title: Late Show with David Letterman

text: In June 2003, Letterman had guest hosts on Fridays. They included Tom Arnold (June 6), Tom Green (June 13), Kelsey Grammer (June 20), and Jimmy Fallon (June 27). Letterman's weekly absence caused the ratings deficit between his show and Leno's to increase, so Letterman ended this experiment a month after it began.


title: Late Show with David Letterman

text: Paul Shaffer hosted January 19, 2005, when Letterman went to receive an award for his racing team's victory in the 2004 Indianapolis 500.


title: Late Show with David Letterman

text: On March 20, 2007, Letterman fell ill less than an hour before the show started, and scheduled guest Adam Sandler took his place as host. Actor Don Cheadle, Sandler's co-star in the film "Reign Over Me", appeared as a guest on a moment's notice.


title: Late Show with David Letterman

text: "Late Show with David Letterman" was nominated as Outstanding Variety, Music or Comedy Series for 16 seasons in a row, from the 1993–94 season through the 2008–09 season. Including the nominations for its NBC "Late Night" predecessor, the Letterman cast and crew had been nominated 26 consecutive times in this category.


title: Late Show with David Letterman

text: The show's highest rated episode was on February 23, 1994, after the 1994 Winter Olympics (78.8 million) with 15 million viewers. Its second-highest-rated show aired two days later with 11.1 million viewers. Both were preceded by the ladies' figure skating competition which had high interest due to the attack on Nancy Kerrigan at the 1994 United States Figure Skating Championships by Tonya Harding's ex-husband and due to both women competing in the event.


title: Late Show with David Letterman

text: In February 2013, TV by the Numbers reported that "Late Show" averaged about 3.1 million per show in season-to-date live-plus-seven-day ratings (i.e., from February 4). A year later, average viewership was down to 2.8 million.


title: Late Show with David Letterman

text: In 2009, the show led other late night shows in ad revenue with $271 million. In February 2014, "Advertising Age" cited Kantar Media and Nielsen in reporting that for January to October 2013, "Late Show" attracted $179.6 million in advertising for CBS, higher than its seven late-night competitors on NBC, ABC, Comedy Central, and E!. "Late Show" also had the oldest median audience among those same peer broadcasts, at 58.9.


title: Late Show with David Letterman

text: The final episode of "Late Show with David Letterman" on May 20, 2015, was watched by 13.76 million viewers with an audience share of 9.3/24, earning the show its second-highest ratings (following the 1994 Olympics on February 25, 1994); further, it saw the show's highest demo numbers (4.1 in adults 25-54 and 3.1 in adults 18–49) since Oprah Winfrey's first "Late Show" appearance following the ending of her feud with Letterman on December 1, 2005. In a rarity for a late-night show, it was also the highest-rated program across all network television that night, beating out all shows. In Canada, the final episode was watched by 784,000 viewers, representing 516,000 more viewers than the show's closest competitor.


title: Late Show with David Letterman

text: In the UK the show was aired on Sky One, The Paramount Comedy Channel, ITV2, ITV4 and Diva TV. In Australia the show aired on Network 10 only hours after US broadcast. It was also shown for a week on BBC2 during Letterman's London shows in 1995.


title: Mucus

text: Mucus ( ) is a slippery aqueous secretion produced by, and covering, mucous membranes. It is typically produced from cells found in mucous glands, although it may also originate from mixed glands, which contain both serous and mucous cells. It is a viscous colloid containing inorganic salts, antimicrobial enzymes (such as lysozymes), immunoglobulins (especially IgA), and glycoproteins such as lactoferrin and mucins, which are produced by goblet cells in the mucous membranes and submucosal glands. Mucus serves to protect epithelial cells in the linings of the respiratory, digestive, and urogenital systems, and structures in the visual and auditory systems from pathogenic fungi, bacteria and viruses. Most of the mucus in the body is produced in the gastrointestinal tract.


title: Mucus

text: Amphibians, fish, snails, slugs, and some other invertebrates also produce external mucus from their epidermis as protection against pathogens, and to help in movement and is also produced in fish to line their gills. Plants produce a similar substance called mucilage that is also produced by some microorganisms.


title: Mucus

text: In the human respiratory system, mucus is part of the airway surface liquid (ASL), also known as epithelial lining fluid (ELF), that lines most of the respiratory tract. The airway surface liquid consists of a "sol" layer termed the periciliary liquid layer and an overlying "gel" layer termed the mucus layer. The periciliary liquid layer is so named as it surrounds the cilia and lies on top of the surface epithelium. The periciliary liquid layer surrounding the cilia consists of a gel meshwork of cell-tethered mucins and polysaccharides. The mucus blanket aids in the protection of the lungs by trapping foreign particles before they enter them, in particular through the nose during normal breathing.


title: Mucus

text: Mucus is made up of a fluid component of around 95% water, the mucin secretions from the goblet cells, and the submucosal glands (2–3% glycoproteins), proteoglycans (0.1–0.5%), lipids (0.3–0.5%), proteins, and DNA. The major mucins secreted – MUC5AC and MUC5B - are large polymers that give the mucus its rheologic or viscoelastic properties. MUC5AC is the main gel-forming mucin secreted by goblet cells, in the form of threads and thin sheets. MUC5B is a polymeric protein secreted from submucosal glands and some goblet cells, and this is in the form of strands.


title: Mucus

text: In the airways—the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles—the lining of mucus is produced by specialized airway epithelial cells called goblet cells, and submucosal glands. Small particles such as dust, particulate pollutants, and allergens, as well as infectious agents and bacteria are caught in the viscous nasal or airway mucus and prevented from entering the system. This process, together with the continual movement of the cilia on the respiratory epithelium toward the oropharynx (mucociliary clearance), helps prevent foreign objects from entering the lungs during breathing. This explains why coughing often occurs in those who smoke cigarettes. The body's natural reaction is to increase mucus production. In addition, mucus aids in moisturizing the inhaled air and prevents tissues such as the nasal and airway epithelia from drying out.


title: Mucus

text: Mucus is produced continuously in the respiratory tract. Mucociliary action carries it down from the nasal passages and up from the rest of the tract to the pharynx, with most of it being swallowed subconsciously. Sometimes in times of respiratory illness or inflammation, mucus can become thickened with cell debris, bacteria, and inflammatory cells. It is then known as phlegm which may be coughed up as sputum to clear the airway.


title: Mucus

text: Increased mucus production in the upper respiratory tract is a symptom of many common ailments, such as the common cold, and influenza. Nasal mucus may be removed by blowing the nose or by using nasal irrigation. Excess nasal mucus, as with a cold or allergies, due to vascular engorgement associated with vasodilation and increased capillary permeability caused by histamines, may be treated cautiously with decongestant medications. Thickening of mucus as a "rebound" effect following overuse of decongestants may produce nasal or sinus drainage problems and circumstances that promote infection.


title: Mucus

text: During cold, dry seasons, the mucus lining nasal passages tends to dry out, meaning that mucous membranes must work harder, producing more mucus to keep the cavity lined. As a result, the nasal cavity can fill up with mucus. At the same time, when air is exhaled, water vapor in breath condenses as the warm air meets the colder outside temperature near the nostrils. This causes an excess amount of water to build up inside nasal cavities. In these cases, the excess fluid usually spills out externally through the nostrils.


title: Mucus

text: In the lower respiratory tract impaired mucociliary clearance due to conditions such as primary ciliary dyskinesia may result in mucus accumulation in the bronchi. The dysregulation of mucus homeostasis is the fundamental characteristic of cystic fibrosis, an inherited disease caused by mutations in the "CFTR" gene, which encodes a chloride channel. This defect leads to the altered electrolyte composition of mucus, which triggers its hyperabsorption and dehydration. Such low-volume, viscous, acidic mucus has a reduced antimicrobial function, which facilitates bacterial colonisation. The thinning of the mucus layer ultimately affects the periciliary liquid layer, which becomes dehydrated, compromising ciliary function, and impairing mucociliary clearance. A respiratory therapist can recommend airway clearance therapy which uses a number of clearance techniques to help with the clearance of mucus.


title: Mucus

text: In the lower respiratory tract excessive mucus production in the bronchi and bronchioles is known as mucus hypersecretion. Chronic mucus hypersecretion results in the chronic productive cough of chronic bronchitis, and is generally synonymous with this. Excessive mucus can narrow the airways, limit airflow, and accelerate a decline in lung function.


title: Mucus

text: In the human digestive system, mucus is used as a lubricant for materials that must pass over membranes, e.g., food passing down the esophagus. Mucus is extremely important in the gastrointestinal tract. It forms an essential layer in the colon and in the small intestine that helps reduce intestinal inflammation by decreasing bacterial interaction with intestinal epithelial cells. The layer of mucus of the gastric mucosa lining the stomach is vital to protect the stomach lining from the highly acidic environment within it.


title: Mucus

text: In the human female reproductive system, cervical mucus prevents infection and provides lubrication during sexual intercourse. The consistency of cervical mucus varies depending on the stage of a woman's menstrual cycle. At ovulation cervical mucus is clear, runny, and conducive to sperm; post-ovulation, mucus becomes thicker and is more likely to block sperm. Several Fertility Awareness methods rely on observation of cervical mucus, as one of three primary fertility signs, to identify a woman's fertile time at the mid-point of the cycle. Awareness of the woman's fertile time allows a couple to time intercourse to improve the odds of pregnancy. It is also proposed as a method to avoid pregnancy.


title: Mucus

text: In general, nasal mucus is clear and thin, serving to filter air during inhalation. During times of infection, mucus can change color to yellow or green either as a result of trapped bacteria or due to the body's reaction to viral infection. The green color of mucus comes from the heme group in the iron-containing enzyme myeloperoxidase secreted by white blood cells as a cytotoxic defense during a respiratory burst.


title: Mucus

text: In the case of bacterial infection, the bacterium becomes trapped in already-clogged sinuses, breeding in the moist, nutrient-rich environment. Sinusitis is an uncomfortable condition which may include congestion of mucus. A bacterial infection in sinusitis will cause discolored mucus and would respond to antibiotic treatment; viral infections typically resolve without treatment. Almost all sinusitis infections are viral and antibiotics are ineffective and not recommended for treating typical cases.


title: Mucus

text: In the case of a viral infection such as cold or flu, the first stage and also the last stage of the infection cause the production of a clear, thin mucus in the nose or back of the throat. As the body begins to react to the virus (generally one to three days), mucus thickens and may turn yellow or green. Viral infections cannot be treated with antibiotics, and are a major avenue for their misuse. Treatment is generally symptom-based; often it is sufficient to allow the immune system to fight off the virus over time.


