title: Harmonica

text: In 1898, the harmonica was brought to Japan, where the Tremolo harmonica was the most popular instrument. After about 30 years, the Japanese developed scale tuning and semitone harmonicas that could play Japanese folk songs.


title: Harmonica

text: In Europe and the United States, tremolo harmonica uses the Richter tuning, developed in Germany. In 1913, Shōgo Kawaguchi (), known in Japan as the "Father of the harmonica", devised an alternate tuning, which is more suited to playing Japanese folk tunes. This tuning is also suited to local music throughout East Asia, and harmonicas using the tuning became popular in the region.


title: Harmonica

text: Initial diatonic harmonica tunings were major key only. In 1931, Hiderō Satō () announced the development of a minor key harmonica. There are two types of minor key tunings, "natural minor" suitable for folk and contemporary music, and Latin American music, and the "harmonic minor" suitable for some famous Japanese pieces.


title: Harmonica

text: The harmonica started to gain popularity in Hong Kong in the 1930s. Individual tremolo harmonica players from China moved to Hong Kong and established numerous harmonica organizations such as The Chinese Y.M.C.A. Harmonica Orchestra, the China Harmonica Society, and the Heart String Harmonica Society. During the 1950s, chromatic harmonica became popular in Hong Kong, and players such as Larry Adler and John Sebastian Sr. were invited to perform.


title: Harmonica

text: Local players such as Lau Mok () and Fung On () promoted the chromatic harmonica. The chromatic harmonica gradually became the main instrument used by the Chinese Y.M.C.A. Harmonica Orchestra. The Chinese YMCA Harmonica Orchestra started in the 1960s, with 100 members, most of whom played harmonicas. Non-harmonica instruments were also used, such as double bass, accordion, piano, and percussion such as timpani and xylophone.


title: Harmonica

text: In the 1970s, the Haletone Harmonica Orchestra () was set up at Wong Tai Sin Community Centre. Fung On and others continued to teach harmonica and also set up harmonica orchestras. In the 1980s, numbers of harmonica students steadily decreased. In the 1990s, harmonica players from Hong Kong began to participate in international harmonica competitions, including the World Harmonica Festival in Germany and the Asia Pacific Harmonica Festival. In the 2000s, the Hong Kong Harmonica Association (H.K.H.A.) () was established.


title: Harmonica

text: The history of the harmonica in Taiwan began around 1945. By the 1980s, though, as living standards improved, many instruments once beyond the budgets of most Taiwanese started to become more accessible and popular in preference to the harmonica.


title: Harmonica

text: Playing the harmonica requires inhaling and exhaling strongly against resistance. This action helps develop a strong diaphragm and deep breathing using the entire lung volume. Pulmonary specialists have noted that playing the harmonica resembles the kind of exercise used to rehabilitate COPD patients such as using a PFLEX inspiratory muscle trainer or the inspiratory spirometer. Learning to play a musical instrument also offers motivation in addition to the exercise component. Many pulmonary rehabilitation programs therefore have begun to incorporate the harmonica.


title: Harmonica

text: When President Ronald Reagan suffered a punctured lung in the 1981 attempt on his life, his breathing therapist was Howard McDonald, of the Cambridge Harmonica Orchestra. Orchestra director Pierre Beauregard had hoped that Reagan's therapeutic harmonica experience would help them get a chance to play at the White House, but this never occurred.


title: Harmonica

text: The concertina, diatonic and chromatic accordions and the melodica are all free-reed instruments that developed alongside the harmonica. Indeed, the similarities between harmonicas and so-called "diatonic" accordions or melodeons is such that in German the name for the former is "Mundharmonika" and the latter "Handharmonika," which translate as "mouth harmonica" and "hand harmonica." In Scandinavian languages, an accordion is called variants of "trekkspill" (pull play) or "trekkharmonika" whereas a harmonica is called "munnspill" (mouth play) or "mundharmonika" (mouth harmonica). The names for the two instruments in the Slavic languages are also either similar or identical. The harmonica shares similarities to all other free-reed instruments by virtue of the method of sound production.


title: Harmonica

text: The glass harmonica has the word "harmonica" in its name, but it is not related to free-reed instruments. The glass harmonica is a musical instrument formed from a nested set of graduated glass cups mounted sideways on an axle. Each of the glass cups is tuned to a different note, and they are arranged in a scalar order. It is played by touching the rotating cups with wetted fingers, causing them to vibrate and produce a sustained "singing" tone.


title: Murder Mystery 2

text: Murder Mystery 2 is an upcoming American comedy mystery film directed by Jeremy Garelick and written by James Vanderbilt. It is a sequel to the 2019 film "Murder Mystery", and stars Adam Sandler and Jennifer Aniston. It is scheduled to be released by Netflix.


title: Murder Mystery 2

text: In October 2019, it was announced that a sequel to "Murder Mystery" was in development with Adam Sandler and Jennifer Aniston reprising their roles. In August 2021, Jeremy Garelick was hired as director, from a script by James Vanderbilt, with filming of the sequel to take place in Paris and in the Caribbean. Sandler and Aniston had confirmed their returns during the September 2021 Tudum Global Fan Event.


title: Murder Mystery 2

text: In January 2022, it was reported that Adeel Akhtar and John Kani would be reprising their roles from the first film, with Mark Strong, Mélanie Laurent, Jodie Turner-Smith, Kuhoo Verma, Enrique Arce, Tony Goldwyn, Annie Mumolo and Zurin Villanueva joining the film as newcomers.


title: Murder Mystery 2

text: Principal photography began in January 2022, in Hawaii. Production started in February 2022. Filming wrapped on April 8, 2022, in Paris, France.


title: King Abdulaziz International Airport

text: King Abdulaziz International Airport (KAIA) () is an international airport serving Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, also known as "Jeddah International Airport"().


title: King Abdulaziz International Airport

text: The airport is the third-largest and the busiest airport of Saudi Arabia, serving more than 41 million passengers in 2018. Named after the founder of Saudi Arabia, King Abdulaziz Al Saud, the airport was inaugurated in 1981, serves the highest number of international travellers, and is the largest hub for Saudi Arabia's flag carrier, Saudia. The airport provides facilities required for the service of pilgrims and those who visit the country to perform Umrah. It has three operational passenger terminals: the North Terminal, the Hajj Terminal, and the new Terminal 1. The Hajj Terminal was specially built for Muslim pilgrims going to Mecca annually on the Hajj. The fourth terminal, which is the South terminal, was converted into a COVID-19 vaccine center in 2020.


title: King Abdulaziz International Airport

text: The airport occupies an area of . Beside the airport proper, this includes a royal terminal, facilities of King Abdullah Air Base for the Royal Saudi Air Force, and housing for airport staff. Construction work on KAIA airport began in 1974, and was finalized in 1980. Finally, on 31 May 1981, the airport opened for service after being officially inaugurated in April 1981.


title: King Abdulaziz International Airport

text: In 2019, the new Terminal 1 at King Abdulaziz International Airport had a soft opening with a number of domestic flights transferred to operate from it. With a floor area of , the new terminal is considered one of the largest airport terminal buildings of its kind in the world. Visitors and passengers will enjoy a number of facilities including new lounges, an central garden area and a transport center that links between the building and the car park and train station. Moreover, the terminal houses a huge aquarium with in diameter and in height as well as a capacity of million litres of water. Furthermore, a mosque with a capacity of 3,732 worshippers has been established in the airport. In August 2019, the airport started moving a number of international flights operated by Saudia to the new terminal, and on the 18th of November, Etihad became the first non-Saudi airline to move to the new facility.


title: King Abdulaziz International Airport

text: Because of Jeddah's proximity to the city of Mecca, the airport has a dedicated Hajj Terminal, built to handle pilgrims taking part in the rituals associated with the annual Hajj. It can accommodate 80,000 travelers at the same time.


title: King Abdulaziz International Airport

text: Designed by the Bangladeshi-American engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan of the architectural firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP (SOM), it is known for its tent-like roof structure, engineered by Horst Berger while part of Geiger Berger Associates. Ten modules, each consisting of twenty-one "tents" of white colored Teflon-coated fiberglass fabric suspended from pylons, are grouped together into two blocks of five modules and separated by a landscaped mall between the blocks. Only customs, baggage handling and similar facilities are located in an air-conditioned building. The vast majority of the complex, called "Terminal Support Area", is a flexible, open area, conceived to function like a village, complete with souk (market) and mosque. Not enclosed by walls, this area is sheltered from the intense sun while allowing for natural ventilation; because of this, some consider it to be a green, environmentally-friendly building.


title: King Abdulaziz International Airport

text: The Hajj Terminal received the Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 1983. According to the jury, "the brilliant and imaginative design of the roofing system met the awesome challenge of covering this vast space with incomparable elegance and beauty."


title: King Abdulaziz International Airport

text: Jeddah-KAIA airport serves as a major hub for Saudia who originally had the exclusive use of the South Terminal. In 2007, however, the Saudi carriers Flynas and Sama Airlines were also given permission to use it. Due to the closure of Sama Airlines, the terminal was only used by Saudia and Flynas. The terminal is now also used by Flyadeal and Garuda Indonesia. The North Terminal at Jeddah airport is used by all other foreign airlines. The South terminal, is currently used for domestic flights. Meanawhile, Terminal 1 is currently used for International Flights.


title: King Abdulaziz International Airport

text: The new King Abdulaziz International Airport three-stage development started in 2006, and is currently scheduled for an official opening in mid 2019. However, as of 2018 local flights have been landing at the airport. The project is designed to increase the airport's yearly capacity from 13 million to 80 million passengers.


