title: Jonathan Haidt

text: Haidt received a BA in philosophy from Yale University in 1985, and a PhD in psychology from the University of Pennsylvania in 1992. He then studied cultural psychology at the University of Chicago as a postdoctoral fellow, supervised by Jonathan Baron and Alan Fiske (at the University of Pennsylvania), and cultural anthropologist Richard Shweder (University of Chicago). At Shweder's suggestion, he visited Orissa, India, to continue his research. In 1995, Haidt was hired as an assistant professor at the University of Virginia, where he worked until 2011, winning four awards for teaching, including a statewide award conferred by the Governor of Virginia.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: In 1999, Haidt became active in the new field of positive psychology, studying positive moral emotions. This work led to the publication of an edited volume, titled "Flourishing", in 2003. In 2004, Haidt began to apply moral psychology to the study of politics, doing research on the psychological foundations of ideology. This work led to the publication in 2012 of "The Righteous Mind". Haidt spent the 2007–2008 academic year at Princeton University as the Visiting Professor for Distinguished Teaching.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: In 2011, Haidt moved to New York University Stern School of Business as the Thomas Cooley Professor of Ethical Leadership. In 2013, he co-founded Ethical Systems, a non-profit collaboration dedicated to making academic research on ethics widely available to businesses. In 2015, Haidt co-founded Heterodox Academy, a non-profit organization that works to increase viewpoint diversity, mutual understanding, and productive disagreement. In 2018, Haidt and Richard Reeves co-edited an illustrated edition of John Stuart Mill's "On Liberty", titled "All Minus One: John Stuart Mill’s Ideas on Free Speech Illustrated" (illustrated by Dave Cicirelli). Haidt's current research applies moral psychology to business ethics.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: Together with Paul Rozin and Clark McCauley, Haidt developed the Disgust Scale, which has been widely used to measure individual differences in sensitivity to disgust. Haidt, Rozin, and McCauley have written on the psychology of disgust as an emotion that began as a guardian of the mouth (against pathogens), but then expanded during biological and cultural evolution to become a guardian of the body more generally, and of the social and moral order.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: With Sara Algoe, Haidt argued that exposure to stories about moral beauty (the opposite of moral disgust) cause a common set of responses, including warm, loving feelings, calmness, and a desire to become a better person. Haidt called the emotion "moral elevation", as a tribute to Thomas Jefferson, who had described the emotion in detail in a letter discussing the benefits of reading great literature. Feelings of moral elevation cause increases in milk produced during lactation in breastfeeding mothers, suggesting the involvement of the hormone oxytocin. There is now a large body of research on elevation and related emotions.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: Haidt's principal line of research has been on the nature and mechanisms of moral judgment. In the 1990s, he developed the social intuitionist model, which posits that moral judgment is mostly based on automatic processes—moral intuitions—rather than on conscious reasoning. People engage in reasoning largely to find evidence to support their initial intuitions. Haidt's main paper on the social intuitionist model, "The Emotional Dog and its Rational Tail", has been cited over 7,800 times.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: In 2004, Haidt began to extend the social intuitionist model to identify what he considered to be the most important categories of moral intuition. The resulting moral foundations theory, co-developed with Craig Joseph and Jesse Graham, and based in part on the writings of Richard Shweder, was intended to explain cross-cultural differences in morality. The theory posited that there are at least five innate moral foundations, upon which cultures develop their various moralities, just as there are five innate taste receptors on the tongue, which cultures have used to create many different cuisines. The five values are:


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: Haidt and his collaborators asserted that the theory also works well to explain political differences. According to Haidt, liberals tend to endorse primarily the care and fairness foundations, whereas conservatives tend to endorse all foundations more equally. Later, in "The Righteous Mind", a sixth foundation, "Liberty/oppression", was presented.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: One widely cited metaphor throughout Haidt's books is that of the elephant and the rider. His observations of social intuitionism, the notion that intuitions come first and rationalization second, led to the metaphor described in his work. The rider represents consciously controlled processes, and the elephant represents automatic processes. The metaphor corresponds to Systems 1 and 2 described in Daniel Kahneman's "Thinking, Fast and Slow". This metaphor is used extensively in both "The Happiness Hypothesis" and "The Righteous Mind".


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: Haidt has authored the following non-academic books for general audiences, related to various subjects in psychology and politics.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: "The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom" (2006) draws on ancient philosophical ideas in light of contemporary scientific research to extract potential lessons and how they may apply to everyday life. The book poses "ten Great Ideas" on happiness espoused by philosophers and thinkers of the past — Plato, Marcus Aurelius, Buddha, Jesus, and others — and then considers what modern scientific research has to say regarding these ideas.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: "The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion" (2012) draws on Haidt's previous research on moral foundations theory. It argues that moral judgments arise not from logical reason, but from gut feelings, asserting that liberals, conservatives, and libertarians have different intuitions about right and wrong because they prioritize different values.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: "The Coddling of the American Mind: How Good Intentions and Bad Ideas Are Setting Up a Generation for Failure" (2018), co-written with Greg Lukianoff, expands on an essay the authors wrote for "The Atlantic" in 2015. The book explores the rising political polarization and changing culture on college campuses and its effects on mental health. It also explores changes in childhood, including the rise of "fearful parenting," the decline of unsupervised play, and the effects of social media in the last decade.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: Haidt describes how he began to study political psychology in order to help the Democratic Party win more elections, and argues that each of the major political groups—conservatives, progressives, and libertarians—have valuable insights and that truth and good policy emerge from the contest of ideas. Since 2012, Haidt has referred to himself as a political centrist.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: Haidt is involved with several efforts to help bridge the political divide and reduce political polarization in the United States. In 2007, he founded the website "CivilPolitics.org", a clearinghouse for research on political civility. He serves on the advisory boards of Represent.Us., a non-partisan anti-corruption organization; the Acumen Fund, which invests in companies, leaders, and ideas that are changing the way the world tackles poverty; and "braverangels.org", a bipartisan group working to reduce political polarization.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: In 2019, Haidt argued that there is a "very good chance American democracy will fail, that in the next 30 years we will have a catastrophic failure of our democracy."


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: While himself an atheist, Haidt has argued that religion contains psychological wisdom that can promote human flourishing, and that the New Atheists have themselves succumbed to moralistic dogma. These contentions elicited a variety of responses in a 2007 online debate sponsored by the website "Edge". PZ Myers praised the first part of Haidt's essay while disagreeing with his criticism of the New Atheists; Sam Harris criticized Haidt for his perceived obfuscation of harms caused by religion; Michael Shermer praised Haidt; and biologist David Sloan Wilson joined Haidt in criticizing the New Atheists for dismissing the notion that religion is an evolutionary adaptation.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: David Mikics of "Tablet" magazine profiled Haidt as "the high priest of heterodoxy" and praised his work to increase intellectual diversity at universities through Heterodox Academy.


title: Jonathan Haidt

text: In 2020, Peter Wehner wrote in "The Atlantic," "Over the past decade, no one has added more to my understanding of how we think about, discuss, and debate politics and religion than Jonathan Haidt." He added that, "In his own field, in his own way, Jonathan Haidt is trying to heal our divisions and temper some of the hate, to increase our wisdom and understanding, and to urge us to show a bit more compassion toward one another."


title: Mahmud II

text: Mahmud II (, ; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839.


title: Mahmud II

text: His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms he instituted, which culminated in the Decree of Tanzimat ("reorganization") that was carried out by his sons Abdulmejid I and Abdülaziz. Often described as "Peter the Great of Turkey", Mahmud's reforms included the 1826 abolition of the conservative Janissary corps, which removed a major obstacle to his and his successors' reforms in the Empire. The reforms he instituted were characterized by political and social changes, which would eventually lead to the birth of the modern Turkish Republic.


title: Mahmud II

text: Notwithstanding his domestic reforms, Mahmud's reign was also marked by nationalist uprisings in Ottoman-ruled Serbia and Greece, leading to a loss of territory for the Empire following the emergence of an independent Greek state.


title: Mahmud II

text: In terms of the general social structure of the Ottoman Empire, Mahmud's reign was characterized by a major interest in Westernization; institutions, palace order, daily life, clothing, music and many other areas saw radical reform as the Ottoman Empire opened up to the modernization.


title: Mahmud II

text: Mahmud II was born on 20 July 1785, in the month of Ramazan. He was the son of Abdul Hamid I and his Seven consort Nakşidil Kadin. He was the youngest son of his father, and the second child of his mother, he had an elder brother, Şehzade Seyfullah Murad, two years older than him, and a younger sister, Saliha Sultan, one year younger than him. According to tradition, he was confined in the Kafes after the death of his father.


title: Mahmud II

text: His mother was Nakşidil Valide Sultan. In 1808, Mahmud II's predecessor, and half-brother, Mustafa IV ordered his execution along with his cousin, the deposed Sultan Selim III, in order to defuse the rebellion. Selim III was killed, but Mahmud was safely kept hidden by his mother and was placed on the throne after the rebels deposed Mustafa IV. The leader of this rebellion, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, later became Mahmud II's vizier.


title: Mahmud II

text: There are many stories surrounding the circumstances of his attempted murder. A version by the 19th-century Ottoman historian Ahmed Cevdet Pasha gives the following account: one of his slaves, a Georgian girl named Cevri, gathered ashes when she heard the commotion in the palace surrounding the murder of Selim III. When the assassins approached the harem chambers where Mahmud was staying, she was able to keep them away for a while by throwing ashes into their faces, temporarily blinding them. This allowed Mahmud to escape through a window and climb onto the roof of the harem. He apparently ran to the roof of the Third Court where other pages saw him and helped him come down with pieces of clothes that were quickly tied together as a ladder. By this time one of the leaders of the rebellion, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha arrived with his armed men, and upon seeing the dead body of Selim III proclaimed Mahmud as "padishah". The slave girl Cevri Kalfa was awarded for her bravery and loyalty and appointed "haznedar usta", the chief treasurer of the Imperial Harem, which was the second most important position in the hierarchy. A plain stone staircase at the "Altınyol" (Golden Way) of the Harem is called Staircase of Cevri (Jevri) Kalfa, since the events apparently happened around there and are associated with her.