title: Mucus

text: Obstructive lung diseases often result from impaired mucociliary clearance that can be associated with mucus hypersecretion, and these are sometimes referred to as "mucoobstructive lung diseases". Techniques of airway clearance therapy can help to clear secretions, maintain respiratory health, and prevent inflammation in the airways.


title: Mucus

text: A unique umbilical cord lining epithelial stem cell expresses MUC1, termed (CLEC-muc). This has been shown to have good potential in the regeneration of the cornea.


title: Mucus

text: Mucus is able to absorb water or dehydrate through pH variations. The swelling capacity of mucus stems from the bottlebrush structure of mucin within which hydrophilic segments provide a large surface area for water absorption. Moreover, the tunability of swelling effect is controlled by polyelectrolyte effect.


title: Mucus

text: Polymers with charged molecules are called polyelectrolytes. Mucins, a kind of polyelectrolyte proteoglycans, are the main component of mucus, which provides the polyelectrolyte effect in mucus. The process of inducing this effect comprises two steps: attraction of counter-ions and water compensation. When exposed in physiological ionic solution, the charged groups in the polyelectrolytes attract counter-ions with opposite charges, thereby leading to a solute concentration gradient. An osmotic pressure is introduced to equalize the concentration of solute throughout the system by driving water to flow from the low concentration areas to the high concentration areas. In short, the influx and outflux of water within mucus, managed by the polyelectrolyte effect, contribute to mucus' tunable swelling capacity.


title: Mucus

text: The ionic charges of mucin are mainly provided by acidic amino acids including aspartic acid (pKa=3.9) and glutamic acid (pKa=4.2). The charges of acidic amino acids will change with environmental pH value due to acid dissociation and association. Aspartic acid, for example, has a negative side chain when the pH value is above 3.9, while a neutrally charged side chain will be introduced as pH value drops below 3.9. Thus, the number of negative charges in mucus is influenced by the pH value of surrounding environment. That is, the polyelectrolyte effect of mucus is largely affected by the pH value of solution due to the charge variation of acidic amino acid residues on the mucin backbone. For instance, the charged residue on mucin is protonated at a normal pH value of the stomach, approximately pH 2. In this case, there is scarcely polyelectrolyte effect, thereby causing compact mucus with little swelling capacity. However, a kind of bacteria, "Helicobacter pylori", is prone to producing base to elevate the pH value in stomach, leading to the deprotonation of aspartic acids and glutamic acids, i.e., from neutral to negative-charged. The negative charges in the mucus greatly increase, thus inducing the polyelectrolyte effect and the swelling of the mucus. This swelling effect increases the pore size of the mucus and decreases mucus' viscosity, which allows bacteria to penetrate and migrate into the mucus and cause disease.


title: Mucus

text: The high selective permeability of mucus plays a crucial role in the healthy state of human beings by limiting the penetration of molecules, nutrients, pathogens, and drugs. The charge distribution within mucus serves as a charge selective diffusion barrier, thus significantly affecting the transportation of agents. Among particles with various surface zeta potentials, cationic particles tend to have a low depth of penetration, neutral ones possess medium penetration, and anionic ones have the largest penetration depth. Furthermore, the effect of charge selectivity changes when the status of the mucus varies, i.e., native mucus has a threefold higher potential to limit agent penetration than purified mucus.


title: Mucus

text: Mucus is also produced by a number of other animals. All fish are covered in mucus secreted from glands all over their bodies. Invertebrates such as snails and slugs secrete mucus called snail slime to enable movement, and to prevent their bodies from drying out. Their reproductive systems also make use of mucus for example in the covering of their eggs. In the unique mating ritual of "Limax maximus" the mating slugs lower themselves from elevated locations by a mucus thread. Mucus is an essential constituent of hagfish slime used to deter predators. Mucus is produced by the endostyle in some tunicates and larval lampreys to help in filter feeding.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: The Battle of Kosovo (; ) took place on 15 June 1389 between an army led by the Serbian Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović and an invading army of the Ottoman Empire under the command of Sultan Murad Hüdavendigâr. The battle was fought on the Kosovo field in the territory ruled by Serbian nobleman Vuk Branković, in what is today Kosovo, about northwest of the modern city of Pristina. The army under Prince Lazar consisted of his own troops, a contingent led by Branković, and a contingent sent from Bosnia by King Tvrtko I, commanded by Vlatko Vuković. Prince Lazar was the ruler of Moravian Serbia and the most powerful among the Serbian regional lords of the time, while Branković ruled the District of Branković and other areas, recognizing Lazar as his overlord.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: Reliable historical accounts of the battle are scarce. The bulk of both armies were wiped out, and Lazar and Murad were killed. However, Serbian manpower was depleted and had no capacity to field large armies against future Ottoman campaigns, which relied on new reserve forces from Anatolia. Consequently, the Serbian principalities that were not already Ottoman vassals, became so in the following years.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: Emperor Stefan Uroš IV Dušan "the Mighty" (r. 1331–55) was succeeded by his son Stefan Uroš V "the Weak" (r. 1355–71), whose reign was characterized by the decline of central power and the rise of numerous virtually independent principalities; this period is known as the fall of the Serbian Empire. Uroš V was neither able to sustain the great empire created by his father, nor repulse foreign threats and limit the independence of the nobility; he died childless on 4 December 1371, after much of the Serbian nobility had been destroyed by the Ottomans in the Battle of Maritsa earlier that year. Prince Lazar, ruler of the northern part of the former empire (of Moravian Serbia), was aware of the Ottoman threat and began diplomatic and military preparations for a campaign against them.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: After the defeat of the Ottomans at Pločnik (1386) and Bileća (1388), Murad I, the reigning Ottoman sultan, moved his troops from Philippoupolis to Ihtiman (modern Bulgaria) in the spring of 1388. From there they traveled across Velbužd and Kratovo (modern North Macedonia). Though longer than the alternative route through Sofia and the Nišava Valley, this led the Ottoman forces to Kosovo, one of the most important crossroads in the Balkans. From Kosovo, they could attack the lands of either Prince Lazar or Vuk Branković. Having stayed in Kratovo for a time, Murad and his troops marched through Kumanovo, Preševo, and Gjilan to Pristina, where he arrived on June 14.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: While there is less information about Lazar's preparations, he gathered his troops near Niš, on the right bank of the South Morava. His forces likely remained there until he learned that Murad had moved to Velbužd, whereupon he moved across Prokuplje to Kosovo. This was the best place he could choose as a battlefield, as it gave him control of all the routes that Murad could take. The historiographical examination of the battle is challenging. No first-hand accounts from participants in the battle exist. Contemporary sources are written from widely diverging points of view and not much is discussed in them about battle tactics, army size and other battleground details.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: Estimates about army size vary, but the Ottoman army was larger. It is likely that the army led by Lazar had 12,000/15,000 to 20,000 troops against 27,000 - 30,000 led by Murad. A higher estimate places the size of Murad's army up to 40,000 and Lazar's up to 25,000 troops. Ottoman historian Mehmed Neşri who authored the first detailed report in Ottoman historiography about the battle of Kosovo in 1521 represents the Ottoman imperial narrative. As an Ottoman Sultan died before or during the battle, the size of the Christian army is presented as significantly larger in Ottoman sources. Neşri placed it at around 500,000, double the size of the Ottoman army. Regardless of the exact army size, the battle of Kosovo was one of the large battles of late medieval times. In comparison, in the battle of Agincourt (1415) even by assuming the higher estimate of army size as correct, around 10,000 less soldiers were engaged.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: Murad's army included no more than 2,000 Janissaries, The Ottoman army was supported by auxiliary troops from the Anatolian Turkoman Beylik of Isfendiyar. Murad's army may have also included Christians: Catalans, Greeks and Italians.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: Lazar's army included large contingents from his principality and that of Vuk Branković. Along with Serb troops, a Christian coalition from nearby Christian principalities and kingdoms formed. Bosnians, Albanians, Bulgarians, Greeks and Hungarians fought in the army led by Lazar. Tvrtko I of Bosnia had concluded an anti-Ottoman defensive pact with Lazar and Vuk Branković and sent Vlatko Vuković as commander of the Bosnian forces in Kosovo. Groups of crusaders linked to the Knights of Rhodes under a "Domine Johanne Bano" are mentioned as fighting in the battle in Annales Forolivienses. "Domine Johanne Bano" most probably refers to John of Palisna, although identification with a John Horvath has also been proposed. Dhimitër Jonima, Teodor II Muzaka, Andrea Gropa and other Albanian aristocrats have been suggested as participants in the battle. Of those, Teodor Muzaka verifiably fought and died in the battle. Himariotes and other Albanians from Epirus and the coast participated at the Battle of Kosovo. Based on Neşri's account, Đurađ II Balšić has also been linked to the Christian coalition which fought in the battle of Kosovo. The hypothesis about his participation is considered to be "almost entirely false" as he had become an Ottoman vassal; he was in hostility with Lazar's ally Tvrtko I; and at the time of the battle he was most likely in Ulcinj.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: The armies met at the Kosovo field. Murad headed the Ottoman army, with his sons Bayezid on his right and Yakub on his left. Around 1,000 archers were in the front line in the wings, backed up by azap and akinci; in the front center were Janissaries, behind whom was Murad, surrounded by his cavalry guard; finally, the supply train at the rear was guarded by a small number of troops. One of the Ottoman commanders was Pasha Yiğit Bey.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: The Serbian army had Prince Lazar at its center, Vuk on the right, and Vlatko on the left. At the front of the army were the heavy cavalry and archer cavalry on the flanks, with the infantry to the rear. While parallel, the dispositions of the armies were not symmetrical, as the Serbian center had a broader front than the Ottoman center.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: Serbian and Turkish accounts of the battle differ, making it difficult to reconstruct the course of events. It is believed that the battle commenced with Ottoman archers shooting at Serbian cavalry, who then made ready for the attack. After positioning in a wedge formation, the Serbian cavalry managed to break through the Ottoman left wing, but were not as successful against the center and the right wing.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: The Serbs had the initial advantage after their first charge, which significantly damaged the Ottoman wing commanded by Yakub Çelebi. When the knights' charge was finished, light Ottoman cavalry and light infantry counterattacked and the Serbian heavy armor became a disadvantage. In the center, Serbian troops managed to push back Ottoman forces, except for Bayezid's wing, which barely held off the Bosnians commanded by Vlatko Vuković. Vuković thus inflicted disproportionately heavy losses on the Ottomans. The Ottomans, in a ferocious counterattack led by Bayezid, pushed the Serbian forces back and then prevailed later in the day, routing the Serbian infantry. Both flanks still held, with Vuković's Bosnian troops drifting toward the center to compensate for the heavy losses inflicted on the Serbian infantry.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: Historical facts say that Vuk Branković saw that there was no hope for victory and fled to save as many men as he could after Lazar was captured. In traditional songs, however, it is said that he betrayed Lazar and left him to die in the middle of battle, rather than after Lazar was captured and the center suffered heavy losses.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: Sometime after Branković's retreat from the battle, the remaining Bosnian and Serb forces yielded the field, believing that a victory was no longer possible.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: As the battle turned against the Serbs, it is said that one of their knights, later identified as Miloš Obilić, pretended to have deserted to the Ottoman forces. When brought before Murad, Obilić pulled out a hidden dagger and killed the Sultan by slashing him, after which the Sultan's bodyguards immediately killed him.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: The event of the battle quickly became known in Europe. Not much attention was paid to the outcome in these early rumors which circulated, but they all focused on the fact that the Ottoman Sultan had been killed in the battle. Some of the earliest reports about the battle come from the court of Tvrtko of Bosnia who in separate letters to the senate of Trogir (August 1) and the council of Florence claimed that he had defeated the Ottomans in Kosovo. The response of the Florentines to Tvrtko (20 October 1389) is an important historical document as it confirms that Murad was killed during the battle and that it took place on June 28 (St. Vitus day/Vidovdan). The killer is not named, but it was one of 12 Serbian noblemen who managed to break through the Ottoman lines:


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: Another Italian account, Mignanelli's work of 1416, asserted that it was Lazar who killed the Ottoman sultan.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: Both armies were destroyed in the battle. Both Lazar and Murad lost their lives, and the remnants of their armies retreated from the battlefield. Murad's son Bayezid killed his younger brother, Yakub Çelebi, upon hearing of their father's death, thus becoming the sole heir to the Ottoman throne. The Serbs were left with too few men to defend their lands effectively, while the Turks had many more troops in the east. The immediate effect of the depletion of Serbian manpower was a shift in the stance of Hungarian policy towards Serbia. Hungary tried to exploit the effects of battle and expand in northern Serbia, while the Ottomans renewed their campaign in southern Serbia as early as 1390-91. Domestically, the Serbian feudal class in response to these threats split in two factions. A northern faction supported a conciliatory, pro-Ottoman foreign policy as a means of defence of their lands against Hungary, while a southern faction which was immediately threatened by Ottoman expansion sought to establish a pro-Hungarian foreign policy. Consequently, some of the Serbian principalities that were not already Ottoman vassals became so in the following years. These feudal lords - including the daughter of Prince Lazar - formed marriage ties with the new Sultan Bayezid. In the wake of these marriages, Stefan Lazarević, Lazar's son, became a loyal ally of Bayezid, and contributed significant forces to many of Bayezid's future military engagements, including the Battle of Nicopolis. Some Serbian feudal lords continued to fight against the Ottomans and others were integrated in the Ottoman feudal hierarchy. The capture of Smederevo on June 20, 1459 marks the end of medieval Serbian statehood.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: The day of the battle, known in Serbian as "Vidovdan" (St. Vitus' day) and celebrated according to the Julian calendar (corresponding to 28 June Gregorian in the 20th and 21st centuries), is an important part of Serb ethnic and national identity, with notable events in Serbian history falling on that day: in 1876 Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire (Serbian–Ottoman War (1876–78); in 1881 Austria-Hungary and the Principality of Serbia signed a secret alliance; in 1914 the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was carried out by the Serbian Gavrilo Princip (although a coincidence that his visit fell on that day, "Vidovdan" added nationalist symbolism to the event); in 1921 King Alexander I of Yugoslavia proclaimed the Vidovdan Constitution; in 1989, on the 600th anniversary of the battle, Serbian president Slobodan Milošević delivered the Gazimestan speech on the site of the historic battle.


title: Battle of Kosovo

text: The Tomb of Sultan Murad, a site in Kosovo Polje where Murad I's internal organs were buried, has gained a religious significance for local Muslims. A monument was built by Murad I's son Bayezid I at the tomb, becoming the first example of Ottoman architecture in the Kosovo territory.


title: NeNe Leakes

text: Linnethia Monique "NeNe" Leakes (; née Johnson; born December 13, 1967) is an American television personality, actress, presenter, businesswoman, author, and fashion designer.


title: NeNe Leakes

text: Born in Queens, New York and raised in Athens, Georgia, she is best known for having appeared on the reality television series "The Real Housewives of Atlanta" as an original cast member and for her recurring character, Roz Washington, on the Fox comedy-drama series "Glee".


title: NeNe Leakes

text: Leakes also played Rocky Rhoades as a series regular on the sitcom "The New Normal" on NBC until its cancellation in 2013. She was a participant on NBC's "The Celebrity Apprentice" and ABC's "Dancing with the Stars". Leakes made her Broadway debut as Madame in "Rodgers & Hammerstein's Cinderella" in 2014, and in 2015, starred as Matron "Mama" Morton in "Chicago".


title: NeNe Leakes

text: She was one of the regular panelists on ABC's revival of the 1950s game show "To Tell the Truth". In addition to her television projects, Leakes had a clothing line on Home Shopping Network, before launching her SWAGG boutiques in select cities across the country.


title: NeNe Leakes

text: Linnethia Monique Johnson was born in Queens, New York City. One of five children, she and one of her brothers were sent to live with an aunt in Athens, Georgia, while the other three children stayed with her mother. It was believed that her mother could not take care of all five. After graduating from Clarke Central High School in Athens, she decided to further her formal education at Morris Brown College in Atlanta for two years before becoming pregnant.


title: NeNe Leakes

text: Before Leakes met the producers of "The Real Housewives of Atlanta", she had appeared on TV shows like" The Parkers" thanks to meeting casting director Robi Reed-Humes. In 2003, she landed a minor role as a stripper in the film "The Fighting Temptations", starring Cuba Gooding, Jr. and Beyoncé. However, none of her scenes are present in the final edit of the movie.


title: NeNe Leakes

text: In 2008, Leakes made her first appearance on "The Real Housewives of Atlanta" as an original cast member. After the first season, she co-wrote the book "Never Make The Same Mistake Twice" with Denene Millner"." Leakes was a main cast member for the first seven seasons. In June 2015, Leakes announced that she would not be returning to "The Real Housewives of Atlanta" for its eighth season. However, Leakes was featured in season 8 of "The Real Housewives of Atlanta" in a supporting role, reportedly earning her full salary from the previous seven seasons. Leakes later returned to the show as a full-time housewife for the tenth through twelfth seasons (2017-20).


title: NeNe Leakes

text: In 2020, Leakes announced that she would not return to "The Real Housewives of Atlanta" for its thirteenth season.


title: NeNe Leakes

text: Leakes has also transitioned into scripted television, playing the secretary Rocky Roades in the NBC comedy "The New Normal". Ryan Murphy cast Leakes on his series "Glee" in the third season in a recurring role as synchronized swim coach and Olympic bronze-medalist Coach Roz Washington. In 2011, Leakes was a contestant on the eleventh installment of Donald Trump's NBC series "Celebrity Apprentice". During the tenth episode of "Celebrity Apprentice""," after arguments with fellow cast member Star Jones, Leakes walked off the show.


title: NeNe Leakes

text: Leakes has guest-hosted "Anderson Live", "The Talk", appeared in "Betty White's Off Their Rockers" and "The Price Is Right". On March 4, 2014, she was announced as one of the celebrities who would compete in the 18th season of "Dancing with the Stars". She was paired with professional dancer, Tony Dovolani. Leakes and Dovolani were eliminated in Week 7 of competition (Latin Night) on April 28, 2014, finishing in 7th place.


title: NeNe Leakes

text: Leakes played the Mistress of Sensuality in Las Vegas for resident show "Cirque du Soleil: Zumanity". She made her Broadway debut on November 25, 2014, as Madame in "Rodgers & Hammerstein's Cinderella". She played the role until the production closed on January 3, 2015. In November 2015, she was cast as playing Matron "Mama" Morton in "Chicago" on Broadway for four weeks.


title: NeNe Leakes

text: Leakes founded NeNe Leakes Entertainment, a television production company. The company produced Leakes' spin-off series "" alongside True Entertainment, which premiered on September 17, 2013.


title: NeNe Leakes

text: In February 2014, Leakes announced that she would be launching a clothing line later in the year. On July 28, 2014, Leakes launched the Nene Leakes Collection for the Home Shopping Network (HSN).


title: NeNe Leakes

text: In March 2016, Leakes announced that she would be touring the United States in a one-woman comedy tour called "So Nasty, So Rude," named after one of her catchphrases. The tour started in April, with many shows sold out.


title: NeNe Leakes

text: Leakes opened the first SWAGG Boutique location in Duluth, Georgia in November 2017, and it closed in August 2020. She then expanded SWAGG Boutique to the MGM National Harbor in Maryland and to Miami Beach, with these locations still open and operating.


title: NeNe Leakes

text: In October 2020, Leakes posted on Instagram that she would be opening a lounge in Duluth, Georgia. The Linnethia Lounge, named after Leakes' birth name, opened in May 2021. Singers such as KeKe Wyatt and Tamar Braxton have made appearances and performed concerts.


title: NeNe Leakes

text: Leakes resides in Duluth, Georgia, a suburb of Atlanta. Her home is known as "Casa Leakes". Leakes listed the home for sale in October 2021.


title: NeNe Leakes

text: She and husband Gregg Leakes separated in 2010, and she filed for divorce on April 29, 2010. The divorce was finalized September 29, 2011, after season four of "The Real Housewives" had finished shooting. NeNe and Gregg Leakes reunited and announced that they were engaged in January 2013. Bravo filmed their wedding planning and ceremony for a spin-off entitled "". NeNe and Gregg remarried on June 22, 2013, at the InterContinental Buckhead Hotel in Atlanta. In June 2018, she revealed that Gregg had stage 3 colon cancer but announced in May 2019 that he was cancer-free. In June 2021, she announced that the cancer recurred and that he was in the hospital recovering after surgery. Gregg Leakes died from colon cancer on September 1, 2021 at the age of 66.


