title: Trust law

text: A trust is a legal relationship in which the holder of a right gives it to another person or entity who must keep and use it solely for another's benefit. In the Anglo-American common law, the party who entrusts the right is known as the "settlor", the party to whom the right is entrusted is known as the "trustee", the party for whose benefit the property is entrusted is known as the "beneficiary", and the entrusted property itself is known as the "corpus" or "trust property". A "testamentary trust" is created by a will and arises after the death of the settlor. An "inter vivos trust" is created during the settlor's lifetime by a trust instrument. A trust may be revocable or irrevocable; an irrevocable trust can be "broken" (revoked) only by a judicial proceeding.


title: Trust law

text: The trustee is the legal owner of the property in trust, as fiduciary for the beneficiary or beneficiaries who is/are the equitable owner(s) of the trust property. Trustees thus have a fiduciary duty to manage the trust to the benefit of the equitable owners. They must provide a regular accounting of trust income and expenditures. Trustees may be compensated and be reimbursed for their expenses. A court of competent jurisdiction can remove a trustee who breaches their fiduciary duty. Some breaches of fiduciary duty can be charged and tried as criminal offenses in a court of law. A trustee can be a natural person, a business entity or a public body. A trust in the United States may be subject to federal and state taxation.


title: Trust law

text: A trust is created by a settlor, who transfers title to some or all of their property to a trustee, who then holds title to that property in trust for the benefit of the beneficiaries. The trust is governed by the terms under which it was created. In most jurisdictions, this requires a contractual trust agreement or deed. It is possible for a single individual to assume the role of more than one of these parties, and for multiple individuals to share a single role. For example, in a living trust it is common for the grantor to be both a trustee and a lifetime beneficiary while naming other contingent beneficiaries.


title: Trust law

text: Trusts have existed since Roman times and have become one of the most important innovations in property law. Trust law has evolved through court rulings differently in different jurisdictions, so statements in this article are generalizations; understanding the jurisdiction-specific case law involved is tricky. Some U.S. states are adapting the Uniform Trust Code to codify and harmonize their trust laws, but state-specific variations still remain.


title: Trust law

text: An owner placing property into trust turns over part of their bundle of rights to the trustee, separating the property's legal ownership and control from its equitable ownership and benefits. This may be done for tax reasons or to control the property and its benefits if the settlor is absent, incapacitated, or deceased. Testamentary trusts may be created in wills, defining how money and property will be handled for children or other beneficiaries.


title: Trust law

text: While the trustee is given legal title to the trust property, in accepting title the trustee owes a number of fiduciary duties to the beneficiaries. The primary duties owed are those of loyalty, prudence and impartiality. Trustees may be held to a very high standard of care in their dealings to enforce their behavior. To ensure beneficiaries receive their due, trustees are subject to a number of ancillary duties in support of the primary duties, including duties of openness and transparency, and duties of recordkeeping, accounting, and disclosure. In addition, a trustee has a duty to know, understand, and abide by the terms of the trust and relevant law. The trustee may be compensated and have expenses reimbursed, but otherwise must turn over all profits from the trust properties and neither endebt nor riskily speculate on the trust assets without the written, clear permission of all of the adult beneficiaries.


title: Trust law

text: There are strong restrictions regarding a trustee with a conflict of interest. Courts can reverse a trustee's actions, order profits returned, and impose other sanctions if they find a trustee has failed in any of their duties. Such a failure is a civil breach of trust and can leave a neglectful or dishonest trustee with severe liabilities for the breach. It is highly advisable for settlors and in many cases trustees to seek legal advice before entering into or creating a trust agreement and trustees must take great care in acting or omitting to act to avoid unlawful mistakes.


title: Trust law

text: Roman law had a well-developed concept of the trust ("fideicommissum") in terms of "testamentary trusts" created by wills but never developed the concept of the "inter vivos" (living) trusts which apply while the creator lives. This was created by later common law jurisdictions. Personal trust law developed in England at the time of the Crusades, during the 12th and 13th centuries. In medieval English trust law, the settlor was known as the "feoffor" to uses, while the trustee was known as the "feoffee" to uses, and the beneficiary was known as the "cestui que" use, or "cestui que" trust .


title: Trust law

text: At the time, land ownership in England was based on the feudal system. When a landowner left England to fight in the Crusades, he conveyed ownership of his lands in his absence to manage the estate and pay and receive feudal dues, on the understanding that the ownership would be conveyed back on his return. However, Crusaders often encountered refusal to hand over the property upon their return. Unfortunately for the Crusader, English common law did not recognize his claim. As far as the King's courts were concerned, the land belonged to the trustee, who was under no obligation to return it. The Crusader had no legal claim. The disgruntled Crusader would then petition the king, who would refer the matter to his Lord Chancellor. The Lord Chancellor could decide a case according to his conscience. At this time, the principle of equity was born in English law. However, the original notion of equity goes all the way back to Aristotle and is found in book V, chapter 10 of his Ethics. Indeed, the universities of the 13th century often wrote commentaries on Aristotle's works, and it was these universities that gave rise to the lawyers of the time.


title: Trust law

text: The Lord Chancellor would consider it "unconscionable" that the legal owner could go back on his word and deny the claims of the Crusader (the "true" owner). Therefore, he would find in favour of the returning Crusader. Over time, it became known that the Lord Chancellor's court (the Court of Chancery) would continually recognize the claim of a returning Crusader. The legal owner would hold the land for the benefit of the original owner and would be compelled to convey it back to him when requested. The Crusader was the "beneficiary" and the acquaintance the "trustee". The term "use of land" was coined, and in time developed into what we now know as a "trust".


title: Trust law

text: The trust is widely considered to be the most innovative contribution of the English legal system. Today, trusts play a significant role in most common law systems, and their success has led some civil law jurisdictions to incorporate trusts into their civil codes. In Curaçao, for example, the trust was enacted into law on 1 January 2012; however, the Curaçao Civil Code only allows express trusts constituted by notarial instrument. France has recently added a similar, Roman-law-based device to its own law with the "fiducie", amended in 2009; the "fiducie", unlike a trust, is a contractual relationship. Trusts are widely used internationally, especially in countries within the English law sphere of influence, and whilst most civil law jurisdictions do not generally contain the concept of a trust within their legal systems, they do recognise the concept under the Hague Convention on the Law Applicable to Trusts and on their Recognition (partly only the extent that they are parties thereto). The Hague Convention also regulates conflict of trusts.


title: Trust law

text: Although trusts are often associated with intrafamily wealth transfers, they have become very important in American capital markets, particularly through pension funds (in certain countries essentially always trusts) and mutual funds (often trusts).


title: Trust law

text: Property of any sort may be held in a trust. The uses of trusts are many and varied, for both personal and commercial reasons, and trusts may provide benefits in estate planning, asset protection, and taxes. Living trusts may be created during a person's life (through the drafting of a trust instrument) or after death in a will.


title: Trust law

text: In a relevant sense, a trust can be viewed as a generic form of a corporation where the settlors (investors) are also the beneficiaries. This is particularly evident in the Delaware business trust, which could theoretically, with the language in the "governing instrument", be organized as a cooperative corporation or a limited liability corporation, although traditionally the Massachusetts business trust has been commonly used in the US. One of the most significant aspects of trusts is the ability to partition and shield assets from the trustee, multiple beneficiaries, and their respective creditors (particularly the trustee's creditors), making it "bankruptcy remote", and leading to its use in pensions, mutual funds, and asset securitization as well protection of individual spendthrifts through the spendthrift trust.


title: Trust law

text: Trusts may be created by the expressed intentions of the settlor also known as the founder (express trusts) or they may be created by operation of law known as implied trusts. An implied trust is one created by a court of equity because of acts or situations of the parties. Implied trusts are divided into two categories: resulting and constructive. A resulting trust is implied by the law to work out the presumed intentions of the parties, but it does not take into consideration their expressed intent. A constructive trust is a trust implied by law to work out justice between the parties, regardless of their intentions.


title: Trust law

text: In some jurisdictions, certain types of assets may not be the subject of a trust without a written document.


title: Trust law

text: Generally, a private express trust requires three elements to be certain, which together are known as the "three certainties". These elements were determined in "Knight v Knight" to be intention, subject matter and objects. The certainty of intention allows the court to ascertain a settlor's true reason for creating the trust. The certainties of subject matter and objects allow the court to administer trust when the trustees fail to do so. The court determines whether there is sufficient certainty by construing the words used in the trust instrument. These words are construed objectively in their "reasonable meaning", within the context of the entire instrument. Despite intention being integral to express trusts, the court will try not to let trusts fail for the lack of certainty.


title: Trust law

text: A trust may have multiple trustees, and these trustees are the legal owners of the trust's property, but have a fiduciary duty to beneficiaries and various duties, such as a duty of care and a duty to inform. If trustees do not adhere to these duties, they may be removed through a legal action. The trustee may be either a person or a legal entity such as a company, but typically the trust itself is not a legal entity and any litigation involving the trust must include the trustee as a party. A trustee has many rights and responsibilities which vary based on the jurisdiction and trust instrument. If a trust lacks a trustee, a court may appoint a trustee.


title: Trust law

text: The trustees administer the affairs attendant to the trust. The trust's affairs may include prudently investing the assets of the trust, accounting for and reporting periodically to the beneficiaries, filing required tax returns and other duties. In some cases dependent upon the trust instrument, the trustees must make discretionary decisions as to whether beneficiaries should receive trust assets for their benefit. A trustee may be held personally liable for problems, although fiduciary liability insurance similar to directors and officers liability insurance can be purchased. For example, a trustee could be liable if assets are not properly invested. In addition, a trustee may be liable to its beneficiaries even where the trust has made a profit but consent has not been given. However, in the United States, similar to directors and officers, an exculpatory clause may minimize liability; although this was previously held to be against public policy, this position has changed.


title: Trust law

text: In the United States, the Uniform Trust Code provides for reasonable compensation and reimbursement for trustees subject to review by courts, although trustees may be unpaid. Commercial banks acting as trustees typically charge about 1% of assets under management.


