title: Coolie

text: The word originated in the 17th-century Indian subcontinent and meant day labourer, but since the 20th century the word was used in British Raj India to refer to porters at railway stations. Coolie is now regarded as derogatory and/or a racial slur in the Americas (more so Caribbean), Oceania, and Africa / Southeast Asia – in reference to other people from Asia. The term differs from the word Dougla which refers to people of mixed African and Indian ancestry. Coolie is instead used to refer to people of fully blooded Indian descent whose ancestors migrated to the British former colonies of Africa, Asia and the Caribbean. This is particularly so in South Africa, the Eastern African countries, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, Jamaica, other parts of the Caribbean, Mauritius, Fiji, and the Malay Peninsula.


title: Coolie

text: In modern Indian popular culture, coolies have often been portrayed as working-class heroes or anti-heroes. Indian films celebrating coolies include "Deewaar" (1975), "Coolie" (1983), and several films titled "Coolie No. 1" (released in 1991, 1995, and 2020).


title: Coolie

text: An etymological explanation is that the word came from Hindustani word "qulī" (, ), which itself could be from the common Mughal era word for slave (or as a general name for imperial subjects regardless of other social status), قول ("qul"). Another, improbable explanation is that the word "qulī" originated from the Gujarati aboriginal tribe or caste known as "Kuli", and the word was picked up by the Portuguese who then used it in South India, hence the Tamil word "kuli". Since uvular "q" is not an indigenous sound in Indian languages, this explanation can be discarded. The word was used in this sense for labourers from India. In 1727, Engelbert Kämpfer described "coolies" as dock labourers who would unload Dutch merchant ships at Nagasaki in Japan.


title: Coolie

text: The word kūli meaning wages is present throughout the Dravidian language family, with the exception of the North Dravidian branch.


title: Coolie

text: The Chinese phono-semantic matching literally translates as "bitter strength" but is more commonly understood as "hard labour".


title: Coolie

text: The importation of Asian laborers into European colonies occurred as early as the 17th century. However, in the 19th century, a far more robust system of trade involving coolies occurred, in direct response to the gradual abolition of both the Atlantic slave trade and slavery itself, which for centuries had served as the preferred mode of labor in European colonies in the Americas. The British were the first to experiment with coolie labor when in 1806, 200 Chinese laborers were transported to the colony of Trinidad in order to work on the plantations there. The "Trinidad experiment" was not a success, with only twenty to thirty of the two hundred labourers remaining in Trinidad by the 1820s. However, such efforts inspired Sir John Gladstone, one of the earliest proponents of coolie labor, to seek out coolies for his sugar plantations in British Guiana in the hopes of replacing his Afro-Caribbean labor force after the abolition of slavery there in 1833.


title: Coolie

text: Social and political pressure led to the abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire in 1833, with other European nations eventually following suit. Labour-intensive work in European colonies, such as those involving plantations and mines, were left without a free source of manpower. As a consequence, a large-scale trade in Asian (primarily Indian and Chinese) indentured labourers began in the 1820s to fill this vacuum. In 1838, 396 South Asian workers arrived in British Guiana, and such a stream of migrant labor would continue until the First World War. Other European nations, especially colonial powers such as France, Spain, and Portugal, soon followed suit, especially as Britain, through several treaties such as Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1810 and the 1814 Treaty of Paris, also pressured other nations to abolish their involvement in the Atlantic slave trade. In most European colonies, the importation of Asian laborers began in earnest after the abolition of slavery. However, in some colonies such as Cuba, slavery would not end until 1886, about forty years after coolies were introduced.


title: Coolie

text: A number of contemporary and modern historians noted the influence of the old form of colonial slavery on the coolie system. The coolie trade, much like the slave trade, was intended to provide a labor force for colonial plantations in the Americas and the Pacific which cash crops high in demand across the Atlantic World. Coolies frequently worked on slave plantations which had been previously worked by enslaved Africans, and similarly brutal treatment could be meted out by plantation overseers in response to real or perceived offences. On some Caribbean plantations, the numbers of coolies present could reach up to six hundred. In 1878, historian W. L. Distant wrote an article for the "Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute", detailing his time spent on West Indian plantations observing the work ethic and behaviors of coolies, and noted that many overseers believed that Asian coolies much like enslaved Africans held an affinity for labour-intensive outdoor labor work. The views of overseers towards coolies differed based on ethnicity: Chinese and Japanese coolies were perceived to be harder working, more unified as a labor force, and maintained better hygiene habits in comparison to Indian laborers, who were viewed as being lower in status and treated as children who required constant supervision.


title: Coolie

text: Coolie labor, unlike slavery, was in theory under contract, consensual, paid, and temporary, with the coolie to regain complete freedom after their term of service. Regulations were put in place as early as 1837 by the British authorities in India to safeguard these principles of voluntary, contractual work and safe and sanitary transportation. The Chinese government also made efforts to secure the well-being of their nation's workers, with representations being made to relevant governments around the world. Some Western abolitionists saw coolie labor as paving the way towards abolition, to gradually and peacefully replace African slave labor without loss of profit. However, other abolitionist groups and individuals such as the British Anti-Slavery Society and British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society along with American abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison were highly critical of coolie labor. Proslavery advocates, particularly in the Southern United States, condemned coolie labor, but used it to argue against the abolition of American slavery, claiming the latter was more "humane" than the former.


title: Coolie

text: In practice, however, as many opponents of the system argued, abuse and violence in the coolie trade was rampant. Some of these laborers signed employment contracts based on misleading promises, while others were kidnapped and sold into servitude; some were victims of clan violence whose captors sold them to coolie merchants, while others sold themselves to pay off gambling debts. For those who did sign on voluntarily, they generally signed on for a period of two to five years. In addition to having their passage paid for, coolies were also paid under twenty cents per day on average. However, in certain regions roughly a dollar would be taken from coolies every month in order to pay off their debts.


title: Coolie

text: Workers from China were mainly transported to work in Peru and Cuba. However, many Chinese laborers worked in British colonies such as Singapore, New South Wales, Jamaica, British Guiana (now Guyana), British Malaya, Trinidad and Tobago, British Honduras (now Belize) – as well as in the Dutch colonies within the Dutch East Indies, and Suriname. The first shipment of Chinese labourers was to the British colony of Trinidad in 1806 "in an attempt to establish


title: Coolie

text: a settlement of free peasant cultivators and labourers". On many of the voyages the labourers were transported on the same vessels that had been used to transport African slaves in the previous years.


title: Coolie

text: The coolie-slave trade run by American captains and local agents and mainly consisting of debt slavery, was called the 'pig trade' as the living conditions were not dissimilar to that of livestock; on some vessels as many as 40 percent of the coolies died en route. As many as 500 were crammed into a single ship hold, leaving no room to move. Some of these were Chinese women kidnapped to be sex slaves under the demand of American and Caribbean plantation owners. The recruited labourers were required to pay for their ship fares from meager earnings which were frequently below living expenses, forcing them into virtual slavery. The coolies were also stamped on their backs like livestock. Foreign merchants took advantage of the unequal treaties negotiated between the Qing government and Western powers after the Opium Wars, as well as the resulting political and economic instability, to broker deals for "contracted" workers. Portuguese Macao was the center of this trade: coolie slavery was described as "the only real business" in Macao from 1848 to 1873, generating enormous profits for the Portuguese until it was banned due to pressure from the British government.


title: Coolie

text: In 1847, two ships from Cuba transported workers to Havana to work in the sugar cane fields from the port of Xiamen, one of the five Chinese treaty ports opened to the British by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. The trade soon spread to other ports in Guangdong, and demand became particularly strong in Peru for workers in the silver mines and the guano collecting industry. Australia began importing workers in 1848, and the United States began using them in 1865 on the First transcontinental railroad construction. These workers were deceived about their terms of employment to a much greater extent than their Indian counterparts, and consequently, there was a much higher level of Chinese emigration during this period.


title: Coolie

text: The trade flourished from 1847 to 1854 without incident, until reports began to surface of the mistreatment of the workers in Cuba and Peru. As the British government had political and legal responsibility for many of the ports involved – including Amoy – such ports were immediately closed. Despite these closures, the trade simply shifted to the more accommodating port within the Portuguese enclave of Macau.


title: Coolie

text: Many coolies were first deceived or kidnapped and, then kept in barracoons (detention centres) or loading vessels in the ports of departure, as were African slaves. Their voyages, which are sometimes called the Pacific Passage, were as inhumane and dangerous as the notorious Middle Passage of the Atlantic slave trade. Mortality was very high; it is estimated that from 1847 to 1859, the average mortality rate for coolies aboard ships to Cuba was 15.2 percent, and losses among those aboard ships to Peru were as high as 40 percent in the 1850s, and 30.44 percent from 1860 to 1863.


title: Coolie

text: They were sold and were taken to work in plantations or mines with very bad living and working conditions. The duration of a contract was typically five to eight years, but many coolies did not live out their term of service due to hard labour and mistreatment. Survivors were often forced to remain in servitude beyond the contracted period. The coolies who worked on the sugar plantations in Cuba and in the guano beds of the Chincha Islands (the islands of Hell) of Peru were treated brutally. Seventy-five percent of the Chinese coolies in Cuba died before fulfilling their contracts. More than two-thirds of the Chinese coolies who arrived in Peru between 1849 and 1874 died within the contract period. In 1860 it was calculated that of the 4000 coolies brought to the Chinchas since the trade began, not one had survived.


title: Coolie

text: Because of these unbearable conditions, Chinese coolies often revolted against their Ko-Hung bosses and foreign company bosses at ports of departure, on ships, and in foreign lands. The coolies were put in the same neighbourhoods as Africans and, since most were unable to return to their homeland or have their wives come to the New World, many married African women. The coolies' interracial relationships and marriages with Africans, Europeans and Indigenous peoples, formed some of the modern world's Afro-Asian and Asian Latin American populations.


