title: Dressed to Kill (1980 film)

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" awarded the film three stars out of four, stating "the museum sequence is brilliant" and adding: ""Dressed to Kill" is an exercise in style, not narrative; it would rather look and feel like a thriller than make sense, but DePalma has so much fun with the conventions of the thriller that we forgive him and go along." Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" also gave it three stars out of four, writing that there were scenes "that are as exciting and as stylish as any ever put on film. Unfortunately, a good chunk of the film is a whodunit, and its mystery is so easy to solve that we merely end up watching the film's visual pyrotechnics at a distance, never getting all that involved." Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" called the film "witty, romantic," and "very funny, which helps to defuse the effect of the graphically photographed violence. In addition, the film is, in its own inside-out way, peculiarly moral." His review added that "The performers are excellent, especially Miss Dickinson." "Variety" declared "Despite some major structural weaknesses, the cannily manipulated combination of mystery, gore and kinky sex adds up to a slick commercial package that stands to draw some rich blood money." David Denby of "New York" magazine proclaimed the film "the first great American movie of the '80s."


title: Dressed to Kill (1980 film)

text: Sheila Benson of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote "The brilliance of "Dressed to Kill" is apparent within seconds of its opening gliding shot; it is a sustained work of terror—elegant, sensual, erotic, bloody, a directorial tour de force." Pauline Kael of "The New Yorker" stated of De Palma that "his timing is so great that when he wants you to feel something he gets you every time. His thriller technique, constantly refined, has become insidious, jewelled. It's hardly possible to find a point at which you could tear yourself away from this picture." Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post" wrote, "This elegant new murder thriller promises to revive the lagging summer box office and enhance De Palma's reputation as the most exciting and distinctive manipulator of suspense since Alfred Hitchcock." In his movie guide, Leonard Maltin gave the film stars out of four, calling it a "High-tension melodrama", and stating "De Palma works on viewers' emotions, not logic, and maintains a fever pitch from start to finish." He also praised Pino Donaggio's "chilling music score."


title: Dressed to Kill (1980 film)

text: John Simon, of the "National Review", after taking note of the two-page advertisements full of superlatives in "The New York Times", wrote "What "Dressed to Kill" dispenses liberally, however, is sophomoric soft-core pornography, vulgar manipulation of the emotions for mere sensation, salacious but inept dialogue that is a cross between comic-strip Freudianism and sniggering double entendres, and a plot line so full of holes to be at best a dotted line".


title: Dressed to Kill (1980 film)

text: The film led to controversy and protests upon its release. When the film was screened, Iowa City National Organization for Women and members of other feminist organizations picketed the film as it was shown on the University of Iowa campus, distributing leaflets against the film, condemning what they saw as a depiction of violence against women as entertainment. During the film's initial release, the activist group Women Against Violence in Pornography and Media distributed a leaflet, arguing that "The distorted image of a psychotic male transvestite [sic] makes all sexual minorities appear sick and dangerous.” Numerous critics have since placed "Dressed to Kill" in a lineage of slasher movies that perpetuate the transphobic myth that trans people are mentally-ill sexual predators. "Dressed to Kill" was featured in the 2020 documentary ""; in a 2020 reappraisal of the film for "The Guardian", the critic Scott Tobias referred to De Palma's understanding of trans issues as "disconcertingly retrograde...There's no getting around the ugly association of gender transition with violence, other than to say that it feels thoroughly aestheticized".


title: Dressed to Kill (1980 film)

text: In a 2016 interview, De Palma said, "I don't know what the transgender community would think [of the film now]... Obviously I realize that it's not good for their image to be transgender and also be a psychopathic murderer. But I think that [perception] passes with time. We're in a different time." He added that he was "glad" that the film had become "a favorite of the gay community," which he attributed to its "flamboyance".


title: Dressed to Kill (1980 film)

text: The film is currently owned by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (successor to Orion Pictures, who bought Filmways and American International Pictures in 1982). The film saw a 1984 VHS release by Warner Home Video, and later another VHS release by Goodtimes under licence from Orion. In 2002, MGM released the film on DVD, including special features. In 2010, MGM released both R-rated and unrated versions on DVD and Blu-ray. The Criterion Collection released separate deluxe Blu-ray and DVD editions of the film on September 8, 2015.


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: The Mandate of Heaven () is a Chinese political philosophy that was used in ancient and imperial China to legitimize the rule of the King or Emperor of China. According to this doctrine, heaven (天, "Tian") – which embodies the natural order and will of the universe – bestows the mandate on a just ruler of China, the "Son of Heaven". If a ruler was overthrown, this was interpreted as an indication that the ruler was unworthy and had lost the mandate. It was also a common belief that natural disasters such as famine and flood were divine retributions bearing signs of Heaven's displeasure with the ruler, so there would often be revolts following major disasters as the people saw these calamities as signs that the Mandate of Heaven had been withdrawn.


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: The Mandate of Heaven does not require a legitimate ruler to be of noble birth, depending instead on how well that person can rule. Chinese dynasties such as the Han and Ming were founded by men of common origins, but they were seen as having succeeded because they had gained the Mandate of Heaven. The concept is in some ways similar to the European concept of the divine right of kings; however, unlike the European concept, it does not confer an unconditional right to rule. Retaining the mandate is contingent on the just and able performance of the rulers and their heirs.


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: Intrinsic to the concept of the Mandate of Heaven was the right of rebellion against an unjust ruler. The Mandate of Heaven was often invoked by philosophers and scholars in China as a way to curtail the abuse of power by the ruler, in a system that had few other checks. Chinese historians interpreted a successful revolt as evidence that Heaven had withdrawn its mandate from the ruler. Throughout Chinese history, times of poverty and natural disasters were often taken as signs that heaven considered the incumbent ruler unjust and thus in need of replacement.


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: The concept of the Mandate of Heaven was first used to support the rule of the kings of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC), and legitimize their overthrow of the earlier Shang dynasty (1600–1069 BC). It was used throughout the history of China to legitimize the successful overthrow and installation of new emperors, including by non-Han Chinese dynasties such as the Qing (1636–1912).


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: The prosperous Shang dynasty saw its rule filled with multiple outstanding accomplishments. Notably, the dynasty lasted for a considerable time during which 31 kings ruled over an extended period of 17 generations. During this period, the dynasty enjoyed a period of peace and tranquility in which citizens could make a good living. The government was originally able to control most of its internal affairs due to the firm support provided by the people. As time went on, however, the rulers' abuse of the other social classes led to social unrest and instability. The corruption in this dynasty created the conditions necessary for a new ruling house to risethe Zhou dynasty. Rebellion against the Shang was led by Zhou Wu. They were the first to use the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to explain their right to assume rule and presumed that the only way to hold the mandate was to rule well in the eyes of Heaven. They also stated that the Shang came into power because the Xia had lost their mandate. The mandate had then been bestowed upon the Shang, leading to the fall of the Xia and the rise of the Shang. They believed that the Shang ruling house had become morally corrupt and that the Shang leaders' loss of virtue entitled their own house to take over. The overthrow of the Shang Dynasty, they said, was in accordance with the mandate given by Heaven.


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: After the Zhou became the ruling dynasty, they mostly appointed their own officials. The Zhou Dynasty had its own way of assigning its officials. However, in order to appease some of the citizens, they allowed some Shang beneficiaries to continue governing their small kingdoms in compliance with Zhou rules and regulations. As the empire continued to expand, intermarriage increased because the rulers believed that it was a method of forming strong alliances that enabled them to absorb more countries into the dynasty. In the case of a war, the Zhou dynasty boasted excellent military and technology mostly because of influence from annexed countries. They also excelled in shipbuilding, which, coupled with their discovery of celestial navigation, made them excellent mariners. Intellectually, the Zhou excelled in fields of literature and philosophy while many governmental positions were filled according to the intellectual ability of a candidate. A large amount of literature survives from the Zhou period, including the "Book of Changes", "Book of History", "Book of Etiquette", "Book of Song", "Book of Odes", and the "Book of Rites". Most of these works are commentaries on the progress and political movement of the dynasty. In philosophical terms, Confucius and his followers played an important role in shaping the mentality of the government as defined by the Five Confucian Relationships. These critical thinkers served as a foundation for the government. Their works primarily stressed the importance of the ruling class, respect, and their relationship with the lower class. Due to the growing size of the dynasty, it became apparent that a centralized government would lead to a lot of confusion and corruption because the government would not be able to exert its influence or accede to the needs of everyone. To address this political barrier, the dynasty formed a decentralized government in which the empire was broken down into sections, called the Fengjian System. Within these districts were administrators who were appointed by the government, in return, they had to maintain their allegiance to the main internal government. In effect, the Zhou dynasty became a collection of districts. Consequently, this marked the fall of the dynasty as it became difficult for the central government to exert influence on all other regions of the empire.


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: Finally, when the Zhou dynasty's power decreased, it was wiped out by the State of Qin, which believed that the Zhou had become weak and their rule unjust. This transition emphasizes the customary trend of the Mandate of Heaven, which provided leeway for the rise of a new power. The Qin initially attempted to capitalize on the errors made by the Zhou, either by eliminating the source of error or reforming it. During this reformation, administrative changes were made and a system of legalism was developed which stated that the law is supreme over every individual, including the rulers. Although significant progress was made during the Qin dynasty, the persecution of scholars and ordinary citizens led to an unstable state.


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: After the death of Qin Shihuang, the first emperor of the Qin dynasty, a widespread revolt by prisoners, peasants, and unhappy soldiers inevitably led to the fall of the Qin dynasty due to its tyrannical practices. The establishment of the Han dynasty marked a great period in China's history marked by significant changes in the political structure of the country. Under the Han emperors, significant changes were made in which the government introduced entrance examinations known as civil service or imperial examinations for governmental positions. Additionally, the Han dynasty prospered economically through the Silk Road and other trading means.


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, there was no dominant Chinese dynasty that ruled all of China. This created a problem for the Song dynasty that followed, as they wanted to legitimize their rule by establishing a clear transmission of the Mandate from the Tang through to the Song. The scholar-official Xue Juzheng compiled the "Old History of the Five Dynasties" (五代史) during the 960s and 970s, after the Song dynasty had taken northern China from the last of the Five Dynasties, the Later Zhou. A major purpose of the book was to establish justification for the transference of the Mandate of Heaven through these five dynasties and thus to the Song dynasty. He argued that these dynasties met certain vital criteria to be considered as having attained the Mandate of Heaven despite never having ruled all of China. One is that they all ruled the traditional Chinese heartland.