title: Mahmud II

text: The vizier took the initiative in resuming reforms that had been terminated by the conservative coup of 1807 that had brought Mustafa IV to power. However, he was killed during a rebellion in 1808 and Mahmud II temporarily abandoned the reforms. Mahmud II's later reformation efforts would be much more successful.


title: Mahmud II

text: After Mahmud II became sultan, Turkish border wars with the Russians continued. In 1810, the Russians surrounded the Silistre fortress for the second time. When Emperor Napoleon I of France declared war on Russia in 1811, Russian repression on the Ottoman border diminished, a relief to Mahmud. By this time, Napoleon was about to embark on his invasion of Russia. He also invited the Ottomans to join his march on Russia. However, Napoleon, who had invaded all of Europe except the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire, could not be trusted and accepted as an ally; Mahmud rejected the offer. The Bucharest Agreement was reached with the Russians on 28 May 1812. According to the Treaty of Bucharest (1812), the Ottoman Empire ceded the eastern half of Moldavia to Russia (which renamed the territory as Bessarabia), although it had committed to protecting that region. Russia became a new power in the lower Danube area, and had an economically, diplomatically, and militarily profitable frontier. In Transcaucasia, the Ottoman Empire regained nearly all it had lost in the east: Poti, Anapa and Akhalkalali. Russia retained Sukhum-Kale on the Abkhazian coast. In return, the Sultan accepted the Russian annexation of the Kingdom of Imereti, in 1810. The treaty was approved by Emperor Alexander I of Russia on June 11, some 13 days before Napoleon's invasion began. The Russian commanders were able to get many of their soldiers in the Balkans back to the western areas of the empire before the expected attack of Napoleon.


title: Mahmud II

text: During the early years of Mahmud II's reign, his governor of Egypt Muhammad Ali Pasha successfully waged the Ottoman-Saudi War and reconquered the holy cities of Medina (1812) and Mecca (1813) from the First Saudi State.


title: Mahmud II

text: Abdullah bin Saud and the First Saudi State had barred Muslims from the Ottoman Empire from entering the holy shrines of Mecca and Medina; his followers also desecrated the tombs of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Hassan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. Abdullah bin Saud and his two followers were publicly beheaded for their crimes against holy cities and mosques.


title: Mahmud II

text: His reign also marked the first breakaway from the Ottoman Empire, with Greece gaining its independence following a revolution that started in 1821. In the wake of continued unrest he had ecumenical patriarch Gregory V executed on Easter Sunday 1821 for his inability to stem the uprising. During the Battle of Erzurum (1821), part of the Ottoman-Persian War (1821-1823), Mahmud II's superior force was routed by Abbas Mirza, resulting in a Qajar Persian victory which got confirmed in the Treaties of Erzurum. Several years later, in 1827, the combined British, French and Russian navies defeated the Ottoman Navy at the Battle of Navarino; in the aftermath, the Ottoman Empire was forced to recognize Greece with the Treaty of Constantinople in July 1832. This event, together with the French conquest of Algeria, an Ottoman province (see Ottoman Algeria) in 1830, marked the beginning of the gradual break-up of the Ottoman Empire. Non-Turkish ethnic groups living in the empire's territories, especially in Europe, started their own independence movements.


title: Mahmud II

text: One of Mahmud II's most notable acts during his reign was the destruction of the Janissary corps in June 1826. He accomplished this with careful calculation using his recently reformed wing of the military intended to replace the Janissaries. When the Janissaries mounted a demonstration against Mahmud II's proposed military reforms, he had their barracks fired upon effectively crushing the formerly elite Ottoman troops and burned the Belgrade forest outside Istanbul to incinerate any remnants. This permitted the establishment of a European-style conscript army, recruited mainly from Turkish speakers of Rumelia and Asia Minor. Mahmud was also responsible for the subjugation of the Iraqi Mamluks by Ali Ridha Pasha in 1831. He ordered the execution of the renowned Ali Pasha of Tepelena. He sent his Grand Vizier to execute the Bosniak military commander Husein Gradaščević and dissolve the Bosnia Eyalet.


title: Mahmud II

text: Another Russo-Turkish War (1828-29) broke out during Mahmud II's reign and was fought without janissaries. Marshal von Diebitsch was armed (in the words of Baron Moltke) "with the reputation of invincible success". He was to earn the name Sabalskanski (the crosser of the Balkans). Bypassing the Shumla fortress, he forcibly marched his troops over the Balkans, appearing before Adrianople. Sultan Mahmud II maintained control of his forces, unfurled the banner of the prophet and declared his intention of taking command of the army personally. Preparing to do so, he appeared, ill-advisedly, not on horseback but in a carriage. The Divan, British and French ambassadors urged him to sue for peace.


title: Mahmud II

text: In 1839, just prior to his death, he began preparations for the Tanzimat reform era which included introducing a Council of Ministers or the "Meclis-i Vukela". The Tanzimat marked the beginning of modernization in the Ottoman Empire and had immediate effects on social and legal aspects of life in the Empire, such as European style clothing, architecture, legislation, institutional organization, and land reform.


title: Mahmud II

text: He was also concerned for aspects of tradition. He made great efforts to revive the sport of archery. He ordered archery master Mustafa Kani to write a book about the history, construction, and use of Turkish bows, from which comes most of what is now known of Turkish archery.


title: Mahmud II

text: Mahmud II died of tuberculosis, in 1839. His funeral was attended by crowds of people who came to bid the Sultan farewell. His son Abdulmejid I succeeded him and would continue to implement Tanzimat reform efforts.


title: Mahmud II

text: Among his reforms are the edicts (or firmans), by which he closed the Court of Confiscations, and took away much of the power of the Pashas.


title: Mahmud II

text: Previous to the first of the firmans, the property of all persons banished or condemned to death was forfeited to the crown; and a sordid motive for acts of cruelty was thus kept in perpetual operation, besides the encouragement of a host of vile delators.


title: Mahmud II

text: The second firman removed the ancient rights of Turkish governors to doom men to instant death by their will; the "Paşas", the "Ağas", and other officers, were enjoined that "they should not presume to inflict, themselves, the punishment of death on any man, whether Raya or Turk, unless authorized by a legal sentence pronounced by the Kadı, and regularly signed by the judge." Mahmud also created an appeal system whereby a criminal could lodge an appeal to one of the Kazasker (chief military judge) of Asia or Europe, and finally to the Sultan himself, if the criminal chose to pursue the appeal even further.


title: Mahmud II

text: About the same time that Mahmud II ordained these changes, he personally set an example of reform by regularly attending the Divan, or state council, instead of abstaining from attendance. The practice of the Sultan avoiding the Divan had been introduced as long ago as the reign of Suleiman I, and was considered one of the causes of the decline of the Empire by a Turkish historian nearly two centuries before Mahmud II's time.


title: Mahmud II

text: Mahmud II also addressed some of the worst abuses connected with the vakıfs, by placing their revenues under state administration. However, he did not venture to apply this vast mass of property to the general purposes of the government. His modernizations included the relaxation of much of the restrictions on alcoholic beverages in the Empire, and the sultan himself was known to drink socially with his ministers. By the end of his reign, his reforms had mostly normalized drinking among the upper classes and political figures in the Empire.


title: Mahmud II

text: The financial situation of the Empire was troubling during his reign, and certain social classes had long been under the oppression of heavy taxes. In dealing with the complicated questions that therefore arose, Mahmud II is considered to have demonstrated the best spirit of the best of the Köprülüs. A firma dated February 22, 1834, abolished the vexatious charges which public functionaries, when traversing the provinces, had long been accustomed to take from the inhabitants. By the same edict, all collection of money, except for the two regular half-yearly periods, was denounced as abuses. "No one is ignorant," said Sultan Mahmud II in this document, "that I am bound to afford support to all my subjects against vexatious proceedings; to endeavour unceasingly to lighten, instead of increasing their burdens, and to ensure peace and tranquility. Therefore, those acts of oppression are at once contrary to the will of God, and to my imperial orders."


title: Mahmud II

text: The "haraç", or capitation-tax, though moderate and exempting those who paid it from military service, had long been made an engine of gross tyranny through the insolence and misconduct of the government collectors. The firman of 1834 abolished the old mode of levying it and ordained that it should be raised by a commission composed of the "Kadı", the Muslim governors, and the "Ayans", or municipal chiefs of "Rayas" in each district. Many other financial improvements were affected. By another important series of measures, the administrative government was simplified and strengthened, and a large number of sinecure offices were abolished. Sultan Mahmud II provided a valuable personal example of good sense, and economy, organising the imperial household, suppressing all titles without duties, and all salaried officials without functions.


title: Mahmud II

text: Mahmud II dealt effectively with the military fiefs, the "Tımar"s, and the "Ziamet"s. These had been instituted to furnish the old effective military force, but had long ceased to serve this purpose. By attaching them to the public domains, Mahmud II materially strengthened the resources of the state, and put an end to a host of corruptions. One of the most resolute acts of his ruling was the suppression of the "Dere Beys", the hereditary local chiefs (with power to nominate their successors in default of male heirs), which, in one of the worst abuses of the Ottoman feudal system, had made themselves petty princes in almost every province of the empire.


title: Mahmud II

text: The reduction of these insubordinate feudatories was not affected at once, or without severe struggles and frequent rebellions. Mahmud II steadily persevered in this great measure and ultimately the island of Cyprus became the only part of the empire in which power that was not emanating from the Sultan was allowed to be retained by "Dere Beys".


title: Mahmud II

text: One of his most notable achievement was the abolition (through use of military force, execution and exile, and banning of the Bektashi order) of the Janissary Corps, event known as The Auspicious Incident, in 1826 and the establishment of a modern Ottoman Army, named the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye (meaning 'Victorious Soldiers of Muhammad' in Ottoman Turkish).


title: Mahmud II

text: Following the loss of Greece after the Battle of Navarino against the combined British-French-Russian flotilla in 1827, Mahmud II gave top priority to rebuilding a strong Ottoman naval force. The first steamships of the Ottoman Navy were acquired in 1828. In 1829 the world's largest warship for many years, the 201 x 56 kadem (1 kadem = 37.887 cm) or ship of the line "Mahmudiye", which had 128 cannons on 3 decks and carried 1,280 sailors on board, was built for the Ottoman Navy at the Imperial Naval Arsenal (Tersâne-i Âmire) on the Golden Horn in Constantinople (kadem, which translates as "foot", is often misinterpreted as equivalent in length to one imperial foot, hence the wrongly converted dimensions of "201 x 56 ft, or 62 x 17 m" in some sources.)