title: Coolie

text: In Spanish, "colonos asiáticos" was the for coolies. The Spanish colony of Cuba feared slavery uprisings such as those that took place in Haiti and used coolies as a transition between slaves and free labor. They were neither free nor slaves. Indentured Chinese servants also labored in the sugarcane fields of Cuba well after the 1884 abolition of slavery in the country. Two scholars of Chinese labor in Cuba, Juan Pastrana and Juan Pérez de la Riva, substantiated horrific conditions of Chinese coolies in Cuba and stated that coolies were slaves in all but name. Denise Helly is one researcher who believes that despite their slave-like treatment, the free and legal status of the Asian laborers in Cuba separated them from slaves. The coolies could challenge their superiors, run away, petition government officials, and rebel according to Rodriguez Pastor and Trazegnies Granda. Once they had fulfilled their contracts the "colonos asiáticos" integrated into the countries of Peru, The Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and Cuba. They adopted cultural traditions from the natives and also welcomed in non-Chinese to experience and participate into their own traditions. Before the Cuban Revolution in 1959, Havana had Latin America's largest Chinatown.


title: Coolie

text: In South America, Chinese indentured labourers worked in Peru's silver mines and coastal industries (i.e., guano, sugar, and cotton) from the early 1850s to the mid-1870s; about 100,000 people immigrated as indentured workers. They participated in the War of the Pacific, looting and burning down the haciendas where they worked, after the capture of Lima by the invading Chilean army in January 1880. Some 2000 coolies even joined the Chilean Army in Peru, taking care of the wounded and burying the dead. Others were sent by Chileans to work in the newly conquered nitrate fields.


title: Coolie

text: The Chinese Engineering and Mining Corporation, of which later U.S. president Herbert Hoover was a director, was instrumental in supplying Chinese coolie labour to South African mines from c. 1902 to c. 1910 at the request of mine owners, who considered such labour cheaper than native African and white labour. The horrendous conditions suffered by Indian coolie labourers in South Africa led to some politicians in the British Parliament questioning the coolie system.


title: Coolie

text: In 1866, the British, French and Chinese governments agreed to mitigate the abuse by requiring all traders to pay for the return of all workers after their contract ended. The employers in the British West Indies declined these conditions, bringing the trade there to an end. Until the trade was finally abolished in 1875, over 150,000 coolies had been sold to Cuba alone, the majority having been shipped from Macau. These labourers endured conditions far worse than those experienced by their Indian counterparts. Even after the 1866 reforms, the scale of abuse and conditions of near slavery did not get any better – if anything they deteriorated. In the early 1870s, an increased media exposure of the trade led to a public outcry, and the British, as well as the Chinese government put pressure on the Portuguese colonial authorities in Macau to bring the trade there to an end; this was ultimately achieved in 1874. By that time, a total of up to half a million Chinese workers had been exported.


title: Coolie

text: Debates over coolie labor and slavery was key in shaping the history of Chinese immigrants in the U.S. In February 1862, “An Act to Prohibit the ‘Coolie Trade’ by American Citizens in American vessels,” also known as the Anti-Coolie Act, was signed into law by Abraham Lincoln, which prohibited any U.S. citizens and residents from trading in Chinese subjects, known as “coolies.” In one aspect, the Anti-Coolie Act was the last of the U.S. slave trade laws, as well as the beginning of the end of slavery; in the September of that year, Lincoln would also issue the Emancipation Proclamation; in another aspect, it was the beginning of Chinese exclusion in the U.S. and the beginning of federal immigration restriction. Within a decade significant levels of anti-Chinese sentiment had built up, stoked by populists such as Denis Kearney with racist slogans – "To an American, death is preferable to life on a par with the Chinese." In 1868, the Burlingame Treaty would ensure certain protections for Chinese immigrants in the U.S. and emphasize that any Chinese immigration to the U.S. must be free and voluntary, reaffirming that “coolies,” being unfree, were unwelcome and prohibited from entering the U.S. In 1875, Congress would pass the Page Act, which prohibited the bringing of any Chinese subjects without their consent in order to hold them for a term of service. In 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act would bar the entry of any Chinese laborer to the U.S.


title: Coolie

text: Despite attempts to restrict the influx of cheap labour from China, beginning in the 1870s Chinese workers helped construct a vast network of levees in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta. These levees made thousands of acres of fertile marshlands available for agricultural production. Although Chinese workers contributed to the building of the first First Transcontinental Railroad in the United States and of the Canadian Pacific Railway in western Canada, Chinese settlement was discouraged after completion of the construction. State legislation, such as California's Foreign Miners' Tax Act of 1850 and 1852, would target Chinese immigrants in the U.S. The 1879 Constitution of the State of California declared that "Asiatic coolieism is a form of human slavery, and is forever prohibited in this State, and all contracts for coolie labour shall be void."


title: Coolie

text: The term "coolie" was also applied to Chinese workers recruited for contracts on cacao plantations in German Samoa. German planters went to great lengths to secure access to their "coolie" labour supply from China. In 1908, a Chinese commissioner, Lin Shu Fen, reported on the cruel treatment of coolie workers on German plantations in the western Samoan Islands. The trade began largely after the establishment of colonial German Samoa in 1900 and lasted until the arrival of New Zealand forces in 1914. More than 2000 Chinese "coolies" were present in the islands in 1914 and most were eventually repatriated by the New Zealand administration.


title: Coolie

text: By the 1820s, many Indians were voluntarily enlisting to go abroad for work, in the hopes of a better life. European merchants and businessmen quickly took advantage of this and began recruiting them for work as a cheap source of labour. British merchants began transporting Indians to colonies around the world, including British Mauritius, British Fiji, New South Wales, British Natal, British East Africa, British Tanganyika, British Somaliland, British Bechuanaland, British Seychelles, British Uganda, British Northern Rhodesia, British Rhodesia, British Nyasaland, British Guiana, British Trinidad and Tobago, British Jamaica, British Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Grenada, British Honduras, Saint Kitts and Nevis, British Barbados, the rest of the British West Indies, and British Malaya. The Dutch shipped workers to labor on the plantations on Dutch Surinam the Netherlands Antilles, and the Dutch East Indies. The French shipped laborers to Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, the rest of the French West Indies, and Réunion.


title: Coolie

text: A system of agents was used to infiltrate the rural villages of India and recruit labourers. They would often deceive the credulous workers about the great opportunities that awaited them for their own material betterment abroad. The Indians primarily came from the Indo-Gangetic Plain, but also from Tamil Nadu and other areas to the south of the country. Indians had faced a great number of social and economic disasters, causing them to be more eager than other groups to leave India. In the last part of the nineteenth century alone, there were 24 famines.


title: Coolie

text: Without permission from the British colonial authorities, the French transported Indian workers to their Pacific colony, Reunion Island, from as early as 1826. By 1830, over 3,000 labourers had been transported. After this trade was discovered, the French successfully negotiated with the British in 1860 for permission to transport over 6,000 workers annually, on condition that the trade would be suspended if abuses were discovered to be taking place.


title: Coolie

text: The British began to transport Indians to Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, starting in 1829. Slavery was abolished there in 1833, with Mauritian planters receiving two million pounds sterling in compensation for the loss of their slaves. The planters turned to bringing in a large number of indentured labourers from India to work in the sugar cane fields. Between 1834 and 1921, around half a million indentured labourers were present on the island. They worked on sugar estates, factories, in transport and on construction sites.


title: Coolie

text: In 1837, the British East India Company issued a set of regulations for the trade. The rules provided for each labourer to be personally authorised for transportation by an officer designated by the company, limited the length of service to five years subject to voluntary renewal, made the contractor responsible for returning the worker after the contract elapsed and required the vessels to conform to basic health standards.


title: Coolie

text: Despite this, conditions on the ships were often extremely crowded, with rampant disease and malnutrition. Coolies were also not informed about the length of the trip or about the island that they would be going to. The workers were paid a pittance for their labour, and were expected to work in often awful and harsh conditions. Although there were no large scale scandals involving coolie abuse in British colonies, workers often ended up being forced to work, and manipulated in such a way that they became dependent on the plantation owners so that in practice they remained there long after their contracts expired; possibly as little as 10% of the coolies actually returned to their original country of origin. Colonial legislation was also passed to severely limit their freedoms; in Mauritius a compulsory pass system was instituted to enable their movements to be easily tracked. Conditions were much worse in the French colonies of Reunion and Guadeloupe and Martinique, where workers were 'systematically overworked' and abnormally high mortality rates were recorded for those working in the mines. Generally, Indian coolies were noted to have higher mortality rates as a whole, and were less likely to be able to return home. Companies would often promise good food, durable clothing, adequate housing, safe passage, and schools. However, these promises were rarely kept, leading to the higher mortality rate and image of Indian coolies being "dirty".


title: Coolie

text: The voyage itself was often a highly dangerous venture, especially for coolie women. Though some ships had made attempts to prevent assault, rape, and general mistreatment in sailor contracts, these crimes were still common. Even with punishments in place, on ship and land, men who assaulted women and children were rarely punished, leaving women in an even more vulnerable position.


title: Coolie

text: However, there were also attempts by the British authorities to regulate and mitigate the worst abuses. Workers were regularly checked up on by health inspectors, and they were vetted before transportation to ensure that they were suitably healthy and fit to be able to endure the rigours of labour. Children under the age of 15 were not allowed to be transported from their parents under any circumstances.


title: Coolie

text: The first campaign against the 'coolie' trade in England likened the system of indentured labour to the slavery of the past. The campaign against coolie emigration was led by Joseph Sturge, with the Society of Friends. Petitions from Sturge, the Society of Friends, various other humanitarian groups, and from citizens of entire cities were routinely sent to the Colonial Offices. In response to this pressure, the labour export was temporarily stopped in 1839 by the authorities when the scale of the abuses became known, but it was soon renewed due to its growing economic importance. A more rigorous regulatory framework was put into place and severe penalties were imposed for infractions in 1842. In that year, almost 35,000 people were shipped to Mauritius.


title: Coolie

text: In 1844, the trade was expanded to the colonies in the West Indies, including Jamaica, Trinidad and Demerara, where the Asian population was soon a major component of the island demographic.


title: Coolie

text: Starting in 1879, many Indians were transported to Fiji to work on the sugar cane plantations. Many of them chose to stay after their term of indenture elapsed and today they number about 40% of the total population. Indian workers were also imported into the Dutch colony of Suriname after the Dutch signed a treaty with the United Kingdom on the recruitment of contract workers in 1870. In Mauritius, the Indian population are now demographically dominant, with Indian festivals being celebrated as national holidays.


