hint at present", "having my self many other things in hand which I would first compleat, and therefore cannot so well attend it" (i.e., "prosecuting this Inquiry").


text: In November 1679, Hooke began an exchange of letters with Newton, of which the full text is now published. Hooke told Newton that Hooke had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, and wished to hear from members about their researches, or their views about the researches of others; and as if to whet Newton's interest, he asked what Newton thought about various matters, giving a whole list, mentioning "compounding the celestial motions of the planets of a direct motion by the tangent and an attractive motion towards the central body", and "my hypothesis of the lawes or causes of springinesse", and then a new hypothesis from Paris about planetary motions (which Hooke described at length), and then efforts to carry out or improve national surveys, the difference of latitude between London and Cambridge, and other items. Newton's reply offered "a fansy of my own" about a terrestrial experiment (not a proposal about celestial motions) which might detect the Earth's motion, by the use of a body first suspended in air and then dropped to let it fall. The main point was to indicate how Newton thought the falling body could experimentally reveal the Earth's motion by its direction of deviation from the vertical, but he went on hypothetically to consider how its motion could continue if the solid Earth had not been in the way (on a spiral path to the centre). Hooke disagreed with Newton's idea of how the body would continue to move. A short further correspondence developed, and towards the end of it Hooke, writing on 6 January 1680 to Newton, communicated his "supposition ... that the Attraction always is in a duplicate proportion to the Distance from the Center Reciprocall, and Consequently that the Velocity will be in a subduplicate proportion to the Attraction and Consequently as Kepler Supposes Reciprocall to the Distance." (Hooke's inference about the velocity was actually incorrect.)


text: In 1686, when the first book of Newton's "Principia" was presented to the Royal Society, Hooke claimed that Newton had obtained from him the "notion" of "the rule of the decrease of Gravity, being reciprocally as the squares of the distances from the Center". At the same time (according to Edmond Halley's contemporary report) Hooke agreed that "the Demonstration of the Curves generated therby" was wholly Newton's.


text: A recent assessment about the early history of the inverse square law is that "by the late 1660s", the assumption of an "inverse proportion between gravity and the square of distance was rather common and had been advanced by a number of different people for different reasons". Newton himself had shown in the 1660s that for planetary motion under a circular assumption, force in the radial direction had an inverse-square relation with distance from the center. Newton, faced in May 1686 with Hooke's claim on the inverse square law, denied that Hooke was to be credited as author of the idea, giving reasons including the citation of prior work by others before Hooke. Newton also firmly claimed that even if it had happened that he had first heard of the inverse square proportion from Hooke, which it had not, he would still have some rights to it in view of his mathematical developments and demonstrations, which enabled observations to be relied on as evidence of its accuracy, while Hooke, without mathematical demonstrations and evidence in favour of the supposition, could only guess (according to Newton) that it was approximately valid "at great distances from the center".


text: The background described above shows there was basis for Newton to deny deriving the inverse square law from Hooke. On the other hand, Newton did accept and acknowledge, in all editions of the "Principia", that Hooke (but not exclusively Hooke) had separately appreciated the inverse square law in the Solar System. Newton acknowledged Wren, Hooke and Halley in this connection in the Scholium to Proposition 4 in Book 1. Newton also acknowledged to Halley that his correspondence with Hooke in 1679–80 had reawakened his dormant interest in astronomical matters, but that did not mean, according to Newton, that Hooke had told Newton anything new or original: "yet am I not beholden to him for any light into that business but only for the diversion he gave me from my other studies to think on these things & for his dogmaticalness in writing as if he had found the motion in the Ellipsis, which inclined me to try it ...".) Newton's reawakening interest in astronomy received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680/1681, on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed.


text: In 1759, decades after the deaths of both Newton and Hooke, Alexis Clairaut, mathematical astronomer eminent in his own right in the field of gravitational studies, made his assessment after reviewing what Hooke had published on gravitation. "One must not think that this idea ... of Hooke diminishes Newton's glory", Clairaut wrote; "The example of Hooke" serves "to show what a distance there is between a truth that is glimpsed and a truth that is demonstrated".


text: It has been estimated that as many as 750 copies of the first edition were printed by the Royal Society, and "it is quite remarkable that so many copies of this small first edition are still in existence ... but it may be because the original Latin text was more revered than read". A survey published in 1953 located 189 surviving copies with nearly 200 further copies located by the most recent survey published in 2020, suggesting that the initial print run was larger than previously thought. However, more recent book historical and bibliographical research has examined those prior claims, and concludes that Macomber's earlier estimation of 500 copies is likely correct.


text: A facsimile edition (based on the 3rd edition of 1726 but with variant readings from earlier editions and important annotations) was published in 1972 by Alexandre Koyré and I. Bernard Cohen.


text: Two later editions were published by Newton: Newton had been urged to make a new edition of the "Principia" since the early 1690s, partly because copies of the first edition had already become very rare and expensive within a few years after 1687. Newton referred to his plans for a second edition in correspondence with Flamsteed in November 1694. Newton also maintained annotated copies of the first edition specially bound up with interleaves on which he could note his revisions; two of these copies still survive, but he had not completed the revisions by 1708. Newton had almost severed connections with one would-be editor, Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, and another, David Gregory seems not to have met with his approval and was also terminally ill, dying in 1708. Nevertheless, reasons were accumulating not to put off the new edition any longer. Richard Bentley, master of Trinity College, persuaded Newton to allow him to undertake a second edition, and in June 1708 Bentley wrote to Newton with a specimen print of the first sheet, at the same time expressing the (unfulfilled) hope that Newton had made progress towards finishing the revisions. It seems that Bentley then realised that the editorship was technically too difficult for him, and with Newton's consent he appointed Roger Cotes, Plumian professor of astronomy at Trinity, to undertake the editorship for him as a kind of deputy (but Bentley still made the publishing arrangements and had the financial responsibility and profit). The correspondence of 1709–1713 shows Cotes reporting to two masters, Bentley and Newton, and managing (and often correcting) a large and important set of revisions to which Newton sometimes could not give his full attention. Under the weight of Cotes' efforts, but impeded by priority disputes between Newton and Leibniz, and by troubles at the Mint, Cotes was able to announce publication to Newton on 30 June 1713. Bentley sent Newton only six presentation copies; Cotes was unpaid; Newton omitted any acknowledgement to Cotes.


text: Among those who gave Newton corrections for the Second Edition were: Firmin Abauzit, Roger Cotes and David Gregory. However, Newton omitted acknowledgements to some because of the priority disputes. John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal, suffered this especially.