title: Trust law

text: The beneficiaries are beneficial (or 'equitable') owners of the trust property. Either immediately or eventually, the beneficiaries will receive income from the trust property, or they will receive the property itself. The extent of a beneficiary's interest depends on the wording of the trust document. One beneficiary may be entitled to income (for example, interest from a bank account), whereas another may be entitled to the entirety of the trust property when they attains the age of twenty-five years. The settlor has much discretion when creating the trust, subject to some limitations imposed by law.


title: Trust law

text: The use of trusts as a means to inherit substantial wealth may be associated with some negative connotations; some beneficiaries who are able to live comfortably from trust proceeds without having to work a job may be jokingly referred to as "trust fund babies" (regardless of age) or "trustafarians".


title: Trust law

text: Trusts go by many different names, depending on the characteristics or the purpose of the trust. Because trusts often have multiple characteristics or purposes, a single trust might accurately be described in several ways. For example, a living trust is often an express trust, which is also a revocable trust, and might include an incentive trust, and so forth.


title: Trust law

text: While trusts originated in England, and therefore English trusts law has had a significant influence, particularly among common law legal systems such as those of the Commonwealth or the United States, the impact of trust law has been wide and varied. Even under common law systems, the basic notion of a trust has been implemented in strikingly different ways.


title: Trust law

text: Trust law in civil law jurisdictions, generally including Continental Europe only exists in a limited number of jurisdictions (e.g. Curaçao, Liechtenstein and Sint Maarten). The trust may however be recognized as an instrument of foreign law in conflict of laws cases, for example within the Brussels regime (Europe) and the parties to the Hague Trust Convention. Tax avoidance concerns have historically been one of the reasons that European countries with a civil law system have been reluctant to adopt trusts.


title: Trust law

text: Cyprus legislators enacted the Cyprus International Trusts Law of 2012 with an aim to facilitate the establishment of trusts by non-Cypriot residents. The Cyprus International Trust is based on common law principles however the Cyprus International Trusts Law of 2012 introduces certain conditions and requirements to for the trust to qualify under the same law. These conditions are:


title: Trust law

text: The Cyprus International Trust Law of 2012 also introduces certain settlor powers which if exercised will not invalidate the trust and or do not need to be inserted in the trust deed for the settlor to exercise them. The powers introduced are:


title: Trust law

text: Cyprus does not limit the duration of an international trust and it may be formed for an unspecified duration.


title: Trust law

text: In accordance with Section 7, a Cyprus International Trust may be formed for one or more of the following purposes:


title: Trust law

text: The law includes specific confidentiality obligations over the trustee, the protector, enforcer or any other person to keep information and details of the trust confidential. This right is waived in the instances that law requires the disclosure of such information or if a judge before which a case is tried in issues a judgment to such effect. Nevertheless, with the changing times, public disclosure of trusts is required in Cyprus. Such public disclosures are required:


title: Trust law

text: For a trust to be validly constituted it must be presented to the commissioner of stamp duty and a one-time payment of Euro 430 is made. The commissioner does not keep a copy of the document.


title: Trust law

text: The regulation of the industry providing company and trust management functions (ASP) has also brought about the requirement to disclose to the regulator the existence of a Cyprus International Trust. Such obligation burdens the trust company and the information disclosed is the following:


title: Trust law

text: For the avoidance of any doubt, the regulator does not require particulars of the Settlor, the Beneficiaries and details of the trusts. Neither does the regulator store in any way the trust deed. On the contrary, they rely on the regulated entity to collect, store and update this information


title: Trust law

text: The Prevention and Suppression of Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing Law of 2007-2018 introduced mandatory disclosure requirements in respects to trusts. Generally known as the Cyprus Beneficial Ownership Register. Subject to this the following information will be required to be mandatory disclosed:


title: Trust law

text: The actual implementation of this law still remains to be seen however the requirements above are expressly extracted from The Prevention and Suppression of Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing Law of 2007–2018.


title: Trust law

text: Under the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (FATCA) a Trustee and or a Trust may be classified as a Foreign Financial Institution (FFI) requiring registration with the IRS and disclosure of results on a yearly basis.


title: Trust law

text: Under the Common Reporting Standard decree, a trust would in most cases classify as either a Reporting Financial Institution (FI) or a Passive Non-Financial Entity (Passive NFE). If the trust is an FI the trust or the trustee will have an obligation to report to its local tax authority in Cyprus in respects to the reportable accounts.


title: Trust law

text: The income and profits derived within and outside of Cyprus are liable to every possible taxation imposed in Cyprus if the beneficiary is a resident of Cyprus in accordance with the Income Tax Laws of Cyprus.


title: Trust law

text: If the beneficiaries are not Cyprus residents then any income and profit derived from Cypriot sources will be subject to tax.


title: Trust law

text: Relevant to consider is what income is subject to taxation in Cyprus and the none domicile regime applicable in Cyprus.


title: Trust law

text: As noted above, the English trust arose from the court of the Lord Chancellor, known as the Court of Chancery.


title: Trust law

text: There are several features which distinguish the modern English trust both from other common law trusts and from civil law approaches.


title: Trust law

text: In some ways, the modern English trust is, when compared to other jurisdictions, more conservative in its requirements. For example, it retains the requirement that there be a beneficiary. There are two main exceptions to this rule: charitable purpose trusts and "Re Denley" trusts. This contrasts with other jurisdictions like Cyprus, the BVI, the Cayman Islands, the Isle of Man, Jersey and Gibraltar which allow for non-charitable purpose trusts to be valid. This will normally be done by appointing a somebody to act as the trust's Protector. These purpose trusts allow for a trust to be created with a purpose (eg. 'to provide for "N"'s education', where "N" is a family member) instead of a named beneficiary. The role of the Protector (also sometimes called an enforcer) is to hold the trustees to account, which the beneficiaries would usually have the right to do.


title: Trust law

text: A major use of trusts is to allow for the existence of unincorporated associations. These often are associations or groups of people that come together for a particular (usually non-commercial purpose). Common examples might be local social and sports clubs, some gentlemen's clubs, and some professional associations.


title: Trust law

text: The main way that English law supports the existence of these is by understanding them as a form of trust. The association has no legal personality (ie the capacity to enter into legal relations in their own name). This contrasts with the approach taken in many civil law jurisdictions, like Spain or France, where civil or social associations are often accorded legal personhood. Thus, in England, the officers of an association (eg. its Chairman, Secretary and Treasurer) will be recognised as trustees and will hold the assets of the association on trust for the members of the association with the constitution of the association forming the basis of the rules governing the trust.


title: Trust law

text: In many ways trusts in South Africa operate similarly to other common law countries, although the law of South Africa is actually a hybrid of the British common law system and Roman-Dutch law.


title: Trust law

text: In South Africa, in addition to the traditional living trusts and will trusts there is a "bewind trust" (inherited from the Roman-Dutch "bewind" administered by a "bewindhebber") in which the beneficiaries own the trust assets while the trustee administers the trust, although this is regarded by modern Dutch law as not actually a trust. "Bewind" trusts are created as trading vehicles providing trustees with limited liability and certain tax advantages.


title: Trust law

text: In South Africa, minor children cannot inherit assets and in the absence of a trust and assets held in a state institution, the Guardian's Fund, and released to the children in adulthood. Therefore, testamentary (will) trusts often leave assets in a trust for the benefit of these minor children.


title: Trust law

text: There are two types of living trusts in South Africa, namely vested trusts and discretionary trusts. In vested trusts, the benefits of the beneficiaries are set out in the trust deed, whereas in discretionary trusts the trustees have full discretion at all times as to how much and when each beneficiary is to benefit.


title: Trust law

text: Until recently, there were tax advantages to living trusts in South Africa, although most of these advantages have been removed. Protection of assets from creditors is a modern advantage. With notable exceptions, assets held by the trust are not owned by the trustees or the beneficiaries, the creditors of trustees or beneficiaries can have no claim against the trust. Under the Insolvency Act (Act 24 of 1936), assets transferred into a living trust remain at risk from external creditors for 6 months if the previous owner of the assets is solvent at the time of transfer, or 24 months if he/she is insolvent at the time of transfer. After 24 months, creditors have no claim against assets in the trust, although they can attempt to attach the loan account, thereby forcing the trust to sell its assets. Assets can be transferred into the living trust by selling it to the trust (through a loan granted to the trust) or donating cash to it (any natural person can donate R100 000 per year without attracting donations tax; 20% donations tax applies to further donations within the same tax year).


title: Trust law

text: Under South African law living trusts are considered tax payers. Two types of tax apply to living trusts, namely income tax and capital gains tax (CGT). A trust pays income tax at a flat rate of 40% (individuals pay according to income scales, usually less than 20%). The trust's income can, however, be taxed in the hands of either the trust or the beneficiary. A trust pays CGT at the rate of 20% (individuals pay 10%). Trusts do not pay deceased estate tax (although trusts may be required to pay back outstanding loans to a deceased estate, in which the loan amounts are taxable with deceased estate tax).


title: Trust law

text: The taxpayer whose residence has been 'locked' into a trust has now been given another opportunity to take advantage of these CGT exemptions. The Taxation Law Amendment Act of 30 September 2009 commenced on 1 January 2010 and granted a 2-year window period from 1 January 2010 to 31 December 2011, affording a natural person the opportunity to take transfer of the residence with advantage of no transfer duty being payable or CGT consequences. Whilst taxpayers can take advantage of this opening of a window of opportunity, it is not likely that it will ever become available thereafter.


title: Trust law

text: in the United States, a trust is presumed to be irrevocable unless the instrument or will creating it states it is revocable, except in Pennsylvania, California, Oklahoma and Texas (and any other state that has adopted section 602 of the Uniform Trust Code), in which trusts are presumed to be revocable unless the instrument or will creating them states they are irrevocable.


title: Trust law

text: In the United States, state law, variable from state to state, governs trusts. Many states have adopted the Uniform Trust Code, and there are also broad similarities among states' common law of trust. These similarities are summarized in the Restatements of the Law, such as the Restatement of Trusts, Third (2003−08). Additionally, as a practical matter, federal law considerations such as federal taxes administered by the Internal Revenue Service may affect the structure and creation of trusts.