title: Coolie

text: This system prevailed until the early twentieth century. Increasing focus on the brutalities and abuses of the trade by the sensationalist media of the time, incited public outrage and lead to the official ending of the coolie trade in 1916 by the British government. By that time tens of thousands of Chinese workers were being used along the Western Front by the allied forces (see Chinese Labour Corps).


title: Coolie

text: A major difference between the Chinese and the Indian coolie trades was that women and children were brought from India, along with men, while Chinese coolies were 99% male. Although there are reports of ships (so called "Coolie ships") for Asian coolies carrying women and children, the great majority of them were men. This led to a high rate of Chinese men marrying women of other ethnicities such as Indian women and mixed-race Creole women. The contrast in the female to male ratio between Indian and Chinese immigrants has been compared by historians. In Sumatra in the Dutch East Indies just 18,731 Chinese women and 92,985 Chinese men served as coolies on plantations. Chinese women migrated less than Javanese and Indian women as indentured coolies. The number of Chinese women as coolies was "very small" while Chinese men were easily taken into the coolie trade. In Cuba men made up the vast majority of Chinese indentured servants on sugar plantations and in Peru non-Chinese women married the mostly male Chinese coolies. Polyandry was a common practice amongst Indian coolies. Between 1845 and 1917, twenty-five percent of all Indians brought to the Caribbean were women. With women as a severe minority, their morality was questioned and the actions of men as a result of having so few women was blamed on the women. Between 1858 and 1859, laws were put into place stating that the ratio of men to women could not exceed 2:1, whereas before it was 3:1. However, there continued to be a severe shortage of women. This gave women a new sense of power when it came to choosing a partner. With a shortage of women, it became the responsibility of the male suitor to provide a hefty dowry to a woman's father, regardless of what caste she came from. Unfortunately, this also put women in a very vulnerable position, especially when alone. Rape was a common occurrence, and there were accounts of women being bound and gagged in their own homes by men. Between 1872 and 1900, it was reported that 87 women were murdered with 65 of those being married women who were accused of being unfaithful.


title: Coolie

text: The scarcity of Indian women in the Caribbean may not have been completely due to the women's inability to perform the work required of them. Many coolie women saw the chance to leave for the Caribbean as a way to escape abusive husbands, to hide pregnancy, to escape shame, or to simply find a better life. The 1883 Indian Immigration Act aimed to stop women from escaping their abusive husbands, which in turn made it much more difficult for women to emigrate. This in part due to an agent generally needing to travel to the woman's village in order to verify who she was.


title: Coolie

text: Chinese women were scarce in every place where Chinese indentured laborers were brought, the migration was dominated by Chinese men. Up to the 1940s men made up the vast majority of the Costa Rican Chinese community. Males made up the majority of the original Chinese community in Mexico and they married Mexican women. One stark difference between Indian and Chinese coolies was the treatment of women, despite both groups having a severe shortage. Though there were crimes against women and women being murdered, these incidents were nowhere near as frequent as with Indian coolies. Though this was because there were so few Chinese, it became common for people to believe that Indians murder their women while Chinese women stay alive because, unlike their Indian counterparts, they are chaste.


title: Coolie

text: In the early 1900s, the Chinese communities in Manila, Singapore, Mauritius, New Zealand, Victoria in Australia, the United States, and Victoria in British Columbia in Canada were all male dominated. Though the lack of women became a problem in later years, initially women were not high on the priority list when it came to coolie recruitment. Generally, it was believed that women were unwilling to perform the hard outdoor labor. Those who did perform it were still seen as not as good as men.


title: Coolie

text: In 2000, the parliament of South Africa enacted the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act, 2000. Section 10 covers the prohibition of hate speech terms, such as coolie (koelie). The main objectives of the Act were:


title: Coolie

text: In the 1955 film "The Left Hand of God", Father Carmody (Humphrey Bogart) reminds Dr. Sigman (E. G. Marshall) in a testy exchange that he is not one of his "coolie" patients.


title: Coolie

text: In the 1957 film "The Bridge on the River Kwai", when his officers are ordered to do manual labour on the bridge, British officer Col. Nicholson (Alec Guinness) insists that "I will not have an officer from my battalion working as a coolie."


title: Coolie

text: In the racially controversial film "The Mask of Fu Manchu" (1932) Sir Denis Nayland Smith mentions his team's temporarily-hired Chinese workers, saying of Dr. Fu Manchu that "... his spies are all around us. I can't even trust our own coolies."


title: Coolie

text: In the 1934 film "Mandalay", the character Tanya (Kay Francis) calls Nick, the club owner, "coolie", causing him to slap her across the face.


title: Coolie

text: In the 1941 Disney film "The Reluctant Dragon", humorist Robert Benchley sees an Asian artist drawing an elephant wearing a conical hat and remarks "Oh, a coolie elephant, huh?"


title: Coolie

text: The Oscar-nominated 1966 film "The Sand Pebbles" depicts coolies working as laborers assisting American sailors aboard an American gun boat in 1926 civil war era China. The story, among many parallel story lines, involves an American Navy engineer (Steve McQueen) befriending a coolie working under his command (Mako) in the engine room.


title: Coolie

text: Indian films about coolies include "Deewaar" (1975), "Coolie" (1983), "Coolie No. 1" (1991), "Coolie" (1995), "Coolie No. 1" (1995), "Coolie" (2004), "Coolie No. 1" (2019), and "Coolie No. 1" (2020).


title: Coolie

text: "Deewaar" (1975) is an Indian crime drama written by Salim–Javed about a dockyard coolie, Vijay Verma (Amitabh Bachchan), who turns to a life of crime and becomes a Bombay underworld smuggler, inspired by the real-life Indian mafia don Haji Mastan.


title: Coolie

text: "Coolie" (1983) is an Indian Bollywood film about a coolie, Iqbal Aslam Khan (Amitabh Bachchan), who works at a railway station and has a lover. His lover's father once murdered a girl's father in an attempt to force her to marry him, but she did not give in. After 10 years of imprisonment, he flooded her village (injuring her new husband) and causing her to awaken with amnesia. It also stars Rishi Kapoor, Kader Khan, and Waheeda Rehman, among others. Amitabh Bachchan suffered a near-fatal injury during the fight sequence. Whole nation prayed for his life .


title: Coolie

text: The film "Romper Stomper" (1992) shows a white power skinhead named Hando (played by Russell Crowe) expressing distress about the idea of being a coolie in his own country. Also, the gang he directs makes frequent attacks at gangs of working class Vietnamese Australians.


title: Coolie

text: In the 2004 Stephen Chow film "Kung Fu Hustle", Landlady (Qiu Yuen) criticizes the laborer/retired-in-disguise kung fu master (Xing Yu) for not paying rent, saying that "you'll be a coolie for life." In the credits, his name is given as "Coolie."


title: Coolie

text: The documentary film directed by Yung Chang called "Up the Yangtze" (2007) follows the life of a family in China that is relocated due to the flooding of the Yangtze. The daughter is sent directly from finishing middle school to work on a cruise ship for western tourists, to earn money for her family. Her father referred to himself as a "coolie" who used to carry bags on and off of boats.


title: Coolie

text: In "Hell on Wheels" (e.g., season 3, episode 1 (2013)), frequent references are made to the hardworking, underpaid Chinese coolies who helped build the Transcontinental Railroad.


title: Coolie

text: In the 2018 drama "Mr. Sunshine", the word "coolie" is used to refer to certain low class Joseon-era laborers.


title: Coolie

text: In the 1899 novelette "Typhoon" by Joseph Conrad, the captain is transporting a group of coolies in the South China Sea.


title: Coolie

text: "White Coolies" by Betty Jeffrey (1954) is a non-fiction account of a group of Australian nurses held captive and used as slave labour by the Japanese in WWII.


title: Coolie

text: In the 1982 fiction novel "A Nomad of the Time Streams" by Michael Moorcock the word 'coolie' is used repeatedly about varying kinds of Asian laborers.


title: Coolie

text: The 2014 chutney song titled "Coolie Bai Dance" by the Indo-Guyanese singer Romeo "Mystic" Nermal is about the lifestyle of the traditional "coolie" (Indo-Caribbean) villagers in Guyana and the rest of the Caribbean.


title: Coolie

text: In 1938, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt used the term in one of his "Fireside Chats" (Number 13, 24 July 1938) while telling a story about "two Chinese coolies" arguing in a crowd.


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: Baby Boy is a 2001 American coming-of-age hood comedy-drama film directed, written, and produced by John Singleton and starring Tyrese Gibson, Snoop Dogg, Ving Rhames, Omar Gooding, A.J. Johnson and Taraji P. Henson. The film follows Joseph "Jody" Summers (Gibson), a 20-year-old bike mechanic who still lives with his own mother (Johnson), as he lives and learns in his everyday life in the hood of Los Angeles.


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: The film was originally written with rapper-actor Tupac Shakur in mind to play Jody; Shakur had previously worked with Singleton on "Poetic Justice". However, following Shakur's murder in 1996, Singleton decided to replace Shakur with R&B artist Tyrese Gibson. Additionally, the role of Rodney was originally written for Ice Cube, who had worked with Singleton on "Boyz n the Hood" and "Higher Learning". The film marked the feature acting debut of Gibson and provided Henson with her first prominent role.


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: Released in the United States on June 27, 2001, the film received predominantly positive reviews from critics and audiences, with many deeming it as Singleton's best film since "Boyz n the Hood", but underperformed commercially, grossing $29 million against a $16 million budget. The film is also the final feature film written by Singleton as he did not write any of his later feature-length directorial projects before his death in April 2019.


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: Joseph "Jody" Summers waits for his girlfriend Yvette at an abortion clinic after compelling her to go. They then have a heated argument about his lack of commitment and selfishness; she asks him if he will ever come live with her and their son JoJo, but he deliberately avoids the subject and comes and goes as he pleases.


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: Meanwhile, Jody also continues having affairs with other women, including a young girl named Peanut, with whom he also has a daughter, Lil' Nut. Jody also nearly has sex with Pandora, Yvette's colleague and co-worker, but manages to rebuff her advances. When Yvette discovers his cheating, their ensuing argument eventually turns physical, culminating in her kicking him out of her home.


