title: Nigersaurus

text: The remains of "Nigersaurus" were initially described by Taquet in 1976 as belonging to a dicraeosaurid, but in 1999 Sereno and colleagues reclassified it as a rebbachisaurid diplodocoid. These researchers speculated that since short necks and small size was known among basal diplodocoids, it may indicate these were ancestral features of the group. Rebbachisauridae is the basalmost family within the superfamily Diplodocoidea, which also contains the long-necked diplodocids and the short-necked dicraeosaurids. The eponymous subfamily Nigersaurinae, which includes "Nigersaurus" and closely related genera, was named by the American palaeontologist John A. Whitlock in 2011. The closely related genus "Demandasaurus" from Spain was described by the Spanish palaeontologist Fidel Torcida Fernández-Baldor and colleagues in 2011, and along with other animal groups that span the Cretaceous of Africa and Europe, this indicates that carbonate platforms connected these landmasses across the Tethys Sea. This was supported in 2013 by the Italian palaeontologist Federico Fanti and colleagues in their description of the nigersaurine "Tataouinea" from Tunisia, which was more related to the European form than to "Nigersaurus", despite being from Africa, then part of the supercontinent Gondwana. Pneumatisation of the rebbachisaurid skeleton evolved progressively, culminating in the nigersaurines.


title: Nigersaurus

text: Below is a cladogram following the 2013 analysis by Fanti and colleagues, which confirmed the placement of "Nigersaurus" as a basal nigersaurine rebbachisaurid.


title: Nigersaurus

text: A 2015 cladistic study by Wilsona and the French palaeontologist Ronan Allain found "Rebbachisaurus" itself to group with the nigersaurines, and the authors suggested that Nigersaurinae was therefore a junior synonym of Rebbachisaurinae (since that name would have priority). The same year, Fanti and colleagues supported the use of Rebbachisaurinae over Nigersaurinae, and found "Nigersaurus" to be the basalmost member of this "Euro-African" subclade. In 2019, Mannion and colleagues pointed out that since "Nigersaurus" was found to be the sister taxon of all other nigersaurines in some studies, a Rebbachisaurinae clade may not necessarily include "Nigersaurus" itself (as well as the fact that the position of "Rebbachisaurus" could change in future analyses), and supported the continued use of the name Nigersaurinae over Rebbachisaurinae for all rebbachisaurids more closely related to "Nigersaurus" than to "Limaysaurus". They found that nigersaurines were restricted to North Africa and Europe, and that Limaysaurinae was strictly known from Argentina. The same year, the Brazilian palaeontologist Rafael Matos Lindoso and colleagues used the name Nigersaurinae following Mannion's recommendation, and found "Itapeuasaurus" from Brazil to group with the nigersaurines, thereby expanding this lineage more widely (making palaeobiogeographic hypotheses for this group less reliable).


title: Nigersaurus

text: Though it had large nostrils and a fleshy snout, Sereno and colleagues found that "Nigersaurus" had an underdeveloped olfactory region of its brain and thus did not have an advanced sense of smell. Its brain-to-body-mass ratio was average for a reptile, and smaller than those of ornithischians and non-coelurosaurian theropods. The cerebrum comprised about 30% of the brain volume, as in many other dinosaurs. The American palaeoartist Mark Hallett and paleontologist Mathew J. Wedel and stated in 2016 that while sauropods in general could use their long necks to detect predators from afar, this would not apply to the short-necked "Nigersaurus". They pointed out that the eyes of "Nigersaurus" were placed further towards the top of the skull than in most other sauropods, above the muzzle, which would give it overlapping fields of view. Its visual field would have been at or close to 360 degrees, and hypersensitivity of movement would have been important to a vulnerable prey-animal.


title: Nigersaurus

text: In 2017, the Argentinian palaeontologist Lucio M. Ibiricu and colleagues examined the postcranial skeletal pneumaticity in the skeletons of rebbachisaurids, and suggested that it was an adaptation for lowering the density of the skeleton, and that this could have decreased the muscle energy needed to move the body, as well as the heat generated in the process. Since several rebbachisaurids inhabited latitudes that would have been tropical to subtropical in the Middle Cretaceous, this pneumaticity may have helped the animals cope with the very high temperatures. According to Ibiricu and colleagues, this adaptation may be a reason why rebbachisaurids were the only group of diplodocoids that survived into the Late Cretaceous.