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: However, there were certain other areas where these dynasties all clearly fell short. The brutal behavior of Zhu Wen and his Later Liang was a source of considerable embarrassment, and thus there was pressure to exclude them from the Mandate. The following three dynasties, the Later Tang, Later Jin, and Later Han were all non-Han Chinese dynasties with rulers from the Shatuo ethnic minority. Additionally, none of them were able to defeat the powerful states to the south and unify the entire Chinese realm. However, Xue Juzheng concluded that the Mandate had indeed passed through each of the Five Dynasties, and thus onto the Song Dynasty when it conquered the last of those dynasties.


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: The Qing claimed that the peasant rebel Li Zicheng had overthrown the Ming, and so the Qing were not responsible for the destruction of the Ming dynasty. Instead, the Qing argued, they had obtained the Mandate of Heaven by defeating the many rebels and bandits that the Ming had failed to control and restoring stability to the empire.


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: Just as stability was a sign of Heaven's favor, difficulties were a sign of Heaven's displeasure. Thus, emperors in the Qing and earlier dynasties often interpreted natural disasters during their reigns as reasons to reflect on their failures to act and govern correctly.


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: Chinese historians interpreted a successful revolt as evidence that the Mandate of Heaven had passed. In China, the right of rebellion against an unjust ruler has been a part of political philosophy ever since the Zhou dynasty, and the successful rebellion was interpreted by Chinese historians as evidence that divine approval had passed on to the successive dynasty. The Right of Rebellion is not coded into any official law. Rather, rebellion is always outlawed and severely punished; but is still a positive right grounded in the Chinese moral system. Often, it is used as a justification for actions to overthrow a previous dynasty after a rebellion has been successful and a new dynastic rule has been established. Since the winner is the one who determines who has obtained the Mandate of Heaven and who has lost it, some Chinese scholars consider it to be a sort of victor's justice, best characterized in the popular Chinese saying "The winner becomes king, the loser becomes outlaw" (Chinese: “”). Due to this, it is considered that Chinese historical accounts of the fall of a dynasty and the rise of a new one must be handled with caution. Chinese traditional historical compilation methods produce accounts that tend to fit their account to the theory, emphasizing aspects tending to prove that the old dynasty lost the Mandate of Heaven and the new one gained it, and de-emphasizing other aspects.


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: In the 20th and 21st centuries, Confucianist elements of student rebellions often claimed the Mandate of Heaven has been forfeited, as demonstrated by their large-scale activism, with notable instances including the 2014 Sunflower Student Movement in Taiwan and the 2014 Hong Kong protests.


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: Because of China's influence in medieval times, the concept of the Mandate of Heaven spread to other East Asian countries as a justification for rule by divine political legitimacy. In Korea, the kingdom of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, adopted the Chinese concept of tianxia which was based on Mandate of Heaven, however in Goguryeo it was changed to be based on divine ancestry. The kingdom of Silla is also said to be adopted the Mandate of Heaven, but the earliest records are from Joseon Dynasty, which made the Mandate of Heaven an enduring state ideology.


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: The ideology was also adopted in Vietnam, known in Vietnamese as "Thiên mệnh" (Chữ Hán: 天命). A divine mandate gave the Vietnamese emperor the right to rule, based not on his lineage but on his competence to govern. The later and more centralized Vietnamese dynasties adopted Confucianism as the state ideology, which led to the creation of a Vietnamese tributary system in Southeast Asia that was modeled after the Chinese Sinocentric system in East Asia.


title: Mandate of Heaven

text: In Japan, the Japanese government found the concept ideologically problematic, preferring not to have divine political legitimacy that was conditional and that could be withdrawn. The Japanese Taihō Code, formulated in 703, was largely an adaptation of the governmental system of the Tang dynasty, but the Mandate of Heaven was specifically omitted.


title: The Verdict

text: The Verdict is a 1982 American legal drama film directed by Sidney Lumet and written by David Mamet, adapted from Barry Reed's 1980 novel of the same name. It stars Paul Newman, Charlotte Rampling, Jack Warden, James Mason, Milo O'Shea, and Lindsay Crouse. A down-on-his-luck alcoholic lawyer accepts a medical malpractice case to improve his own situation, but discovers along the way that he is doing the right thing.


title: The Verdict

text: "The Verdict" garnered critical acclaim and box office success. The film was nominated for five Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director (Sidney Lumet), Best Actor in a Leading Role (Paul Newman), Best Actor in a Supporting Role (James Mason), and Best Adapted Screenplay (David Mamet).


title: The Verdict

text: Once-promising attorney Frank Galvin is an alcoholic ambulance chaser. As a favor, former partner Mickey Morrissey sends him a medical malpractice case which is all but certain to be settled out-of-court for a significant amount. The case involves a young woman given general anesthesia during childbirth at a Catholic hospital, after which she choked on her vomit and was left comatose. The plaintiffs, her sister and brother-in-law, intend to use the settlement to pay for her care.


title: The Verdict

text: Galvin is deeply affected upon seeing the woman. A representative of the Catholic diocese offers a substantial settlement. Without consulting the family, Galvin declines and states his intention to take the case to trial, stunning all parties, including the judge who is hearing the case. While preparing for the trial, Galvin encounters Laura in a bar and becomes romantically involved with her.


title: The Verdict

text: The case experiences several setbacks: The hospital's attorney, Ed Concannon, has a large legal team that is masterful with the press. The comatose woman's brother-in-law angrily confronts Galvin after Concannon's team tells him of the settlement offer Galvin rejected. Galvin's medical expert disappears before testifying, and a hastily-arranged substitute's credentials are challenged. Judge Hoyle resents Galvin's refusal to settle the case, and undermines his questioning of the substitute. Nobody who was in the operating room is willing to testify that negligence occurred.


title: The Verdict

text: In chambers during the trial, Judge Hoyle threatens Galvin with disbarment, but he angrily dismisses the judge as a bagman and "defendant's judge" who couldn't "hack it" as a lawyer, then asks for a mistrial. The judge denies the request and threatens to have Galvin arrested by the bailiff. Galvin storms out.


title: The Verdict

text: Kaitlin Costello, the nurse who admitted the woman to the hospital, is now a pre-school teacher in New York City; Galvin travels there to seek her help. As Laura hastily arranges to meet him, Morrissey discovers a check from Concannon in her handbag and realizes Concannon is paying her to provide inside information. Morrissey informs Galvin of Laura's betrayal, and Galvin confronts her in a bar. He strikes her, knocking her to the floor. Back in Boston, Morrissey suggests moving for a mistrial due to Concannon's ethics violation, but Galvin decides to continue.


title: The Verdict

text: In the courtroom, Costello testifies she wrote that the patient ate a full meal one hour before being admitted, which contradicts the original patient record that states a nine-hour interval. On cross-examination, an incredulous Concannon asks how she can prove this; Costello reveals that before she made the change, she made a photocopy of the original, and that she brought it to court. Concannon objects that for legal purposes, the original is presumed to be correct, but Hoyle unexpectedly reserves judgment. Costello testifies that the anesthesiologist later confessed to her that he had failed to read her admitting notes and administered general anesthesia, which is not proper for someone who ate only an hour previously. As a result, the patient vomited and choked. When the anesthesiologist realized his error, he threatened to end Costello's career if she did not change the "1" to a "9”.


title: The Verdict

text: After Costello is dismissed, Concannon again objects on the grounds that the original has precedence. The judge agrees and declares Costello's testimony stricken from the record. Afterwards a diocese lawyer praises Concannon's performance to the diocese's bishop, who then asks, "But do you believe her?" — and is met with embarrassed silence.


title: The Verdict

text: Despite believing his case is hopeless, Frank gives a brief but passionate closing argument. The jury finds in favor of the comatose woman and the foreman asks whether the jury can award more than what the plaintiffs sought. The judge resignedly replies that they can. As Galvin is congratulated outside the courtroom, he catches a glimpse of Laura watching him from across the atrium before vanishing.


title: The Verdict

text: That night, a drunk Laura drops her whiskey on the floor, drags her telephone towards her and dials Galvin's office number. As his phone rings, Frank sits with a cup of coffee. He moves to answer the call but then stops and lets the phone continue to ring.


title: The Verdict

text: Film rights to Reed’s novel were bought by the team of Richard Zanuck and David Brown. A number of actors, including Roy Scheider, William Holden, Frank Sinatra, Cary Grant and Dustin Hoffman, expressed interest in the project because of the strength of the lead role. Arthur Hiller was originally attached to direct while David Mamet was hired to write a screenplay.


title: The Verdict

text: Though Mamet had made a name for himself in the theater, he was still new to screenwriting (his first film credit had come in 1978). The producers were uncertain whether Mamet would take the job given the standards he set with his own previous work, but according to Lindsay Crouse, who was then married to Mamet, the film was actually a big deal for him. Crouse also recalled Mamet struggling initially with Galvin's closing summation, but he finally came up with the scene after staying up an entire evening working on it.


title: The Verdict

text: Mamet's original draft ended the film after the jury left the courtroom for deliberations, giving no resolution to the case. Neither Zanuck and Brown believed they could make the film without showing what happened, and Zanuck met with Mamet to convince him to re-write the ending. However, Mamet told Zanuck that the ending he wanted was "old-fashioned" and would hurt the film. He also reacted negatively to Zanuck's use of sarcasm to make his point, as Zanuck claimed his copy of the script was missing its final pages before telling Mamet the film title would need a question mark after it.


title: The Verdict

text: Hiller also disliked Mamet's script, and left the project. The producers commissioned another screenplay from Jay Presson Allen, which they preferred, and they were later approached by Robert Redford to star in the film when he obtained a copy of the script from Allen.


title: The Verdict

text: Redford suggested James Bridges as a writer-director, and he had Bridges write several drafts of the screenplay, more or less sanitizing the lead character as he was concerned about playing a hard-drinking womanizer. Neither the producers nor Redford were happy with the rewrites and soon Bridges left the project. Redford then began having meetings with Sydney Pollack without telling the producers; irritated, they fired Redford.