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: Yvette's gangster ex-boyfriend Rodney is released from San Quentin State Prison and returns to the neighborhood to move in with Yvette. However, Rodney does not care for JoJo and wants to impregnate Yvette himself, but when Rodney attempts to rape Yvette in front of her son, he stops himself out of guilt. Despite their previous issues, Yvette begins to realize she still loves Jody.


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: Jody’s mother Juanita finds marijuana in her garden and blames him, who then angrily blames her new boyfriend Melvin, an ex-convict. Melvin comes home, admits to Juanita that he planted it and apologizes. An upset Jody argues with his mother before getting into an argument with Melvin, which ends with Melvin punching him and breaking a table.


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: Frustrated, Jody leaves the house to see his friend Sweetpea. Soon after, Yvette kicks Rodney and his friends out of her apartment. Eventually, Yvette and Jody reconcile at Sweetpea's house, and Yvette tells Jody about how Rodney tried to rape her in front of JoJo. Rodney then steals Yvette’s money and keys from her wallet and drives off in her car to go and find Jody, whom he unsuccessfully tries to kill in a drive-by shooting.


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: Later that night, Jody and Sweetpea confront Rodney, and as he attempts to escape, Jody shoots him in the legs. Sweetpea urges Jody to kill Rodney, but he refuses, and so Sweetpea shoots and kills Rodney himself. Horrified by Rodney's death, Jody prepares to commit suicide by shooting himself in the head, but Melvin stops him before taking the gun. After reflecting on Rodney's death and how his absence endangered her and JoJo, Jody finally decides to move in with Yvette.


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: Jody then accepts that Juanita's relationship with Melvin is stable, and that he needs to protect and care for his own family. Afterward, Jody and Yvette get married and look forward to the birth of their unborn child. Meanwhile, Sweetpea decides to get baptized and abandon his old life as a criminal.


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: Singleton makes an uncredited cameo as a bootlegger who attempts to sell pirated DVDs to Jody and Sweetpea, while his mother Sheila Ward plays a mourner in the dream sequence where Jody sees himself at his funeral. Additionally, his daughter Cleopatra appears in the beginning of the film as Lil' Nut, Jody's daughter with Peanut.


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: In its opening weekend, the film grossed $8,606,403 in 1,533 theaters in the United States, averaging $5,614 per theater, and ranking #5 at the box office. It grossed a total of $28,734,552 domestically and $647,097 elsewhere for a total of $29,381,649, above its $16 million production budget.


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: "Baby Boy" received positive reviews from critics and has a rating of 71% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 92 reviews with an average score of 6.2 out of 10. The consensus states "Preachy and repetitive in parts, "Baby Boy" still manages to exude authenticity, thanks to its competent cast." The film also has a score of 55 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 26 critics indicating 'Mixed or average reviews'.


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: Roger Ebert gave the film 3½ stars out of 4 and stated in his review: ""Baby Boy" is a bold criticism of young black men who carelessly father babies, live off their mothers and don't even think of looking for work. It is also a criticism of the society that pushes them into that niche. There has never been a movie with this angle on the African-American experience" and "[it] doesn't fall back on easy liberal finger-pointing. There are no white people in this movie, no simplistic blaming of others; the adults in Jody's life blame him for his own troubles, and they should."


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: Kenneth Turan, film critic for the "Los Angeles Times", praised the film for being "...Compelling... heartfelt and personal..." Jonathan Rosenbaum of "Chicago Reader" also liked the film, stating "Like John Singleton's other features, this is far from flawless... But the characters are so full-bodied and the feelings so raw and complex that I'd call this the best thing he's done to date..."


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: The film ultimately received 10 nominations at the Black Reel Awards of 2002, including Outstanding Film, and 3 nominations at 2002 NAACP Image Awards, including Outstanding Motion Picture. The film was also screened at the 2001 Locarno International Film Festival in competition for the Golden Leopard and would receive a 'Special Mention' from the jury for "For its innovative concept and ensemble acting."


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: Director John Singleton was very proud of the movie: "It was just soulful, I made a movie that I wanted to be as soulful as a Marvin Gaye record. That was my goal for better or worse. Not necessarily a perfect film, but just something that you watch, it’s memorable. That’s what I love about that movie."


title: Baby Boy (film)

text: A soundtrack containing hip-hop and R&B music was released by Universal Records on June 19, 2001. It peaked at #41 on the "Billboard" 200, #12 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and #5 on the Top Soundtracks, and spawned one charting single, "Just a Baby Boy", performed by Snoop Dogg featuring Tyrese & Mr. Tan, which made it to #90 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and #40 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks. The soundtrack contains interludes which are sound clips from the film. An album of the film's score, by British composer David Arnold, was released by Varese Sarabande.


title: David Hurley

text: General David John Hurley, (born 26 August 1953) is an Australian former senior officer in the Australian Army who has served as the 27th governor-general of Australia since 1 July 2019. He was previously the 38th governor of New South Wales, serving from 2014 to 2019.


title: David Hurley

text: In a 42-year military career, Hurley deployed on Operation Solace in Somalia in 1993, commanded the 1st Brigade (1999–2000), was the inaugural Chief of Capability Development Group (2003–2007) and Chief of Joint Operations (2007–2008) and served as Vice Chief of the Defence Force (2008–2011). His career culminated with his appointment as Chief of the Defence Force on 4 July 2011, in succession to Air Chief Marshal Angus Houston. Hurley retired from the army in June 2014, and succeeded Dame Marie Bashir as Governor of New South Wales on 2 October 2014.


title: David Hurley

text: David John Hurley was born on 26 August 1953 in Wollongong, New South Wales, to Norma and James Hurley. His father was an Illawarra steelworker and his mother worked in a grocery store. Hurley grew up in Port Kembla and attended Port Kembla High School, where he completed his Higher School Certificate in 1971. He subsequently graduated from the Royal Military College, Duntroon with a Graduate Diploma in Defence Studies, and from Deakin University with a Bachelor of Arts.


title: David Hurley

text: Hurley entered the Royal Military College, Duntroon, as an officer cadet in January 1972. On graduating from Duntroon in December 1975, he was commissioned a lieutenant in the Royal Australian Infantry Corps. His initial posting was to the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (1RAR). Promoted to captain, he was appointed adjutant of the Sydney University Regiment before becoming regimental adjutant of the Royal Australian Regiment. He went on exchange to the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards, a British Army unit, before serving with 5th/7th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment.


title: David Hurley

text: Promoted to lieutenant colonel, Hurley was posted as the Senior Career Adviser (Armour, Artillery, Engineers and Infantry) in the Office of the Military Secretary in 1990, appointed SO1 (Operations) Headquarters 2nd Division in early 1991, and in November 1991 assumed command of 1RAR, which he led during Operation Solace in Somalia in 1993. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his service during this deployment. In 1994 he became SO1 (Operations), Headquarters 1st Division.


title: David Hurley

text: Following promotion to colonel, Hurley was appointed Chief of Staff, Headquarters 1st Division in June 1994, attended the United States Army War College from 1996 to 1997, became Military Secretary to Chief of Army, and was posted to Australian Defence Headquarters as Director of Preparedness and Mobilisation in December 1997. As a brigadier, he assumed command of the 1st Brigade in Darwin in January 1999. During this period he oversaw the brigade's transition to a higher degree of operational readiness and its support to Australian–led operations in East Timor. He went on to be Director General Land Development within Capability Systems in January 2001.


title: David Hurley

text: Hurley was promoted to major general in 2001 and served as Head Capability Systems Division from July 2001, and as Land Commander Australia from December 2002. Promoted to lieutenant general, he assumed the new appointment of Chief of Capability Development Group in December 2003, went on to take the newly separated appointment of Chief of Joint Operations in September 2007, and became Vice Chief of the Defence Force in July 2008.


title: David Hurley

text: Hurley was promoted to general and succeeded Air Chief Marshal Angus Houston as Chief of the Defence Force (CDF) on 4 July 2011. In January 2012 Hurley completed 40 years service to the Australian Defence Force, and on 20 January while in Paris, he was presented with the insignia for Officer of the Legion of Honour by the French CDF. In February, he was presented with a fifth clasp to the Defence Force Service Medal in recognition of his 40 years of service. Hurley retired from the Australian Army on 30 June 2014, and was succeeded as CDF by Air Chief Marshal Mark Binskin.


title: David Hurley

text: Lieutenant General David Morrison, the 2016 Australian of the Year, credited Hurley with the phrase "the standard you walk past is the standard you accept" in his anti-misogyny speech, which became "one of the most quoted phrases" of Morrison's speech.


title: David Hurley

text: On 5 June 2014, New South Wales Premier Mike Baird announced that Hurley would replace Dame Marie Bashir as Governor of New South Wales: he was sworn in on 2 October 2014 after Bashir's term as governor had expired. On 17 March 2015, he was invested as a Knight of the Order of St John by the Lord Prior of the Order, Neil Conn, at a ceremony at Government House, Sydney.


title: David Hurley

text: On 16 December 2018, Prime Minister Scott Morrison announced that Queen Elizabeth II had approved the appointment of Hurley as the next Governor-General of Australia commencing on 1 July 2019 marking him as the first representative of the monarch who had been born during the latter's reign. Margaret Beazley was designated as his replacement as Governor of New South Wales. Hurley was sworn in as the 27th Governor-General at Parliament House, Canberra, on 1 July 2019. His first words were spoken in the language of the local Aboriginal people, the Ngunnawal language.


title: David Hurley

text: On 11 September 2019, when attending an Indonesian national day reception held by the Indonesian Embassy at the Australian National Gallery in Canberra, Hurley opted to make his address to the reception in Indonesian. After first making his address in Indonesian, he repeated his comments in English. This is the first recorded occasion that any Australian Governor-General has made any extended statement in Indonesian on any occasion in Australia.


title: David Hurley

text: On 18 March 2020, a human biosecurity emergency was declared in Australia owing to the risks to human health posed by the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia, after the National Security Committee met the previous day. The "Biosecurity Act 2015" specifies that the Governor-General may declare such an emergency exists if the Health Minister (at the time Greg Hunt) is satisfied that "a listed human disease is posing a severe and immediate threat, or is causing harm, to human health on a nationally significant scale". The "Biosecurity (Human Biosecurity Emergency) (Human Coronavirus with Pandemic Potential) Declaration 2020" was declared by Hurley under Section 475 of the Act.