title: NeNe Leakes

text: On April 16, 2022, Leakes filed a federal lawsuit against NBCUniversal, Bravo, production companies True Entertainment and Truly Original, and "Real Housewives" producer Andy Cohen for violating federal employment and anti-discrimination laws. She dismissed the action and claims on August 19, 2022.


title: NeNe Leakes

text: On Monday, October 10, 2022, her son, Brentt, 23, suffered a stroke and congestive heart failure. The cause of these two conditions, which are not usual in someone that young (provided they are otherwise healthy), has not been determined or released, though he has been tested for HIV, which has been known to cause these conditions in individuals of his age range.


title: Peerage of the United Kingdom

text: The Peerage of the United Kingdom is one of the five Peerages in the United Kingdom. It comprises most peerages created in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland after the Acts of Union in 1801, when it replaced the Peerage of Great Britain. New peers continued to be created in the Peerage of Ireland until 1898 (the last creation was the Barony of Curzon of Kedleston).


title: Peerage of the United Kingdom

text: The House of Lords Act 1999 reformed the House of Lords. Until then, all peers of the United Kingdom were automatically members of the House of Lords. However, from that date, most of the hereditary peers ceased to be members, whereas the life peers retained their seats. All hereditary peers of the first creation (i.e. those for whom a peerage was originally created, as opposed to those who inherited a peerage), and all surviving hereditary peers who had served as Leader of the House of Lords, were offered a life peerage to allow them to continue to sit in the House should they wish.


title: Peerage of the United Kingdom

text: Peers in the Peerage of Scotland and Peerage of Ireland did not have an automatic seat in the House of Lords following the Acts of Union of 1707 and 1800, though the law permitted a limited number to be elected by their fellows to serve in the House of Lords as representative peers. Some peerages of the United Kingdom were created to get around this obstacle and allow certain Scottish and Irish peers to enjoy the automatic right to sit in the House of Lords.


title: Peerage of the United Kingdom

text: The last non-royal dukedom was created in 1900, and the last marquessate was created in 1936. Creation of the remaining ranks, except baronies for life, mostly ceased once Harold Wilson's Labour government took office in 1964, and only thirteen (nine non-royal and four royal) people have been created hereditary peers since then. These were:


title: Peerage of the United Kingdom

text: Marquesses, earls, viscounts and barons are all addressed as 'Lord X', where 'X' represents either their territory or surname pertaining to their title. Marchionesses, countesses, viscountesses and baronesses are all addressed as 'Lady X'. Dukes and duchesses are addressed just as 'Duke' or 'Duchess' or, in a non-social context, 'Your Grace'.


title: Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2002

text: The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best-performing singles of the United States. Its data, published by "Billboard" magazine and compiled by Nielsen SoundScan, is based collectively on each single's weekly physical as well as airplay. Throughout a year, "Billboard" will publish an annual list of the 100 most successful songs throughout that year on the Hot 100 chart based on the information. For 2002, the list was published on December 29, calculated with data from December 1, 2001 to November 30, 2002.


text: There were only nine songs that topped the Hot 100 in 2002, the second lowest number in Billboard history. Eminem's "Lose Yourself" was the longest running #1 of the year, spending 12 weeks at #1 with eight of its weeks in 2002 and another four in 2003. Ashanti's "Foolish" and Nelly's "Dilemma" both spent 10 weeks at #1.


text: "Lose Yourself" also held the record for the longest rap song to stay at number one; it would eventually be tied with The Black Eyed Peas's "Boom Boom Pow" in 2009 and Wiz Khalifa's "See You Again" in 2015. All three of these songs would keep the record until Lil Nas X's "Old Town Road" broke it by spending 19 weeks at #1 in 2019.


text: Nickelback's "How You Remind Me", which spent 4 weeks at #1 between 2001 and 2002, ended up topping the year-end list.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Kalaripayattu (; also known simply as Kalari) is an Indian martial art that originated in modern-day Kerala, a state on the southwestern coast of India. Kalaripayattu is known for its long-standing history within Indian martial arts, and is one of the oldest surviving martial arts in India.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Kalaripayattu is mentioned in the Vadakkan Pattukal, a collection of ballads written about the Chekavar of the Malabar region of Kerala. In the Vadakkan Pattukal, it is stated that the cardinal principle of Kalaripayattu was that knowledge of the art be used to further worthy causes, and not for the advancement of one's own selfish interests. Kalaripayattu is a martial art designed for the ancient battlefield (the word "Kalari" meaning "battlefield"), with weapons and combative techniques that are unique to Kerala.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Like most Indian martial arts, Kalaripayattu contains rituals and philosophies inspired by Hinduism. The art also bases medical treatments upon concepts found in the ancient Indian medical text, the Ayurveda. Practitioners of Kalaripayattu possess intricate knowledge of pressure points on the human body and healing techniques that incorporate the knowledge of Ayurveda and Yoga. Kalaripayattu is taught in accordance with the Indian "guru-shishya" system. Kalaripayattu differs from many other martial arts systems in the world in that weapon based techniques are taught first, and barehanded techniques are taught last.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Elements from the yoga tradition as well as finger movements in the "nata" dances, were incorporated into Kalaripayattu. A number of South Asian fighting styles remain closely connected to yoga, dance and performing arts. Some of the choreographed sparring in Kalaripayattu can be applied to dance and Kathakali dancers who knew Kalaripayattu were believed to be markedly better than other performers. Some traditional Indian classical dance schools still incorporate martial arts as part of their exercise regimen.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Kalaripayattu includes strikes, kicks, grappling, preset forms, weaponry and healing methods. Warriors trained in Kalaripayattu would use very light, and basic body armor, as it was difficult to maintain flexibility and mobility while in heavy armor.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Unlike in other parts of India, warriors in Kerala belonged to all castes and religions. Women in Keralite society also underwent training in Kalaripayattu, and still do so to this day. Keralite women such as Unniyarcha are mentioned in a collection of ballads from Kerala called the Vadakkan Pattukal, and are praised for their martial prowess.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: The word "Kalaripayattu" is a combination of two Malayalam words - "kalari" (training ground or battleground) and "payattu" (training of martial arts), which is roughly translated as “practice in the arts of the battlefield.”


title: Kalaripayattu

text: According to legend, Parashurama is believed to have learned the art from Shiva, and taught it to the original settlers of Kerala shortly after bringing Kerala up from the ocean floor. A song in Malayalam refers to Parashurama's creation of Kerala, and credits him with the establishment of the first 108 kalaris throughout Kerala, along with the instruction of the first 21 Kalaripayattu gurus in Kerala on the destruction of enemies.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: The combat techniques of the Sangam period (600 BCE - 300 CE) were the earliest precursors to Kalaripayattu.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Each warrior in the Sangam era received regular military training in target practice, horse and elephant riding. They specialized in one or more of the important weapons of the period including the spear ("vel"), sword ("val"), shield ("kedaham"), and bow and arrow ("vil ambu").


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Other theories postulate that certain tribal groups inhabiting ancient Kerala founded Kalaripayattu in order to defend themselves against threats from similar groups.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: According to historian A. Sreedharan Menon, Kalaripayattu was among the most important aspects of feudal Keralite society, as it helped impart military training and Spartan-like discipline amongst the youth of Kerala, irrespective of caste, community or sex. Each village in medieval Kerala had its own "kalari", which contained a presiding deity known as "Bhagavathy" or "Paradevata". Children in Kerala who finished their normal academic studies in local schools would join their local "kalari" to receive further military training. This was especially common amongst martial sects of various communities in Kerala, such as the Nairs and Thiyyas. Duarte Barbosa, a Portuguese explorer who visited Kerala in the 16th century, wrote about Nair military training in Kalaripayattu, and stated:


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Barbosa also noted that the physical exercise complexes of Nairs and Thiyyas, created a network of martial culture in Malabar from the medieval times.Edgar Thurston has written in Castes and Tribes of Southern India about the attacking style of sword called Urumi which is unique to Kalaripayattu,which was extensively used during medieval period, he has written :


