title: Kerry Kennedy

text: Kennedy is a long-time activist for bail reform in New York and nationally. Her work includes campaigns in support of community bail funds like The Bronx Defenders, as well as direct activism in providing bail funds for minors held in pretrial detention at Rikers Island and other adult facilities across the country.


title: Kerry Kennedy

text: Kennedy has criticized the treatment of New York teenager Kalief Browder during his extended time in pretrial detention at Rikers Island. This included video recordings of guards beating Browder, withholding food, and denying medical treatment. In 2016, Kennedy campaigned for adoption of S 5998-A/A 8296-A, referred to as “Kalief's Law,” in the [New York State Legislature], which would have guaranteed speedy trials to defendants being held in pretrial detention. On June 9, 2016, the New York State Assembly passed Kalief's Law by a 138-2 margin. The law was not voted on by the New York State Senate in 2016, and has been reintroduced by State Senator Daniel L. Squadron during the 2017-2018 legislative session as S 1998-A.


title: Kerry Kennedy

text: Kennedy remains a major voice in the campaign for speedy trial reform in New York, writing in a 2017 "New York Daily News" editorial that “we make a mockery out of the promise” of a speedy trial. Kennedy has also worked closely with the Katal Center for Health, Equity and Justice to campaign for passage of speedy trial reform and criminal justice reform before the New York Assembly.


title: Kerry Kennedy

text: On June 21, 2017, Kennedy, through her organization, Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights, posted the $100,000 bail for Pedro Hernandez, a 17-year-old who had spent over a year in pretrial detention at Rikers Island in connection with a shooting investigation. Hernandez had become the face of bail reform following extensive reporting on his incarceration by "Daily News" columnist Shaun King.


title: Kerry Kennedy

text: Hernandez's bail had initially been set at over $250,000, but that sum was lowered to $100,000 after Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights argued such a high sum was disproportional. Less than a week after his release from Rikers Island, Bronx District Attorney Darcel D. Clark announced she would no longer pursue a case against Hernandez. On October 9, 2018, all remaining charges against Hernandez were dropped on the condition he attend college.


title: Kerry Kennedy

text: On June 21, 2018, in response to President Donald Trump's decision to enact a 'zero-tolerance' policy of family separation on immigrants entering the United States illegally, Kennedy joined organizations including the Dolores Huerta Foundation, the Texas Civil Rights Project and La Union Del Pueblo Entero to launch the 'Break Bread Not Families Immigration Fast and Prayer Chain. The campaign, which raised funds to support the reunification of immigrant families, argued Trump administration policy was "not only immoral, it is also illegal under U.S. and international law."


title: Kerry Kennedy

text: On June 23, 2018, the Break Bread Not Families campaign held a prayer vigil in the American border town of McAllen, Texas. The vigil marked the start of the campaign encouraged activists, political figures and celebrities to fast for 24 hours before passing the fast to another public figure. Participants included former United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Julian Castro, United States Senator Ed Markey, Congresswomen Rosa DeLauro, Barbara Lee and Annie McLane Kuster, Congressman Joseph P. Kennedy III, and actors such as Aisha Tyler, Alfre Woodard, Julia Roberts, Lena Dunham, and Evan Rachel Wood.


title: Kerry Kennedy

text: Kennedy joined protestors outside the Ursula Detention Center, where they temporarily blocked a bus of immigrant children from departing. Kennedy was threatened with arrest by U.S. Customs and Border Protection agents after repeatedly attempting to speak with officials inside Ursula about the use of chain-link cages to house children separated from their families.


title: Kerry Kennedy

text: The next day, Kennedy and Dolores Huerta led a march and rally outside the federal immigration camp in Tornillo, Texas in solidarity with the then-2,400 child immigrants in facilities like Tornillo. On July 18, 2018, Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights spokesman Max Burns reported that the campaign had raised "nearly $40,000 to support undocumented families seeking their children...from over 650 small, individual donors."


title: Kerry Kennedy

text: Kennedy holds honorary doctorates of law from Le Moyne College and University of San Francisco Law School, and of Humane Letters from Bay Path College and the Albany College of Pharmacy. She is also a member of the Massachusetts and District of Columbia bar associations.


title: Kerry Kennedy

text: On June 9, 1990, she married Andrew Cuomo at age 30 in the Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle in Washington, DC. They have three daughters: twins Cara Ethel Kennedy-Cuomo and Mariah Matilda Kennedy-Cuomo (born 1995), and Michaela Andrea Kennedy-Cuomo (born 1997). Kennedy and Cuomo divorced in 2005.


title: Kerry Kennedy

text: In July 2012, Kennedy allegedly sideswiped a tractor trailer on Interstate 684 in Westchester County. On the morning of July 13, 2012, Kennedy was found in her white Lexus. A police report said Kennedy had trouble speaking, was swaying and told an officer that she may have accidentally taken a sleeping pill earlier that day. In a court appearance on July 17, 2012, Kennedy said local hospital tests found no traces of drugs and that her doctor believed she had suffered a seizure. Kennedy pleaded not guilty to driving while impaired. Kennedy was charged by state police with leaving the scene of an accident. A toxicology report filed on July 25, 2012, said zolpidem was found in a sample of her blood taken when Kennedy was arrested, at which point Kennedy released a statement saying in part, "The results we received today from the Westchester County lab showed trace amounts of a sleep aid in my system, so it now appears that my first instinct was correct. I am deeply sorry to all those I endangered that day, and am enormously grateful for the support I have received over the past two weeks." Kennedy said she did not remember anything after entering a highway to go to a gym and before she found herself at a traffic light with a police officer at her door.


title: Kerry Kennedy

text: On January 23, 2014, Judge Robert Neary ruled that the drugged-driving case against Kennedy would move forward. The judge acknowledged that she was "not a typical criminal defendant. She has achieved a great deal and is dedicated to good works." Despite this, the judge said dismissal might lead the public to believe "that there are two justice systems: one for the rich and powerful, and one for everybody else." On February 20, 2014, jury selection for her trial began. Kennedy was not present, and was instead in Brussels and the Western Sahara conducting human rights advocacy. Sixty-two people were interviewed for the six-person panel. Kennedy's sister Rory testified that she had "a reputation for sobriety and general healthy living." Both Rory and their mother Ethel were present in the courtroom during the trial. Ethel was pushed in a wheelchair inside the Westchester County Courthouse and was accompanied by her sons Robert F. Kennedy, Jr. and Douglas Harriman Kennedy. Kennedy's attorney Gerald Lefcourt told jurors that while she did not expect her famous name to give her any advantages, Kennedy should not be punished for it either. Kennedy admitted to having been in a car wreck 18 months before the incident, as well as suffering a head injury that required medication.


title: Kerry Kennedy

text: Kennedy was acquitted of the charges on February 28, 2014. "You have to wonder why this ill-advised prosecution was brought," Lefcourt said after the verdict. "Was it because of who the defendant is? They concede it was accidental and nevertheless pursued this case. I find this very depressing." Prosecutors defended their actions. "This case was treated no differently from any of the others," Lucian Chalfen, spokesman for the Westchester County District Attorney said. On March 3, 2014, Kennedy appeared on NBC's "Today" and criticized Westchester County for prosecuting "people who the district attorney and police believe to be innocent of the crime, simply because of county protocol requiring all cases to be pursued."


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Phanerozoic Eon is the current geologic eon in the geologic time scale, and the one during which abundant animal and plant life has existed. It covers 538.8 million years to the present, and it began with the Cambrian Period, when animals first developed hard shells preserved in the fossil record. The time before the Phanerozoic, called the "Precambrian", is now divided into the Hadean, Archaean and Proterozoic eons.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The time span of the Phanerozoic starts with the sudden appearance of fossilized evidence of a number of animal phyla; the evolution of those phyla into diverse forms; the emergence and development of complex plants; the evolution of fish; the emergence of insects and tetrapods; and the development of modern fauna. Plant life on land appeared in the early Phanerozoic eon. During this time span, tectonic forces which move the continents had collected them into a single landmass known as Pangaea (the most recent supercontinent), which then separated into the current continental landmasses.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The term "Phanerozoic" derives from the Ancient Greek words (), meaning "visible", and (), meaning "life"; since it was once believed that life began in the Cambrian, the first period of this eon. The term "Phanerozoic" was coined in 1930 by the American geologist George Halcott Chadwick (1876–1953).


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Proterozoic-Phanerozoic boundary is at 538.8 million years ago. In the 19th century, the boundary was set at time of appearance of the first abundant animal (metazoan) fossils but several hundred groups (taxa) of metazoa of the preceding Proterozoic eon have been identified since the systematic study of those forms started in the 1950s.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Phanerozoic is divided into three eras: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, which are further subdivided into 12 periods. The Paleozoic features the evolution of fish, amphibians and reptiles. The Mesozoic features the evolution of lizards, crocodiles, snakes, turtles, mammals, and dinosaurs (including birds). The Cenozoic begins with the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs, and features evolution of great diversity in birds and mammals. Humans appeared and evolved during the most recent part of the Cenozoic.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Paleozoic is a time in Earth's history when complex life forms evolved, took their first breath of oxygen on dry land, and when the forerunners of all multicelular life on Earth began to diversify. There are six periods in the Paleozoic era: Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Cambrian is the first period of the Paleozoic Era and ran from 539 million to 485 million years ago. The Cambrian sparked a rapid expansion in the diversity of animals, in an event known as the Cambrian explosion, during which the greatest number of animal body plans evolved in a single period in the history of Earth. Complex algae evolved, and the fauna was dominated by armored arthropods, such as trilobites. Almost all phyla of marine animals evolved in this period. During this time, the super-continent Pannotia began to break up, most of which later recombined into the super-continent Gondwana.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Ordovician spans from 485 million to 444 million years ago. The Ordovician was a time in Earth's history in which many groups still prevalent today evolved or diversified, such as primitive cephalopods, fish, and corals. This process is known as the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event, or GOBE. Trilobites began to be replaced by articulate brachiopods, and crinoids also became an increasingly important part of the fauna. The first arthropods crept ashore to colonize Gondwana, a continent empty of animal life. By the end of the Ordovician, Gondwana had moved from the equator to the South Pole, and Laurentia had collided with Baltica, closing the Iapetus Ocean. The glaciation of Gondwana resulted in a major drop in sea level, killing off all life that had established along its coast. Glaciation caused an icehouse Earth, leading to the Ordovician–Silurian extinction, during which 60% of marine invertebrates and 25% of families became extinct. Though one of the deadliest mass extinctions in earth's history, the O-S extinction did not cause profound ecological changes between the periods.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Silurian spans from 444 million to 419 million years ago, which saw a warming from an icehouse Earth. This period saw the mass evolution of fish, as jawless fish became more numerous, and early jawed and freshwater fish appeared in the fossil record. Arthropods remained abundant, and some groups, such as eurypterids, became apex predators. Fully terrestrial life established itself on land, including early arachnids, fungi, and myriapods (many-legged arthropods). The evolution of vascular plants such as "Cooksonia" allowed plants to gain a foothold on land as well. These early terrestrial plants are the forerunners of all plant life on land. During this time, there were four continents: Gondwana (Africa, South America, Australia, Antarctica, India), Laurentia (North America with parts of Europe), Baltica (the rest of Europe), and Siberia (Northern Asia).