title: David Hurley

text: During his tenure, Hurley promoted a leadership program to Morrison. The program — Australian Future Leaders Foundation Limited — was given $18 million in funding, despite having no office, online website or staff. This funding was cancelled by the Albanese government in September 2022, with Treasurer Jim Chalmers stating that it "didn’t pass muster" or represent "value for money". Chalmers stated that there would not be an investigation into Hurley's role in the program.


title: David Hurley

text: Hurley was involved in the Scott Morrison ministerial positions controversy when he secretly appointed Morrison to five ministerial positions between March 2020 and May 2021. Hurley was found to have no discretion to refuse Morrison's advice and an inquiry considered criticism of Hurley's role to be "unwarranted".


title: David Hurley

text: Hurley's style and title in full from 1 July 2019 is: "His Excellency General the Honourable David John Hurley, Principal Companion and Chancellor of the Order of Australia, Distinguished Service Cross, Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia."


title: David Hurley

text: Hurley is an Honorary Patron of the ACT Veterans Rugby Club, Patron of Transport Heritage NSW, Patron of the Australian World Orchestra, and the Australian Future Leaders Foundation.


title: Coins of the United States dollar

text: Coins of the United States dollar (aside from those of the earlier Continental currency) were first minted in 1792. New coins have been produced annually and they make up a valuable aspect of the United States currency system. Today, circulating coins exist in denominations of 1¢ (i.e. 1 cent or $0.01), 5¢, 10¢, 25¢, 50¢, and $1.00. Also minted are bullion (including gold, silver and platinum) and commemorative coins. All of these are produced by the United States Mint. The coins are then sold to Federal Reserve Banks which in turn are responsible for putting coins into circulation and withdrawing them as demanded by the country's economy.


title: Coins of the United States dollar

text: Today, four mints operate in the United States producing billions of coins each year. The main mint is the Philadelphia Mint, which produces circulating coinage, mint sets and some commemorative coins. The Denver Mint also produces circulating coinage, mint sets and commemoratives. The San Francisco Mint produces regular and silver proof coinage, and produced circulating coinage until the 1970s. The West Point Mint produces bullion coinage (including proofs). Philadelphia and Denver produce the dies used at all of the mints. The proof and mint sets are manufactured each year and contain examples of all of the year's circulating coins.


title: Coins of the United States dollar

text: The producing mint of each coin may be easily identified, as most coins bear a mint mark. The identifying letter of the mint can be found on the front side of most coins, and is often placed near the year. Unmarked coins are issued by the Philadelphia mint. Among marked coins, Philadelphia coins bear a letter P. Denver coins bear a letter D, San Francisco coins bear a letter S, and West Point coins bear a letter W. S and W coins are rarely found in general circulation, although S coins bearing dates prior to the mid-1970s are in circulation. The CC, O, C, and D mint marks were used on gold and silver coins for various periods from the mid-19th century until the early 20th century by temporary mints in Carson City, Nevada; New Orleans, Louisiana; Charlotte, North Carolina; and Dahlonega, Georgia. Most such coins that still exist are now in the hands of collectors and museums.


title: Coins of the United States dollar

text: Non-circulating bullion coins have been produced each year since 1986. They can be found in gold, silver, platinum (since 1997), and palladium (since 2017). The face value of these coins is legal as tender, but does not actually reflect the value of the precious metal contained therein. On May 11, 2011, Utah became the first state to accept these coins as the value of the precious metal in common transactions. The Utah State Treasurer assigns a numerical precious metal value to these coins each week based on the spot metal prices. The bullion coin types include "S" (San Francisco, 1986–1992), "P" (Philadelphia, 1993 – 2000), and "W" (West Point, New York, 2001–present).


title: Coins of the United States dollar

text: The law governing obsolete, mutilated, and worn coins and currency, including types which are no longer in production (e.g. Indian cents), can be found in .


title: Coins of the United States dollar

text: Note: It is a common misconception that "eagle"-based nomenclature for gold U.S. coinage was merely slang. The "eagle," "half-eagle" and "quarter-eagle" were specifically given these names in the Coinage Act of 1792. Likewise, the double eagle was specifically created as such by name ("An Act to authorize the Coinage of Gold Dollars and Double Eagles", title and section 1, March 3, 1849).


title: Coins of the United States dollar

text: Although the term mill (also mil or mille) was defined in the eighteenth century as of a dollar or 0.1¢, no coin smaller than 0.5¢ has ever been officially minted in the U.S. However, unofficial mill coins, also called "tenth cent" or "tax-help coins", made of diverse materials—plastic, wood, tin, and others—were produced as late as the 1960s by some states, localities, and private businesses for tax payments and to render change for small purchases.


title: Business-to-business

text: Business-to-business (B2B or, in some countries, BtoB) is a situation where one business makes a commercial transaction with another. This typically occurs when:


title: Business-to-business

text: B2B is often contrasted with business-to-consumer (B2C). In B2B commerce, it is often the case that the parties to the relationship have comparable negotiating power, and even when they do not, each party typically involves professional staff and legal counsel in the negotiation of terms, whereas B2C is shaped to a far greater degree by economic implications of information asymmetry. However, within a B2B context, large companies may have many commercial, resource and information advantages over smaller businesses. The United Kingdom government, for example, created the post of Small Business Commissioner under the Enterprise Act 2016 to "enable small businesses to resolve disputes" and "consider complaints by small business suppliers about payment issues with larger businesses that they supply."


title: Business-to-business

text: Business-to-Business companies represent a significant part of the United States economy. This is especially true in firms of 500 employees and above, of which there were 19,464 in 2015, where it is estimated that as many as 72% are businesses that primarily serve other businesses.


title: Business-to-business

text: The principal difference between B2B and B2C is that the first one refers to commerce transaction between manufacturer and retailer, and the second one it is the retailer supplying goods to the consumer.


title: Business-to-business

text: In B2B there are business people on both sides, whereas in B2C there is normally one business person and one consumer. In the first case, the decision is pursued by need (because the other business needs it), and in the second case, they are expectations rather than needs.


title: Business-to-business

text: B2B has many sellers and different stores, whereas B2C, is usually just one supplier. B2B concentrates on raw data for another company, but B2C focuses on producing something for consumers.


title: Business-to-business

text: A B2B transaction entails direct-sourcing contract management, which involves negotiating terms that establish prices and various other factors such as volume-based pricing, carrier and logistics preferences, etc. B2C transaction is clearer, it has spot sourcing contract management that offers a flat retail rate for each item sold. Time is also different as B2B has a slower process than B2C which is concluded in shorter periods (that could be minutes or days).


title: Business-to-business

text: Business-to-business generally requires an upfront investment whereas business-to-customers do not need a business to spend money on infrastructure.


title: Business-to-business

text: The last difference mentioned here is that in B2B, lagging behind in the digital transformation, have to deal with back-office connectivity and invoicing a number of different partners and suppliers, while B2C results in more seamless transactions as options, such as cyber-cash, allows the business to accept a wider variety of payment options. B2B typically only allows payment via credit card or invoice, making the purchasing process longer and more expensive than with B2C.


title: Business-to-business

text: B2B, as there are normally bigger amounts involved over longer periods of time, usually have higher costs than B2C, which consists of quick, daily transactions. Businesses typically want to buy on net terms, meaning that B2B merchants have to wait weeks, if not months to get paid for their goods or services. As a result, smaller businesses with less capital often struggle to stay afloat.


title: Business-to-business

text: In B2B, the brand reputation depends on is the personal relationship between the businesses. On the other hand, in B2C, the business's reputation is often fuelled through publicity and the media.


title: Business-to-business

text: In many cases, the overall volume of B2B (business-to-business) transactions is much higher than the volume of B2C transactions. The primary reason for this is that in a typical supply chain there will be many B2B transactions involving subcomponents or raw materials, and only one B2C transaction, specifically the sale of the finished product to the end customer. For example, an automobile manufacturer makes several B2B transactions such as buying tires, glass for windows, and rubber hoses for its vehicles. The final transaction, a finished vehicle sold to the consumer, is a single (B2C) transaction.


title: Business-to-business

text: B2B involves specific challenges at different stages. At their formation, organizations should be careful to rely on an appropriate combination of contractual and relational mechanisms. Specific combinations of contracts and relational norms may influence the nature and dynamics of the negotiations between firms.


title: Business-to-business

text: Vertical B2B is generally oriented to manufacturing or business. It can be divided into two directions: upstream and downstream. Producers or commercial retailers can have a supply relationship with upstream suppliers, including manufacturers, and form a sales relationship. As an example, Dell works with upstream suppliers of integrated circuit microchips and computer printed circuit boards (PCBs).


title: Business-to-business

text: A vertical B2B website can be similar to the enterprise's online store. Through the website, the company can promote its products vigorously, more efficiently and more comprehensively which enriches transactions as they help their customers understand their products well. Or, the website can be created for business, where the seller advertises their products to promote and expand transactions.


title: Business-to-business

text: Horizontal B2B is the transaction pattern for the intermediate trading market. It concentrates similar transactions of various industries into one place, as it provides a trading opportunity for the purchaser and supplier, typically involving companies that do not own the products and do not sell the products. It is merely a platform to bring sellers and purchasers together online. The better platforms help buyers easily find information about the sellers and the relevant information about the products via the website.


title: Business-to-business

text: B2B2C means "business-to-business-to-consumer" and according to the TechTarget website, the purpose of the terminology is to "extend the business-to-business model to include e-commerce for consumers". B2B2C aims to "create a mutually beneficial relationship between suppliers of goods and services and online retailers". According to Lomate and Ramachandran, it enables manufacturers (the first "B" in B2B2C) to connect with, understand and serve their end customers ("C") without undermining their sales and distribution networks, including online sellers (the second "B") or excluding them from continuing customer engagement.


title: Zaire Wade

text: Zaire Wade (, born February 4, 2002) is an American professional basketball player who last played for the Salt Lake City Stars of the NBA G League. He is the eldest child of former professional basketball player Dwyane Wade.