title: Mahmud II

text: During his reign, Mahmud II also made sweeping reforms of the bureaucracy in order to reestablish royal authority and increase the administrative efficiency of his government. This was accomplished by abolishing old offices, introducing new lines of responsibility, and raised salaries in an attempt to end bribery. In 1838 he founded two institutions aimed towards training government officials. In 1831, Mahmud II also established an official gazette, "Takvim-i Vekayi" (Calendar of Events). This was the first newspaper to be published in the Ottoman-Turkish language and was required reading for all civil servants.


title: Mahmud II

text: Clothing was also an essential aspect of Mahmud II's reforms. He began by officially adopting the fez for the military after the Janissary eradication in 1826, which signified a break from the old style of military dress. On top of this, he ordered civilian officials to also adopt a similar, but plain, fez to distinguish them from the military. He planned for the population to adopt this as well, as he desired a homogeneous look for Ottoman society with an 1829 regulatory law. Unlike past Sultanic clothing decrees and those of other societies, Mahmud II wanted all levels of government and civilians to look the same. He faced significant resistance to these measures specifically from religious groups, laborers, and military members because of traditional, religious, and practical reasons. Mahmud II's portraits also give a valuable insight into his clothing mentality, as he switched to a more European-style and fez after 1826.


title: Mahmud II

text: On top of these reforms, Mahmud II was also critical in the establishment and flourishing of an Ottoman foreign affairs office. While he built upon Selim III's foundational elements of international diplomacy, Mahmud II was the first to create the title of Foreign Minister and Undersecretary in 1836. He placed enormous importance on this position and equated salary and rank with the highest military and civilian positions. Mahmud II also expanded the Language Office and Translation Office, and by 1833 it began to grow in both size and importance. After the reorganization of these offices, he also resumed Selim's efforts to create a system of permanent diplomatic representation in Europe. In 1834, permanent European embassies were established with the first being in Paris. Despite the difficulties that came along with these actions, the expansion of diplomacy increased the transmission of ideas that would have a revolutionary effect on the development of bureaucracy and Ottoman society as a whole.


title: Mahmud II

text: Mahmud II had at least nineteen daughters, but only six survived infancy and only four reached the age of marriage:


title: Mahmud II

text: The 2006 historical detective novel "The Janissary Tree", by Jason Goodwin, is set in 1836 Constantinople, with Mahmud II's modernising reforms (and conservative opposition to them) forming the background of the plot. The Sultan himself and his mother appear in several scenes.


title: Mahmud II

text: The 1989 film "Intimate Power", also known as "The Favorite", is adapted from a historical fiction novel by Prince Michael of Greece. It portrays a legend about Aimée du Buc de Rivéry as a young captured French girl who, after spending years in an Ottoman harem, outlives two Sultans and protects Mahmud as his surrogate mother. Mahmud is a minor role in the film but is portrayed as both an adult and a child. The film concludes with a variation of his dramatic succession.


title: A Call to Spy

text: A Call to Spy (also known as Liberté: A Call to Spy) is a 2019 American film, written and produced by Sarah Megan Thomas and directed by Lydia Dean Pilcher. The title is a stylistic variant of "a call to arms". The film is a heavily fictionalised historical drama inspired by the lives of three women who worked as British spies during World War II. In many important respects the plot deviates quite widely from actual events and from their real-life missions. It stars Sarah Megan Thomas, Radhika Apte and Stana Katic.


title: A Call to Spy

text: "A Call to Spy" had its world premiere on 21 June, 2019, at the Edinburgh International Film Festival, and was released in the United States on 2 October, 2020, in theatres and on video on demand.


title: A Call to Spy

text: The film received mostly positive reviews. Film critic aggregator Rotten Tomatoes said it "overcomes a surprising lack of tension with an overall engaging tribute to an oft-overlooked group of World War II heroes."


title: A Call to Spy

text: In the beginning of WWII, with Britain becoming desperate, Churchill orders his new spy agency—the Special Operations Executive (SOE)—to recruit and train women as spies. Their daunting mission: conduct sabotage and build a resistance. SOE's "spymistress," Vera Atkins (Stana Katic), recruits two unusual candidates: Virginia Hall (Sarah Megan Thomas), an ambitious American with a wooden leg, and Noor Inayat Khan (Radhika Apte), an Indian Muslim pacifist. Together, these women help to undermine the Nazi regime in France, leaving an unmistakable legacy in their wake.


title: A Call to Spy

text: Sarah Megan Thomas wrote the original screenplay based on years of research, and to prepare for her role as Virginia Hall, she interviewed Hall's living relatives.


title: A Call to Spy

text: Pilcher has said that she was drawn to this story because she felt a story about the power of multiculturalism was relevant to the current-day rise of nationalism and extremism, and she wanted to feature a story about these women who hadn't received enough attention or acknowledgement in history. To prepare for the role of Noor Inayat Khan, Radhika Apte did a lot of research, which included reading about the historical people as well as watching spy movies and reading classic novels that were relevant to the character.


title: A Call to Spy

text: Filming was done in Philadelphia and Budapest, both of which also provided tax credits to the production.


title: A Call to Spy

text: The film had its world premiere as "Liberté: A Call to Spy" at the Edinburgh International Film Festival during the commemoration of the 75th anniversary of D-Day, which Thomas believed was a notable choice because historically the agency trained their spies in Scotland.


title: A Call to Spy

text: The film went on to win the Audience Choice Award in record numbers at Whistler Film Festival, where 97% voted for it as their favorite film, "the highest numbers since "La La Land" took home the prize." The film also won an award from the Alliance of Women Film Journalists. The film was given the Anti-Defamation League Award at the 2020 Santa Barbara International Film Festival with a unanimous vote by the jury. IFC Films then acquired North American distribution rights, with an expected theatrical release in late 2020.


title: A Call to Spy

text: The film has been well reviewed by critics and well received by audiences on the festival circuit. Screen Daily noted that it was "one title to stand out."


title: A Call to Spy

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, "A Call to Spy" holds an approval score of 73% based on 48 reviews, and an average rating of 6.2. The site's critics consensus reads, ""A Call to Spy" overcomes a surprising lack of tension with an overall engaging tribute to an oft-overlooked group of World War II heroes"


title: A Call to Spy

text: In the UK, "A Call To Spy" was released by Signature Entertainment on October 23, 2020 to positive reviews by top outlets. A review by "The Times" of London said: "Inspired by true stories, A Call to Spy is a compelling tale of extraordinary courage and sacrifice... Each woman left an unmistakable legacy and the film is a tribute to their bravery and ingenuity." "The Guardian" called the film a "[m]eticulous depiction of female war-time agents" and The "Sunday Mirror" said it was "A powerful and inspiring film about women who left a vital legacy."


title: A Call to Spy

text: Sheila O'Malley of RogerEbert.com gave "A Call to Spy" 3.5 out of 4 stars: "An excellent historical drama. I was engrossed for every moment of the film's 123-minute running time." Indiewire called the film "A Sturdy Drama about WWII's overlooked female spies. Sarah Megan Thomas is the standout here,  with the multi-hyphenate not only taking on the film's meatiest role as real-life spy figure Virginia Hall, but also writing and producing the feature." Cosmopolitan called it one of 31 "spy thrillers that’ll have you on the edge of your damn seat."


title: A Call to Spy

text: In India, Amazon acquired the film as an "Amazon Original", where it received strong reviews. "The Times of India" said, "Backed by spectacular performances and strong writing, ‘A Call to Spy’ is a realistic and engaging spy-thriller that packs a solid emotional punch."


title: Muni Long

text: Priscilla Renea Hamilton (born September 14, 1988), known professionally as Muni Long (pronounced "money long"), is an American singer and songwriter. Under the name Priscilla Renea, her solo debut studio album, "Jukebox", was released through Capitol Records in 2009. She then spent the following decade co-writing songs for other recording artists, including the singles "California King Bed" by Rihanna, "Worth It" by Fifth Harmony, "Love So Soft" by Kelly Clarkson, "Imagine" by Ariana Grande, and the global chart-topper "Timber" by Pitbull featuring Kesha.


title: Muni Long

text: Returning to her career as a solo artist, her second studio album, "Coloured" (2018), was released via Thirty Tigers and Sony Music, and saw Hamilton exploring Americana and country soul genres. After adopting the stage name Muni Long, she experienced major commercial success as an independent artist with the single "Hrs and Hrs", which reached the top 20 on the "Billboard" Hot 100; which led to her signing a record deal with Def Jam Recordings.


title: Muni Long

text: She has received four Grammy Award nominations throughout her career, including for Best New Artist, Best R&B Song ("Hrs & Hrs"), and Best R&B Performance ("Hrs & Hrs"). She also received a nomination for Album of the Year through her work on "Back of My Mind" (2021) by H.E.R.


title: Muni Long

text: Born Priscilla Renea in rural Gifford, Florida in 1988. Her father was a member of the Navy. She has stated she began singing at age two but was not comfortable with singing around people until she was older. She later stumbled upon YouTube and began posting videos of her singing in her room. Her first video was a rendition of "Cry Me a River" she submitted to a contest whose winner would sing with Justin Timberlake at the Grammy Awards, albeit she did not win. She recorded videos of herself singing the dictionary, and made her own songs independently. Her channel eventually received over 30,000 subscriptions and she was given the opportunity to participate in MTV's "Say What? Karaoke".


title: Muni Long

text: In 2009, after garnering popularity on YouTube, at age 21, Long signed with Capitol Records under her birth name. Her debut album was due for an October 20, 2009, release but was delayed for additional recording to occur. The album was preceded by the single "Dollhouse", which was released on August 18, 2009. The single failed to reach the "Billboard" Hot 100 but did reach number eleven on the Heatseekers singles chart, No. 31 on the Hot Dance Club Songs becoming a mild chart success.