title: Trust law

text: In the United States the tax law allows trusts to be taxed as corporations, partnerships, or not at all depending on the circumstances, although trusts may be used for tax avoidance in certain situations. For example, the trust-preferred security is a hybrid (debt and equity) security with favorable tax treatment which is treated as regulatory capital on banks' balance sheets. The Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act changed this somewhat by not allowing these assets to be a part of (large) banks' regulatory capital.


title: Trust law

text: Living trusts, as opposed to testamentary (will) trusts, may help a trustor avoid probate. Avoiding probate may save costs and maintain privacy and living trusts have become very popular. Probate is potentially costly, and probate records are available to the public while distribution through a trust is private. Both living trusts and wills can also be used to plan for unforeseen circumstances such as incapacity or disability, by giving discretionary powers to the trustee or executor of the will.


title: Trust law

text: Negative aspects of using a living trust as opposed to a will and probate include upfront legal expenses, the expense of trust administration, and a lack of certain safeguards. The cost of the trust may be 1% of the estate per year versus the one-time probate cost of 1 to 4% for probate, which applies whether or not there is a drafted will. Unlike trusts, wills must be signed by two to three witnesses, the number depending on the law of the jurisdiction in which the will is executed. Legal protections that apply to probate but do not automatically apply to trusts include provisions that protect the decedent's assets from mismanagement or embezzlement, such as requirements of bonding, insurance, and itemized accountings of probate assets.


title: Trust law

text: Living trusts generally do not shelter assets from the U.S. federal estate tax. Married couples may, however, effectively double the estate tax exemption amount by setting up the trust with a formula clause.


title: Trust law

text: For a living trust, the grantor may retain some level of control to the trust, such by appointment as protector under the trust instrument. Living trusts also, in practical terms, tend to be driven to large extent by tax considerations. If a living trust fails, the property will usually be held for the grantor/settlor on resulting trusts, which in some notable cases, has had high tax consequences.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: The Kingdom of Hungary (), sometimes referred to as the Regency or the Horthy era, existed as a country from 1920 to 1946 under the rule of Regent Miklós Horthy, who nominally represented the Hungarian monarchy. In reality there was no king, and attempts by King Charles IV to return to the throne shortly before his death were prevented by Horthy.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: Hungary under Horthy was characterized by its conservative, nationalist and fiercely anti-communist character. The government was based on an unstable alliance of conservatives and right-wingers. Foreign policy was characterized by revisionism — the total or partial revision of the Treaty of Trianon, which had seen Hungary lose over 70% of its historic territory along with over three million Hungarians, who mostly lived in the border territories outside the new borders of the kingdom. Hungary's interwar politics were dominated by an obsession with the territorial losses suffered in this treaty, with the resentment continuing until the present.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: Nazi Germany's influence in Hungary has led some historians to conclude that the country increasingly became a client state after 1938. The Kingdom of Hungary was an Axis Power during World War II, intent on regaining Hungarian-majority territory that had been lost in the Treaty of Trianon, which it did in early 1941. By 1944, following heavy setbacks for the Axis, Horthy's government negotiated secretly with the Allies, and also considered leaving the war. Because of this Hungary was occupied by Germany and Horthy was deposed. The extremist Arrow Cross Party's leader Ferenc Szálasi established a new Nazi-backed government, effectively turning Hungary into a German-occupied puppet state.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: After World War II, the country fell within the Soviet Union's sphere of influence. It changed its name to the Hungarian State (Hungarian: "Magyar Állam") and the Second Hungarian Republic was soon thereafter proclaimed in 1946, succeeded by the communist Hungarian People's Republic in 1949.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: Upon the dissolution and break-up of Austria-Hungary after World War I, the Hungarian Democratic Republic and then the Hungarian Soviet Republic were briefly proclaimed in 1918 and 1919, respectively. The short-lived communist government of Béla Kun launched what was known as the "Red Terror", involving Hungary in an ill-fated war with Romania. In 1920, the country fell into a period of civil conflict, with Hungarian anti-communists and monarchists violently purging the nation of communists, leftist intellectuals, and others whom they felt threatened by, especially Jews. This period was known as the "White Terror". In 1920, after the pullout of the last of the Romanian occupation forces, the Kingdom of Hungary was restored.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: On 29 February 1920, a coalition of right-wing political forces united and returned Hungary to being a constitutional monarchy. However, it was obvious that the Allies would not accept any return of Charles IV. It was thus decided to select a regent to represent the monarchy. Miklós Horthy, the last commanding admiral of the Austro-Hungarian Navy, was chosen for this position on 1 March. Sándor Simonyi-Semadam was the first Prime Minister of Horthy's regency.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: In 1921 Charles IV returned in Hungary and tried to retake its throne, even trying to march on Budapest with some rebel troops in October 1921; however, his attempts failed as much of the Royal Hungarian Army remained loyal to Horthy and thus Charles was arrested and exiled to Madeira.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: On 6 November 1921 the Diet of Hungary passed a law nullifying the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, dethroning Charles IV and abolishing the House of Habsburg's rights to the throne of Hungary. Hungary was a kingdom without royalty. With civil unrest too great to select a new king, it was decided to confirm Horthy as Regent of Hungary. He remained in that powerful president-like status until he was overthrown in 1944.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: Horthy's rule as Regent possessed characteristics such that it could be construed a dictatorship. As a counterpoint, his powers were a continuation of the constitutional powers of the King of Hungary, adopted earlier during the federation with the Austrian Empire. As Regent, Horthy had the power to adjourn or dissolve the Hungarian Diet (parliament) at his own discretion; he appointed the Hungarian Prime Minister.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: The succession after Horthy's death or abdication was never officially established; presumably the Hungarian Parliament would have selected a new regent, or possibly attempted to restore the Habsburgs under Crown Prince Otto. In January 1942, Parliament appointed Horthy's eldest son István as Deputy Regent and expected successor. Whether this represents an attempt to gradually re-establish monarchy in Hungary is unclear; at any rate, István was killed in an airplane crash in August that year, and a new Deputy Regent was not appointed.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: During his first ten years, Horthy led increased repression of Hungarian minorities. In 1920, the "numerus clausus" law formally placed limits on the number of minority students at university, and legalized corporal punishment for adults in criminal cases. Although the law seemingly applied in equal measure to all minorities, the ethnicity quota system was never fully introduced and the law acted largely to conceal anti-Jewish action from foreign observers. Limitations were relaxed in 1928. Racial criteria in admitting new students were removed and replaced by social criteria. Five categories were set up: civil servants, war veterans and army officers, small landowners and artisans, industrialists, and the merchant classes. Under István Bethlen as Prime Minister the electoral system was changed to reintroduce an open vote system outside Budapest and its vicinity and cities with county municipal rights. Bethlen's political party, the Party of Unity, won repeated elections. Bethlen pushed for revision of the Treaty of Trianon. After the collapse of the Hungarian economy from 1929 to 1931, national turmoil pushed Bethlen to resign as Prime Minister. In 1938 the changes to the electoral system were reversed.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: Social conditions in the kingdom did not improve as time passed, as a very small proportion of the population continued to control much of the country's wealth. Jews were continually pressured to assimilate into Hungarian mainstream culture. The desperate situation forced the Regent, Horthy, to accept the far-right politician Gyula Gömbös as Prime Minister. He pledged to retain the existing political system. Gömbös agreed to abandon his extreme anti-Semitism and allow some Jews into the government.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: In power, Gömbös moved Hungary towards a one-party government like those of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. Pressure by Nazi Germany for extreme anti-Semitism forced Gömbös out and Hungary pursued anti-Semitism under its "Jewish Laws". Initially, the government passed laws restricting Jews to 20 percent in a number of professions. Later it scapegoated the Jews for the country's failing economy.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: In 1944, responding to the advancing Soviet forces, the Regent Miklós Horthy deposed the pro-German Prime Minister and installed a more balanced government in an effort to engage with the Allies and avoid occupation by the Soviet Union. Shortly afterward, German forces invaded Hungary, deposed Horthy as Regent, and installed a puppet regime led by Ferenc Szálasi of the anti-Semitic and pro-Nazi Arrow Cross Party. The Arrow Cross Party never abolished the Monarchy as a form of government, and Hungarian newspapers continued to refer to the country as the Kingdom of Hungary ("Magyar Királyság"), although "Magyarország" (Hungary) was used as an alternative. From May to June 1944, Hungarian authorities rapidly rounded up and transported hundreds of thousands of Hungarian Jews to Nazi concentration camps, where most died.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: After the fall of the Szálasi regime, a Soviet-backed government under Béla Miklós was nominally left in control of the entire country. A High National Council was appointed in January to assume the Regency, and included members of the Hungarian Communist Party, like Ernő Gerő, and later Mátyás Rákosi and László Rajk.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: Upon the kingdom's establishment soon after World War I, the country suffered from economic decline, budget deficits, and high inflation as a result of the loss of economically important territories under the Treaty of Trianon, including Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia. The land losses of the Treaty of Trianon in 1920 caused Hungary to lose agricultural and industrial areas, making it dependent on exporting products from what agricultural land it had left to maintain its economy. Prime Minister István Bethlen's government dealt with the economic crisis by seeking large foreign loans, which allowed the country to achieve monetary stabilization in the early 1920s. He introduced a new currency in 1927, the "pengő". Industrial and farm production rose rapidly, and the country benefited from flourishing foreign trade during most of the 1920s.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: Following the start of the Great Depression in 1929, the prosperity rapidly collapsed in the country, especially in part due to the economic effects of the failure of the "Österreichische Creditanstalt" bank in Vienna, Austria. From the mid-1930s to the 1940s, after relations improved with Germany, Hungary's economy benefited from trade. The Hungarian economy became dependent on that of Germany.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: Initially, despite a move towards nationalism, the new state under Horthy, in an effort to prevent further conflicts, signed the Treaty of Trianon on 4 June 1920, thereby reducing Hungary's size substantially: the whole of Transylvania was taken by Romania; much of Upper Hungary became part of Czechoslovakia; Vojvodina was assigned to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (known after 1929 as Yugoslavia); and the Free State of Fiume was created.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: With a succession of increasingly nationalist Prime Ministers, Hungary steadily came to repent the Treaty of Trianon, and aligned itself with Europe's two fascist states, Germany and Italy, which both opposed the changes to national borders in Europe at the end of World War I. The Italian Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini sought closer ties with Hungary, beginning with the signing of a treaty of friendship between Hungary and Italy on 5 April 1927. Gyula Gömbös was an open admirer of the fascist leaders. Gömbös attempted to forge a closer trilateral unity between Germany, Italy and Hungary by acting as an intermediary between Germany and Italy, whose two fascist regimes had nearly come to conflict in 1934 over the issue of Austrian independence. Gömbös eventually persuaded Mussolini to accept Hitler's annexation of Austria in the late 1930s. Gömbös is said to have coined the phrase "axis", which he applied to his intention to create an alliance with Germany and Italy; those two countries used it to term their alliance as the Rome–Berlin axis. Just prior to the Second World War, Hungary benefited from its close ties with Germany and Italy when the Munich Agreement obliged Czechoslovakia and Hungary to settle their territorial disputes by negotiation. Finally, the First Vienna Award reassigned the southern parts of Czechoslovakia to Hungary, and shortly after Czechoslovakia was abolished Hungary occupied and annexed the remainder of the Carpatho-Ukraine.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: After the successful revision policy Hungary sought further solutions to the remainder of its former territories and demanded the concession of Transylvanian territory from Romania. The Axis powers were not interested in opening a new conflict in Central Europe; both countries were facing strong diplomatic pressures to avoid any military operations. Finally both parties accepted the arbitration of Germany and Italy, known as the Second Vienna Award, and as a result Northern Transylvania was assigned to Hungary. Shortly afterward, the Kingdom of Hungary joined the Axis powers. Hitler demanded that the Hungarian government follow Germany's military and racial agenda to avoid potential conflict in the future. Anti-Semitism was already an established political cause by the far right in Hungary. In 1944, after the ousting of Horthy by Hitler and before the installation of the National-Socialist Arrow Cross Party, the Hungarian government readily aided Nazi Germany in the deportation of hundreds of thousands of Jews to concentration camps during the Holocaust, where most of them died.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: In April 1941, Hungary let the Wehrmacht into her territory, thus supporting Germany and Italy in the invasion of Yugoslavia. After the Independent State of Croatia was proclaimed, Hungary joined the military operations and was allowed to annex the Bačka (Bácska) region in Vojvodina, which had a majority of Hungarians, as well as the region of Muraköz (present-day Prekmurje and Medjimurje), which had large Slovenian and Croatian minorities, respectively.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: On 27 June 1941, László Bárdossy declared war on the Soviet Union. Fearing a potential turn of support to the Romanians, the Hungarian government sent armed forces to support the German war effort during Operation Barbarossa. This support cost the Hungarians dearly. The entire Hungarian Second Army was lost during the Battle of Stalingrad.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: By early 1944, with Soviet forces fast advancing from the east, Hungary was caught attempting to contact the British and the Americans to secretly escape the war and establish an armistice with the Allies. On 19 March 1944, the Germans responded by invading Hungary in Operation Margarethe. German forces occupied key locations to ensure Hungarian loyalty. They placed Horthy under house arrest and replaced Prime Minister Miklós Kállay with a more pliable successor. Döme Sztójay, an avid supporter of the Nazis, became the new Hungarian Prime Minister. Sztójay governed with the aid of a Nazi military governor, Edmund Veesenmayer.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: By October of the same year, the Hungarians were again caught trying to quit the war, and the Germans launched Operation Panzerfaust. They replaced Horthy with Arrow Cross leader Ferenc Szálasi. A new pro-German "Government of National Unity" was proclaimed, and it continued the war on the side of the Axis. Szálasi did not replace Horthy as Regent, but was appointed as the "Nationleader" ("Nemzetvezető") and Prime Minister of the new Hungarian Fascist regime.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: On 21 December 1944, a Hungarian "Interim Assembly" met in Debrecen, with the approval of the Soviet Union. This assembly elected an interim counter-government headed by Béla Miklós, the former commander of the Hungarian First Army. At the end of March 1945, Szálasi's regime was driven out of Hungary.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: Under Soviet occupation, the fate of the Kingdom of Hungary was already determined. A High National Council was appointed as the country's collective Head of State until the monarchy was formally abolished on 1 February 1946. The regency was replaced by the Second Hungarian Republic. It was quickly followed by the creation of the Hungarian People's Republic.