title: King Abdulaziz International Airport

text: The expansion includes a brand-new passenger terminal building, a 136-meter tall air traffic control (ATC) tower (the largest in the world), airfield hard-standing and paved areas, lighting, fuel network systems, electronic passenger guidance system and a new storm water drainage network. There will also be a newly constructed support services building and upgrades to the existing runway and airfield systems. The three stages, according to GACA—the General Authority of Civil Aviation of Saudi Arabia, will be marked by staged capacity increase to 30 million, 60 million and 80 million passengers per year.


title: King Abdulaziz International Airport

text: The new airport terminal 1 is accessed by the Haramain high-speed rail project network. Prince Majed Street will connect to the Al-Laith Highway, forming a fast north–south transit route.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: In computer science, an interpreter is a computer program that directly executes instructions written in a programming or scripting language, without requiring them previously to have been compiled into a machine language program. An interpreter generally uses one of the following strategies for program execution:


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Early versions of Lisp programming language and minicomputer and microcomputer BASIC dialects would be examples of the first type. Perl, Raku, Python, MATLAB, and Ruby are examples of the second, while UCSD Pascal is an example of the third type. Source programs are compiled ahead of time and stored as machine independent code, which is then linked at run-time and executed by an interpreter and/or compiler (for JIT systems). Some systems, such as Smalltalk and contemporary versions of BASIC and Java may also combine two and three. Interpreters of various types have also been constructed for many languages traditionally associated with compilation, such as Algol, Fortran, Cobol, C and C++.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: While interpretation and compilation are the two main means by which programming languages are implemented, they are not mutually exclusive, as most interpreting systems also perform some translation work, just like compilers. The terms "interpreted language" or "compiled language" signify that the canonical implementation of that language is an interpreter or a compiler, respectively. A high-level language is ideally an abstraction independent of particular implementations.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Interpreters were used as early as 1952 to ease programming within the limitations of computers at the time (e.g. a shortage of program storage space, or no native support for floating point numbers). Interpreters were also used to translate between low-level machine languages, allowing code to be written for machines that were still under construction and tested on computers that already existed. The first interpreted high-level language was Lisp. Lisp was first implemented in 1958 by Steve Russell on an IBM 704 computer. Russell had read John McCarthy's paper, and realized (to McCarthy's surprise) that the Lisp "eval" function could be implemented in machine code. The result was a working Lisp interpreter which could be used to run Lisp programs, or more properly, "evaluate Lisp expressions".


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: An interpreter usually consists of a set of known commands it can execute, and a list of these commands in the order a programmer wishes to execute them. Each command (also known as an Instruction) contains the data the programmer wants to mutate, and information on how to mutate the data. For example, an interpreter might read codice_1 and "interpret" it as a request to add five to the codice_2 variable.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Interpreters have a wide variety of instructions which are specialized to perform different tasks, but you will commonly find interpreter instructions for basic mathematical operations, branching, and memory management, making most interpreters Turing complete. Many interpreters are also closely integrated with a garbage collector and debugger.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Programs written in a high-level language are either directly executed by some kind of interpreter or converted into machine code by a compiler (and assembler and linker) for the CPU to execute.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: While compilers (and assemblers) generally produce machine code directly executable by computer hardware, they can often (optionally) produce an intermediate form called object code. This is basically the same machine specific code but augmented with a symbol table with names and tags to make executable blocks (or modules) identifiable and relocatable. Compiled programs will typically use building blocks (functions) kept in a library of such object code modules. A linker is used to combine (pre-made) library files with the object file(s) of the application to form a single executable file. The object files that are used to generate an executable file are thus often produced at different times, and sometimes even by different languages (capable of generating the same object format).


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: A simple interpreter written in a low-level language (e.g. assembly) may have similar machine code blocks implementing functions of the high-level language stored, and executed when a function's entry in a look up table points to that code. However, an interpreter written in a high-level language typically uses another approach, such as generating and then walking a parse tree, or by generating and executing intermediate software-defined instructions, or both.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Thus, both compilers and interpreters generally turn source code (text files) into tokens, both may (or may not) generate a parse tree, and both may generate immediate instructions (for a stack machine, quadruple code, or by other means). The basic difference is that a compiler system, including a (built in or separate) linker, generates a stand-alone "machine code" program, while an interpreter system instead "performs" the actions described by the high-level program.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: A compiler can thus make almost all the conversions from source code semantics to the machine level once and for all (i.e. until the program has to be changed) while an interpreter has to do "some" of this conversion work every time a statement or function is executed. However, in an efficient interpreter, much of the translation work (including analysis of types, and similar) is factored out and done only the first time a program, module, function, or even statement, is run, thus quite akin to how a compiler works. However, a compiled program still runs much faster, under most circumstances, in part because compilers are designed to optimize code, and may be given ample time for this. This is especially true for simpler high-level languages without (many) dynamic data structures, checks, or type checking.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: In traditional compilation, the executable output of the linkers (.exe files or .dll files or a library, see picture) is typically relocatable when run under a general operating system, much like the object code modules are but with the difference that this relocation is done dynamically at run time, i.e. when the program is loaded for execution. On the other hand, compiled and linked programs for small embedded systems are typically statically allocated, often hard coded in a NOR flash memory, as there is often no secondary storage and no operating system in this sense.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Historically, most interpreter systems have had a self-contained editor built in. This is becoming more common also for compilers (then often called an IDE), although some programmers prefer to use an editor of their choice and run the compiler, linker and other tools manually. Historically, compilers predate interpreters because hardware at that time could not support both the interpreter and interpreted code and the typical batch environment of the time limited the advantages of interpretation.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: During the software development cycle, programmers make frequent changes to source code. When using a compiler, each time a change is made to the source code, they must wait for the compiler to translate the altered source files and link all of the binary code files together before the program can be executed. The larger the program, the longer the wait. By contrast, a programmer using an interpreter does a lot less waiting, as the interpreter usually just needs to translate the code being worked on to an intermediate representation (or not translate it at all), thus requiring much less time before the changes can be tested. Effects are evident upon saving the source code and reloading the program. Compiled code is generally less readily debugged as editing, compiling, and linking are sequential processes that have to be conducted in the proper sequence with a proper set of commands. For this reason, many compilers also have an executive aid, known as a Makefile and program. The Makefile lists compiler and linker command lines and program source code files, but might take a simple command line menu input (e.g. "Make 3") which selects the third group (set) of instructions then issues the commands to the compiler, and linker feeding the specified source code files.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: A compiler converts source code into binary instruction for a specific processor's architecture, thus making it less portable. This conversion is made just once, on the developer's environment, and after that the same binary can be distributed to the user's machines where it can be executed without further translation. A cross compiler can generate binary code for the user machine even if it has a different processor than the machine where the code is compiled.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: An interpreted program can be distributed as source code. It needs to be translated in each final machine, which takes more time but makes the program distribution independent of the machine's architecture. However, the portability of interpreted source code is dependent on the target machine actually having a suitable interpreter. If the interpreter needs to be supplied along with the source, the overall installation process is more complex than delivery of a monolithic executable since the interpreter itself is part of what need to be installed.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: The fact that interpreted code can easily be read and copied by humans can be of concern from the point of view of copyright. However, various systems of encryption and obfuscation exist. Delivery of intermediate code, such as bytecode, has a similar effect to obfuscation, but bytecode could be decoded with a decompiler or disassembler.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: The main disadvantage of interpreters is that an interpreted program typically runs slower than if it had been compiled. The difference in speeds could be tiny or great; often an order of magnitude and sometimes more. It generally takes longer to run a program under an interpreter than to run the compiled code but it can take less time to interpret it than the total time required to compile and run it. This is especially important when prototyping and testing code when an edit-interpret-debug cycle can often be much shorter than an edit-compile-run-debug cycle.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Interpreting code is slower than running the compiled code because the interpreter must analyze each statement in the program each time it is executed and then perform the desired action, whereas the compiled code just performs the action within a fixed context determined by the compilation. This run-time analysis is known as "interpretive overhead". Access to variables is also slower in an interpreter because the mapping of identifiers to storage locations must be done repeatedly at run-time rather than at compile time.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: There are various compromises between the development speed when using an interpreter and the execution speed when using a compiler. Some systems (such as some Lisps) allow interpreted and compiled code to call each other and to share variables. This means that once a routine has been tested and debugged under the interpreter it can be compiled and thus benefit from faster execution while other routines are being developed. Many interpreters do not execute the source code as it stands but convert it into some more compact internal form. Many BASIC interpreters replace keywords with single byte tokens which can be used to find the instruction in a jump table. A few interpreters, such as the PBASIC interpreter, achieve even higher levels of program compaction by using a bit-oriented rather than a byte-oriented program memory structure, where commands tokens occupy perhaps 5 bits, nominally "16-bit" constants are stored in a variable-length code requiring 3, 6, 10, or 18 bits, and address operands include a "bit offset". Many BASIC interpreters can store and read back their own tokenized internal representation.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: An interpreter might well use the same lexical analyzer and parser as the compiler and then interpret the resulting abstract syntax tree. Example data type definitions for the latter, and a toy interpreter for syntax trees obtained from C expressions are shown in the box.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Interpretation cannot be used as the sole method of execution: even though an interpreter can itself be interpreted and so on, a directly executed program is needed somewhere at the bottom of the stack because the code being interpreted is not, by definition, the same as the machine code that the CPU can execute.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: There is a spectrum of possibilities between interpreting and compiling, depending on the amount of analysis performed before the program is executed. For example, Emacs Lisp is compiled to bytecode, which is a highly compressed and optimized representation of the Lisp source, but is not machine code (and therefore not tied to any particular hardware). This "compiled" code is then interpreted by a bytecode interpreter (itself written in C). The compiled code in this case is machine code for a virtual machine, which is implemented not in hardware, but in the bytecode interpreter. Such compiling interpreters are sometimes also called "compreters". In a bytecode interpreter each instruction starts with a byte, and therefore bytecode interpreters have up to 256 instructions, although not all may be used. Some bytecodes may take multiple bytes, and may be arbitrarily complicated.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Control tables - that do not necessarily ever need to pass through a compiling phase - dictate appropriate algorithmic control flow via customized interpreters in similar fashion to bytecode interpreters.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Threaded code interpreters are similar to bytecode interpreters but instead of bytes they use pointers. Each "instruction" is a word that points to a function or an instruction sequence, possibly followed by a parameter. The threaded code interpreter either loops fetching instructions and calling the functions they point to, or fetches the first instruction and jumps to it, and every instruction sequence ends with a fetch and jump to the next instruction. Unlike bytecode there is no effective limit on the number of different instructions other than available memory and address space. The classic example of threaded code is the Forth code used in Open Firmware systems: the source language is compiled into "F code" (a bytecode), which is then interpreted by a virtual machine.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: In the spectrum between interpreting and compiling, another approach is to transform the source code into an optimized abstract syntax tree (AST), then execute the program following this tree structure, or use it to generate native code just-in-time. In this approach, each sentence needs to be parsed just once. As an advantage over bytecode, the AST keeps the global program structure and relations between statements (which is lost in a bytecode representation), and when compressed provides a more compact representation. Thus, using AST has been proposed as a better intermediate format for just-in-time compilers than bytecode. Also, it allows the system to perform better analysis during runtime.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: However, for interpreters, an AST causes more overhead than a bytecode interpreter, because of nodes related to syntax performing no useful work, of a less sequential representation (requiring traversal of more pointers) and of overhead visiting the tree.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Further blurring the distinction between interpreters, bytecode interpreters and compilation is just-in-time (JIT) compilation, a technique in which the intermediate representation is compiled to native machine code at runtime. This confers the efficiency of running native code, at the cost of startup time and increased memory use when the bytecode or AST is first compiled. The earliest published JIT compiler is generally attributed to work on LISP by John McCarthy in 1960. Adaptive optimization is a complementary technique in which the interpreter profiles the running program and compiles its most frequently executed parts into native code. The latter technique is a few decades old, appearing in languages such as Smalltalk in the 1980s.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Just-in-time compilation has gained mainstream attention amongst language implementers in recent years, with Java, the .NET Framework, most modern JavaScript implementations, and Matlab now including JIT compilers.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Making the distinction between compilers and interpreters yet again even more vague is a special interpreter design known as a template interpreter. Rather than implement the execution of code by virtue of a large switch statement containing every possible bytecode, while operating on a software stack or a tree walk, a template interpreter maintains a large array of bytecode (or any efficient intermediate representation) mapped directly to corresponding native machine instructions that can be executed on the host hardware as key value pairs (or in more efficient designs, direct addresses to the native instructions), known as a "Template". When the particular code segment is executed the interpreter simply loads or jumps to the opcode mapping in the template and directly runs it on the hardware. Due to its design, the template interpreter very strongly resembles a just-in-time compiler rather than a traditional interpreter, however it is technically not a JIT due to the fact that it merely translates code from the language into native calls one opcode at a time rather than creating optimized sequences of CPU executable instructions from the entire code segment. Due to the interpreter's simple design of simply passing calls directly to the hardware rather than implementing them directly, it is much faster than every other type, even bytecode interpreters, and to an extent less prone to bugs, but as a tradeoff is more difficult to maintain due to the interpreter having to support translation to multiple different architectures instead of a platform independent virtual machine/stack. To date, the only template interpreter implementations of widely known languages to exist are the interpreter within Java's official reference implementation, the Sun HotSpot Java Virtual Machine, and the Ignition Interpreter in the Google V8 javascript execution engine.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: A self-interpreter is a programming language interpreter written in a programming language which can interpret itself; an example is a BASIC interpreter written in BASIC. Self-interpreters are related to self-hosting compilers.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: If no compiler exists for the language to be interpreted, creating a self-interpreter requires the implementation of the language in a host language (which may be another programming language or assembler). By having a first interpreter such as this, the system is bootstrapped and new versions of the interpreter can be developed in the language itself. It was in this way that Donald Knuth developed the TANGLE interpreter for the language WEB of the industrial standard TeX typesetting system.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Defining a computer language is usually done in relation to an abstract machine (so-called operational semantics) or as a mathematical function (denotational semantics). A language may also be defined by an interpreter in which the semantics of the host language is given. The definition of a language by a self-interpreter is not well-founded (it cannot define a language), but a self-interpreter tells a reader about the expressiveness and elegance of a language. It also enables the interpreter to interpret its source code, the first step towards reflective interpreting.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: An important design dimension in the implementation of a self-interpreter is whether a feature of the interpreted language is implemented with the same feature in the interpreter's host language. An example is whether a closure in a Lisp-like language is implemented using closures in the interpreter language or implemented "manually" with a data structure explicitly storing the environment. The more features implemented by the same feature in the host language, the less control the programmer of the interpreter has; a different behavior for dealing with number overflows cannot be realized if the arithmetic operations are delegated to corresponding operations in the host language.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Some languages such as Lisp and Prolog have elegant self-interpreters. Much research on self-interpreters (particularly reflective interpreters) has been conducted in the Scheme programming language, a dialect of Lisp. In general, however, any Turing-complete language allows writing of its own interpreter. Lisp is such a language, because Lisp programs are lists of symbols and other lists. XSLT is such a language, because XSLT programs are written in XML. A sub-domain of metaprogramming is the writing of domain-specific languages (DSLs).