text: The Second Edition was the basis of the first edition to be printed abroad, which appeared in Amsterdam in 1714.


text: The third edition was published 25 March 1726, under the stewardship of "Henry Pemberton, M.D., a man of the greatest skill in these matters..."; Pemberton later said that this recognition was worth more to him than the two hundred guinea award from Newton.


text: In 1739–1742, two French priests, Pères Thomas LeSeur and François Jacquier (of the Minim order, but sometimes erroneously identified as Jesuits), produced with the assistance of J.-L. Calandrini an extensively annotated version of the "Principia" in the 3rd edition of 1726. Sometimes this is referred to as the "Jesuit edition": it was much used, and reprinted more than once in Scotland during the 19th century.


text: Émilie du Châtelet also made a translation of Newton's "Principia" into French. Unlike LeSeur and Jacquier's edition, hers was a complete translation of Newton's three books and their prefaces. She also included a Commentary section where she fused the three books into a much clearer and easier to understand summary. She included an analytical section where she applied the new mathematics of calculus to Newton's most controversial theories. Previously, geometry was the standard mathematics used to analyse theories. Du Châtelet's translation is the only complete one to have been done in French and hers remains the standard French translation to this day.


text: Four full English translations of Newton's "Principia" have appeared, all based on Newton's 3rd edition of 1726. The first, from 1729, by Andrew Motte, was described by Newton scholar I. Bernard Cohen (in 1968) as "still of enormous value in conveying to us the sense of Newton's words in their own time, and it is generally faithful to the original: clear, and well written". The 1729 version was the basis for several republications, often incorporating revisions, among them a widely used modernised English version of 1934, which appeared under the editorial name of Florian Cajori (though completed and published only some years after his death). Cohen pointed out ways in which the 18th-century terminology and punctuation of the 1729 translation might be confusing to modern readers, but he also made severe criticisms of the 1934 modernised English version, and showed that the revisions had been made without regard to the original, also demonstrating gross errors "that provided the final impetus to our decision to produce a wholly new translation".


text: The second full English translation, into modern English, is the work that resulted from this decision by collaborating translators I. Bernard Cohen, Anne Whitman, and Julia Budenz; it was published in 1999 with a guide by way of introduction.


text: The third such translation is due to Ian Bruce, and appears, with many other translations of mathematical works of the 17th and 18th centuries, on his website.


text: Dana Densmore and William H. Donahue have published a translation of the work's central argument, published in 1996, along with expansion of included proofs and ample commentary. The book was developed as a textbook for classes at St. John's College and the aim of this translation is to be faithful to the Latin text.