title: Zaire Wade

text: Wade was born on February 4, 2002 in Chicago, Illinois, the son of retired NBA All-Star player Dwyane Wade.


title: Zaire Wade

text: For his freshman year of high school, Wade played basketball Mount Carmel High School in Chicago, Illinois. Also on the team, nicknamed the Caravan, was his cousin Dahveon Morris. Both played on the school's freshman team. For Wade's next two years of high school he played basketball at American Heritage School in Plantation, Florida. On May 29, 2019, it was announced that Wade would transfer to Sierra Canyon School, a private K–12 school in Chatsworth, Los Angeles, for his 2019–20 senior year in high school.


title: Zaire Wade

text: After high school, he transferred to Brewster Academy in Wolfeboro, New Hampshire. Making basketball his focus and availing of Brewster's nationally prominent program, Wade garnered considerably more attention from college basketball coaches. He received scholarship offers from DePaul, Nebraska, Rhode Island and Toledo, but opted to turn professional instead.


title: Zaire Wade

text: On October 23, 2021, Wade was selected with the 10th pick in the 2021 NBA G League draft by the Salt Lake City Stars. On March 12, 2022, he was moved to the short-term injured list by the team. On March 23, 2022, Wade was ruled out for the remainder of the year after suffering a season-ending injury. He was waived the same day.


title: Zaire Wade

text: Wade is the son of former National Basketball Association (NBA) player Dwyane Wade and Siohvaughn Funches. After his parents divorced in 2010, his father married actress Gabrielle Union in 2014.


title: Digital distribution

text: Digital distribution, also referred to as content delivery, online distribution, or electronic software distribution, among others, is the delivery or distribution of digital media content such as audio, video, e-books, video games, and other software.


title: Digital distribution

text: The term is generally used to describe distribution over an online delivery medium, such as the Internet, thus bypassing physical distribution methods, such as paper, optical discs, and VHS videocassettes. The term online distribution is typically applied to freestanding products; downloadable add-ons for other products are more commonly known as downloadable content. With the advancement of network bandwidth capabilities, online distribution became prominent in the 21st century, with prominent platforms such as Amazon Video, and Netflix's streaming service starting in 2007.


title: Digital distribution

text: Content distributed online may be streamed or downloaded, and often consists of books, films and television programs, music, software, and video games. Streaming involves downloading and using content at a user's request, or "on-demand", rather than allowing a user to store it permanently. In contrast, fully downloading content to a hard drive or other forms of storage media may allow offline access in the future.


title: Digital distribution

text: Specialist networks known as content delivery networks help distribute content over the Internet by ensuring both high availability and high performance. Alternative technologies for content delivery include peer-to-peer file sharing technologies. Alternatively, content delivery platforms create and syndicate content remotely, acting like hosted content management systems.


title: Digital distribution

text: Unrelated to the above, the term "digital distribution" is also used in film distribution to describe the distribution of content through physical digital media, in opposition to distribution by analog media such as photographic film and magnetic tape (see digital cinema).


title: Digital distribution

text: A primary characteristic of online distribution is its direct nature. To make a commercially successful work, artists usually must enter their industry's publishing chain. Publishers help artists advertise, fund and distribute their work to retail outlets. In some industries, particularly video games, artists find themselves bound to publishers, and in many cases unable to make the content they want; the publisher might not think it will profit well. This can quickly lead to the standardization of the content and to the stifling of new, potentially risky ideas.


title: Digital distribution

text: By opting for online distribution, an artist can get their work into the public sphere of interest easily with potentially minimum business overhead. This often leads to cheaper goods for the consumer, increased profits for the artists, as well as increased artistic freedom. Online distribution platforms often contain or act as a form of digital rights management.


title: Digital distribution

text: Online distribution also opens the door to new business models (e.g., the Open Music Model). For instance, an artist could release one track from an album or one chapter from a book at a time instead of waiting for them all to be completed. This either gives them a cash boost to help continue their projects or indicates that their work might not be financially viable. This is hopefully done before they have spent excessive money and time on a project deemed to remain unprofitable. Video games have increased flexibility in this area, demonstrated by micropayment models. A clear result of these new models is their accessibility to smaller artists or artist teams who do not have the time, funds, or expertise to make a new product in one go.


title: Digital distribution

text: An example of this can be found in the music industry. Indie artists may access the same distribution channels as major record labels, with potentially fewer restrictions and manufacturing costs. There is a growing collection of 'Internet labels' that offer distribution to unsigned or independent artists directly to online music stores, and in some cases marketing and promotion services. Further, many bands are able to bypass this completely and offer their music for sale via their own independently controlled websites.


title: Digital distribution

text: An issue is the large number of incompatible formats in which content is delivered, restricting the devices that may be used, or making data conversion necessary.


title: Digital distribution

text: The rise of online distribution has provided controversy for the traditional business models and resulted in challenges as well as new opportunities for traditional retailers and publishers. Online distribution affects all of the traditional media markets including music, press, and broadcasting. In Britain, the iPlayer, a software application for streaming television and radio, accounts for 5% of all bandwidth used in the United Kingdom.


title: Digital distribution

text: The move towards online distribution led to a dip in sales in the 2000s; CD sales were nearly cut in half around this time. One such example of online distribution taking its toll on a retailer is the Canadian music chain Sam the Record Man; the company blamed online distribution for having to close a number of its traditional retail venues in 2007–08. One main reason that sales took such a big hit was that unlicensed downloads of music were very accessible. With copyright infringement affecting sales, the music industry realized it needed to change its business model to keep up with the rapidly changing technology. The step that was taken to move the music industry into the online space has been successful for several reasons. The development of lossy audio compression file formats such as MP3 could take 30 MB for a typical 3 minute song and bring it down to 3 MB without any serious loss of quality. Lossless FLAC files can be up to six times larger than an MP3 while, in comparison, the same song might require 30–40 megabytes of storage on a CD. The smaller file size yields much greater Internet transfer speeds.


title: Digital distribution

text: The transition into the online space has boosted sales, and profit for some artists. It has also allowed for potentially lower expenses such as lower coordination costs, lower distribution costs, as well as the possibility for redistributed total profits. These lower costs have aided new artists in breaking onto the scene and gaining recognition. In the past, some emerging artists have struggled to find a way to market themselves and compete in the various distribution channels. The Internet may give artists more control over their music in terms of ownership, rights, creative process, pricing, and more. In addition to providing global users with easier access to content, online stores allow users to choose the songs they wish instead of having to purchase an entire album from which there may only be one or two titles that the buyer enjoys.


title: Digital distribution

text: The number of downloaded single tracks rose from 160 million in 2004 to 795 million in 2006 which accounted for a revenue boost from US$397 million to US$2 billion.


title: Digital distribution

text: Many traditional network television shows, movies and other video content is now available online, either from the content owner directly or from third-party services. YouTube, Netflix, Hulu, Vudu, Amazon Prime Video, DirecTV, SlingTV and other Internet-based video services allow content owners to let users access their content on computers, smartphones, tablets or by using appliances such as video game consoles, set-top boxes or Smart TVs.


title: Digital distribution

text: Many film distributors also include a Digital Copy, also called Digital HD, with Blu-ray disc, Ultra HD Blu-ray, 3D Blu-ray or a DVD.


title: Digital distribution

text: Some companies, such as Bookmasters Distribution, which invested US$4.5 million in upgrading its equipment and operating systems, have had to direct capital toward keeping up with the changes in technology. The phenomenon of books going digital has given users the ability to access their books on handheld digital book readers. One benefit of electronic book readers is that they allow users to access additional content via hypertext links. These electronic book readers also give users portability for their books since a reader can hold multiple books depending on the size of its hard drive. Companies that are able to adapt and make changes to capitalize on the digital media market have seen sales surge. Vice President of Perseus Books Group stated that since shifting to electronic books (e-books), it saw sales rise by 68%. Independent Publishers Group experienced a sales boost of 23% in the first quarter of 2012 alone.


title: Digital distribution

text: Tor Books, a major publisher of science fiction and fantasy books, started to sell e-books DRM-free by July 2012. One year later the publisher stated that they will keep this model as removing DRM was not hurting their digital distribution ebook business. Smaller e-book publishers such as O'Reilly Media, Carina Press and Baen Books had already forgone DRM previously.


title: Digital distribution

text: Online distribution is changing the structure of the video game industry. Gabe Newell, creator of the digital distribution service Steam, formulated the advantages over physical retail distribution as such:


title: Digital distribution

text: Since the 2000s, there has been an increasing number of smaller and niche titles available and commercially successful, e.g. remakes of classic games. The new possibility of the digital distribution stimulated also the creation of game titles of very small video game producers like Independent game developer and Modders (e.g. Garry's Mod), which were before not commercially feasible.


title: Digital distribution

text: The years after 2004 saw the rise of many digital distribution services on the PC, such as Amazon Services, Desura, GameStop, Games for Windows – Live, Impulse, Steam, Origin, Battle.net, Direct2Drive, GOG.com, Epic Games Store and GamersGate. The offered properties differ significantly: while most of these digital distributors don't allow reselling of bought games, "Green Man Gaming" allows this. Another example is "gog.com" which has a strict non-DRM policy while most other services allow various (strict or less strict) forms of DRM.


title: Digital distribution

text: Digital distribution is also more eco-friendly than physical. Optical discs are made of polycarbonate plastic and aluminum. The creation of 30 of them requires the use of 300 cubic feet of natural gas, two cups of oil and 24 gallons of water. The protective cases for an optical disc is made from polyvinyl chloride (PVC), a known carcinogen.


title: Digital distribution

text: A general issue is the large number of incompatible data formats in which content is delivered, possibly restricting the devices that may be used, or making data conversion necessary. Streaming services can have several drawbacks: requiring a constant Internet connection to use content; the restriction of some content to never be stored locally; the restriction of content from being transferred to physical media; and the enabling of greater censorship at the discretion of owners of content, infrastructure, and consumer devices.


title: Digital distribution

text: Decades after the launch of the World Wide Web, in 2019 businesses were still adapting to the evolving world of distributing content digitally—even regarding the definition and understanding of basic terminology.


title: Crème caramel

text: Crème caramel (), flan, caramel pudding or caramel custard is a custard dessert with a layer of clear caramel sauce.