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Clive Gifford introduced a measure quality of self-interpreter (the eigenratio), the limit of the ratio between computer time spent running a stack of "N" self-interpreters and time spent to run a stack of self-interpreters as "N" goes to infinity. This value does not depend on the program being run.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: The book "Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs" presents examples of meta-circular interpretation for Scheme and its dialects. Other examples of languages with a self-interpreter are Forth and Pascal.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Microcode is a very commonly used technique "that imposes an interpreter between the hardware and the architectural level of a computer". As such, the microcode is a layer of hardware-level instructions that implement higher-level machine code instructions or internal state machine sequencing in many digital processing elements. Microcode is used in general-purpose central processing units, as well as in more specialized processors such as microcontrollers, digital signal processors, channel controllers, disk controllers, network interface controllers, network processors, graphics processing units, and in other hardware.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Microcode typically resides in special high-speed memory and translates machine instructions, state machine data or other input into sequences of detailed circuit-level operations. It separates the machine instructions from the underlying electronics so that instructions can be designed and altered more freely. It also facilitates the building of complex multi-step instructions, while reducing the complexity of computer circuits. Writing microcode is often called microprogramming and the microcode in a particular processor implementation is sometimes called a microprogram.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: More extensive microcoding allows small and simple microarchitectures to emulate more powerful architectures with wider word length, more execution units and so on, which is a relatively simple way to achieve software compatibility between different products in a processor family.


title: Interpreter (computing)

text: Even a non microcoding computer processor itself can be considered to be a parsing immediate execution interpreter that is written in a general purpose hardware description language such as VHDL to create a system that parses the machine code instructions and immediately executes them.


title: Lord

text: Lord is an appellation for a person or deity who has authority, control, or power over others, acting as a master, chief, or ruler. The appellation can also denote certain persons who hold a title of the peerage in the United Kingdom, or are entitled to courtesy titles. The collective "Lords" can refer to a group or body of peers.


title: Lord

text: According to the Oxford Dictionary of English, the etymology of the word can be traced back to the Old English word "hlāford" which originated from "hlāfweard" meaning "loaf-ward" or "bread-keeper", reflecting the Germanic tribal custom of a chieftain providing food for his followers. The appellation "lord" is primarily applied to men, while for women the appellation "lady" is used. This is no longer universal: the Lord of Mann, a title previously held by the Queen of the United Kingdom, and female Lords Mayor are examples of women who are styled as "Lord".


title: Lord

text: Under the feudal system, "lord" had a wide, loose and varied meaning. An overlord was a person from whom a landholding or a manor was held by a mesne lord or vassal under various forms of feudal land tenure. The modern term "landlord" is a vestigial survival of this function. A liege lord was a person to whom a vassal owed sworn allegiance. Neither of these terms were titular dignities, but rather factual appellations, which described the relationship between two or more persons within the highly stratified feudal social system. For example, a man might be lord of the manor to his own tenants but also a vassal of his own overlord, who in turn was a vassal of the King. Where a knight was a lord of the manor, he was referred to in contemporary documents as "John (Surname), knight, lord of (manor name)". A feudal baron was a true titular dignity, with the right to attend Parliament, but a feudal baron, Lord of the Manor of many manors, was a vassal of the King.