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Devonian spans from 419 million to 359 million years ago. Also informally known as the "Age of the Fish", the Devonian features a huge diversification in fish. Armored fish included jawless "agnathans", as well as jawed placoderms such as "Dunkleosteus." The Devonian also saw a diversification of modern fish groups such as chondricthyans (sharks and kin), osteichthyans (ray-finned fish), and sarcopterygians (lobe-finned fish). One lineage of sarcopterygians evolved into the first four-limbed vertebrates, which would eventually become tetrapods. On land, plant groups diversified; the first trees and seeds evolved during this period. By the Middle Devonian, shrub-like forests of early plants existed: lycophytes, horsetails, ferns, and progymnosperm. This event also allowed the diversification of arthropod life as they took advantage of the new habitat. Near the end of the Devonian, 70% of all species became extinct in a sequence of mass extinction events, collectively known as the Late Devonian extinction.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Carboniferous spans from 359 million to 299 million years ago. Tropical swamps dominated the Earth, and the large amounts of trees created much of the carbon that became coal deposits (hence the name Carboniferous). About 90% of all coal beds were deposited in the Carboniferous and Permian periods, which represent just 2% of the Earth's geologic history. The high oxygen levels caused by these swamps allowed massive arthropods, normally limited in size by their respiratory systems, to proliferate. Tetrapods diversified during the Carboniferous, and one lineage acquired an amniotic egg which could survive outside of the water. These tetrapods, the amniotes, included the first reptiles and synapsids (mammal relatives). Throughout the Carboniferous, there was a cooling pattern, which eventually led to the glaciation of Gondwana as much of it was situated around the south pole. This event was known as the Permo-Carboniferous glaciation and resulted in a major loss of area for coal forests, the Carboniferous rainforest collapse.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Permian spans from 298 million to 251 million years ago and was the last period of the Paleozoic era. At its beginning, all continents came together to form the super-continent Pangaea, surrounded by one ocean called Panthalassa. The Earth was relatively dry compared to the Carboniferous, with harsh seasons, as the climate of the interior of Pangaea was not moderated by large bodies of water. Amniotes flourished and diversified in the new dry climate, particularly synapsids such as "Dimetrodon," "Edaphosaurus," and the ancestors of modern mammals. The first conifers evolved during this period, then dominated the terrestrial landscape. The Permian ended with at least one mass extinction, the Permian-Triassic mass extinction, an event sometimes known as "the Great Dying". This extinction was the largest in earth's history and led to the loss of 95% of all species of life.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Mesozoic ranges from 252 million to 66 million years ago. Also referred to as the Age of Reptiles or Age of Conifers, the Mesozoic featured the appearance of many modern tetrapods, as reptiles ascended to ecological dominance over synapsids. The Mesozoic is subdivided into three periods: the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Triassic ranges from 252 million to 201 million years ago. The Triassic is a transitional time in Earth's history between the Permian Extinction and the lush Jurassic Period. It has three major epochs: Early Triassic, Middle Triassic. and Late Triassic.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Early Triassic lasted between 252 million to 247 million years ago, and was a hot and arid epoch in the aftermath of the Permian Extinction. Many tetrapods during this epoch represented a disaster fauna, a group of animals with low diversity and cosmopolitanism (wide geographic ranges). Temnospondyli recovered and rediversified into large aquatic predators during the Triassic. Reptiles also diversified rapidly, with aquatic reptiles such as ichthyosaurs and sauropterygians proliferating in the seas. On land, the first true archosaurs appeared, including pseudosuchians (crocodile relatives) and avemetatarsalians (bird/dinosaur relatives).


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Middle Triassic spans from 247 million to 237 million years ago. The Middle Triassic featured the beginnings of the breakup of Pangaea as rifting commenced in north Pangaea. The northern part of the Tethys Ocean, the Paleotethys Ocean, had become a passive basin, but a spreading center was active in the southern part of the Tethys Ocean, the Neotethys Ocean. Phytoplankton, coral, crustaceans, and many other invertebrates recovered from the Permian extinction by the end of the Middle Triassic. Meanwhile, on land, reptiles continued to diversify, conifer forests flourished, as well as the first flies.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Late Triassic spans from 237 million to 201 million years ago. Following the bloom of the Middle Triassic, the Late Triassic was warm and arid, with a strong monsoon climate and with most precipitation limited to coastal regions and high latitudes. The first true dinosaurs appeared early in the Late Triassic, and pterosaurs evolved a bit later. Other large reptilian competitors to the dinosaurs were wiped out by the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, in which most archosaurs (excluding crocodylomorphs, pterosaurs, and dinosaurs), many synapsids, and almost all large amphibians became extinct, as well as 34% of marine life in the fourth mass extinction event. The cause of the extinction is debated, but likely resulted from eruptions of the CAMP large igneous province.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Jurassic ranges from 201 million to 145 million years ago, and features three major epochs: Early Jurassic, Middle Jurassic, and Late Jurassic.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Early Jurassic Epoch spans from 201 million to 174 million years ago. The climate was much more humid than during the Triassic, and as a result, the world was warm and partially tropical, though possibly with short colder intervals. Plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs and ammonites dominated the seas, while dinosaurs and other reptiles dominated the land, with species such as "Dilophosaurus" at the apex. Crocodylomorphs evolved into aquatic forms, pushing the large amphibians to near extinction. True mammals were present during the Jurassic but remained small, with average body masses of less than until the end of the Cretaceous.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Middle and Late Jurassic Epochs span from 174 million to 145 million years ago. Conifer savannahs made up a large portion of the world's forests. In the oceans, plesiosaurs were quite common, and ichthyosaurs were flourishing. The Late Jurassic Epoch spans from 163 million to 145 million years ago. The Late Jurassic featured a severe extinction of sauropods in northern continents, alongside many ichthyosaurs. However, the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary did not strongly impact most forms of life.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Cretaceous is the Phanerozoic's longest period, and the last period of the Mesozoic. It spans from 145 million to 66 million years ago, and is divided into two epochs: Early Cretaceous, and Late Cretaceous.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Early Cretaceous Epoch spans from 145 million to 100 million years ago. Dinosaurs continued to be abundant, with groups such as tyrannosauroids, avialans (birds), marginocephalians, and ornithopods seeing early glimpses of later success. Other tetrapods, such as stegosaurs and ichthyosaurs, declined significantly, and sauropods were restricted to southern continents.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Late Cretaceous Epoch spans from 100 million to 66 million years ago. The Late Cretaceous featured a cooling trend that would continue into the Cenozoic Era. Eventually, the tropical climate was restricted to the equator and areas beyond the tropic lines featured more seasonal climates. Dinosaurs still thrived as new species such as "Tyrannosaurus", "Ankylosaurus", "Triceratops" and hadrosaurs dominated the food web. Whether or not pterosaurs went into a decline as birds radiated is debated; however, many families survived until the end of the Cretaceous, alongside new forms such as the gigantic "Quetzalcoatlus". Mammals diversified despite their small sizes, with metatherians (marsupials and kin) and eutherians (placentals and kin) coming into their own. In the oceans, mosasaurs diversified to fill the role of the now-extinct ichthyosaurs, alongside huge plesiosaurs such as "Elasmosaurus". Also, the first flowering plants evolved. At the end of the Cretaceous, the Deccan Traps and other volcanic eruptions were poisoning the atmosphere. As this was continued, it is thought that a large meteor smashed into Earth, creating the Chicxulub Crater and the event known as the K–Pg extinction, the fifth and most recent mass extinction event, during which 75% of life on Earth became extinct, including all non-avian dinosaurs. Every living thing with a body mass over 10 kilograms became extinct, and the age of the dinosaurs came to an end.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Cenozoic featured the rise of mammals as the dominant class of animals, as the end of the age of the dinosaurs left significant open niches. There are three divisions of the Cenozoic: Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Paleogene spans from the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs, some 66 million years ago, to the dawn of the Neogene 23 million years ago. It features three epochs: Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Paleocene Epoch began with the K–Pg extinction event, and the early part of the Paleocene saw the recovery of the Earth from that event. The continents began to take their modern shapes, but most continents (and India) remained separated from each other: Africa and Eurasia were separated by the Tethys Sea, and the Americas were separated by the strait of Panama, as the Isthmus of Panama had not yet formed. This epoch featured a general warming trend, and the earliest modern jungles expanded, eventually reaching the poles. The oceans were dominated by sharks, as the large reptiles that had once ruled had become extinct. Mammals diversified rapidly, but most remained small. The largest tetrapod carnivores during the Paleocene were reptiles, including crocodyliforms, choristoderans, and snakes. "Titanoboa," the largest known snake, lived in South America during the Paleocene.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Eocene Epoch ranged from 56 million to 34 million years ago. In the early Eocene, most land mammals were small and living in cramped jungles, much like the Paleocene. Among them were early primates, whales and horses along with many other early forms of mammals. The climate was warm and humid, with little temperature gradient from pole to pole. In the Middle Eocene Epoch, the circum-Antarctic current between Australia and Antarctica formed, disrupting ocean currents worldwide, resulting in global cooling, and causing the jungles to shrink. More modern forms of mammals continued to diversify with the cooling climate even as more archaic forms died out. By the end of the Eocene, whales such as "Basilosaurus" had become fully aquatic. The late Eocene Epoch saw the rebirth of seasons, which caused the expansion of savanna-like areas with the earliest substantial grasslands. At the transition between the Eocene and Oligocene epochs there was a significant extinction event, the cause of which is debated.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Oligocene Epoch spans from 34 million to 23 million years ago. The Oligocene was an important transitional period between the tropical world of the Eocene and more modern ecosystems. This period featured a global expansion of grass which led to many new species taking advantage, including the first elephants, cats, dogs, marsupials and many other species still prevalent today. Many other species of plants evolved during this epoch also, such as the evergreen trees. The long term cooling continued and seasonal rain patterns established. Mammals continued to grow larger. "Paraceratherium", one of the largest land mammals to ever live, evolved during this epoch, along with many other perissodactyls.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Neogene spans from 23.03 million to 2.58 million years ago. It features two epochs: the Miocene and the Pliocene.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Miocene spans from 23.03 million to 5.333 million years ago and is a period in which grass spread further across, effectively dominating a large portion of the world, diminishing forests in the process. Kelp forests evolved, leading to the evolution of new species, such as sea otters. During this time, perissodactyls thrived, and evolved into many different varieties. Alongside them were the apes, which evolved into 30 species. Overall, arid and mountainous land dominated most of the world, as did grazers. The Tethys Sea finally closed with the creation of the Arabian Peninsula and in its wake left the Black, Red, Mediterranean and Caspian Seas. This only increased aridity. Many new plants evolved, and 95% of modern seed plants evolved in the mid-Miocene.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Pliocene lasted from 5.333 million to 2.58 million years ago. The Pliocene featured dramatic climatic changes, which ultimately led to modern species and plants. The Mediterranean Sea dried up for hundreds of thousand years in the Messinian salinity crisis. Along with these major geological events, Africa saw the appearance of "Australopithecus," the ancestor of "Homo". The isthmus of Panama formed, and animals migrated between North and South America, wreaking havoc on the local ecology. Climatic changes brought savannas that are still continuing to spread across the world, Indian monsoons, deserts in East Asia, and the beginnings of the Sahara desert. The Earth's continents and seas moved into their present shapes. The world map has not changed much since, save for changes brought about by the glaciations of the Quaternary, such as the Great Lakes.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Quaternary spans from 2.58 million years ago to present day, and is the shortest geological period in the Phanerozoic Eon. It features modern animals, and dramatic changes in the climate. It is divided into two epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Pleistocene lasted from 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago. This epoch was marked by a series of glacial periods (ice ages) as a result of the cooling trend that started in the Mid-Eocene. There were numerous separate glaciation periods marked by the advance of ice caps as far south as 40 degrees N latitude in mountainous areas. Meanwhile, Africa experienced a trend of desiccation which resulted in the creation of the Sahara, Namib, and Kalahari deserts. Mammoths, giant ground sloths, dire wolves, saber-toothed cats, and humans were common and widespread during the Pleistocene. As the Pleistocene drew to a close, a major extinction wiped out much of the world's megafauna, including non-"Homo sapiens" human species such as "Homo neanderthalensis". All the continents were affected, but Africa was impacted to a lesser extent. That continent retained many large animals, such as elephants, rhinos, and hippos. The extent to which "Homo Sapiens" were involved in this extinction is debated.