text: In 2014, British astronaut Tim Peake named his upcoming mission to the International Space Station "Principia" after the book, in "honour of Britain's greatest scientist". Tim Peake's "Principia" launched on December 15, 2015 aboard Soyuz TMA-19M.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: Mangal Pandey was an Indian soldier who played a key part in the events immediately preceding the outbreak of the Indian rebellion of 1857. He was a sepoy (infantryman) in the 34th Bengal Native Infantry (BNI) regiment of the British East India Company. In 1984, the Indian government issued a postage stamp to remember him. His life and actions have also been portrayed in several cinematic productions.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: Mangal Pandey was born in Nagwa, a village of upper Ballia district, Ceded and Conquered Provinces (now in Uttar Pradesh), to a Hindu Brahmin family.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: Mangal Pandey had joined the Bengal Army in 1849. In March 1857, he was a private soldier (sepoy) in the 5th Company of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: On the afternoon of 29 March 1857, Lieutenant Baugh, Adjutant of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry, then stationed at Barrackpore was informed that several men of his regiment were in an excited state. Further, it was reported to him that one of them, Mangal Pandey, was pacing in front of the regiment's guard room by the parade ground, armed with a loaded musket, calling upon the men to rebel and threatening to shoot the first European that he set eyes on. Testimony at a subsequent enquiry recorded that Pandey, unsettled by unrest amongst the sepoys and intoxicated by the narcotic bhang, had seized his weapons and run to the quarter-guard building upon learning that a detachment of British soldiers was disembarking from a steamer near the cantonment.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: Baugh immediately armed himself and galloped on his horse to the lines. Pandey took position behind the station gun, which was in front of the quarter-guard of the 34th, took aim at Baugh and fired. He missed Baugh, but the bullet struck his horse in the flank bringing both the horse and its rider down. Baugh quickly disentangled himself and, seizing one of his pistols, advanced towards Pandey and fired. He missed. Before Baugh could draw his sword, Pandey attacked him with a "talwar" (a heavy Indian sword) and closing with the adjutant, slashed Baugh on the shoulder and neck and brought him to the ground. It was then that another sepoy, Shaikh Paltu, intervened and tried to restrain Pandey even as he tried to reload his musket.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: A British Sergeant-Major named Hewson had arrived on the parade ground, summoned by a native officer, before Baugh. He had ordered Jemadar Ishwari Prasad, the Indian officer in command of the quarter-guard, to arrest Pandey. To this, the "jemadar" stated that his NCOs had gone for help and that he could not take Pandey by himself. In response Hewson ordered Ishwari Prasad to fall in the guard with loaded weapons. In the meantime, Baugh had arrived on the field shouting 'Where is he? Where is he?' Hewson in reply called out to Baugh, 'Ride to the right, sir, for your life. The sepoy will fire at you!' At that point Pandey fired.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: Hewson had charged towards Pandey as he was fighting with Lieutenant Baugh. While confronting Pandey, Hewson was knocked to the ground from behind by a blow from Pandey's musket. The sound of the firing had brought other sepoys from the barracks; they remained mute spectators. At this juncture, Shaikh Paltu, while trying to defend the two Englishmen called upon the other sepoys to assist him. Assailed by sepoys who threw stones and shoes at his back, Shaikh Paltu called on the guard to help him hold Pandey, but they threatened to shoot him if he did not let go of the mutineer.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: Some of the sepoys of the quarter-guard then advanced and struck at the two prostrate officers. They then threatened Shaikh Paltu and ordered him to release Pandey, whom he had been vainly trying to hold back. However, Paltu continued to hold Pandey until Baugh and the sergeant-major was able to get up. Himself wounded by now, Paltu was obliged to loosen his grip. He backed away in one direction and Baugh and Hewson in another, while being struck with the butt ends of the guards' muskets.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: In the meantime, a report of the incident had been carried to the commanding officer General Hearsey, who then galloped to the ground with his two officer sons. Taking in the scene, he rode up to the guard, drew his pistol and ordered them to do their duty by seizing Mangal Pandey. The General threatened to shoot the first man who disobeyed. The men of the quarter-guard fell in and followed Hearsey towards Pandey. Pandey then put the muzzle of the musket to his chest and discharged it by pressing the trigger with his foot. He collapsed bleeding, with his regimental jacket on fire, but not mortally wounded.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: Pandey recovered and was brought to trial less than a week later. When asked whether he had been under the influence of any substances, he stated steadfastly that he had mutinied on his own accord and that no other person had played any part in encouraging him. He was sentenced to death by hanging, along with Jemadar Ishwari Prasad, after three Sikh members of the quarter-guard testified that the latter had ordered them not to arrest Pandey.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: Mangal Pandey's execution took place on 8 April. Jemadar Ishwari Prasad was executed by hanging on 21 April.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: The 34th B.N.I. Regiment was disbanded "with disgrace" on 6 May as a collective punishment, after an investigation by the government, for failing to perform their duty in restraining a mutinous soldier and their officer. That came after a period of six weeks while petitions for leniency were examined in Calcutta. Sepoy Shaikh Paltu was promoted to havildar (sergeant) for his behavior on 29 March but he was murdered in an isolated part of the Barrackpore cantonment shortly before the regiment was disbanded.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: The Indian historian Surendra Nath Sen notes that the 34th B.N.I. had a good recent record and that the Court of Enquiry had not found any evidence of a connection with unrest at Berhampore involving the 19th B.N.I. four weeks before (see below). However, Mangal Pandey's actions and the failure of the armed and on-duty sepoys of the quarter-guard to take action convinced the British military authorities that the whole regiment was unreliable. It appeared that Pandey had acted without first taking other sepoys into his confidence but that antipathy towards their British officers within the regiment had led most of those present to act as spectators, rather than obey orders.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: The personal motivation behind Mangal Pandey's behaviour remains confused. During the incident itself he shouted to other sepoys: "come out – the Europeans are here"; "from biting these cartridges we shall become infidels" and "you sent me out here, why don't you follow me". At his court-martial, he stated that he had been taking bhang and opium, and was not conscious of his actions on 29 March.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: There were a wide range of factors causing apprehension and mistrust in the Bengal Army immediately prior to the Barrackpore event. Pandey's reference to cartridges is usually attributed to a new type of bullet cartridge used in the Enfield P-53 rifle which was to be introduced in the Bengal Army that year. The cartridge was thought to be greased with animal fat, primarily from cows and pigs, which could not be consumed by Hindus and Muslims respectively (the former a holy animal of the Hindus and the latter being abhorrent to Muslims). The cartridges had to be bitten at one end before use. The Indian troops in some regiments were of the opinion that this was an intentional act of the British, with the aim of defiling their religions.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: Colonel S. Wheeler of the 34th B.N.I. was known as a zealous Christian preacher. The wife of Captain William Halliday of the 56th B.N.I. had the Bible printed in Urdu and Hindi and distributed among the sepoys, thus raising suspicions amongst them that the British were intent on converting them to Christianity.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: The 19th and 34th Bengal Native Infantry were stationed at Lucknow during the time of the annexation of Oudh in 1856 because of alleged misgovernment by the Nawab. The annexation had negative implications for sepoys in the Bengal Army (a significant portion of whom came from that princely state). Before the annexation, these sepoys had the right to petition the British Resident at Lucknow for justice — a significant privilege in the context of native courts. As a result of the East India Company's action, they lost that special status, since Oudh no longer existed as a nominally independent political entity.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: The 19th B.N.I. is important because it was the regiment charged with testing the new cartridges on 26 February 1857. However, right up to the mutiny the new rifles had not been issued to them, and the cartridges in the magazine of the regiment were as free of grease as they had been through the preceding half-century. The paper used in wrapping the cartridges was of a different colour, arousing suspicions. The non-commissioned officers of the regiment refused to accept the cartridges on 26 February. This information was conveyed to the commanding officer, Colonel William Mitchell; he took it upon himself to try to convince the sepoys that the cartridges were no different from those they had been accustomed to and that they need not bite it. He concluded his exhortation with an appeal to the native officers to uphold the honour of the regiment and a threat to court-martial such sepoys as refused to accept the cartridge. However, the next morning the sepoys of the regiment seized their bell of arms (weapons store). The subsequent conciliatory behaviour of Mitchell convinced the sepoys to return to their barracks.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: A Court of Enquiry was ordered which, after an investigation which lasted nearly a month, recommended the disbanding of the 19th B.N.I. The same was carried out on 31 March. The 19th B.N.I. were allowed to retain items of uniform and were provided by the government with allowances to return to their homes. Both Colonel Mitchell of the 19th B.N.I. and (subsequent to the incident of 29 March) Colonel Wheeler of Pandey's 34th B.N.I. were declared unsuited to take charge of any new regiments raised to replace the disbanded units.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: The attack by and punishment of Pandey is widely seen as the opening scene of what came to be known as the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Knowledge of his action was widespread amongst his fellow sepoys and is assumed to have been one of the factors leading to the general series of mutinies that broke out during the following months. Mangal Pandey would prove to be influential for later figures in the Indian Nationalist Movement like V.D. Savarkar, who viewed his motive as one of the earliest manifestations of Indian Nationalism. Modern Indian nationalists portray Pandey as the mastermind behind a conspiracy to revolt against the British, although a recently published analysis of events immediately preceding the outbreak concludes that "there is little historical evidence to back up any of these revisionist interpretations".


title: Mangal Pandey

text: During the rebellion that followed, Pandee or Pandey became the derogatory term used by British soldiers and civilians when referring to a mutinous sepoy. This was a direct derivation from the name of Mangal Pandey.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: A film based on the sequence of events that led up to the mutiny entitled "" starring Indian actor, Aamir Khan along with Rani Mukerji, Amisha Patel and Toby Stephens, directed by Ketan Mehta was released on 12 August 2005.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: The life of Pandey was the subject of a stage play titled "The Roti Rebellion", which was written and directed by Supriya Karunakaran. The play was organized by Sparsh, a theatre group, and presented in June 2005 at The Moving Theatre at Andhra Saraswat Parishad, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: Samad Iqbal, a fictional descendant of Mangal Pandey, is a central character in Zadie Smith's debut novel "White Teeth". Pandey is an important influence on Samad's life and is repeatedly referenced and investigated by the novel's characters.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: The Government of India commemorated Pandey by issuing a postage stamp bearing his image on 5 October 1984. The stamp and the accompanying first-day cover were designed by Delhi-based artist C. R. Pakrashi.