title: Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

text: There has been some debate as to what extent the Hungarian state of the 1930s and '40s can be classified as fascist. According to Richard Griffiths, the regime's increasing economic dependence on Germany, its passage of anti-Semitic legislation and its participation in exterminating local Jews all place it within the realm of international fascism.


title: Uno (Better Call Saul)

text: "Uno" is the series premiere of the television series "Better Call Saul", the spinoff series of "Breaking Bad". The episode was written by series creators Vince Gilligan and Peter Gould, and directed by Gilligan. In the United States, the episode aired on February 8, 2015, on AMC. Outside of the United States, the episode premiered on streaming service Netflix in several countries.


title: Uno (Better Call Saul)

text: The series mainly takes place in 2002, approximately six years prior to the title character Saul Goodman (Bob Odenkirk) meeting Walter White (Bryan Cranston). In "Uno", Jimmy McGill (Saul), is a struggling lawyer working at the back of a nail salon. Jonathan Banks reprises his role as Mike Ehrmantraut, a retired cop working as a parking lot security guard, as does Raymond Cruz as Tuco Salamanca, a high-ranking Mexican drug dealer. The episode received generally positive reviews from critics, and at the time, it became the most-watched series premiere for a scripted series in U.S. cable history, with 6.9 million viewers.


title: Uno (Better Call Saul)

text: In Omaha, Nebraska, a balding, mustached Saul Goodman, now called Gene Takavic, is working as the manager of a shopping mall Cinnabon. In his apartment that night, he tearfully watches a VHS tape of his old television advertisements.


title: Uno (Better Call Saul)

text: In May 2002, Jimmy McGill is a struggling Albuquerque attorney. After representing three teenagers as a public defender, Jimmy is frustrated to be paid only $700. On his way out of the courthouse parking lot to meet a prospective client, Jimmy is stopped by parking attendant Mike Ehrmantraut. Mike refuses to let him exit until he pays cash or provides a court-supplied parking sticker.


title: Uno (Better Call Saul)

text: Jimmy meets with Betsy and Craig Kettleman, who are being investigated for embezzlement. They are hesitant to hire him and when Jimmy later tries to order them flowers while driving, he hits a man on a skateboard. The skateboarder's twin brother videotapes the incident and threatens to call the police unless Jimmy pays them. Recognizing their ruse, Jimmy refuses. Afterward, he returns to his "office" – the boiler room of a Vietnamese beauty salon – where he finds a check from Hamlin, Hamlin & McGill (HHM). Jimmy tears up the check and later accuses the partners of offering a token payment to cheat his brother Chuck McGill out of his share of the law firm. On his way out of HHM's office, he sees the Kettlemans entering, which causes him to angrily and repeatedly kick a trash can.


title: Uno (Better Call Saul)

text: Jimmy visits Chuck, who is housebound and believes he has electromagnetic hypersensitivity. He has no working lights or appliances and works by lantern on a manual typewriter. Chuck refuses to accept a buyout from HHM and also suggests that Jimmy stop using the McGill name for his law practice.


title: Uno (Better Call Saul)

text: Jimmy tracks down the skateboarders, Cal and Lars, and tells them he got the nickname "Slippin' Jimmy" as a young man by faking "slip and fall" accidents for easy money. He arranges for one of them to be struck by Betsy's car, which will enable him to make another pitch to defend the Kettlemans. Instead of stopping to check on Cal after hitting him, the motorist drives off. Cal and Lars give chase, but when the car stops, an elderly woman exits. They try to make her pay and follow her into her house. Jimmy arrives moments later and begins to search, but is pulled into the house at gunpoint by Tuco Salamanca.


title: Uno (Better Call Saul)

text: A spin-off series to "Breaking Bad" was first discussed during the airing of the show's fifth season. In July 2012, "Breaking Bad" creator Vince Gilligan hinted at a possible spin-off series focusing on Goodman. In April 2013, the series was confirmed to be in development by Gilligan and Gould; the latter wrote the "Breaking Bad" episode that introduced the character. In a July 2012 interview, Gilligan said he liked "the idea of a lawyer show in which the main lawyer will do anything it takes to stay out of a court of law" including settling on the courthouse steps.


title: Uno (Better Call Saul)

text: The show is filmed in Albuquerque, New Mexico, where "Breaking Bad" was also shot. As filming began on June 2, 2014, concerns were expressed regarding the possible disappointment from the series' turnout, in terms of audience reception. On June 19, 2014, AMC announced it had renewed the series for a second season of 13 episodes to premiere in early 2016, with the first season to consist of 10 episodes, and that the series premiere had been delayed to early 2015. The first teaser trailer debuted on AMC on August 10, 2014, and confirmed its premiere date of February 2015.


title: Uno (Better Call Saul)

text: In the opening scene of the episode, Saul (now hiding his real identity under the alias Gene), is working at a shopping mall Cinnabon. This scene is set in Omaha, Nebraska, but it was filmed in Albuquerque, New Mexico, at the Cottonwood Mall. The scene is predominantly shown in black and white, except for a brief moment where a Saul Goodman commercial in color reflects on Gene's glasses.


title: Uno (Better Call Saul)

text: As Jimmy barges into a partner's meeting at HHM, he shouts "You have meddled with the primal forces of nature, Mr. Hamlin, and I won't have it!", paraphrasing a quote from the film "Network". As Jimmy exits HHM's offices after arguing with the partners, he shouts "You Will Atone!" When no one understands the reference, he says "It's Ned Beatty from "Network". For Christ's sake, guys."