title: Muni Long

text: "Jukebox", was released on December 1, 2009. The record sold a mere 1,200 copies in its first week and failed to reach the "Billboard" 200. However, it did reach number twenty-three on the "Billboard" Heatseekers album chart, staying on the chart for one week. Despite its commercial failure, the album was critically acclaimed. "Billboard" highlighted her "knack for combining prose and poetry with catchy beats". The second and final single, "Lovesick", was released on March 2, 2010, but failed to chart completely.


title: Muni Long

text: Long began writing songs for other recording artist. In 2010, she co-wrote the UK number-one single "Promise This"; as well as "California King Bed", a track from Rihanna's fifth studio album, "Loud", released in November 2010. During late 2011, she took part in the ASCAP retreat, a songwriting event in France sponsored by Cain Foundation, Avid, Gibson and Sennheiser. She continued her songwriting career, landing credits on 2011 and 2012 albums by Rihanna, Demi Lovato, Madonna, Mika, Selena Gomez & The Scene, Chris Brown and Little Mix.


title: Muni Long

text: In 2013, Long was featured on B.o.B's song "John Doe" from his album "Underground Luxury". In 2014 she also contributed to Fifth Harmony's debut album "Reflection", by co-writing the song "Worth It", being the album's third single; the song reached number 12 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. Long co-wrote Carrie Underwood and Miranda Lambert's 2014 hit duet, "Somethin' Bad", which was nominated for a Grammy Award, and reached number one on "Billboard"s Country Chart. The song was later chosen by NBC Sports to replace "I Hate Myself for Loving You" by Joan Jett as the opening theme for its National Football League. Like Jett's song, "Somethin' Bad" was reworked to fit the broadcast's narrative as "Oh, Sunday Night" and was performed by Carrie Underwood, who recorded the original with Miranda Lambert.


title: Muni Long

text: Long appeared as the vocalist on the 2015 single "Be Right There" by Diplo and Sleepy Tom. The track was given 'the hottest record in the world' title on the Annie Mac BBC Radio 1 Friday night show. The lyrics in "Be Right There" were taken from the 1992 single "Don't Walk Away" by Jade. In 2016, Long collaborated with Pusha T and Meek Mill on "Black Moses". The song served as part of "The Birth of a Nation" soundtrack album.


title: Muni Long

text: In 2017, Long featured on Train's song "Loverman", from their album "A Girl, a Bottle, a Boat". On April 6, 2018, Long released "Gentle Hands" and "Heavenly", the first two singles from her then-forthcoming album, "Coloured". Music videos for both singles premiered online via "Paper Magazine". The album was released on June 22, 2018, marking nine years since her debut. NPR noted that as an African-American country album, "Coloured" is a "consciously confrontational statement". "Rolling Stone" showcased "Family Tree" within the album as a song of "empowerment". The song "Land of the Free", according to "NPR", serves as "an appeal for empathy toward those who live in fear of racial profiling and police brutality". Ashley Gorley co-wrote several tracks.


title: Muni Long

text: Renea, working under the pseudonym "Muni Long" (pronounced "money long") as of 2019, released the song "Midnight Snack" with an accompanying video, featuring Jacob Latimore in October 2020. That same year, she was also credited for co-writing Ariana Grande's "Just like Magic" and "Six Thirty" off the album "Positions". Explaining that Muni Long is the "protector of Priscilla", Long released her single titled "Build a Bae" featuring rapper Yung Bleu in December 2020, her fourth single release since October. She previously released her debut extended play (EP) "Black Like This", which celebrates Blackness , on November 13 under her co-founded label imprint, Supergiant Records. This was followed by a seven-track EP "Nobody Knows" in July 2021. In November 2021, she released an eight-track EP titled "Public Displays of Affection". Regarding the title, Long explained: "I really went in the studio writing the music and it was times I caught myself crying. I'm not the most touchy-feely person. So, for me, putting all my feelings on this project is sort of like my 'public display of affection'. Describing the EP as "intimate", "Vibe" ranked it as the 19th best R&B album of 2021. Long also released a music video for the EP track "Hrs and Hrs", a song on which she "details what she can do for hours upon hours with her partner". In January 2022, the track "Time Machine" started going viral on TikTok.


title: Muni Long

text: In March 2022, Long signed with the record label Def Jam Recordings. According to "Vogue", Muni Long reflects Renea's "new strong, fabulous persona through fashion" as well as music, creating a new "fashion identity" with the help of celebrity stylist Jason Rembert. Discussing the notion of being a Black role model, she stated: "how you're introduced to someone is the way they will remember you, unless you are reintroduced", following up with: "I'm in the reintroduction process."


title: Muni Long

text: On July 1, 2022 Long released the EP "Public Displays of Affection Too", which was promoted by the singles "Pain", "Another", and "Baby Boo", the latter of which being a collaboration with rapper Saweetie.


title: Muni Long

text: On September 14, 2022, Long announced that her third studio album (and debut under her current moniker) "Public Displays of Affection: The Album" would be released on September 23, 2022. The eighteen-track collection will feature every song from her prior two EPs (aside from "Just Beginning"), as well as six new tracks.


title: Muni Long

text: Long has lived in Atlanta and subsequently Los Angeles since leaving Florida. She has been diagnosed with lupus. She has cited litigation, battles with former management, plus the "whirlwind of being dropped, re-signed then dropped again from a label" as creative catalysts for her work. She runs her own music label, Supergiant Records, named in reference to "the biggest star in the galaxy"


title: Muni Long

text: Her song "Family Tree" was inspired by the time she was "kicked out of her family's home as a teenager".


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset (150022 January 1552) (also 1st Earl of Hertford, 1st Viscount Beauchamp), also known as Edward Semel, was the eldest surviving brother of Queen Jane Seymour (d. 1537), the third wife of King Henry VIII. He was Lord Protector of England from 1547 to 1549 during the minority of his nephew King Edward VI (1547–1553). Despite his popularity with the common people, his policies often angered the gentry and he was overthrown.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: Edward Seymour was born c. 1500, the son of Sir John Seymour (1474–1536), feudal baron of Hatch Beauchamp in Somerset, by his wife Margery Wentworth, eldest daughter of Sir Henry Wentworth of Nettlestead, Suffolk, and descended from Edward III. In 1514, aged about 14, he received an appointment in the household of Mary Tudor, Queen of France, and was "enfant d’honneur" at her marriage with Louis XII.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: Seymour served in the Duke of Suffolk's campaign in France in 1523, being knighted by the duke on 1 November, and accompanied Cardinal Wolsey on his embassy to France in 1527. Appointed Esquire of the Body to Henry VIII in 1529, he grew in favour with the king, who visited his manor at Elvetham in Hampshire in October 1535.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: When Seymour's sister, Jane, married King Henry VIII in 1536, Edward was created Viscount Beauchamp on 5 June 1536, and Earl of Hertford on 15 October 1537. He became Warden of the Scottish Marches and continued in royal favour after his sister's death on 24 October 1537.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: In 1541, during Henry's absence in the north, Hertford, Thomas Cranmer and Thomas Audley had the chief management of affairs in London. In September 1542 he was appointed Warden of the Scottish Marches, and a few months later Lord High Admiral, a post which he almost immediately relinquished in favour of John Dudley, the future duke of Northumberland. In March 1544 he was made lieutenant-general of the north and instructed to punish the Scots for their repudiation of the treaty of marriage between Prince Edward and the infant Mary, Queen of Scots. He landed at Leith on 3 May 1544, captured and pillaged Edinburgh, and returned by land burning villages and castles along the way.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: In July 1544 he was appointed lieutenant of the realm under Catherine Parr, Henry's sixth wife and regent, during Henry's absence at Boulogne, but in August he joined the king and was present at the surrender of the town. In the autumn he was one of the commissioners sent to Flanders to keep Emperor Charles V to the terms of his treaty with England, and in January 1545 he was placed in command at Boulogne, where on the 26th he repelled an attempt of Marshal de Biez to recapture the town. In May he was once more appointed lieutenant-general in the north to avenge the Scottish victory at the Battle of Ancrum Moor; this he did by a savage foray into Scotland in September. He reported that on 16 September 1545 he had "sent forth a good band to the number of 1500 light horsemen in the leading of me [and] Sir Robert Bowes, which from 5 a.m. till 3 p.m., forayed along the waters of Tyvyote and Rowle, 6 or 7 miles beyond Jedburgh, and burnt 14 or 15 towns and a great quantity of all kinds of corn".