title: Mangal Pandey

text: A park named "Shaheed Mangal Pandey Maha Udyan" has been set up at Barrackpore to commemorate the place where Pandey attacked British officers and was subsequently hanged.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Contact dermatitis is a type of acute or chronic inflammation of the skin caused by exposure to chemical or physical agents. Symptoms of contact dermatitis can include itchy or dry skin, a red rash, bumps, blisters, or swelling. These rashes are not contagious or life-threatening, but can be very uncomfortable.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Contact dermatitis results from either exposure to allergens (allergic contact dermatitis), or irritants (irritant contact dermatitis). Allergic contact dermatitis involves a delayed type of hypersensitivity and previous exposure to an allergen to produce a reaction. Irritant contact dermatitis is the most common type and represents 80% of all cases. It is caused by prolonged exposure to irritants, leading to direct injury of the epidermal cells of the skin, which activates an immune response, resulting in an inflammatory cutaneous reaction. Phototoxic dermatitis occurs when the allergen or irritant is activated by sunlight. Diagnosis of allergic contact dermatitis can often be supported by patch testing.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Contact dermatitis constitutes 95% of all occupational skin disorders. There are few accurate statistics on the incidence and prevalence of contact dermatitis. The results of the few studies that have been undertaken cannot be compared because of methodological differences.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Contact dermatitis is a localized rash or irritation of the skin caused by contact with a foreign substance. Only the superficial regions of the skin are affected in contact dermatitis. Inflammation of the affected tissue is present in the epidermis (the outermost layer of skin) and the outer dermis (the layer beneath the epidermis).


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Contact dermatitis results in large, burning, and itchy rashes. These can take anywhere from several days to weeks to heal. This differentiates it from contact urticaria (hives), in which a rash appears within minutes of exposure and then fades away within minutes to hours. Even after days, contact dermatitis fades only if the skin no longer comes in contact with the allergen or irritant. Chronic contact dermatitis can develop when the removal of the offending agent no longer provides expected relief.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Irritant dermatitis is usually confined to the area where the trigger actually touched the skin, whereas allergic dermatitis may be more widespread on the skin. Irritant dermatitis usually found on hands whereas exposed areas of skin. Symptoms of both forms include the following:


title: Contact dermatitis

text: While either form of contact dermatitis can affect any part of the body, irritant contact dermatitis often affects the hands, which have been exposed by resting in or dipping into a container (sink, pail, tub, swimming pools with high chlorine) containing the irritant.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: The percentage of cases attributable to occupational contact dermatitis varies substantially depending on the industries that predominate, the employment that people have, the risks to which they are exposed, the centers that record cases, and variances in defining and confirming diagnoses.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Common causes of allergic contact dermatitis include: nickel allergy, 14K or 18K gold, Balsam of Peru ("Myroxylon pereirae"), and chromium. In the Americas they include the oily coating from plants of the genus "Toxicodendron": poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac. Millions of cases occur each year in North America alone. The alkyl resorcinols in "Grevillea banksii" and "Grevillea" 'Robyn Gordon' are responsible for contact dermatitis. Bilobol, another alkyl resorcinol found in "Ginkgo biloba" fruits, is also a strong skin irritant.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Common causes of irritant contact dermatitis include solvents, metalworking fluids, latex, kerosene, ethylene oxide, paper, especially papers coated with chemicals and printing inks, certain foods and drink, food flavorings and spices, perfume, surfactants in topical medications and cosmetics, alkalis, low humidity from air conditioning, and many plants. Other common causes of irritant contact dermatitis are harsh alkaline soaps, detergents, and cleaning products.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: There are three types of contact dermatitis: irritant contact dermatitis; allergic contact dermatitis; and photocontact dermatitis. Photocontact dermatitis is divided into two categories: phototoxic and photoallergic.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: The irritant's direct cytotoxic impact on epidermal keratinocytes causes Irritant contact dermatitis. This disrupts the skin barrier and activates the innate immune system. Keratinocytes in the epidermis can be actually affected by irritants. It is a complicated reaction that is influenced by genetic and environmental elements, both of which have a role in the pathogenesis of the disease. It can be seen in both occupational and non-occupational environments but it's more common in the occupations dealing in low humidity conditions.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Irritant contact dermatitis (ICD) can be divided into forms caused by chemical irritants, and those caused by physical irritants. Common chemical irritants implicated include: solvents (alcohol, xylene, turpentine, esters, acetone, ketones, and others); metalworking fluids (neat oils, water-based metalworking fluids with surfactants); latex; kerosene; ethylene oxide; surfactants in topical medications and cosmetics (sodium lauryl sulfate); and alkalis (drain cleaners, strong soap with lye residues).


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Physical irritant contact dermatitis may most commonly be caused by low humidity from air conditioning. Also, many plants directly irritate the skin.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) is accepted to be the most prevalent form of immunotoxicity found in humans, and is a common occupational and environmental health problem. By its allergic nature, this form of contact dermatitis is a hypersensitive reaction that is atypical within the population. The development of the disease occurs in two phases, which are induction and elicitation. The process of skin sensitization begins when a susceptible subject is exposed to the allergen in sufficient concentration to elicit the required cutaneous immune response. This causes sensitization and when exposure to the same allergen at a later time at the same or different skin site leads to a secondary immune response at the point of contact. The mechanisms by which this reaction occurs are complex, with many levels of fine control. Their immunology centres on the interaction of immunoregulatory cytokines and discrete subpopulations of T lymphocytes.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Allergens include nickel, gold, Balsam of Peru ("Myroxylon pereirae"), chromium, and the oily coating from plants of the genus "Toxicodendron", such as poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac. Acrylates, rubber chemicals, emulsifiers and dyes, epoxy resin chemicals are just several of the substances that might induce Allergic Contact Dermatitis. Much of the allergic contact dermatitis that arises is caused by occupational exposure. Non-occupational exposure to allergens in medicaments, clothing, cosmetics, and plants are also a significant cause of allergic contact dermatitis.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Sometimes termed "photoaggravated", and divided into two categories, phototoxic and photoallergic, PCD is the eczematous condition which is triggered by an interaction between an otherwise unharmful or less harmful substance on the skin and ultraviolet light (320–400 nm UVA) (ESCD 2006), therefore manifesting itself only in regions where the affected person has been exposed to such rays.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Without the presence of these rays, the photosensitiser is not harmful. For this reason, this form of contact dermatitis is usually associated only with areas of skin that are left uncovered by clothing, and it can be soundly defeated by avoiding exposure to sunlight. The mechanism of action varies from toxin to toxin, but is usually due to the production of a photoproduct. Toxins which are associated with PCD include the psoralens. Psoralens are in fact used therapeutically for the treatment of psoriasis, eczema, and vitiligo.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Photocontact dermatitis is another condition in which the distinction between forms of contact dermatitis is not clear-cut. Immunological mechanisms can also play a part, causing a response similar to ACD.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Since contact dermatitis relies on an irritant or an allergen to initiate the reaction, it is important for the patient to identify the responsible agent and avoid it. This can be accomplished by having patch tests, one of various methods commonly known as allergy testing. The patch tests were based on the concept of a type IV hypersensitivity reaction where there is exposure of allergens to skin and checking for the development of contact dermatitis in that area. This test involves the application of suspected irritant to a part of the skin and cover it with impermeable material and attached to the skin with the help of adhesive plaster. The top three allergens found in patch tests from 2005 to 2006 were: nickel sulfate (19.0%), Myroxylon pereirae (Balsam of Peru, 11.9%), and fragrance mix I (11.5%).