title: The Verdict

text: Zanuck and Brown then hired Sidney Lumet to direct, sending him all versions of the script. After several rewrites, Lumet decided the story's original grittiness was fast devolving and chose Mamet's original script. This was agreed to by Paul Newman, who ultimately agreed to star. Lumet recalled that they had to rework only one or two scenes, mainly giving the trial a resolution as Zanuck and Brown had originally requested. Unlike Zanuck, when Lumet approached Mamet, he was able to get his approval to make that change to his original work.


title: The Verdict

text: Lumet then recruited Warden and Mason, both of whom he had worked with before. He wasn't sure if Mason, a renowned actor in that era, would take a supporting role, but Mason liked Mamet's script and did not object.


title: The Verdict

text: Prior to filming, Lumet held extensive dress rehearsals, standard practice for Lumet's films but not common on Hollywood productions. Newman was appreciative as they proved crucial in developing his performance, giving him the time he needed to tap into the emotional bankruptcy of his character.


title: The Verdict

text: At one point during production, Newman barely avoided serious injury when a light estimated to weigh several hundred pounds fell about three feet away from him after breaking through its supports. The wood planks were apparently weakened by overnight rain.


title: The Verdict

text: Bruce Willis and Tobin Bell have uncredited background appearances. They are seated together as extras in the final courtroom scene.


title: The Verdict

text: The producers were reluctant to keep the scene where Newman strikes Rampling, believing it would turn the audience against his character and even damage his public image. Newman insisted on keeping it, believing it was right for the story.


title: The Verdict

text: After the film was finished, the studio's executives sent Lumet several suggestions and urged him to rework the ending with Galvin finally answering Laura's phone call, but Zanuck said that Lumet had final cut authority, and the film would remain as completed.


title: The Verdict

text: Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 89%, with an average rating of 7.8/10, based on 36 reviews. The website's "Critics Consensus" for the film reads: "Paul Newman is at the peak of his powers as an attorney who never lived up to his potential in "The Verdict", supported by David Mamet's crackling script and Sidney Lumet's confident direction." In a poll of 500 films held by "Empire" magazine, it was voted 254th Greatest Movie of all time. In 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked the screenplay #91 on its list of the "101 greatest screenplays ever written". Richard D. Pepperman praised the scene in which Judge Hoyle eats breakfast and offers Galvin coffee as "a terrific use of objects, making for a believable judge in his personal, comfortable and suitable place, as well as a Physical Action (motion) that demonstrates the subtext of the Judge's objective (in support of the insurance company, the doctor and their attorney) without an abundance of expository dialogue."


title: The Verdict

text: The film opened in 3 theaters in New York City and grossed $143,265 in its first 5 days. The following weekend it expanded to 615 screens and grossed $2,331,805, finishing seventh for the weekend, and went on to gross $54 million.


title: The Magic School Bus (TV series)

text: The Magic School Bus is an animated educational children's television series, based on the book series of the same name by Joanna Cole and Bruce Degen. Running originally from 1994 to 1997, the series received critical acclaim for its use of celebrity voice talent and combining entertainment with an educational series. The show features famous actress and celebrity Lily Tomlin as the voice of Ms. Frizzle. The show's theme song is performed by famous singer Little Richard.


title: The Magic School Bus (TV series)

text: Miss Frizzle embarks on adventures with her class on the eponymous school bus. As they journey on their exciting field trips, they discover locations, creatures, time periods and more to learn about the wonders of science along the way.


title: The Magic School Bus (TV series)

text: In early 1994, "The Magic School Bus" concept was made into an animated series of the same name by Scholastic Entertainment and it premiered on September 10, 1994. The idea for the TV series was developed by former Scholastic Entertainment Vice President and Senior Editorial Director Craig Walker. Scholastic Entertainment president Deborah Forte explained that adapting the books into an animated series was an opportunity to help kids "learn about science in a fun way". During this time, Forte had been hearing concerns from parents and teachers about how to improve science education for kids and minorities across the globe. Hanho Heung-Up Co., Ltd. contributed some of the animation for this series. The theme song, called "Ride on the Magic School Bus", was written by Peter Lurye and performed by Little Richard. The voice director was Susan Blu; two of the writers for the series were Brian Meehl and Jocelyn Stevenson.


title: The Magic School Bus (TV series)

text: In the United States, from 1994 until 1997, "The Magic School Bus" originally aired on PBS (being the first television airing). It aired on PBS as part of its children's block. On PBS through South Carolina's SCETV network, it was the first fully animated series to be aired on PBS. The last episode aired (on PBS) on December 6, 1997. By the series' end, it was among the highest-rated PBS shows for school-age children. After the final episode, the show on the PBS lineup was subsequently rerun intermittently until September 25, 1998. On September 26, 1998, PBS dropped the show from its lineup in order to make room for more programs aimed at preschoolers. On that same year, Fox network acquired the original TV series. After Fox network acquired the TV series, it was moved to the Fox Kids block and it ran there until 2002.


title: The Magic School Bus (TV series)

text: On United States television, Fox Kids in the United States used the series as a weekday offering to fill educational television mandates for its affiliates. It aired repeats from 1998 to 2002. On September 27, 2010, "The Magic School Bus" was broadcast through a daily run in Qubo. Then it aired on NBC (on Saturday mornings). Both the Fox Kids and Qubo airings used a shortened version of the opening. Also the PBS, TLC, and Discovery Kids airings, CBC Kids (on Canadian television), and the VHS and DVD versions, all used the original version of the opening. After its permanent removal from PBS in 1998 (in order for PBS to make room for other new programs aimed at preschoolers) and Fox Kids in 2002, TLC and Discovery Kids chose to air it. TLC aired it from February 24, 2003 until 2008 while Discovery Kids aired it from 2004 until 2009 (as part of the Ready Set Learn block).


title: The Magic School Bus (TV series)

text: In Canada, it aired on CBC Kids (from 2000 until 2003), Teletoon, and Knowledge Network. In the United Kingdom, it aired on Channel 4, Nickelodeon, and Pop. Since 2005, Canada-based studio Nelvana acquired the original TV series and sold it to the Latin American television (the Latin American versions of Cartoon Network and Nickelodeon). As of 2021, the show is currently distributed by 9 Story Media Group.


title: The Magic School Bus (TV series)

text: The series (through home media) was released on VHS from 1995 to 2003, DVD from 2002 to 2013, DVD (by New Video Group) in Region 1 (which are the rereleases of the Warner Home Video DVDs) on July, 31, 2012, and Netflix on August 15, 2013.


title: The Magic School Bus (TV series)

text: The series was originally released on VHS. The series on VHS was distributed by KidVision (a division of WarnerVision Entertainment) between 1995 and 2003. On DVD, it was distributed by Warner Home Video (through Warner Bros. Family Entertainment and WarnerVision Entertainment) between 2002 and 2013.


title: The Magic School Bus (TV series)

text: On July 31, 2012, New Video Group released the complete series on DVD in Region 1, as well as rereleases of the Warner Home Video DVDs.


title: The Magic School Bus (TV series)

text: On August 15, 2013, Scholastic announced the complete series' availability on Netflix. Currently however only season 1 of the series is available to stream on Netflix.


title: The Magic School Bus (TV series)

text: In a 2007 column for the online edition of "The Wall Street Journal", Jason Fry expressed an overall appreciation for the series, but wrote that the episode "The Magic School Bus Gets Programmed" illustrated the rapid pace of technological change over the ten years since it first aired. He explained the episode presented an old-fashioned "technology-gone-amok" story about the respective roles of programmer and machine that was no longer relevant to children growing up in 2007. He suggested that an updated version of the episode would have focused instead on the perils of Internet searches and on network concepts surfacing at the time.


title: The Magic School Bus (TV series)

text: Numerous computer and video games associated with the series were released from 1994 to 2000, and were typically amalgamations of storylines from both the original book series and the television show. The games were published by Microsoft Home.


title: The Magic School Bus (TV series)

text: A video game titled "The Magic School Bus: Oceans" was released for Nintendo DS on October 25, 2011, ten years after the release of the last game. This is the only game to be released on a Nintendo platform.


title: The Magic School Bus (TV series)

text: On June 10, 2014, a new series was announced by Netflix and Scholastic Media titled "The Magic School Bus 360°". The new iteration of the franchise features a modernized Ms. Frizzle and high-tech bus that stresses modern inventions such as robotics, wearables and camera technology. The producers hoped to captivate children's imaginations and motivate their interest in the sciences. 9 Story Media Group would produce the series. Producer Stuart Stone, who voiced Ralphie in the original series, explained that "The Magic School Bus 360°" will feature some of the original voice actors in different roles. The series' voice cast is based in Los Angeles and Toronto with Susan Blu as the Los Angeles voice director and Alyson Court as the Toronto voice director.


title: The Magic School Bus (TV series)

text: In February 2017, Netflix announced that Saturday Night Live cast member Kate McKinnon was cast in the role of Fiona Felicity Frizzle, the younger sister of Ms. Frizzle, now Professor Frizzle, again voiced by Lily Tomlin. By this point the title of the series had been changed to "The Magic School Bus Rides Again". Lin-Manuel Miranda performed the theme song. On September 29, 2017 the series premiered on Netflix.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: The Quaker Oats Company, known as Quaker, is an American food conglomerate based in Chicago. It has been owned by PepsiCo since 2001.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: In the 1850s, Ferdinand Schumacher and Robert Stuart founded oat mills. Schumacher founded the German Mills American Oatmeal Company in Akron, Ohio, and Stuart founded the North Star Mills in Hearst, Rupert's Land. In 1870, Schumacher ran his first known cereal advertisement in the Akron Beacon Journal newspaper. In 1877, the Quaker Mill Company of Ravenna, Ohio was founded. "The name was chosen when Quaker Mill partner Henry Seymour found an encyclopedia article on Quakers and decided that the qualities described — integrity, honesty, purity — provided an appropriate identity for the company's oat product." Quaker Mill Company held the trademark on the Quaker name. In Ravenna, Ohio, on 4 September 1877, Henry Seymour of the Quaker Mill Company applied for the first trademark for a breakfast cereal, "a man in 'Quaker garb'".