title: Nigersaurus

text: "Nigersaurus" was suggested by Sereno and colleagues to be a ground-level, non-selective browser. The width of the muzzle and lateral orientation of the tooth row show that the sauropod could gather much food and crop it close to the ground, within of the surface. This is further supported by facets on the labial (externally facing) side of the upper teeth, similar to "Dicraeosaurus" and "Diplodocus", which are evidence that food or substrate wore the animal's teeth as it fed. "Nigersaurus" also bears signs of low-angle tooth-to-tooth wear on the inside of the maxillary crowns, which suggests that jaw movement was limited to precise up-and-down motions. Worn teeth from the lower jaw have not yet been discovered, but they are expected to show opposing tooth-to-tooth wear. The ability to raise their heads well above the ground does not necessarily mean they browsed on items there, and the short neck of "Nigersaurus" would have restricted the browsing range compared to other diplodocoids.


title: Nigersaurus

text: The adductor muscle of the jaw appears to have attached to the quadrate instead of the supratemporal fenestra. Both this and the other mastication muscles were likely weak, and "Nigersaurus" is estimated to have had one of the weakest bites of the sauropods. In addition, according to Whitlock and colleagues in 2011, the small, nearly parallel nature of the tooth scratches and pits (caused by grit, which would not be obtained as often by high-browsers) indicate that it ate relatively soft, herbaceous plants such as low-growing ferns. Because of the lateral orientation of the teeth, it probably would not have been able to chew. "Nigersaurus" wore its tooth crowns down faster than other dinosaurian herbivores, and its tooth replacement rate was the highest of any known dinosaur. Each tooth was replaced once every 14 days; the rate had previously been estimated lower. In contrast to "Nigersaurus", sauropods with lower tooth replacement rates and broader tooth crowns are thought to have been canopy browsers.


title: Nigersaurus

text: Grass did not evolve until the late Cretaceous, making ferns, horsetails, and angiosperms (which had evolved by the middle Cretaceous) potential food for "Nigersaurus". Sereno and colleagues stated it was unlikely that "Nigersaurus" fed on conifers, cycads, or aquatic vegetation, due respectively to their height, hard and stiff structure, and lack of appropriate habitat. Wedel suggested that the evenly spaced teeth of "Nigersaurus" could have functioned like a comb, by straining water plants or invertebrates, similar to flamingos. He also suggested it could have low-browsed from short conifers and other low-growing plants.


title: Nigersaurus

text: On the basis of microtomography scans of skull elements of the holotype specimen, Sereno and colleagues created a "prototype" "Nigersaurus" skull they could examine. They also made an endocast of the brain and scanned the semicircular canals of its inner ear, which they found to be oriented horizontally. In their 2007 study, they stated that the structure of the occiput and cervical vertebrae would have limited the upward and downward movement of the neck and the rotation of the skull. Based on this biomechanical analysis, the team concluded that the head and muzzle were habitually oriented 67° downwards and close to ground level, as an adaptation for ground-level browsing. This is unlike the way other sauropods have been restored, with their heads held more horizontally.


title: Nigersaurus

text: A 2009 study by the British palaeontologist Mike P. Taylor and colleagues agreed that "Nigersaurus" was able to feed with the downturned head and neck posture proposed by the 2007 study, but contested that this was the habitual posture of the animal. The study noted that the "neutral" head and neck posture of modern animals does not necessarily correspond to their habitual head posture. It further argued that the orientation of the semicircular canals varies significantly within modern species, and is therefore not reliable for determining head posture. This was supported by the Spanish palaeontologist Jesús Marugán-Lobón and colleagues in a 2013 study that suggested the methods used by Sereno's team were imprecise, and that "Nigersaurus" habitually held its head like other sauropods.


title: Nigersaurus

text: In 2020, the French palaeontologist Julien Benoit and colleagues tested lateral semicircular canal correlation to head posture on modern mammals, and found that while there was significant correlation between the reconstructed and actual head postures, the plane of the semicircular canal was not held horizontally in the resting pose as inferred. The authors therefore cautioned against using semicircular canals as proxy to infer the precise orientation of skulls. They found that diet correlated strongly with semicircular canal orientation, but not with head posture, while head posture and semicircular canal orientation were strongly correlated with phylogeny.


title: Nigersaurus

text: "Nigersaurus" is known from the Elrhaz Formation of the Tegama Group in an area called Gadoufaoua, located in Niger. It is one of the most commonly found vertebrates in the formation. The Elrhaz Formation consists mainly of fluvial sandstones with low relief, much of which is obscured by sand dunes. The sediments are coarse- to medium-grained, with almost no fine-grained horizons. "Nigersaurus" lived in what is now Niger about 115 to 105 million years ago, during the Aptian and Albian ages of the mid-Cretaceous. It likely lived in habitats dominated by inland floodplains (a riparian zone).


