title: The Return of the Living Dead

text: On August 27, 2002, MGM released a Special Edition DVD in the U.S. with a new cut of the movie (with music alterations due to copyright issues) with a commentary by O'Bannon and a documentary on the making of the film. The cover of the DVD case for the 2002 release glows in the dark. On September 11, 2007, a Collector's Edition of the film was released with additional extra features involving the cast. The different home video releases have featured different soundtracks, often changing the songs used. Also, the basement zombie's ("Tar-Man") voice was altered. Originally, the zombie had a higher, raspier voice that can still be heard in theatrical trailers and releases that contain the original audio.


title: The Return of the Living Dead

text: A 25th anniversary edition was released on September 14, 2010, exclusively for Blu-ray Disc. The Blu-ray Disc version is a 2-disc combo pack with both a Blu-ray Disc and DVD. This release is very similar to the MGM/Fox print from three years earlier.


title: The Return of the Living Dead

text: On June 4, 2012, Second Sight Films in the U.K. released DVD and Blu-ray Disc versions of the film where the original audio and soundtrack in its original form can be selected, the first time since 2001 a release has had this option. The release had its first insight into the movie with the inclusion on a booklet (claimed to be based on Ernie's notes from the events of the film) which was edited from Gary Smart and Christian Seller's publication "The Complete History of The Return of the Living Dead".


title: The Return of the Living Dead

text: Scream Factory released a 30th anniversary Collector's Edition Blu-Ray on July 19, 2016. It contains a new 2K scan of the interpositive, along with including the original mono audio. Though note while everything else was restored (the original "Tar-Man" voice and the other songs), the song "Dead Beat Dance" by The Damned could not be restored. MGM also released another edition with hand-drawn cover art.


title: Doja Cat discography

text: American singer and rapper Doja Cat has released three studio albums, one extended play (EP), 36 singles (including 15 as a featured artist), 27 music videos, and five promotional singles. According to Recording Industry Association of America, Doja Cat has sold 34 million certified albums and singles in the United States as a lead artist.


title: Doja Cat discography

text: Following several SoundCloud uploads as a teenager from 2012, Doja Cat self-released her debut single "So High" in 2014, before releasing her debut EP, "Purrr!", later that year. Her debut studio album "Amala" was released on March 30, 2018, before her existing catalog began gaining attention following the viral success of the song "Mooo!" in August 2018. Soon after "Mooo!", "Candy", "Tia Tamera", and "Juicy" gained significant attention on the video-sharing platform TikTok, which led to the release of the "Amala" deluxe edition on March 1, 2019. Capitalizing on her growing popularity, her second studio album "Hot Pink", was released in the same year on November 7, 2019, and ultimately charted in the top 20 of countries such as United States, Australia, Canada, Norway, Sweden, Netherlands and New Zealand, earning gold certifications in the United States and Denmark, as well as a platinum certification in New Zealand.


title: Doja Cat discography

text: "Hot Pink" spawned the breakthrough single "Say So", which became her first top 10 single on the "Billboard" Hot 100. Supported by two remixes featuring Nicki Minaj, it became Doja Cat's first No. 1 in the US. It has been certified multi-platinum in countries such as the United States, Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, and New Zealand. In early 2021, "Streets" was released as the seventh single from "Hot Pink" after it became a sleeper hit due to a TikTok challenge known as the #SilhouetteChallenge which includes a snippet of Paul Anka's 1959 hit song "Put Your Head on My Shoulder". Her third studio album, "Planet Her", was released on June 25, 2021, and spawned the top-10 singles "Kiss Me More" featuring SZA, "Need to Know", and "Woman".


title: Caroline Quentin

text: Caroline Quentin (born Caroline Jones; 11 July 1960) is an English actress, broadcaster and television presenter. Quentin became known for her television appearances: portraying Dorothy in "Men Behaving Badly" (1992–1998), Maddie Magellan in "Jonathan Creek" (1997–2000), and DCI Janine Lewis in "Blue Murder" (2003–2009).


title: Caroline Quentin

text: Quentin was born in Reigate, Surrey, to Kathleen Jones and her husband Fred, a Royal Air Force pilot. She has three older sisters. She was educated at the independent Arts Educational School, in Tring, Hertfordshire, and appeared locally in the Pendley Open Air Shakespeare Festival.


title: Caroline Quentin

text: One of her earliest roles was in the Channel 4 comedy drama "Hollywood Hits Chiswick", alongside Derek Newark as W.C. Fields.


title: Caroline Quentin

text: Between 1992 and 1998, Quentin appeared as Dorothy in all 42 episodes of the sitcom "Men Behaving Badly". From 1997 until 2000, Quentin starred alongside Alan Davies in "Jonathan Creek" playing investigative journalist Maddie Magellan, who uses Jonathan's mind to solve murder mysteries. In 1998 she starred in the first sitcom that was specifically built around her: "Kiss Me Kate"; that year she started the major role of Maggie Mee in the drama "Life Begins", which returned for a third series in 2006. Quentin appeared in the television film "Hot Money" (2001), which was based on the true story of the theft of hundreds of thousands of pounds from the Bank of England.


title: Caroline Quentin

text: ITV has produced five series of the police drama "Blue Murder", in which Quentin plays against type in the main role DCI Janine Lewis. The pilot aired in the UK on 18 May 2003.


title: Caroline Quentin

text: Quentin has appeared in "Whose Line Is It Anyway?"; in a pre-"Men Behaving Badly" role as a traffic warden in the "Mr. Bean" episode "The Trouble with Mr. Bean" in 1991; "Room 101"; "Have I Got News for You"; and the 2009–10 BBC comedy series "Life of Riley", a sitcom about a dysfunctional blended family; and in the BBC Radio 4 improvisational comedy series "The Masterson Inheritance", the Radio 4 comedy Any Bloke (starred with Jim Sweeney who was also in The Masterson Inheritance) and the popular BBC Radio 2 sitcom "On the Blog". She appeared as Heather Babcock in an episode of "Agatha Christie's Miss Marple", "The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side", in 2010. Also in 2010 she started appearing, as a 1970's standard lamp, in Marks & Spencer's revamped food range advertisements.


title: Caroline Quentin

text: In March 2011, a documentary entitled "Caroline Quentin: A Passage Through India" aired on ITV in the UK. The documentary followed Quentin as she traveled from the North of India to the South. Quentin presented "Restoration Home" on BBC Two. The programme looks into the history and families of the UK's derelict mansion houses which are being restored by their private owners. In 2012, Quentin began working on another documentary series, "Cornwall with Caroline Quentin", which shows her travelling across Cornwall, for which she received some criticism due to apparently aiming the show at potential second home owners. She returned to present a second series of the show in 2013. In 2013, she hosted another documentary series, "Caroline Quentin’s National Parks" for one series. Quentin starred in the Comedy Central series "Big Bad World" where she played the role of Jan, the mother of the main character Ben (Blake Harrison).


title: Caroline Quentin

text: In 2015, she played the role of Angela Sim in an episode of "Doc Martin". She played the role of Mrs Bumble in "Dickensian" (2015–2016). In November 2016, she guest presented an episode of "The One Show".


title: Caroline Quentin

text: Starting in 2017, Quentin was co-presenter of the BBC Two programme "The World's Most Extraordinary Homes" with architect Piers Taylor; 12 episodes were completed and aired. Subsequently, the series streamed on Netflix.


title: Caroline Quentin

text: In 2020, Quentin participated in the eighteenth series of "Strictly Come Dancing". She was partnered with Johannes Radebe. Quentin became the fourth celebrity to be voted off on 22 November 2020. Quentin later commented,"I have had the honour and privilege of working with some of the greatest dancers this country has ever known I mean I really believe it, I think they are absolutely fantastic."


title: Caroline Quentin

text: In 2019, she played Lady Fancyfull in the Royal Shakespeare Company production of "The Provoked Wife". Her early stage work had also included appearing in the chorus of the original English production of the musical "Les Misérables" in 1985. In 2022 she played Mrs Malaprop in the Royal National Theatre's production of "Jack Absolute Flies Again".


title: Caroline Quentin

text: In July 1996, Quentin released a single, a cover of the Exciters' hit "Tell Him", with her "Men Behaving Badly" co-star Leslie Ash under the name of "Quentin and Ash". The single spent 3 weeks in the UK Singles Chart, reaching number 25.


title: Caroline Quentin

text: Quentin received an Ian Charleson Award commendation for her Masha in "The Seagull" at the Oxford Theatre Company in 1991.


title: Caroline Quentin

text: At the British Comedy Awards in 2004, Quentin won the "Best Comedy Actress" award for her performance in "Von Trapped"


title: Caroline Quentin

text: Quentin met Sam Farmer in 1998 on the set of "Men Behaving Badly", where he was a runner. The couple have two children, Emily Rose and William. In 2006, she married Farmer in Tiverton, Devon. They lived briefly in Morebath Manor near the village of Morebath, Devon, close to Tiverton, before moving to a smaller derelict farm nearby, which they renovated. Before moving to Devon, the couple lived at Walberswick, Suffolk.


title: Caroline Quentin

text: Quentin has coeliac disease and is the patron of Coeliac UK. She is also president of the charity Campaign for National Parks.


title: Throne (angel)

text: In Christian angelology, thrones (, pl. θρόνοι; , pl. "throni") are a class of angels. This is based on an interpretation of . According to 1 Peter 3:21–22, Christ had gone to Heaven and "angels and authorities and powers" had been made subject to him.


title: Throne (angel)

text: Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite in his work De Coelesti Hierarchia includes the thrones as the third highest of nine levels of angels.


title: Throne (angel)

text: According to Matthew Bunson, the corresponding order of angels in Judaism is called the "abalim" or "arelim"/"erelim", but this opinion is far from universal. The Hebrew word "erelim" is usually not translated "thrones", but rather "valiant ones", "heroes", or "warriors". The function ascribed to "erelim" in and in Jewish folklore is not consistent with the lore surrounding the thrones.


title: Throne (angel)

text: Thrones are sometimes equated with ophanim since the throne of God is usually depicted as being moved by wheels, as in the vision of (Old Testament). Rosemary Ellen Guiley (1996: p. 37) states that:


title: Max Born

text: Max Born (; 11 December 1882 – 5 January 1970) was a German physicist and mathematician who was instrumental in the development of quantum mechanics. He also made contributions to solid-state physics and optics and supervised the work of a number of notable physicists in the 1920s and 1930s. Born won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physics for his "fundamental research in quantum mechanics, especially in the statistical interpretation of the wave function".