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: In 1879, John Stuart and his son Robert joined with George Douglas to form Imperial Mill and set up their operation in Chicago, Illinois. In 1881, Henry Crowell bought the Quaker Mill Company, and the following year he launched a national advertising campaign for Quaker Oats, introducing a cereal box that made it possible to buy in quantities other than bulk. He also bought the bankrupt Quaker Oat Mill Company in Ravenna, and held the key positions of general manager, president and chairman of the company from 1888 until late 1943, becoming known as the cereal tycoon. He donated more than 70% of his wealth to the Crowell Trust.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: In 1888, the American Cereal Company was formed by the merger of seven major oat millers. Ferdinand Schumacher became president, Henry Crowell, general manager, and John Stuart the secretary-treasurer. In 1889, the American Cereal Company introduced the half-ounce trial size and, as a promotion, they distributed one to every home in Portland, Oregon via boys on bicycles. Later, this promotion was extended to other cities. A second promotion involved placing dinner plates within the then-regular (not round) boxes of oats.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: In 1901, the Quaker Oats Company was founded in New Jersey with headquarters in Chicago, by the merger of four oat mills: the Quaker Mill Company in Ravenna, Ohio, which held the trademark on the Quaker name; the cereal mill in Cedar Rapids, Iowa owned by John Stuart, his son Robert Stuart, and their partner George Douglas; the German Mills American Oatmeal Company in Akron, Ohio, owned by Schumacher; The Rob Lewis & Co. American Oats and Barley Oatmeal Corporation. Formally known as "Good For Breakfast" instant oatmeal mix. In the same year, the whole merged company was acquired by Henry Parsons Crowell, who also bought the bankrupt Quaker Oat Mill Company, also in Ravenna.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: In 1908, Quaker Oats introduced the first in a series of cookie recipes on the box. In 1911, Quaker Oats purchased the Great Western Cereal Company. The iconic cylindrical package made its first appearance in 1915. Later that year, Quaker offered the first cereal box premium to buyers. By sending in one dollar and the cutout picture of the "Quaker Man" customers received a double boiler for the cooking of oatmeal.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: In the 1920s, Quaker introduced "Quaker Quick Oats" an early convenience food, and also offered a crystal radio set built in the same cylindrical canister as Quick Oats, with the same label, for [[US$]1 plus two trademarks cut from Quaker Oats packages. In the 1930s, Quaker was one of the many companies using the [[Dionne Quintuplets]] for promotional purposes. Quaker Oats in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, was photographed during the 1930s by [[Theodor Horydczak]], who documented the building, operations, and factory workers at the plant.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: During [[World War II]], the company, through its subsidiary the Q. O. Ordnance Company, operated the Cornhusker Ordnance Plant (six miles west of [[Grand Island, Nebraska|Grand Island]]) as a government-owned, contractor-operated 11,960-acre site. Construction began in March 1942 and production ended on 15 August 1945. It manufactured millions of pieces of various artillery munitions (41 warehouses and 219 magazines of total 280,800 ft² were built).


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: In 1946, artist Jim Nash was commissioned to produce a head portrait of the Quaker Man, which became the basis for [[Haddon Sundblom]]'s famous version of 1957. In 1972, John Mills designed the current logo.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: From 1946 to 1953, researchers from Quaker Oats, [[MIT]] and [[Harvard University]] carried out experiments at the [[Walter E. Fernald State School]] to determine how the minerals from cereals were metabolized. Parents of mentally challenged children were asked for permission to let their children be members of a "Science Club" and participate in research. Being a member of the Science Club gave the children special privileges. The parents were told that the children would be fed with a diet high in nutrients. However, they were not told (and the consent form contained no information indicating) that the food their children were fed contained [[radionuclides|radioactive]] [[calcium]] and [[iron]]. The information obtained from the experiments was to be used as part of an advertising campaign. The company was later sued because of the experiments. The lawsuit was settled on 31 December 1997.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: In 1968, a plant was built in [[Danville, Illinois]], which now makes [[Pearl Milling Company]] pancake mixes, Oat Squares, Life Cereals Quaker [[Oh's]], Bumpers, Quisp, King Vitamin Natural Granola Cereals, and Chewy granola bars, as well as Puffed Rice for use as an ingredient for other products in other plants.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: In 1969, Quaker acquired [[Fisher-Price]], a toy company. In the 1970s, the company financed the making of the film "[[Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory]]", in return obtaining a license to use a number of the product names mentioned in the movie for [[candy bar]]s. In 1991, Quaker Oats spun off its Fisher-Price division.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: In 1982, Quaker Oats purchased [[US Games]], a company that created games for the [[Atari 2600]]. It went out of business after one year. That same year, Quaker Oats acquired Florida-based orange juice plant Ardmore Farms, which it would own until selling it to [[Country Pure Foods]] in 1998.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: Quaker bought [[Snapple]] for $1.7 billion in 1994 and sold it to [[Wendy's/Arby's Group|Triarc]] in 1997 for $300 million. Triarc sold it to [[Cadbury Schweppes]] for $1.45 billion in September 2000. It was spun off in May 2008 to its current owners, [[Dr Pepper Snapple Group]].


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: In 1996, Quaker spun off its frozen food business, selling it to Aurora Foods (which was bought by [[Pinnacle Foods]] in 2004).


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: In August 2001, [[PepsiCo]] acquired Quaker Oats for $14 billion, primarily for its [[Gatorade]] brand of [[soft drink]]. The merger created the fourth-largest consumer goods company in the world. Though the main prize of PepsiCo was [[Gatorade]] non-carbonated sports drink, Quaker's cereal and snack food division complemented the existing [[Frito-Lay]] salty-snacks division.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: Actor [[Wilford Brimley]] appeared in television commercials for Quaker beginning in the late 1980s. In the commercials, he extolled the virtues of oat consumption, typically to a young child, as to introduce the concept of oatmeal consumption as a long [[tradition]].


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: The major Canadian production facility for Quaker Oats is located in [[Peterborough, Ontario]]. The factory was first established as the American Cereal Company in 1902 on the shores of the Otonabee River during that city's period of industrialization. At the time, the city was known as "The Electric City" due to its [[hydropower]] resources, attracting many companies to the site to take advantage of this source. The [[Trent–Severn Waterway]] also promised to provide an alternate shipping route from inland areas around the city, although it appears this was never used in practice. On 11 December 1916, the factory all but completely burned to the ground. When the smoke had settled, 23 people had died and Quaker was left with $2,000,000 in damages. Quaker went on to rebuild the facility, incorporating the few areas of the structure that were not destroyed by fire.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: When [[PepsiCo]] purchased Quaker Oats in 2001, many brands were consolidated from facilities around Canada to the Peterborough location, which assumed the new QTG (Quaker Tropicana Gatorade) moniker. Local production includes Quaker Oatmeal, Quaker Chewy bars, Cap'n Crunch cereal, [[Pearl Milling Company]] instant pancake mixes and pancake syrups, Quaker Oat Bran and Corn Bran cereals, [[Gatorade]] sports drinks, and the [[Propel Fitness Water|Propel]] fitness water sub-brand, [[Tropicana Products|Tropicana]] juices, and various [[Frito-Lay]] snack products. Products are easily identified by the "manufactured by" address on the packaging. The Peterborough facility supplies the majority of [[Canada]] and exports limited portions to the [[United States]]. The Quaker plant sells cereal production byproducts to companies that use them to create fire logs and pellets.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: Starting in 1902, the company's oatmeal boxes came with a coupon redeemable for the legal deed to a tiny lot in [[Milford, Connecticut]]. The lots, sometimes as small as 10 feet by 10 feet, were carved out of a 15-acre, never-built subdivision called "Liberty Park". A small number of children (or their parents), often residents living near Milford, redeemed their coupons for the free deeds and started paying the extremely small property taxes on the "oatmeal lots". The developer of the prospective subdivision hoped the landowners would hire him to build homes on the lots, although several tracts would need to be combined before building could start. The legal deeds created a large amount of paperwork for town tax collectors, who frequently couldn't find the property owners and received almost no tax revenue from them. In the mid-1970s, the town put an end to the oatmeal lots with a "general foreclosure" condemning nearly all of the property, which is now part of a [[Société Bic|BiC Corporation]] plant.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: In 1955, Quaker Oats again [[Klondike Big Inch Land Promotion|gave away land]] as part of a promotion, this one tied to the "[[Sergeant Preston of the Yukon]]" television show in the United States. The company offered in its Puffed Wheat and Puffed Rice cereal boxes genuine deeds to land in the [[Klondike, Yukon|Klondike]].


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: The Quaker Oats logo starting in 1877 had a figure of a Quaker man depicted full-length, sometimes holding a scroll with the word "Pure" written across it, resembling the classic woodcuts of [[William Penn]] (founder of the [[Province of Pennsylvania]]), the 17th-century philosopher and early Quaker. Quaker Oats advertising dating back to 1909 did, indeed, identify the "Quaker man" as William Penn, and referred to him as "standard bearer of the Quakers and of Quaker Oats."


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: In 1946, graphic designer Jim Nash created a black-and-white head-and-shoulders portrait of the smiling Quaker Man, and [[Haddon Sundblom]]'s now-familiar color head-and-shoulders portrait (using fellow Coca-Cola artist [[Harold W. McCauley]] as the model) debuted in 1957. The monochromatic 1969 Quaker Oats Company logo, modeled after the Sundblom illustration, was created by [[Saul Bass]], a graphic designer known for his motion picture title sequences and corporate logos. In 2012, the company enlisted the firm of Hornall Anderson to give the "Quaker man" a slimmer, somewhat younger look. The man is now sometimes referred to as "Larry" by insiders at Quaker Oats. And in 1965, a new advertising slogan was introduced: "Nothing is better for thee, than me".


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: The company states that their current "Quaker man" logo "does not represent an actual person. His image is that of a man dressed in [[Quakers|Quaker garb]], including a [[wide awake hat|Quaker hat]], chosen because the Quaker faith projected the values of honesty, integrity, purity and strength."


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: The company has never had any ties with the [[Religious Society of Friends]] (Quakers). When the company was being built up, Quaker businessmen were known for their honesty ([[truth]] is often considered a [[Quaker testimony]]). "[[The Straight Dope]]" writes "According to the good folks at Quaker Oats, the Quaker Man was America's first registered trademark for a breakfast cereal, his registration taking place on September 4th, 1877."