title: Phanerozoic

text: The Holocene began 11,700 years ago and lasts until the present day. All recorded history and "Human history" lies within the boundaries of the Holocene epoch. Human activity is blamed for an ongoing mass extinction that began roughly 10,000 years ago, though the species becoming extinct have only been recorded since the Industrial Revolution. This is sometimes referred to as the "Sixth Extinction". Hundreds of species have become extinct due to human activity since the Industrial Revolution.


title: Phanerozoic

text: It has been demonstrated that changes in biodiversity through the Phanerozoic correlate much better with the hyperbolic model (widely used in demography and macrosociology) than with exponential and logistic models (traditionally used in population biology and extensively applied to fossil biodiversity as well). The latter models imply that changes in diversity are guided by a first-order positive feedback (more ancestors, more descendants) or a negative feedback that arises from resource limitation, or both. The hyperbolic model implies a second-order positive feedback. The hyperbolic pattern of the human population growth arises from quadratic positive feedback, caused by the interaction of the population size and the rate of technological growth. The character of biodiversity growth in the Phanerozoic Eon can be similarly accounted for by a feedback between the diversity and community structure complexity. It has been suggested that the similarity between the curves of biodiversity and human population probably comes from the fact that both are derived from the superposition on the hyperbolic trend of cyclical and random dynamics.


title: Ross Mathews

text: Ross Mathews (born September 24, 1979) is an American television host and personality. He first rose to fame as an intern and a correspondent for "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno"; he was known as "Ross the Intern" on air.


title: Ross Mathews

text: Mathews has appeared on "Celebrity Fit Club", "The Insider", "Celebrity Big Brother", and as a weekly panelist on "Chelsea Lately". He is a judge on "RuPaul's Drag Race", hosts a weekly podcast with Westwood One Studios, and assists with hosting "The Drew Barrymore Show". He has been a co-host on "Live from E!" and correspondent on "The Jay Leno Show".


title: Ross Mathews

text: Raised in Mount Vernon, Washington, Mathews graduated from Mount Vernon High School and graduated from the University of La Verne, in La Verne, California in 2002. He majored in communications and competed in speech and debate competitions.


title: Ross Mathews

text: Mathews began as an intern on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno". Beginning in December 2001 he covered movie premieres, the Academy Awards, two Winter Olympic Games, and other events.


title: Ross Mathews

text: Mathews has contributed commentary to the E! networks various "101..." specials, and appeared as a weekly panelist on E's late night talk show "Chelsea Lately". He appeared on the fifth season of VH1's reality television show, "Celebrity Fit Club". During the course of the show, which premiered in April 2007, Mathews lost more than 40 lbs. (18 kg) and helped his team win the grand prize. He was also a guest host on "The View" on July 17, 2007.


title: Ross Mathews

text: Mathews appeared as a celebrity mob member on seven episodes of NBC's prime time game show "1 vs. 100" in early 2008. In 2009, he was a contributing correspondent on "The Insider", and hosted a web show on "The Insider" called "Inside Dish With Ross Mathews"; he took viewers behind the scenes as an "outsider" in Hollywood. "Inside Dish" became the official online web-shows for CBS's "Big Brother" and "The Amazing Race". Also in 2009, he co-hosted GSN's "Big Saturday Night", a weekly game show. His other 2009 appearances included "The Howard Stern Show" and the 2009 Game Show Awards with Diane.


title: Ross Mathews

text: Mathews joined the panel of judges for RuPaul’s drag race with occasional appearances in the earlier seasons and more frequent appearances beginning in Season 7.


title: Ross Mathews

text: In 2010, Mathews joined the E! Network's red carpet team, filling in for Ryan Seacrest as co-host with Giuliana Rancic for E! Live From the Red Carpet coverage of the 2011 Screen Actors Guild Awards, the 2010 Emmy Awards, the 2011 Golden Globe Awards, and the 2011 Academy Awards.


title: Ross Mathews

text: In January 2011, Mathews starred in a pilot that he produced and co-wrote with fellow "Chelsea Lately" round table regular Heather McDonald. Titled "Love or Hate", the pilot was made for the E! Network and was executive produced by Chelsea Handler and her company Borderline Amazing Productions.


title: Ross Mathews

text: He also appeared in the E! Network's "After Lately", a show about the behind the scenes of "Chelsea Lately". By September 2011, Mathews had left "The Tonight Show" returning for guest appearances including the "Woulda, Coulda, Shoulda" skit on December 14, 2011.


title: Ross Mathews

text: Mathews appeared in the fourth episode of the Bravo series "Interior Therapy with Jeff Lewis" in 2012, in which Lewis redesigned his and his boyfriend's garage.


title: Ross Mathews

text: On May 7, 2013, Mathews released his book "Man Up! Tales of My Delusional Self-Confidence". He was the host of "Hello Ross", an interactive talk show on E! from September 6, 2013, until May 16, 2014. In 2015, he and Carson Kressley were named as new regular judges for the 7th season of "RuPaul's Drag Race". At the end of 2015, Mathews began filling in as a guest host on "Hollywood Today Live", which is syndicated on Fox. He became a permanent host on January 4, 2016. He also had a lead role in the movie "Pup Star". The sequel, "Pup Star: Better 2Gether", premiered the following year. He guest-starred as himself in an episode of "Mike Tyson Mysteries" titled "Unsolved Situations" in 2016.


title: Ross Mathews

text: In 2017, he was the commentator of the Eurovision Song Contest 2017 together with Michelle Visage live for Logo TV. He also commented alongside Shangela on the Logo TV broadcast of the Eurovision Song Contest 2018 final.


title: Ross Mathews

text: In 2018, Mathews was announced as one of the eleven houseguests competing on the first American edition of "Celebrity Big Brother". He finished in 2nd place, winning $50,000, and was voted as America's Favorite Houseguest earning an additional prize of $25,000. He appeared in the second season as part of a Head of Household competition.


title: Ross Mathews

text: On November 28, 2019, Mathews was a field reporter for Verizon 360 at the 93rd Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade. Since fall 2020, he has appeared on the "Drews News" segment of the Drew Barrymore show and has been hosting his own podcast, "Straight Talk with Ross Mathews". In 2021, he appeared as a panelist on the comedy series, "Adorableness" on MTV.