title: Max Born

text: Born entered the University of Göttingen in 1904, where he met the three renowned mathematicians Felix Klein, David Hilbert, and Hermann Minkowski. He wrote his PhD thesis on the subject of "Stability of Elastica in a Plane and Space", winning the university's Philosophy Faculty Prize. In 1905, he began researching special relativity with Minkowski, and subsequently wrote his habilitation thesis on the Thomson model of the atom. A chance meeting with Fritz Haber in Berlin in 1918 led to discussion of how an ionic compound is formed when a metal reacts with a halogen, which is today known as the Born–Haber cycle.


title: Max Born

text: In World War I, after originally being placed as a radio operator, he was moved to research duties regarding sound ranging due to his specialist knowledge. In 1921, Born returned to Göttingen, arranging another chair for his long-time friend and colleague James Franck. Under Born, Göttingen became one of the world's foremost centres for physics. In 1925, Born and Werner Heisenberg formulated the matrix mechanics representation of quantum mechanics. The following year, he formulated the now-standard interpretation of the probability density function for ψ*ψ in the Schrödinger equation, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1954. His influence extended far beyond his own research. Max Delbrück, Siegfried Flügge, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim, Robert Oppenheimer, and Victor Weisskopf all received their PhD degrees under Born at Göttingen, and his assistants included Enrico Fermi, Werner Heisenberg, Gerhard Herzberg, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Wolfgang Pauli, Léon Rosenfeld, Edward Teller, and Eugene Wigner.


title: Max Born

text: In January 1933, the Nazi Party came to power in Germany, and Born, who was Jewish, was suspended from his professorship at the University of Göttingen. He emigrated to the United Kingdom, where he took a job at St John's College, Cambridge, and wrote a popular science book, "The Restless Universe", as well as "Atomic Physics", which soon became a standard textbook. In October 1936, he became the Tait Professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, where, working with German-born assistants E. Walter Kellermann and Klaus Fuchs, he continued his research into physics. Born became a naturalised British subject on 31 August 1939, one day before World War II broke out in Europe. He remained in Edinburgh until 1952. He retired to Bad Pyrmont, in West Germany, and died in hospital in Göttingen on 5 January 1970.


title: Max Born

text: Max Born was born on 11 December 1882 in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland), which at the time of Born's birth was part of the Prussian Province of Silesia in the German Empire, to a family of Jewish descent. He was one of two children born to Gustav Born, an anatomist and embryologist, who was a professor of embryology at the University of Breslau, and his wife Margarethe (Gretchen) née Kauffmann, from a Silesian family of industrialists. She died when Max was four years old, on 29 August 1886. Max had a sister, Käthe, who was born in 1884, and a half-brother, Wolfgang, from his father's second marriage, to Bertha Lipstein. Wolfgang later became Professor of Art History at the City College of New York.


title: Max Born

text: Initially educated at the König-Wilhelm-Gymnasium in Breslau, Born entered the University of Breslau in 1901. The German university system allowed students to move easily from one university to another, so he spent summer semesters at Heidelberg University in 1902 and the University of Zurich in 1903. Fellow students at Breslau, Otto Toeplitz and Ernst Hellinger, told Born about the University of Göttingen, and Born went there in April 1904. At Göttingen he found three renowned mathematicians: Felix Klein, David Hilbert and Hermann Minkowski. Very soon after his arrival, Born formed close ties to the latter two men. From the first class he took with Hilbert, Hilbert identified Born as having exceptional abilities and selected him as the lecture scribe, whose function was to write up the class notes for the students' mathematics reading room at the University of Göttingen. Being class scribe put Born into regular, invaluable contact with Hilbert. Hilbert became Born's mentor after selecting him to be the first to hold the unpaid, semi-official position of assistant. Born's introduction to Minkowski came through Born's stepmother, Bertha, as she knew Minkowski from dancing classes in Königsberg. The introduction netted Born invitations to the Minkowski household for Sunday dinners. In addition, while performing his duties as scribe and assistant, Born often saw Minkowski at Hilbert's house.


title: Max Born

text: Born's relationship with Klein was more problematic. Born attended a seminar conducted by Klein and professors of applied mathematics, Carl Runge and Ludwig Prandtl, on the subject of elasticity. Although not particularly interested in the subject, Born was obliged to present a paper. Using Hilbert's calculus of variations, he presented one in which, using a curved configuration of a wire with both ends fixed, he demonstrated would be the most stable. Klein was impressed, and invited Born to submit a thesis on the subject of "Stability of Elastica in a Plane and Space" – a subject near and dear to Klein – which Klein had arranged to be the subject for the prestigious annual Philosophy Faculty Prize offered by the university. Entries could also qualify as doctoral dissertations. Born responded by turning down the offer, as applied mathematics was not his preferred area of study. Klein was greatly offended.


title: Max Born

text: Klein had the power to make or break academic careers, so Born felt compelled to atone by submitting an entry for the prize. Because Klein refused to supervise him, Born arranged for Carl Runge to be his supervisor. Woldemar Voigt and Karl Schwarzschild became his other examiners. Starting from his paper, Born developed the equations for the stability conditions. As he became more interested in the topic, he had an apparatus constructed that could test his predictions experimentally. On 13 June 1906, the rector announced that Born had won the prize. A month later, he passed his oral examination and was awarded his PhD in mathematics "magna cum laude".


title: Max Born

text: On graduation, Born was obliged to perform his military service, which he had deferred while a student. He found himself drafted into the German army, and posted to the 2nd Guards Dragoons "Empress Alexandra of Russia", which was stationed in Berlin. His service was brief, as he was discharged early after an asthma attack in January 1907. He then travelled to England, where he was admitted to Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, and studied physics for six months at the Cavendish Laboratory under J. J. Thomson, George Searle and Joseph Larmor. After Born returned to Germany, the Army re-inducted him, and he served with the elite 1st (Silesian) Life Cuirassiers "Great Elector" until he was again medically discharged after just six weeks' service. He then returned to Breslau, where he worked under the supervision of Otto Lummer and Ernst Pringsheim, hoping to do his habilitation in physics. A minor accident involving Born's black body experiment, a ruptured cooling water hose, and a flooded laboratory, led to Lummer telling him that he would never become a physicist.


title: Max Born

text: In 1905, Albert Einstein published his paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" about special relativity. Born was intrigued, and began researching the subject. He was devastated to discover that Minkowski was also researching special relativity along the same lines, but when he wrote to Minkowski about his results, Minkowski asked him to return to Göttingen and do his habilitation there. Born accepted. Toeplitz helped Born brush up on his matrix algebra so he could work with the four-dimensional Minkowski space matrices used in the latter's project to reconcile relativity with electrodynamics. Born and Minkowski got along well, and their work made good progress, but Minkowski died suddenly of appendicitis on 12 January 1909. The mathematics students had Born speak on their behalf at the funeral.


title: Max Born

text: A few weeks later, Born attempted to present their results at a meeting of the Göttingen Mathematics Society. He did not get far before he was publicly challenged by Klein and Max Abraham, who rejected relativity, forcing him to terminate the lecture. However, Hilbert and Runge were interested in Born's work, and, after some discussion with Born, they became convinced of the veracity of his results and persuaded him to give the lecture again. This time he was not interrupted, and Voigt offered to sponsor Born's habilitation thesis. Born subsequently published his talk as an article on "The Theory of the Rigid Electron in the Kinematics of the Principle of Relativity" (), which introduced the concept of Born rigidity. On 23 October Born presented his habilitation lecture on the Thomson model of the atom.


title: Max Born

text: Born settled in as a young academic at Göttingen as a privatdozent. In Göttingen, Born stayed at a boarding house run by Sister Annie at Dahlmannstraße 17, known as El BoKaReBo. The name was derived from the first letters of the last names of its boarders: "El" for Ella Philipson (a medical student), "Bo" for Born and Hans Bolza (a physics student), "Ka" for Theodore von Kármán (a Privatdozent), and "Re" for Albrecht Renner (another medical student). A frequent visitor to the boarding house was Paul Peter Ewald, a doctoral student of Arnold Sommerfeld on loan to Hilbert at Göttingen as a special assistant for physics. Richard Courant, a mathematician and Privatdozent, called these people the "in group".


title: Max Born

text: In 1912, Born met Hedwig (Hedi) Ehrenberg, the daughter of a Leipzig University law professor, and a friend of Carl Runge's daughter Iris. She was of Jewish background on her father's side, although he had become a practising Lutheran when he got married, as did Max's sister Käthe. Despite never practising his religion, Born refused to convert, and his wedding on 2 August 1913 was a garden ceremony. However, he was baptised as a Lutheran in March 1914 by the same pastor who had performed his wedding ceremony. Born regarded "religious professions and churches as a matter of no importance". His decision to be baptised was made partly in deference to his wife, and partly due to his desire to assimilate into German society. The marriage produced three children: two daughters, Irene, born in 1914, and Margarethe (Gritli), born in 1915, and a son, Gustav, born in 1921. Through marriage, Born is related to jurists Victor Ehrenberg, his father-in-law, and Rudolf von Jhering, his wife's maternal grandfather, as well as to philosopher and theologian Hans Ehrenberg, and is a great uncle of British comedian Ben Elton.


title: Max Born

text: By the end of 1913, Born had published 27 papers, including important work on relativity and the dynamics of crystal lattices (3 with Theodore von Karman), which became a book. In 1914, received a letter from Max Planck explaining that a new professor extraordinarius chair of theoretical physics had been created at the University of Berlin. The chair had been offered to Max von Laue, but he had turned it down. Born accepted. The First World War was now raging. Soon after arriving in Berlin in 1915, he enlisted in an Army signals unit. In October, he joined the "Artillerie-Prüfungs-Kommission", the Army's Berlin-based artillery research and development organisation, under Rudolf Ladenburg, who had established a special unit dedicated to the new technology of sound ranging. In Berlin, Born formed a lifelong friendship with Einstein, who became a frequent visitor to Born's home. Within days of the armistice in November 1918, Planck had the Army release Born. A chance meeting with Fritz Haber that month led to discussion of the manner in which an ionic compound is formed when a metal reacts with a halogen, which is today known as the Born–Haber cycle.


title: Max Born

text: Even before Born had taken up the chair in Berlin, von Laue had changed his mind, and decided that he wanted it after all. He arranged with Born and the faculties concerned for them to exchange jobs. In April 1919, Born became professor ordinarius and Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics on the science faculty at the University of Frankfurt am Main. While there, he was approached by the University of Göttingen, which was looking for a replacement for Peter Debye as Director of the Physical Institute. "Theoretical physics," Einstein advised him, "will flourish wherever "you" happen to be; there is no other Born to be found in Germany today." In negotiating for the position with the education ministry, Born arranged for another chair, of experimental physics, at Göttingen for his long-time friend and colleague James Franck.