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: Members of the Religious Society of Friends have occasionally expressed frustration at being confused with the Quaker Oats representation. In recent years, Friends have twice protested the Quaker name being used for advertising campaigns seen as promoting violence. In 1990, some Quakers started a letter-writing campaign after a Quaker Oats advertisement depicted [[Popeye]] as a "Quakerman" who used violence against aliens, sharks, and [[Bluto]]. Later that decade, more letters were sparked by [[Power Rangers]] toys included in [[Cap'n Crunch]] cereal.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: From 1946 to 1953, researchers from Quaker Oats Company, [[MIT]] and [[Harvard University]] carried out experiments at the [[Walter E. Fernald State School]] to determine how the minerals from cereals were metabolized. Parents of disabled children were asked for permission to let their children be members of a "Science Club" and participate in research. Being a member of the Science Club gave the children special privileges. The parents were told that the children would be fed with a diet high in nutrients. They were not told that the food their children were fed contained [[radionuclides|radioactive]] [[calcium]] and [[iron]], and the consent form contained no information indicating this. The information obtained from the experiments was to be used as part of an advertising campaign. The company was later sued because of the experiments. The lawsuit was settled on 31 December 1997.


title: Quaker Oats Company

text: In 2010, two [[California]] consumers filed a [[class action]] lawsuit against the Quaker Oats Company. The plaintiffs alleged that Quaker marketed its products as healthy even though they contained unhealthy [[trans fat]]. Specifically, Quaker's Chewy Granola Bars, Instant Oatmeal, and Oatmeal to Go Bars contained trans fat, yet their packaging featured claims like "heart healthy," "wholesome," and "smart choices made easy." The plaintiffs' complaint cited current scientific evidence that trans fat causes [[coronary heart disease]] and is associated with a higher risk of [[diabetes]] and some forms of [[cancer]]. In 2014, Quaker agreed to remove trans fats from its products, at a cost of $1.4 million, although the company denied false or misleading labelling.


title: All American: Homecoming

text: All American: Homecoming is an American sports drama television series created by Nkechi Okoro Carroll that premiered on The CW on February 21, 2022. It is a spin-off of "All American". In May 2022, the series was renewed for a second season which premiered on October 10, 2022.


title: All American: Homecoming

text: In this spin-off from "All American", Simone Hicks leaves behind her boyfriend Jordan in Los Angeles and attends Bringston University, a historically black college in Atlanta, Georgia where she decides to pursue her dreams of being a pro tennis player. Also attending the school is Damon Sims, a fellow freshman who is navigating the college scene to pursue his dream of playing baseball for the university after rejecting an MLB draft to continue to play baseball for Bringston under the guidance of his coach, Marcus Turner. Also included is Amara Patterson, Simone's aunt, who teaches journalism at Bringston.


title: All American: Homecoming

text: On December 18, 2020, it was announced that The CW is in early development of a backdoor pilot for a spin-off of Geffri Maya's character Simone Hicks reprising her role from "All American". On February 1, 2021, The CW gave the spin-off a pilot order and titled it as "All American: Homecoming". On May 24, 2021, "All American: Homecoming" was picked up to series. The series is created by Nkechi Okoro Carroll who is expected to executive produce alongside Greg Berlanti, Sarah Schechter, David Madden, and Robbie Rogers. The backdoor pilot is written by Carroll and directed by Michael Schultz. The production companies involved with the series are Berlanti Productions and Warner Bros. Television. The backdoor pilot aired on July 5, 2021 as part of the third season of "All American". The series premiered on February 21, 2022. On May 12, 2022, The CW renewed the series for a second season which premiered on October 10, 2022.


title: All American: Homecoming

text: On March 29, 2021, it was reported that Peyton Alex Smith, Cory Hardrict, Kelly Jenrette, Sylverser Powell, Netta Walker, and Camille Hyde were cast to star. On December 16, 2021, it was announced that Mitchell Edwards who recurs as Cam Watkins on "All American" is set to reprise his role on this series a series regular. On January 28, 2022, it was reported that Tamberla Perry joined the cast in a recurring role. On June 21, 2022, Rhoyle Ivy King was promoted as a series regular for the second season.


title: All American: Homecoming

text: After being scheduled to release on HBO Max in June 2022, the series was pulled from the schedule and added to Netflix on July 12, 2022 in the United States.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: Badrinath or Badrinarayana Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu. It is situated in the town of Badrinath in Uttarakhand, India. The temple is also one of the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Vishnu - holy shrines for Vaishnavas - who is worshipped as Badrinath. It is open for six months every year (between the end of April and the beginning of November), because of extreme weather conditions in the Himalayan region. The temple is located in Garhwal hill tracks in Chamoli district along the banks of Alaknanda River. It is one of the most visited pilgrimage centers of India, having recorded 2.8 million (28 lakh) visits in just 2 months in 2022.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The image of the presiding deity worshipped in the temple is a , the black granite deity of Vishnu in the form of Badrinarayan. The deity is considered by many Hindus to be one of eight "svayam vyakta kshetras", or self-manifested deities of Vishnu.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: Mata Murti Ka Mela, which commemorates the descent of river Ganges on mother earth, is the most prominent festival celebrated in the Badrinath Temple. Although Badrinath is located in North India, the head priest, or Rawal, is traditionally a Nambudiri Brahmin chosen from the South Indian state of Kerala. The temple was included in the Uttar Pradesh state government Act No. 30/1948 as Act no. 16,1939, which later came to be known as Shri Badarinath and Shri Kedarnath Mandir Act. The committee nominated by the state government administers both the temples and has seventeen members on its board.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The temple is mentioned in ancient religious texts like "Vishnu Purana" and "Skanda Purana". It is glorified in the "Naalayira Divya Prabandham", an early medieval Tamil canon of the Alvar saints from the 6th–9th centuries CE.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The temple is located in Garhwal hill tracts along the banks of the Alaknanda River in Chamoli district in Uttarakhand. The hill tracts are located above the mean sea level. The Nar Parbat mountain is located opposite to the temple, while the Narayana Parbat is located behind the Neelkanth peak.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: Adi Shankara established Badrinath as a pilgrimage site in the ninth century.The temple has three structures: the Garbhagriha (sanctum), the Darshan Mandapa (worship hall), and Sabha Mandapa (convention hall). The conical-shaped roof of the sanctum, the "garbhagriha", is approximately tall with a small cupola on top, covered with a gold gilt roof. The facade is built of stone and has arched windows. A broad stairway leads up to the main entrance, a tall, arched gateway. Just inside is a mandap, a large, pillared hall that leads to the sanctum, or main shrine area. The walls and pillars of the hall are covered with intricate carvings.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The main shrine houses the Shaligram (black stone) deity of Badrinarayana, which is housed in a gold canopy under a Badri Tree. The deity of Badrinarayana shows Him holding a "Shankha" (conch) and a "Chakra" (wheel) in two of His arms in a lifted posture and the other two arms resting on His lap in a "Yogamudra" ("Padmasana") posture. The sanctum also houses images of the god of wealthKubera, sage Narada, Uddhava, Nara and Narayana. There are fifteen more images that are also worshipped around the temple. These include that of Lakshmi (the consort of Vishnu), Garuda (the vahana of Narayan), and Navadurga, the manifestation of Durga in nine different forms. The temple also has shrines of Lakshmi Narasimhar and for saints Adi Shankara (CE 788-820), Nar and Narayan, Ghantakarna, Vedanta Desika and Ramanujacharya. All the deities of the temple are made of black stone.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The Tapt Kund, a group of hot sulphur springs just below the temple, are considered to be medicinal; many pilgrims consider it a requirement to bathe in the springs before visiting the temple. The springs have a year-round temperature of , while outside temperature is typically below all year round. The two water ponds in the temple are called Narad Kund and Surya Kund.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: There is no historical record about the temple, but there is a mention of the presiding deity Badrinath in Vedic scriptures (–500 BCE). According to some accounts, the shrine was worshipped in some form in the Vedic period. The temple was a Buddhist shrine till the 8th century and Adi Shankara revived the shrine and converted it to a Hindu temple. The architecture of the temple resembling that of a Buddhist vihara (temple) and the brightly painted facade which is atypical of Buddhist temples leads to the argument. Other accounts relate that it was originally established as a pilgrimage site by Adi Shankara in the ninth century. It is believed that Shankara resided in the place for six years from CE 814 to 820. He resided six months in Badrinath and the rest of the year in Kedarnath. Hindu followers assert that he discovered the deity of Badrinath in the Alaknanda River and enshrined it in a cave near the Tapt Kund hot springs. A traditional story asserts that Shankara expelled all the Buddhists in the region with the help of the Parmar ruler king Kanak Pal. The hereditary successors of the king governed the temple and endowed villages to meet its expenses. The income from a set of villages on the route to the temple was used to feed and accommodate pilgrims. The Parmar rulers held the title "Bolanda Badrinath", meaning speaking Badrinath. They had other titles, including Shri 108 Basdrishcharyaparayan Garharaj Mahimahendra, Dharmabibhab, and Dharamarakshak Sigamani.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The throne of Badrinath was named after the presiding deity; the king enjoyed ritual obeisance by the devotees before proceeding to the shrine. The practice was continued until the late 19th century. During the 16th century, the King of Garhwal moved the murti to the present temple. When the state of Garhwal was divided, the Badrinath temple came under British rule but the king of Garhwal continued as the chairman of the management committee. The selection of priest is done after consultation between Garhwal and Travancore royal families.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The temple has undergone several major renovations due to its age and damage by an avalanche. In the 17th century, the temple was expanded by the Kings of Garhwal. After significant damage during the great 1803 Garhwal earthquake, it was largely rebuilt by the King of Jaipur. It was still under renovation as late as the 1870s but these were completed by the time of the First World War. At that time, the town was still small, consisting of only the 20-odd huts housing the temple's staff, but the number of pilgrims was usually between seven and ten thousand. The Kumbha Mela festival held every twelve years raised the number of visitors to 50,000. The temple also enjoyed revenue from the rents owed to it by various villages bequeathed by various rajas.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: During 2006, the state government announced the area around Badrinath as a no construction zone to curb illegal encroachment.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: According to Hindu legend, the god Vishnu sat in meditation at this place. During his meditation, Vishnu was unaware of cold weather. Lakshmi, his consort, protected him in the form of the Badri tree (jujube or Indian date, called 'ber' in Hindi). Pleased by the devotion of Lakshmi, Vishnu named the place "Badrika Ashrama". According to Atkinson (1979), the place used to be a jujube forest, which is not found there today. Vishnu in the form of Badrinatha is depicted in the temple sitting in the "padmasana" posture. According to the legend, Vishnu was chastised by sage Narada, who saw Vishnu's consort, Lakshmi, massaging his feet. Vishnu went to Badrinath to perform austerity, meditating for a long time in padmasana.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The "Vishnu Purana" narrates another version of the origins of Badrinath. According to the tradition, Yama had two sons, Nara, and Narayanaboth of which are modern names of Himalayan mountains. They chose the place to spread their religion and each of them wed the spacious valleys in the Himalayas. Searching for an ideal place to set up a hermitage, they came across the other four Badris of the Pancha Badri, namely Bridha Badri, Yoga Badri, Dhyana Badri and Bhavisha Badri. They finally found the hot and cold spring behind the Alaknanda River and named it "Badri Vishala."