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Medieval Kerala, according to Menon, was the "golden age" for Kalaripayattu in Kerala, culminating with the writing of the "Vadakkan Pattukkal" and the establishment of heroes and heroines in Kerala's folklore, such as Aromal Chekavar, Unniyarcha, and Thacholi Othenan, who were celebrated for their martial prowess, chivalry and idealism.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: In this period, Kalaripayattu also saw extensive usage in the Keralite practice of "ankam" ("combat" or "battle" in Malayalam) in settling disputes. "Ankam" was a form of battle or combat which was commonly used in feudal Kerala as a way to settle disputes that could not be settled by local governmental assemblies. A variant of "ankam", called "poithu" was also practiced, and was a duel between two individuals. Combatants participating in "ankam" or "poithu" used Kalaripayattu, and the combatants were given up to 12 years to prepare and train prior to the "ankam" itself, so that all combatants could achieve the highest level of proficiency with Kalaripayattu's traditional weaponry. In some cases, professional mercenaries trained in Kalaripayattu were paid to engage in "ankam" on the behalf of others.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: The widespread practice and prevalence of Kalaripayattu in Kerala began to decline in the 17th century, when the usage of guns and cannons became widespread. This also coincided with the European invasions into Kerala, after which, firearms began to surpass the usage of traditional weaponry such as swords and spears.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: In 1804, the British banned Kalaripayattu in Kerala in response to the Kottayathu War, a rebellion against British rule in Kerala led by the Keralite king Pazhassi Raja. The ban came into effect shortly after Pazhassi Raja's death on November 30, 1805, resulting in the closure of most of the major "kalari" training grounds in Kerala. Following the ban, many Keralite "gurukkals" of Kalaripayattu resisted the ban and continued to teach Kalaripayattu to their students in secret. "Gurukkals" such as Kottakkal Kanaran Gurukkal, Kovilkandi Kelu Kurup Gurukkal and Maroli Ramunni Gurukkal, learned and preserved the martial art for posterity and were responsible for preserving Kalaripayattu into the beginning of the twentieth century, as well as sparking the revival of Kalaripayattu in Kerala in the 1920s.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: The resurgence of public interest in Kalaripayattu began in the 1920s in Thalassery, as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout southern India and continued through the 1970s surge of general worldwide interest in martial arts.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: During this period of renewed public interest in Kerala's native martial art, Kalaripayattu "gurukkals" such as Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair, and Chirakkal T. Sreedharan Nair rose to prominence as the primary "gurukkals" who preserved and transmitted the martial during the twentieth century and into the modern era. Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair, a student of Kottakkal Kanaran Gurukkal, and in whose memory the CVN Kalaris are named, opened several "kalaris", and began to spread Kalaripayattu across its native state of Kerala, revitalizing the art across the state in the twentieth century.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Chirakkal T. Sreedharan Nair is also widely credited for reviving and preserving Kalaripayattu by writing the first books ever written on Kalaripayattu, as well as writing the first authoritative text on the martial art. Sreedharan Nair is credited with writing "Kalaripayattu", the first book ever written on Kalaripayattu, in 1937. This book was written in Malayalam, and listed the "vaithari" or oral commands, of all the exercises relating to "meypayattu", or conditioning techniques. He is also credited with writing the first authoritative text and primer on Kalaripayattu, called "Kalarippayattu – A Complete Guide to Kerala’s Ancient Martial Art." The text, alongside a compilation of Sreedharan Nair's teaching notes, were translated into English by his sons S.R.A. Das and S.R.D. Prasad and then published by Westland Books. The book contains over 1,700 action photographs as well as explanations behind all of the exercises. It continues to be the most authentic reference material on Kalaripayattu to this day.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: In the modern era, Kalaripayattu is also used by practitioners of Keralite dance styles, such as Kathakali and Mohiniyattam, as part of their training regimens. Recently, dancers from other, non-Keralite dance forms have also begun to incorporate Kalaripayattu into their training regimes, such as Vasundhara Doraswamy, a well known Bharatanatyam dancer.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: In 2017, a 73 year old "gurukkal" from Vadakara, Sri Meenakshi Amma, was awarded the Padma Sri by the Government of India for her contributions to the preservation of Kalaripayattu.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: In January 2021, the Government of Kerala announced the opening of The Kalaripayattu Academy in Kerala's capital, Thiruvananthapuram, under the management of the Kerala Department of Tourism. The Kalaripayattu Academy will comprise an area of 3,500 feet, and will be part of the Vellar Crafts Village. The Kalaripayattu classes will be taught by a group of "gurukkals" from Kerala, led by Sri Meenakshi Amma, a Kalaripayattu "gurukkal" and Padma Sri recipient. The Kalaripayattu Academy will initially teach 100 students, both adults and children, in both morning and evening classes. Chief Minister Pinarayi Vijayan is set to announce the syllabus of the academy in 2021.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Traditions and methods of teaching of Kalaripayattu varied between different regions of Kerala. Kalaripayattu is taught in a specialized training ground known as a "kalari". The location and construction of each "kalari" is built in accordance to Hindu architectural treatises such as the "Vastu Shastras" along with various religious traditions and customs native to Kerala. Specifications are made regarding the physical dimensions of the "kalari", how deep the ground in a "kalari" must be, along with the material that the floor of the "kalari" must consist of. The floor of each "kalari" consists of red sand which is mixed with specific herbs that are said to aid in the treatment of small wounds suffered during training. The directional aspects of "kalari" construction are also specified, such as the entrance of the "kalari" facing east, and the location of ritualistic structures such as the "Poothara", "Ganapatithara", and "Guruthara", are to face the west. The "Poothara" ("Flower ground" or "Flower floor" in Malayalam) in a kalari is a seven-step raised platform with a lotus-shaped "kumbha" or figure, at its apex. The seven steps represent the seven "dhatu" and the "kosha" of the human body as per Ayurvedic traditions. The "kumbha" at the apex of the poothara is said to represent Bhagavathy or the heart of the individual. The Ganapatithara ("Ground of Ganapati" in Malayalam) is the area of the kalari that is reserved for the worship of Ganapati, a Hindu deity that is said to be the remover of obstacles. The Guruthara ("Ground of the Guru" in Malayalam) is the area of the kalari that is reserved for worship of the Guru of the "kalari," who represents the tradition of gurukkals in Kerala who protected and taught Kalaripayattu to the next generation. In the Ganapatithara, Ganapati is symbolically invoked by the placing of an "otta", or tusk-shaped wooden stick. The "paduka", or footwear, is placed at the Guruthara to symbolize the life of a gurukkal. The presiding deity of Kalaripayattu is said to be Bhadrakali or Bhagavathy. Before every training session in the kalari, salutations are provides to the presiding deities and obedience is paid to the kalari temple. Students apply tilak or tikka on their foreheads and upon the forehead of the idol of the presiding deity using soil from the ground of the kalari. The traditional training uniform used in Kalaripayattu is the "kachakettal", a loincloth that is either red and white or red and black in colour. Along with traditional attire, oral commands, or "vaithari", are given by the guru during training sessions, and are given in Sanskrit or Malayalam.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Historically, all Keralites of the Hindu community, men and women alike, would undergo mandatory training in Kalaripayattu beginning at the age of 7 or 9 and lasting until the end of their education. By the 11th century AD, members of other communities also began practicing the art. According to noted historian Professor A. Sreedharan Menon, "each "desam" or locality had a kalari with a guru at its head and both boys and girls received physical training in it." Warriors, soldiers and others who wanted to pursue a martial career would continue their training for the rest of their lives. Generally, two styles of Kalaripayattu are acknowledged among Kalari practitioners: the Northern Style and the Southern Style. These two systems have marked similarities in their styles or "vazhi" ("way" or "method" in Malayalam), such as "Hanuman Vazhi", "Bhiman Vazhi", and "Bali Vazhi" among others. Each style, or "vazhi", in Kalaripayattu has a different purpose. For instance, "Hanuman Vazhi (""The Way of Hanuman" in Malayalam) is a style that places emphasis on speed and technical application, along with several techniques to trick or outwit an enemy. "Bali Vazhi", ("The Way of Bali" in Malayalam) focuses on using the opponent's technical applications against them in such a way that it becomes dangerous to the opponent themselves. In "Bhiman Vazhi (""The Way of Bhiman" in Malayalam), the usage of physical strength is predominant. The styles are variations that various masters have adapted and modified according to their understanding of the art. Development and mastery of Kalaripayattu comes from the tradition of constantly learning, adapting and improving the techniques by observing what techniques are practical and effective. While importance is placed on observation of tradition, Kalaripayattu "gurukkuls" have contributed to the evolution of Kalaripayattu by way of their experience and reasoning. A Kalari practitioner might encounter new fighting techniques from an enemy combatant. The Kalari practitioner would need to learn how to anticipate, adapt to and neutralize these new techniques. This is especially seen in the Southern style of Kalaripayattu, which is believed to have been adapted and modified during wars with Tamil kingdoms to counter martial arts like Silambam, which was one of the main martial art forms practiced by Tamil soldiers at the time.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: There are two major styles that are generally acknowledged within traditional Kalaripayattu, and are based on the regions in which they are practiced. They are the Northern style, or "Vadakkan Kalari", and the Southern style, or "Thekkan Kalari."


title: Kalaripayattu

text: The northern style of Kalaripayattu, or "Vadakkan Kalari," is primarily practiced in the Malabar region of Kerala, and is based on elegant and flexible movements, evasions, jumps and weapons training. The southern style of Kalaripayattu, or "Thekkan Kalari," is primarily practiced in the southern regions of Kerala, and specializes in hard, impact based techniques with emphasis on hand-to-hand combat and pressure point strikes. Both systems make use of internal and external concepts.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: A third style, the Central style, or "Madhya Kalari", is also practiced, but it is less commonly practiced than its northern and southern counterparts.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: A smaller, regional style of Kalaripayattu called "Tulunadan Kalari", is referenced in texts such as the Vadakkan Pattukal, but it is largely restricted to the Tulu Nadu region in northern Kerala and southern Karnataka. Other smaller, regional styles are also said to exist in isolated regions of Kerala, but these styles are becoming increasingly rare, and difficult to find. Examples include "Dronamballi", "Odimurassery", "Tulu Nadan Shaiva Mura", and "Kayyangali".


title: Kalaripayattu

text: The Northern style is also known as, "Vadakkan Kalari", and is generally regarded as the "original," form of Kalaripayattu. This system places more emphasis on physical flexibility exercises rooted on the slogan "Meyy kanavanam", meaning, "make the body an eye." These exercises are done individually, as well as in combinations. After that "meypayattu" (a concept similar to kata in Karate) is taught. These are a combination of flexibility exercises with offensive and defensive techniques, however, the actual techniques are taught very much later. Traditionally, the number of "meypayattu" may differ as per the teaching methods of the guru. Training is usually done in four stages, the first stage being "Meipayattu" (training stances), followed by "Kolthari" (practice with wooden weapons), "Angathari" (practice with metal weapons) and finally "Verum kai" (barehanded combat). Generally, the majority of the "Kalaris" (schools that teach Kalaripayattu) start training with weapons within 3 to 6 months. Some Kalaris only allow one weapon to be learned per year. After long stick and small stick fighting, iron weapons are introduced. Weapons training begins with the dagger and sword, followed by the spear. Not all modern schools use specialized weapons. Traditionally, bows and arrows were commonly used in Kerala and students were trained in these techniques, but is rarely taught today.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Kalaripayattu has three forms, which are distinguished by their attacking and defensive patterns. They are "Arappa Kayy", "Pilla Thangi", and "Vatten Thiripp".


title: Kalaripayattu

text: The Southern style is also known as "Thekkan Kalari". Traditionally, it is believed to be a style of Kalaripayattu that is said to have been altered and influenced by Agastya. It is an essentially the northern style of Kalaripayattu that has been influenced by martial arts from neighboring regions, such as Varma Adi or Adi Murai. While the Southern form of Kalaripayattu has notable similarities to Varma Adi, it is considered to be a distinct and separate martial art from Varma Adi due to its similarities to Northern Kalaripayattu. The similarities between the southern form of Kalaripayattu and Varma Adi are likely due to geographic proximity to each other, with the Southern style of Kalaripayattu being considered a mixture of Kalaripayattu and Varma Adi. While the Southern style is less commonly practiced in Kerala compared to the Northern style, it is revered in Kerala as a combination of the teachings of both Parashurama and Agastya. It is predominantly practiced in some regions of the southern parts of Kerala, particularly in areas near Kanyakumari. While many of the exercises of the Southern style are identical to the Northern Style, it is more combative and martial in nature, and places heavy emphasis on hand-to-hand combat, hard impact techniques, and footwork, rather than emphasizing flexibility like the Northern style. It starts with the training in "Chuvadu," a system of various combinations of fighting techniques similar to Muay Thai and Judo. Immediately after that, sparring with a partner is introduced as part of the training. These pre-determined techniques are repeatedly trained. After a basic proficiency in unarmed combat is established, weapons training begins with a small stick. Small stick training is usually done with two combatants, armed with a stick or dagger. These are primarily defensive techniques. Fighting techniques with two combatants having the same weapons include sparring with long stick, sword, etc. During the duration of this training, the refining of un-armed combat also progresses. As the student gains more experience, a small amount of knowledge pertaining to the "Marma" points (pressure points) is also taught to the student if deemed appropriate by the "gurukkal".