title: Ross Mathews

text: Mathews is openly gay. From 2008 to 2018, he had a relationship with stylist Salvador Camarena. In 2013, the couple appeared in an episode of "House Hunters" while shopping for a home in Palm Springs. On February 23, 2021, Mathews announced his engagement to Dr. Wellinthon García, a Long Island educational administrator. On May 7, 2022, Mathews and García married at a ceremony in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Indian Motorcycle (or "Indian") is an American brand of motorcycles owned and produced by American automotive manufacturer Polaris Inc.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Originally produced from 1901 to 1953 in Springfield, Massachusetts, United States, Hendee Manufacturing Company initially produced the motorcycles, but the name was changed to the Indian Company in 1923. In 2011, Polaris Industries purchased the "Indian" motorcycle marque and moved operations from North Carolina and merged them into their existing facilities in Minnesota and Iowa. Since August 2013, Polaris has designed, engineered, and manufactured multiple lines of motorcycles under the Indian Motorcycle brand that reflect Indian's traditional styling.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Indian Motorcycle factory team took the first three places in the 1911 Isle of Man Tourist Trophy. During the 1910s, Indian Motorcycle became the largest manufacturer of motorcycles in the world. Indian Motorcycle's most popular models were the Scout, made from 1920 to 1946, and the Chief, made from 1922 until 1953, when the Indian Manufacturing Company went bankrupt. Various organizations tried to perpetuate the Indian Motorcycle brand name in subsequent years, with limited success.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The "Indian Co." was founded as the Hendee Manufacturing Company by George M. Hendee in 1897 to manufacture bicycles. These were initially badged as "Silver King" and "Silver Queen" brands but the name "American Indian", quickly shortened to just "Indian", was adopted by Hendee from 1898 onwards because it gave better product recognition in export markets. Oscar Hedstrom joined in 1900. Both Hendee and Hedstrom were former bicycle racers and manufacturers, and after building three prototypes in Middletown, Connecticut, they teamed up to produce a motorcycle with a 1.75 bhp, single-cylinder engine in Hendee's home town of Springfield. The motorcycle was successful and sales increased dramatically during the next decade.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The first Indian prototype was then built and completed on May 25, 1901, by Hedström at the old Worcester Cycle Manufacturing Company in Middletown, Connecticut, and the first public demonstration was held on Cross Street in Springfield, Massachusetts at 12:00 noon on Saturday, June 1, 1901.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: In 1901, a prototype and two production units of the diamond-framed Indian Single were successfully designed, built and tested. The first Indian motorcycles, having chain drives and streamlined styling, were sold to the public in 1902. In 1903, Indian's co-founder and chief engineer Oscar Hedstrom set the world motorcycle speed record of 56 mph. In 1904 the company introduced the deep red color that would become Indian's trademark. Annual production of Indian motorcycles then exceeded 500, rising to a peak of 32,000 in 1913. The engines of the Indian Single were built by the Aurora Firm in Illinois under license from the Hendee Mfg. Co. until 1906.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Aurora produced engines under license for Indian from about 1901 to 1907. Aurora was also allowed to sell Indian design engines to third parties and pay Indian a fee. After 1907, Aurora could make its own complete motorcycles, which it did as Thor, and Indian began manufacturing its own engines.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: In 1905, Indian built its first V-twin factory racer and in following years made a strong showing in racing and record-breaking. In 1907, the company introduced the first street version V-twin and a roadster styled after the factory racer. The roadster can be distinguished from the racers by the presence of twist grip linkages. One of the firm's most famous riders was Erwin "Cannonball" Baker, who set many long-distance records. In 1914, he rode an Indian across America, from San Diego to New York, in a record 11 days, 12 hours and ten minutes. Baker's mount in subsequent years was the Powerplus, a side-valve V-twin, which was introduced in 1916. Its 61ci (1000 cc), 42 degree V-twin engine was more powerful and quieter than previous designs, giving a top speed of 60 mph (96 km/h). The Powerplus was highly successful, both as a roadster and as the basis for racing bikes. It remained in production with few changes until 1924.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Competition success played a big part in Indian's rapid growth and spurred technical innovation as well. One of the American firm's best early results came in the Isle of Man TT in 1911, when Indian riders Oliver Cyril Godfrey, Franklin and Moorehouse finished first, second and third. Indian star Jake DeRosier set several speed records, both in America and at Brooklands in Britain, and won an estimated 900 races on dirt and board tracks. He left Indian for Excelsior and died in 1913, aged 33, of injuries sustained in a board track race crash with Charles "Fearless" Balke, who later became Indian's top rider. Work at the Indian factory stopped as DeRosier's funeral procession passed.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Oscar Hedstrom left Indian in 1913 after disagreements with the board of directors regarding dubious practices to inflate the company's stock value. George Hendee resigned in 1916.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Indian introduced the 221 cc single cylinder two-stroke Model K "Featherweight" in 1916. The Model K had an open cradle frame with the engine as a stressed member and a pivoting front fork that had been used earlier on single-cylinder motorcycles but had mostly been replaced on other Indian motorcycles by a leaf-sprung trailing link fork.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Model K was manufactured for one year and was replaced in 1917 by the Model O. The Model O had a four-stroke flat-twin engine and a new frame, but retained the pivoting fork at the front. The Model O was manufactured until 1919.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: As the US entered World War I, Indian sold most of its Powerplus line in 1917 and 1918 to the United States government, starving its network of dealers. This blow to domestic availability of the motorcycles led to a loss of dealers from which Indian never quite recovered. While the motorcycles were popular in the military, post-war demand was then taken up by other manufacturers to whom many of the previously loyal Indian dealers turned. While Indian shared in the business boom of the 1920s, it had lost its Number One position in the US market to Harley-Davidson.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Scout and Chief V-twins, introduced in the early 1920s, became the Springfield firm's most successful models. Designed by Charles Franklin, the middleweight Scout and larger Chief shared a 42-degree V-twin engine layout. Both models gained a reputation for strength and reliability.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: In 1930, Indian merged with Du Pont Motors. DuPont Motors founder E. Paul DuPont ceased production of duPont automobiles and concentrated the company's resources on Indian. DuPont's paint industry connections resulted in no fewer than 24 color options in 1934. Models of that era had Indian's famous war bonnet logo on the gas tank. Indian's huge Springfield factory was known as the Wigwam, and native American imagery was much used in advertising.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: In 1940, Indian sold nearly as many motorcycles as its major rival, Harley-Davidson. During this time, Indian also manufactured other products such as aircraft engines, bicycles, boat motors and air conditioners.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Indian Scout was built from 1920 through 1949. It rivaled the Chief as Indian's most important model.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Scout was introduced for 1920. Designed by Charles B. Franklin, the Scout had its gearbox bolted to the engine and was driven by gears instead of by belt or chain. The engine originally displaced ; the Scout 45, with a displacement of , became available in 1927 to compete with the Excelsior Super X. A front brake became standard on the original Scout early in 1928.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: In 1928, the Scout and Scout 45 were replaced by the Model 101 Scout. Another Franklin design, the 101 Scout had a longer wheelbase and lower seat height than the original. The 101 Scout was well known for its handling.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The 101 Scout was replaced by the Standard Scout for 1932. The Standard Scout shared its frame with the Chief and the Four; as a result, the Standard Scout was heavier and less nimble than the 101.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: A second line of Scouts was introduced for 1933. Based on the frame of the discontinued Indian Prince single-cylinder motorcycle, the Motoplane used the 45 cubic inch engine from the Standard Scout while the Pony Scout had a reduced displacement of . In 1934 the Motoplane was replaced by the Sport Scout with a heavier but stiffer frame better able to withstand the power of the 45 cubic inch engine, while the Pony Scout, later renamed the Junior Scout, was continued with the Prince/Motoplane frame. Between the introduction of the Sport Scout in 1934 and the discontinuation of the Standard Scout in 1937 there were three Scout models (Pony/Junior, Standard, and Sport) with three different frames. The Sport Scout and the Junior Scout were continued until civilian production was interrupted in early 1942.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Introduced in 1922, the Indian Chief had a engine based on the Powerplus engine; a year later the engine was enlarged to . Numerous improvements were made to the Chief over the years, including the provision of a front brake in 1928.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: In 1940, all models were fitted with the large skirted fenders that became an Indian trademark, and the Chief gained a new sprung frame that was superior to rival Harley's unsprung rear end. The 1940s Chiefs were handsome and comfortable machines, capable of in standard form and over when tuned, although their increased weight hampered acceleration.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The 1948 Chief had a 74 cubic inch engine, hand shift and foot clutch. While one handlebar grip controlled the throttle the other was a manual spark advance.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: In 1950, the V-twin engine was enlarged to and telescopic forks were adopted. But Indian's financial problems meant that few bikes were built. Production of the Chief ended in 1953.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Indian purchased the Ace Motor Corporation in 1927 and moved production of the 4-cylinder Ace motorcycle to Springfield. It was marketed as the Indian Ace in 1927.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: In 1928, the Indian Ace was replaced by the Indian 401, a development of the Ace designed by Arthur O. Lemon, former Chief Engineer at Ace, who was employed by Indian when they bought Ace. The Ace's leading-link forks and central coil spring were replaced by Indian's trailing-link forks and quarter-elliptic leaf spring.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: In 1929, the Indian 401 was replaced by the Indian 402 which received a stronger twin-downtube frame based on the 101 Scout frame and a sturdier five-bearing crankshaft than the Ace, which only had a three-bearing crankshaft.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Despite the low demand for luxury motorcycles during the Great Depression, Indian not only continued production of the Four, but continued to develop the motorcycle. One of the less popular versions of the Four was the "upside down" engine on the 1936-37 models. While earlier (and later) Fours had inlet-over-exhaust (IOE) cylinder heads with overhead inlet valves and side exhaust valves, the 1936-1937 Indian Four had a unique EOI cylinder head, with the positions reversed. In theory, this would improve fuel vaporization, and the new engine was more powerful. However, the new system made the cylinder head, and the rider's inseam, very hot. This, along with an exhaust valvetrain that required frequent adjustment, caused sales to drop. The addition of dual carburetors in 1937 did not revive interest. The design was returned to the original configuration in 1938.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Like the Chief, the Four was given large, skirted fenders and plunger rear suspension in 1940. In 1941, the 18-inch wheels of previous models were replaced with 16-inch wheels with balloon tires.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Recognition of the historical significance of the 1940 four-cylinder model was made with an August 2006 United States Postal Service 39-cent stamp issue, part of a four-panel set entitled "American Motorcycles". A 1941 model is part of the Smithsonian Motorcycle Collection on display at the National Museum of American History. Single examples of both the 1931 and 1935 Indian Fours are in the ground vehicle collection of the Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: During World War II, Chiefs, Scouts, and Junior Scouts were used in small numbers for various purposes by the United States Army and were also used extensively by British and other Commonwealth military services, under Lend Lease programs. However, none of these Indian models could unseat the Harley-Davidson WLA as the motorcycle mainly used by the US military.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: An early war military design by Indian was based on the Scout 640 (and was often compared to Harley-Davidson's WLA), but was either too expensive or heavy, or a combination of both. Indian's later offering, the 741B was not selected to gain a US Military contract. Indian also made a version based on the Chief, the 344. Approximately 1,000 experimental versions mounting the 750 cc motor sideways and using shaft drive, as on a modern Moto Guzzi, the 841, were also tried.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Indian made a prototype of a lightweight bike, called the M1 light motorcycle for the World War 2 Airborne forces. The lightweight design could be airdropped with the troops. The design never made it past prototype.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: During World War II, the US Army requested experimental motorcycle designs suitable for desert fighting. In response Indian designed and built the 841. Approximately 1,056 models were built.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Indian 841 was heavily inspired by the BMW R71 motorcycle (which, though not used by the German Army later was the basis for the Soviet M72, which is the basis for the Ural and Chiang Jiang motorcycle) as was its competitor, the Harley-Davidson XA. However, unlike the XA, the 841 was not a copy of the R71. Although its tubular frame, plunger rear suspension, and shaft drive were similar to the BMW's, the 841 was different from the BMW in several aspects, most noticeably so with its 90-degree longitudinal-crankshaft V-twin engine and girder fork.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Indian 841 and the Harley-Davidson XA were both tested by the Army, but neither motorcycle was adopted for wider military use. It was determined that the Jeep was more suitable for the roles and missions for which these motorcycles had been intended.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: In 1945, a group headed by Ralph B. Rogers purchased a controlling interest of the company. On November 1, 1945, duPont formally turned the operations of Indian over to Rogers. Under Rogers' control, Indian resumed production with only one model, the Chief, for 1946 and ‘47. 1947 was also the year the Indian-head fender light, also known as the "war bonnet", was introduced. In 1948, they added two rebadged import models, the Czech built CZ125b, and the Brockhouse Engineering produced Corgi Scooter. The Scooter, a novel 100cc vehicle developed for paratroopers during World War II, was rebadged the Papoose. Indian also produced a limited number (appx. 50) 648 model Scouts for racing.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: In 1949, they discontinued the Chief, as they began domestic manufacture of two lightweight motorcycles, the single-cylinder 220 cc 149 Arrow and the twin-cylinder 440 cc 249 Scout. The Scout was offered in various trim levels. The initial shipment of lightweights developed a reputation for unreliability, often associated with a rush to market. Later shipments were reported by publications of the time to have resolved most reliability issues by the following year.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The 1950 lineup brought back the Chief, with telescopic forks. It also saw the introduction of the twin-cylinder 500 cc Warrior model, which received both a standard and high pipe sporting TT trim. On the Corporate side, Rogers would step down as CEO of Indian to take employment at Texas Instruments. Replacing Rogers was hand-picked successor John Brockhouse, President and owner of Brockhouse engineering. Unfortunately, new management did not bring new fortune, and production of all models wound down in 1952, with most 1953 Chiefs built from remaining parts. All product manufacturing ended in 1953.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: As Rogers liquidated Indian in 1953, Brockhouse Engineering acquired the rights to the Indian name. The Indian Sales Corp continued to support the rebranded Papoose Scooter (which would cease production in 1954) and the Brave, a European-styled 250 cc lightweight bike with a four-stroke side valve engine. All other models were abandoned after reducing inventory. The Brave had been designed prior to the acquisition, and produced by an English subsidiary owned by Brockhouse. Indian had imported these outsourced models since 1951, when Brockhouse was then-President of Indian under Rogers Ownership. Outside these two models that directly benefitted Brockhouses umbrella industries, ISC also sold a variety of rebadged imports, including Vincent, AJS, and Matchless from various dates until solidifying their import models line-up to a single manufacturer.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: From 1955 through 1960, they imported English Royal Enfield motorcycles, mildly customized them in the United States, and sold them under Indian branding. Almost all Royal Enfield models had a corresponding Indian model in the US. The models were Indian Chief, Trailblazer, Apache (all three were 700 cc twins), Tomahawk (500 cc twin), Woodsman (500 cc single), Westerner (500 cc single), Hounds Arrow (250 cc single), Fire Arrow (250 cc single), Lance (150 cc 2-stroke single) and a 3-wheeled Patrol Car (350 cc single).