title: Nigersaurus

text: After the iguanodontian "Lurdusaurus", "Nigersaurus" was the most numerous megaherbivore. Other herbivores from the same formation include "Ouranosaurus", "Elrhazosaurus", and an unnamed titanosaur. It also lived alongside the theropods "Kryptops", "Suchomimus", and "Eocarcharia", and a yet-unnamed noasaurid. Crocodylomorphs like "Sarcosuchus", "Anatosuchus", "Araripesuchus", and "Stolokrosuchus" also lived there. In addition, remains of a pterosaur, chelonians, fish, a hybodont shark, and freshwater bivalves have been found.


title: Inuyashiki

text: An anime television series adaptation produced by MAPPA aired on Fuji TV's late night programming block Noitamina from October to December 2017. A live-action film adaptation premiered in Japan in April 2018.


title: Inuyashiki

text: Inuyashiki Ichiro is an older, friendless man with an uncaring family. One fateful evening in a nearly empty public park, he is struck by an explosion of extraterrestrial origin, and his body is replaced by an incredibly powerful, but still outwardly human, mechanical body. He quickly realizes the extent of his body's powers, and after saving a homeless man being beaten by a pack of teenagers, he decides to dedicate himself to doing good, using his powers to heal those with incurable diseases and fight crime.


title: Inuyashiki

text: However, a teenager who was with him at the time of the explosion, Shishigami Hiro, had the same fate as Ichiro, but unlike Inuyashiki, Shishigami becomes a psychopath who goes about using his newfound abilities to murder various people, from classmates that annoy him to innocent families, including young children, just for amusement. His acts of merciless cruelty bring him the attention of the police, who can do nothing to stop him. Hiro becomes the most wanted criminal in the country. The series follows these two different people who once shared the same bizarre experience, as their paths are destined to clash.


title: Inuyashiki

text: "Inuyashiki" is written and illustrated by Hiroya Oku. The manga started publishing in the 4th issue of Kodansha's "seinen" magazine "Evening", published on January 28, 2014. The manga finished in the 16th 2017 issue of "Evening" published on July 25, 2017. Kodansha compiled the series into ten "tankōbon" volumes published between May 23, 2014 and September 22, 2017.


title: Inuyashiki

text: Kodansha Comics, had published the manga in English in North America. Crunchyroll published the manga in a digital format.


title: Inuyashiki

text: An anime television series adaptation by MAPPA began airing on October 12, 2017, and a live-action film adaptation has been announced for 2018. The anime series' opening theme is "My Hero", performed by Japanese rock band Man with a Mission. The ending theme is performed by the band Qaijff. Amazon had licensed the series and streamed it online on Amazon Prime Video in Japan and overseas. It was streamed on Anime Strike in the United States. Amazon discontinued Anime Strike on January 5, 2018, which in turn made Anime Strike titles, including Inuyashiki, free to stream for Prime members.


title: Inuyashiki

text: On December 21, 2017, a teaser trailer and website appeared for a live-action adaptation of "Inuyashiki". The film, the first in a planned trilogy, was released on April 20, 2018, directed by Shinsuke Sato, who had previously directed the live-action "Gantz", and stars Noritake Kinashi as Inuyashiki Ichihiro and Takeru Satoh as Shishigami Hiro.


title: Inuyashiki

text: "Inuyashiki" was one of the Manga division's Jury Selections at the 18th and 19th Japan Media Arts Festival in 2014 and 2015. The manga has won the French award "Daruma d'or manga" at the Japan Expo Awards 2016. It was picked as a nominee for Best Comic for the 44th Angoulême International Comics Festival in 2017. "Inuyashiki" was nominated for the Best Comic category at the 49th Seiun Awards in 2018.


title: Inuyashiki

text: As of April 2018, the manga had over 3.1 million copies in circulation. Volume 2 reached the 18th place on the weekly Oricon manga charts and, as of November 2, 2014, has sold 76,886 copies; volume 3 reached the 15th place and, as of March 1, 2015, has sold 74,974 copies.


title: Inuyashiki

text: In February 2021, it was reported that the series, along with "Death Note" and "Tokyo Ghoul", was banned from distribution on two unspecified websites in Russia.


title: Inuyashiki

text: At the 2nd Crunchyroll Anime Awards held in 2018, "Inuyashiki" was nominated for "Best CGI" and the character Hiro Shishigami was nominated for "Villain of the Year", but lost in both of them.


title: The Challenge: Total Madness

text: The Challenge: Total Madness is the thirty-fifth season of the MTV reality competition series "The Challenge". This season features alumni from "The Real World", "Are You the One?", "Big Brother", "Celebrity Big Brother UK", "The Amazing Race", "Survivor", "Geordie Shore", "Ex on the Beach" (US and UK), "Shipwrecked", and "Survival of the Fittest" competing for a share at a $1 million prize. The season premiered on April 1, 2020, and concluded its run on July 29 of the same year with the Reunion and the Behind-the-scenes specials.