title: Max Born

text: In 1919 Elisabeth Bormann joined the Institut für Theoretische Physik as his assistant. She developed the first atomic beams. Working with Born, Bormann was the first to measure the free path of atoms in gases and the size of molecules.


title: Max Born

text: For the 12 years Born and Franck were at the University of Göttingen (1921 to 1933), Born had a collaborator with shared views on basic scientific concepts—a benefit for teaching and research. Born's collaborative approach with experimental physicists was similar to that of Arnold Sommerfeld at the University of Munich, who was ordinarius professor of theoretical physics and Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics—also a prime mover in the development of quantum theory. Born and Sommerfeld collaborated with experimental physicists to test and advance their theories. In 1922, when lecturing in the United States at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, Sommerfeld sent his student Werner Heisenberg to be Born's assistant. Heisenberg returned to Göttingen in 1923, where he completed his habilitation under Born in 1924, and became a privatdozent at Göttingen.


title: Max Born

text: In 1919 and 1920, Max Born became displeased about the large number of objections against Einstein's relativity, and gave speeches in the winter of 1919 in support of Einstein. Born received pay for his relativity speeches which helped with expenses through the year of rapid inflation. The speeches in German language became a book published in 1920 of which Einstein received the proofs before publication. A third edition was published in 1922 and an English translation was published in 1924. Born represented light speed as a function of curvature, "the velocity of light is much greater for some directions of the light ray than its ordinary value c, and other bodies can also attain much greater velocities."


title: Max Born

text: In 1925, Born and Heisenberg formulated the matrix mechanics representation of quantum mechanics. On 9 July, Heisenberg gave Born a paper entitled "Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen" ("Quantum-Theoretical Re-interpretation of Kinematic and Mechanical Relations") to review, and submit for publication. In the paper, Heisenberg formulated quantum theory, avoiding the concrete, but unobservable, representations of electron orbits by using parameters such as transition probabilities for quantum jumps, which necessitated using two indexes corresponding to the initial and final states. When Born read the paper, he recognized the formulation as one which could be transcribed and extended to the systematic language of matrices, which he had learned from his study under Jakob Rosanes at Breslau University.


title: Max Born

text: Up until this time, matrices were seldom used by physicists; they were considered to belong to the realm of pure mathematics. Gustav Mie had used them in a paper on electrodynamics in 1912, and Born had used them in his work on the lattices theory of crystals in 1921. While matrices were used in these cases, the algebra of matrices with their multiplication did not enter the picture as they did in the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics. With the help of his assistant and former student Pascual Jordan, Born began immediately to make a transcription and extension, and they submitted their results for publication; the paper was received for publication just 60 days after Heisenberg's paper. A follow-on paper was submitted for publication before the end of the year by all three authors. The result was a surprising formulation:


title: Max Born

text: where "p" and "q" were matrices for location and momentum, and "I" is the identity matrix. Note that the left hand side of the equation is not zero because matrix multiplication is not commutative. This formulation was entirely attributable to Born, who also established that all the elements not on the diagonal of the matrix were zero. Born considered that his paper with Jordan contained "the most important principles of quantum mechanics including its extension to electrodynamics." The paper put Heisenberg's approach on a solid mathematical basis.


title: Max Born

text: Born was surprised to discover that Paul Dirac had been thinking along the same lines as Heisenberg. Soon, Wolfgang Pauli used the matrix method to calculate the energy values of the hydrogen atom and found that they agreed with the Bohr model. Another important contribution was made by Erwin Schrödinger, who looked at the problem using wave mechanics. This had a great deal of appeal to many at the time, as it offered the possibility of returning to deterministic classical physics. Born would have none of this, as it ran counter to facts determined by experiment. He formulated the now-standard interpretation of the probability density function for ψ*ψ in the Schrödinger equation, which he published in July 1926.


title: Max Born

text: In 1928, Einstein nominated Heisenberg, Born, and Jordan for the Nobel Prize in Physics, but Heisenberg alone won the 1932 Prize "for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen", while Schrödinger and Dirac shared the 1933 Prize "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory". On 25 November 1933, Born received a letter from Heisenberg in which he said he had been delayed in writing due to a "bad conscience" that he alone had received the Prize "for work done in Göttingen in collaboration—you, Jordan and I." Heisenberg went on to say that Born and Jordan's contribution to quantum mechanics cannot be changed by "a wrong decision from the outside." In 1954, Heisenberg wrote an article honouring Planck for his insight in 1900, in which he credited Born and Jordan for the final mathematical formulation of matrix mechanics and Heisenberg went on to stress how great their contributions were to quantum mechanics, which were not "adequately acknowledged in the public eye."


title: Max Born

text: Those who received their PhD degrees under Born at Göttingen included Max Delbrück, Siegfried Flügge, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim, Robert Oppenheimer, and Victor Weisskopf. Born's assistants at the University of Göttingen's Institute for Theoretical Physics included Enrico Fermi, Werner Heisenberg, Gerhard Herzberg, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Wolfgang Pauli, Léon Rosenfeld, Edward Teller, and Eugene Wigner. Walter Heitler became an assistant to Born in 1928, and completed his habilitation under him in 1929. Born not only recognised talent to work with him, but he "let his superstars stretch past him; to those less gifted, he patiently handed out respectable but doable assignments." Delbrück, and Goeppert-Mayer went on to win Nobel Prizes.


title: Max Born

text: In January 1933, the Nazi Party came to power in Germany. In May, Born became one of six Jewish professors at Göttingen who were suspended with pay; Franck had already resigned. In twelve years they had built Göttingen into one of the world's foremost centres for physics. Born began looking for a new job, writing to Maria Göppert-Mayer at Johns Hopkins University and Rudi Ladenburg at Princeton University. He accepted an offer from St John's College, Cambridge. At Cambridge, he wrote a popular science book, "The Restless Universe", and a textbook, "Atomic Physics", that soon became a standard text, going through seven editions. His family soon settled into life in England, with his daughters Irene and Gritli becoming engaged to Welshman Brinley (Bryn) Newton-John and Englishman Maurice Pryce respectively. Born's granddaughter Olivia Newton-John was the daughter of Irene.


title: Max Born

text: Born's position at Cambridge was only a temporary one, and his tenure at Göttingen was terminated in May 1935. He therefore accepted an offer from C. V. Raman to go to Bangalore in 1935. Born considered taking a permanent position there, but the Indian Institute of Science did not create an additional chair for him. In November 1935, the Born family had their German citizenship revoked, rendering them stateless. A few weeks later Göttingen cancelled Born's doctorate. Born considered an offer from Pyotr Kapitsa in Moscow, and started taking Russian lessons from Rudolf Peierls's Russian-born wife Genia. But then Charles Galton Darwin asked Born if he would consider becoming his successor as Tait Professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, an offer that Born promptly accepted, assuming the chair in October 1936.


title: Max Born

text: In Edinburgh, Born promoted the teaching of mathematical physics. He had two German assistants, E. Walter Kellermann and Klaus Fuchs, and one Scottish assistant, Robert Schlapp, and together they continued to investigate the mysterious behaviour of electrons. Born became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1937, and of the Royal Society of London in March 1939. During 1939, he got as many of his remaining friends and relatives still in Germany as he could out of the country, including his sister Käthe, in-laws Kurt and Marga, and the daughters of his friend Heinrich Rausch von Traubenberg. Hedi ran a domestic bureau, placing young Jewish women in jobs. Born received his certificate of naturalisation as a British subject on 31 August 1939, one day before the Second World War broke out in Europe.


title: Max Born

text: Born remained at Edinburgh until he reached the retirement age of 70 in 1952. He retired to Bad Pyrmont, in West Germany, in 1954. In October, he received word that he was being awarded the Nobel Prize. His fellow physicists had never stopped nominating him. Franck and Fermi had nominated him in 1947 and 1948 for his work on crystal lattices, and over the years, he had also been nominated for his work on solid state physics, quantum mechanics and other topics. In 1954, he received the prize for "fundamental research in Quantum Mechanics, especially in the statistical interpretation of the wave function"—something that he had worked on alone. In his Nobel lecture he reflected on the philosophical implications of his work:


title: Max Born

text: In retirement, he continued scientific work, and produced new editions of his books. In 1955 he became one of signatories to the Russell-Einstein Manifesto. He died at age 87 in hospital in Göttingen on 5 January 1970, and is buried in the "Stadtfriedhof" there, in the same cemetery as Walther Nernst, Wilhelm Weber, Max von Laue, Otto Hahn, Max Planck, and David Hilbert.


title: Max Born

text: Born's wife Hedwig (Hedi) Martha Ehrenberg (1891–1972) was a daughter of the jurist Victor Ehrenberg and Elise von Jhering (a daughter of the jurist Rudolf von Jhering). Born was survived by his wife Hedi and their children Irene, Gritli and Gustav. Singer Olivia Newton-John was a daughter of Irene (1914-2003), while Gustav is the father of musician and academic Georgina Born and actor Max Born ("Fellini Satyricon") who are thus also Max's grandchildren. His great-grandchildren include songwriter Brett Goldsmith, singer Tottie Goldsmith, racing car driver Emerson Newton-John, and singer Chloe Rose Lattanzi. Born helped his nephew, architect, Otto Königsberger (1908–1999) obtain commission in the Mysore State.


title: Max Born

text: During his life, Born wrote several semi-popular and technical books. His volumes on topics like atomic physics and optics were very well received. They are considered classics in their fields, and are still in print. The following is a chronological listing of his major works:


title: Max Born

text: For a full list of his published papers, see HistCite. For his published works, see Published Works – Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften Akademiebibliothek.


title: Van der Valk

text: Van der Valk is a British television crime drama series produced for the ITV network. The first series ran from 1972 to 1992; followed by a remake in 2020. Created by Nicolas Freeling and based on his novels about a detective in Amsterdam, Barry Foster played the titular character, Simon "Piet" van der Valk, in the original series. The updated version was created and written by Chris Murray, with Marc Warren reviving the van der Valk role.


title: Van der Valk

text: The first three series were produced between 1972 and 1977, with two more being commissioned in 1991 and 1992. The 2020 remake was again produced for ITV. The new series debuted in the United Kingdom on 26 April 2020, and the second series began airing in the UK on 7 August 2022. The third series has completed filming and is due for release in 2023.