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Kalaripayattu techniques are a combination of steps ("Chuvadu") and postures ("Vadivu"). "Chuvadu" literally means 'steps', the basic steps of the martial arts. "Vadivu" literally means 'postures' or stances which are the foundations of Kalaripayattu training. They are named after animals, and are usually presented in eight forms. Styles differ considerably from one tradition to another. Not only do the names of poses differ, but their utilization and interpretation vary depending on the "gurukkal", and the traditions of the "kalari". Each stance has its own style, combination, and function. These techniques vary from one style to another.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: It is claimed that experienced Kalari warriors could disable or kill their opponents by merely striking the correct "marmam" (vital point) on their opponent's body. This technique is taught only to the most promising and level-headed students so as to discourage misuse of the technique. "Marmashastram" stresses on the knowledge of marmam and is also used for marma treatment ("marmachikitsa"). This system of marma treatment originated from Ayurveda, as well as Siddha medicine. Critics of Kalaripayattu have pointed out that the application of marmam techniques against neutral outsiders has not always produced verifiable results.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: The earliest mention of marmam is found in the "Rig Veda", where Indra is said to have defeated Vritra by attacking his "marmam" with a vajra. References to marmam are also found in the "Atharva Veda". With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India's early martial artists knew about and practiced attacking or defending vital points. Sushruta (c. 6th century BC) identified and defined 107 vital points of the human body in his "Sushruta Samhita". Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick. Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline Ayurveda, which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts that had an emphasis on vital points, such as Varma kalai and Marma adi.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: As a result of learning about the human body, Indian martial artists became knowledgeable in the fields of traditional medicine and massage. Kalaripayattu teachers often provide massages ("uzhichil") with medicinal oils to their students in order to increase their physical flexibility or to treat muscular injuries. Such massages are generally termed "thirumal" and the unique massage given to increase flexibility is known as "katcha thirumal".


title: Kalaripayattu

text: In India, the Indian Kalaripayattu Federation (IKF) in Thiruvananthapuram is one of the primary governing bodies of Kalaripayattu. It is recognized by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports of the Government of India. It received affiliation as a regional sports federation in 2015.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: The Kalaripayattu Federation of India (KFI), based in Kozhikode, is another governing body of Kalaripayattu, as has been recognized by the Indian Olympic Association.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: The Kerala Kalaripayattu Association (KKA) in Thiruvananthapuram is also a governing body of the martial art which is recognised by the Kerala State Sports Council.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Kottakkal Kanaran Gurukkal (1850-1935), the "gurukkal" of Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair. Korrakkal Kanaran Gurukkal is recognized as one of the "gurukkals" who preserved Kalaripayattu in Kerala and allowed it to survive into the twentieth century after studying it from several gurukkals in the Malabar region of the state.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair (1905-1944), a Kalaripayattu "gurukkal" and student of Kottakal Kanaran Gurukkal, who was popularly known as "CVN" and in whose memory the CVN Kalaris sprang up across Kerala, enabling the revival of Kalaripayattu across its native state.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Chirakkal T. Sreedharan Nair (1909-1984), a Kalaripayattu "gurukkal", and founder of Sree Bharat Kalari (formerly known as Rajkumar Kalari). He is known for writing the first books on Kalaripayattu. His first work, "Kalaripayattu", written in Malayalam and published in 1937, was the first book written on Kalaripayattu. He also authored first authoritative text and primer on Kalaripayattu, called "Kalarippayattu – A Complete Guide to Kerala’s Ancient Martial Art." The text is considered to be the most authentic reference material on Kalaripayattu to this day.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: For their contributions to the preservation of Kalaripayattu, Meenakshi Amma, a 73 year old "gurukkal" from Vadakara and Sankara Narayana Menon Chundayil, a "gurukkal" from Chavakkad, were awarded the Padma Sri by the Government of India.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: In the Indian graphic novels "Odayan" and "Odayan II – Yuddham", the title character is a vigilante who is highly skilled in Kalaripayattu, with the story itself being set in 16th century feudal Kerala.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: "Little Kalari Warriors", a cartoon made by Toonz Animation India for Cartoon Network, features Kalaripayattu practitioners as the principal characters. Kalaripayattu is also seen in the Indian animated film "" (2012). In the Indian role-playing game "Ashwathama — The Immortal", which is based on Indian mythology, the fight scenes were choreographed using Kalaripayattu, with the movements of the characters being motion captured from real Kalaripayattu masters.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: Kalaripayattu is used as a fighting style for the character Connie Maheswaran in the American animated television series "Steven Universe". Outside of Indian video games, characters in international games also use Kalaripayattu, such as Voldo in "Soul Edge", Asura in "Death Battle", and Zafina in the "Tekken" series among others. The style is also used by Cyril Rahman, Ethan Stanley and Shō Kanō in the Japanese manga TV series "". In 2019, a character of Indian origin was introduced for the first time in the Japanese manga, "Agari". It features a character named Ravi, a Kalaripayattu master, as the protagonist.


title: Kalaripayattu

text: While numerous documentaries have been made about or referencing Kalaripayattu, one of the earliest known documentaries on the subject is a BBC documentary titled "The Way of the Warrior". Kalaripayattu was also documented in Season 2 of Fight Quest.


title: Kash Patel

text: Kashyap Pramod "Kash" Patel (born February 25, 1980) is an American attorney, children's book author and former government official. He served as chief of staff to the Acting United States Secretary of Defense under President Donald Trump. Patel has worked at the United States National Security Council and United States House of Representatives and was previously a federal public defender, a federal prosecutor working on national security cases, and a legal liaison to the United States Armed Forces. He is a Republican.


title: Kash Patel

text: Patel has widely been described by news organizations as a "Trump loyalist". As an aide to Congressman Devin Nunes, Patel played a key role in helping Republican attempts to fight the investigations into Donald Trump and Russian interference in the 2016 election.


title: Kash Patel

text: Kashyap "Kash" Patel was born in Garden City, New York, to Gujarati Indian parents who had immigrated to the United States from East Africa, via Canada, in 1980. He graduated from Garden City High School.


title: Kash Patel

text: Patel graduated from the University of Richmond in 2002. He received a certificate in international law from University College London in 2004, and earned a Juris Doctor from Pace University School of Law in 2005.


title: Kash Patel

text: After graduating from law school in 2005, Patel worked as a public defender in Florida for eight years, first in the Miami-Dade County public defender's office and later as a federal public defender. As a public defender he represented clients charged with felonies including international drug trafficking, murder, firearms violations, and bulk cash smuggling.


title: Kash Patel

text: In 2014, Patel was hired as a trial attorney in the United States Department of Justice National Security Division, where he simultaneously served as a legal liaison to the Joint Special Operations Command. During this period he was embedded with a special mission unit at a "secure facility" and, in 2015, received a commendation from the Central Intelligence Agency. In 2017, Patel was appointed senior counsel on counterterrorism at the House Select Committee on Intelligence.


title: Kash Patel

text: In April 2017, Patel become the senior committee aide to House Intelligence Committee chair Devin Nunes. He played a prominent role in the Republican opposition to the investigations into Donald Trump and Russian interference in the 2016 election.


title: Kash Patel

text: According to "The New York Times", Patel was the primary author of the 2018 Nunes memo, alleging FBI misconduct in its application for a warrant from the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court for electronic surveillance of former Trump campaign aide Carter Page.


title: Kash Patel

text: That claim was disputed by the committee's staff director, by a spokesman for Devin Nunes, and by unattributed sources interviewed by "India Abroad". Patel did not offer a public comment on the matter. "The New York Times" opined that the memo was widely dismissed as "biased" containing "cherry-picked facts", but "it galvanized President Trump's allies and made Mr. Patel a hero among them".


title: Kash Patel

text: After Democrats took control of the House of Representatives in January 2019, Patel worked for about a month as a senior counsel at the House Reform and Oversight Committee.


title: Kash Patel

text: Patel was hired in February as a staffer for President Trump's National Security Council (NSC), working in the International Organizations and Alliances directorate, and in July 2019 became Senior Director of the Counterterrorism Directorate, a new position created for him. According to "The Wall Street Journal", Patel led a secret mission to Damascus in early 2020 to negotiate the release of Majd Kamalmaz and journalist Austin Tice, both of whom were being held by the Syrian government.


title: Kash Patel

text: In February 2020, Patel moved to the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI), becoming a Principal Deputy to Acting Director Richard Grenell. Later that month, Patel was part of Trump's entourage during the state visit of the United States to the Republic of India and was noted in press reports as one of two Americans of Indian descent to accompany the president.


title: Kash Patel

text: Within months of Patel's appointment to the NSC, it was suspected that Patel had assumed the role of an additional independent back channel for the President, which was seen as potentially detrimental to American policy in Ukraine. It was noticed that during NSC meetings Patel took few notes and was underqualified for his portfolio, the United Nations.


title: Kash Patel

text: Red flags were raised when President Trump referred to Patel as "one of his top Ukraine policy specialists" and as such wished "to discuss related documents with him". Patel's actual assignment was counter-terrorism issues, rather than Ukraine. He was thought to have operated independently of Giuliani's irregular, informal channel. Impeachment inquiry witnesses have been asked what they know about Patel. Fiona Hill told investigators that it seems "Patel was improperly becoming involved in Ukraine policy and was sending information to Mr. Trump." Sondland and Kent testified they did not come across Patel in the course of their work.


title: Kash Patel

text: On December 3, 2019, the House Intelligence Committee's report included phone records, acquired via subpoenas to AT&T and/or Verizon Wireless, including a 25-minute phone call between Patel and Giuliani on May 10, 2019. The call occurred after Giuliani and Patel attempted to call each other for several hours, and less than an hour after a call between Giuliani and Kurt Volker. Five minutes after the 25-minute call between Giuliani and Patel, an unidentified "-1" phone number called Giuliani for over 17 minutes, after which Giuliani called his associate Lev Parnas for approximately 12 minutes.