title: The Challenge: Total Madness

text: Checkpoint One: Players must ski over towards a pile of logs. They can take up to three logs before skiing across a valley towards a skull monument to deposit the logs. Once a player has collected twelve logs, they must ignite a fuse and light up their monument before proceeding to the end of the checkpoint. Unbeknownst to the players, the first male and female to finish the checkpoint form the final Tribunal of the season, ahead of an Instant Elimination.


title: The Challenge: Total Madness

text: The Journey: All nine players must traverse a via ferrata together to reach a compound at the top of a mountain, crossing a tightrope along the way. Once they reach the compound, players not in the Tribunal must select one male and one female to participate in an Instant Elimination. The Tribunal then select the second male and female for the Instant Elimination.


title: The Challenge: Total Madness

text: Instant Elimination - Knockout: Players start at opposite ends of a ring and must race to ring a hanging bell in the middle before their opponent. The player to ring the bell first twice, wins.


title: The Challenge: Total Madness

text: Overnight Stage: Both Tribunal members and both winners of the Instant Elimination are rewarded with a warm room to sleep inside of the compound for the night. The remaining three players must spend six hours outside by a fire before being allowed inside of the compound.


title: The Challenge: Total Madness

text: Final Push: Players follow a trail until they reach the glacier where the finish line is set up. Tribunal members have a two-minute headstart and the Instant Elimination winners have a one-minute headstart. Along the way, there are a series of math operations, the solution of which forms the combination to unlock a skull that they must smash before proceeding. The first male and female to cross the finish line are declared the winners of "Total Madness" and receive $500,000 each.


title: The Challenge: Total Madness

text: The Reunion special aired on July 22, 2020, and was hosted by former NFL player Vernon Davis. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was conducted by way of a Zoom chat. It was watched by 0.78 million viewers. A behind-the-scenes special, also hosted by Davis, aired on July 29, 2020, and was watched by 0.49 million viewers.


title: The Challenge: Total Madness

text: Following controversial comments about the Black Lives Matter movement on Twitter, during the airing of the season, MTV decided to cut ties with cast member Dee Nguyen on June 9, 2020. After the incident, Nguyen posted an apology on her social media, and was mostly edited out of the remaining episodes of the season.


title: The Challenge: Total Madness

text: On June 12, it was reported that Nguyen had hired a legal team and was considering taking legal action against MTV for firing her.


title: Eclampsia

text: Eclampsia is the onset of seizures (convulsions) in a woman with pre-eclampsia. Pre-eclampsia is one of the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy that presents with three main features: new onset of high blood pressure, large amounts of protein in the urine or other organ dysfunction, and edema. The diagnostic criteria for pre-eclampsia is high blood pressure occurring after 20 weeks gestation or during the second half of pregnancy. Most often it occurs during the 3rd trimester of pregnancy and may occur before, during, or after delivery. The seizures are of the tonic–clonic type and typically last about a minute. Following the seizure, there is either a period of confusion or coma. Other complications include aspiration pneumonia, cerebral hemorrhage, kidney failure, pulmonary edema, HELLP syndrome, coagulopathy, placental abruption and cardiac arrest.


title: Eclampsia

text: Low dose aspirin is recommended to prevent pre-eclampsia and eclampsia in those at high risk. Other preventative recommendation include calcium supplementation in areas with low calcium intake and treatment of prior hypertension with anti-hypertensive medications. Exercise during pregnancy may also be useful. The use of intravenous or intramuscular magnesium sulfate improves outcomes in those with severe pre-eclampsia and eclampsia and is generally safe. Treatment options include blood pressure medications such as hydralazine and emergency delivery of the baby either vaginally or by cesarean section.


title: Eclampsia

text: Pre-eclampsia is estimated to globally affect about 5% of deliveries while eclampsia affects about 1.4% of deliveries. In the developed world eclampsia rates are about 1 in 2,000 deliveries due to improved medical care whereas in developing countries it can impact 10-30 times as many women. Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are one of the most common causes of death in pregnancy. They resulted in 46,900 deaths in 2015. Around one percent of women with eclampsia die. The word "eclampsia" is from the Greek term for lightning. The first known description of the condition was by Hippocrates in the 5th century BC.


title: Eclampsia

text: Eclampsia is a disorder of pregnancy characterized by seizures in the setting of pre-eclampsia. Most women have premonitory signs/symptoms in the hours before the initial seizure. Typically the woman develops hypertension before the onset of a convulsion (seizure). Other signs and symptoms to looks out for include:


title: Eclampsia

text: Any of these symptoms may be present before or after the seizure. It is also possible for the woman to be asymptomatic prior to the onset of the seizure.