title: Van der Valk

text: The original series were all produced by Thames Television for the ITV network. The first and second series were recorded on 2" quadruplex videotape at Thames' Teddington Studios in London, with location scenes shot in Amsterdam on 16mm film.


title: Van der Valk

text: The third series was generally made on location, entirely on 16mm film, by Thames's subsidiary Euston Films.


title: Van der Valk

text: The fourth series was recorded on Panasonic MII videotape, with location shooting on 35mm film. Series five was similarly shot, but with the studio recording on D-3 videotape. The final two series were transmitted in stereo sound using the NICAM system.


title: Van der Valk

text: The television series was based on the characters and atmosphere, but not the plots, of the original novels. The stories mostly take place in and around Amsterdam, where Commissaris van der Valk is a cynical yet intuitive detective. Drugs, sex and murder are among the gritty themes of the casework, presented in contrast to the picturesque locations and the upbeat theme music (see below).


title: Van der Valk

text: In the opening credits of the first series, Van der Valk is standing inside the tower of the Westerkerk.


title: Van der Valk

text: Van der Valk contrasts with his naïve assistant, Inspecteur Johnny Kroon, played by Michael Latimer (only in the first two series), and his superior, Hoofd-commissaris Samson, who deals with the political fallout of the cases. Samson was played by three actors over the course of the show: Martin Wyldeck for two episodes in 1972, Nigel Stock for 12 episodes in 1977, and Ronald Hines for the revival in 1991–92. Van der Valk's French wife Arlette was played by three actresses over the course of the show's twenty-year run: initially by Susan Travers, Joanna Dunham for the third series, and finally Meg Davies for the revival in 1991–92. Other actors in the series included Alan Haines, who played Brig Mertens, and Richard Huw, who played Van der Valk's son Wim, also a police detective, in the revival.


title: Van der Valk

text: Series 1 and 2 are set at the art nouveau Politiebureau no. 14 at Leidseplein 15, while series 3 to 5 show the at Marnixstraat 260-264.


title: Van der Valk

text: The signature theme, "Eye Level", was composed by Jack Trombey (a pseudonym of Dutch composer Jan Stoeckart) and was performed by the Simon Park Orchestra. It reached number one on the UK Singles Chart in 1973. Also that year, Matt Monro charted with a vocal version titled "And You Smiled". In the final TV series, the theme was played at a slightly faster tempo than previously.


title: Van der Valk

text: "Van der Valk" returned to ITV as an updated new series in 2020, with Marc Warren playing the title role. Created and written by Chris Murray, continuity with the original series is not preserved in the remake, with revised and new characters, as well as new storylines, introduced. In the reboot, Piet is unmarried and his sidekick Lucienne Hassell is lesbian. A key riff from the original series' distinctive theme music ("Eye Level"), however, is echoed in the new theme music.


title: Van der Valk

text: The remake is produced by Company Pictures, NL Film, ARD Degeto, and PBS, with All3Media as international distributor.


title: Van der Valk

text: In May 2020, Warren confirmed that the show would return for a second series, although production might be delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Nevertheless, with actors, crew, and logistics established, filming on season 2 began with safety measures in place on 3 June 2021.


title: Van der Valk

text: Season 1 was filmed entirely in Amsterdam. Locations include the American Hotel, the Rijksmuseum, Achtergracht, NDSM, the Tommy Hilfiger HQ on Danzigerkade on the Houthaven and REM Eiland.


title: Van der Valk

text: Season 2 was filmed in Amsterdam, Utrecht, and The Hague. Locations include Scheveningen Pier, the Muziekgebouw, A'DAM Tower, and Café Scheltema.


title: Van der Valk

text: The 2020 remake premiered in the United Kingdom on ITV on 26 April 2020, with season 1 consisting of three 90-minute episodes.


title: Van der Valk

text: In the Netherlands, "Van der Valk" debut on NPO 1 on 1 January 2020. In Germany, the series premiered on ARD. In the United States, it debut on PBS on 13 September 2020.


title: Van der Valk

text: In Australia, it premiered on ABC. In New Zealand, on Vibe on 25 May 2020. In Belgium, it debut on VRT.


title: Van der Valk

text: "Van der Valk" Season 1 was released on DVD in Region 2 in 2002. The remaining seasons were not released until "The Complete Series" box set on 22 October 2007. The box set was re-released by Network on 20 August 2018. In Region 4, Shock Entertainment released "The Complete Collection" box set on 18 September 2013, and was re-released by Via Vision Entertainment on 2 June 2021.


title: Van der Valk

text: Season 1 was released on DVD in Region 2 by Dazzler Media on 11 May 2020, and in Region 4 by ABC on 20 May 2020. It was released in Region 1 by PBS on 13 October 2020.


title: Van der Valk

text: Season 2 was released first in Region 4 on 13 April 2022, followed by Region 2 on 22 August 2022, and Region 1 on 11 October 2022.


title: Van der Valk

text: E02 "Only in Amsterdam": Het Veem (Houthaven), Laagte Kadijk, , Plantage Parklaan, Nieuwe Teertuinen, (Prinseneilandsgracht)


title: Arun Jaitley

text: Arun Jaitley (28 December 1952 – 24 August 2019) was an Indian politician and attorney. A member of the Bharatiya Janata Party, Jaitley served as the Minister of Finance and Corporate Affairs of the Government of India from 2014 to 2019. Jaitley previously held the cabinet portfolios of Finance, Defence, Corporate Affairs, Commerce and Industry, and Law and Justice in the Vajpayee government and Narendra Modi government.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: From 2009 to 2014, he served as the Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha. He was a Senior Advocate of the Supreme Court of India. He oversaw the introduction of the Goods and Services Tax which brought the country under one GST regime, demonetisation, merger of Railway budget with general budget and introduction of Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code. Jaitley decided not to join the second Modi Cabinet in 2019, due to health issues.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan, India's second highest civilian award, posthumously in 2020 in the field of Public Affairs.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: Arun Jaitley was born on 28 December 1952 in Delhi into a Punjabi Hindu Brahmin family. His father Maharaj Kishen Jaitley was a lawyer and mother Ratan Prabha Jaitley a housewife. He studied at St. Xavier's Senior Secondary School, Delhi from 1957 to 1969. He graduated with the honours degree in commerce, B.Com from Shri Ram College of Commerce of Delhi University in 1973. He passed his LL.B. degree from Faculty of Law, University of Delhi in 1977.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: Jaitley was the Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP) student leader at the Delhi University Campus in the seventies and rose to be the President of the Students Union of Delhi University in 1974. During the period of proclamation of Internal Emergency (1975–77) when fundamental rights were suspended, he was under preventive detention for a period of 19 months. He was a prominent leader of a movement against corruption launched in the year 1973 by Raj Narain and Jayaprakash Narayan. He was the convener of the National Committee for Students and Youth organisation appointed by Jai Prakash Narayan. He was also active in civil rights movement and helped found PUCL Bulletin along with Satish Jha and Smitu Kothari. After being released from jail, he joined the Jan Sangh.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: In 1977, being the convener of the Loktantrik Yuva Morcha at a time when the Congress suffered defeat, Jaitley was appointed the president of the Delhi ABVP and All India Secretary of the ABVP. He was then made the president of the youth wing of the BJP and the secretary of the Delhi Unit in 1980, a short time after joining the party.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: Since 1977, Jaitley had been practising law in the Supreme Court of India and several High Courts in India. In January 1990, he was designated as a Senior Advocate by the Delhi High Court. He was a Senior Advocate of the Supreme Court of India.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: He was appointed Additional Solicitor General by the V. P. Singh government in 1989 and did the paperwork for the investigations into the Bofors scandal. His clients cover the political spectrum from Sharad Yadav of the Janata Dal to Madhavrao Scindia of the Indian National Congress to L. K. Advani of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). Several publications on legal and current affairs were written by him. A paper on law about corruption and crime in India was presented by him, before the Indo-British Legal Forum. He was appointed the Government of India's delegate to the United Nations General Assembly Session in June 1998 which approved the Declaration on Laws Relating to Drugs and Money Laundering.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: Jaitley had also appeared on behalf of giant multinational corporations such as PepsiCo against Coca-Cola and in various other cases in India. After having been the Minister of Law, Justice and Company Affairs, Jaitley represented Pepsi in 2002 in a case where the Supreme Court of India admonished and imposed stiff fines on 8 companies for painting advertisements on ecologically fragile rocks along the Manali-Rohtang road in the Himalayas. "The companies were also issued show-cause notices as to why exemplary damages should not be imposed on them for indulging in environmental vandalism." In 2004, Jaitley appeared on behalf of Coca-Cola in a Rajasthan High Court case.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: Given his political duties as Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha, Jaitley stopped practising law in June 2009.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: Jaitley had been a member of the national executive of Bharatiya Janata Party since 1991. He became the spokesperson of the BJP during the period preceding the 1999 general election.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: On 13 October 1999, after the Vajpayee Government of the BJP led National Democratic Alliance came to power, he was appointed Minister of State for Information and Broadcasting (Independent Charge). In addition he was appointed Minister of State for Disinvestment (Independent Charge). The disinvestment ministry was created for the first time in accordance with the policy of disinvestment under the World Trade Organization regime. On 23 July 2000 following the resignation of Ram Jethmalani as the Union Cabinet Minister of Law, Justice and Company Affairs, he took over his ministry as an additional charge.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: In November 2000 and was made a Cabinet Minister for the Ministry of Law, Justice and Company Affairs and Shipping. The Ministry of Surface Transport was bifurcated and he was appointed as the first Minister of Shipping. He demitted the office of the Minister for Shipping with effect from 1 September 2001 and as Union Minister of Law, Justice and Company Affairs on 1 July 2002. He then served as the General Secretary of the BJP and its national spokesman. He worked in this capacity until January 2003. He rejoined the Union Cabinet as the Minister of Commerce & Industry and Law & Justice on 29 January 2003. With the defeat of the National Democratic Alliance in May 2004, Jaitley returned to his legal career and worked in the Supreme Court.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: He was chosen as the Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha on 3 June 2009 by L.K. Advani. On 16 June 2009, he resigned from the post of General Secretary of the BJP, as per his party's One Man One Post principle. He was also a member of the Central Election Committee of the party. As the leader of opposition in Rajya Sabha, he participated in the debates on the Women's Reservation Bill in the Rajya Sabha and also supported Anna Hazare in his 2011 Indian anti-corruption movement for the Jan Lokpal Bill. He successfully introduced the eighty-fourth amendment to the Constitution of India in 2002, freezing parliamentary seats until 2026, and the ninety-first amendment to the Constitution of India in 2004, penalising defections. However, being in the party since 1980, he never contested any direct election until 2014. He was the BJP candidate for the Amritsar seat in the Lok Sabha (replacing Navjot Singh Sidhu) for the 2014 general election, but lost to the Indian National Congress candidate Amarinder Singh. He was elected as a Rajya Sabha member from Gujarat. He was re-elected to the Rajya Sabha from Uttar Pradesh in March 2018.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: On 26 August 2012, he said (outside Parliament) "There are occasions when an obstruction in Parliament brings greater benefits to the country." This statement was considered to have given legitimacy to obstruction by the parliament in contemporary Indian politics. After forming a government in 2014, the BJP government has faced disruption and obstruction in parliament multiple times, and the opposition have referred to this statement as a legitimizing that floor strategy.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: On 26 May 2014, Jaitley was selected by newly elected Prime Minister Narendra Modi to be the Minister of Finance, the Minister for Corporate Affairs and the Minister of Defence, in his cabinet. Analysts cited Jaitley's "part-time" focus on defence as a simple continuation of the policies of the previous government. According to a WikiLeaks cable by Robert Blake, the Charge at the US Embassy, to his government, when pressed on the question of Hindutva, Jaitley had argued that Hindu nationalism "will always be a talking point" for the BJP and characterised this as an opportunistic issue. Jaitley later clarified that "the use of the word opportunistic in reference to nationalism or Hindu nationalism is neither my view nor my language. It could be the diplomat's own usage."