title: Uno (Better Call Saul)

text: Erik Kain of "Forbes" said of the episode and series: "[It] isn't just a spin-off of a popular TV show. So far, it's a terrific TV show on its own merits. It covers familiar ground, but it still manages to be its own unique snowflake." Hank Stuever of "The Washington Post" graded it a "B+" and wrote the series "is right in line with the tone and style of the original, now-classic series" and that it "raises more questions in two hours than it will readily answer". Stephen Marche of "Esquire" wrote that the first few episodes were better than "Breaking Bad". Kirsten Acuna of "Business Insider" declared the initial episodes "everything you could possibly want from a spinoff television series".


title: Uno (Better Call Saul)

text: Roth Cornet of "IGN" gave the episode an 8.7 out of 10, saying "Can Saul compete with Walter White? No. But he doesn't have to. "Better Call Saul" poses one simple, but fascinating question: What happened to Jimmy McGill that forced him to transform himself into the ruthless, hardened, yet entirely entertaining *criminal* lawyer Saul Goodman? The man that we came to know and love on "Breaking Bad". I, for one, look forward to watching that story unfold." Michael Star of The "New York Post" wrote, "Sunday's premiere episode moves along at a brisk clip, with moody cinematography that, like "Breaking Bad", somehow makes the bright New Mexico sunlight, set against a brilliant azure sky, seem like stormy foreboding—lifted by Odenkirk's confident performance and Jimmy's snappy dialogue ... I'm always interested to see how/if a new show carries its premiere momentum forward, especially with a show like "Better Call Saul", which was hyped so relentlessly by AMC that you began to wonder."


title: Uno (Better Call Saul)

text: Robert Bianco of "USA Today" said "Face it: When AMC announced it had ordered a prequel to "Breaking Bad", odds are many of us saw it as a callow move by a network bereft of new ideas to milk an old one for all it was worth. Well, we were right—but what we failed to factor in were the gifts star Bob Odenkirk and creators Vince Gilligan and Peter Gould would bring to "Better Call Saul" ... and their ability to transform what looked to be a sow's ear into something pretty much approaching a silk purse." In her review, Mary McNamara of The "Los Angeles Times" summarized that "the beauty of Saul was his unflappable nature; no matter how dire or dreadful the circumstances, he was able to identify the next logical step and take it. Jimmy McGill doesn't know how to do that yet; "Better Call Saul" will show us how he learned."


title: Uno (Better Call Saul)

text: Upon airing, the episode became the highest-rated series premiere for a scripted series in U.S. cable history up to that date, with 6.9 million viewers. The show placed second for the night among U.S. cable networks, behind only its lead-in show "The Walking Dead", which as of February 9, 2015, ranks as the second-highest rated entertainment broadcast with adults 18–49 in the U.S., behind "The Blacklist" episode "Luther Braxton" which aired after Super Bowl XLIX.


title: Uno (Better Call Saul)

text: Vince Gilligan and Peter Gould won the for this episode. At the American Cinema Editors Awards, editor Skip Macdonald received a nomination for Best Edited One-Hour Series for Commercial Television.


title: Marmalade

text: Marmalade is a fruit preserve made from the juice and peel of citrus fruits boiled with sugar and water. The well-known version is made from bitter orange. It is also made from lemons, limes, grapefruits, mandarins, sweet oranges, bergamots, and other citrus fruits, or a combination. Citrus is the most typical choice of fruit for marmalade, though historically the term has often been used for non-citrus preserves.


title: Marmalade

text: The preferred citrus fruit for marmalade production is the Spanish Seville or bitter orange, "Citrus aurantium" var. "aurantium", prized for its high pectin content, which sets readily to the thick consistency expected of marmalade. The peel imparts a bitter taste.


title: Marmalade

text: Unlike jam, a large quantity of water is added to the fruit in a marmalade, the extra liquid being set by the high pectin content of the fruit. In this respect it is like a jelly, but whereas the fruit pulp and peel are strained out of jelly to give it its characteristic clarity, it is retained in a marmalade.


title: Marmalade

text: The Romans learned from the Greeks that quinces slowly cooked with honey would "set" when cool. The "Apicius" gives a recipe for preserving whole quinces, stems and leaves attached, in a bath of honey diluted with defrutum—Roman marmalade. Preserves of quince and lemon appear—along with rose, apple, plum and pear—in the "Book of ceremonies" of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII "".


title: Marmalade

text: Medieval quince preserves, which went by the French name ', produced in a clear version and a fruit pulp version, began to lose their medieval seasoning of spices in the 16th century. In the 17th century, La Varenne provided recipes for both thick and clear '.


title: Marmalade

text: In 1524, Henry VIII received a "box of marmalade" from Mr Hull of Exeter. As it was in a box, this was probably "", a solid quince paste from Portugal, still made and sold in southern Europe. "Marmalet" was served at the wedding banquet of the daughter of John Neville in Yorkshire in 1530. Its Portuguese origins can be detected in the remarks in letters to Lord Lisle, from William Grett, 12 May 1534, "I have sent to your lordship a box of marmaladoo, and another unto my good lady your wife" and from Richard Lee, 14 December 1536, "He most heartily thanketh her Ladyship for her marmalado". It was a favourite treat of Anne Boleyn and her ladies in waiting.


title: Marmalade

text: The English recipe book of Eliza Cholmondeley, dated from 1677 and held at the Chester Record Office in the Cheshire county archivists, has one of the earliest marmalade recipes ("Marmelet of Oranges") which produced a firm, thick dark paste. The Scots are credited with developing marmalade as a spread, with Scottish recipes in the 18th century using more water to produce a less solid preserve.


title: Marmalade

text: The first printed recipe for orange marmalade, though without the chunks typically used now, was in Mary Kettilby's 1714 cookery book, "A Collection of above Three Hundred Receipts" (pages 78–79). Kettilby called for whole oranges, lemon juice and sugar, with the acid in the lemon juice helping to create the pectin set of marmalade, by boiling the lemon and orange juice with the pulp. Kettilby then directs: "boil the whole pretty fast 'till it will jelly" – the first known use of the word "jelly" in marmalade making. Kettilby then instructs that the mixture is then poured into glasses, covered and left until set. As the acid would create a jelly, this meant that the mixture could be pulled from the heat before it had turned to a paste, keeping the marmalade much brighter and the appearance more translucent, as in modern-day marmalade.


title: Marmalade

text: The Scots moved marmalade to the breakfast table, and in the 19th century, the English followed the Scottish example and abandoned the eating of marmalade in the evening. Marmalade's place in British life appears in literature. James Boswell remarks that he and Samuel Johnson were offered it at breakfast in Scotland in 1773. When American writer Louisa May Alcott visited Britain in the 1800s, she described "a choice pot of marmalade and a slice of cold ham" as "essentials of English table comfort".


title: Marmalade

text: "Marmalade" first appeared in the English language in 1480, borrowed from French which, in turn, came from the Galician-Portuguese word . According to José Pedro Machado's , the oldest known document where this Portuguese word is to be found is Gil Vicente's play "Comédia de Rubena", written in 1521:


title: Marmalade

text: The extension of "marmalade" in the English language to refer to a preserve made from citrus fruits occurred in the 17th century, when citrus first began to be plentiful enough in England for the usage to become common.


title: Marmalade

text: There is an apocryphal story that Mary, Queen of Scots, ate it when she had a headache, and that the name is derived from her maids' whisper of ('Mary is ill'). In reality, the word's origin has nothing to do with Mary.


title: Marmalade

text: In much of Europe and Latin America, cognates for the English term "marmalade" are still used as a generic term for pulpy preserves of all fruits, whereas in Britain it refers solely to preserves typically of citrus peel, such as from grapefruit, orange or lemon. The name originated in the 16th century from Middle French and Portuguese, where applied to quince jam.


title: Marmalade

text: In Russian and former Soviet cuisine, marmalade (, "marmelad") refers to a sugar-coated gummy candy made from agar and adapted from a French confectionery in the late 18th century. It is often sold in the form of marmalade slices made to resemble citrus wedges. Vihreät kuulat (Finnish for "green balls") is a brand of pear-flavored marmalade candy created by Finnish confectioner Karl Fazer from a recipe from St. Petersburg.


title: Marmalade

text: Under the Food and Drug Regulations (C.R.C., c. 870), marmalade is a standardized food and defined as a food of jelly-like composition that consists of at least 65% water-soluble solids. The regulations permit the use of pH adjusting agents to prevent the marmalade from dehydration, antifoaming agents to prevent blemishes on surface coatings and enable efficient filling of containers, and an acid ingredient to compensate for the natural acidity of the citrus fruit used. If pectin is added, the marmalade must contain at least 27% of peel, pulp, or juice of citrus fruit. Class II preservatives may also be used.


title: Marmalade

text: The Canadian Food and Drug Regulations (C.R.C., c. 870) specify that pineapple or fig marmalade must be of jelly-like consistency, achieved by boiling the pulp of juice of the fruit with water, and a sweetening ingredient. Pineapple or fig marmalade should contain at least 45% of the named fruit.


title: Marmalade

text: Since 1979, the EU directive 79/693/CEE defines marmalade as a jam made from citrus fruits. The directive was replaced on 20 December 2001 by the ruling 32001L0113. The translated versions of this document keep the English definition of "marmalade" as referring to citrus fruits, even if the other languages use the corresponding word normally in the broader sense of a "jam".


title: Marmalade

text: The Scottish city of Dundee has a long association with marmalade. James Keiller and his wife Janet ran a small sweet and preserves shop in the Seagate area of Dundee. In 1797, they opened a factory to produce "Dundee Marmalade", a preserve distinguished by thick chunks of bitter Seville orange rind. The business prospered, and remains a signature marmalade producer today.