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: In March 1546 he was sent back to Boulogne to supersede the Earl of Surrey, whose command had not been a success; and in June he was engaged in negotiations for peace with France and for the delimitation of the English conquests.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: From October to the end of Henry's reign he was in attendance on the king, engaged in the struggle for predominance which was to determine the complexion of the government during the coming minority. Personal, political and religious rivalry separated him and Baron Lisle from the Howards, and Surrey's hasty temper precipitated his own ruin and that of his father, the duke of Norfolk. They could not acquiesce in the Imperial ambassador's verdict that Hertford and Lisle were the only noblemen of fit age and capacity to carry on the government; and Surrey's attempt to secure the predominance of his family led to his own execution and to his father's imprisonment in the Tower of London.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: Upon the death of Henry VIII (28 January 1547), Seymour's nephew became king as Edward VI. Henry VIII's will named sixteen executors, who were to act as Edward's Council until he reached the age of 18. These executors were supplemented by twelve men "of counsail" who would assist the executors when called on. The final state of Henry VIII's will has occasioned controversy. Some historians suggest that those close to the king manipulated either him or the will itself to ensure a shareout of power to their benefit, both material and religious. In this reading, the composition of the Privy Chamber shifted towards the end of 1546 in favour of the Protestant faction. In addition, two leading conservative Privy Councillors were removed from the centre of power. Stephen Gardiner was refused access to Henry during his last months. Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, found himself accused of treason; on 24–25 December, he offered his vast estates to the Crown making them available for redistribution, and he spent the whole of Edward's reign in the Tower of London.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: Other historians have argued that Gardiner's exclusion had non-religious causes, that Norfolk was not noticeably conservative in religion, that conservatives remained on the council, and that the radicalism of men such as Sir Anthony Denny, who controlled the dry stamp that replicated the king's signature, is debatable. Whatever the case, Henry's death was followed by a lavish hand-out of lands and honours to the new power group. The will contained an "unfulfilled gifts" clause, added at the last minute, which allowed Henry's executors to freely distribute lands and honours to themselves and the court, particularly to Seymour (then known as Earl of Hertford), who became the Lord Protector of the Realm and Governor of the King's Person, and who created himself Duke of Somerset.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: Henry VIII's will did not provide for the appointment of a Protector. It entrusted the government of the realm during his son's minority to a Regency Council that would rule collectively, by majority decision, with "like and equal charge". Nevertheless, a few days after Henry's death, on 4 February, the executors chose to invest almost regal power in Edward Seymour. Thirteen out of the sixteen (the others being absent) agreed to his appointment as Protector, which they justified as their joint decision "by virtue of the authority" of Henry's will. Seymour may have done a deal with some of the executors, who almost all received hand-outs. He is known to have done so with William Paget, private secretary to Henry VIII, and to have secured the support of Sir Anthony Browne of the Privy Chamber.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: Seymour's appointment was in keeping with historical precedent, and his eligibility for the role was reinforced by his military successes in Scotland and France. He was senior to his ally Lisle in the peerage, and was the new king's closest relative. In March 1547, he secured letters patent from King Edward granting him the almost monarchical right to appoint members to the Privy Council himself and to consult them only when he wished. In the words of historian G. R. Elton, "from that moment his autocratic system was complete". He proceeded to rule largely by proclamation, calling on the Privy Council to do little more than rubber-stamp his decisions.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: Seymour's takeover of power was smooth and efficient. The imperial ambassador, Francis Van der Delft, reported that he "governs everything absolutely", with Paget operating as his secretary, though he predicted trouble from John Dudley, Viscount Lisle, who had recently been raised to Earl of Warwick in the share-out of honours.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: In fact, in the early weeks of his Protectorate, Seymour met opposition only from the Chancellor, Thomas Wriothesley, whom the Earldom of Southampton had evidently failed to buy off, and from his own brother. Wriothesley, a religious conservative, objected to Seymour's assumption of monarchical power over the council. He then found himself abruptly dismissed from the chancellorship on charges of selling off some of his offices to delegates.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: In his first parliament, which met in November 1547, he procured the repeal of all the heresy laws and nearly all the treason laws passed since Edward III. He sought to win over the Scots by those promises of autonomy, free trade, and equal privileges with England. But the Scots were not to be won over yet, and would not be persuaded; the protector led another army into Scotland in September 1547, and won the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh on 10 September. He trusted to the garrisons he established throughout the Lowlands to wear down Scottish opposition; but their pressure was soon weakened by troubles in England and abroad, and Mary was transported to France to marry Francis II in 1557.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: Seymour also attempted to bring uniformity to forms of worship, and in 1549 the first Act of Uniformity introduced a "Book of Common Prayer" that attempted to compromise between different forms of learning; it was replaced by a more severe form in 1552 after his fall. During the Protectorate and before, the subject was a central patron of the emerging Protestant literature.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: Edward Seymour faced less manageable opposition from his younger brother Thomas, who has been described as a "worm in the bud". As King Edward's uncle, Thomas Seymour demanded the governorship of the king's person and a greater share of power. Seymour tried to buy his brother off with a barony, an appointment to the Lord Admiralship, and a seat on the Privy Council—but Thomas was bent on scheming for power. He began smuggling pocket money to King Edward, telling him that the Duke of Somerset held the purse strings too tight, making him a "beggarly king". He also urged him to throw off the Protector within two years and "bear rule as other kings do"; but Edward, schooled to defer to the council, failed to co-operate.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: In April 1547, using King Edward's support to circumvent his brother's opposition, Thomas Seymour secretly married Henry VIII's widow Catherine Parr, whose Protestant household included the 11-year-old Lady Jane Grey and the 13-year-old Princess Elizabeth.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: In summer 1548, a pregnant Catherine Parr discovered Thomas Seymour embracing Princess Elizabeth. As a result, Elizabeth was removed from Catherine Parr's household and transferred to Sir Anthony Denny's. That September, Catherine Parr died in childbirth, and Thomas Seymour promptly resumed his attentions to Elizabeth by letter, planning to marry her. Elizabeth was receptive, but, like Edward, unready to agree to anything unless permitted by the council. In January 1549, the council had Thomas Seymour arrested on various charges, including embezzlement at the Bristol mint. King Edward himself testified about the pocket money. Most importantly, Thomas Seymour had sought to officially receive the governorship of King Edward, as no earlier Lord Protectors, unlike Edward Seymour, had ever held both functions. Lack of clear evidence for treason ruled out a trial, so Thomas was condemned instead by an Act of Attainder and beheaded on 20 March 1549.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: Edward Seymour's only undoubted skill was as a soldier, which he had proved on his expeditions to Scotland and in the defence of Boulogne in 1546. From the first, his main interest as Protector was the war against Scotland. After a crushing victory at the Battle of Pinkie in September 1547, he set up a network of garrisons in Scotland, stretching as far north as Dundee. His initial successes, however, were followed by a loss of direction, as his aim of uniting the realms through conquest became increasingly unrealistic. The Scots allied with France, who sent reinforcements for the defence of Edinburgh in 1548, while Mary, Queen of Scots, was removed to France, where she was betrothed to the dauphin. The cost of maintaining the Protector's massive armies and his permanent garrisons in Scotland also placed an unsustainable burden on the royal finances. A French attack on Boulogne in August 1549 at last forced Seymour to begin a withdrawal from Scotland.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: During 1548, England was subject to social unrest. After April 1549, a series of armed revolts broke out, fuelled by various religious and agrarian grievances. The two most serious rebellions, which required major military intervention to put down, were in Devon and Cornwall and in Norfolk. The first, called the Prayer Book Rebellion (also known as the Western rebellion) arose mainly from the imposition of church services in English, and the second, led by a tradesman called Robert Kett, mainly from the encroachment of landlords on common grazing ground. A complex aspect of the social unrest was that the protestors believed they were acting legitimately against enclosing landlords with the Protector's support, convinced that the landlords were the lawbreakers.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: The same justification for outbreaks of unrest was voiced throughout the country, not only in Norfolk and the west. The origin of the popular view of Edward Seymour as sympathetic to the rebel cause lies partly in his series of sometimes liberal, often contradictory, proclamations. and partly in the uncoordinated activities of the commissions he sent out in 1548 and 1549 to investigate grievances about loss of tillage, encroachment of large sheep flocks on common land, and similar issues. Seymour's commissions were led by the evangelical M.P. John Hales, whose socially liberal rhetoric linked the issue of enclosure with Reformation theology and the notion of a godly commonwealth. Local groups often assumed that the findings of these commissions entitled them to act against offending landlords themselves. King Edward wrote in his "Chronicle" that the 1549 risings began "because certain commissions were sent down to pluck down enclosures".


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: Whatever the popular view of the Duke of Somerset, the disastrous events of 1549 were taken as evidence of a colossal failure of government, and the Council laid the responsibility at the Protector's door. In July 1549, Paget wrote to Seymour: "Every man of the council have misliked your proceedings ... would to God, that, at the first stir you had followed the matter hotly, and caused justice to be ministered in solemn fashion to the terror of others ...".


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: The sequence of events that led to Seymour's removal from power has often been called a "coup d'état". By 1 October 1549, Seymour had been alerted that his rule faced a serious threat. He issued a proclamation calling for assistance, took possession of the king's person, and withdrew for safety to the fortified Windsor Castle, where Edward said, "Methinks I am in prison".


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: Meanwhile, a united Council published details of Seymour's government mismanagement. They made clear that the Protector's power came from them, not from Henry VIII's will. On 11 October, the council had Seymour arrested and brought the king to Richmond. Edward summarised the charges against Somerset in his "Chronicle": "ambition, vainglory, entering into rash wars in mine youth, negligent looking on Newhaven, enriching himself of my treasure, following his own opinion, and doing all by his own authority, etc."


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: In February 1550, John Dudley, Earl of Warwick, emerged as the leader of the Council and, in effect, as Seymour's successor. Although Seymour was released from the Tower and restored to the council in early 1550, in October 1551 he was sent to the Tower on an exaggerated charge of treason. Instead, he was executed for felony (that of seeking a change of government) in January 1552 after scheming to overthrow Dudley's regime. Edward noted his uncle's death in his "Chronicle": "the duke of Somerset had his head cut off upon Tower Hill between eight and nine o'clock in the morning". Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset was interred at St. Peter ad Vincula, Tower of London.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: Historians have contrasted the efficiency of Edward Seymour's takeover of power in 1547 with the subsequent ineptitude of his rule. By autumn 1549, his costly wars had lost momentum, the crown faced financial ruin, and riots and rebellions had broken out around the country. Until recent decades, Seymour's reputation with historians was high, in view of his many proclamations that appeared to back the common people against a rapacious landowning class. In the early 20th century this line was taken by the influential A. F. Pollard, to be echoed by Edward VI's 1960s biographer W. K. Jordan. A more critical approach was initiated by M. L. Bush and Dale Hoak in the mid-1970s. Since then, the first Duke of Somerset has often been portrayed as an arrogant ruler, devoid of the political and administrative skills necessary for governing the Tudor state.


title: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: The male line of Edward Seymour and Anne Stanhope died out with the seventh Duke of Somerset in 1750, when the descendants of Edward Seymour by his first wife, Catherine Fillol, inherited the Somerset dukedom in accordance with the Private Act of 1541. However, the female line continued, and Queen Elizabeth II was descended from Somerset through his grandchild by Catherine Grey.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Guitar tunings are the assignment of pitches to the open strings of guitars, including acoustic guitars, electric guitars, and classical guitars. Tunings are described by the particular pitches that are made by notes in Western music. By convention, the notes are ordered and arranged from the lowest-pitched string (i.e., the deepest bass-sounding note) to the highest-pitched string (i.e., the highest sounding note), or the thickest string to thinnest, or the lowest frequency to the highest. This sometimes confuses beginner guitarists, since the highest-pitched string is referred to as the 1st string, and the lowest-pitched is the 6th string.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Standard tuning defines the string pitches as E, A, D, G, B, and E, from the lowest pitch (low E) to the highest pitch (high E). Standard tuning is used by most guitarists, and frequently used tunings can be understood as variations on standard tuning. To aid in memorising these notes, mnemonics are used, for example, Elephants And Donkeys, Grow Big Ears.