title: Arun Jaitley

text: During the 2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election, Arun Jaitley agreed with Prime Minister Narendra Modi's assertions that the idea of reservations on the basis of religion is fraught with danger and was against giving reservations to Muslim Dalits and Christian Dalits as it might impact demography. He also served as a member to the Board of Governors of Asian Development Bank. In November 2015, Jaitley said that personal laws governing marriages and divorces should be subject to fundamental rights, as constitutionally-guaranteed rights are supreme. He announced the Income declaration scheme, 2016 in September 2016.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: During his tenure as the Finance Minister of India, the government demonetised the ₹500 and ₹1000 currency notes, with the stated intention of curbing corruption, black money, fake currency, and terrorism from 9 November 2016. He oversaw the introduction of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) which brought the country under one GST regime. On 20 June 2017, he reaffirmed that the roll-out of GST overseen by him as the finance minister was on track.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: Out Leadership recommended Arun Jaitley as one of the experts and leaders who openly speak on LGBT+ issues.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: On 29 May 2019, in a letter to Prime Minister Modi, Arun Jaitley cited his health as a reason for not taking an active role in the formation of the new government, effectively declining a role as a minister in the second term of Prime Minister Modi.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: In January 2019 Jaitley generated controversy when he accused the Central Bureau of Investigation of "investigative adventurism" in the ICICI Bank – Videocon fraud case. The Central Bureau of Investigation had named Chanda Kochhar and her husband Deepak Kochhar as beneficiaries in the financial fraud, in which Venugopal Dhoot, the promoter of Videocon had fraudulently transferred part of the loan received from ICICI Bank to the Kochhar's business entreprise. Jaitley stated that naming the corrupt bank officials will not help in the investigation. Previously in September 2012, Jaitley had warned CBI on corruption cases involving political leaders from Gujarat.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: Arun Jaitley married Sangeeta, daughter of former Jammu and Kashmir finance minister Girdhari Lal Dogra, on 24 May 1982. They have two children, Rohan and Sonali; the latter married Jaiyesh Bakhshi. Both his children are lawyers. He had two siblings.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: Jaitley had a series of health-related issues and underwent multiple surgeries leading into his deteriorating health and subsequent death in 2019. In 2005, he underwent a coronary artery bypass surgery after he was diagnosed with high blood pressure. In 2014, when he weighed , a gastric bypass surgery was performed on him aimed at reducing his weight. Doctors confirmed that Jaitley had been "suffering from diabetes for nearly two decades" then, and that the said procedure was the best option for patients with "uncontrolled diabetes". In May 2018, he underwent a kidney transplant surgery.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: In February 2019, the media reported that Jaitley had been diagnosed with a rare form of soft-tissue sarcoma and was undergoing treatment in the US, although it was termed a "regular medical check-up". On 9 August, he was admitted to the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi (AIIMS) after he complained of "breathlessness". On 17 August, it was reported that he was on life-support.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: By 23 August, his health had deteriorated. Jaitley died at 12:07 p.m. (IST) the following day, aged 66. He was cremated at Nigam Bodh Ghat on 25 August. The Indian Cricket team wore black armbands for a day during the test match with the West Indies, to condole Jaitley's death.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: On 12 September 2019, Delhi's Feroz Shah Kotla stadium was renamed as Arun Jaitley Stadium at a function held at Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium in memory of Jaitley. The decision to name the stadium after him came as he was once the president of DDCA and also the vice-president of the BCCI.


title: Arun Jaitley

text: On 28 December 2020, Home Minister Amit Shah unveiled a statue of Arun Jaitley at the Arun Jaitley Stadium.


title: David Attenborough filmography

text: The following is a chronological list of television series and individual programmes where Sir David Attenborough is credited as writer, presenter, narrator or producer. In a career spanning eight decades, Attenborough's name has become synonymous with the natural history programmes produced by the BBC Natural History Unit.


title: David Attenborough filmography

text: In addition to writing, presenting, narrating and producing his own documentaries, Sir David Attenborough has made regular appearances as an on-screen and off-screen participant in other film-makers' documentaries and on other numerous television programmes. The following list includes some of his more notable appearances plus long-running shows:


title: Existence

text: Existence is the ability of an entity to interact with reality. In philosophy, it refers to the ontological property of being.


title: Existence

text: The term "existence" comes from Old French "existence", from Medieval Latin "existentia/exsistentia", from Latin "existere", to come forth, be manifest, "ex + sistere", to stand.


title: Existence

text: Materialism holds that the only things that exist are matter and energy, that all things are composed of material, that all actions require energy, and that all phenomena (including consciousness) are the result of the interaction of matter. Dialectical materialism does not make a distinction between being and existence, and defines it as the objective reality of various forms of matter.


title: Existence

text: Idealism holds that the only things that exist are thoughts and ideas, while the material world is secondary. In idealism, existence is sometimes contrasted with transcendence, the ability to go beyond the limits of existence. As a form of epistemological idealism, rationalism interprets existence as cognizable and rational, that all things are composed of strings of reasoning, requiring an associated idea of the thing, and all phenomena (including consciousness) are the result of an understanding of the imprint from the noumenal world in which lies beyond the thing-in-itself.


title: Existence

text: In scholasticism, existence of a thing is not derived from its essence but is determined by the creative volition of God, the dichotomy of existence and essence demonstrates that the dualism of the created universe is only resolvable through God. Empiricism recognizes existence of singular facts, which are not derivable and which are observable through empirical experience.


title: Existence

text: The exact definition of existence is one of the most important and fundamental topics of ontology, the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence, or reality in general, as well as of the basic categories of being and their relations. Traditionally listed as a part of the major branch of philosophy known as metaphysics, ontology deals with questions concerning what things or entities exist or can be said to exist, and how such things or entities can be grouped, related within a hierarchy, and subdivided according to similarities and differences.


title: Existence

text: In the Western tradition of philosophy, the earliest known comprehensive treatments of the subject are from Plato's "Phaedo", "Republic", and "Statesman" and Aristotle's "Metaphysics", though earlier fragmentary writing exists. Aristotle developed a comprehensive theory of being, according to which only individual things, called substances, fully have to be, but other things such as relations, quantity, time, and place (called the categories) have a derivative kind of being, dependent on individual things. In Aristotle's "Metaphysics", there are four causes of existence or change in nature: the material cause, the formal cause, the efficient cause and the final cause.


title: Existence

text: The Neo-Platonists and some early Christian philosophers argued about whether existence had any reality except in the mind of God. Some taught that existence was a snare and a delusion, that the world, the flesh, and the devil existed only to tempt weak humankind away from God.


title: Existence

text: In Hindu philosophy, the term Advaita refers to its idea that the true self, Atman, is the same as the highest metaphysical Reality (Brahman). The Upanishads describe the universe, and the human experience, as an interplay of Purusha (the eternal, unchanging principles, consciousness) and Prakṛti (the temporary, changing material world, nature).The former manifests itself as Ātman (Soul, Self), and the latter as Māyā. The Upanishads refer to the knowledge of Atman as "true knowledge" ("Vidya"), and the knowledge of Maya as "not true knowledge" ("Avidya", Nescience, lack of awareness, lack of true knowledge).


title: Existence

text: The medieval philosopher Thomas Aquinas argued that God is pure being, and that in God essence and existence are the same. More specifically, what is identical in God, according to Aquinas, is God's essence and God's "actus essendi". At about the same time, the nominalist philosopher William of Ockham argued, in Book I of his "Summa Totius Logicae" ("Treatise on all Logic", written some time before 1327), that Categories are not a form of Being in their own right, but derivative on the existence of individuals.


title: Existence

text: The Indian philosopher Nagarjuna (c. 150–250 CE) largely advanced existence concepts and founded the Madhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhism.


title: Existence

text: In Eastern philosophy, Anicca (Sanskrit "anitya") or "impermanence" describes existence. It refers to the fact that all conditioned things (sankhara) are in a constant state of flux. In reality there is no thing that ultimately ceases to exist; only the appearance of a thing ceases as it changes from one form to another. Imagine a leaf that falls to the ground and decomposes. While the appearance and relative existence of the leaf ceases, the components that formed the leaf become particulate material that goes on to form new plants. Buddhism teaches a middle way, avoiding the extreme views of eternalism and nihilism. The middle way recognizes there are vast differences between the way things are perceived to exist and the way things really exist. The differences are reconciled in the concept of Shunyata by addressing the existing object's served purpose for the subject's identity in being. What exists is in non-existence, because the subject changes.


title: Existence

text: Trailokya elaborates on three kinds of existence, those of desire, form, and formlessness in which there are karmic rebirths. Taken further to the Trikaya doctrine, it describes how the Buddha exists. In this philosophy, it is accepted that Buddha exists in more than one absolute way.


title: Existence

text: The early modern treatment of the subject derives from Antoine Arnauld and Pierre Nicole's "Logic", or "The Art of Thinking", better known as the "Port-Royal Logic", first published in 1662. Arnauld thought that a proposition or judgment consists of taking two different ideas and either putting them together or rejecting them:


title: Existence

text: The two terms are joined by the verb "is" (or "is not", if the predicate is denied of the subject). Thus every proposition has three components: the two terms, and the "copula" that connects or separates them. Even when the proposition has only two words, the three terms are still there. For example, "God loves humanity", really means "God is a lover of humanity", "God exists" means "God is a thing".