title: Eclampsia

text: Other cerebral signs that may precede the convulsion include nausea, vomiting, headaches, and cortical blindness. If the complication of multi-organ failure ensues, signs and symptoms of those failing organs will appear, such as abdominal pain, jaundice, shortness of breath, and diminished urine output.


title: Eclampsia

text: The seizures of eclampsia typically present during pregnancy and prior to delivery (the antepartum period), but may also occur during labor and delivery (the intrapartum period) or after the baby has been delivered (the postpartum period). If postpartum seizures develop, it is most likely to occur within the first 48 hours after delivery. However, late postpartum seizures of eclampsia may occur as late as 4 weeks after delivery.


title: Eclampsia

text: Eclamptic seizure is typically described as a tonic–clonic seizure which may cause an abrupt loss of consciousness at onset. This is often associated with a shriek or scream followed by stiffness of the muscles of the arms, legs, back and chest. During the tonic phase, the mother may begin to appear cyanotic. This presentation lasts for about a minute, after which the muscles begin in jerk and twitch for an additional one to two minutes. Other signs include tongue biting, frothy and bloody sputum coming out of the mouth.


title: Eclampsia

text: There are risks to both the mother and the fetus when eclampsia occurs. The fetus may grow more slowly than normal within the womb (uterus) of a woman with eclampsia, which is termed intrauterine growth restriction and may result in the child appearing small for gestational age or being born with low birth weight. Eclampsia may also cause problems with the placenta. The placenta may bleed (hemorrhage) or begin to separate early from the wall of the uterus. It is normal for the placenta to separate from the uterine wall during delivery, but it is abnormal for it to separate prior to delivery; this condition is called placental abruption and can be dangerous for the fetus. Placental insufficiency may also occur, a state in which the placenta fails to support appropriate fetal development because it cannot deliver the necessary amount of oxygen or nutrients to the fetus. During an eclamptic seizure, the beating of the fetal heart may become slower than normal (bradycardia). If any of these complications occurs, fetal distress may develop. Treatment of the mother's seizures may also manage fetal bradycardia. If the risk to the health of the fetus or the mother is high, the definitive treatment for eclampsia is delivery of the baby. Delivery by cesarean section may be necessary, especially if the instance of fetal bradycardia does not resolve after 10 to 15 minutes of resuscitative interventions. It may be safer to deliver the infant preterm than to wait for the full 40 weeks of fetal development to finish, and as a result prematurity is also a potential complication of eclampsia.


title: Eclampsia

text: In the mother, changes in vision may occur as a result of eclampsia, and these changes may include blurry vision, one-sided blindness (either temporary due to amaurosis fugax or potentially permanent due to retinal detachment), or cortical blindness, which affects the vision from both eyes. There are also potential complications in the lungs. The woman may have fluid slowly collecting in the lungs in a process known as pulmonary edema. During an eclamptic seizure, it is possible for a person to vomit the contents of the stomach and to inhale some of this material in a process known as aspiration. If aspiration occurs, the woman may experience difficulty breathing immediately or could develop an infection in the lungs later, called aspiration pneumonia. It is also possible that during a seizure breathing will stop temporarily or become inefficient, and the amount of oxygen reaching the woman's body and brain will be decreased (in a state known as hypoxia). If it becomes difficult for the woman to breathe, she may need to have her breathing temporarily supported by an assistive device in a process called mechanical ventilation. In some severe eclampsia cases, the mother may become weak and sluggish (lethargy) or even comatose. These may be signs that the brain is swelling (cerebral edema) or bleeding (intracerebral hemorrhage).


title: Eclampsia

text: Eclampsia, like pre-eclampsia, tends to occur more commonly in first pregnancies than subsequent pregnancies. Women who have long term high blood pressure before becoming pregnant have a greater risk of pre-eclampsia. Patients who have gestational hypertension and pre-eclampsia have an increased risk of eclampsia. Furthermore, women with other pre-existing vascular diseases (diabetes or nephropathy) or thrombophilia disease such as the antiphospholipid syndrome are at higher risk to develop pre-eclampsia and eclampsia. Having a placenta that is enlarged by multiple gestation or hydatidiform mole also increases risk of eclampsia. In addition, there is a genetic component: a woman whose mother or sister had the condition is at higher risk than otherwise. Patients who have experienced eclampsia are at increased risk for pre-eclampsia/eclampsia in a later pregnancy. The occurrence of pre-eclampsia was 5% in white, 9% in Hispanic, and 11% in African American patients and this may reflect disproportionate risk of developing pre-eclampsia among ethnic groups. Additionally, black patients were also shown to have a disproportionately higher risk of dying from eclampsia.