title: Guitar tunings

text: The term "guitar tunings" may refer to pitch sets other than standard tuning, also called "nonstandard", "alternative", or "alternate". There are hundreds of these tunings, often with small variants of established tunings. Communities of guitarists who share a common musical tradition often use the same or similar tuning styles.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Standard tuning is the tuning most frequently used on a six-string guitar and musicians assume this tuning by default if a specific alternate (or scordatura) is not mentioned. In scientific pitch notation, the guitar's standard tuning consists of the following notes:


title: Guitar tunings

text: The guitar is a transposing instrument; that is, music for guitars is notated one octave higher than the true pitch. This is to reduce the need for ledger lines in music written for the instrument, and thus simplify the reading of notes when playing the guitar.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Standard tuning provides reasonably simple fingering (fret-hand movement) for playing standard scales and basic chords in all major and minor keys. Separation of the first (high E) and second (B) string, as well as the separation between the third (G), fourth (D), fifth (A), and sixth (low E) strings by a five-semitone interval (a perfect fourth) allows the guitarist to play a chromatic scale with each of the four fingers of the fretting hand controlling one of the first four frets (index finger on fret 1, little finger on fret 4, etc.) only when the hand is in the first position.


title: Guitar tunings

text: The open notes of the second (B) and third (G) strings are separated by four semitones (a major third). This tuning pattern of (low) fourths, one major third, and one fourth was inherited by the guitar from its predecessor instrument, the viol. The irregular major third breaks the fingering patterns of scales and chords, so that guitarists have to memorize multiple chord-shapes for each chord. Scales and chords are simplified by major thirds tuning and all-fourths tuning, which are regular tunings maintaining the same musical interval between consecutive open-string notes.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Alternative ("alternate") tuning refers to any open-string note arrangement other than standard tuning. These offer different kinds of deep or ringing sounds, chord voicings, and fingerings on the guitar. Alternative tunings are common in folk music where the guitar may be called upon to produce a sustained note or chord known as a drone. This often gives folk music its haunting and lamenting ambience due to the atmosphere and mood that the notes make. Alternative tunings change the fingering of common chords when playing the guitar, and this can ease the playing of certain chords while simultaneously increase the difficulty of playing other chords.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Some tunings are used for particular songs, and may be named after the song's title. There are hundreds of these tunings, although many are slight variations of other alternate tunings. Several alternative tunings are used regularly by communities of guitarists who share a common musical tradition, such as American folk or Celtic folk music.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Joni Mitchell is known for developing a shorthand descriptive method of noting guitar tuning where the first letter documents the note of the lowest string, and is followed by the relative fret (half-step) offsets required to obtain the pitch of the next (higher) string. This scheme highlights pitch relationships and simplifies the process of comparing different tuning schemes.


title: Guitar tunings

text: String gauge refers to the thickness and diameter of a guitar string, which influences the overall sound and pitch of the guitar depending on the guitar string used. Some alternative tunings are difficult or even impossible to achieve with conventional guitars due to the sets of guitar strings, which have gauges optimized for standard tuning. With conventional sets of guitar strings, some higher tunings increase the string-tension until playing the guitar requires significantly more finger-strength and stamina, or even until a string snaps or the guitar is warped. However, with lower tunings, the sets of guitar strings may be loose and buzz. The tone of the guitar strings is also negatively affected by using unsuitable string gauges on the guitar.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Generally, alternative tunings benefit from re-stringing of the guitar with string gauges purposefully chosen to optimize particular tunings by using lighter strings for higher-pitched notes (to lower the tension of the strings) and heavier strings for lower-pitched notes (to prevent string buzz and vibration).


title: Guitar tunings

text: A dropped tuning is one of the categories of alternative tunings and the process starts with standard tuning and typically lowers the pitch of ("drops") only a single string, almost always the lowest-pitched (E) string on the guitar.


title: Guitar tunings

text: The drop D tuning is common in electric guitar and heavy metal music. The low E string is tuned down one whole step (to D) and the rest of the strings remain in standard tuning. This creates an "open power chord" (three-note fifth) with the low three strings (DAD).


title: Guitar tunings

text: There also exists double-drop D tuning, in which both E strings are down-tuned a whole step (to D). The rest of the strings keep their original pitch.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Although the drop D tuning was introduced and developed by blues and classical guitarists, it is well known from its usage in contemporary heavy metal and hard rock bands. Early hard rock songs tuned in drop D include The Beatles' "I Want You (She's So Heavy)" and Led Zeppelin's "Moby Dick", both first released in 1969. Tuning the lowest string one tone down, from E to D, allowed these musicians to acquire a heavier and darker sound than in standard tuning. Without needing to tune all strings (Standard D tuning), they could tune just one, in order to lower the key. Drop D is also a convenient tuning, because it expands the scale of an instrument by two semitones: D and D.


title: Guitar tunings

text: In the mid 1980s, three alternative rock bands, King's X, Soundgarden and Melvins, influenced by Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath, made extensive use of drop D tuning. While playing power chords (a chord that includes the prime, fifth and octave) in standard tuning requires a player to use two or three fingers, drop D tuning needs just one, similar in technique to playing barre chords. It allowed them to use different methods of articulating power chords (legato for example) and more importantly, it allowed guitarists to change chords faster. This new technique of playing power chords introduced by these early grunge bands was a great influence on many artists, such as Rage Against the Machine and Tool. The same drop D tuning then became common practice among alternative metal acts such as the band Helmet, who used the tuning a great deal throughout their career and would later influence many alternative metal and nu metal bands.


title: Guitar tunings

text: An open tuning allows the guitarist to play a chord by strumming the open strings (no strings fretted).


title: Guitar tunings

text: Open tunings may be "chordal" or "modal". In chordal open tunings, the open chord consists of at least three different pitch classes. In a given key, these are the root note, its 3rd and its 5th, and may include all the strings or a subset. The tuning is named for the base chord when played open, typically a major chord, and all similar chords in the chromatic scale are played by barring all strings across a single fret. Open tunings are common in blues and folk music. These tunings are frequently used in the playing of slide and lap-slide ("Hawaiian") guitars, and Hawaiian slack key music. A musician who is well-known for using open tuning in his music is Ry Cooder, who uses open tunings when playing the slide guitar.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Most modern music uses equal temperament because it facilitates the ability to play the guitar in any key—as compared to just intonation, which favors certain keys, and makes the other keys sound less in tune.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Repetitive open-tunings are used for two classical non-Spanish guitars. For the English guitar, the open chord is C major (C–E–G–C–E–G); for the Russian guitar, which has seven strings, it is G major (D–G–B–D–G–B–D).


title: Guitar tunings

text: When the open strings constitute a minor chord, the open tuning may sometimes be called a "cross-note" tuning.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Open tunings often tune the lowest open note to C, D, or E and they often tune the highest open note to D or E; tuning down the open string from E to D or C avoids the risk of breaking strings, which is associated with tuning up strings.


title: Guitar tunings

text: The open D tuning (D–A–D–F–A–D), also called "Vestapol" tuning, is a common open tuning used by European and American/Western guitarists working with alternative tunings. The Allman Brothers instrumental "Little Martha" used an open-D tuning raised one half step, giving an open E♭ tuning with the same intervallic relationships as open D.


title: Guitar tunings

text: The English guitar used a repetitive open-C tuning (with distinct open notes C–E–G–C–E–G) that approximated a major-thirds tuning. This tuning is evident in William Ackerman's song "Townsend Shuffle", as well as by John Fahey for his tribute to Mississippi John Hurt.


title: Guitar tunings

text: The C–C–G–C–E–G tuning uses some of the harmonic sequence (overtones) of the note C. This overtone-series tuning was modified by Mick Ralphs, who used a high C note rather than the high G note for "Can't Get Enough" on "Bad Company". Ralphs said, "It needs the open C to have that ring," and "it never really sounds right in standard tuning".


title: Guitar tunings

text: Mick Ralphs' open-C tuning was originally an open-G tuning, which listed the initial six overtones of the G note, namely G–G–D–G–B–D; Ralphs used this open-G tuning for "Hey Hey" and while writing the demo of "Can't Get Enough".


title: Guitar tunings

text: The open G tuning variant G–G–D–G–B–D was used by Joni Mitchell for "Electricity", "For the Roses" and "Hunter (The Good Samaritan)". Truncating this tuning to G–D–G–B–D for his five-string guitar, Keith Richards uses this overtones-tuning on The Rolling Stones's "Honky Tonk Women", "Brown Sugar" and "Start Me Up".


title: Guitar tunings

text: The seven-string Russian guitar uses the open-G tuning D–G–B–D–G–B–D, which contains mostly major and minor thirds.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Any kind of chordal tuning can be achieved, simply by using the notes in the chord and tuning the strings to those notes. For example, A has the notes A, D, E. By tuning the strings to only those notes, it creates a chordal A tuning.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Cross-note tunings include a minor third, so giving a minor chord with open strings. Fretting the minor-third string at the first fret produces a major-third, so allowing a one-finger fretting of a major chord. By contrast, it is more difficult to fret a minor chord using an open major-chord tuning.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Some guitarists choose open tunings that use more complex chords, which gives them more available intervals on the open strings. C, E, E, E and other such tunings are common among lap-steel players such as Hawaiian slack-key guitarists and country guitarists, and are also sometimes applied to the regular guitar by bottleneck (a slide repurposed from a glass bottle) players striving to emulate these styles. A common C tuning, for example, is C–E–G–A–C–E, which provides open major and minor thirds, open major and minor sixths, fifths, and octaves. By contrast, most open major or open minor tunings provide only octaves, fifths, and either a major third/sixth or a minor third/sixth—but not both. Don Helms of Hank Williams band favored C tuning; slack-key artist Henry Kaleialoha Allen uses a modified C (C tuning with a B on the bottom); Harmon Davis favored E tuning; David Gilmour has used an open G tuning.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Modal tunings are open tunings in which the open strings of the guitar do not produce a tertian (i.e., major or minor, or variants thereof) chord. The strings may be tuned to exclusively present a single interval (all fourths; all fifths; etc.) or they may be tuned to a non-tertian chord (unresolved suspensions such as E–A–B–E–A–E, for example). Modal open tunings may use only one or two pitch classes across all strings (as, for example, some metal guitarists who tune each string to either E or B, forming "power chords" of ambiguous major/minor tonality).