title: Crème caramel

text: The origin of crème caramel (also known originally as flan) can be traced all the way back to the Roman Empire. Originally, this dish was called tiropatinam and it was made with eggs, milk and pepper and it was seasoned in its savoury version with fish, eel, and spinach, although there was also a sweet version with honey. It was in the early Middle Ages, in Spain, when they started using only the ingredients from which the original recipe is made today, and introduced caramelised sugar into the mixture and to call it flan, which comes from the proto-germanic 'flado'.


title: Crème caramel

text: In the late 20th century crème caramel was common in European restaurants. The food historian Alan Davidson speculates that this may have been because the dish could be prepared in bulk, in advance.


title: Crème caramel

text: In this context, "crème" in French means 'custard'. The names "crème (caramel) renversée" (French) and "crema volteada" (Spanish) allude to the custard being turned over to be served.


title: Crème caramel

text: Both "crème caramel" ("caramel cream") and "flan" are French names, but "flan" has come to have different meanings in different regions.


title: Crème caramel

text: In Spanish-speaking countries and often in the United States, crème caramel is known as "flan". This was originally a Spanish-language usage, but the dish is now best known in North America in a Latin American context. Elsewhere, including in Britain, a flan is a type of tart somewhat like a quiche.


title: Crème caramel

text: The Modern English word "flan" comes from French "flan", from Old French "flaon", in turn from Medieval Latin "fladonem", derived from the Old High German "flado", a sort of flat cake, probably from an Indo-European root for 'flat' or 'broad'.


title: Crème caramel

text: Crème caramel is a variant of plain custard (crème) where sugar syrup cooked to caramel stage is poured into the mold before adding the custard base. It is usually cooked in a bain-marie on a stovetop or in the oven in a water bath. It is turned and served with the caramel sauce on top, hence the alternate French names "crème (caramel) renversée" or "crème renversée au caramel". The milk may be flavored with vanilla, cinnamon, or lemon peel.


title: Crème caramel

text: Turning out larger dishes requires care, as the custard easily splits. Larger dishes also require more care to avoid undercooking the interior or overcooking the exterior. Thus, crème caramel is often cooked and served in individual ramekins. The objective is to obtain a homogeneous and smooth cream on the surface of the "crème caramel" with a liquid caramel base. Cooking it in a bain-marie avoids burning the caramel.


title: Crème caramel

text: An imitation of crème caramel may be prepared from "instant flan powder", which is thickened with agar or carrageenan rather than eggs. In some Latin American countries, the true custard version is known as "milk flan" (flan de leche) or even "milk cheese", and the substitute version is known as just "flan".


title: Crème caramel

text: In Spain, Flan is a typical Spanish dessert, where most of the variations exist. It is a homemade dessert of which you can also find many variations in grocery stores and it is usually served as a dessert in most restaurants. The best known version is the typical 'Flan de huevo' (egg flan), but there are many other versions, such as "flan de queso", "flan de leche", "flan de vainilla", etc. In the original version, the flan has a layer of caramelised sugar that is sometimes crystallised to make it hard.


title: Crème caramel

text: In Argentina and Uruguay, crème caramel is usually eaten with "dulce de leche", whipped cream, or both ("flan mixto").


title: Crème caramel

text: In Venezuela and Brazil, it is often made with condensed milk, milk, eggs, and sugar caramelized on top. The Venezuelan version is known as "quesillo" ("small cheese") and in Brazil, it is known as "pudim" ("pudding"). It can have variations of flavor, such as chocolate, coconut, paçoca (peanut candy), cheese, and others, being the condensed milk pudding a base recipe.


title: Crème caramel

text: Also at most equatorial and Caribbean countries the inclusion of coconut, condensed milk and evaporated milk is widespread. The milk base may also be flavored with nuts, fruit, and so on.


title: Crème caramel

text: In Chile, "Leche asada" or 'roasted milk' is similar to Crème caramel because it is made with the same ingredients, but "Leche asada" has a less smooth texture and is baked directly, which creates a toasted layer on the surface.


title: Crème caramel

text: In Croatia, "rožata", "rozata", "rožada" or "rozada" () is flavored with the Dubrovnik liqueur rozalin (rose liqueur), which gives the cake its characteristic aroma. Modern variations include vanilla and other flavorings.


title: Crème caramel

text: Cuban flan ("flan de Cuba") is made with the addition of the whites of two eggs and a cinnamon stick. A similar Cuban dish is "Copa Lolita", a small caramel flan served with one or two scoops of vanilla ice cream. Other variations include coconut or rum raisin topping.


title: Crème caramel

text: In the Dominican Republic, only egg yolks are used, mixed with vanilla, evaporated milk, and condensed milk. Coconut flan is known as "quesillo".


title: Crème caramel

text: Caramel custard is popular, especially in the larger coastal cities, and in former Portuguese colonies such as Goa, Daman and Diu. Sometimes, masala chai is added on the side. It is a staple on restaurant menus in the beach resorts along India's coasts and also prepared regularly in the home kitchens of the Anglo-Indian Goan, Malayali, Mangalorean and Parsi communities.


title: Crème caramel

text: Packaged crème caramel is ubiquitous in Japanese convenience stores under the name (i.e., "pudding"), or "custard pudding". The same kind of dessert is sold in convenience stores in Taiwan.


title: Crème caramel

text: Caramel custard is a very popular dessert in Malaysia. First introduced by the Portuguese in the 16th century and sold year-round today, this dessert is popular served in restaurants, cafes, hotels, and even Ramadan bazaars for breaking the fast.


title: Crème caramel

text: Flan is extremely popular in Mexico, being made at home, found pre-made at grocery stores, served in restaurants, and even vended on the streets. A variation of the dish called "Flan Napolitano" is made in some parts of Mexico where cream cheese is added to create a creamier consistency, though it is not as popular or wide spread. Flan's popularity among Mexican-Americans helped the dish become popular in the United States. Another variation is "Flan de Cajeta" which replaces the standard caramel with cajeta (milk caramel with a base of goat milk).


title: Crème caramel

text: In Peru, "crema volteada" 'flipped cream' may use condensed rather than regular milk. Fruit may also be added, such as lucuma, custard apple, soursop, or granadilla.


title: Crème caramel

text: In the Philippines, flan is known as "leche" flan (the local term for the originally Spanish "flan de leche", literally "milk "flan""), which is a heavier version of the Spanish dish, made with condensed milk and more egg yolks. "Leche" flan is usually steamed over an open flame or stove top in an oval-shaped tin mold known as "llanera" (also spelled "lyanera") which is also used to make hardinera, although rarely it can also be baked. "Leche" flan is a staple dessert in celebratory feasts.


title: Crème caramel

text: An even heavier version, called "tocino de cielo" or "tocino del cielo" (Spanish for "heaven's bacon"), is similar, but has significantly more egg yolks and sugar.


title: Crème caramel

text: "Leche" flan is also commonly baked into pastries. The most common is the Filipino dessert flan cake or "leche" flan cake, a Filipino chiffon or sponge cake with a layer of "leche" flan on top. It can similarly be baked into steamed cupcakes known as "puto mamón", a combination known as "puto flan".


title: Crème caramel

text: Known as "Pudim flan", made with milk, eggs, caramelized sugar, and vanilla. Variations include orange or lemon zest, cinnamon, pineapple, Port wine, or even bacon as is the case with Pudim Abade de Priscos. It characteristically has a hole in the center.


title: Crème caramel

text: Most Puerto Rican flans are based on eggs and milk. Egg white and egg yolks are beaten separately with sugar to achieve a light flan.


title: Crème caramel

text: Spanish lime, piña colada, "flan de calabaza", sesame seed milk, and breadfruit. All are uniquely Puerto Rican.


title: Crème caramel

text: Crème caramel was introduced by the French and is common in Vietnam. It is known as "bánh lăng", "caramen", or "kem caramel" in northern Vietnam or "bánh flan" or "kem flan" in southern Vietnam. Variations include serving with black coffee poured on top, or browning the caramel past typical caramelization point to make a darker, more bitter "burnt caramel".


title: ESIM

text: An eSIM (embedded-SIM) is a form of programmable SIM card that is embedded directly into a device. Instead of an integrated circuit located on a removable universal integrated circuit card (UICC), typically made of PVC, an eSIM consists of software installed onto an eUICC chip permanently attached to a device.


title: ESIM

text: Once an eSIM carrier profile has been installed on an eUICC, it operates the same as a physical SIM, complete with a unique ICCID and network authentication key generated by the carrier.


title: ESIM

text: The eSIM standard was first released in 2016; since that point, eSIM has begun to replace physical SIM in domains including cellular telephony.


title: ESIM

text: While Motorola noted that eUICC is geared at industrial devices, Apple "disagreed that there is any statement forbidding the use of an embedded UICC in a consumer product". Currently the GSMA maintains two different versions of the standard: one for consumer devices and another for M2M devices.


title: ESIM

text: A first version of the standard was published in March 2016, followed by a second version in November 2016.


title: ESIM

text: In 2017, during Mobile World Congress, Qualcomm introduced a technical solution, with a live demonstration, within its Snapdragon hardware chip associated with related software (secured Java applications).


title: ESIM

text: Apple first introduced eSIM support in September 2017 with the Apple Watch Series 3. The first iPhone models to support it were the iPhone XS, iPhone XS Max, and iPhone XR, announced in September 2018. The first iPad model was the iPad Pro (3rd generation), announced in October 2018. In September 2022, Apple unveiled the iPhone 14, iPhone 14 Plus, iPhone 14 Pro, and iPhone 14 Pro Max, the first iPhone models not to have a SIM card tray and to work exclusively with eSIM. Outside the United States, all iPhone models continue to be sold with support for both eSIM and physical SIM cards, while in mainland China eSIM isn't supported at all.


title: ESIM

text: Google unveiled the Pixel 2 in October 2017, which added eSIM support for use with its Google Fi service. In 2018, Google released the Pixel 3 and Pixel 3 XL and subsequently in May 2019, the Pixel 3a and Pixel 3a XL, with eSIM support for carriers other than Google Fi. In October that same year, Google released the Pixel 4 and Pixel 4 XL with eSIM support.