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: In 1960, the Indian name was bought by AMC of the UK. Royal Enfield being their competition, they abruptly stopped all Enfield-based Indian models except the 700 cc Chief. In 1962 AMC, facing financial issues, withdrew from all marketing of the Indian Brand name, as the company chose to focus exclusively on their Norton and Matchless Brands.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: From the 1960s, entrepreneur Floyd Clymer began using the Indian name. He attached it to imported motorcycles, commissioned to Italian ex-pilot and engineer Leopoldo Tartarini, owner of Italjet Moto, to manufacture Minarelli-engined 50 cc minibikes under the Indian Papoose name. These were successful so Clymer commissioned Tartarini to build full-size Indian motorcycles based on the "Italjet Griffon" design, fitted with Royal Enfield Interceptor 750 cc parallel-twin engines.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: A further development was the "Indian Velo 500", a limited-production run using a Velocette single-cylinder engine with various Norton, and Royal Enfield drivetrain components, and Italian Chassis parts. This included a lightweight frame from the Italjet company, Marzocchi front forks with Grimeca front hub having a twin-leading shoe brake, Borrani aluminium rims and quickly-detachable tank and seat, resulting in a weight-saving of compared to the traditional Velocette Venom.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The project ended abruptly due to Clymer's death and the failure of Velocette, with 200 machines shipped to US and a further 50 remaining in Italy, which were bought by London Velocette dealer Geoff Dodkin. When roadtesting, UK monthly magazine "Motorcycle Sport" described it as ""British engineering and Italian styling in a package originally intended for the American market"", reporting that Dodkin would supply his bikes with either a standard Venom engine specification, or, at higher cost, a Thruxton version.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: After Clymer's death in 1970 his widow sold the alleged Indian trademark to Los Angeles attorney Alan Newman, who continued to import minicycles made by ItalJet, and later manufactured in a wholly owned assembly plant located in Taipei (Taiwan). Several models with engine displacement between 50 cc and 175 cc were produced, mostly fitted with Italian two-stroke engines made either by Italjet or Franco Morini.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: In 1974, Newman planned to revive large-capacity machines as the "Indian 900", using a Ducati 860 cc engine and commissioned Leo Tartarini of Italjet to produce a prototype. The project failed, leaving the prototype as the only survivor.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Indian Trademark was purchased from bankruptcy court for $10,000 in late 1977 by American Moped Associates, who would employ the Taiwanese manufacturing plant to make a new moped using licensed patents from Honda's discontinued PC50-K1. The result was the "Indian AMI-50 Chief". This moped was offered from 1978 until late 1983, as the trademark was purchased by Carmen DeLeone’s DMCA (Derbi) group in 1982, who discounted the remaining moped stock, and discontinued manufacture. Derbi-Manco would offer Badge engineered go-carts utilizing the ‘4-stroke Indian’ moniker, before the Indian name disappeared from all motorized vehicles in 1984. The right to the brand name then passed through a succession of owners and became a subject of competing claims in the late 1980s.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: By 1992, the Clymer claim to the trademark had been transferred to Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Co. Inc. of Berlin, a corporation headed by Philip S. Zanghi.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: In June 1994, in Albuquerque, New Mexico, Wayne Baughman, president of Indian Motorcycle Manufacturing Incorporated, presented, started, and rode a prototype Indian Century V-Twin Chief. Baughman had made previous statements about building new motorcycles under the Indian brand but this was his first appearance with a working motorcycle.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Neither Zanghi nor Baughman began production of motorcycles. In August 1997, Zanghi was convicted of securities fraud, tax evasion, and money laundering.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: In January 1998, Eller Industries was given permission to purchase the Indian copyright from the receivers of the previous owner. Eller Industries hired Roush Industries to design the engine for the motorcycle, and was negotiating with the Cow Creek Band of Umpqua Tribe of Indians to build a motorcycle factory on their tribal land. Three renderings, one each of a cruiser, a sport cruiser, and a sport bike, on frames specified by suspension designer James Parker, were shown to the motorcycling press in February 1998.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Eller Industries arranged a public unveiling of the cruiser prototype for November 1998, but was prevented from showing the prototype by a restraining order from the receiver, who said that Eller had failed to meet the terms of its obligations. The contract was withdrawn after the company missed its deadline to close the deal and could not agree with the receiver to an extension on the deadline. Other conditions, including payment of administrative costs and presenting a working prototype, were also not met by Eller Industries. Based on this, a Federal bankruptcy court in Denver, Colorado, allowed the sale of the trademark to IMCOA Licensing America Inc. in December 1998.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Indian Motorcycle Company of America was formed from the merger of nine companies, including manufacturer California Motorcycle Company (CMC) and IMCOA Licensing America Inc., which was awarded the Indian trademark by the Federal District Court of Colorado in 1998. The new company began manufacturing motorcycles in 1999 at the former CMC's facilities in Gilroy, California. The first "Gilroy Indian" model was a new design called the Chief. Scout and Spirit models were also manufactured from 2001. These bikes were initially made with off-the-shelf 88 cubic inch S&S engines, but later used the Powerplus (bottlecap) engine design from 2002 to 2003. The Indian Motorcycle Corporation went into bankruptcy and ceased all production operations in Gilroy on September 19, 2003.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: On July 20, 2006, the newly formed Indian Motorcycle Company, owned largely by Stellican Limited, a London-based private equity firm, announced its new home in Kings Mountain, North Carolina, where it restarted the Indian motorcycle brand, manufacturing Indian Chief motorcycles in limited numbers, with a focus on exclusivity rather than performance. Starting out where the defunct Gilroy IMC operation left off in 2003, the "Kings Mountain" models were continuation models based on the new series of motorcycles developed in 1999. The 2009 Indian Chief incorporated a redesigned Powerplus V-twin powertrain with electronic closed-loop sequential-port fuel injection, and a charging system providing increased capacity for the electronic fuel injection.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: In April 2011, Polaris Industries, the off-road and leisure vehicle maker and parent company of Victory Motorcycles, announced its intention to acquire Indian Motorcycle. Indian's production facilities were moved to Spirit Lake, Iowa, where production began on August 5, 2011. In March 2013, Indian unveiled their new "Thunder Stroke" engine, and began to sell their newly designed motorcycles based on it in August 2013.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: On August 3, 2013, Polaris announced three all-new Indian-branded motorcycles based on the traditional styling of the Indian marque, along with the Thunder Stroke 111 V-twin engine. The motor has a triple-cam design with a chain-driven center cam turning front and rear cams via gears, permitting parallel placement of the pushrods to give a similar appearance to older Indian designs. It is air cooled, with large traditional fins and an airbox in the cast aluminum frame. All Indians using the Thunder Stroke 111 engine share this aluminum frame design, though the wheelbase and front end rake vary depending on model. The integrated transmission is also gear-driven.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Since 2013, Indian has expanded its line up to five models, currently offered in 23 trim levels. Of these, twelve have the Thunderstroke 111 engine. Five offerings use the smaller engine displacement, liquid-cooled Scout engines. The Scout has four trims in its line featuring the engine, while the Scout 60 has its eponymous variant. Indian offers 3 distinctions of their FTR 1200, a sportier cycle introduced in 2019. And as of 2020, the Challenger Bagger featuring the all-new Indian PowerPlus liquid-cooled 60-degree V-twin has been introduced, with three variations.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The standard Chief Classic has the valanced fenders and the lighted "war bonnet" on the front fender. Cruise control, antilock braking system, keyless starting, and electronic fuel injection are standard on this and all other models. It has a six-speed transmission and manually-adjustable single-shock swingarm.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Indian Chief Vintage shares the chassis, drivetrain, and styling of the Chief Classic, and adds tan leather quick-release saddlebags, matching tan leather two-up seat, additional chrome trim, quick-release windshield, and a six-speed transmission.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Indian introduced the Super Chief in 2022. The Super Chief carries the same Thunderstroke 111 motor as the Chief Bobber, but includes floorboard, windscreen and saddlebags standard. The Super Chief Limited also has an all-chrome Thunderstroke 116 engine, cruiser handlebars, and the bluetooth-capable Ride Command digital gauge system.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Springfield was introduced in March 2016 during Daytona Bike Week. It is named after the birthplace of Indian Motorcycles, Springfield, Massachusetts. The Springfield is a bit of a hybrid bike, sharing steering geometry and hardbags with the Chieftain and RoadMaster models but is equipped with a quick detach windshield like the Vintage. It also boasts an adjustable rear air shock like the other touring models.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Indian Chieftain touring motorcycle is the first Indian model with front fairing and hard saddlebags. It has a stereo with speakers in the fairing, Bluetooth media players, tire pressure sensors, air-adjustable rear shock, and motorized windshield adjustment. Initial reports from the press were favorable for styling, performance, and handling. The Chieftain was named 2013 Motorcycle of the Year by RoadRunner Motorcycle Touring & Travel magazine.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Indian Scout was introduced at the 2014 Sturgis Motorcycle Rally as a 2015 model. The 2015 Scout is a cruiser with a liquid-cooled, double overhead camshaft V-twin engine and a frame formed by multiple aluminum alloy castings bolted to each other and to the engine. The Indian Scout was named 2015 Motorcycle of the year by Motorcycle.com.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Indian Scout Sixty was introduced in November 2015 as a 2016 model. The Scout Sixty is a cruiser with a liquid-cooled, double overhead camshaft V-twin engine. The new Scout Sixty has many of the same features as the 2014 Scout, but with a smaller 999 cc engine.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Indian Roadmaster was introduced at the 2014 Sturgis Motorcycle Rally shortly before the Scout. The Roadmaster is a Chieftain with an added trunk, front fairing lowers, heated seats, heated grips, LED headlights, passenger floorboards, and a rear crash bar. The Roadmaster had been developed before the Chieftain. Cycle World recorded @ 4,440 rpm and @ 2,480 rpm at the rear tire. They also recorded a tested 1/4 mile time of 13.91 seconds at and a acceleration at 5.2 seconds, a braking distance of , and fuel economy of .