title: Eclampsia

text: The mechanisms of eclampsia and preeclampsia are not definitively understood, but following provides some insight. The presence of a placenta is required, and eclampsia resolves if it is removed. Reduced blood flow to the placenta (placental hypoperfusion) may be a key feature of the process. It is typically accompanied by increased sensitivity of the maternal vasculature to agents which cause constriction of the small arteries, leading to reduced blood flow to multiple organs. Vascular dysfunction-associated maternal conditions such as Lupus, hypertension, and renal disease, or obstetric conditions that increase placental volume without an increase in placental blood flow (such as multifetal gestation) may increase risk for pre-eclampsia. Also, activation of the coagulation cascade can lead to microthrombi formation, which may further impair blood flow. Thirdly, increased vascular permeability results in the shift of extracellular fluid from the blood to the interstitial space which reduces blood flow and causes edema. These events can lead to hypertension, renal dysfunction, pulmonary dysfunction, hepatic dysfunction, and cerebral edema with cerebral dysfunction and convulsions. In clinical context, increased platelet and endothelial activation may be detected before symptoms appear.


title: Eclampsia

text: Hypoperfusion of the placenta is associated with abnormal modelling of the fetal–maternal placental interface that may be immunologically mediated. The pathogenesis of pre-eclampsia is poorly understood and may be attributed to factors related to the woman and placenta since pre-eclampsia is seen in molar pregnancies absent of a fetus or fetal tissue. The placenta normally produces the potent vasodilator adrenomedullin but it is reduced in pre-eclampsia and eclampsia. Other vasodilators, including prostacyclin, thromboxane A2, nitric oxide, and endothelins, are reduced in eclampsia and may lead to vasoconstriction.


title: Eclampsia

text: Eclampsia is associated with hypertensive encephalopathy in which cerebral vascular resistance is reduced, leading to increased blood flow to the brain, cerebral edema and resultant convulsions. An eclamptic convulsion usually does not cause chronic brain damage unless intracranial haemorrhage occurs.


title: Eclampsia

text: If a pregnant woman has already been diagnosed with pre-eclampsia during the current pregnancy and then develops a seizure, she may be assigned a 'clinical diagnosis' of eclampsia without further workup. While seizures are most common in the third trimester, they may occur any time from 20 weeks of pregnancy until 6 weeks after birth. Because pre-eclampsia and eclampsia are common conditions in women, eclampsia can be assumed to be the correct diagnosis until proven otherwise in pregnant or postpartum women who experience seizures. However, if a woman has a seizure and it is unknown whether or not they have pre-eclampsia, testing can help make the diagnosis clear.


title: Eclampsia

text: Pre-eclampsia is diagnosed when repeated blood pressure measurements are greater or equal to 140/90mmHg, in addition to any signs of organ dysfunction, including: proteinuria, thrombocytopenia, renal insufficiency, impaired liver function, pulmonary edema, cerebral symptoms, or abdominal pain.


title: Eclampsia

text: One of the core features of pre-eclampsia is the new onset of high blood pressure. Blood pressure is a measurement of two numbers: systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure. A systolic blood pressure (the top number) of greater than 140 mmHg and/or a diastolic blood pressure (the bottom number) of greater than 90 mmHg is higher than the normal range. If the blood pressure is high on at least two separate occasions after the first 20 weeks of pregnancy and the woman has signs of organ dysfunction (e.g. proteinuria), then they meet the criteria for a diagnosis of pre-eclampsia. If the systolic blood pressure is greater than 160 or the diastolic pressure is greater than 110, the hypertension is considered to be severe.


title: Eclampsia

text: Another common feature of pre-eclampsia is proteinuria, which is the presence of excess protein in the urine. To determine if proteinuria is present, the urine can be collected and tested for protein; if there is 0.3 grams of protein or more in the urine of a pregnant woman collected over 24 hours, this is one of the diagnostic criteria for pre-eclampsia and raises the suspicion that a seizure is due to eclampsia.


title: Eclampsia

text: In cases of severe eclampsia or pre-eclampsia, the woman can have low levels of platelets in the blood, a condition termed thrombocytopenia. A complete blood count, or CBC, is a test of the blood that can be performed to check platelet levels.


title: Eclampsia

text: Other investigations include: kidney function test, liver function tests (LFT), coagulation screen, 24-hour urine creatinine, and fetal/placental ultrasound.


title: Eclampsia

text: Convulsions during pregnancy that are unrelated to pre-eclampsia need to be distinguished from eclampsia. Such disorders include seizure disorders as well as brain tumor, aneurysm of the brain, and medication- or drug-related seizures. Usually, the presence of the signs of severe pre-eclampsia precede and accompany eclampsia, facilitating the diagnosis.