title: Contact dermatitis

text: The patient must know where the irritant or allergen is found to be able to avoid it. It is important to also note that chemicals sometimes have several different names, and do not always appear on labels.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: The distinction between the various types of contact dermatitis is based on a number of factors. The morphology of the tissues, the histology, and immunologic findings are all used in diagnosis of the form of the condition. However, as suggested previously, there is some confusion in the distinction of the different forms of contact dermatitis. Using histology on its own is insufficient, as these findings have been acknowledged not to distinguish, and even positive patch testing does not rule out the existence of an irritant form of dermatitis as well as an immunological one.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: In an industrial setting the employer has a duty of care to its worker to provide the correct level of safety equipment to mitigate exposure to harmful irritants. This can take the form of protective clothing, gloves, or barrier cream, depending on the working environment. It is impossible to eliminate the complete exposure to harmful irritants but can be avoided using the multidimensional approach. The multidimensional approach includes eight basic elements to follow. They are:


title: Contact dermatitis

text: Topical antibiotics should not be used to prevent infection in wounds after surgery. When they are used, it is inappropriate, and the person recovering from surgery is at significantly increased risk of developing contact dermatitis.


title: Contact dermatitis

text: If the rash does not improve or continues to spread after 2–3 of days of self-care, or if the itching and/or pain is severe, the patient should contact a dermatologist or other physician. Medical treatment usually consists of lotions, creams, or oral medications.


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: "Rocket Man" (officially titled "Rocket Man (I Think It's Going to Be a Long, Long Time)") is a song written by English musician Elton John and songwriter Bernie Taupin, and performed by John. It was originally released on 17 April 1972 in the US, as the lead single to John's album "Honky Château". The song first charted in the UK on 22 April, rising to 2 in the UK Singles Chart and No. 6 in the US "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming a major hit single for John.


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: On 21 January 2022, the song was certified double platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for sales and streams of 1,200,000 digital downloads and streaming equivalent sales. With sales of 3 million in the US the song was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). "Rolling Stone" lists it at No. 149 of its 500 greatest songs of all time.


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: The song has been covered by many artists, most notably by Kate Bush in 1991 with a reggae-tinged version, and by Portuguese singer David Fonseca in 2007. John himself, alongside producer Pnau and singer Dua Lipa, included the song in his 2021 mashup single "Cold Heart (Pnau remix)". William Shatner's unintentionally funny spoken-word version from 1978 has been widely parodied.


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: The song was inspired by the short story "The Rocket Man" in "The Illustrated Man" by Ray Bradbury, and echoes the theme of David Bowie's 1969 song "Space Oddity" (both recordings were produced by Gus Dudgeon). Taupin has denied that the Bowie song was an inspiration, but has acknowledged borrowing from Pearls Before Swine's 1970 "Rocket Man," written by Tom Rapp, which was also influenced by the Bradbury story. According to an account in Elizabeth Rosenthal's book "His Song: The Musical Journey of Elton John", the song was inspired by Taupin's sighting of either a shooting star or a distant aeroplane.


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: The song describes a Mars-bound astronaut's mixed feelings at leaving Earth to do his job. Rosenthal's account goes on to relate that the notion of astronauts no longer being perceived as heroes, but in fact as an "everyday occupation", led Taupin to the song's opening lines: "She packed my bags last night, pre-flight. Zero hour: 9 a.m. And I'm gonna be high as a kite by then."


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: Musically, the song is a highly arranged classical rock ballad anchored by piano, with atmospheric texture added by synthesizer (played on the recording by engineer Dave Hentschel) and slide guitar. It is also known for being one of the first songs in John's catalogue to feature what would become the signature backing vocal combination of his band at the time, Dee Murray, Nigel Olsson and Davey Johnstone.


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: The first stanza of "Rocket Man" was thought of by Bernie Taupin while he was on the motorway heading to his parents' home; he had to "repeat it to himself for two hours," which was "unfortunate", but in later interviews he said that since it gave him a hit, it was all worthwhile.


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: "Rocket Man" was ranked No. 242 in the 2004 list of "Rolling Stone's" 500 Greatest Songs of All Time; it was ranked No. 245 in the list's 2010 revision, and 149 in the 2021 revision.


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: The song has been a staple of John's concerts. Among numerous other performances, John played "Rocket Man" at the launch site of Space Shuttle "Discovery" in 1998. In tribute to David Bowie after his death in January 2016, John performed a piano rendition that combined "Rocket Man" with Bowie's "Space Oddity".


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: In May 2017, an official music video for "Rocket Man" premiered at the Cannes Film Festival as a winner of "Elton John: The Cut", a competition organised in partnership with AKQA, Pulse Films, and YouTube in honour of the fiftieth anniversary of his songwriting relationship with Bernie Taupin. The competition called upon independent filmmakers to submit treatments for music videos for one of three Elton John songs from the 1970s, with each song falling within a specific concept category. "Rocket Man" was designated for the animation category, and was co-directed by Iranian refugee Majid Adin and Irish animation director Stephen McNally; the video was inspired by Adin's own migration to England, portraying a character envisioning himself as an astronaut to draw parallels between the song's lyrics and the experiences of a refugee.


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: In 2003, Universal Records released both a 12-inch vinyl (promotional only) & CD maxi-single with three new remixes of the song:


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: Of these, "Rocket Man 03" was also included on the Rocket/Island/Mercury EP "Remixed," along with four other remixes of Elton recordings.