title: Guitar tunings

text: Derived from standard EADGBE, all the strings are tuned lower by the same interval, thus providing the same chord positions transposed to a lower key. Lower tunings are popular among rock and heavy metal bands. The reason for tuning down below the standard pitch is usually either to accommodate a singer's vocal range or to get a deeper/heavier sound or pitch. Common examples include:


title: Guitar tunings

text: Rock guitarists (such as Jimi Hendrix on the songs Voodoo Child (Slight Return) and Little Wing) occasionally tune all their strings down by one semitone to obtain "E♭ tuning". This makes the strings easier to bend when playing and with standard fingering results in a lower key. It also facilitates E shape fingerings when playing with horn instruments.


title: Guitar tunings

text: D Tuning, also called One Step Lower, Whole Step Down, Full Step or D Standard, is another alternative. Each string is lowered by a whole tone (two semitones) resulting in D-G-C-F-A-D. It is used mostly by heavy metal bands to achieve a heavier, deeper sound, and by blues guitarists, who use it to accommodate string bending and by 12-string guitar players to reduce the mechanical load on their instrument. Among musicians, Elliott Smith was known to use D tuning as his main tuning for his music. It was also used for several songs on The Velvet Underground's album "The Velvet Underground & Nico".


title: Guitar tunings

text: In standard tuning, there is an interval of a major third between the second and third strings, and all the other intervals are fourths. The irregularity has a price. Chords cannot be shifted around the fretboard in the standard tuning E–A–D–G–B–E, which requires four chord-shapes for the major chords. There are separate chord-forms for chords having their root note on the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth strings. These are called inversions.


title: Guitar tunings

text: In contrast, regular tunings have equal intervals between the strings, and so they have symmetrical scales all along the fretboard. This makes it simpler to translate chords. For the regular tunings, chords may be moved diagonally around the fretboard. The diagonal movement of chords is especially simple for the regular tunings that are repetitive, in which case chords can be moved vertically: Chords can be moved three strings up (or down) in major-thirds tuning, and chords can be moved two strings up (or down) in augmented-fourths tuning. Regular tunings thus appeal to new guitarists and also to jazz-guitarists, whose improvisation is simplified by regular intervals.


title: Guitar tunings

text: On the other hand, five- and six-string open chords ("cowboy chords") are more difficult to play in a regular tuning than in standard tuning. Instructional literature uses standard tuning. Traditionally a course begins with the hand in first position, that is, with the left-hand covering frets 1–4. Beginning players first learn open chords belonging to the major keys C, G, and D. Guitarists who play mainly open chords in these three major-keys and their relative minor-keys (Am, Em, Bm) may prefer standard tuning over many regular tunings, On the other hand, minor-thirds tuning features many barre chords with repeated notes, properties that appeal to acoustic-guitarists and beginners.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Standard tuning mixes a major third (M3) with its perfect fourths. Regular tunings that are based on either major thirds or perfect fourths are used, for example, in jazz.


title: Guitar tunings

text: All fourths tuning E–A–D–G–C–F keeps the lowest four strings of standard tuning, changing the major third to a perfect fourth. Jazz musician Stanley Jordan stated that all-fourths tuning "simplifies the fingerboard, making it logical".


title: Guitar tunings

text: Major-thirds tuning (M3 tuning) is a regular tuning in which the musical intervals between successive strings are each major thirds, for example E–G–C–E–G–C. Unlike all-fourths and all-fifths tuning, M3 tuning repeats its octave after three strings, which simplifies the learning of chords and improvisation. This repetition provides the guitarist with many possibilities for fingering chords. With six strings, major-thirds tuning has a smaller range than standard tuning; with seven strings, the major-thirds tuning covers the range of standard tuning on six strings.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Major-thirds tunings require less hand-stretching than other tunings, because each M3 tuning packs the octave's twelve notes into four consecutive frets. The major-third intervals let the guitarist play major chords and minor chords with two three consecutive fingers on two consecutive frets.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Chord inversion is especially simple in major-thirds tuning. The guitarist can invert chords by raising one or two notes on three strings—playing the raised notes with the same finger as the original notes. In contrast, inverting triads in standard and all-fourths tuning requires three fingers on a span of four frets. In standard tuning, the shape of an inversion depends on the involvement of the major-third between the 2nd and 3rd strings.


title: Guitar tunings

text: All-fifths tuning is a tuning in intervals of perfect fifths like that of a mandolin or a violin; other names include "perfect fifths" and "fifths". It has a wide range. Its implementation has been impossible with nylon strings and has been difficult with conventional steel strings. The high B makes the first string very taut, and consequently, a conventionally gauged string easily breaks.


title: Guitar tunings

text: Jazz guitarist Carl Kress used a variation of all-fifths tuning—with the bottom four strings in fifths, and the top two strings in thirds, resulting in B–F–C–G–B–D. This facilitated tenor banjo chord shapes on the bottom four strings and plectrum banjo chord shapes on the top four strings. Contemporary New York jazz-guitarist Marty Grosz uses this tuning.


title: Guitar tunings

text: All-fifths tuning has been approximated by the so-called "New Standard Tuning" (NST) of King Crimson's Robert Fripp, which NST replaces all-fifths' high B with a high G. To build chords, Fripp uses "perfect intervals in fourths, fifths and octaves", so avoiding minor thirds and especially major thirds, which are slightly sharp in equal temperament tuning (in comparison to thirds in just intonation). It is a challenge to adapt conventional guitar-chords to new standard tuning, which is based on all-fifths tuning. Some closely voiced jazz chords become impractical in NST and all-fifths tuning.


title: Guitar tunings

text: These are tunings in which some or all strings are retuned to emulate the standard tuning of some other instrument, such as a lute, banjo, cittern, mandolin, etc. Many of these tunings overlap other categories, especially open and modal tunings.


title: Guitar tunings

text: This category includes everything that does not fit into any of the other categories, for example (but not limited to): tunings designated only for a particular piece; non-western intervals and modes; micro- or macro-tones(half sharps/flats, etc.); and "hybrid tunings" combining features of major alternate tuning categories – most commonly an open tuning with the lowest string dropped.


title: Blood sausage

text: A blood sausage is a sausage filled with blood that is cooked or dried and mixed with a filler until it is thick enough to solidify when cooled. Most commonly, the blood of pigs, sheep, lamb, cow, chicken, or goose is used.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Europe and the Americas, typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, cornmeal, onion, chestnuts, barley, oatmeal and buckwheat. On the Iberian Peninsula and in Latin America and Asia, fillers are often made with rice. Sweet variants with sugar, honey, orange peel and spices are also regional specialties.


title: Blood sausage

text: In many languages, there is a general term such as "blood sausage" (American English) that is used for all sausages that are made from blood, whether or not they include non-animal material such as bread, cereal, and nuts. Sausages that include such material are often referred to with more specific terms, such as "black pudding" in English.


title: Blood sausage

text: "Mutura" is a traditional blood sausage dish among the people of central Kenya, although recently its popularity has spread throughout Kenya. It is made with meat, blood, and spices all encased in the animal's intestines or stomach. In Kenya fillers include fresh minced goat, beef, and mutton, fat, and red onions.


title: Blood sausage

text: Nowadays many types of mutura, especially commercial street food versions, do not contain blood. The meat used in the filling can be any fleshy part, but like any other type of sausage, prime cuts are not ordinarily used for the stuffing. Instead the tougher, leaner cuts – for example the neck – are trimmed off the bone. The casing for the stuffing is the stomach sac and larger intestines. These are flushed many times with water to clean them.


title: Blood sausage

text: The meat for the stuffing is finely chopped or minced, and the mandatory fat is often trimmed from other parts. The meat is slightly fried, mixed with finely chopped red onions, salt and optionally fresh chili. Other additions include freshly chopped coriander (dhania or cilantro), garlic, pepper and even beef stock. This is then mixed thoroughly with the fresh blood from the animal, and stuffed into the stomach and intestines, with the openings sewn or tied together with string.


title: Blood sausage

text: The sausage is boiled in a large pot (often with other parts of the animal not roasted and used to make soup) for 30–45 minutes, and roasted over coals till brown. Sliced, it is served with kachumbari, an onion based salad consisting of tomatoes, red onions and fresh coriander, a bit of chili and squeeze of lemon. The accompanying starch is ugali.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Barbados, blood sausage, also called pudding, is made with sweet potato ("batata"), pig's blood and onions, seasoned with peppers and other herbs and stuffed in pig intestines. Traditionally pig's blood was used to darken the mixture but Browning sauce (caramelized sugar) is sometimes used as a substitute. It is normally served with "souse", which is pickled pig's feet, pig's ears and other trimmings. The cooked meat is cut into bite-sized pieces and soaked in a brine made of water, lime juice, cucumbers, hot pepper, and specially prepared seasonings. Blood sausage and souse, more commonly known as pudding and souse, is a Bajan delicacy usually prepared on weekends and special occasions.


title: Blood sausage

text: In the French Antilles, "boudin créole", or "boudin antillais" is very popular, this being the French "boudin noir" with local Caribbean chilli and other spices.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Puerto Rico, blood sausage is known as "morcilla". Puerto Rican blood sausage is made with rice, culantro, cilantro, garlic, and Cubanelle pepper. Some contain paprika and annatto. Morcilla is especially popular during Christmas.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Trinidad and Tobago, the local style of blood sausage is heavily seasoned with local peppers and traditionally prepared from pig's blood, often replaced by pig's liver today. It is sold by local producers as a popular accompaniment to rolls of crusty hops bread or served as an accompaniment to "trotter souse", a stew based on trotters.


title: Blood sausage

text: Other varieties of blood sausage include "boudin rouge" (Creole and Cajun), "rellena" or "moronga" (Mexico) and "sanganel" (Friuli).


title: Blood sausage

text: In Panama, blood sausage is called "morcilla", "rellena" or "tubería negra", and is usually filled with rice. In El Salvador and Nicaragua, it is called "moronga".In Honduras both " moronga " and "morcilla" are used .