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The temple finds mention in several ancient books like "Bhagavata Purana", "Skanda Purana" and "Mahabharata". According to the "Bhagavata Purana", "[t]here in Badrikashram the Personality of Godhead (Vishnu), in his incarnation as the sages Nar and Narayana, had been undergoing great penance since time immemorial for the welfare of all living entities". The "Skanda Purana" states that "[t]here are several sacred shrines in heaven, on earth, and in hell; but there is no shrine like Badrinath". The area around Badrinath is also celebrated in "Padma Purana" as abounding in spiritual treasures. The "Mahabharata" revered the holy place as the one which can give salvation to devotees arriving close to if, while in other holy places they must perform religious ceremonies. The temple is revered in "Naalayira Divya Prabandham", in 11 hymns in the 7th–9th century Vaishnava canon by Perialvar and in 13 hymns by Thirumangai Alvar. It is one of the 108 "Divya Desam" dedicated to Vishnu, who is worshipped as Badrinath. The temple is referred as "Tiruvatariyaacciraamam" in Tamil literature.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: Devotees of all faiths and all schools of thought of Hinduism visit the Badrinath Temple. All the major monastic institutions like Kashi Math, Jeeyar Mutt (Andhra mutt), Udupi Pejavar and Manthralayam Sri Raghavendra Swamy Mutts have their branches and guest houses there.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The Badrinath temple is one of five related shrines called Panch Badri, which are dedicated to the worship of Vishnu. The five temples are Vishal Badri - Badrinath Temple in Badrinath, Yogadhyan Badri located at Pandukeshwar, Bhavishya Badri located from Jyotirmath at Subain, Vridh Badri located from Jyotirmath in Animath and Adi Badri located from Karnaprayag. The temple is considered one of the holiest Hindu "Char Dham" (four divine) sites, comprising Rameswaram, Badrinath, Puri and Dwarka. Although the temple's origins are not clearly known, the Advaita school of Hinduism established by Adi Shankara attributes the origin of Char Dham to the seer. The four monasteries are located across the four corners of India and their attendant temples are Badrinath Temple at Badrinath in the North, Jagannath Temple at Puri in the East, Dwarakadheesh Temple at Dwarka in the West and Rameshwaram at Rameshwaram, Tamil Nadu in the South.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: Though ideologically the temples are divided between the sects of Hinduism, namely Saivism and Vaishnavism, the Char Dham pilgrimage is an all-Hindu affair. There are four abodes in the Himalayas called Chota Char Dham ("Chota" meaning small): Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri and Yamunotriall of which lie in the foothills of the Himalayas. The name "Chota" was added during the mid of 20th century to differentiate the original Char Dhams. As the number of pilgrims to these places has increased in modern times, it is called Himalayan Char Dham.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The journey across the four cardinal points in India is considered sacred by Hindus, who aspire to visit these temples once in their lifetimes. Traditionally, the pilgrimage starts at the eastern end from Puri, proceeding clockwise in a manner typically followed for circumambulation in Hindu temples.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The most prominent festival held at Badrinath Temple is Mata Murti Ka Mela, which commemorates the descent of the river Ganges on mother earth. The mother of Badrinath, who is believed to have divided the river into twelve channels for the welfare of earthly beings, is worshiped during the festival. The place where the river flowed became the holy land of Badrinath.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The Badri Kedar festival is celebrated during the month of June in both the temple and the Kedarnath temple. The festival lasts for eight days; artists from all over the country perform during the function.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The major religious activities (or "pujas") performed every morning are "mahabhishek" (ablution), "abhishek", "gitapath" and "bhagavat puja", while in the evening the "pujas" include "geet govinda" and "aarti". Recital in vedic scripts like "Ashtotram" and "Sahasranama" is practised during all the rituals. After "aarti", the decorations are removed from the image of Badrinath and sandalwood paste is applied to it. The paste from the image is given to the devotees the next day as prasad during the "nirmalaya darshan". All the rituals are performed in front of the devotees, unlike those in some Hindu temples, where some practices are hidden from them. Sugar balls and dry leaves are the common prasad provided to the devotees. From May 2006, the practise of offering Panchamrit Prasad, prepared locally and packed in local bamboo baskets, was started.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The temple is closed for winter on the auspicious day of bhatridwityia or later during October–November. On the day of closure, "Akhanda Jyothi", a lamp is lit filled with ghee to last for six months. Special "pujas" are performed on the day by the chief priest in the presence of pilgrims and officials of the temple. The image of Badrinath is notionally transferred during the period to the Narasimha temple at Jyotirmath, located away from the temple. The temple is reopened around April–May on Akshaya tritiya, another auspicious day on the Hindu calendar. Pilgrims gather on the first day of opening of the temple after the winter to witness the "Akhanda Jyothi".


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The temple is one of the holy places where the Hindus offer oblations to ancestors with the help of the priests. Devotees visit the temple to worship in front of the image of Badrinath in the sanctum and have a holy dip in Alaknanda River. The general belief is that a dip in the tank purifies the soul.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: The Badrinath Temple was included in the Uttar Pradesh State Government Act No. 30/1948 as Act no. 16,1939, which was later known as Shri Badarinath and Shri Kedarnath Mandir Act. A committee nominated by the State Government of Uttarakhand administers both the temples. The act was modified in 2002 to appoint additional committee members, including government officials and a Vice-Chairman. There are seventeen members in the board; three selected by the Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly, one member each selected by the District Councils of Chamoli Pauri Garhwal, Tehri Garhwal and Uttarkashi districts, and ten members nominated by the Government of Uttarakhand.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: As indicated in the temple records, the priests of the temple were Shiva ascetics called Dandi Sanyasis, who belonged to Nambudiri community, a religious group common in modern Kerala. When the last of the ascetics died without an heir in 1776 CE, the King of Garhwal invited non-ascetic Nambudiris from Kerala for the priesthood, a practice that continues in modern times. Till 1939, all the offerings made by the devotees to the temple went to the Rawal (Chief Priest), but after 1939, his jurisdiction was restricted to religious affairs. The administrative structure of the temple consists of a chief executive officer who executes the orders from the state government, a deputy chief executive officer, two OSDs, an executive officer, an account officer, a temple officer, and a public officer to assist the chief executive officer.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: Although Badrinath is located in North India, the head priest, or Rawal, is traditionally a Nambudiri Brahmin chosen from the South Indian state of Kerala. This tradition is believed to have been initiated by Adi Shankara, who was a South Indian philosopher. The Rawal is requested by the Government of Uttarakhand to the Government of Kerala. The candidate should possess a degree of Acharya (Post Graduate) in Sanskrit, be a bachelor, well-versed in reciting "mantras" (sacred texts) and be from the Vaishnava sect of Hinduism. The erstwhile ruler of Garhwal, who is the tutelary head of Badrinath, approves the candidate sent by the Government of Kerala. A Tilak Ceremony is held to instate the Rawal and he is deputed from April to November when the temple remains open. The Rawal is accorded his holiness status by the Garhwal Rifles and the state government of Uttarakhand. He is also held in high esteem by the Royals of Nepal. From April to November, he performs his duties as a temple priest. Thereafter, he either stays in Jyotirmath or returns to his native village in Kerala. The duties of the Rawal starts at 4 a.m. every day with the "Abhisheka". He should not cross the river until Vamana Dwadashi and must adhere to "Brahmacharya". The Rawal is assisted by the Garhwali Dimri Brahmins belonging to the village Dimmar of Chamoli district, Naib Rawal, Dharmadikari, Vedpathi, a group of priests, Pandas Samadhi, Bhandari, Rasoiyas (cook), devotional singer, clerk of devashram, Jal Bhariya (water keeper) and temple guards. Badrinath is one of the few temples in North India that follow the ancient Tantra Vidhi of Shrauta tradition more common in the south.


title: Badrinath Temple

text: In 2012, the temple administration introduced a token system for visitors to the temple. Tokens indicating the time of visit were provided from three stalls in the taxi stands. Each devotee to visit the presiding deity is allocated 10–20 seconds. Proof of identity is mandatory to enter the temple. The temple is reached from Rishikesh, located away via Devprayag, Rudraprayag, Karnaprayag, Nandaprayag, Jyotirmath, Vishnuprayag and Devadarshini. From Kedarnath Temple, visitors can follow the -long Rudraprayag route or the -long Ukhimath and Gopeshwar route.


title: Edda Göring

text: Edda Carin Wilhelmine Göring (2 June 1938 – 21 December 2018) was the only child of German politician, military leader, and leading member of the Nazi Party Hermann Göring, by his second marriage to the German actress Emmy Sonnemann.


title: Edda Göring

text: Born the year before the outbreak of the Second World War, Edda spent most of her early childhood years with her mother at the Göring family estate at Carinhall. As a child she received many historical works of art as gifts, including a painting of the "Madonna and Child" by Lucas Cranach the Elder.