title: Existence

text: This theory of judgment dominated logic for centuries, but it has some obvious difficulties: it only considers proposition of the form "All A are B.", a form logicians call universal. It does not allow propositions of the form "Some A are B", a form logicians call existential. If neither A nor B includes the idea of existence, then "some A are B" simply adjoins A to B. Conversely, if A or B do include the idea of existence in the way that "triangle" contains the idea "three angles equal to two right angles", then "A exists" is automatically true, and we have an ontological proof of A's existence. (Indeed, Arnauld's contemporary Descartes famously argued so, regarding the concept "God" (discourse 4, Meditation 5)). Arnauld's theory was current until the middle of the nineteenth century.


title: Existence

text: David Hume argued that the claim that a thing exists, when added to our notion of a thing, does not add anything to the concept. For example, if we form a complete notion of Moses, and superadd to that notion the claim that Moses existed, we are not adding anything to the notion of Moses.


title: Existence

text: Kant also argued that existence is not a "real" predicate, but gave no explanation of how this is possible. Indeed, his famous discussion of the subject is merely a restatement of Arnauld's doctrine that in the proposition "God is omnipotent", the verb "is" signifies the joining or separating of two concepts such as "God" and "omnipotence". The proposition "A exists" (which is A+existence) would be necessarily false because if A exists, then it is actually (A + existence) which exists, and (A + existence) is, we assumed, different from A. According to Kant, existence can not be an essential property of anything, including God; it is an accidental property of the subject.


title: Existence

text: Schopenhauer claimed that “everything that exists for knowledge, and hence the whole of this world, only object in relation to the subject, the perception of the perceiver, in a word, representation.” According to him there can be "No object without subject" because "everything objective is already conditioned as such in manifold ways by the knowing subject with the forms of its knowing, and presupposes these forms..."


title: Existence

text: John Stuart Mill (and also Kant's pupil Herbart) argued that the predicative nature of existence was proved by sentences like "A centaur is a poetic fiction" or "A greatest number is impossible" (Herbart). Franz Brentano challenged this; so also (as is better known) did Frege. Brentano argued that we can join the concept represented by a noun phrase "an A" to the concept represented by an adjective "B" to give the concept represented by the noun phrase "a B-A". For example, we can join "a man" to "wise" to give "a wise man". But the noun phrase "a wise man" is not a sentence, whereas "some man is wise" is a sentence. Hence the copula must do more than merely join or separate concepts. Furthermore, adding "exists" to "a wise man", to give the complete sentence "a wise man exists" has the same effect as joining "some man" to "wise" using the copula. So the copula has the same effect as "exists". Brentano argued that every categorical proposition can be translated into an existential one without change in meaning and that the "exists" and "does not exist" of the existential proposition take the place of the copula. He showed this by the following examples:


title: Existence

text: Frege developed a similar view (though later) in his great work "The Foundations of Arithmetic", as did Charles Sanders Peirce (but Peirce held that ). The Frege-Brentano view is the basis of the dominant position in modern Anglo-American philosophy: that existence is asserted by the existential quantifier (as expressed by Quine's slogan "To be is to be the value of a variable." — "On What There Is", 1948).


title: Existence

text: In mathematical logic, there are two quantifiers, "some" and "all", though as Brentano (1838–1917) pointed out, we can make do with just one quantifier and negation. The first of these quantifiers, "some", is also expressed as "there exists". Thus, in the sentence "There exists a man", the term "man" is asserted to be part of existence. But we can also assert, "There exists a triangle." Is a "triangle"—an abstract idea—part of existence in the same way that a "man"—a physical body—is part of existence? Do abstractions such as goodness, blindness, and virtue exist in the same sense that chairs, tables, and houses exist? What categories, or kinds of thing, can be the subject or the predicate of a proposition?


title: Existence

text: In some statements, existence is implied without being mentioned. The statement "A bridge crosses the Thames at Hammersmith" cannot just be about a bridge, the Thames, and Hammersmith. It must be about "existence" as well. On the other hand, the statement "A bridge crosses the Styx at Limbo" has the same form, but while in the first case we understand a real bridge in the real world made of stone or brick, what "existence" would mean in the second case is less clear.


title: Existence

text: The nominalist approach is to argue that certain noun phrases can be "eliminated" by rewriting a sentence in a form that has the same meaning but does not contain the noun phrase. Thus Ockham argued that "Socrates has wisdom", which apparently asserts the existence of a reference for "wisdom", can be rewritten as "Socrates is wise", which contains only the referring phrase "Socrates". This method became widely accepted in the twentieth century by the analytic school of philosophy.


title: Existence

text: However, this argument may be inverted by realists in arguing that since the sentence "Socrates is wise" can be rewritten as "Socrates has wisdom", this proves the existence of a hidden referent for "wise".


title: Existence

text: A further problem is that human beings seem to process information about fictional characters in much the same way that they process information about real people. For example, in the 2008 United States presidential election, a politician and actor named Fred Thompson ran for the Republican Party nomination. In polls, potential voters identified Fred Thompson as a "law and order" candidate. Thompson plays a fictional character on the television series "Law and Order". The people who make the comment are aware that "Law and Order" is fiction, but at some level, they may process fiction as if it were fact, a process included in what is called the Paradox of Fiction. Another example of this is the common experience of actresses who play the villain in a soap opera being accosted in public as if they are to blame for the actions of the characters they play.


title: Existence

text: A scientist might make a clear distinction between objects that exist, and assert that all objects that exist are made up of either matter or energy. But in the layperson's worldview, existence includes real, fictional, and even contradictory objects. Thus if we reason from the statement "Pegasus flies" to the statement "Pegasus exists", we are not asserting that Pegasus is made up of atoms, but rather that Pegasus exists in the worldview of classical myth. When a mathematician reasons from the statement "ABC is a triangle" to the statement "triangles exist", the mathematician is not asserting that triangles are made up of atoms but rather that triangles exist within a particular mathematical model.


title: Existence

text: According to Bertrand Russell's Theory of Descriptions, the negation operator in a singular sentence can take either wide or narrow scope: we distinguish between "some S is not P" (where negation takes "narrow scope") and "it is not the case that 'some S is P'" (where negation takes "wide scope"). The problem with this view is that there appears to be no such scope distinction in the case of proper names. The sentences "Socrates is not bald" and "it is not the case that Socrates is bald" both appear to have the same meaning, and they both appear to assert or presuppose the existence of someone (Socrates) who is not bald, so that negation takes a narrow scope. However, Russell's theory analyses proper names into a logical structure which makes sense of this problem. According to Russell, Socrates can be analyzed into the form 'The Philosopher of Greece.' In the wide scope, this would then read: It is not the case that there existed a philosopher of Greece who was bald. In the narrow scope, it would read the Philosopher of Greece was not bald.


title: Existence

text: According to the direct-reference view, an early version of which was originally proposed by Bertrand Russell, and perhaps earlier by Gottlob Frege, a proper name strictly has no meaning when there is no object to which it refers. This view relies on the argument that the semantic function of a proper name is to tell us "which" object bears the name, and thus to identify some object. But no object can be identified if none exists. Thus, a proper name must have a bearer if it is to be meaningful.


title: Existence

text: According to the "two sense" view of existence, which derives from Alexius Meinong, existential statements fall into two classes.


title: Existence

text: The problem is then evaded as follows. "Pegasus flies" implies existence in the wide sense, for it implies that "something" flies. But it does not imply existence in the narrow sense, for we deny existence in this sense by saying that Pegasus does not exist. In effect, the world of all things divides, on this view, into those (like Socrates, the planet Venus, and New York City) that have existed in the narrow sense, and those (like Sherlock Holmes, the goddess Venus, and Minas Tirith) that do not.


title: Existence

text: Influenced by the views of Brentano's pupil Alexius Meinong, and by Edmund Husserl, Germanophone and Francophone philosophy took a different direction regarding the question of existence.


title: Existence

text: Anti-realism is the view of idealists who are skeptics about the physical world, maintaining either: (1) that nothing exists outside the mind, or (2) that we would have no access to a mind-independent reality even if it may exist. Realists, in contrast, hold that perceptions or sense data are caused by mind-independent objects. An "anti-realist" who denies that other minds exist (i. e., a solipsist) is different from an "anti-realist" who claims that there is no fact of the matter as to whether or not there are unobservable other minds (i. e., a logical behaviorist).


title: Aarti Mann

text: Aarti Majumdar (born March 3, 1978), better known by her stage name Aarti Mann, is an American actress. She has starred in several television programs, including a part in the sci-fi drama "Heroes" following the show "Never Have I Ever". She is best known for playing the role of Priya Koothrappali in "The Big Bang Theory".


title: Aarti Mann

text: Mann, which is an abbreviation of her married name, was born in Connecticut on March 3, 1978 in a Bengali family, and is a first generation Indian American. Her parents are originally from Kolkata.


title: Aarti Mann

text: When Mann was still a toddler, she moved with her family, which consisted of her parents, her older sister Kruti and younger brother Nishad, to several places in Pennsylvania. When she was a young child she lived in Pittsburgh, Mt. Lebanon and Wexford before settling in Fox Chapel. Her mother, Vasanti Majumdar, a graduate of University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC), still lives in Fox Chapel and is a physician specializing in obstetrics and gynaecology. Mann's father, who was also a physician, died while she was in high school.


title: Aarti Mann

text: Despite Mann having never acted in plays during high school at Shady Side Academy in Point Breeze, she graduated with a degree in film writing and directing from New York University where she practiced acting.


title: Aarti Mann

text: Mann began acting in the mid-2000s, initially playing minor roles. She uses both Aarti Majumdar and Aarti Mann as her professional names.


title: Aarti Mann

text: Mann's brother Nishad is a journalist and her sister Kruti helped influence her decision to switch to acting. Kruti, who also lives in Los Angeles, is a filmmaker and cast Mann in her 2006 film "The Memsahib". While filming her scenes, Mann said she "got bit by the bug" to act and enrolled in acting classes in Los Angeles.


title: Aarti Mann

text: Mann appeared in a commercial for Volvo and other roles followed, including a part in the web/TV series "Quarterlife", which aired briefly on NBC in 2008. She was also a guest star on "Heroes" in 2009. Mann appeared in the season two winter premiere of "Suits" on the USA Network. Mann was originally cast in the role of Stephanie for the USA Network pilot "Paging Dr. Freed", but did not appear in the final version because the network envisioned a different type for the character.