title: Lord

text: The substantive title of "lord of the manor" came into use in the English medieval system of feudalism after the Norman Conquest of 1066. The title "Lord of the Manor" was a titular feudal dignity which derived its force from the existence and operation of a manorial court or court baron at which he or his steward presided, thus he was the lord of the manorial court which determined the rules and laws which were to govern all the inhabitants and property covered by the jurisdiction of the court. To the tenants of a certain class of manor known in Saxon times as "Infangenthef" their lord was a man who had the power of exercising capital punishment over them. The term invariably used in contemporary mediaeval documents is simply "lord of X", X being the name of the manor. The term "Lord of the Manor" is a recent usage of historians to distinguish such lords from feudal barons and other powerful persons referred to in ancient documents variously as "Sire" (mediaeval French), "Dominus" (Latin), "Lord" etc. The title of "Lord of the Manor" is recognised by the British Government for any such title registered at His Majesty's Land Registry before 13 October 2003 (the commencement date of the Land Registration Act 2002) but after that date titles can no longer be registered, and any such titles voluntarily de-registered by the holder cannot later be re-registered. However any transfer of ownership of registered manors will continue to be recorded in the register, on the appropriate notification. Thus in effect the register is closed for new registrations. Such titles are legally classified as "incorporeal hereditaments" as they have no physical existence, and usually have no intrinsic value. However a lucrative market arose in the 20th century for such titles, often for purposes of vanity, which was assisted by the existence of an official register, giving the purchaser the impression of a physical existence. Whether a title of "Lord of the Manor" is registered or unregistered has no effect on its legal validity or existence, which is a matter of law to be determined by the courts. Modern legal cases have been won by persons claiming rights as lords of the manor over village greens. The heads of many ancient English land-owning families have continued to be lords of the manor of lands they have inherited.


title: Lord

text: The UK Identity and Passport Service will include such titles on a British passport as an "observation" (e.g., 'The Holder is the Lord of the Manor of X'), provided the holder can provide documentary evidence of ownership. The United States forbids the use of all titles on passports. Australia forbids the use of titles on passports if those titles have not been awarded by the Crown (in reference to the Australian Monarchy) or the Commonwealth (in reference to the Australian Government).


title: Lord

text: The Scottish title Laird is a shortened form of 'laverd' which is an old Scottish word deriving from an Anglo-Saxon term meaning 'Lord' and is also derived from the middle English word 'Lard' also meaning 'Lord'. The word is generally used to refer to any owner of a landed estate and has no meaning in heraldic terms and its use is not controlled by the Lord Lyon.


title: Lord

text: "Lord" is used as a generic term to denote members of the peerage. Five ranks of peer exist in the United Kingdom: in descending order these are duke, marquess, earl, viscount, and baron. The appellation "Lord" is used most often by barons, who are rarely addressed by their formal and legal title of "Baron". The most formal style is "The Lord (X)": for example, Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson, can be referred to as "The Lord Tennyson", although the most common appellation is "Lord Tennyson". Marquesses, earls and viscounts are commonly also addressed as Lord. Dukes use the style "The Duke of (X)", and are not correctly referred to as "Lord (X)". Dukes are formally addressed as "Your Grace", rather than "My Lord". In the Peerage of Scotland, the members of the lowest level of the peerage have the substantive title "Lord of Parliament" rather than Baron.


title: Lord

text: "Lord" is also used as a courtesy title for younger sons of a British prince, duke, or marquesses, in the style "Lord (first name) (surname)". The eldest son of a peer would be entitled to use one of his father's subsidiary titles (if any). For example, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent holds the subsidiary title of Earl of St Andrews, which is used by his elder son George Windsor, Earl of St Andrews, while his younger son is styled Lord Nicholas Windsor. However, if the father has no subsidiary title, the older son will assume a courtesy title of "Lord (last name)", such as in the case of the Earl of Devon. As these forms of address are merely courtesy titles, the holder is not actually a member of the peerage and is not entitled to use the definite article "The" as part of the title.


title: Lord

text: The upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom is the House of Lords, which is an abbreviation of the full title, "The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal in Parliament Assembled". The Lords Temporal are the people who are entitled to receive writs of summons to attend the House of Lords in right of a peerage. The Lords Spiritual are the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, the Bishops of London, Winchester and Durham, and the twenty-one longest-serving bishops of the Church of England from among the other bishops (plus some female bishops of shorter service in consequence of the Lords Spiritual (Women) Act 2015), who are all entitled to receive writs of summons in right of their bishoprics or archbishoprics.


title: Lord

text: The Lords Temporal greatly outnumber the Lords Spiritual, there being nearly 800 of the former and only 26 of the latter. As of December 2016, 92 Lords Temporal sit in the House in right of hereditary peerages (that being the maximum number allowed under the House of Lords Act 1999) and 19 sit in right of judicial life peerages under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. The rest are life peers under the Life Peerages Act 1958.


title: Lord

text: Until the creation of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (2009), certain judges sat in the House of Lords by virtue of holding life peerages. Most of them (those who were members of the Appellate Committee) were known collectively as the Law Lords. All judges, including former Law Lords, lost the right to sit and vote in the House of Lords, despite retaining their life peerages, upon creation of the Supreme Court. The appellation "Lord", though not the style, is also used to refer to some judges in certain Commonwealth legal systems, who are not peers. Some such judges, for instance judges of the Court of Appeal of England and Wales, are called "Lord Justice". Other Commonwealth judges, for example judges of Canadian provincial supreme courts, are known only as Justices but are addressed with deference in court as 'My Lord', 'My Lady', 'Your Lordship' or 'Your Ladyship'.


title: Lord

text: In Great Britain and Ireland, and in most countries that are members or former members of the Commonwealth, bishops may be addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lord Bishop" or "Your Lordship", particularly on formal occasions. This usage is not restricted to those bishops who sit in the House of Lords. Indeed, by custom, it is not restricted to bishops of the Church of England but applies to bishops of the Church in Wales, the Scottish Episcopal Church, and the Roman Catholic Church, and may be applied (though less commonly) to bishops of other Christian denominations. It has become more common to use simply the one word "Bishop".


title: Lord

text: Various other high offices of state in the United Kingdom, Commonwealth and Republic of Ireland are prefixed with the deferential appellation of "lord" such as Lord Chancellor, Lord Privy Seal, Lord President of the Council, and Lord Mayor. Holders of these offices are not "ex officio" peers, although the holders of some of the offices were in the past always peers.


title: Lord

text: In most cultures in Europe an equivalent appellation denoting deference exists. The French term "Mon Seigneur" ("My Lord"), shortened to the modern French "Monsieur", derives directly from the Latin "seniorem", meaning "elder, senior". From this Latin source derived directly also the Italian "Signore", the Spanish "Señor", the Portuguese "Senhor".


title: Lord

text: Non-Romance languages have their own equivalents. Of the Germanic family there is the Dutch "Meneer/Mijnheer/De Heer" (as in: "aan de heer Joren Jansen"), German "Herr", and Danish "Herre". All three of these stem from a Germanic title of respect (in this case, from the Proto-Germanic root "*haira-", "hoary, venerable, grey", likely a loan translation of Latin "seniorem").


title: Lord

text: In other European languages there is Welsh "Arglwydd", Hungarian "Úr", Greek "Kyrie", Polish "Pan", Czech "pán", Breton "Aotrou", Albanian "Zoti".


title: Lord

text: In several Indian languages there are: Hindi "Swami", "Prabhu", "Thakur", "Samprabhu"(Overlord) also words like "Saheb" or "Laat Saheb" from "Lord Saheb" were once used but have changed in meaning now, Telugu "Prabhuvu", Tamil "Koman", Kannada "Dore", Bengali "Probhu", Gujarati "Swami", Punjabi "Su'āmī", Nepali "Prabhu". Words like "Swami" and "Prabhu" are Sanskrit-origin words, common in many Indian languages.


title: Lord

text: Philippine languages have different words for "lord", some of which are cognates. Tagalog has "Panginoón" for "lord" in both the noble and the religious senses. Its root, "ginoo", is also found in Visayan languages like Cebuano as the term for "lord". "Ginoo" is also the Tagalog root for "Ginoóng", the modern equivalent of the English term "Mister" (akin to how Romance language terms like "señor" may be glossed as either "lord", "mister", or "sir"). Ilocano meanwhile employs "Apo" for "Lord" in religious contexts; it is a particle that generally accords respect to an addressee of higher status than the speaker.


title: Lord

text: In the Yoruba language of West Africa, the words "Olu" and "Oluwa" are used in much the same way as the English term. Olodumare, the Yoruba conception of God Almighty, is often referred to using either of these two words. In the Yoruba chieftaincy system, meanwhile, the Oluwo of Iwo's royal title translates to "Lord of Iwo". In Lagos, the Oluwa of Lagos is one of that kingdom's most powerful chiefs.


title: Lord

text: English speakers use the word "Lord" as a title of deference for various gods or deities. The earliest recorded use of "Lord" in the English language in a religious context occurred in the work of English scholars such as Bede ( – 735). However, Bede wrote in Latin (Michael Lapidge describes him as "without question the most accomplished Latinist produced in these islands in the Anglo-Saxon period"). He used an Anglo-Saxon phrase that indicated a noble, prince, ruler or lord to refer to God; however, he applied this as a gloss to the Latin text that he was producing, and not as a clear translation of the term itself. "Lord", as a gloss to Old English , meant "royal", "ruler", "prince", or "noble", and did not indicate a deity. After the 11th-century Norman invasion of England and the influx of Norman-French-speaking clerics, this understanding began to be applied to religious texts as well, but that occurred during the later Middle Ages and not in Bede's early-medieval period. The word "Lord" appears frequently in the King James Bible of the early 17th century. See also Jesus is Lord.


title: Referendum

text: A referendum (plural: referendums or less commonly referenda) is a direct vote by the electorate on a proposal, law, or political issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a representative. This may result in the adoption of a new policy or specific law, or the referendum may be only advisory. In some countries, it is synonymous with or commonly known by other names including plebiscite, votation, popular consultation, ballot question, ballot measure, or proposition.


title: Referendum

text: Some definitions of 'plebiscite' suggest it is a type of vote to change the constitution or government of a country. The word, 'referendum' is often a catchall, used for both legislative referrals and initiatives.