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: English singer-songwriter Kate Bush released a cover of "Rocket Man" (with the subtitle "I Think It's Going to Be a Long, Long Time") in 1991 as part of the Elton John/Bernie Taupin tribute album "". Her reggae-inflected version of "Rocket Man" was a commercial success, reaching No. 12 on the UK Singles Chart and No. 2 in Australia. In 2007, the track won "The Observer" readers' award for Greatest Cover of all time. The B-side of the single was Bush's recording of another Elton John classic, "Candle in the Wind."


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: Upon its release, Ian Gittins of "Melody Maker" described it as a "real curio" as Bush's "ickle-girl quaver is applied as liberally as Elt's cod space-epic is unexpectedly white-reggaed up behind her". Stephen Dalton of "NME" was negative in his review, noting Bush's "ill-advised decision" to "croon breathily over an abysmal 'reggae' arrangement".


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: Portuguese singer David Fonseca released his version of the song as a single in Portugal, reaching No. 12 in the Portuguese Top 20. The song, full title "Rocket Man (I Think It's Going To Be A Long, Long Time)", also appears on Fonseca's third album "Dreams in Colour" released in 2007 and on the "Dreams in Colour: Tour Edition" released in 2008. The music video was directed by Fonseca himself. Fonseca also regularly performs the single live in his concerts.


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: At the 5th Saturn Awards Ceremony, which aired as the "Science Fiction Film Awards" in January 1978, Taupin introduced William Shatner's spoken word interpretation of the song. It used chroma key video techniques to simultaneously portray three different images of Shatner, representing the different facets of the Rocket Man's character.


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: The performance gained notoriety as the most well-known example of Shatner's interpretive spoken word cover versions, and has often been used for mockery or as an unintentionally funny novelty. It was parodied on the U.S. animated series "Animaniacs", "Family Guy", "Freakazoid!", "Futurama", "The Simpsons, "the Canadian CGI series "ReBoot", and in the video for "Where It's At" by Beck. On a 1992 episode of "Late Night with David Letterman", Chris Elliott parodied Shatner's performance, complete with chroma key effects.


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: Shatner re-recorded the song for his 2011 album, "Seeking Major Tom". In his book "What Were They Thinking? The 100 Dumbest Events in Television History", author David Hofstede ranked Shatner's performance at No. 17 on the list.


title: Rocket Man (song)

text: Elton John and Dua Lipa's 2021 collaborative song "Cold Heart" samples "Rocket Man" for its chorus, along with snippets of other Elton John songs. It topped the charts in the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand, reached No. 2 in Ireland, and peaked at No. 7 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Jockstrap

text: A jockstrap, also a jock (male), jill (female), strap, cup, groin guard, pelvic protector (female), supporter, or athletic supporter, is an undergarment for protecting the testes and penis or vulva during contact sports or other vigorous physical activity. This article deals chiefly with the genital protective sports gear designed for the male body, colloquially known as a "jock".


title: Jockstrap

text: A jockstrap (males) consists of a waistband (usually elastic) with a support pouch for the genitalia and two elastic straps affixed to the base of the pouch and to the left and right sides of the waistband at the hip. The pouch, in some varieties, may be fitted with a pocket to hold an abdominal guard (impact resistant cup, box) to protect the testicles and the penis from injury.


title: Jockstrap

text: The jillstrap ( a "jill") is the female equivalent of the jockstrap, but is designed to protect the vulva from getting struck.


title: Jockstrap

text: The word "jockstrap" has purportedly been in use at least since 1891, a likely contraction of "jockey strap", as the garment was first designed for bicycle-riding messengers and deliverymen, or 'bike jockeys'. The Bike Jockey Strap was the first jockstrap manufactured in America in 1874.


title: Jockstrap

text: Jockey meaning 'rider', primarily a race horse rider, has been in use since 1670. Jockey itself is the diminutive form of the Scots nickname Jock (for John) as Jackie is for the English nickname Jack. The nicknames Jack and Jackie, Jock and Jockey have been used generically for 'man, fellow, boy, common man'. From the period "c".1650–"c."1850, 'jock' was used as slang for penis.


title: Jockstrap

text: The more recent American slang term 'jock', meaning an athlete, is traced to 1959 and is itself derived from 'jockstrap'.


title: Jockstrap

text: The jockstrap was invented in 1874 by C. F. Bennett of a Chicago sporting goods company, Sharp & Smith, to provide comfort and support for bicycle jockeys working the cobblestone streets of Boston. The original incarnation of the jockstrap resembled a thong, as it featured a strap that went between the buttocks. In 1897 Bennett's newly formed Bike Web Company patented and began mass-producing the Bike Jockey Strap. The Bike Web Company later became known as the Bike Company. Bike, until 2003, was a stand-alone company. In that year, the company and its trademarks were purchased by Russell Athletic. Russell Athletic continued to produce jockstraps using the Bike brand and logos until 2017 when they retired the brand. Russell had become a Fruit-of-the-Loom subsidiary, and Fruit-of-the-Loom is owned by and part of Berkshire Hathaway. On April 15, 2021, the brand's website reopened for online sales, featuring a modernized version of their trademark "No. 10" jockstrap, as well as active apparel.


title: Jockstrap

text: The jockstrap was also influential in early 20th-century medicine with the invention of the Heidelberg Electric Belt, a low-voltage electric powered jockstrap that claimed to cure kidney disorders, insomnia, erectile dysfunction, and other ailments. Today, jockstraps are still worn in the US by adolescent and adult men for sports, weightlifting, medical purposes, and for recovery from injury or surgery for such conditions as hematocele, inguinal hernia, hydrocele, or spermatocele.


title: Jockstrap

text: In 2022, jockstraps saw a renewed popularity as underwear for men, the usage of which became a fashionable trend. The trend was reflected with the inclusion of the garment in the runways of various major designers including, Calvin Klein, JW Anderson, Gucci, and Rick Owens, alongside other large brands like Adidas, Diesel, and 2(x)ist making multiple styles.


title: Jockstrap

text: Jockstraps are fairly consistent in design with variations appearing in details like width of waistband and fabrics. Some jockstraps are designed for specific sports: "Swim jocks", for example, have a narrow waistband, and "hockey jocks" sometimes have adjustable elastic straps and garter clips that hold hockey socks in place while the bulky goalie protector has genital and abdominal foam padding. "Windproof jockstraps" have a special layer of fabric to protect the wearer from wind and cold in winter sports. Jockstraps are made in other materials as fetish wear. Aside from the aforementioned "fashion jockstraps", the 2000s have seen a resurgence in jockstrap designs and brands.