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The 2016 Indian Dark Horse was introduced on Valentine's Day 2015. It is based on a Chief Classic painted in flat black, with the driving lights, oil cooler, analog fuel gauge, passenger pillion seat and passenger pegs removed.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The 2016 Indian Chieftain Dark Horse was introduced in May 2016. It has a full fairing and hard saddlebags, but lacks other accessories in the Chieftain line. It has a claimed @ 3000 rpm and a dry weight of .


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The 2017 Indian Chieftain Limited adds more of a bagger style to the Chieftain. The front fender was opened up to show off 19" custom wheels, and a limited coloring scheme. This model also boasts the full ride command touch screen display that the Roadmaster also uses. It has the upper fairing with power windscreen and optional passenger seat.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The 2017 Indian Roadmaster Classic was introduced in February 2017, and discontinued before the end of 2018. It has the traditional styling tan leather bags and trunk along with heated seats, heated grips, LED headlights, passenger floorboards, and rear crash bars. It does not have the hard front lowers found on the original Roadmaster.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: For 2018 Indian offers the Springfield in Dark Horse flavor. Open front fender with 19" cast front wheel.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Scout Bobber is a factory-modified version of the Scout that features style components taken from the “bobber” community of motorcycles, hence the name. These modifications include chopped front and rear mud guards, bar end mirrors, low seat, low handlebars, and a side-mounted license plate holder.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The FTR is a standard motorcycle that takes its inspiration from the flat track racing heritage of Indian.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Challenger is the first fixed fairing bagger crafted by Indian Motorcycle. It embeds the new Indian PowerPlus liquid-cooled 60-degree V-twin engine that produces 122 horsepower and 128 foot-pounds of torque. The front suspension uses an inverted 43mm fork, which provides 5.1 inches of travel and rear suspension is provided by a hydraulically adjustable rear shock.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: The Indian Challenger with the Dark Horse flavor is powered by the PowerPlus liquid-cooled 60-degree V-twin engine that produces 122 horsepower and 128 foot-pounds of torque. The front suspension uses an inverted 43mm fork, which provides 5.1 inches of travel and rear suspension is provided by a hydraulically adjustable rear shock.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Between 1962 and 1967, Burt Munro from New Zealand used a modified 1920s Indian Scout to set a number of land speed records, as dramatised in the 2005 film "The World's Fastest Indian". In 2014 Indian had a similar custom streamliner built, the "Spirit of Munro", to promote their new 111 cubic-inch engine and challenge speed records.


title: Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company

text: Both Hendee and Hedstrom had built bicycles before they met, and Hendee had marketed his under the Silver King and Silver Queen names. They continued to manufacture bicycles after their motorcycles became successful and even made bicycles designed to resemble their motorcycles.


title: Royal jelly

text: Royal jelly is a honey bee secretion that is used in the nutrition of larvae and adult queens. It is secreted from the glands in the hypopharynx of nurse bees, and fed to all larvae in the colony, regardless of sex or caste.


title: Royal jelly

text: During the process of creating new queens, the workers construct special queen cells. The larvae in these cells are fed with copious amounts of royal jelly. This type of feeding triggers the development of queen morphology, including the fully developed ovaries needed to lay eggs.


title: Royal jelly

text: Royal jelly is sometimes used in alternative medicine under the category apitherapy. It is often sold as a dietary supplement for humans, but the European Food Safety Authority has concluded that current evidence does not support the claim that consuming royal jelly offers health benefits to humans. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration has taken legal action against companies that have marketed royal jelly products using unfounded claims of health benefits.


title: Royal jelly

text: Royal jelly is secreted from the glands in the heads of worker bees and is fed to all bee larvae, whether they are destined to become drones (males), workers (sterile females), or queens (fertile females). After three days, the drone and worker larvae are no longer fed with royal jelly, but queen larvae continue to be fed this special substance throughout their development.


title: Royal jelly

text: Royal jelly is 67% water, 12.5% protein, 11% simple sugars (monosaccharides), 6% fatty acids and 3.5% 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10-HDA). It also contains trace minerals, antibacterial and antibiotic components, pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), pyridoxine (vitamin B6) and trace amounts of vitamin C, but none of the fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E or K.


title: Royal jelly

text: Major royal jelly proteins (MRJPs) are a family of proteins secreted by honey bees. The family consists of nine proteins, of which MRJP1 (also called royalactin), MRJP2, MRJP3, MRJP4, and MRJP5 are present in the royal jelly secreted by worker bees. MRJP1 is the most abundant, and largest in size. The five proteins constitute 83–90% of the total proteins in royal jelly. Royal jelly has been used in traditional medicine since ancient times, and the MRJPs are shown to be the main medicinal components. They are synthesised by a family of nine genes ("mrjp" genes), which are in turn members of the "yellow" family of genes such as in the fruitfly ("Drosophila") and bacteria. They are attributed to be involved in differential development of queen larva and worker larvae, thus establishing division of labour in the bee colony.