title: Marmalade

text: According to a Scottish legend, the creation of orange marmalade in Dundee occurred by accident. The legend tells of a ship carrying a cargo of oranges that broke down in the port, resulting in some ingenious locals making marmalade out of the cargo. However, this legend was "decisively disproved by food historians", according to a "New York Times" report.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Cyanoacrylates are a family of strong fast-acting adhesives with industrial, medical, and household uses. They are derived from ethyl cyanoacrylate and related esters. The cyanoacrylate group in the monomer rapidly polymerizes in the presence of water to form long, strong chains. They have some minor toxicity.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Specific cyanoacrylates include methyl 2-cyanoacrylate (MCA), ethyl 2-cyanoacrylate (ECA, commonly sold under trade names such as "Super Glue" and "Krazy Glue", or Toagosei), "n"-butyl cyanoacrylate (n-BCA), octyl cyanoacrylate, and 2-octyl cyanoacrylate (used in medical, veterinary and first aid applications). Octyl cyanoacrylate was developed to address toxicity concerns and to reduce skin irritation and allergic response. Cyanoacrylate adhesives are sometimes known generically as instant glues, power glues or superglues. The abbreviation "CA" is commonly used for industrial grade cyanoacrylate.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: The original patent for cyanoacrylate was filed in 1947 by the B.F. Goodrich Company as an outgrowth of a search for materials suitable for clear plastic gun sights for the war effort. In 1942, a team of scientists headed by Harry Coover Jr. stumbled upon a formulation that stuck to everything with which it came in contact. The team quickly rejected the substance for the wartime application, but in 1951, while working as researchers for Eastman Kodak, Coover and a colleague, Fred Joyner, rediscovered cyanoacrylates. The two realized the true commercial potential, and a form of the adhesive was first sold in 1958 under the title "Eastman #910" (later "Eastman 910").


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: During the 1960s, Eastman Kodak sold cyanoacrylate to Loctite, which in turn repackaged and distributed it under a different brand name "Loctite Quick Set 404". In 1971, Loctite developed its own manufacturing technology and introduced its own line of cyanoacrylate, called "Super Bonder". Loctite quickly gained market share, and by the late 1970s it was believed to have exceeded Eastman Kodak's share in the North American industrial cyanoacrylate market. National Starch and Chemical Company purchased Eastman Kodak's cyanoacrylate business and combined it with several acquisitions made throughout the 1970s forming Permabond. Other manufacturers of cyanoacrylate include LePage (a Canadian company acquired by Henkel in 1996), the Permabond Division of National Starch and Chemical, which was a subsidiary of Unilever. Together, Loctite, Eastman, and Permabond accounted for approximately 75% of the industrial cyanoacrylate market. Permabond continued to manufacture the original 910 formula.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: In its liquid form, cyanoacrylate consists of monomers of cyanoacrylate ester molecules. Methyl 2-cyanoacrylate (CH=C(C≡N)COOCH) has a molecular weight of 111.1 g/mol, a flashpoint of , and a density of 1.1 g/mL. Ethyl 2-cyanoacrylate ((CH=C(C≡N)COOCHCH)) has a molecular weight of 125 g/mol and a flashpoint of more than . To facilitate easy handling, a cyanoacrylate adhesive is frequently formulated with an ingredient such as fumed silica to make it more viscous or gel-like. More recently, formulations are available with additives to increase shear strength, creating a more impact resistant bond. Such additives may include rubber, as in Loctite's "Ultra Gel", or others which are not specified.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: In general, the acryl groups rapidly undergo chain-growth polymerisation in the presence of water (specifically hydroxide ions), forming long, strong chains, joining the bonded surfaces together. Because the presence of moisture causes the glue to set, exposure to normal levels of humidity in the air causes a thin skin to start to form within seconds, which very greatly slows the reaction; hence, cyanoacrylates are applied as thin coats to ensure that the reaction proceeds rapidly for bonding.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Cyanoacrylate adhesives have a short shelf life—about one year from manufacture if unopened, and one month once opened.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Cyanoacrylates are mainly used as adhesives. Thin layers bond effectively, thick layers much less so. They bond many substances, including human skin and tissues, natural fibres, cotton, wool, and leather.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Cyanoacrylate glue has a low shearing strength, which has led to its use as a temporary adhesive in cases where the piece needs to be sheared off later. Common examples include mounting a workpiece to a sacrificial glue block on a lathe, and tightening pins and bolts. It is also used in conjunction with another slower, but more resilient, adhesive as a way of rapidly forming a joint, which then holds the pieces in the appropriate configuration until the second adhesive has set.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Cyanoacrylate-based glue has a weak bond with smooth surfaces and as such easily gives to friction; a good example of this is the fact that cyanoacrylates may be removed from human skin by means of abrasives (e.g. sugar or sandpaper).


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Cyanoacrylates are used to assemble prototype electronics (used in wire wrap), flying model aircraft, and as retention dressings for nuts and bolts. Their effectiveness in bonding metal and general versatility have made them popular among modeling and miniatures hobbyists.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Cyanoacrylate glue's ability to resist water has made it popular with marine aquarium hobbyists for fragmenting corals. The cut branches of hard corals, such as Acropora, can be glued to a piece of live rock (harvested reef coral) or Milliput (epoxy putty) to allow the new fragment to grow out. It is safe to use directly in the tank, unlike silicone which must be cured to be safe. However, as a class of adhesives, traditional cyanoacrylates are classified as having "weak" resistance to both moisture and heat although the inclusion of phthalic anhydride reportedly counteracts both of these characteristics. Cyanoacrylate glue is also used frequently in aquascaping both freshwater and marine aquariums for the purpose of securing the rhizomes of live plants to pieces of wood or stone.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Most standard cyanoacrylate adhesives do not bond well with smooth glass, although they can be used as a quick, temporary bond prior to application of an epoxy or cyanoacrylate specifically formulated for use on glass. A mechanical adhesive bond may be formed around glass fibre mat or tissue to reinforce joints or to fabricate small parts.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: When added to baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), cyanoacrylate glue forms a hard, lightweight adhesive filler. This works well with porous materials that do not work well with the adhesive alone. This method is sometimes used by aircraft modelers to assemble or repair polystyrene parts. It is also used to repair small nicks in the leading edge of wood propeller blades on light aircraft, although this technique is limited to use on aircraft registered in the "experimental" category (composite propellers can be repaired in a similar way using two-part epoxies). This technique can also be used to fill in the slots in the nut of a guitar so that new ones can be cut. The reaction between cyanoacrylate and baking soda is very exothermic (heat-producing) and also produces noxious vapors.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: One brand of cyanoacrylate, "SupaFix", uses calcium oxide as a filler giving an even harder (mortar-like in texture) result that can be used to join hard materials and even repair cracked castings.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Cyanoacrylate is used as a forensic tool to capture latent fingerprints on non-porous surfaces like glass, plastic, etc. Cyanoacrylate is warmed to produce fumes that react with the invisible fingerprint residues and atmospheric moisture to form a white polymer (polycyanoacrylate) on the fingerprint ridges. The ridges can then be recorded. The developed fingerprints are, on most surfaces (except on white plastic or similar), visible to the naked eye. Invisible or poorly visible prints can be further enhanced by applying a luminescent or non-luminescent stain.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Thin cyanoacrylate glue has application in woodworking. It can be used as a fast-drying, glossy finish. An oil, such as boiled linseed oil, may be used to control the rate at which the cyanoacrylate cures. Cyanoacrylate glue is also used in combination with sawdust (from a saw or sanding) to fill voids and cracks. These repair methods are used on piano soundboards, wood instruments, and wood furniture. Cyanoacrylate glue is also used in the finishing of pen blanks (wooden blanks for turning pens) that have been turned on a lathe by applying multiple thin layers to build up a hard, clear finish that can then be sanded and polished to a glossy finish.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Cyanoacrylate glue was in veterinary use for mending bone, hide, and tortoise shell by the early 1970s or before. Harry Coover said in 1966 that a cyanoacrylate spray was used in the Vietnam War to reduce bleeding in wounded soldiers until they could be taken to a hospital. "n"-Butyl cyanoacrylate has been used medically since the 1970s. In the US, due to its potential to irritate the skin, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) did not approve its use as a medical adhesive until 1998 with Dermabond (2-octyl cyanoacrylate). A 1986 independent study suggests that cyanoacrylate can be safer and more functional for wound closure than traditional suturing (stitches). The adhesive is superior in terms of time required to close wounds, the incidence of infection (suture canals through the skin's epidermal, dermal, and subcutaneous fat layers introduce additional routes of contamination), and finally cosmetic appearance.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Some rock climbers use cyanoacrylate to repair damage to the skin on their fingertips. Similarly, stringed-instrument players can form protective finger caps (typically, when they lose their calluses due to inactivity or accidents) with cyanoacrylates. While the glue is not very toxic and wears off quickly with shed skin, applying large quantities of glue and its fumes directly to the skin can cause chemical burns.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: While standard "superglue" is 100% ethyl 2-cyanoacrylate, many custom formulations (e.g."," 91% ECA, 9% poly(methyl methacrylate), <0.5% hydroquinone, and a small amount of organic sulfonic acid, and variations on the compound "n"-butyl cyanoacrylate for medical applications) have come to be used for specific applications. There are three cyanoacrylate compounds currently available as topical skin adhesives. 2-Octyl cyanoacrylate is marketed as Dermabond, SurgiSeal, and more recently LiquiBand Exceed. "n"-Butyl cyanoacrylate is marketed as Histoacryl, Indermil, GluStitch, GluSeal, PeriAcryl, and LiquiBand. The compound ethyl 2-cyanoacrylate is available as Epiglu.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: The ester substituent has several effects upon the biocompatibility of the adhesive. Longer side chains result in higher flexibility of the cured adhesive allowing a better match for the flexibility of skin, and can result in a slower release of formaldehyde after curing. Alkoxy-ethyl substituents have also been investigated and have shown some promise as a medical adhesive.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Cyanoacrylate is used in archery to glue fletching to arrow shafts. Some special fletching glues are primarily cyanoacrylate repackaged in special fletching glue kits. Such tubes often have a long, thin metal nozzle for improved precision in applying the glue to the base of the fletching and to ensure secure bonding to the arrow shaft.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Cyanoacrylate is used in the cosmetology and beauty industry as an eyelash extension glue, or a "nail glue" for some artificial nail enhancements such as nail tips and nail wraps, and is sometimes mistaken for eye drops causing accidental injury (chemical eye injury).