title: Referendum

text: 'Referendum' is the gerundive form of the Latin verb , literally "to carry back" (from the verb , "to bear, bring, carry" plus the inseparable prefix , here meaning "back"). As a gerundive is an adjective, not a noun, it cannot be used alone in Latin, and must be contained within a context attached to a noun such as , "A proposal which must be carried back to the people". The addition of the verb (3rd person singular, ) to a gerundive, denotes the idea of necessity or compulsion, that which "must" be done, rather than that which is "fit for" doing. Its use as a noun in English is not considered a strictly grammatical usage of a foreign word but is rather a freshly coined English noun, which follows English grammatical usage, not Latin grammatical usage. This determines the form of the plural in English, which according to English grammar should be "referendums". The use of "referenda" as a plural form in English (treating it as a Latin word and attempting to apply to it the rules of Latin grammar) is unsupportable according to the rules of both Latin and English grammar. The use of "referenda" as a plural form is posited hypothetically as either a gerund or a gerundive by the "Oxford English Dictionary", which rules out such usage in both cases as follows:


title: Referendum

text: "Referendums" is logically preferable as a plural form meaning 'ballots on one issue' (as a Latin gerund, referendum has no plural). The Latin plural gerundive 'referenda', meaning 'things to be referred', necessarily connotes a plurality of issues.


title: Referendum

text: It is closely related to agenda, "those matters which must be driven forward", from , to impel or drive forwards; and memorandum, "that matter which must be remembered", from , to call to mind, corrigenda, from , to rule, make straight, those things which must be made straight (corrected), etc.


title: Referendum

text: The term 'plebiscite' has a generally similar meaning in modern usage and comes from the Latin "plebiscita", which originally meant a decree of the "Concilium Plebis" (Plebeian Council), the popular assembly of the Roman Republic. Today, a referendum can also often be referred to as a plebiscite, but in some countries the two terms are used differently to refer to votes with differing types of legal consequences.


title: Referendum

text: In Australia, a 'referendum' is often said to be a vote to change the federal constitution and 'plebiscite' a vote which does not affect the federal constitution. However, this is erroneous as not all federal referendums have been on constitutional matters (such as the 1916 Australian conscription referendum), and state votes that likewise do not affect either the federal or state constitution are frequently said to be referendums (such as the 2009 Western Australian daylight saving referendum). Historically, they are used by Australians interchangeably and a plebiscite was considered another name for a referendum.


title: Referendum

text: In Ireland, 'plebiscite' referred to the vote to adopt its constitution, but a subsequent vote to amend the constitution is called a 'referendum', as is a poll of the electorate on a non-constitutional bill.


title: Referendum

text: The name and use of the 'referendum' is thought to have originated in the Swiss canton of Graubünden as early as the 16th century.


title: Referendum

text: After a reduction in the number of referendums in the Mid-twentieth century, the referendum as a political tool has been increasing in popularity since the 1970s. This increase has been attributed to dealignment of the public with political parties, as specific policy issues became more important to the public than party identifiers.


title: Referendum

text: The term "referendum" covers a variety of different meanings, and the terminology is different depending on the country that holds them. A referendum can be binding or advisory. In some countries, different names are used for these two types of referendum. Referendums can be further classified by who initiates them.


title: Referendum

text: A mandatory referendum is a class of referendum required to be voted on if certain conditions are met or for certain government actions to be taken. They do not require any signatures from the public. In areas that use referendums a mandatory referendum is commonly used as a legally required step for ratification for constitutional changes, ratifying international treaties and joining international organizations, and certain types of public spending.


title: Referendum

text: An optional referendum is a class of referendums that is put to the vote as a result of a demand. This may come from the executive branch, legislative branch, or a request from the people (often after meeting a signature requirement).


title: Referendum

text: From a political-philosophical perspective, referendums are an expression of direct democracy, but today, most referendums need to be understood within the context of representative democracy. They tend to be used quite selectively, covering issues such as changes in voting systems, where currently elected officials may not have the legitimacy or inclination to implement such changes.


title: Referendum

text: Since the end of the 18th century, hundreds of national referendums have been organised in the world; almost 600 national votes have been held in Switzerland since its inauguration as a modern state in 1848. Italy ranks second with 78 national referendums: 72 popular referendums (51 of which were proposed by the Radical Party), 4 constitutional referendums, one institutional referendum and one advisory referendum.


title: Referendum

text: A referendum usually offers the electorate a straight choice between accepting or rejecting a proposal. However some referendums give voters multiple choices, and some use transferable voting.


title: Referendum

text: In Switzerland, for example, multiple choice referendums are common. Two multiple choice referendums were held in Sweden, in 1957 and in 1980, in which voters were offered three options. In 1977, a referendum held in Australia to determine a new national anthem was held, in which voters had four choices. In 1992, New Zealand held a five-option referendum on their electoral system. In 1982, Guam had a referendum that used six options, with an additional blank option for those wishing to (campaign and) vote for their own seventh option.


title: Referendum

text: A multiple choice referendum poses the question of how the result is to be determined. They may be set up so that if no single option receives the support of an absolute majority (more than half) of the votes, resort can be made to the two-round system or instant-runoff voting, which is also called IRV and PV.


title: Referendum

text: In 2018 the Irish Citizens' Assembly considered the conduct of future referendums in Ireland, with 76 of the members in favour of allowing more than two options, and 52% favouring preferential voting in such cases. Other people regard a non-majoritarian methodology like the Modified Borda Count (MBC) as more inclusive and more accurate.


title: Referendum

text: Swiss referendums offer a separate vote on each of the multiple options as well as an additional decision about which of the multiple options should be preferred. In the Swedish case, in both referendums the 'winning' option was chosen by the Single Member Plurality ("first past the post") system. In other words, the winning option was deemed to be that supported by a plurality, rather than an absolute majority, of voters. In the 1977 Australian referendum, the winner was chosen by the system of preferential instant-runoff voting (IRV). Polls in Newfoundland (1949) and Guam (1982), for example, were counted under a form of the two-round system, and an unusual form of TRS was used in the 1992 New Zealand poll.


title: Referendum

text: Although California has not held multiple-choice referendums in the Swiss or Swedish sense (in which only one of several counter-propositions can be victorious, and the losing proposals are wholly null and void), it does have so many yes-or-no referendums at each election day that conflicts arise. The State's constitution provides a method for resolving conflicts when two or more inconsistent propositions are passed on the same day. This is a de facto form of approval voting—i.e. the proposition with the most "yes" votes prevails over the others to the extent of any conflict.


title: Referendum

text: Quorums are typically introduced to prevent referendum results from being skewed by low turnout or decided by a motivated minority of voters.


title: Referendum

text: Referendums may require a turnout threshold (also called a participation quorum) in order for the referendum to considered legally valid. In a participation quorum a majority of those voting must approve of the referendum, and a certain percentage of population must have voted in order for the results to be approved.


title: Referendum

text: The usage of participation quorums in referendums is controversial, as higher requirements have been shown to reduced turnout and voter participation. With high participation quorums, the opposition of a referendum has an interest in abstaining from the vote instead of participating, in order to invalidate the referendum results through low turnout. This is a form of the no-show paradox. All others who are not voting for other reasons, including those with no opinion, are effectively also voting against the referendum.


title: Referendum

text: In the 2005 Italian fertility laws referendum, opposition to the proposed loosening of laws on research on embryos and on allowing in-vitro fertilization, campaigned for people to abstain from voting to drive down turnout. Although a majority of people voted yes for the changes in the law, the results were invalid because participation was low.


title: Referendum

text: Important referendums are frequently challenged in courts. In pre-referendum disputes, plaintiffs have often tried to prevent the referendum to take place. In one such challenge, in 2017, the Spanish Constitutional Court suspended the Catalonia's independence referendum. In post-referendum disputes, they challenge the result. British courts dismissed post-referendum challenges of the Brexit referendum.


title: Referendum

text: International tribunals have traditionally not interfered with referendum disputes. In 2021, the European Court of Human Rights extended its jurisdiction to referendums in its judgment "Toplak and Mrak" v. "Slovenia", initiated by two disabled voters over polling place access.


title: Referendum

text: In Political Governance states that voters in a referendum are more likely to be driven by transient whims than by careful deliberation, or that they are not sufficiently informed to make decisions on complicated or technical issues. Also, voters might be swayed by propaganda, strong personalities, intimidation, and expensive advertising campaigns. James Madison argued that direct democracy is the "tyranny of the majority".


title: Referendum

text: Some opposition to the referendum has arisen from its use by dictators such as Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini who, it is argued, used the plebiscite to disguise oppressive policies as populism. Dictators may also make use of referendums as well as show elections to further legitimize their authority such as António de Oliveira Salazar in 1933; Benito Mussolini in 1934; Adolf Hitler in 1934, 1936; Francisco Franco in 1947; Park Chung-hee in 1972; and Ferdinand Marcos in 1973. Hitler's use of plebiscites is argued as the reason why, since World War II, there has been no provision in Germany for the holding of referendums at the federal level.


title: Referendum

text: In recent years, referendums have been used strategically by several European governments trying to pursue political and electoral goals.


title: Referendum

text: Some critics of the referendum attack the use of closed questions. A difficulty called the separability problem can plague a referendum on two or more issues. If one issue is in fact, or in perception, related to another on the ballot, the imposed simultaneous voting of first preference on each issue can result in an outcome which is displeasing to most.


title: Referendum

text: Several commentators have noted that the use of citizens' initiatives to amend constitutions has so tied the government to a jumble of popular demands as to render the government unworkable. A 2009 article in "The Economist" argued that this had restricted the ability of the California state government to tax the people and pass the budget, and called for an entirely new Californian constitution.


title: Referendum

text: A similar problem also arises when elected governments accumulate excessive debts. That can severely reduce the effective margin for later governments.