title: Blood sausage

text: In the Yucatán Peninsula, "morcilla" is made exclusively from pig's blood and once deep fried it is served with a mix of pickled onions, cilantro and spices. It is always consumed in the form of tacos and paired with fresh habanero peppers.


title: Blood sausage

text: Blood sausages are very difficult to find in US supermarkets. Brussels and Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin are both home to local grocers who produce blood sausage, due to their large Belgian American populations. Supermarkets throughout Maine also carry locally produced blood pudding due to the state's large French Canadian population. In southeastern Michigan, Polish-style "kaszanka" can be found in supermarkets throughout the year and is very popular.


title: Blood sausage

text: An Italian-American version of blood sausage in the San Francisco Bay Area is called "biroldo" and has pine nuts, raisins, spices, and pig snouts and is made using either pig's or cow's blood. German-style blood sausage and Zungenwurst can be found in Fresno and Santa Rosa, where Russian and Armenian delis offer a wide range of Central European foods. Also, Alpine Village in Torrance, California has Blutwurst due to a considerable German-American population in the South Bay area of Los Angeles County.


title: Blood sausage

text: Cajun "boudin" is a fresh sausage made with green onions, pork, pork liver (making it somewhat gritty or grainy), and rice. Pig's blood was sometimes added to produce "boudin rouge", but this tradition became increasingly rare after the mid-twentieth century due to the decline of the "boucherie" (traditional communal butchering) and government health regulations prohibiting the transportation of raw blood. As a result, Cajun "boudin" is now usually made without blood; however, blood or "black" "boudin" can still be purchased.


title: Blood sausage

text: In many areas of Latin America, "morcilla" is served. "Morcilla" is sometimes made with a filler of rice and/or onions, and seasoned with paprika and other spices. In Puerto Rico, it is served fried and mostly consumed during the holidays. In Colombia, "morcilla" can have rice, green peas, cilantro or culantro, and is often eaten as an appetizer called "picada" or with the traditional dishes "Bandeja Paisa" or "Fritanga". In Venezuela, "morcilla" is often served with "parrilla" (barbecue).


title: Blood sausage

text: "Morcilla" is also eaten inside a sandwich called "morcipán", especially in the Río de la Plata. "Morcilla" is a component of the " asado criollo", a regional mixed grill or barbecue meal. In Uruguay and in Argentina, a sweet version including raisins and pine nuts is popular; some vendors even add chocolate, caramelised orange peels, peanuts, and other dried fruits. Uruguayans usually are fond of sweet or salty "morcilla", and most restaurants and supermarkets carry both versions.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Brazil there is a version of the blood sausage called "chouriço" or "morcela" (sometimes the Castillian Spanish version "morcilla" is used as well), consisting of a fresh sausage made of the blood and fat from pork and usually rice. It is a variation of the Portuguese blood sausage, and it is known for its deep dark color. In some regions, it is popular on barbecues ("Churrascos") as a starter.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Chile, the blood sausage is called "prieta" (a synonym of "negra", black) and tends to have a very thick skin, so is eaten cut open lengthwise. Apart from blood and a little fat, "prietas" may contain a variety of ingredients, such as chopped onion and spices, cabbage, peppers, watercress, rice, meat or even dried fruit or nuts. "Prietas" or "morcillas" are part of the Chilote tradition of ""reitimiento"" involving the slaughter and preparation of a pig.


title: Blood sausage

text: Prietas are easily found at supermarkets throughout the country and are available from practically any butcher.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Guyana, blood sausage is a very popular snack served at social occasions, and as "cutters" when drinking. The main ingredient is cooked rice seasoned with herbs, such as thyme and basil. The rice is mixed with cow's blood, stuffed into cow's or pig's intestine, and boiled until firm, sliced and served with Sour (a mild type of dipping sauce with hot peppers). White pudding is also made.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Suriname, blood sausage is known by the Dutch name "bloedworst", and white pudding by the equally Dutch name "vleesworst".


title: Blood sausage

text: Across Asia, various people create food from congealed animal blood. Most of these food types do not have casings and might be considered a version of sliced sausage.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Hong Kong, the dish closest to blood sausage is pig blood curd, which is only made from pig's blood and is not considered a sausage.


title: Blood sausage

text: The majority of Korea's "sundae" (순대) can be categorised as blood sausage. The most common type of "sundae" is made of sweet potato noodle ("dangmyeon"), barley, and pig's blood, but some variants contain sesame leaves, green onion, fermented soy paste ("doenjang"), sweet rice, kimchi, and bean sprouts, in addition to the common ingredients. The Korean sundae is wrapped with pig's intestines. The addition of sweet potato noodle is a more modern addition to the dish. There is another Korean food called "seonji" which is cow blood that has been boiled in soup. It looks like the Blodpudding of Sweden.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Chinese cuisines, whole coagulated blood is fried or steamed as a snack or cooked in a hot pot. In mainland China, "blood tofu" (), or "red tofu" (), is most often made with pig's or duck's blood. Like the above dishes, this has no casing but is simply cut into rectangular pieces and cooked. In Northeast China, the "blood sausage" was a traditional food which is cooked with sheep or goat blood. In Tibet, congealed yak's blood is a traditional food. Chinese people also used pig blood curd that was consumed by laborers in Kaifeng over 1,000 years ago in the south of China.


title: Blood sausage

text: Blood sausage is popular in Mongolia. In Mongolia a special method of killing sheep was made mandatory by Genghis Khan to save blood for sausage. It appears in the Yasa and is still used today.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Taiwan, "pig's blood cake" () or "rice blood cake"(), made of pork blood and sticky rice, is served on a popsicle stick; this is a very popular snack at local night markets.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Tibetan cuisine, sausages or "gyurma" refer to blood sausages and are made with yak or sheep's blood which may or may not include either rice or roasted barley flour as filler. The sausage uses natural casing employing the use of yak or sheep's intestine.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Bali, "Urutan" is a version of blood sausage made with pork intestine and pork blood. It is served with rice.


title: Blood sausage

text: Another version in Java called "saren" or "marus", is made with chicken's blood and usually cut into small cube pieces.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Sumatra, " Kidu-Kidu " is a Batak sausage dish made from pork intestines, served with sauce made from pork's blood and spices such as andaliman pepper.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Penang or other northern states, pig blood curd (known locally in Penang Hokkien as "too huet"; ) is usually served with the local street delicacy Curry Mee (curry noodles). It can also be mixed with some traditional Hokkien dishes as well.


title: Blood sausage

text: Blood sausage is known generically as "longganisang dugo" (lit. "blood longaniza") in the Philippines. A notable type of native pre-colonial blood sausage is "pinuneg", which is composed of minced pork and innards in a pork casing made from large intestines that is prepared in the Cordillera Administrative Region of the Philippines.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Thai cuisine "sai krok lueat" (Thai: ไส้กรอกเลือด) is a blood sausage ( = sausage, = blood), often served sliced and accompanied by a spicy dipping sauce. "Blood tofu" is simply called "lueat" (, blood) in Thailand. This can be used in many Thai dishes such as in noodle soups, Thai curries, or as an addition to certain rice dishes such as Khao man kai.


title: Blood sausage

text: Vietnamese 'dồi tiết' (Northern) or 'dồi huyết' (Southern) is blood sausage, boiled or fried, made with pork blood, pork fat and basil.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Meghalayan cuisine, "doh snam" is type of blood sausage made from pork intestine with local spices and ingredients.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Limbu cuisine, "sargemba" or "sargyangma" is a type of blood sausage made mostly from pork intestines, pork fat, rice and "yangben", a type of edible wild lichen.


title: Blood sausage

text: Throughout Central and Eastern Europe, blood sausage, known as "kishka" (meaning "intestine"), is made with pig's blood and buckwheat kasha. It is also known in Russia as "krovyanka" (кровянка), or "krovyanaya kolbasa" (кровяная колбаса, literally "blood sausage"), and includes buckwheat as a main filler, instead of oats or oatmeal. In Ukraine it's called "krov'yanka" (кров'янка) or "kryvava kyshka" (кривава кишка), and "kiszka" or "kaszanka" in Poland; "krvavnička" in Slovakia and "krupniok" in Silesia. Polish "salceson" ("black" and "") are a type of head cheese ("brawn") that contains blood. In Hungary, "véres hurka" is typically made with pig's blood and barleycorn or cubed bread (typically zsemle) as filler as such also known as "zsemlés hurka" and "gerslis hurka". In Bulgaria, "karvavitsa" (кървавица) is usually prepared with pig's blood, fat and a variety of mountain herbs and spices and eaten warm during the winter.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Romania, the traditional "sângerete" (from "sânge", "blood" in Romanian) is made from shoulder butt pork meat, pork blood and a filler such as pre-boiled rice seasoned with pepper, garlic and basil. It has many regional variants, but the most common are the "sângerete" from Transylvania.


title: Blood sausage

text: Similarly, in Czech cuisine, "jelito" is made from second-rate pork, pig's blood and peeled barley; the stuffing served by itself, unformed, is called "prejt".


title: Blood sausage

text: In Denmark, "blodpølse" is made from pigs's blood and suet, rye flour, brown sugar, raisins, salt, cinnamon and cardamom stuffed into natural or artificial intestines. It is usually boiled in its skin, eaten hot or cold, sometimes sliced and fried, served with syrup, cinnamon and stewed apples.


title: Blood sausage

text: In Estonia, "verivorst" (blood sausage) is made of pig's blood, barley groats, pork, marjoram and other flavourings. It is sold and eaten mostly in winter, being a traditional Christmas food. At that time there is a large variety of "verivorst" in stores, ranging in shapes and sizes. "Verivorst" is usually cooked in an oven, but sometimes also fried in a pan. "Verivorst" is often eaten together with lingonberry jam, but occasionally also with butter or sour cream. Another similar dish is called "verikäkk" (black pudding, or blood dumpling, depending on the shape). The popularity of "verikäkk" has decreased during the past decades (possibly because of its less appealing commercial appearance) and has mostly been substituted by "verivorst".


title: Blood sausage

text: "Mustamakkara" (literally "black sausage") is a roasted sausage containing pig's blood and very similar to Estonian "verivorst". The sausage is said to originate from Tampere and is considered an integral part of the city's culture.