title: Eclampsia

text: Detection and management of pre-eclampsia is critical to reduce the risk of eclampsia. The USPSTF recommends regular checking of blood pressure through pregnancy in order to detect preeclampsia. Appropriate management of a woman with pre-eclampsia generally involves the use of magnesium sulfate to prevent eclamptic seizures. In some cases, low-dose aspirin has been shown to decrease the risk of pre-eclampsia in women, especially when taken in the late first trimester.


title: Eclampsia

text: The four goals of the treatment of eclampsia are to stop and prevent further convulsions, to control the elevated blood pressure, to deliver the baby as promptly as possible, and to monitor closely for the onset of multi-organ failure.


title: Eclampsia

text: Convulsions are prevented and treated using magnesium sulfate. The study demonstrating the effectiveness of magnesium sulfate for the management of eclampsia was first published in 1955. Effective anticonvulsant serum levels range from 2.5 to 7.5 mEq/L.


title: Eclampsia

text: With intravenous administration, the onset of anticonvulsant action is fast and lasts about 30 minutes. Following intramuscular administration the onset of action is about one hour and lasts for three to four hours. Magnesium is excreted solely by the kidneys at a rate proportional to the plasma concentration (concentration in the blood) and glomerular filtration (rate at which the blood is filtered through the kidneys). Magnesium sulfate is associated with several minor side effects; serious side effects are uncommon, occurring at elevated magnesium serum concentrations greater than 7.0 mEq/L. Serious toxicity can be counteracted with calcium gluconate.


title: Eclampsia

text: Even with therapeutic serum magnesium concentrations, recurrent convulsions may occur, and additional magnesium may be needed, but with close monitoring for respiratory, cardiac, and neurological depression. If magnesium administration with resultant high serum concentrations fails to control convulsions, the addition of other intravenous anticonvulsants may be used and intubation and mechanical ventilation may be initiated. It is important to avoid magnesium toxicity, including thoracic muscle paralysis, which could cause respiratory failure and death.


title: Eclampsia

text: Magnesium sulfate results in better outcomes than diazepam, phenytoin or a combination of chlorpromazine, promethazine, and pethidine.


title: Eclampsia

text: Blood pressure control is used to prevent stroke, which accounts for 15 to 20 percent of deaths in women with eclampsia. The agents of choice for blood pressure control during eclampsia are hydralazine or labetalol. This is because of their effectiveness, lack of negative effects on the fetus, and mechanism of action. Blood pressure management is indicated with a diastolic blood pressure above 105–110 mm Hg.


title: Eclampsia

text: If the baby has not yet been delivered, steps need to be taken to stabilize the woman and deliver her speedily. This needs to be done even if the baby is immature, as the eclamptic condition is unsafe for both baby and mother. As eclampsia is a manifestation of a type of non-infectious multiorgan dysfunction or failure, other organs (liver, kidney, lungs, cardiovascular system, and coagulation system) need to be assessed in preparation for a delivery (often a caesarean section), unless the woman is already in advanced labor. Regional anesthesia for caesarean section is contraindicated when a coagulopathy has developed.


title: Eclampsia

text: There is limited to no evidence in favor of a particular delivery method for women with eclampsia. Therefore, the delivery method of choice is an individualized decision.


title: Eclampsia

text: Invasive hemodynamic monitoring may be elected in an eclamptic woman at risk for or with heart disease, kidney disease, refractory hypertension, pulmonary edema, or poor urine output.


title: Eclampsia

text: The Greek noun , , denotes a "light burst"; metaphorically, in this context, "sudden occurrence." The New Latin term first appeared in Johannes Varandaeus’ 1620 treatise on gynaecology "Tractatus de affectibus Renum et Vesicae". The term 'toxemia of pregnancy' is no longer recommended: placental toxins are not the cause of eclampsia occurrences, as previously believed.


title: IMG Academy

text: IMG Academy is a preparatory boarding school and sports training destination in Bradenton, Florida, United States. IMG Academy is set across over 600 acres and features programs consisting of sport camps for youth athletes, adult camps, a boarding school, including a post-graduate/gap-year program, events, professional and collegiate training, group hosting, and corporate retreats. IMG Academy is owned by Endeavor.


title: IMG Academy

text: Nick Bollettieri founded the Nick Bollettieri Tennis Academy in 1978. Sports company IMG purchased the academy in 1987. IMG acquired the youth division of the David Leadbetter Golf Academy in 1993 and added programs for soccer and baseball in 1994. Hockey and basketball programs were added in 2000 and 2001, respectively, and by 2002 the IMG campus had expanded to . IMG Academy suspended its hockey program in 2003. Football was added in 2010, as well as lacrosse. Track & field and cross country were added in 2013.