title: Edda Göring

text: In the final stages of the war, she and her mother moved to their mountain home at Obersalzberg, near Berchtesgaden. After the war, she went to a girls-only school, studied at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, and became a law clerk. In the 1950s and 1960s many of the valuable gifts she received as a child, including the "Madonna and Child" painting, became the subject of long legal battles, most of which she eventually lost in 1968.


title: Edda Göring

text: Unlike the children of other high-ranking Nazis, such as Gudrun Himmler and Albert Speer Jr., Göring did not speak in public about her father's career. However, in 1986 she was interviewed for Swedish television and spoke lovingly of both her parents.


title: Edda Göring

text: The only child of Hermann Göring, Edda was born on 2 June 1938. Her father received approximately 628,000 messages of congratulations on his daughter's birth; tributes came in from all over the world, including telegrams from British Lords Halifax and Londonderry. The historian Giles MacDonogh later described the German reaction to the birth:


title: Edda Göring

text: It has often been suggested that the name Edda was given in honour of the daughter of Benito Mussolini, but her mother stated that this was not so. On 4 November 1938, she was baptised at Carinhall, and Adolf Hitler became her godfather. The occasion was reported by "Life", with many photographs of Edda, her parents and Hitler, who greatly enjoyed the event. Her baptism presents included two paintings by Lucas Cranach the Elder.


title: Edda Göring

text: Edda grew up at Carinhall and like other daughters of high-ranking Nazi leaders and officials she was called "Kleine Prinzessin" ("Little Princess"). When she was one year old, the journalist Douglas Reed wrote in "Life" that she was "a sort of Nazi Crown Princess."


title: Edda Göring

text: In 1940, the Luftwaffe paid for a small-scale replica of Frederick the Great's palace of Sanssouci to be built in an orchard at Carinhall for her to play in. Some 50 metres long, 7 metres wide, and 3½ metres high, this had within it a miniature theatre, complete with stage and curtains, and was known as "Edda-Schlösschen" ("Edda's little palace").


title: Edda Göring

text: In 1940, "Der Stürmer" magazine printed a story alleging that Edda had been conceived by artificial insemination. A furious Göring, who already despised Streicher, demanded action by Walter Buch, the supreme Nazi Party regulator, against the editor, Julius Streicher. Buch declared he was ready to "stop that sick mind once and for all," but Hitler intervened to save Streicher and the outcome was that he was stripped of some honors, but was allowed to go on publishing "Der Stürmer" from his farm near Nuremberg.


title: Edda Göring

text: During the closing stages of the Second World War in Europe, Göring retreated to his mountain home at Obersalzberg, near Berchtesgaden, taking Emmy and Edda with him. On 8 May 1945, Armistice in Europe Day, the German "Wehrmacht" surrendered unconditionally, and on 21 May, a few days before her seventh birthday, Edda was interned with her mother in the U.S.-controlled Palace Hotel, code-named Camp Ashcan at Mondorf in Luxembourg. By 1946, the two had been freed and were living at one of their own houses, Burg Veldenstein, in Neuhaus, near Nuremberg. There they were visited by the American officer John E. Dolibois, who described Edda as "a beautiful child, the image of her father. Bright and perky, polite and well-trained." During the Nuremberg trials, Edda was allowed to visit her father in prison. He was found guilty of war crimes and was sentenced to death, but on 15 October 1946, the night before his scheduled execution, Göring committed suicide by swallowing a cyanide pill.


title: Edda Göring

text: In 1948, while living near Hersbruck with her mother and her aunt Else Sonnemann, Edda entered the "St Anna-Mädchenoberrealschule" ("Saint Anne's High School for Girls") at Sulzbach-Rosenberg in Bavaria where she remained until gaining her "Abitur". In November 1948, the family moved to Etzelwang to be nearer the school. In 1949, Emmy faced legal problems regarding some valuable possessions and explained many of them as the property of Edda, now aged ten. After leaving school, Edda studied law at the University of Munich and became a law clerk; she later worked for a doctor. A private letter from an unknown relative in 1959 stated that "the baby is now a young lady, slim, fair-haired and pretty. She lives with her mother on the 5th floor of a modern apartment block in the Munich city centre."


title: Edda Göring

text: In her later years, Edda worked in a hospital laboratory and was hoping to become a medical technician. She was a regular guest of Hitler's patron Winifred Wagner whose grandson, Gottfried Wagner, later recalled:


title: Edda Göring

text: Edda worked in a rehabilitation clinic in Wiesbaden and devoted herself to taking care of her mother, remaining with her until she died on 8 June 1973. After that, for five years in the 1970s, Edda was the companion of the "Stern" magazine journalist Gerd Heidemann. Heidemann had bought the yacht "Carin II", which had been Hermann Göring's, and according to Peter Wyden "He charmed Edda, pretty, not married, and devoted to the memory of her father, the "Reichsmarschall", and started an affair with her. Together, they ran social events aboard the boat. Much of the talk was of Hitler and the Nazis, and the guests of honor were weathered eyewitnesses of the hallowed time, two generals, Karl Wolff and Wilhelm Mohnke."


title: Edda Göring

text: For some years Edda made public appearances, attending memorials for Nazis and taking part in political events, but she later became more withdrawn. Unlike the children of other high-ranking Nazis, such as Gudrun Himmler and Albert Speer, Jr., she never commented publicly on her father's role in the Third Reich or the Holocaust. In the 1990s, she said of her father in an interview:


title: Edda Göring

text: In 2010, Edda said of her uncle Albert Göring for an article in "The Guardian", "He could certainly help people in need himself financially and with his personal influence, but, as soon as it was necessary to involve higher authority or officials, then he had to have the support of my father, which he did get."


title: Edda Göring

text: The governments of West Germany and the reunited Germany denied Edda Göring the pension normally given to the children of government ministers of the old German "Reich". As of 2015, she was reported to be still living in Munich. In that year, she unsuccessfully petitioned the Landtag of Bavaria for compensation with respect to the expropriation of her father's legacy. A committee unanimously denied her request.


title: Edda Göring

text: At the time of her baptism in November 1938, Edda received several works of art as gifts, including a painting of the Madonna and Child by Lucas Cranach the Elder, a present from the City of Cologne. Part of an official collection entrusted to the office of the "Oberbürgermeister" (or Lord Mayor), the painting had been previously on display in the Wallraf-Richartz Museum in Cologne. The mayor at the time, , had been a member of the Nazi party since 1923 and was a political ally of Hermann Göring.


title: Edda Göring

text: After the war, the City of Cologne sought the return of the painting, on the grounds that the gifts had been unwillingly given to Edda under pressure from Göring. Advocate-General , state commissioner for racial, religious and political persecution in Bavaria, was entrusted with the return of many art treasures that had been acquired by the Görings, and the legal battle over the Cranach "Madonna" lasted for 15 years. At the first hearing, in the regional court of Cologne, judgment was given for the city. Edda, who at the time was studying law, appealed this decision to the Higher Regional Court of Cologne, which in 1954 overturned the lower court. Historian Anna Sigmund reports that the appeal court "came to the conclusion that [Hermann] Göring had not exerted any pressure" and "on the contrary" the mayor of the day (Schmidt) had "tried to curry favor for the city of Cologne by giving away the Cranach painting". This was Edda Göring's second legal victory of 1954. She had already been successful in forcing the state of Bavaria to return to her jewellery valued at 150,000 "Deutschmarks" which it had seized.


title: Edda Göring

text: The authorities continued to pursue the case of the Cranach painting, and in January 1968 the Federal Court of Justice of Germany in Karlsruhe gave a final judgment in favour of the City of Cologne. By that point, both the state of Bavaria and the Federal Republic of Germany had laid claim to the painting, which was returned to the Wallraf-Richartz-Museum.


title: Edda Göring

text: Edda Göring appears as a character in the television miniseries "Nuremberg". In the 1991 comedy-drama "Selling Hitler" she was played by Alison Steadman.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: Charles IV (Carlos Antonio Pascual Francisco Javier Juan Nepomuceno José Januario Serafín Diego) 11 November 1748 – 20 January 1819) was King of Spain and ruler of the Spanish Empire from 1788 to 1808.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: The Spain inherited by Charles IV gave few indications of instability, but during his reign, Spain entered a series of disadvantageous alliances and his regime constantly sought cash to deal with the exigencies of war. He detested his son and heir Ferdinand, who led the unsuccessful El Escorial Conspiracy and later forced Charles's abdication after the Tumult of Aranjuez in March 1808, along with the ouster of his widely hated first minister Manuel de Godoy. Summoned to Bayonne by Napoleon Bonaparte, who forced Ferdinand VII to abdicate, Charles IV also abdicated, paving the way for Napoleon to place his older brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne of Spain. The reign of Charles IV turned out to be a major turning point in Spanish history.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: Charles was the second son of Charles III and his wife, Maria Amalia of Saxony. He was born in Naples (11 November 1748), while his father was King of Naples and Sicily. His elder brother, Don Felipe, was passed over for both thrones, due to his learning disabilities and epilepsy. In Naples and Sicily, Charles was referred to as the "Prince of Taranto". He was called (meaning "the Hunter"), due to his preference for sport and hunting, rather than dealing with affairs of the state. Charles is considered by historian Stanley G. Payne as "good-hearted but weak and simple-minded."