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Cyanoacrylate adhesives may adhere to body parts, and injuries may occur when parts of the skin are torn off. Without force, however, the glue will spontaneously separate from the skin in time (up to four days). Separation can be accelerated by applying vegetable oil near, on, and around the glue. In the case of glued eyelids, especially if it has contacted the eyeball, a doctor should be consulted.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: The fumes from cyanoacrylate are a vaporized form of the cyanoacrylate monomer that irritate the sensitive mucous membranes of the respiratory tract (nose, throat, and lungs) and the eyes. They are immediately polymerized by the moisture in the membranes and become inert. These risks can be minimized by using cyanoacrylate in well-ventilated areas. About 5% of the population can become sensitized to cyanoacrylate fumes after repeated exposure, resulting in flu-like symptoms. Cyanoacrylate may also be a skin irritant, causing an allergic skin reaction. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) assign a threshold limit value exposure limit of 200 parts per billion. On rare occasions, inhalation may trigger asthma. There is no singular measurement of toxicity for all cyanoacrylate adhesives because of the large number of adhesives that contain various cyanoacrylate formulations.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: The United Kingdom's Health and Safety Executive and the United States National Toxicology Program have concluded that the use of ethyl cyanoacrylate is safe and that additional study is unnecessary. The compound 2-octyl cyanoacrylate degrades much more slowly due to its longer organic backbone (series of covalently bonded carbon molecules) and the adhesive does not reach the threshold of tissue toxicity. Due to the toxicity issues of ethyl cyanoacrylate, the use of 2-octyl cyanoacrylate for sutures is preferred.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Applying cyanoacrylate to some natural materials such as cotton (jeans, cotton swabs, cotton balls, and certain yarns or fabrics), or leather or wool results in a powerful, rapid, exothermic reaction. This reaction also occurs with fiberglass and carbon fiber. The heat released may cause serious burns or release irritating white smoke. Material safety data sheets for cyanoacrylate instruct users not to wear cotton (jeans) or wool clothing, especially cotton gloves, when applying or handling cyanoacrylates.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Acetone, commonly found as a fraction of nail polish remover (or at hardware stores in pure form), is a widely available solvent capable of softening cured cyanoacrylate. Other solvents include nitromethane, dimethylformamide, dimethyl sulfoxide, and methylene chloride. Another viable solvent for removing cured cyanoacrylate is "gamma"-butyrolactone. Commercial debonders are also available, many based on propylene carbonate.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: Cyanoacrylate adhesives have a short shelf life. Date-stamped containers help to ensure that the adhesive is still viable. One manufacturer supplies the following information and advice: When kept unopened in a cool, dry location such as a refrigerator at a temperature of about 55 °F (13 °C), the shelf life of cyanoacrylate will be extended from about one year from manufacture to at least 15 months. If the adhesive is to be used within six months, it is not necessary to refrigerate it. Cyanoacrylates are moisture-sensitive, and moving from a cool to a hot location will create condensation; after removing from the refrigerator, it is best to let the adhesive reach room temperature before opening. After opening, it should be used within 30 days. Open containers should not be refrigerated. Another manufacturer says that the maximum shelf life of 12 months is obtained for some of their cyanoacrylates if the original containers are stored at . User forums and some manufacturers say that an almost unlimited shelf life is attainable by storing unopened at , the typical temperature of a domestic freezer, and allowing the contents to reach room temperature before use. Opening a container while chilled may cause moisture from the air to condense in the container; however, reports from hobbyists suggest that storing cyanoacrylate in a freezer can preserve opened cyanoacrylate indefinitely.


title: Cyanoacrylate

text: As cyanoacrylates age, they polymerize, become thicker, and cure more slowly. They can be thinned with a cyanoacrylate of the same chemical composition with lower viscosity. Storing cyanoacrylates below will nearly stop the polymerization process and prevent aging.


title: Pierce Brothers Westwood Village Memorial Park and Mortuary

text: Pierce Brothers Westwood Village Memorial Park & Mortuary is a cemetery and mortuary located in the Westwood Village area of Los Angeles. It is located at 1218 Glendon Avenue in Westwood, with an entrance from Glendon Avenue.


text: The cemetery was established as "Sunset Cemetery" in 1905, but had been used for burials since the 1880s. In 1926, the name was officially changed to Westwood Memorial Park and was later changed again to Pierce Brothers Westwood Village Memorial Park & Mortuary.


text: Although it is the resting place of some of the entertainment industry's greatest names, it also contains the graves of many uncelebrated people. For example, when Marilyn Monroe died in 1962, Joe DiMaggio, responsible for Monroe's arrangements, chose Westwood not because of its celebrities but because it was the resting place of her mother's friend, Grace Goddard, and Goddard's aunt, Ana Lower, both of whom had cared for Monroe as a child.


title: RIM-174 Standard ERAM

text: The RIM-174 Standard Extended Range Active Missile (ERAM), or Standard Missile 6 (SM-6) is a missile in current production for the United States Navy. It was designed for extended range anti-air warfare (ER-AAW) purposes providing capability against fixed and rotary-wing aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles, anti-ship cruise missiles in flight, both over sea and land, and terminal ballistic missile defense. It can also be used as a high speed anti-ship missile. The missile uses the airframe of the earlier SM-2ER Block IV (RIM-156A) missile, adding the active radar homing seeker from the AIM-120C AMRAAM in place of the semi-active seeker of the previous design. This will improve the capability of the Standard missile against highly agile targets, and targets beyond the effective range of the launching vessels' target illumination radars. Initial operating capability was planned for 2013 and was achieved on 27 November 2013. The SM-6 is not meant to replace the SM-2 series of missiles, but will serve alongside and provide extended range and increased firepower. It was approved for export in January 2017.


title: RIM-174 Standard ERAM

text: The Standard ERAM is a two-stage missile with a booster stage and a second stage. It is similar in appearance to the RIM-156A Standard missile. The radar seeker is an enlarged version adapted from the AIM-120C AMRAAM seeker ( versus ). The missile may be employed in a number of modes: inertial guided to target with terminal acquisition using active radar seeker, semi-active radar homing all the way, or an over the horizon shot with Cooperative Engagement Capability. The missile is also capable of terminal ballistic missile defense as a supplement to the Standard Missile 3 (RIM-161). Unlike other missiles of the Standard family, the Standard ERAM can be periodically tested and certified without removal from the vertical launching system.


title: RIM-174 Standard ERAM

text: The SM-6 offers extended range over previous SM-2 series missiles, primarily being able to intercept very high altitude or sea-skimming anti-ship missiles, and is also capable of performing terminal phase ballistic missile defense. The SM-6 can also function as a high speed anti-ship missile. It can discriminate targets using its dual-mode seeker, with the semi-active seeker relying on a ship-based illuminator to highlight the target, and the active seeker having the missile itself send out an electromagnetic signal; the active seeker has the ability to detect a land-based cruise missile amid ground features, even from behind a mountain. The multi-mission SM-6 is engineered with the aerodynamics of an SM-2, the propulsion booster stack of the SM-3, and the front end configuration of the AMRAAM. Estimates of the SM-6's range vary; its official published range is , but it could be anywhere from to as much as .


title: RIM-174 Standard ERAM

text: The U.S. Navy is adding GPS guidance to the SM-6 Block IA so that it has the capability to strike surface targets if needed, but given its higher cost than other land attack weapons like the Tomahawk cruise missile, it would not likely be used as a primary option. In February 2016, Secretary of Defense Ashton Carter confirmed that the SM-6 would be modified to act as an anti-ship weapon.


title: RIM-174 Standard ERAM

text: On 17 January 2018, the U.S. Navy approved plans to develop the SM-6 Block IB, which will feature a 53.34 cm (21-inch) rocket motor instead of the current 34.29 cm (13.5 inch) motor. The new variant will significantly increase the missile's range and speed, enabling a hypersonic and extended range anti-surface warfare capability.


title: RIM-174 Standard ERAM

text: In November 2020, the U.S. Army selected the SM-6 to fulfill its Mid-Range Capability (MRC), giving it a land-based long-range missile capable of striking ground targets. The Army plans to use the SM-6 alongside a ground-based Tomahawk cruise missile and field them by late 2023.


title: RIM-174 Standard ERAM

text: Raytheon entered a contract in 2004 to develop the missile for the United States Navy, after the cancellation of the Standard Missile 2 extended range block IVA (RIM-156B). Development started in 2005, followed by testing in 2007. The missile was officially designated RIM-174A in February 2008. Initial low rate production was authorized in 2009. Raytheon received a $93 million contract to begin production of the RIM-174A in September 2009. The first low-rate production missile was delivered in March 2011. SM-6 was approved for full-rate production in May 2013. On 27 November 2013, the Standard ERAM achieved IOC (Initial Operating Capability) when it was fielded on board .


title: RIM-174 Standard ERAM

text: During exercises from 18–20 June 2014, the "Arleigh Burke"-class destroyer fired four SM-6s. One part of the exercise, designated NIFC-CA AS-02A, resulted in the then-longest surface-to-air engagement in naval history; the exact range of the intercept was not publicly released. On 14 August 2014, an SM-6 was test fired against a subsonic, low-altitude cruise missile target and successfully intercepted it over land. A key element of the test was to assess its ability to discern a slow-moving target among ground clutter. On 24 October 2014, Raytheon announced that two SM-6s intercepted anti-ship and cruise missile targets during "engage on remote" scenarios. A low-altitude, short-range supersonic GQM-163A and a low-altitude, medium-range subsonic BQM-74E were shot down by SM-6s fired from a guided-missile cruiser using targeting information provided by a guided-missile destroyer. Advanced warning and cueing from other ships allows the missile's over-the-horizon capability to be used to a greater extent, allowing a single ship to defend a much larger area. In May 2015, the SM-6 was moved from low-rate to full-rate production, significantly increasing production numbers and further reducing unit cost.