title: Aarti Mann

text: Mann currently lives in Los Angeles with her husband, Purvesh Mankad who works in finance, and their daughter, Nikita.


title: Liu Bei

text: Liu Bei (, ; ; 161 – 10 June 223), courtesy name Xuande (), was a warlord in the late Eastern Han dynasty who founded the state of Shu Han in the Three Kingdoms period and became its first ruler. Although he was a distant relative of the Han imperial family, Liu Bei's father died when he was a child and left his family impoverished. To help his mother, he sold shoes and straw mats. When he reached the age of fifteen, his mother sent him to study under Lu Zhi. In his youth, Liu Bei was known as ambitious and charismatic. He gathered a militia army to fight the Yellow Turbans. Liu Bei fought bravely in many battles and grew famous for his exploits. Later, he participated in the coalition against Dong Zhuo, following this joined his childhood friend Gongsun Zan and fought under him against Yuan Shao.


title: Liu Bei

text: Later he was sent to help Tao Qian against Cao Cao. Thanks to the support of the influential Mi and Chen families along with Tao Qian's last will, Liu Bei inherited the Xu Province. After his defeat against Cao Cao, Lü Bu joined him. However, Lü Bu took advantage of Liu Bei being away fighting Yuan Shu and seized Xu Province. Later Liu Bei joined Cao Cao and they defeated Lü Bu at the Battle of Xiapi. Although he was treated well by Cao Cao, Liu Bei received a secret edict from the emperor to kill Cao Cao. So, he rebelled against Cao Cao taking back Xu province. After a brief alliance with Yuan Shao, Liu Bei was quickly defeated by Cao Cao and had to join Yuan Shao. He was sent by Yuan Shao to create uprisings behind Cao Cao's main base, and later joined his kinsman Liu Biao. Although, Liu Biao treated him well, he doubted Liu Bei's loyalty, so he sent him to Xinye to serve as a shield against Cao Cao. According to the Wei Shu (魏書) and Records of Heroes. Like Tao Qian, Liu Biao desired to have Liu Bei inherit his province over his sons however Liu Bei refused. After Liu Biao's death, Liu Bei and his supporters joined Liu Qi in Xiakou where they allied with Sun Quan. Together they opposed Cao Cao at the Battle of Red Cliffs.


title: Liu Bei

text: After Cao Cao's defeat, Liu Bei quickly took control of the majority of Jing Province. He then married Sun Quan's sister. Sun Quan then recognised the legitimacy of Liu Bei's control of the Jing Province and agreed to "lend" him Nan Commandery. Liu Bei later led his army to join another kinsman, Liu Zhang, in his war against the warlord Zhang Lu. Based on the advice of his advisors, Liu Bei betrayed Liu Zhang and seized the Yi Province from him. After engaging in a series of conflicts with Sun Quan and seeing Cao Cao's coming closer to the Yi province, Liu Bei agreed to yield half of the Jing province to Sun Quan and led his army against Xiahou Yuan at Hanzhong and seized it. Liu Bei then declared himself "King of Hanzhong" and set up his headquarters in Chengdu. However soon after his senior general Guan Yu was killed by Liu Bei's "ally" Sun Quan who took the rest of Jing province. Liu Bei was furious and after declaring himself emperor to challenge Cao Pi's authority, he led his army against his former ally. Though some early success, his army was soon forced into a stalemate against Sun Quan general Lu Xun and was subsequently defeated. Ashamed by his failure, he never returned to Chengdu and settled in Baidicheng where he lived until his death one year later. Urged his heir, Liu Shan not to emulate him and rather be as virtuous as possible. Before he died Liu Bei appointed Zhuge Liang to advise his son on domestic matters with Li Yan to advise him on the military matters.


title: Liu Bei

text: Despite early failings and lacking both the material resources and social status his rivals commanded, he gathered support among disheartened Han loyalists who opposed Cao Cao, the warlord who controlled the Han central government and the figurehead Emperor Xian and led a popular movement to restore the Han dynasty. Liu Bei overcame a number of setbacks to carve out his own realm, which at its peak spanned present-day Sichuan, Chongqing, Guizhou, Hunan, and parts of Hubei and Gansu.


title: Liu Bei

text: Culturally, due to the popularity of the 14th-century historical novel "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", Liu Bei is widely regarded as the ideal benevolent and humane ruler who cared for his people and selected good advisers for his government. His fictional counterpart in the novel was a salutary example of a ruler who adhered to the Confucian set of moral values, such as loyalty and compassion. Historically, Liu Bei, like many Han rulers, was greatly influenced by Laozi. He was a brilliant politician and leader whose skill was a remarkable demonstration of "Confucian in appearance but Legalist in substance".


title: Liu Bei

text: The authoritative historical source on Liu Bei's life is the "Records of the Three Kingdoms" ("Sanguozhi") written by Chen Shou in the third century. During the fifth century, Pei Songzhi annotated the "Sanguozhi" by incorporating information from other sources to Chen Shou's original work and adding his personal comments. In 2006, William Gordon Crowell translated his complete biography found into the volume 32 of Chen Shou's "Sanguozhi" and made it freely available via Academia.edu.


title: Liu Bei

text: The historical text "Records of the Three Kingdoms" described Liu Bei as a man seven "chi" and five "cun" tall (approximately 1.74 metres), with long arms that "extended beyond his knees" and ears so large that "he could see them". Liu Bei has been called "Big Ears" (大耳) by both Lu Bu and Cao Cao.


title: Liu Bei

text: According to the third-century historical text "Records of the Three Kingdoms", Liu Bei was born in Zhuo County, Zhuo Commandery (present-day Zhuozhou, Hebei). He was a descendant of Liu Sheng, who was the ninth son of Emperor Jing and the first King of Zhongshan in Han dynasty. However, Pei Songzhi's fifth-century commentary, based on the "Dianlue" (), said that Liu Bei was a descendant of the Marquis of Linyi (). As the title "Marquis of Linyi" was held by Liu Fu (劉復; a great-nephew of Emperor Guangwu) and later by Liu Fu's son Liu Taotu (), who were descendants of Liu Fa (劉發), King Ding of Changsha – another son of Emperor Jing, it was possible that Liu Bei descended from this line rather than Liu Sheng's line.


title: Liu Bei

text: Liu Bei's grandfather Liu Xiong () and father Liu Hong () both served in provincial and commandery offices. Liu Bei's grandfather, Liu Xiong did well and was recommended as a candidate for civil office in the "xiaolian" process. Then, he rose to become prefect of Fan (范) in Dong Commandery.


title: Liu Bei

text: However Liu Bei's father, Liu Hong didn't live long and Liu Bei grew up in a poor family. Having lost his father when he was still a child. Moreover, even if Liu Bei's claim to royal lineage was genuine, he did not derive much wealth from his royal ancestors since Han law decrees that each generation of royals must divide their inheritance among all male children and Liu Bei's generation was too far removed from his illustrious ancestors'. As such, Liu Bei was not considered different from normal people. To support themselves, Liu Bei and his mother sold shoes and straw-woven mats. Despite this, Liu Bei was full of ambition from childhood. In the southeast of his house, there was a mulberry tree that was very tall (11,5 meters high). When looked from far away, the tree's shade was similar to a small cart therefore people from all around the village felt that this tree was unique with some saying that the house would produce a person of nobility. A fortune teller named Li Ding (李定) of Zhuo stated: "This family will certainly produce an estimable man." When he was a kid, Liu Bei would play beneath the tree with other children from the village. He would often say: "I must ride in this feather covered chariot (emperor chariot)." Liu Bei's uncle Zijing (子敬) thought of Liu Bei's dream as foolish and that he would bring destruction to his house.


title: Liu Bei

text: In 175, when he was near his 15. His mother sent him to study with Lu Zhi, a distinguished man and former grand administrator of Jiujiang Commandery. Lu Zhi was from Zhuo Commandery, the same as Liu Bei. One of his fellow-students was Gongsun Zan of Liaodong with whom he became friends. Since Gongsun Zan was the eldest, Liu Bei treated him as an elder brother. Another fellow-student was his kinsman Liu Deran (). Liu Deran's father, Yuanqi (元起), often gave Liu Bei material support to help him and his mother and treated him the same as his son, Liu Deran. Yuanqi's wife wasn't happy about this and told him: “Each has his own family. How can you regularly do this?” Yuanqi answered: “This boy is in our clan, and he is an extraordinary person.”


title: Liu Bei

text: The adolescent Liu Bei was said to be unenthusiastic in studying however he was fond of dogs and horses; also displayed interest in hunting, music and dressing in fine clothing. He enjoyed associating with braves ("haoxia"), and in his youth he fought and hung out with them. He would not manifest his anger or happiness and always showed a pleasant face in front of others. Liu Bei was charismatic and all the heroic youth bonded with him.


title: Liu Bei

text: Around this time, Two great horse merchants from Zhongshan. Zhang Shiping () and Su Shuang (), were very wealthy and had riches of several thousands in gold. They sold horses and when they passed through Zhuo commandery. They met Liu Bei and were struck by his appearance and personality. So they gifted him much money and wealth. Thanks to their assistance, Liu Bei was able to assemble a large group of followers.


title: Liu Bei

text: In 184, at the end of the reign of Emperor Ling, the Yellow Turbans rose up and started the Yellow Turban Rebellion. Every province and commandery would call for righteous man to defend the country. Liu Bei saw what was happening and became much more politically aware. He called for the assembly of a militia to help government forces suppress the rebellion. And rallied a group of loyal followers, including among them Guan Yu, Zhang Fei and Jian Yong.


title: Liu Bei

text: Liu Bei led his militia to join the local government forces led by Colonel Zou Jing and participated in battles against the rebels with distinction. Around this time, Liu Ziping of Pingyuan heard of Liu Bei's reputation as a brave man. And when Zhang Chun (張純) rebelled, the Qing Province was ordered by imperial decree to send an attendant official to lead an army to defeat Zhang Chun. As they passed through Pingyuan, Ziping recommended Liu Bei to the attendant official. Liu Bei accepted and joined him. When they met the rebels in the landscape. Liu Bei was gravely wounded and had to fake death. After the rebels left, a friend of him loaded him into a cart and carried him away. Thus, he was able to escape. In recognition of his contributions, the Han central government appointed Liu Bei as the Prefect () of Anxi County (安喜縣; northwest of present-day Anguo, Hebei), one of the counties in Zhongshan Commandery ().