title: Royal jelly

text: The honey bee queens and workers represent one of the most striking examples of environmentally controlled phenotypic polymorphism. Even if two larvae had identical DNA, one raised to be a worker, the other a queen, the two adults would be strongly differentiated across a wide range of characteristics including anatomical and physiological differences, longevity, and reproductive capacity. Queens constitute the female sexual caste and have large active ovaries, whereas female workers have only rudimentary, inactive ovaries and are functionally sterile. The queen–worker developmental divide is controlled epigenetically by differential feeding with royal jelly; this appears to be due specifically to the protein royalactin. A female larva destined to become a queen is fed large quantities of royal jelly; this triggers a cascade of molecular events resulting in development of a queen. It has been shown that this phenomenon is mediated by an epigenetic modification of DNA known as CpG methylation. Silencing the expression of an enzyme that methylates DNA in newly hatched larvae led to a royal jelly-like effect on the larval developmental trajectory; the majority of individuals with reduced DNA methylation levels emerged as queens with fully developed ovaries. This finding suggests that DNA methylation in honey bees allows the expression of epigenetic information to be differentially altered by nutritional input.


title: Royal jelly

text: Royal jelly is harvested by stimulating colonies with movable frame hives to produce queen bees. Royal jelly is collected from each individual queen cell (honeycomb) when the queen larvae are about four days old. These are the only cells in which large amounts are deposited; when royal jelly is fed to worker larvae, it is fed directly to them, and they consume it as it is produced, while the cells of queen larvae are "stocked" with royal jelly much faster than the larvae can consume it. Therefore, only in queen cells is the harvest of royal jelly practical.


title: Royal jelly

text: A well-managed hive during a season of 5–6 months can produce approximately of royal jelly. Since the product is perishable, producers must have immediate access to proper cold storage (e.g., a household refrigerator or freezer) in which the royal jelly is stored until it is sold or conveyed to a collection center. Sometimes honey or beeswax is added to the royal jelly, which is thought to aid its preservation.


title: Royal jelly

text: Royal jelly may cause allergic reactions in humans, ranging from hives, asthma, to even fatal anaphylaxis. The incidence of allergic side effects in people who consume royal jelly is unknown. The risk of having an allergy to royal jelly is higher in people who have other allergies.


title: Scissors

text: Scissors are hand-operated shearing tools. A pair of scissors consists of a pair of metal blades pivoted so that the sharpened edges slide against each other when the handles (bows) opposite to the pivot are closed. Scissors are used for cutting various thin materials, such as paper, cardboard, metal foil, cloth, rope, and wire. A large variety of scissors and shears all exist for specialized purposes. Hair-cutting shears and kitchen shears are functionally equivalent to scissors, but the larger implements tend to be called shears. Hair-cutting shears have specific blade angles ideal for cutting hair. Using the incorrect type of scissors to cut hair will result in increased damage or split ends, or both, by breaking the hair. Kitchen shears, also known as kitchen scissors, are intended for cutting and trimming foods such as meats.


title: Scissors

text: Inexpensive, mass-produced modern scissors are often designed ergonomically with composite thermoplastic and rubber handles.


title: Scissors

text: The noun "scissors" is treated as a plural noun, and therefore takes a plural verb (e.g., "these scissors are"). Alternatively, the tool is referred to by the singular phrase "a pair of scissors". The word "shears" is used to describe similar instruments that are larger in size and for heavier cutting.


title: Scissors

text: The earliest known scissors appeared in Mesopotamia 3,000 to 4,000 years ago. These were of the 'spring scissor' type comprising two bronze blades connected at the handles by a thin, flexible strip of curved bronze which served to hold the blades in alignment, to allow them to be squeezed together, and to pull them apart when released.


title: Scissors

text: Spring scissors continued to be used in Europe until the 16th century. However, pivoted scissors of bronze or iron, in which the blades were pivoted at a point between the tips and the handles, the direct ancestor of modern scissors, were invented by the Romans around 100 AD. They entered common use in not only ancient Rome, but also China, Japan, and Korea, and the idea is still used in almost all modern scissors.


title: Scissors

text: During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, spring scissors were made by heating a bar of iron or steel, then flattening and shaping its ends into blades on an anvil. The center of the bar was heated, bent to form the spring, then cooled and reheated to make it flexible.


title: Scissors

text: William Whiteley & Sons (Sheffield) Ltd. was producing scissors by 1760, although it is believed the business began trading even earlier. The first trade-mark, 332, was granted in 1791. The company is still manufacturing scissors today, and is the oldest company in the West to do so.


title: Scissors

text: Pivoted scissors were not manufactured in large numbers until 1761, when Robert Hinchliffe of Sheffield produced the first pair of modern-day scissors made of hardened and polished cast steel. His major challenge was to form the bows; first, he made them solid, then drilled a hole, and then filed away metal to make this large enough to admit the user's fingers. This process was laborious, and apparently Hinchliffe improved upon it in order to increase production. Hinchliffe lived in Cheney Square (now the site of Sheffield Town Hall), and set up a sign identifying himself as a "fine scissor manufacturer". He achieved strong sales in London and elsewhere.


title: Scissors

text: During the 19th century, scissors were hand-forged with elaborately decorated handles. They were made by hammering steel on indented surfaces known as 'bosses' to form the blades. The rings in the handles, known as bows, were made by punching a hole in the steel and enlarging it with the pointed end of an anvil.


title: Scissors

text: In 1649, in Swedish-ruled Finland, an ironworks was founded in the village of Fiskars between Helsinki and Turku. In 1830, a new owner started the first cutlery works in Finland, making, among other items, scissors with the Fiskars trademark.


title: Scissors

text: The vast majority of global scissor manufacturing takes place in China. As of 2019, China was responsible for 64.3% of worldwide scissors exports. When combined with Chinese Taipei exports, this rises to 68.3%. The primary scissors producing region in China is in Guandong Province.


title: Scissors

text: The Hangzhou Zhang Xiaoquan Company, founded in 1663, is one of the oldest continuously operating scissor manufacturers in the world. The company was nationalized in 1958 and now employs 1500 people who annually mass-produce an estimated 7-million pairs of inexpensive scissors that retail for an average of US$4 each.


title: Scissors

text: In the late 14th century the English word “scissors” came into usage. It was derived from the Old French word, “cisoires” which referred to shears.


title: Scissors

text: There are several historically important scissor-producing regions in France: Haute-Marne in Nogent-en Bassigny, Châtellereault, Thiers and Rouen. These towns, like many other scissor-producing communities, began with sabre, sword and bayonet production, which transitioned to scissors and other blades in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.


title: Scissors

text: Thiers, in the Puy-de-Dôme department of Auvergne, remains an important centre of scissor and cutlery production. It is home to both the Musée de la Coutellerie, which showcases the town’s 800 year history of blade-making, as well as , an industry tradeshow that advertises itself as one of the largest annual gatherings of artisanal blade-makers in the world.


title: Scissors

text: Germany was responsible for manufacturing just under 7% of global scissors exports in 2019. Often called “The City of Blades”, Solingen, in North Rhine-Westphalia, has been a center for the manufacturing of scissors since medieval times. At the end of the 18th century it’s estimated that there were over 300 scissorsmiths in Solingen.


title: Scissors

text: In 1995 the City of Solingen passed The Solingen Ordinance, an update to a 1930s law that decreed “Made in Solingen” stamps could only be applied to products almost entirely manufactured in the old industrial area of Solingen. In 2019 this applied to approximately 150 companies making high-quality blades of all kinds, including scissors.


title: Scissors

text: Freidrich Herder, founded in Solingen in 1727, is one of the oldest scissors manufacturers still operating in Germany.


title: Scissors

text: Premana, in Lecco Province, has its origins in ironworks and knife manufacturing beginning in the 16th century. In 1900 there were ten scissor manufacturing workshops, 20 in 1952 and 48 by 1960. Today, Consorzio Premax, an industrial partnership, organizes over 60 local companies involved in the manufacture of scissors for global markets. In 2019 Italy exported 3.5% of scissors manufactured globally.


title: Scissors

text: One of the oldest Premanese scissor manufacturing firms still in operation is Sanelli Ambrogio, which was founded in 1869.


title: Scissors

text: Scissormaking in Japan evolved from sword making in the 14th century. Seki, in Gifu Prefecture, was a renowned center of swordmaking beginning in the 1200s. After citizens were no longer permitted to carry swords, the city’s blacksmiths turned to making scissors and knives. There are many specialized types of Japanese scissors, but sewing scissors were introduced by American Commodore Matthew Perry from the United States in 1854.


title: Scissors

text: The Sasuke workshop in Sakai City south of Osaka is run by Yasuhiro Hirakawa, a 5th generation scissorsmith. The company has been in operation since 1867. Yasuhiro Hirakawa is the last traditional scissormaker in Japan, making scissors in the traditional style where the blades are believed to be thinner, lighter and sharper than European scissors. In 2018 he was profiled in a documentary that featured a pair of his bonsai snips which retailed for $35,000 USD.


title: Scissors

text: In Solsona, Spain, scissor manufacturing began in the 16th century. At the industry’s peak in the 18th century there were 24 workshops, organized as the Guild of Saint Eligius, the patron saint of knife makers. By the mid-1980s there were only two, and by 2021, Pallarès Solsona, founded in 1917 by Lluìs and Carles Pallarès Canal, and still family-operated, was the town’s sole remaining artisanal scissor manufacturer.


title: Scissors

text: Sheffield, York, was home to the first mass production of scissors beginning in 1761. By the 19th century there were an estimated 60 steel scissor companies in Sheffield. However, since the 1980s, industry globalization and a shift towards cheaper, mass-produced scissors created price deflation that many artisanal manufacturers could not compete with. The Sheffield scissor industry consisted of just two local companies in 2021.


title: Scissors

text: The two remaining Sheffield scissor manufacturers are William Whiteley, founded in 1760, and Ernest Wright, which was established in 1902. Both now focus on high-end/niche crafting of “products for life” rather than mass production. Between these two firms it is estimated that there are no more than ten “Putter-Togetherers” or “Putters” who are the master-trained craftspeople responsible for high quality Sheffield scissor assembly. In 2020, Ernest Wright was recognized with the Award for Endangered Crafts by the British Heritage Crafts Association.