title: Jockstrap

text: Alternatives to jockstraps include the "jock brief", or "support briefs", which have the wide waistband of a jockstrap combined with a full seat and are made of an elastic supportive material. A thong style strap, sometimes called a "dance belt", has one narrow elastic strap attached to the bottom of the pouch, passing between the legs and attaching to the waistband at the middle of the back. A strapless garment, called a "jock sock" or sometimes a "slingshot", has only an elastic waist band with an elastic pouch that holds the genitals from the front.


title: Jockstrap

text: In Europe, from the time of the Middle Ages, undergarments available were limited to a loose fitting trouser-like piece of clothing called a braies. This article of clothing was stepped into and then laced or tied around the waist and legs at about mid-calf and provided no support to the male genitals. This allowed the scrotum unlimited movement under clothing and resulted in injury from carts, carriages with wooden planks for seats or the saddle as the body took all of the force of the motion. The "suspensory" was developed around the early 1820s as a way to lift the scrotum away from the plank seat and saddle thereby preventing injury while in a cart, carriage or horseback riding. Today the "suspensory" is used primarily as a medical device after genital surgery to aid in post operative healing. General Custer's suspensory can be seen in the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument museum, near Crow Agency Montana.


title: Jockstrap

text: Optional "cups" offer additional protection for contact sports and are made of hard plastic or steel, perforated for ventilation. A more flexible and comfortable "soft cup" is also offered for low contact sports. A "flex cup" variation features a hard exterior melded with a soft lining.


title: Jockstrap

text: A similar piece of protective equipment in the sport of cricket is known as a "box". In cricket, a box is usually worn by only a batsman, a wicket-keeper, and sometimes other close-up fielders. For fielders farther from the batsman, the wearing of a box would impede their movement and running (for batsmen the benefits outweigh the disadvantages).


title: Jockstrap

text: An abdominal guard (also called "compression cup", "box", or "L Guard") is a hard usually plastic cup that is inserted in a jockstrap to protect male genitalia. Some jockstraps have a lined front pouch for this purpose. The abdominal guard is usually constructed from high density plastic with a padded edge, shaped like a hollow half-pear, and inserted into the jockstrap or jockstrap-style underwear of the batsmen and wicket-keeper. This is used to protect the genitals against impact from the ball.


title: Jockstrap

text: Many sports require the use of an athletic cup. These include cricket, fencing, martial arts, boxing, lacrosse, hockey, baseball, paintball, football and many others.


title: Jockstrap

text: Fashion jocks often incorporate soft-lined front pouches or they may be designed to bring the male genitalia forwards or upwards. The purpose of these modifications is to enhance the masculine appearance of the wearer. Wearers of fashion jocks may also wear abdominal guards for the same purpose.


title: Jockstrap

text: With the decline in the use of jockstraps in sports, the use of the necessary abdominal guard has also declined despite the safety implications. Typically cups are worn in the pouch of a jockstrap which may be double-lined to hold the cup, or in compression shorts or sport-specific briefs.


title: Jockstrap

text: Cups for some combat sports (e.g. mixed martial arts, kick boxing) have a waistband and straps attached directly to the cup designed to be worn over a regular jockstrap or briefs. Some sports such as boxing use an oversized cup and jock combined into a single item which has layered foam padding that protects the groin, kidneys and abdomen.


title: Jockstrap

text: Cups offer protection for contact sports. They are usually made of hard plastic or steel and perforated for ventilation. A more flexible and comfortable soft cup is also offered for low-contact sports such as soccer. A flex cup variation features a hard exterior cup with a soft cups lining.


title: Jockstrap

text: The pelvic protector is the female equivalent of the male jockstrap. It is currently unclear who was responsible for the first invention of the female pelvic protector. It is designed to protect the female genitalia from bruising or tearing. The area protected includes the entire vulva, including the clitoris, the clitoral hood and the delicate labia minora which protrude from the vulva in some women and are therefore especially vulnerable to bruising from impact. It is also occasionally nicknamed a "jill" or "jillstrap". Women wear the garment during contact sports or activities. The garment cups around the genitals and is usually reinforced with rigid material.


title: Jockstrap

text: Since the 1950s and 60s, some gay men use jockstraps as an erotic attire, particularly those belonging to the leather and BDSM subcultures. The garment has become especially popular between gay men and LGBT+ individuals in the 2020s, with major brands producing rainbow-coloured, Pride-themed jockstraps.


title: Puneeth Rajkumar filmography

text: Puneeth Rajkumar was an Indian actor known for his work in Kannada films. As a six-month-old infant, he made a cameo appearance in V. Somashekar's "Premada Kanike" (1976) and followed it with "Sanaadi Appanna" (1977) when he was a year old. Most of his earlier films had his father Rajkumar playing his reel father as well. Films like "Thayige Thakka Maga", "Vasantha Geetha" and "Bhagyavantha" followed up which also showcased his singing skills. For the N. Lakshminarayan film "Bettada Hoovu" he was awarded the National Film Award for Best Child Artist. He ended his childhood appearances with the action film "Parashuram".


title: Puneeth Rajkumar filmography

text: Puneeth's first leading role came opposite Rakshita in "Appu" (2002), a highly successful romantic drama directed by Puri Jagannadh. This was followed by "Abhi" opposite Ramya in 2003, and "Veera Kannadiga" and "Maurya" in 2004. All these films were commercially successful and established him as one of the leading actors in Kannada cinema. He was known for his versatile stunts, especially his backflips. His superhuman flexibility was attributed by some to his Idiga background, who were agile toddy tappers.


title: Puneeth Rajkumar filmography

text: Puneeth's first award-winning performance came through the film "Arasu" for which he won the Filmfare award and his next release "Milana" got him the Karnataka State Film Award. His other major successes include "Jackie", "Hudugaru", "Rana Vikrama", "Raajakumara" and "Natasaarvabhowma, Yuvarathnaa.


title: Ghost ship

text: A ghost ship, also known as a phantom ship, is a vessel with no living crew aboard; it may be a fictional ghostly vessel, such as the "Flying Dutchman", or a physical derelict found adrift with its crew missing or dead, like the "Mary Celeste". The term is sometimes used for ships that have been decommissioned but not yet scrapped, as well as drifting boats that have been found after breaking loose of their ropes and becoming carried away by the wind or the waves.