title: Liu Bei

text: Later, the Han central government decreed that any official who had gained the post as a reward for military contributions was to be dismissed and an inspector was sent to Liu Bei's prefecture. Liu Bei doubted that he would be among those to be dismissed. Therefore, when he saw the inspector and recognized him; he wanted to meet him however the inspector refused to see him and claimed illness. Liu Bei was furious, he returned to his office, led clerks and soldiers to the postal relay station. And forced his enter through the door; he said: "I have been secretly instructed by the Commandery Administrator to arrest the inspector!" Thereupon he tied the inspector and led him to the outskirts of the district then he bound him to a tree, undid his ribbon of office and tied it to the inspector's neck; and gave him more than one hundred strokes with a bamboo stave. Liu Bei wanted kill him however the inspector begged him for mercy and so he didn't. After this incident, he left his office.


title: Liu Bei

text: He then travelled south with his followers to join another militia. Around this time, the General-in-Chief He Jin sent the Chief Commandant Guanqiu Yi (毌丘毅) to Danyang with the mission to recruit soldiers and Liu Bei joined him in fighting the Yellow Turbans remnants in Xu Province. When they reached Xiapi, they met the rebel army and Liu Bei fought hard with talent. As a reward for his contributions, the Han central government appointed him as the Prefect () and Commandant () of Gaotang County.


title: Liu Bei

text: Liu Bei visited the capital during the last years of Emperor Ling of Han, later along with Cao Cao, they returned to the State of Pei and gathered many people. When Emperor Ling died, the land fell into chaos and Liu Bei raised an army and joined the Campaign against Dong Zhuo. Later, when he returned to Gaotang County; the commandery was overwhelmed by rebels and he opted to move north to join an old friend, the warlord Gongsun Zan. In 191, they scored a major victory against another warlord Yuan Shao (leader of the former alliance against Dong Zhuo) in their struggle for control of Ji Province and Qing Province. Gongsun Zan nominated Liu Bei to be the Chancellor () of Pingyuan State and sent him to join his subordinate Tian Kai in fighting Yuan Shao's eldest son Yuan Tan in Qing Province. In defending against the governor of Ji province, Yuan Shao he fought many battles with distinction. Therefore, he was appointed probationary prefect of Pingyuan and later was made the concurrent chancellor of Pingyuan.


title: Liu Bei

text: While he was in Pingyuan, a resident named Liu Ping (劉平) had since long held Liu Bei in low esteem so was ashamed of having to serve under him. Liu Ping hired an assassin to kill Liu Bei. However, Liu Bei didn't realize his intention and treated him generously, so much so that the assassin could not bring himself to kill him and informed Liu Bei before he left. Such was the extent to which Liu Bei had won the hearts of the people. Pingyuan was poor so people were starving and they banded together to commit robbery. Liu Bei externally guarded against bandits and internally he generously carried out economic measures. He would make persons who ranked beneath the elite sit on the same mat and eat from the same pot. He felt no cause to be picky so people attached themselves to him in droves.


title: Liu Bei

text: During his tenure at Pingyuan, Kong Rong worked as the Chancellor of Beihai State (北海國) and was besieged by an army led by Yellow Turbans. He sent Taishi Ci to ask for reinforcement from Liu Bei. When he learned of this, Liu Bei said: "So, Kong Wenju knows that there is a Liu Bei in this world?" Thereafter, he sent troops to rescue Kong Rong and the siege was lifted.


title: Liu Bei

text: In 194, Yuan Shao's ally Cao Cao attacked Tao Qian, the Governor of Xu Province. At the time, there were two opposing alliances with Yuan Shu, Tao Qian and Gongsun Zan on one side against Yuan Shao, Cao Cao and Liu Biao on the other. In face of strong pressure from Cao Cao, Tao Qian appealed to Tian Kai for help. Tian Kai and Liu Bei led their armies to support Tao Qian. Liu Bei himself led over 5 000 soldiers with mixed barbarian cavalry from the Wuhuan of You province. He also conscripted several thousands among the people.


title: Liu Bei

text: Despite initial success in the invasion, Cao Cao's subordinate Zhang Miao rebelled and allowed Lü Bu to take over Cao Cao's base in Yan Province forcing Cao Cao to retreat from Xu Province. Tao Qian asked Liu Bei to station his army in nearby Xiaopei and gave him 4 000 more troops from Danyang in addition to the thousand's troops and Wuhuan cavalry already under his command. Thus, Liu Bei broke with his supervisor Tian Kai for Tao Qian. Tao Qian became Liu Bei's mentor and Liu Bei benefited greatly under the tutelage of Tao Qian who governed like a Confucian populist which influenced Liu Bei's future governance. Then, Tao Qian memorialized the court to have Liu Bei appointed as the inspector of Yu province. Liu Bei led his army to Xiaopei, then proceeded to raise troops around the area, and actively built-up connections with influential clans and people of the region. In a rather short period of time, he had gained the support of the two most powerful families in Xu Province: the Mi family led by Mi Zhu and Mi Fang and the Chen family led by Chen Gui and Chen Deng.


title: Liu Bei

text: The previously mentioned Chen Deng was a man of great talent and enjoyed giving appraisal of well known people. He once said to the scholar Chen Jiao (陳矯) about Liu Bei: "When It comes to those of bold character that are destined to be heroes, those who lay great plan to become hegemon-kings, I respect Liu Bei." Then he grouped him along with Chen Ji (Chen Shi's son), Hua Xin and Kong Rong as outstanding inviduals.


title: Liu Bei

text: Soon Tao Qian's illness became serious and he told to the mounted escort Mi Zhu: "Other than Liu Bei, there is no one who can bring peace to this province." Upon Tao Qian's death in 194, the Mi family backed Liu Bei instead of one of Tao Qian's sons to be the new Governor of Xu Province. Mi Zhu then led the residents of the province to meet Liu Bei however he was still hesitant and apprehensive about taking this post. He then consulted Kong Rong and Chen Deng.


title: Liu Bei

text: Chen Deng told him: "Today the House of Han is in decline and the empire is in chaos. It is the moment to establish merit and to accomplish affairs. This province is rich with a population of one million. We wish to impose on you the post of the inspector and have you assume charge of the affairs of the province." Liu Bei answered: "Yuan Shu is nearby at Shouchun. That man is from a line of four dukes in five generations. The empire is turning to him. You can give the province to him.” Chen Deng then said: "Gonglu is arrogant. He is not the ruler to bring order out of the chaos. Now, I wish to assemble 100 000 infantry and cavalry for my lord. Above, you can assist our sovereign and bring aid to the common people then you could fulfill the calling of the Five Hegemons. Below you could allocate territory and preserve the boundaries. Finally, you could write your achievements on bamboo and silk to be recorded for the posterity. If the inspector does not assent then I also dare not to obey the inspector."


title: Liu Bei

text: The chancellor of Beihai, Kong Rong also told him: "Is Yuan Gonglu someone who will be concerned about the state and forget his family? In what way are dried bones in the grave worthy of our attention? As far as today's matter is concerned, the people will adhere to men of talent and ability. If one does not accept what heaven offers to him then it will be too late if you regret, it later.” Both of them advised him to form an alliance with Yuan Shao.


title: Liu Bei

text: At that time, Chen Deng with Mi Zhu along with the others sent a messenger to call on to Yuan Shao saying: "Heaven has sent down disastrous stench and misfortune has fallen upon our humble and small region. Recently, Tao Qian has died and the people are without a ruler. They fear that greedy rapace will one day take advantage of the opening to extend themselves therefore are very anxious. However, they will embrace the former Administrator of Pingyuan Liu Bei as their rightful leader. Hence allowing the people to know that they have someone to rely on. Just now rebel are around all the regions; there's not a moment of peace to remove his armor. Hence we respectfully send lower officials to report this to the officials in charge." Yuan Shao answered: "Liu Xuande is liberal and refined. He is also known as a man of trust and righteousness. Now that Xu region happily accepts him. This matches my own desires." Liu Bei finally took over Xu Province after Yuan Shao recognised the legitimacy of his governorship.


title: Liu Bei

text: In 195, Lü Bu was defeated by Cao Cao and sought shelter under Liu Bei. In the next year, Yuan Shu led an army to invade Xu Province. In response, Liu Bei led his troops to counter Yuan Shu's advances near present-day Xuyi County and stopped him at Xuyi and Huaiyin (淮陰). Around this time, Cao Cao memorialized to appoint Liu Bei as General Who Subdues The East and enfeoffed him as marquis of Yicheng Village. This was in the first year of the Jian'an period (196).


title: Liu Bei

text: Liu Bei and Yuan Shu had a standoff for about a month without any decisive result. In the meantime, Zhang Fei whom Liu Bei left in charge of Xiapi Commandery (下邳郡; around present-day Pizhou, Jiangsu), the capital of Xu Province, murdered Cao Bao, the Chancellor of Xiapi after an intense quarrel. Cao Bao's death stirred up unrest in Xiapi Commandery which provided the warlord Lü Bu an opportunity to link up with defectors from Liu Bei's side to seize control of Xiapi Commandery and capture Liu Bei's family.


title: Liu Bei

text: Upon receiving news of Lü Bu's intrusion, Liu Bei immediately headed back to Xiapi Commandery but most of his troops scattered along the way. With his remaining men, Liu Bei moved eastward to take Guangling Commandery where Yuan Shu's forces defeated him. Liu Bei then retreated to Haixi County (海西縣; southeast of present-day Guannan County, Jiangsu).


title: Liu Bei

text: However, surrounded by hostile forces and facing a lack of food supplies, Liu Bei and his men resorted to cannibalism. Pressed by poverty and hunger, Liu Bei's men wanted to return to Xiapi. Liu Bei eventually had no choice but to send an official request to surrender to Lü Bu who accepted his surrender and ordered Liu Bei to return to the seat of Xu and to combine their strength to defeat Yuan Shu. He then prepared the regional inspector's chariot and returned his family to the bank of the Si River as an act of good faith. Before Liu Bei left, there was a farewell banquet and everyone seemed happy.


title: Liu Bei

text: Lü Bu, fearing that Yuan Shu would turn on him after eliminating Liu Bei obstructed Yuan Shu's attempts to destroy Liu Bei. At this time, Lu Bu's commanders said to him: "Liu Bei has changed his allegiance too often. It is difficult to know what he is going to do and develop relations with him. Soon, you will have to think of a way to take care of him." However, Lu Bu didn't listen to them and even related the matter to Liu Bei. Liu Bei was alarmed and maneuvered to distance himself sending a messenger to Lü Bu with a request to be relocated to Xiaopei. Lü Bu agreed, and Liu Bei was able to safely arrive at Xiaopei where he immediately raised 10 000 troops.