title: Scissors

text: A pair of scissors consists of two pivoted blades. In lower-quality scissors, the cutting edges are not particularly sharp; it is primarily the shearing action between the two blades that cuts the material. In high-quality scissors, the blades can be both extremely sharp, and tension sprung – to increase the cutting and shearing tension only at the exact point where the blades meet. The hand movement (pushing with the thumb, pulling with the fingers) can add to this tension. An ideal example is in high-quality tailor's scissors or shears, which need to be able to perfectly cut (and not simply tear apart) delicate cloths such as chiffon and silk.


title: Scissors

text: Children's scissors are usually not particularly sharp, and the tips of the blades are often blunted or 'rounded' for safety.


title: Scissors

text: Mechanically, scissors are a first-class double-lever with the pivot acting as the fulcrum. For cutting thick or heavy material, the mechanical advantage of a lever can be exploited by placing the material to be cut as close to the fulcrum as possible. For example, if the applied force (at the handles) is twice as far away from the fulcrum as the cutting location (i.e., the point of contact between the blades), the force at the cutting location is twice that of the applied force at the handles. Scissors cut material by applying at the cutting location a local shear stress which exceeds the material's shear strength.


title: Scissors

text: Some scissors have an appendage, called a finger brace or finger tang, below the index finger hole for the middle finger to rest on to provide for better control and more power in precision cutting. A finger tang can be found on many quality scissors (including inexpensive ones) and especially on scissors for cutting hair (see hair scissors pictured below). In hair cutting, some claim the ring finger is inserted where some place their index finger, and the little finger rests on the finger tang.


title: Scissors

text: For people who do not have the use of their hands, there are specially designed foot-operated scissors. Some quadriplegics can use a motorized mouth-operated style of scissor.


title: Scissors

text: Most scissors are best suited for use with the right hand, but "left-handed" scissors are designed for use with the left hand. Because scissors have overlapping blades, they are not symmetric. This asymmetry is true regardless of the orientation and shape of the handles: the blade that is on top always forms the same diagonal regardless of orientation. Human hands are also asymmetric, and when closing, the thumb and fingers do not close vertically, but have a lateral component to the motion. Specifically, the thumb pushes out from the palm and the fingers pull inwards. For right-handed scissors held in the right hand, the thumb blade is closer to the user's body, so that the natural tendency of the right hand is to force the cutting blades together. Conversely, if right-handed scissors are held in the left hand, the natural tendency of the left hand would be to force the cutting blades laterally apart. Furthermore, with right-handed scissors held by the right hand, the shearing edge is visible, but when they are used with the left hand, the cutting edge of the scissors is behind the top blade, and one cannot see what is being cut.


title: Scissors

text: There are two varieties of left-handed scissors. Many common left-handed scissors (often called “semi” left-handed scissors) simply have reversed finger grips. The blades open and close as with right-handed scissors, which forces users to pull the blades apart as they are cutting. This can be challenging for craftspeople as the blades still obscure the cut. “True” left-handed scissors have both reversed finger grips and a reversed blade connection; they are basically mirror images of right-handed scissors. If someone is accustomed to using semi-left handed scissors they may find using true left handed scissors difficult at first as they may have learned to rely heavily on the strength of their thumb to pull the blades apart vs. pushing the blades together in order to cut.


title: Scissors

text: Some scissors are marketed as ambidextrous. These have symmetric handles so there is no distinction between the thumb and finger handles, and have very strong pivots so that the blades simply rotate and do not have any lateral give. However, most "ambidextrous" scissors are in fact still right-handed in that the upper blade is on the right, and hence is on the outside when held in the right hand. Even if they cut successfully, the blade orientation will block the view of the cutting line for a left-handed person. True ambidextrous scissors are possible if the blades are double-edged and one handle is swung all the way around (to almost 360 degrees) so that the back of the blades become the new cutting edges. has been awarded for true ambidextrous scissors.


title: Scissors

text: Due to their ubiquity across cultures and classes, scissors have numerous representations across world culture.


title: Scissors

text: Numerous art forms worldwide enlist scissors as a tool/material with which to accomplish the art. For cases where scissors appear in or are represented by the final art product, see .


title: Scissors

text: Heinrich Hoffmann's 1845 children's book Struwwelpeter includes Die Geschichte vom Daumenlutscher ("The Story of the Thumb-Sucker") in which a child continues to suck his thumbs despite his mother's warnings about The Great Tall Scissorman.


title: Scissors

text: Augusten Burroughs' 2002 memoir "Running with Scissors" spent eight weeks on the "New York Times" best seller list. The book was later adapted into a film.


title: Scissors

text: Scissors have a widespread place in cultural superstitions. In many cases, the details of the superstition may be specific to a given country, region, tribe, religion or even situation.


title: Scissors

text: Scissors have been used in the sciences for various purposes, including descriptions of animals or natural features.


title: IndusInd Bank

text: IndusInd Bank Limited is an Indian financial services headquartered in Mumbai (Maharashtra). The bank offers commercial, transactional and electronic banking products and services. IndusInd Bank was inaugurated in April 1994 by then Union Finance Minister Manmohan Singh. IndusInd Bank is the first among the new-generation private banks in India.


title: IndusInd Bank

text: The bank started its operations with ₹100 crores (1 billion) in capital, of which ₹60 crores were raised by Indian residents and ₹40 crores were raised by Non-Resident Indians (NRI). The bank specializes in retail banking services and is also working on expanding its network of branches all across the country. According to the bank, its name is derived from the Indus Valley civilisation.


title: IndusInd Bank

text: IndusInd Bank, which commenced operations in 1994, caters to the needs of both consumer and corporate customers Its technology platform supports multi-channel delivery capabilities. As on September 30, 2021, IndusInd Bank has 2,015 Branches/Banking Outlets and 2,886 ATMs spread across 760 geographical locations of the country. The Bank also has representative offices in London, Dubai and Abu Dhabi. The Bank believes in driving its business through technology. It enjoys clearing bank status for both major stock exchanges - BSE and NSE - and major commodity exchanges in the country, including MCX, NCDEX and NMCE. IndusInd Bank was included in the NIFTY 50 benchmark index on April 1, 2013.


title: IndusInd Bank

text: The bank began its operations on 17 April 1994 under the chairmanship of S. P. Hinduja with the primary objective of serving the NRI community.


title: IndusInd Bank

text: Sumant Kathpalia was appointed as Managing Director and CEO with effect from March 2020 for a period of three years.


title: IndusInd Bank

text: Arun Tiwari is the current chairman of the board. The other members on the board are Rajiv Agarwal, Kanchan Chitale, Shanker Annaswamy, T. T. Ram Mohan, Akila Krishnakumar, Arun Tiwari, and Siraj Chaudhry.


title: Tana Ramsay

text: Cayetana Elizabeth Ramsay ("née" Hutcheson; born 23 August 1974) is an English TV broadcaster and author of several cookery books.


title: Tana Ramsay

text: Ramsay was born in Croydon, South London, United Kingdom, and raised in a barn in Kent. Her father, Chris Hutcheson, is a businessman. Cayetana worked for her father before pursuing a career in education.


title: Tana Ramsay

text: In 2010, Ramsay appeared on the ITV show "Dancing on Ice", partnered by professional skater Stuart Widdall, being eliminated in the fourth week. She has been a presenter of UKTV's food show "Market Kitchen". In 2014, she appeared in the American version of cooking show "MasterChef", co-hosted by her husband, Gordon Ramsay, and also Gordon's other show "Hell's Kitchen", which she featured on three episodes between 2009 and 2010. Since 2015, Ramsay has starred in her daughter's show "Matilda and the Ramsay Bunch" on CBBC.


title: Tana Ramsay

text: Ramsay married Gordon Ramsay in London on 21 December 1996. They have five children: Megan (b.1998), Holly (b.1999), Jack (b.1999), Matilda (Tilly) (b.2001), and Oscar (b.2019). Oscar was born after Ramsay had a miscarriage in 2016. In an interview, Gordon Ramsay detailed how he and his wife struggled to conceive due to her polycystic ovary syndrome.


title: Fennec Shand

text: Fennec Shand is a fictional character in the "Star Wars" franchise portrayed by Ming-Na Wen in the Disney+ television series "The Mandalorian", "", and "The Book of Boba Fett". An elite mercenary and assassin, she was introduced in "" of "The Mandalorian", in which she is sought by the show's title character and another bounty hunter, Toro Calican, who seemingly kills her. In "", it was established that Fennec was saved by Boba Fett, leaving her in his debt, and had parts of her body replaced with cybernetics. As Fett's new partner, she assists him in his mission to recover his old armor from the Mandalorian, and later to rescue Grogu in order to honor an agreement made with the latter. Once their mission is completed, the two conquer Tatooine and the remnants of the Hutt cartels. In "The Book of Boba Fett", Fennec and Fett come into conflict with various enemies attempting to seize power from them, leading them to ally with the Mandalorian once more to defend their new crime empire.


title: Fennec Shand

text: The character has been received positively by reviewers and fans alike and has been described as a fan favorite. Fennec has also received significant attention for being the first major "Star Wars" villain/antihero portrayed by an Asian actress.


title: Fennec Shand

text: Elements of Fennec Shand's personality and development were inspired by the character's name, which Wen said brought to mind the idea of the namesake fennec fox. Anthony Breznican of "Vanity Fair" noted the fennec fox is a particularly appropriate model for the character because, like Fennec Shand, it is both predator and prey. Wen felt the character shared common attributes with the fox, including trickiness, stealthiness, maneuverability, and the ability to survive.


title: Fennec Shand

text: The character of Fennec Shand and casting of Wen were first announced at the D23 Expo in Anaheim, California on August 23, 2019. Bob Iger, CEO of The Walt Disney Company, announced the news on the same day that Wen was named one of the Disney Legends for her past work in Disney works. Footage of Fennec Shand was first publicly shown in a 30-second teaser trailer for "The Mandalorian" released on November 4, 2019. The teaser concluded with a shot of Fennec delivering the line: "Your name will be legendary." Abbey White said the character was "eagerly anticipated" by the time "The Mandalorian" premiered.