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: On November 18, 1791, King Carlos IV promulgated a royal decree declaring the foundation of the "Royal University of Guadalajara". in modern times University of Guadalajara.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: In 1788, Charles III died and Charles IV succeeded to the throne and ruled for the next two decades. Even though he had a profound belief in the sanctity of the monarchy and kept up the appearance of an absolute, powerful king, Charles never took more than a passive part in his own government. The affairs of government were left to his wife, Maria Luisa, and the man he appointed first minister, Manuel de Godoy. Charles occupied himself with hunting in the period that saw the outbreak of the French Revolution, the executions of his Bourbon relative Louis XVI of France and his queen, Marie Antoinette, and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. Ideas of the Age of Enlightenment had come to Spain with the accession of the first Spanish Bourbon, Philip V. Charles' father, Charles III, had pursued an active policy of reform that sought to reinvigorate Spain politically and economically and make the Spanish Empire more closely an appendage of the metropole. Charles III was an active, working monarch with experienced first ministers to help reach decisions. Charles IV, by contrast, was a do-nothing king, with a domineering wife and an inexperienced but ambitious first minister, Godoy. The combination of a king not up to the task of governance, the queen widely perceived to take lovers (including Godoy) and the first minister with an agenda of his own earned the monarchy increased alienation from its subjects.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: Upon ascending to the throne, Charles IV intended to maintain the policies of his father and, accordingly, retained his prime minister, the Count of Floridablanca. Floridablanca avoided war with Great Britain in the Nootka Sound crisis, where a minor trade and navigation dispute off the west coast of Vancouver Island in 1789 could have blown up into a major conflict. Spain could have drawn on its French ally in support against Britain but they refused. In a humiliating move Floridablanca had no choice but to capitulate to British terms and thereby negotiated with them. In 1792, political and personal enemies ousted Floridablanca from office, replacing him with the Count of Aranda. However, in the wake of the war against Republican France, the liberal-leaning Count of Aranda was himself replaced by Manuel de Godoy, a favorite of the Queen and widely believed to be her lover, who enjoyed the lasting favor of the King.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: Under Charles IV, scientific expeditions continued to be sent by the crown, some of which were initially authorized by Charles III. The Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada (1783–1816), and the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Spain (1787–1803), were funded by the crown. The Malaspina Expedition (1789–94) was an important scientific expedition headed by Spanish naval commander Alejandro Malaspina, with naturalists and botanical illustrators gathering information for the Spanish crown.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: In 1803, he authorized the Balmis Expedition, aimed at vaccinating Spain's overseas territories against smallpox but also to make it safe for Atlantic societies to continue traffic slaves without the risk of a small pox epidemic on board.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: In 1799, Charles IV authorized Prussian aristocrat and scientist Alexander von Humboldt to travel freely in Spanish America, with royal officials encouraged to aid him in his investigation of key areas of Spain's empire. Humboldt's "Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain" was a key publication from his five-year travels.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: Spain's economic problems were of long standing, but deteriorated further when Spain was ensnared in wars that its ally France pursued. Financial needs drove his domestic and foreign policy. Godoy's economic policies increased discontent with Charles's regime. In an attempt to implement major economic changes, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, a reformist, Jansenist conservative proposed major structural reform of land tenure to promote the revival of agriculture. His 1795 work, "Informe en el expediente de ley agraria" argued that Spain needed thriving agriculture to allow its population to grow and prosper. In his analysis, the concentration of land ownership and traditions and institutional barriers were at the heart of agriculture's problems. He called for division and sale of public lands, which were held by villages, as well as the swaths of Spanish territory controlled by the Mesta, the organization of livestock owners who had kept grazing lands as an asset for their use. Jovellanos also argued for the abolition of entailed properties ("mayorazgos"), which allowed landed estates to pass undivided through generations of aristocrats, as well as sale of lands held by the Catholic Church. The aim of these policies was to create in Spain yeoman farmers, who would pursue their self-interest and make agricultural land more productive. The cost would be to undermine the power of the Church and the aristocracy.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: As the situation with immediate revenue became more fraught, the crown in 1804 imposed measures in its overseas empire forcing the church to call in immediately the mortgages it had extended on a long-term by the Catholic Church. Although aimed at undermining the wealth and power of the church, the wealthy landowning elites were faced with financial ruin, since they had no way to make full payment on their mortgaged properties. This ill-considered royal decree has been seen as a major factor in the independence movement in New Spain (Mexico). The decree was in abeyance once Charles and Ferdinand abdicated, but it undermined elite support while in force.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: In foreign policy Godoy continued Abarca de Bolea's policy of neutrality toward as France, but after Spain protested the execution of Louis XVI of France in 1793, France declared war on Spain. After the declaration, Portugal and Spain signed a treaty of mutual protection against France. In 1796 France forced Godoy to enter into an alliance, and declare war on the Kingdom of Great Britain. As a consequence, became one of the maritime empires to have been allied with Republican France in the French Revolutionary War, and for a considerable duration.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: Spain remained an ally of France for a while, lost against the British in the battle of Trafalgar, and supported the Continental Blockade. After Napoleon's victory over Prussia in 1807, Godoy kept Spain with the French side.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: But the switching of alliances devalued Charles's position as a trustworthy ally, increasing Godoy's unpopularity, and strengthening the "fernandistas" (supporters of Crown Prince Ferdinand), who favoured an alliance with the United Kingdom.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: Economic troubles, rumors about a sexual relationship between the Queen and Godoy, and the King's ineptitude, caused the monarchy to decline in prestige among the population. Anxious to take over from his father, and jealous of the prime minister, Crown Prince Ferdinand attempted to overthrow the King in an aborted coup in 1807. He was successful in 1808, forcing his father's abdication following the Tumult of Aranjuez.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: Riots, and a popular revolt at the winter palace Aranjuez, in 1808 forced the king to abdicate on 19 March, in favor of his son. Ferdinand took the throne as Ferdinand VII, but was mistrusted by Napoleon, who had 100,000 soldiers stationed in Spain by that time due to the ongoing War of the Third Coalition.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: The ousted King, having appealed to Napoleon for help in regaining his throne, was summoned before Napoleon in Bayonne, along with his son, in April 1808. Napoleon forced both Charles and his son to abdicate, declared the Bourbon dynasty of Spain deposed, and installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King Joseph I of Spain, which began the Peninsular War.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: Following Napoleon's deposing of the Bourbon dynasty, the ex-King, his wife, and former Prime Minister Godoy were held captive in France first at the château de Compiègne and three years in Marseille (where a neighborhood was named after him). After the collapse of the regime installed by Napoleon, Ferdinand VII was restored to the throne. The former Charles IV drifted about Europe until 1812, when he finally settled in Rome, in the Palazzo Barberini. His wife died on 2 January 1819, followed shortly by Charles, who died on 20 January of the same year. Sir Francis Ronalds included a detailed description of the funeral in his travel journal.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: Well-meaning and pious, Charles IV floundered in a series of international crises beyond his capacity to handle. He was painted by Francisco Goya in a number of official court portraits, which numerous art critics have seen as satires on the King's stout vacuity.


title: Charles IV of Spain

text: Charles IV married his first cousin Maria Louisa, the daughter of Philip, Duke of Parma, in 1765. The couple had fourteen children, seven of whom survived into adulthood:


title: Angus King

text: Angus Stanley King Jr. (born March 31, 1944) is an American lawyer and politician serving as the junior United States senator from Maine since 2013. A political independent since 1993, he previously served as the 72nd governor of Maine from 1995 to 2003.


title: Angus King

text: King won Maine's 2012 Senate election to replace the retiring Republican Olympia Snowe and took office on January 3, 2013. He was reelected to a second term in 2018, following the state's inaugural instant-runoff voting elections. For committee assignment purposes, he caucuses with the Democratic Party. He is one of three independents currently serving in the Senate; the other two are Bernie Sanders of Vermont and Kyrsten Sinema of Arizona, who also caucus with the Democrats.


title: Angus King

text: King was born in Alexandria, Virginia, the son of Ellen Archer (née Ticer) and Angus Stanley King, a lawyer. His father was a U.S. magistrate for the Eastern District of Virginia.


title: Angus King

text: He attended Dartmouth College, earning his B.A. in 1966. While a student at Dartmouth, King joined the Delta Upsilon social fraternity. He then attended the University of Virginia School of Law, graduating in 1969.


title: Angus King

text: Soon after graduating from law school, King entered private law practice in Brunswick, Maine. He was a staff attorney for Pine Tree Legal Assistance in Skowhegan.


title: Angus King

text: In 1972, he served as chief counsel to the U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Alcoholism and Narcotics. King served as a legislative assistant to Democratic U.S. Senator William Hathaway in the 1970s. He was also well-known statewide as a host on public television.


title: Angus King

text: In 1973, when he was 29, King was diagnosed with an aggressive form of malignant melanoma. King has said he believes he survived cancer only because he had health insurance, and has highlighted this experience when explaining his support for the Affordable Care Act.


title: Angus King

text: In 1975, King returned to Maine to practice with Smith, Loyd and King in Brunswick. In 1983 he was appointed vice president of Swift River/Hafslund Company, which developed alternative energy (hydroelectric and biomass) projects in New England.


title: Angus King

text: In 1989, King founded Northeast Energy Management, Inc., a company that developed and operated electrical energy conservation projects. In 1994 he sold the company. As of 2012 King's investments were valued at between $4.8 million and $22.5 million.


title: Angus King

text: In May 1993, King announced he would run for governor of Maine as an independent. Incumbent Governor John McKernan, a Republican, was term-limited and could not seek another term. King abandoned his lifelong affiliation with the Maine Democratic Party. "The Democratic Party as an institution has become too much the party that is looking for something from government," King explained to the "Bangor Daily News" a few weeks after he announced his candidacy.


title: Angus King

text: The Republican nominee was Susan Collins, Commissioner of Professional and Financial Regulation under Governor John McKernan and a protégée of U.S. Senator William Cohen, and at the time relatively unknown to the electorate. The Democratic nominee was former Governor and U.S. Representative Joseph E. Brennan. It was Brennan's fifth campaign for governor.


title: Angus King

text: The general election was a highly competitive four-way race between King, Collins, Brennan, and Green Party nominee Jonathan Carter. King invested early in television advertising during Maine's unusually early June primary, allowing him to emerge from the primary season on an equal footing with his rivals. He positioned himself as a businessman and a pragmatic environmentalist focused on job creation and education. "The Washington Times" described King as an idealist who "wants to slash regulations but preserve the environment; hold the line on taxes; impose work and education requirements on welfare recipients; experiment with public school choice and cut at least $60 million from the state budget." His opponents criticized him for flip-flopping. Collins argued King "presents different images, depending on who he is talking to. Angus has been a Democrat his whole life. In my opinion, he became an independent because he didn't think he could beat Joe Brennan in a primary. He's extremely smooth, articulate and bright, but he says different things to different groups."


title: Angus King

text: King narrowly won the November 8 election with 35% of the vote to Brennan's 34%, a margin of just 7,878 votes. Collins received 23% of the vote and Carter 6%. King won eight counties, Collins five and Brennan three. King's election as an independent was not unprecedented in Maine politics, as independent James B. Longley had been elected 20 years earlier.