title: Madylin Sweeten

text: Madylin Anne-Michele Sweeten (born June 21, 1991) is an American actress, best known for her portrayal of Alexandra "Ally" Barone on the popular family sitcom "Everybody Loves Raymond" (1996–2005).


title: Madylin Sweeten

text: Sweeten was born in Brownwood, Brown County, Texas, the eldest of four children born to Timothy Lynn "Tim" Sweeten and Elizabeth Anne Gini (nee Millsap). She is the sister to Sawyer Sweeten.


title: Sachin Pilot

text: Sachin Pilot (born 7 September 1977) is an Indian politician of Indian National Congress. Earlier he served as the MoS (Independent charge) Corporate Affairs  & MoS Communication & IT, Government of India, Deputy Chief Minister of Rajasthan and also President of the Rajasthan Pradesh Congress Committee. As Member of the Congress party, he has represented the Tonk assembly seat in Rajasthan since 2018. Sachin became the youngest citizen of India to become Member of Parliament.


title: Sachin Pilot

text: Pilot was previously a member of the Indian Parliament for the Ajmer in 2009 and Dausa constituencies of Rajasthan, becoming the youngest member of parliament when he was elected from the latter seat in 2004, aged 26. He was unseated from the Lok Sabha during the 2014 election from Ajmer constituency. He served as the Minister of Corporate Affairs in the second Manmohan Singh Ministry.


title: Sachin Pilot

text: Pilot was born to late Congress leader Rajesh Pilot and Rama Pilot. His father was a Union minister of India. His ancestral village is Vaidpura in Noida, Uttar Pradesh.


title: Sachin Pilot

text: He studied at Air Force Bal Bharati School, New Delhi, and holds a B.A. from St. Stephens College, University of Delhi, a diploma in marketing from I.M.T. Ghaziabad and an MBA from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA. He was employed with the Delhi Bureau of the British Broadcasting Corporation, and then with American multinational corporation General Motors for two years.


title: Sachin Pilot

text: In the 2004 Lok Sabha elections, Pilot was elected from the Dausa constituency. At the age of 26, he became the youngest MP in India.


title: Sachin Pilot

text: In the 2009 Lok Sabha elections, he defeated the Bharatiya Janata Party's Kiran Maheshwari by a margin of 76,596 votes and won the seat of Ajmer.


title: Sachin Pilot

text: Pilot was a member of the Lok Sabha's Standing Committee on Home Affairs and member of the Consultative Committee in the Ministry of Civil Aviation.


title: Sachin Pilot

text: In the 2014 Lok Sabha elections, he was again nominated from the Ajmer constituency and was defeated by a margin of 1,71,983 votes by Bharatiya Janata Party's sitting MLA Sanwarlal Jat.


title: Sachin Pilot

text: In the 2018 Legislative Assembly elections, Pilot won from the Tonk seat, after defeating Yunus Khan by a margin of 54,179 votes. It was speculated that Pilot, who was considered instrumental in the Congress's victory in the state, would be given the post of chief minister. On 17 December 2018, he was sworn in as Deputy chief Minister of Rajasthan under Ashok Gehlot.


title: Sachin Pilot

text: On 13 July 2020, Pilot's office issued a statement saying that the government of chief minister Ashok Gehlot was in a minority. An aide of Pilot's indicated that he would not be joining the Bharatiya Janata Party.


title: Sachin Pilot

text: The Indian National Congress on 14 July 2020, sacked Sachin Pilot as the Deputy Chief Minister and Rajasthan Congress President for his revolt against the party and its leadership.


title: Sachin Pilot

text: After his revolt there was speculation that he would join the BJP, like his former colleague Jyotiraditya Scindia, but on 15 July 2020 he rejected the rumours and stated: "I am still a member of the Congress party".


title: Sachin Pilot

text: The Rajasthan Speaker, C.P. Joshi, issued notices to 19 dissident Congress MLAs including Sachin Pilot on 14 July 2020 after the Rajasthan Congress passed a resolution that they be disqualified from the state Assembly as they had defied a party whip to attend two Congress Legislature Party meetings. Pilot challenged this notice in the Rajasthan High Court on 17 July 2020. The High Court asked the Speaker to defer action on disqualification notices till 21 July 2020.


title: Sachin Pilot

text: Sachin Pilot married Sara Abdullah on 15 January 2004. Sara Abdullah is the daughter of Farooq Abdullah, chairman of Jammu & Kashmir National Conference and ex-Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir. Together they have two sons, Aaran and Vehaan.


title: Sachin Pilot

text: Sachin Pilot on 6 September 2012 became the first Union minister of India to be commissioned as an officer in the Territorial Army, fulfilling his desire to follow his father's footsteps to be in the armed forces. He is therefore known as Captain Pilot for being an officer in the Territorial Army. After being commissioned he said, "This has been my desire to join the army for very long as I wanted to have my links with the armed forces, like my father and grandfather. I am honoured to be part of this family."


title: Gruel

text: Gruel is a food consisting of some type of cereal—such as ground oats, wheat, rye, or rice—heated or boiled in water or milk. It is a thinner version of porridge that may be more often drunk rather than eaten. Historically, gruel has been a staple of the Western diet, especially for peasants. Gruel may be made from millet, hemp, barley, or, in hard times, from chestnut flour or even the less bitter acorns of some oaks. Gruel has historically been associated with feeding the sick and recently weaned children.


title: Gruel

text: "Gruel" is also a colloquial expression for any watery food of unknown character, e.g., pea soup. Gruel has often been associated with poverty, with negative associations attached to the term in popular culture, as in the Charles Dickens novel "Oliver Twist".


title: Gruel

text: Gruel was the staple food of the ancient Greeks, for whom roasted meats were the extraordinary feast that followed sacrifice, even among heroes, and "In practice, bread was a luxury eaten only in towns". Roman plebeians "ate the staple gruel of classical times, supplemented by oil, the humbler vegetables and salt fish", for gruel could be prepared without access to the communal ovens in which bread was baked. In the Middle Ages, the peasant could avoid the tithe exacted by paying in grain ground by the miller of the landowner's mill. When eaten by the peasant, the process was to roast the grains to make them digestible, and grind small portions in a mortar at home. In lieu of cooking the resulting paste on the hearthstone, it could be simmered in a cauldron with water or, luxuriously, with milk.


title: Gruel

text: In the Americas, maize gruels were once one of the main food sources for many Mesoamerican peoples, such as the Maya and Aztecs. Atole is a preparation of ground maize often flavored with chili and salt (for a savory dish), or, in more modern times, with piloncillo and cinnamon (for a sweet dish). It can be consumed as an important calorie source as a thicker meal, or and as a liquid drink.


title: Gruel

text: In many Spanish-speaking countries, several gruels are made; the masa-based drink or spoonable food called atole or atol de elote is a staple throughout Central America, served hot. It can range in consistency from a thin cloudy drink to a thicker porridge-like food. Horchata is a chilled sweetened drink of similar nature to thin atole. It is made from ground nutmeats or seeds, grains (often rice) and seasonings such as vanilla and cinnamon, served over ice.


title: Gruel

text: Rice gruels eaten throughout Asia are normally referred to in English as porridge as opposed to gruel. Common forms include congee, from the Tamil word for the food and most common in China, Japanese okayu, Korean dak juk, and Vietnamese cháo. Asian porridges/gruels are typically savory, with meat or vegetables added and stock sometimes used as the liquid cooking element.


title: Gruel

text: The "Oxford English Dictionary" gives an etymology of Middle English ' from the same word in Old French, both of them deriving from a source in Late Latin: ', a diminutive, as the form of the word demonstrates, possibly from an Old Frankish "", surmised on the basis of a modern cognate "grout". In modern Dutch, the plural word "grutten" still refers to de-husked, coarse ground grain and a traditional dish based on pearlbarley and blackberry is called watergruwel.


title: Gruel

text: The Old Norse word "", meaning "coarse-ground grain", gives way to the Icelandic "grautur", Faroese "greytur", Norwegian "grøt" (nynorsk "graut"), Danish "grød", and the Swedish and Elfdalian "gröt", all meaning porridge, of which gruel is a subtype.


title: Gruel

text: The German "Grießmehl", ground grain, and Dutch "griesmeel", are compounded cognates to the English "grist" and "mill".