title: Shah Alam II

text: Shah Alam II (; 25 June 1728 – 19 November 1806), also known by his birth name Ali Gohar (or Ali Gauhar), was the seventeenth Mughal Emperor and the son of Alamgir II. Shah Alam II became the emperor of a crumbling Mughal empire. His power was so depleted during his reign that it led to a saying in the Persian language, "Sultanat-e-Shah Alam, Az Dilli ta Palam", meaning, 'The empire of Shah Alam is from Delhi to Palam', Palam being a suburb of Delhi.


title: Shah Alam II

text: Shah Alam faced many invasions, mainly by the Emir of Afghanistan, Ahmed Shah Abdali, which led to the Third Battle of Panipat between the Maratha Empire, who maintained suzerainty over Mughal affairs in Delhi and the Afghans led by Abdali. In 1760, the invading forces of Abdali were driven away by the Marathas, led by Sadashivrao Bhau, who deposed Shah Jahan III, the puppet Mughal emperor of Imad-ul-Mulk, and installed Shah Alam II as the rightful emperor (17601772).


title: Shah Alam II

text: Shah Alam II was considered the only and rightful emperor, but he was unable to return to Delhi until 1772, under the protection of the Maratha general Mahadaji Shinde. He also fought against the East India Company at the Battle of Buxar. In 1788, when he was a prisoner of Ghulam Qadir, he was blinded.


title: Shah Alam II

text: Shah Alam II authored his own "Diwan" of poems and was known by the pen-name "Aftab". His poems were guided, compiled and collected by Mirza Fakhir Makin.


title: Shah Alam II

text: Shah Alam also penned famous book Ajaib-ul-Qasas which is considered one of the earliest and prominent book of prose in Urdu.


title: Shah Alam II

text: Ali Gohar was born to Shahzada (Prince) Aziz-ud-Din, son of the deposed Mughal Emperor Jahandar Shah, on 25 June 1728. Alongside his father, he grew up in semi-captivity in the Salatin quarters of the Red Fort. However, unlike the majority of Mughal princes growing up in similar circumstances, he is not recorded to have become a decadent prince by the time his father became emperor, and therefore was naturally given high appointments in the course of his father's reign.


title: Shah Alam II

text: Upon his father's accession, he became the Wali al-Ahd (Crown Prince) of the empire, and became his father's principal agent, though almost all power lay in the Wazir Imad-ul-Mulk's hand. His quarrels with that amir, and fear for his own life, caused him to flee from Delhi in 1758.


title: Shah Alam II

text: Prince Ali Gauhar, afterwards Emperor Shah Alam II, had been the heir apparent of his father Alamgir II. Prince Ali Gauhar's father had been appointed Mughal Emperor by Vizier Imad-ul-Mulk and Maratha Peshwa's cousin Sadashivrao Bhau.


title: Shah Alam II

text: Prince Ali Gauhar organized a militia and made a daring escape from Delhi. He appeared in the Eastern Subah in 1759, hoping to strengthen his position by attempting to regaining control over Bengal, Bihar and Odisha.


title: Shah Alam II

text: Very soon however, Najib-ud-Daula forced the usurper Imad-ul-Mulk to flee from the capital by gathering a large Mughal Army outside Delhi. He used the army to depose the recreant Shah Jahan III. Najib-ud-Daula and Muslim nobles then planned to defeat the Marathas by maintaining correspondence with the powerful Ahmad Shah Durrani. After Durrani decisively defeated the Marathas, he nominated Ali Gauhar as the emperor under the name Shah Alam II.


title: Shah Alam II

text: In 1760, after Shah Alam's militia gaining control over pockets in Bengal, Bihar and parts of Odisha, Prince Ali Gauhar and his Mughal Army of 30,000 intended to overthrow Mir Jafar and Imad-ul-Mulk after they tried to capture or kill him by advancing towards Awadh and Patna in 1759. But the conflict soon involved the intervention of the assertive East India Company.


title: Shah Alam II

text: The Mughals clearly intended to recapture their breakaway Eastern Subah led by Prince Ali Gauhar, who was accompanied by a Militia consisting of persons like Muhammad Quli Khan, Kadim Husein, Kamgar Khan, Hidayat Ali, Mir Afzal and Ghulam Husain Tabatabai. Their forces were reinforced by the forces of Shuja-ud-Daula, Najib-ud-Daula and Ahmad Khan Bangash. The Mughals were also joined by Jean Law and 200 Frenchmen and waged a campaign against the British during the Seven Years' War.


title: Shah Alam II

text: Prince Ali Gauhar successfully advanced as far as Patna, which he later besieged with a combined army of over 40,000 in order to capture or kill Ramnarian a sworn enemy of the Mughals. Mir Jafar was in terror at the near demise of his cohort and sent his own son Miran to relieve Ramnarian and retake Patna. Mir Jafar also implored the aid of Robert Clive, but it was Major John Caillaud, who dispersed Prince Ali Gauhar's army in 1761 after four major battles including Battle of Patna, Battle of Sirpur, Battle of Birpur and Battle of Siwan.


title: Shah Alam II

text: After negotiations assuring peace Shah Alam II was escorted by the British to meet Mir Qasim the new Nawab of Bengal, who was nominated after the sudden death of Miran. Mir Qasim soon had the Mughal Emperor's investiture as Subedar of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha, and agreed to pay an annual revenue of 2.4 million "dam". Shah Alam II then retreated to Allahabad was protected by the Shuja-ud-Daula, Nawab of Awadh from 1761 until 1764. Meanwhile, Mir Qasim's relations with the East India company began to worsen. He initiated reforms that withdrew the tax exemption enjoyed by the East India Company, he also ousted Ramnarian a sworn enemy of the Mughal Empire and created Firelock manufacturing factories at Patna with the sole purpose of giving advantage to the newly reformed Mughal Army.


title: Shah Alam II

text: Angered by these developments the East India Company sought his ouster. Court intrigues encouraged by the East India Company forced Mir Qasim to leave Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. Mir Qasim on his part encouraged Shuja-ud-Daula the Nawab of Awadh and Shah Alam II to engage the British.


title: Shah Alam II

text: Shah Alam II was acknowledged emperor by the Durrani Empire. His declared reign extended to the 24 Parganas of the Sundarbans, Mir Qasim, Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad (and Bihar),"Raja of Banares", Nizam of Hyderabad, Nawab of Ghazipur, Sahib of Punjab, Hyder Ali's Mysore, Nawab of Kadapa and Nawab of Kurnool, Nawab of the Carnatic of Arcot and Nellore, Nawab of Junagarh, Rohilkhand of Lower Doab, Rohilkhand of Upper Doab, and Nawab of Bhawalpur.