title: Kash Patel

text: In a statement to CBS News on December 4, 2019, Patel denied being part of Giuliani's Ukraine back-channel, saying he was "never a back channel to President Trump on Ukraine matters, at all, ever", and that his call with Giuliani was "personal".


title: Kash Patel

text: In an October 2019 story, "Politico", citing an anonymous source it reported had formerly worked at the White House, wrote that Patel had "unique access" to Donald Trump, and had provided "out of scope" advice to him on the United States' Ukraine policy. Patel denied the claims and, the following month, sued "Politico" for defamation, seeking $25 million in damages.


title: Kash Patel

text: In January 2021, "Axios" reported that Trump had considered Patel for appointment as Acting Director of the Central Intelligence Agency to replace Gina Haspel. According to "Axios", Patel was to be appointed Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency immediately before a planned dismissal of Haspel, allowing him to head the agency in an acting capacity. In an interview with "Vanity Fair", Ezra Cohen-Watnick confirmed parts of the "Axios" report. Patel declined to comment.


title: Kash Patel

text: In November 2020, Patel was made chief of staff to Acting Secretary of Defense Christopher C. Miller, a move that followed Trump's firing of Secretary of Defense Mark Esper. Patel reportedly argued that Esper was disloyal to Trump by refusing to deploy military troops to Washington to quell the George Floyd protests.


title: Kash Patel

text: AEI policy director Kori Schake argued that although neither Patel nor others were "confirmable", the shakeup was primarily a matter of "spite" toward the Pentagon establishment. "Foreign Policy" magazine connected the move to Trump's "refusal to accept the election results". Based on interviews with defense experts, Alex Ward of "Vox" suggested that Patel's appointment was "not sinister", would "not change much", and may have served an effort to accelerate the withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan. According to an unnamed source quoted by "Vanity Fair", Miller was a "front man" during his time as Acting Secretary of Defense while Patel and Cohen-Watnick were "calling the shots" at the Department of Defense. Another source told the magazine that Patel was the most influential person in the U.S. government on matters of national security.


title: Kash Patel

text: After the contentious November 2020 election, Patel reportedly blocked some Department of Defense officials from helping the Biden administration transition, according to NBC. As chief of staff, Patel was designated to lead the Department of Defense's coordination with the presidential transition of Joe Biden, and also supported a departmental initiative to separate the National Security Agency from the U.S. Cyber Command.


title: Kash Patel

text: The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) found in 2021 that Trump had taken some presidential documents with him to his home in Florida after leaving office. After Trump returned some documents, NARA found others were still missing, including some that were highly classified. NARA referred the matter to the FBI, and after requests and a subpoena to return the documents went unheeded, the FBI entered Trump's home under a search warrant to retrieve them. Patel publicly asserted that Trump had declassified broad sets of sensitive documents before leaving the White House. In October 2022, Patel was summoned to testify before a federal grand jury investigating the matter, but he declined to answer questions by invoking his Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination. The Justice Department sought but failed to persuade a federal judge to compel Patel's testimony, whereupon he was granted immunity to testify, which he did on November 4, 2022.


title: Kash Patel

text: In April 2022, Patel became a member of the board of directors for the Trump Media & Technology Group, owner of the Truth Social media platform.


title: Kash Patel

text: Patel is the author of a children's picture book, titled "The Plot Against the King," which articulates the fact that the Steele dossier was used as evidence to initiate investigations in Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections. Illustrated by Laura Vincent, the book was published in May 2022 by Brave Books"." It is a fanciful retelling with characters that are caricatures of real people, written for early grade school-age children.


title: Kash Patel

text: On June 19, 2022, Trump sent a letter to the National Archives naming Patel and John Solomon as "representatives for access to Presidential records of my administration".<ref name="Bump_8/15/2022"></ref>


title: Kash Patel

text: Patel resides in the District of Columbia. He plays ice hockey. In 2014, he agreed to participate in a bachelor auction of what Above the Law described as "very handsome lawyers" to benefit Switchboard of Miami, but he withdrew from the auction after a blogger noted his Florida law license was out of date.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: Samantha Ronson (born 7 August 1977) is an English DJ, singer, and songwriter who lives in Santa Monica, California, United States.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: Ronson was born in Camden, London, to writer/socialite Ann Dexter-Jones and one-time music executive and real estate entrepreneur Laurence Ronson.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: When she was six years old her parents divorced and she moved with her siblings, mother and her mother's new boyfriend, Foreigner guitarist Mick Jones, to New York City, where her mother later married Jones.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: Her parents are of Ashkenazi Jewish descent, with ancestors from Austria, Russia, and Lithuania, and Ronson was brought up in Conservative Judaism. Ronson's family name was originally Aaronson, but her grandfather Henry Ronson changed it to Ronson.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: She is the niece of property tycoon Gerald Ronson. Ronson is related to British Conservative politicians Sir Malcolm Rifkind and Leon Brittan, as well as Odeon Cinemas founder Oscar Deutsch. Ronson's older brother, Mark, is a music producer and musician; her fraternal twin sister, Charlotte, is a fashion designer. Ronson has five younger half-siblings; Kenneth and Annabelle, through her mother's remarriage to Mick Jones; as well as Henrietta, David, and Joshua (by her father's marriage to model Michele First). Ronson has two step-brothers, Roman and Chris Jones, by Mick Jones' previous marriage. Ronson's stepfather Mick Jones contributed to a childhood surrounded by music.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: Ronson was educated at the Chapin School on Manhattan's Upper East Side. She then studied creative writing and philosophy at New York University.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: Ronson has stated that she fell into DJing by chance. "I got a call one night from a club that I used to hang out at and they were like, 'Do you want to DJ?'" Ronson remembered. "I was like, 'No way,' [but] my friends were like, 'Come on, just do it.' I was always in the club; [I figured I] might as well make money off it." Ronson took the gig and she quickly started to make a name for herself and eventually DJing became a full-time job. Today she spins at some of the most high-profile gigs around the world. She has spun live for MTV's New Year's Eve show from the network's studios in Times Square, as well as at the Super Bowl, Pan American Games, Sundance Film Festival, amfAR, Cannes Film Festival, AMA and VMA. She has played private events for celebrities like Stevie Wonder, Jimmy Kimmel, Nicole Richie, Lionel Richie, Jessica Simpson, Ellen DeGeneres, Natalie Portman, Lindsay Lohan, and Jay-Z.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: In 2009,2010 and 2014 Ronson designed her own set of sneakers for the company Supra. She appeared in a 2011 campaign for cult fashion label Boy London in collaboration with The Cobra Snake (Mark Hunter). She is or was a co-owner of the New York City nightclub The Plumm, along with actor Chris Noth and Noel Ashman, among others.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: Ronson became the first rock act signed to Roc-A-Fella Records. In 2002, it was announced Duncan Sheik would be co-producing an album for Ronson that would be out in the spring. She released four songs on Roc-A-Fella Records: "Pull My Hair Out", "Fool", "If It's Gonna Rain" and "Built This Way", and wrote and recorded her first album, "Red". "Built This Way" was featured in the movie "Mean Girls" starring Lindsay Lohan and Rachel McAdams. "Pull My Hair Out" was featured on the soundtrack of the movie "The Woodsman" starring Kevin Bacon and the song "Wanted", by Rhymefest featuring Samantha Ronson, appeared in the movie "Half Nelson". In 2004, she opened for JC Chasez on his Schizophrenic tour. However, inauspicious timing and the dissolution of the Roc-A-Fella Records led to her first album never being released.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: In November 2011, Ronson released the album "Chasing the Reds" on her own label, Broken Toy Records. The album showcased her songwriting abilities, drawing inspiration from events in her life. In an interview with "American Songwriter", she stated, "I grew up in the studio with songs. My stepdad wrote some pretty f—ing incredible songs. My brother [producer and musician Mark Ronson] made his records because he likes making songs. So, the standard was set pretty high for being true to what you want to do. I'm not just going to hand my song over to a producer; I want to be there every step of the way...I feel like when you're doing what you love, instead of fitting yourself into somebody else's box, that comes across".


title: Samantha Ronson

text: Guest stars appear on the album including Wale on "Summer of Sam", Alex Greenwald of Phantom Planet on "Captain Jack" and Slash on the track "Love Song". The album was produced by former Goudie guitarist Jimmy Messer, with Ronson herself sharing co producing credits. Her brother Mark produced one track, "Skyscrapers", which was co-written by the siblings with Santigold.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: In 2016, Ronson, Pete Nappi and Ethan Thompson formed the band Ocean Park Standoff. The members first met at a songwriting session in 2014. Their debut single "Good News" was released on 7 October 2016, along with its B-side, "Photos & Liquor". Ocean Park Standoff is going on a US tour starting in February 2017, and their debut EP was released on Hollywood Records on 3 March 2017.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: In May 2007, American actress Lindsay Lohan crashed her Mercedes-Benz in Beverly Hills. Police found a "small amount" of cocaine in her car and blogger Perez Hilton posted on his blog that the drugs belonged to Ronson, using another celebrity gossip blog as a source for the story. Two weeks later he started selling "Blame Samantha" T-shirts and called Ronson a "lezbot dj". Ronson hired Martin Garbus to start a defamation suit against Hilton and the original source for the story, "Celebrity Babylon". "Celebrity Babylon" agreed to issue a retraction and apology on the understanding that Ronson would drop the claim; Hilton's lawyers asked the judge to throw out the case as an assault on his free speech rights. Garbus thought that it would be impossible to produce evidence that Hilton had acted with malice and reached an agreement with Hilton which would have kept Ronson from paying his legal fees. Ronson wanted Hilton's retraction and vetoed the proposal. Around the same time Garbus presented a $100,000 bill after the $25,000 retainer had been accounted for. Garbus withdrew from the case and neither he nor Ronson appeared at Hilton's hearing, where the judge ruled in Hilton's favour dismissing the case and ordering Ronson to pay Hilton's $85,000 legal fees.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: Two weeks later Garbus sued Ronson in New York for close to $142,000 in fees and services. He later dropped that suit. In May, Ronson filed suit against Garbus in Los Angeles County Superior Court, contending that his incompetence had lost the case against Hilton and asking for damages in excess of $300,000. Among the allegations was that Garbus failed to fulfill his duties as her attorney because he was focused on collecting his fees. In response to Ronson's malpractice suit he countersued to recover his fees.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: On 1 August 2011, Ronson was pulled over in Baker, California, while driving her Porsche Targa back home from Las Vegas. She was initially stopped for driving 89 m.p.h. in a 70 m.p.h. speed zone, but was given a balance test, since she seemed impaired. She was arrested for two misdemeanors for driving under the influence.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: About her sexuality, Ronson had initially denied claims that she is a lesbian, stating that she dates both women and men:


title: Samantha Ronson

text: However, in February 2022, Ronson appeared on the "Queery" podcast, where she stated that she had struggled with accepting her sexuality for years. She also stated that she now identifies as gay.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: In 2007, media outlets began commenting on Ronson and actress Lindsay Lohan, who were seen being affectionate in public. Several newspapers, including "The Times" and the "Los Angeles Times", published opinion pieces describing their relationship as romantic. Lohan refrained from commenting on the nature of their relationship, stating through her publicist that she "wants to keep her private life private." Ronson stated in a July 2010 interview with "The Times" that she loves Lohan as a human being but the paparazzi attention grew to be too much.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: In June 2011, when Ronson was pictured with music producer David Foster's daughter—actress and writer Erin Foster—several media outlets reported that Ronson and Foster were a couple. Ronson has never commented on the relationship other than to state she is not single.