title: Gruel

text: In the English-speaking world, gruel is remembered as the food of the child workhouse inmates in Charles Dickens's Industrial Revolution novel "Oliver Twist" (1838); the workhouse was supplied with "an unlimited supply of water" and "small quantities of oatmeal". When Oliver asks the master of the workhouse for some more, he is struck a blow on the head for doing so. The "small saucepan of gruel" waiting upon Ebenezer Scrooge's hob in Dickens's 1843 novel "A Christmas Carol" emphasizes how miserly Scrooge is. Gruel is also Mr. Woodhouse's preferred and offered dish in Jane Austen's "Emma" (1816) often to comic or sympathetic effect. References to gruel in popular culture today continue to refer to miserly or starvation conditions, such as Gemma Collins in "Celebrity Big Brother 17" (2016), who was denied food for gruel.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: Adam Bernard Jones (born September 30, 1983) is a former American football cornerback and return specialist who played in the National Football League (NFL) for 12 seasons, most notably with the Cincinnati Bengals. Nicknamed "Pacman", he was drafted by the Tennessee Titans, sixth pick overall in the 2005 NFL Draft. He played college football at West Virginia University.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: Jones' career was largely marred by numerous legal issues, and he was suspended from the NFL on two occasions: for the entire 2007 season and for part of the 2008 season due to off-the-field conduct. Jones has been arrested more times than any other NFL player in the 21st century. Outside of football, he has been involved in professional wrestling, boxing and music. During his NFL exile in 2007, he began making appearances in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA), but he was prevented from in-ring action by the Titans front office. Despite that, he teamed with Ron Killings as Team Pacman, and they were TNA World Tag Team Champions for over a month. Also in 2007, Jones started up his own record label and was one half of the rap duo Posterboyz. After his retirement from football, Jones began training to be a boxer, but was defeated in his first amateur bout in 2021.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: Jones was born in Atlanta, Georgia, and raised by his mother, Deborah Jones, and his grandmother, Christine Jones. His father was killed in a robbery in 1991 at the age of 26. As a child growing up in the Sandtown neighborhood of Atlanta, he was coached by longtime Sandtown coach Gary Jones. When Jones was a freshman at West Virginia University, his grandmother died of cancer. Jones only missed one game of his three-year college career, which was to attend her funeral. On the day of the NFL Draft, Jones wore a T-shirt that featured his grandmother's picture.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: Jones attended Westlake High School, in Atlanta, Georgia. In 2005, Westlake had the most alumni in the NFL with six players. Jones played in the Georgia-Florida all-star game, and was selected as the conference "Player of the Year" following his senior year after totaling 120 tackles, six interceptions and 1,850 rushing yards.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: In addition to his accomplishments in football, Jones also earned All-American honors in basketball and track. His basketball team won two state championships.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: Jones was an Athletic Coaching Education major and a member of the Athletic Director's Academic Honor Roll. As a freshman in 2002, Jones appeared in 11 games for West Virginia as a reserve cornerback and safety. He totaled one interception and one forced fumble with 36 tackles. During 2003, he appeared in all 13 games, starting nine at cornerback, and taking over full-time kick return and punt return duties. Jones' second season resulted in a second-team All-Big East Conference selection with his career-high 89 tackles and four interceptions, one being for a touchdown. He also had six tackles for losses, one forced fumble and two fumble recoveries. He also had a career-high 12 passes defended that season. In a game against Boston College, Jones scored two touchdowns in a 35–28 win over the Eagles, one an 87-yard kick return and the other, a 47-yard interception return. Jones also had a career-high 12 tackles against Miami. Jones totaled 98 punt return yards on 16 punt returns and 867 kick return yards, including an 87-yard touchdown return.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: As a junior in 2004, he was the secondary captain and led the team in tackles and interceptions. Jones also played briefly on offense, as well as returning punts and kick-offs for the second season. He was named first-team all-Big East as a defensive back and honorable mention All-American by several sources. He led the team with 76 tackles, adding two sacks, three interceptions, and seven passes defended. Jones was named to collegefootballnews.com's All-American first-team and was named honorable mention All-American at kick returner. Jones was also named Big East Special Teams Player of the Year. His 76-yard punt return against East Carolina was his season-long return and only punt return for a touchdown in Jones's career. Jones ended his college career in the 2005 Gator Bowl, when he fumbled a kick return early in the game; the Mountaineers lost to Florida State.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: Jones is ranked second on West Virginia's career kickoff return yardage list with 1,475 yards. He is ranked 11th on the school's career punt return yardage list with 404 yards, while his 10.92 yards per punt return is the sixth most in school history. Jones is one of the highest West Virginia players drafted. Jones and fellow-Mountaineer great Major Harris both wore the #9 while playing in college.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: After his junior year, Jones opted to forgo his senior year and declare himself eligible for the NFL Draft. He was the first defensive player drafted, taken sixth overall by the Tennessee Titans in the 2005 NFL Draft. He missed most of training camp, holding out in a contract dispute. According to Titans then-general manager Floyd Reese, the Titans were concerned over several off-the-field incidents. In a column for ESPN in 2007, Reese said that contract talks broke down when Jones balked at the Titans' proposed safeguards. However, he agreed that he would not be paid any guaranteed or bonus money if he were convicted of a crime.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: During his rookie season, he had 44 tackles and 10 pass deflections. On special teams, Jones totaled 1,399 return yards and one touchdown. Jones and Reynaldo Hill were the only rookie duo to start at least 10 games each at cornerback in the NFL.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: In Jones's sophomore season, he totaled career-high 62 tackles, one sack, one forced fumble, 12 deflected passes, four interceptions, 130 return yards, one interception touchdown, 14 passes defended (second-team), 440 punt return yards and tied for NFL-high with three punt return touchdowns. The three punt returns also tied the franchise record with Billy "White Shoes" Johnson, which was set in 1975. His 12.9 yards per punt return average led the NFL, edging out Chicago's Devin Hester by 1/10 of a yard, while his 26.1 yards per kick return average ranked seventh in the league and sixth in the AFC. Jones also caught two passes on offense for 31 yards (one for 17 yards) and rushed twice for eight yards. His best performance came against the Jacksonville Jaguars in week 15, when Jones had an 83-yard interception return for a score, a 70-yard kick return, and broke up a touchdown pass to Matt Jones to save the game. Jones broke out in his fifth game of the season against the Indianapolis Colts, when he recorded a season-high five tackles and defended a pass in the 14–13 loss. The next week against the Washington Redskins, Jones recorded four tackles and stripped the ball from Antwaan Randle El for the first forced fumble of his career. The next week against the Houston Texans, Jones tied a career-high tackle total with eight, and picked off a Sage Rosenfels pass for his first career interception, and also posted his second touchdown on a punt return in his career in the fourth quarter with a 53-yard return. Two weeks later, against the Philadelphia Eagles, Jones recorded his second punt return for a score of the season, a 90-yard run, breaking Billy Johnson's 87-yard franchise record. The next week against the New York Giants, Jones picked off an Eli Manning pass in the fourth quarter that sparked the Titans' 21-point comeback. Against the New England Patriots in the last game of the season, Jones totaled 259 return yards (the NFL's highest total since 2006) along with a punt return score.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: Despite Jones's breakout second year, speculation was rife during the 2007 NFL Draft that the Titans were seriously considering releasing or trading him due to his numerous off-the-field problems. Reese later recalled that he and other Titans front-office officials, as well as league officials, had spent "countless hours" trying to keep Jones out of trouble. Reese added that Jones had been everything the Titans had hoped for on the field, he'd been "nothing but a disaster off the field" during his two years in Nashville, and felt that he was on "a downward spiral."