title: RIM-174 Standard ERAM

text: On 28 July 2015, the Navy tested the modified SM-6 Dual I version to successfully intercept a ballistic missile target in the terminal phase, the last few seconds before it would impact; the Dual I upgrade adds a more powerful processor that runs more sophisticated targeting software to hit a warhead descending from the upper atmosphere at extreme speed. This adds to the fleet's missile defense capabilities by allowing it to intercept ballistic missiles that could not be hit by SM-3 missiles, which targets missiles in the midcourse phase. The Navy had used the SM-2 Block IV as a terminal ballistic interceptor, but the SM-6 combines missile defense with traditional cruise missile and aircraft interdiction in the same package. The SM-6 Dual I configuration is planned to enter service in 2016.


title: RIM-174 Standard ERAM

text: In January 2016, the SM-6 demonstrated both maximum down range and maximum cross range intercepts in over-the-horizon, engage-on-remote missions supported by CEC, breaking the previous maximum engagement record it set in June 2014. Five targets were shot down in the test, proving the missile's capability to conduct multiple target scenarios. The SM-6 also sunk the decommissioned in an 18 January 2016 demonstration, displaying its anti-ship capabilities. On 30 September 2016, Raytheon announced the SM-6 had again achieved the longest surface-to-air intercept in naval history, breaking its previous long-range intercept record made in January 2016. On 14 December 2016, the Missile Defense Agency successfully launched two SM-6 Dual I missiles at a "complex, medium-range ballistic missile target", proving that its explosive—rather than hit-to-kill—warhead was capable of defeating medium range ballistic missile threats; this ability may enable it to counter Chinese DF-21D and DF-26B anti-ship ballistic missile threats.


title: RIM-174 Standard ERAM

text: In August 2017, the Missile Defense Agency conducted another successful intercept test of a medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM). Two SM-6 Dual I missiles were launched from USS "John Paul Jones" to intercept a target MRBM launched from the Pacific Missile Range Facility during the terminal phase of its flight. The test marked the third successful intercept of a ballistic missile by the SM-6.


title: RIM-174 Standard ERAM

text: On 27 May 2021, the Russian Navy ship Kareliya (SSV-535), a Vishnya-class auxiliary general intelligence (AGI) ship operating near Pacific Missile Range Facility, caused the delay of the Flight Test Aegis Weapon System.


title: RIM-174 Standard ERAM

text: On 29 May 2021, Flight Test Aegis Weapon System 31 Event 1, a salvo of two SM-6 Dual II missiles failed to intercept two medium-range ballistic missile; only one MRBM was intercepted.


title: Memantine

text: Memantine is a medication used to slow the progression of moderate-to-severe Alzheimer's disease. It is taken by mouth.


title: Memantine

text: Common side effects include headache, constipation, sleepiness, and dizziness. Severe side effects may include blood clots, psychosis, and heart failure. It is believed to work by acting on NMDA receptors, working as pore blockers of these ion channels.


title: Memantine

text: Memantine was approved for medical use in the United States in 2003. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 152nd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 3million prescriptions.


title: Memantine

text: Memantine is used to treat moderate-to-severe Alzheimer's disease, especially for people who are intolerant of or have a contraindication to AChE (acetylcholinesterase) inhibitors. One guideline recommends memantine or an AChE inhibitor be considered in people in the early-to-mid stage of dementia.


title: Memantine

text: Memantine has been associated with a modest improvement; with small positive effects on cognition, mood, behavior, and the ability to perform daily activities in moderate-to-severe Alzheimer's disease. There does not appear to be any benefit in mild disease.


title: Memantine

text: Memantine when added to donepezil in those with moderate-to-severe dementia resulted in "limited improvements" in a 2017 review. The UK National Institute of Clinical Excellence (NICE) issued guidance in 2018 recommending consideration of the combination of memantine with donepezil in those with moderate-to-severe dementia.


title: Memantine

text: Memantine has been investigated as a possible augmentation strategy for depression in bipolar disorder but meta-analytic evidence does not support its clinical utility.


title: Memantine

text: Memantine is, in general, well tolerated. Common adverse drug reactions (≥1% of people) include confusion, dizziness, drowsiness, headache, insomnia, agitation, and/or hallucinations. Less common adverse effects include vomiting, anxiety, hypertonia, cystitis, and increased libido.


title: Memantine

text: Like many other NMDA antagonists, memantine behaves as a dissociative anesthetic at supratherapeutic doses. Despite isolated reports, recreational use of memantine is rare due to the drug's long duration and limited availability. Also memantine seems to lack effects such as euphoria or hallucinations.


title: Memantine

text: A dysfunction of glutamatergic neurotransmission, manifested as neuronal excitotoxicity, is hypothesized to be involved in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease. Targeting the glutamatergic system, specifically NMDA receptors, offers a novel approach to treatment in view of the limited efficacy of existing drugs targeting the cholinergic system.


title: Memantine

text: Memantine is a low-affinity voltage-dependent uncompetitive antagonist at glutamatergic NMDA receptors. By binding to the NMDA receptor with a higher affinity than Mg ions, memantine is able to inhibit the prolonged influx of Ca ions, particularly from extrasynaptic receptors, which forms the basis of neuronal excitotoxicity. The low affinity, uncompetitive nature, and rapid off-rate kinetics of memantine at the level of the NMDA receptor-channel, however, preserves the function of the receptor at synapses, as it can still be activated by physiological release of glutamate following depolarization of the postsynaptic neuron. The interaction of memantine with NMDA receptors plays a major role in the symptomatic improvement that the drug produces in Alzheimer's disease. However, there is no evidence as yet that the ability of memantine to protect against extrasynaptic NMDA receptor-mediated excitotoxicity has a disease-modifying effect in Alzheimer's, although this has been suggested in animal models.


title: Memantine

text: Memantine's antagonism on NMDA receptors has aroused interest in repurposing it for mental illnesses such as bipolar disorder, considering the involvement of the glutamatergic system in the pathophysiology of mood disorders.


title: Memantine

text: Memantine acts as a non-competitive antagonist at the 5-HT receptor, with a potency similar to that for the NMDA receptor. Many 5-HT antagonists function as antiemetics, however the clinical significance of this serotonergic activity in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease is unknown.


title: Memantine

text: Memantine acts as a non-competitive antagonist at different neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) at potencies possibly similar to the NMDA and 5-HT3 receptors, but this is difficult to ascertain with accuracy because of the rapid desensitization of nAChR responses in these experiments. It can be noted that memantine is an antagonist at Alpha-7 nAChR, which may contribute to initial worsening of cognitive function during early memantine treatment. Alpha-7 nAChR upregulates quickly in response to antagonism, which could explain the cognitive-enhancing effects of chronic memantine treatment. It has been shown that the number of nicotinic receptors in the brain are reduced in Alzheimer's disease, even in the absence of a general decrease in the number of neurons, and nicotinic receptor agonists are viewed as interesting targets for anti-Alzheimer drugs.


title: Memantine

text: Memantine was shown in a study to act as an agonist at the dopamine D2 receptor with equal or slightly higher affinity than to the NMDA receptors; however, the relevance of this may be negligible, as studies have shown very low affinity for binding to D2 receptors in general.


title: Memantine

text: Memantine acts as an agonist at the σ1 receptor with a low affinity (K 2.6 μM). The consequences of this activity are unclear (as the role of sigma receptors in general is not yet that well understood). Due to this low affinity, therapeutic concentrations of memantine are most likely too low to have any sigmaergic effect as a typical therapeutic dose is 20 mg, however excessive doses of memantine taken for recreational purposes many times greater than prescribed doses may indeed activate this receptor.


title: Memantine

text: Memantine was first synthesized and patented by Eli Lilly and Company in 1968 as an anti-diabetic agent, but it was ineffective at lowering blood sugar. Later it was discovered to have Central nervous system (CNS) activity, and was developed by Merz for dementia in Germany; the NMDA activity was discovered after trials had already begun. Memantine was first marketed for dementia in Germany in 1989 under the name Axura.


title: Memantine

text: In the US, some CNS activities were discovered at Children's Hospital of Boston in 1990, and Children's licensed patents covering uses of memantine outside the field of ophthalmology to Neurobiological Technologies (NTI) in 1995. In 1998 NTI amended its agreement with Children's to allow Merz to take over development.


title: Memantine

text: In 2000, Merz partnered with Forest to develop the drug for Alzheimer's disease in the U.S. under the name Namenda.


title: Memantine

text: In 2000, Merz partnered with Suntory for the Japanese market and with Lundbeck for other markets including Europe; the drug was originally marketed by Lundbeck under the name Ebixa.


title: Memantine

text: Sales of the drug reached $1.8 billion for 2014. The cost of Namenda was $269 to $489 a month in 2012.


title: Memantine

text: In February 2014, as the July 2015 patent expiration for memantine neared, Actavis, which had acquired Forest, announced that it was launching an extended release (XR) form of memantine that could be taken once a day instead of twice a day as needed with the then-current "immediate release" (IR) version, and that it intended to stop selling the IR version in August 2014 and withdraw the marketing authorization. This is a tactic to thwart generic competition called "product hopping". However the supply of the XR version ran short, so Actavis extended the deadline until the fall. In September 2014 the attorney general of New York, Eric Schneiderman, filed a lawsuit to compel Actavis to keep selling the IR version on the basis of antitrust law.


title: Memantine

text: In December 2014, a judge granted New York State its request and issued an injunction, preventing Actavis from withdrawing the IR version until generic versions could launch. Actavis appealed and in May a panel of the Second Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the injunction, and in June Actavis asked that its case be heard by the full Second Circuit panel. In August 2015, Actavis' request was denied.


title: Memantine

text: One preclinical study on monkeys showed that memantine was capable of inducing a PCP-like intoxication. Because of its very long biological half-life, memantine was previously thought not to be recreational, although a few cases of sporadic recreational use have been described.


title: Memantine

text: A study examining self-reported use of memantine on the social network Reddit showed that the drug was used recreationally and as a nootropic, but also that it was misused in various illnesses as self-medication without strong scientific basis.