title: ESIM

text: Motorola released the 2020 version of the Motorola Razr, a foldable smartphone that has no physical SIM slot since it only supports eSIM.


title: ESIM

text: Plintron implemented the eSIM4Things Internet of things product, based on eSIM support for the devices and available in 28 countries.


title: ESIM

text: Microsoft introduced eSIM to the Windows 10 operating system in 2018 and launched its first eSIM-enabled device, Surface Pro LTE, in 2017.


title: ESIM

text: Samsung shipped Galaxy S21 and S20 series smartphones in the US with eSIM hardware onboard but no software support out of the box. The feature was later enabled with the One UI version 4 update. However, the implementation of the eSIM on the S21 and S20 in the US is different than the implementation in the rest of the world. The US version lacks the ability to specify different default SIMs for different functions, e.g., one SIM as the default for data and the other SIM as the default for voice. It requires that the same eSIM be the default SIM for data, voice, and SMS. The US version also forces a reboot each time the user switches eSIMs, while the non-US models do not.


title: ESIM

text: A traditional SIM card consists of an integrated circuit located on a universal integrated circuit card (UICC), typically made of PVC, which is manually inserted into a device. By contrast, an eSIM is a virtualized SIM card profile installed onto an eUICC chip permanently surface-mounted to a mobile device at the factory. The eUICC chip used to host the eSIM uses the same electrical interface as a physical SIM as defined in ISO/IEC 7816. Once an eSIM carrier profile has been installed on an eUICC, it operates the same as a physical SIM, complete with a unique ICCID and network authentication key generated by the carrier.


title: ESIM

text: An eSIM is typically provisioned remotely; end-users can add or remove operators without the need to physically swap a SIM from the device. All eSIMs are programmed with a permanent eSIM ID (EID) at the factory. This number is used by the provisioning service to associate the device with an existing carrier subscription as well as to negotiate a secure channel for programming.


title: ESIM

text: eSIM is a global specification by the GSMA that enables remote SIM provisioning of any mobile device. GSMA defines eSIM as the SIM for the next generation of connected consumer devices. Networking solutions using eSIM technology can be widely applied to various Internet of Things (IoT) scenarios, including connected cars (smart rearview mirrors, on-board diagnostics (OBD), vehicle Wi-Fi hotspots), artificial intelligence translators, MiFi devices, smart earphones, smart metering, GPS tracking units, DTU, bike-sharing, advertising players, video surveillance devices, etc.


title: ESIM

text: The European Commission selected the eUICC format for its in-vehicle emergency call service, known as eCall, in 2012. All new car models in the EU must have one by 2018 to instantly connect the car to emergency services in case of an accident.


title: ESIM

text: Russia has a similar plan with the GLONASS (national satellite positioning system) called ERA-GLONASS.


title: ESIM

text: Singapore is seeking public opinions on introducing eSIM as a new standard, as more compatible devices enter the market.


title: ESIM

text: In 2021, Deutsche Telekom introduced an alternative to eSIMs for smaller devices and the Internet of Things in form of integrated SIMs (iSIMs) fully integrated into a security enclave of the modem SoC (System on Chip). Called nuSIM they are smaller, cheaper and more eco-friendly since no extra hardware and plastic is required. In addition they can meet the same security requirements than a classical or eSIMs; they ease the logistics and production of small devices. It can be expected that because of these advantages iSIMs will also replace the (e)SIMs in mobile phones and other connected consumer devices in future.


title: George Chakiris

text: George Chakiris (born September 16, 1932) is an American actor. He is best known for his appearance in the 1961 film version of "West Side Story" as Bernardo Nunez, the leader of the Sharks gang, for which he won both the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture.


title: George Chakiris

text: Chakiris was born on September 16, 1932 in Norwood, Ohio to Stelianos (Steve) and Zoe ("née" Anastasiadou) Chakiris, Greek immigrants from Turkey. He is one of eight siblings.


title: George Chakiris

text: His family moved to Long Beach, California in 1944. He attended Jefferson Junior High school and graduated in 1950 from Woodrow Wilson Classical High School, both in Long Beach.


title: George Chakiris

text: Chakiris attended one year at Long Beach City College, but wanted to pursue a career in dance, so he dropped out and moved to Hollywood. He worked in the advertising department of May Company California, a department store, and studied dance at night.


title: George Chakiris

text: For several years he appeared in small roles, usually as a dancer or a member of the chorus in various musical films, including "The Great Caruso" (1951), "Stars and Stripes Forever" (1952), "Call Me Madam" (1953), "Second Chance" (1953), and "The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T." (1953).


title: George Chakiris

text: He was a dancer in Marilyn Monroe's "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend" number in "Gentlemen Prefer Blondes" (1953), and he appeared in "Give a Girl a Break" (1953) and "White Christmas" (1954).


title: George Chakiris

text: He can be seen in the funeral dance in the MGM musical film "Brigadoon" (1954), and appeared in "There's No Business Like Show Business" (1954).


title: George Chakiris

text: Chakiris appeared as a dancer in "White Christmas" (1954). A publicity photo of Chakiris with Rosemary Clooney from her scene with "Love, You Didn't Do Right by Me" generated fan mail, and Paramount signed him to a movie contract. "I got lucky with the close-up with Rosemary," said Chakiris.


title: George Chakiris

text: Chakiris appeared in "The Country Girl" (1954) and "The Girl Rush" (1955), dancing with Rosalind Russell in the latter. He received a positive review from Hedda Hopper.


title: George Chakiris

text: Frustrated with the progress of his career, Chakiris left Hollywood for New York. "West Side Story" had been running for a year on Broadway, and Chakiris auditioned for Jerome Robbins. He was cast in the London production as Riff, leader of the Jets. The musical launched on the West End in late 1958, and Chakiris received excellent reviews, playing it for almost 22 months.


title: George Chakiris

text: The Mirisch Brothers bought the film rights to "West Side Story" and screen-tested Chakiris. They thought his dark complexion made him more suited to the role of Bernardo, leader of the Sharks, and cast Russ Tamblyn as Riff. Filming took seven months.


title: George Chakiris

text: The film adaptation of "West Side Story" (1961) was hugely successful, and Chakiris won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance. This led to a long-term contract with the Mirisch Company.


title: George Chakiris

text: Chakiris starred as a doctor in the film "Diamond Head" (1963), opposite Charlton Heston and Yvette Mimieux.


title: George Chakiris

text: In the early 1960s, he embarked on a career as a pop singer, resulting in a couple of minor hits. In 1960, he recorded a single with noted producer Joe Meek.


title: George Chakiris

text: Chakiris's fee around this time was a reported to be $100,000 per movie. His first new film for the Mirishes was "Flight from Ashiya" (1964), shot in Japan with Yul Brynner and Richard Widmark.


title: George Chakiris

text: The Mirisches reunited Chakiris with Brynner in "Kings of the Sun" (1963), an epic about the Mayans, which was a box-office flop. Chakiris went to Italy to make "Bebo's Girl" (1964) with Claudia Cardinale.


title: George Chakiris

text: He acted in "633 Squadron" (1964), a popular war movie with Cliff Robertson, the last movie he made for the Mirisches. Chakiris later said he made a mistake with his Hollywood films by looking at the "potential" of them instead of the quality of the roles.


title: George Chakiris

text: Chakiris played a Greek terrorist in Cyprus in a British film, "The High Bright Sun" (1965), with Dirk Bogarde. He went to Italy for "The Mona Lisa Has Been Stolen " (1965) and France for "Is Paris Burning?" (1966).


title: George Chakiris

text: He acted with Catherine Deneuve and Gene Kelly in Jacques Demy's French musical "Les Demoiselles de Rochefort" (1967). Around this time, his manager cancelled his contract with Capitol Records. However, he enjoyed his time in Europe, saying he had time to "experiment and refine my craft." He also performed a nightclub act at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, his first stage work since "West Side Story". The show was successful and led to Chakiris receiving an offer to appear with Jose Ferrer in a TV production of "Kismet" (1967). He acted in "The Day the Hot Line Got Hot" (1968) in France, and "The Big Cube" (1969) with Lana Turner in America. He made "Sharon vestida de rojo" (1970) in Spain.


title: George Chakiris

text: In 1969, Chakiris did a stage production of "The Corn Is Green" in Chicago with Eileen Herlie. He enjoyed the experience and it revived his confidence as an actor. He said all the films he made after "West Side Story" had been "a waste of time...it was difficult to take them seriously...It was my fault and no one else's".


title: George Chakiris

text: He starred in the first national tour of the Stephen Sondheim musical "Company", touring as Bobby in 1971-1972.


title: George Chakiris

text: Chakiris worked heavily on TV in the 1970s and 1980s in Britain and the U.S., guest-starring on "Hawaii Five-O", "Police Surgeon", "Thriller", "Notorious Woman", "Wonder Woman", "Fantasy Island", "CHiPs", "Matt Houston", "Scarecrow and Mrs. King", "Poor Little Rich Girls", "Hell Town" and "Murder, She Wrote".


title: George Chakiris

text: He appeared in the final episode (March 22, 1974) of "The Partridge Family" as an old high school boyfriend to Shirley Partridge (Shirley Jones). Their kiss goodbye was the final scene in the program's run. He also starred in the Terry Marcel film "Why Not Stay for Breakfast?" (1979).


title: George Chakiris

text: Chakiris had a recurring role on the TV show "Superboy" as Professor Peterson during the first two seasons from 1988 to 1990.


title: George Chakiris

text: He was top-billed in the film "Pale Blood" (1990) and guest-starred on "Human Target" and "The Girls of Lido". He played "The King and I" on stage in 1995 in Los Angeles.


title: George Chakiris

text: He has given occasional television interviews since then, but is mostly retired. His hobby of making sterling silver jewelry has turned into a new occupation, working as a jewelry designer for his own brand, George Chakiris Collections, consisting of handmade original sterling silver jewelry.


title: George Chakiris

text: In 2021, Chakiris appeared in the film "Not to Forget" (2021), which aims to raise awareness and funds for the fight against Alzheimer's. The movie, directed by Valerio Zanoli, stars Karen Grassle and five Academy Award winners: George Chakiris, Cloris Leachman, Louis Gossett Jr., Tatum O'Neal, and Olympia Dukakis.