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On April 10, 2007, NFL commissioner Roger Goodell announced that Jones would be given a one-year suspension for violation of the NFL player conduct policy, to be re-evaluated after the 10th regular-season game, pending disposition of current cases, which Jones appealed. This was the first time in 44 years that a player was suspended for an offense other than substance abuse. Jones took out a full page ad in "The Tennessean", promising he would "win back trust" of his teammates and fans. "To my family, teammates, coaches and fans, I recognize that I have lost the right to ask for your patience and understanding," wrote Jones. "However, I will do everything in my power to regain your trust and respect." Jones also wrote in the letter that he planned to finish his degree at West Virginia University. "The basis of the appeal ... will be to clarify some of the facts and address the unprecedented punishment that was imposed," Jones wrote in the letter. However, on June 12, Jones withdrew his appeal.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: During his suspension Jones signed with Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA), despite an agreement between TNA and the Titans organization that he would only have a "non-physical" role in the company, and went on to win the TNA World Tag Team Championship with Ron Killings. He also established a record label, "National Street League Records", and performed as one half of the rap duo Posterboyz.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: Ten weeks into the 2007 season, Goodell decided not to reduce Jones' suspension. Following this announcement, the NFL Players Association (NFLPA) said that it would appeal Jones's suspension. Tennessee running back LenDale White told "The Tennessean" that he thought all Titans players wanted Jones to return to the team. Quarterback Vince Young said, "We are going to do well without him, we can do well with him...". On December 13, 2007, the NFL agreed to hear the players union's appeal on Jones's behalf. The players union appealed Goodell's decision to not allow Jones to be reinstated during the 2007 season.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On February 1, 2008, ESPN reported that Goodell remained disappointed in Jones and that he would most likely not be reinstated after the Super Bowl. The NFL was to review Jones after the 2008 Pro Bowl. It was also reported that the Titans would try to trade Jones, if reinstated.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On March 8, 2008, Jones announced on a Tennessee radio station that he was in "tip-top shape" and said he was ready to be reinstated. His agent also announced that they would consider applying for reinstatement before the 2008 NFL Draft. Jones also said on the radio show that he would like to play for the Dallas Cowboys if the Titans desired to trade him. The Detroit Lions, the Oakland Raiders, the Kansas City Chiefs, the Houston Texans and the New Orleans Saints also expressed interest in Jones. On March 30, Jones participated at a charity basketball event, where he signed a football for a fan with the #21, saying that he believed he would wear the number if he ended up in Dallas with the Cowboys. NFL Network correspondent Adam Schefter had also described the Tennessee–Dallas trade for Jones as being "imminent". On April 1, Goodell said he would have a decision on reinstating Jones prior to training camp. However, the next day, reports said the trade was being delayed due to the Cowboys denying the Titans' request to provide a fourth-round pick and a pick in the 2009 NFL Draft. Also, the two teams disagreed over whether the Cowboys would reimburse the Titans for a bonus owed to Jones. On April 14, Schefter reported that trade talks had restarted, with the Cowboys offering a sixth-round pick and the Titans requesting a fourth-round pick in the 2008 draft.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On April 23, 2008, Jones was traded to the Dallas Cowboys in exchange for a fourth-round pick in the 2008 NFL Draft. As Jones was reinstated for the 2008 season, the Cowboys would give the Titans their sixth-round pick to Tennessee in 2009.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: Jones also reached a financial settlement with the Titans regarding his contract: he agreed to pay $500,000 to a charity chosen by the Titans in the next two years. Jones signed a four-year contract that included annual roster bonuses and was structured to protect Dallas if Jones made more off-field mistakes.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On April 24, Hall of Famer Jim Brown announced that he had offered his support and help to Jones while in Dallas. Former Cowboys teammates and NFL standouts Michael Irvin and Deion Sanders also expressed a willingness to help the troubled cornerback.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: Beginning in June, Jones was cleared to participate in organized team activities with the Cowboys, including training camp and preseason games. On August 26, Jones was fully reinstated for the 2008 NFL season.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: In the season opener for the Cowboys, a 28–10 victory against the Cleveland Browns, Jones recorded a tackle and a pass deflection. In the following 41–37 victory against the Philadelphia Eagles, Jones recorded four tackles and a pass deflection. In a 27–16 victory over the Green Bay Packers, Jones led the Cowboys with eight tackles and a fumble recovery.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: In October 2008, Jones was suspended for at least four games for an altercation at a Dallas hotel. On November 19, 2008, Cowboys owner Jerry Jones said the suspended cornerback would be reinstated by commissioner Roger Goodell, but he would miss two more games, November 23 and 27, and would return to play December 7 at Pittsburgh. By the time of his return, Jones would be suspended from 22 of a possible 28 games.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: Due to the suspension, the Titans gave their fifth-round pick to the Cowboys in 2009 and also returned the sixth-round pick to them, as stipulated in terms of the trade.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On December 7, 2008, against the Pittsburgh Steelers game, Jones suffered a neck injury, but continued to play. Later that week news reports indicated that the injury was more severe than first believed, and could be a season-ending or career-ending injury for Jones. On December 10, 2008, the Cowboys announced that Jones would probably be out for the rest of the season. However, he returned to play in the Cowboys' final game of the season, a 44–6 loss against the Philadelphia Eagles.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On January 7, 2009, the Cowboys announced they would release Jones. According to ESPN's Ed Werder, the move came after Cowboys officials learned that Jones was a suspect in a June 2007 shooting outside a strip club in Atlanta. Jones was alleged to have ordered the shooting after a dispute with one of the men. Due to NFL rules which bar major player transactions until after the Super Bowl, the Cowboys did not officially cut ties with Jones until February 9, 2009.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: In August 2009, Jones agreed in principle to a one-year deal to play with the Winnipeg Blue Bombers of the Canadian Football League. The CFL season, which runs from July through November, was half over at the time.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: However, on September 2, the Blue Bombers announced they were no longer interested in Jones after he made remarks in an internet video including calling the league the United Football League instead of the Canadian Football League. The startup UFL reportedly offered Jones a contract which he turned down.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: Jones worked out with the Cincinnati Bengals on February 12, 2010, but the Bengals did not offer him a contract. Jones worked out for NFL scouts on March 19 in New Orleans, Louisiana. Six NFL teams were in attendance. At his workout, his 40-yard dash time was 4.42 seconds.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On May 10, 2010, Jones signed a two-year deal with the Bengals. He went through the off-season and pre-season without incident and made the regular-season roster. He made his Bengals debut on September 12, 2010 as a kick returner and a backup cornerback. He returned two kickoffs for 37 yards and made two tackles and an assist on defense during the Bengals' 38–24 loss to the New England Patriots. On October 26, Jones sustained a serious neck injury, and missed the remainder of the 2010 season.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: Jones returned to action with the Bengals on October 30, 2011, returning one punt for 63 yards. He suffered a hamstring injury and did not play for the rest of the game.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: In the 2015 Wild Card Round against the Pittsburgh Steelers, Jones became involved in an altercation with Steelers assistant coach Joey Porter late in the fourth quarter and was penalized for unsportsmanlike conduct. The Bengals were leading 16–15, but the back-to-back penalties drawn by Jones and Vontaze Burfict moved the Steelers into field goal range and allowed them to win the game 18–16. Jones was subsequently fined $28,940 for the altercation, which was reduced to $12,500 by the NFL after appeal. Porter would be fined $10,000 for his actions. The incident led to the creation of the "Joey Porter Rule", which prohibits assistant coaches from entering the field of play.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: Jones was suspended the first game of the 2017 season for violating the league's personal conduct policy. In Week 13, Jones suffered a groin injury while intercepting a pass by Ben Roethlisberger. He was placed on injured reserve on December 9, 2017.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On March 9, 2018, the Bengals announced they had declined the option in his contract for the 2018 season, making Jones a free agent.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On August 26, 2018, Jones signed with the Denver Broncos. He played in seven games before being released on November 20, 2018.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: During the 2005 draft, Jones was on probation for a fight in West Virginia. He encountered more legal trouble before playing a down for the Titans. On July 14, 2005, Jones was arrested on charges of assault and felony vandalism stemming from a nightclub altercation in Nashville. On September 5, 2005, police were involved when Jones was belligerent after being told to wait in line for his vehicle at the annual Nashville Sports Council Kickoff luncheon where he was a guest. He refused to pay for valet services used that evening, claiming he had no cash in possession.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: The state of West Virginia filed a petition, alleging that Jones had not made regular and sufficient contact with his probation officer or reported his July arrest in a timely fashion. The court ordered Jones’s probation extended for 90 days.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: In February 2006, Jones was arrested in Fayetteville, Georgia after an incident outside a home. Charges of marijuana possession were quickly dismissed, but the state pressed charges for felony and misdemeanor counts of obstruction of justice.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: A Cadillac with Jones's nickname "Pacman" stitched in the headrests was seized during an April 2006 cocaine bust. The car was not registered to Jones at that time, but Jones told a local TV reporter it was his car and that he had loaned it to Darryl Moore for a music video. Police sources confirmed that Moore was the main target of their investigation. Jones later bought the car at a police auction.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On August 25, 2006, during training camp, Jones was arrested in Murfreesboro, Tennessee for disorderly conduct and public intoxication at a nightclub after he spat on a woman he accused of stealing his wallet. Police said that the staff at the nightclub ordered Jones to leave several times, but he refused, continuing to shout profanities at the woman. A judge gave Jones six months probation on the condition he stay out of trouble and away from the nightclub. On October 26, 2006, Jones was cited for misdemeanor assault for allegedly spitting in the face of a female Tennessee State University student during a private party at Club Mystic, a Nashville nightclub. He was suspended by the Titans for one game.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On the morning of February 19, 2007, during the 2007 NBA All-Star Game weekend in Las Vegas, Jones was allegedly involved in an altercation with an exotic dancer at Minxx, a local strip club. Jones and American rap artist Nelly, along with another patron known as Richard Rich, showered the stage with hundreds of $1 bills, an act known as "making it rain." Club promoter Chris Mitchell then directed his dancers to pick up the money. According to the club's co-owner, Jones became enraged when a dancer began taking the money without his permission. He allegedly grabbed her by her hair and slammed her head on the stage. A security guard intervened and scuffled with members of Jones's entourage. Jones then allegedly threatened the guard's life. During this time, Mitchell and a male associate left the club with a garbage bag filled with $81,020 in cash and two Breitling watches, which police later recovered. After club patrons left following the original confrontation, the club owner claimed that a person in Jones's entourage returned with a gun and fired into a crowd, damaging equipment and striking three people, including a security guard. The guard was shot twice, and one of the people hit—former professional wrestler Tommy Urbanski—was paralyzed from the waist down. Jones maintained that he did not know the shooter, although the club's owner insisted that Jones did. On March 26, 2007, the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department recommended to the city's district attorney that Jones would be charged with one count of felony coercion, one misdemeanor count of battery and one misdemeanor count of threat to life.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: More trouble followed Jones after the altercation, when drug dealer Darryl Moore was arrested. Wiretapped phone conversations between Moore and his friends revealed Moore talking about how Jones bet on college games to earn quick money. "You know, I was talking to him the other day about smoking, and he was like 'man, if I didn't smoke I couldn't take all the stress that I'm dealing with right now,'" Moore said.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On June 20, 2007, the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department and Clark County District Attorney's office announced that Jones would face two felony charges stemming from the February strip club melee. On November 13, 2007, Jones accepted a plea deal, and on December 6 Jones pleaded no contest to one charge of conspiracy to commit disorderly conduct, a misdemeanor. He was given a suspended prison sentence of one year, probation, and ordered to undergo 200 hours of community service.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On June 25, 2007, Tommy Urbanski and his wife, Kathy, sued Jones in civil court, claiming that Jones had bitten his left ankle and was responsible for the shooting. The lawsuit also named the Tennessee Titans and the NFL as defendants, on the grounds that Jones's employers knew of his erratic behavior prior to the Minxx incident, but did not suspend him until afterward. Had the Titans suspended Jones prior to the NBA All-Star game, the suit still debated, and Jones would not have been invited to the Las Vegas events, and the incident would not have taken place.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On April 21, 2008, a document revealed that Jones, through intermediaries, paid $15,000 extortion money in two installments to Arvin Kenti Edwards, the alleged Minxx club shooter.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On January 15, 2012, a jury ordered Jones to pay $11.6 million to Urbanski and Aaron Cudworth, a bouncer who was wounded, for Jones's role in the 2007 Las Vegas shooting. Jones's attorney said he planned to appeal the verdict.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On January 9, 2015, the Nevada Supreme Court upheld the order for Jones to pay $11 million to Urbanski and $1.3 million to Cudworth. As of 2022, he still hasn't payed more than $40,000.


title: Adam Jones (American football)

text: On May 7, 2007, Jones was stopped at 12:45 a.m. on Interstate 65 heading into downtown Nashville after an officer clocked him on radar at 79 miles per hour in a 55 miles per hour zone. Jones was driving the red 2004 Cadillac XLR Roadster which had been seized in the April 2006 cocaine bust, and which he had bought back from the police at auction.