title: Samantha Ronson

text: Ronson appears in the music videos for Usher and Alicia Keys' "My Boo", Awolnation's "Burn It Down", N.E.R.D's "Everyone Nose", and brother Mark Ronson's "Ooh Wee". Ronson also appeared in a Gap commercial featuring rapper Common.


title: CBRE Group

text: CBRE Group, Inc. is an American commercial real estate services and investment firm. The abbreviation CBRE stands for Coldwell Banker Richard Ellis. It is the world's largest commercial real estate services and investment firm (based on 2021 revenue).


title: CBRE Group

text: The firm is ranked 122nd on the Fortune 500 and has been included in the Fortune 500 every year since 2008. CBRE serves more than 90 of the top 100 companies on the Fortune 100. It is one of the "Big Three" commercial real estate services companies, alongside Cushman & Wakefield and JLL.


title: CBRE Group

text: Tucker, Lynch & Coldwell, the earliest predecessor to CBRE, was established on August 27, 1906, following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. The company added Benjamin Arthur Banker as partner in 1913 and renamed itself Coldwell, Cornwall & Banker in 1920. Cornwall resigned as partner in 1940, and the company was renamed Coldwell, Banker & Co, which was eventually shortened to Coldwell Banker.


title: CBRE Group

text: In 1981, Coldwell Banker was acquired by Sears. In 1989, Sears sold Coldwell Banker's commercial unit to a management-led buyout group including The Carlyle Group for approximately $300 million. After the buyout, the company was renamed CB Commercial Real Estate Group. The residential group retained the Coldwell Banker name.


title: CBRE Group

text: In 1996, the company became a public company via an initial public offering, raising approximately $80 million.


title: CBRE Group

text: In 1998, CB Commercial merged with Richard Ellis International (REI) Limited and changed its name to CB Richard Ellis. In 2001, CB Richard Ellis was acquired in a leveraged buyout by an investment group led by Blum Capital in an $800 million transaction.


title: CBRE Group

text: On June 10, 2004, CB Richard Ellis once again became a public company via an initial public offering. In 2006, the company's shares were added to the S&P 500 Index.


title: CBRE Group

text: In 2013 the company acquired Norland Managed Services, a facilities, energy and project management provider in the United Kingdom and Ireland.


title: CBRE Group

text: In July 2021, CBRE paid £960 million for a 60% stake in the UK multidisciplinary professional services firm Turner & Townsend.


title: Call Me Maybe

text: "Call Me Maybe" is a song recorded by Canadian singer-songwriter Carly Rae Jepsen for her EP "Curiosity" (2012) and later appeared on her second studio album and first international album "Kiss" (2012). The song was written by Jepsen and Tavish Crowe as a folk song, but its genre was modified to pop following the production by Josh Ramsay. It was released as the lead single from the EP on September 20, 2011, through 604 Records. Jepsen was signed to Schoolboy Records, releasing her single in the United States through the label, as the first single from "Kiss". Musically, "Call Me Maybe" is a teen pop, dance-pop and bubblegum pop track that alludes to the inconvenience that love at first sight brings to a girl who hopes for a call back from a new crush.


title: Call Me Maybe

text: "Call Me Maybe" topped the Canadian Hot 100. Outside of Canada, "Call Me Maybe" topped the charts in Australia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Hungary, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Poland, the Republic of Ireland, Slovakia, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. It peaked inside the top five of the charts in Austria, Belgium (Flanders & Wallonia), Germany, Israel, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden. After peaking at the top position of the Canadian Hot 100, Jepsen became the fifth Canadian artist to do so in her home country since 2007. In the United States, the track reached number one on the Mainstream Top 40 chart, and is the first number one by a Canadian female artist on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart since 2007's "Girlfriend" by Avril Lavigne.


title: Call Me Maybe

text: An accompanying music video was directed by Ben Knechtel. In it, Jepsen seeks the attention of an attractive boy next door who is revealed at the end of the story to be attracted to a male band member. As part of the promotion for the song, Jepsen performed the track on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", where she made her US television debut, and at the 2012 "Billboard" Music Awards. "Call Me Maybe" has been covered by several artists, including Ben Howard, Big Time Rush, Fun, Cimorelli, Lil Wayne, JPEGMafia, and Cody Simpson, and parodied by Cookie Monster and some of the news staff of National Public Radio. It was also covered on "The New Rachel", the season premiere episode of the fourth season of "Glee".


title: Call Me Maybe

text: "Call Me Maybe" was nominated for two Grammy Awards, for Song of the Year and Best Pop Solo Performance at the 55th Annual ceremony, but lost to "We Are Young" by Fun and the live performance of "Set Fire to the Rain" by Adele, respectively. On December 11, 2012, "Call Me Maybe" was named "Song of the Year" for 2012 by MTV. In its 2012 Year-End issue, "Billboard" magazine ranked this song #2 in the Hot 100 Songs, Digital Songs, and Canadian Hot 100 charts. The song was also ranked number one by the Village Voice's annual Pazz and Jop poll, which compiles the votes of music critics from all over the United States. The song was the best-selling single worldwide in 2012, selling over 12 million copies in that year alone, and the best-selling single on the iTunes Store worldwide in 2012. With worldwide sales of 18 million copies and over 900 million streams on Spotify as of October 2022, it became the best selling single of the 21st century by a female artist and one of the most successful singles of all time. "Call Me Maybe" was the best-selling digital single of 2012 worldwide, and is the seventh best-selling digital single of all time. The song is ranked at #47 on "Billboard"s Greatest Songs of All-Time and at #436 on "Rolling Stone"'s updated list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time


title: Call Me Maybe

text: "Call Me Maybe" was initially written by Jepsen and Tavish Crowe as a folk song, while they were on tour. Jepsen explained that the writing process was easy, and that she wasn't "over-thinking it. We brought in Josh, and he helped us kind of pop-ify it." The following days, she recorded the track at the Umbrella Studios in Richmond, British Columbia, Canada. Jepsen later explained that it is "basically a pick up. What person hasn't wanted to approach somebody before and stopped because it's scary? I know I have." "Call Me Maybe" had been first released in Canada only through 604 Records on September 20, 2011.


title: Call Me Maybe

text: In December 2011, singers Justin Bieber and Selena Gomez were in Canada and heard the track on the radio. After they spoke about the song on their Twitter accounts, Jepsen instantly gained international attention, and got signed by Scooter Braun to his Schoolboy Records. Bieber's tweet said the song "is possibly the catchiest song I've ever heard..." Braun revealed that Bieber has "never jumped out and promoted an artist like this before. He sends me different YouTube videos of unsigned artists that he'd like to work with, but never someone who already had a song out and is on the radio." Worldwide distribution of the single was done through Interscope Records.


title: Call Me Maybe

text: "Call Me Maybe" was written by Jepsen and Crowe, with additional writing and song production by Josh Ramsay. Lyrically, the song describes the "infatuation and inconvenience of a love at first sight," as described by Bill Lamb of About.com. During the pre-chorus, Jepsen states how she suddenly becomes attracted to a person, singing, "Your stare was holding, ripped jeans, skin was showing/Hot night, wind was blowing/Where you think you're going, baby?" As the chorus begins, the background incorporates synthesized string chords, and Jepsen explains that her feelings towards the guy are unexpected, "Hey, I just met you/And this is crazy/But here's my number/So call me maybe."


title: Call Me Maybe

text: Melody Lau of "Rolling Stone" wrote that "Call Me Maybe" is a "Taylor Swift meets Robyn" song. Jon O'Brien of AllMusic called it a teen pop song with "a chorus that just about straddles that fine line between sugary sweet and sickly." Tiffany Lee of Yahoo! Music deemed it as an instant summer hit, and added that "Call Me Maybe" has "a good beat, great melody and catchy lyrics; something you and your friends can belt out in the car while driving to the beach, a party, and pretty much anywhere." Jon Caramanica of "The New York Times" wrote that the song is "breezy and sweet, an eyelash-fluttering flirtation run hard through the Disney-pop model of digitized feelings and brusque, chipper arrangements." Kelsey McKinney and Scott Kellum of "Vox" described it as "catchy bubblegum pop" that is given depth by "the absolute height of Jepsen's vocal range".


title: Call Me Maybe

text: According to Musicnotes.com, "Call Me Maybe" is written in the key of G major with a moderate tempo of 120 beats per minute. Jepsen's vocals span from G to C, and the song follows a key progression of C–G/D–C–G/D.


title: Call Me Maybe

text: The song received critical acclaim. "Rolling Stone" journalist Melody Lau considered "Call Me Maybe" "a sugary dance-pop tune about hoping for a call back from a crush," while Kat George of VH1 described it as a "guilty pop pleasure."


title: Call Me Maybe

text: Emma Carmichael of "Gawker" did a long review on the track, which she described as the "new perfect pop song." Carmichael further added that the song is "flawless" and that "we will be virtually incapable of escaping the song and its strident disco strings and that horribly catchy hook." Nicole James of MTV revealed that "Call Me Maybe" is probably the catchiest song she has ever heard, and added that "I don't even want to tell you what the play count is in my iTunes for that song, but the moment you press play you're sucked in."