title: IMG Academy

text: IMG Academy currently sits on of land, and in 2011, IMG paid $7.5 million for an additional adjacent to the current campus for future expansion. In 2014, IMG purchased an additional . The land borders IMG's west campus, where the sports performance academy is undergoing a $198 million expansion.


title: IMG Academy

text: The IMG Pendleton School was founded in 1999 as a co-educational, college preparatory school for athletic students. In 2012, the school changed its name to "IMG Academy". It delivers both academics and athletics.


title: IMG Academy

text: In 2021, the school faced off against Bishop Sycamore in which they won in a 58–0 rout. Bishop Sycamore received scrutiny after the game and its existence was questioned.


title: IMG Academy

text: IMG Academy tennis programs offer year-round tennis camps ranging from one to five weeks in length and are led by director Rohan Goetzke. The campus has 35 outdoor hard courts, 5 indoor hard courts, and 16 green clay courts.


title: IMG Academy

text: In 1987, thirty-two academy students or former students were in the Wimbledon draw and twenty-seven were in the U.S. Open. Famous past students include Andre Agassi, Monica Seles, Jim Courier, Kei Nishikori, Anna Kournikova, Serena Williams, and Maria Sharapova.


title: IMG Academy

text: IMG announced the John Madden Football Academy in March 2010 and held its first camp from June 4–6, 2010. The football program offers a residency program and year-round camps ranging from three days to five weeks in length and was previously led by former NFL quarterback Chris Weinke. The academy fielded a high school football team for the first time in 2013. In 2013, MaxPreps called IMG Academy the "nation's top high school football facility." Kevin Wright was named head coach in 2015 after Weinke accepted a position as quarterbacks coach with the then-St. Louis Rams. Wright guided the program to its first undefeated regular season (9–0) in 2015.


title: IMG Academy

text: IMG Academy offered an academy soccer program and year-round soccer camps from 1999 to 2017. IMG Academy was home to U.S. Soccer's full-time residency program for the United States' U-16 and U-17 men's national teams. It was integral in developing the United States' top youth soccer prospects. The original idea of the residency program was to give elite players the opportunity to train in a professional environment as most MLS clubs did not have a substantial youth academy system in place prior to 2009. The Bradenton Academy grew from an initial twenty players to thirty in 2002 and then to forty in 2003. The program was split into a U-16 squad and a U-17 squad. The girls program was a member of the Girls Academy League.


title: IMG Academy

text: A typical day for the student-athlete at Bradenton consisted of academic classes in the morning followed by sports training in the afternoon. Students at the academy took accelerated courses and graduate high school a year early, making the players who do not turn pro immediately some of the most heavily recruited prospects in college soccer. The academy traced its roots back to Project 2010 which highlighted ways U.S. Soccer could make the senior men's national team a legitimate threat to win the World Cup by the end of the decade. Two programs that were born from Project 2010 were Generation Adidas (previously called "Project-40") and the Bradenton Academy. The academy was started in January 1999 with the backing of IMG and Nike, but was closed in 2017 due to the proliferation of U.S. Development Academy programs.


title: IMG Academy

text: IMG Academy has an academy baseball program and year-round camps, in addition to summer Wood Bat Leagues.


title: IMG Academy

text: IMG Academy's postgraduate program played in their only appearance in the 2016 National Prep Championship in New Haven, Connecticut. Among the teams were Brewster Academy, DME Academy, Elev-8 Sports Institute, Fork Union Military Academy, Hargrave Military Academy, IMG Academy, Northfield Mount Hermon School, and more. The head coach of IMG's national high school team is Sean McAloon, who previously was the head coach at St. John's College High School in Washington, D.C.


title: IMG Academy

text: Its basketball alumni include Dallas Mavericks forward Dwight Powell and Orlando Magic forward Jonathan Isaac, the 6th overall pick of the 2017 NBA draft. In 2017, IMG Academy had its first two selections to the McDonald's All American Game: Trevon Duval was selected to the boys game and Rellah Boothe was selected to the girls game. In 2018, Anfernee Simons entered directly from the academy to the 2018 NBA Draft, becoming the second player in the academy's history to do so and the first American to enter and be selected in an NBA draft directly after graduating from high school since the league first implemented age restriction rules in 2005


title: IMG Academy

text: During the preparation for the 2017 NBA Draft, the IMG Academy hosted their first ever draft combine. The Professional Basketball Combine was held as an alternative (mainly for seniors) to measure their abilities and potentially give them the chance to enter the NBA, if not allow them the chance to play in the NBA G League or even overseas, with nearly every participant that year doing exactly that. Currently, four players that participated in the event signed two-way contracts to enter the NBA properly, with eight of them going overseas and 11 players entered the G League. The event would be held once again in 2018, gaining more popularity that year with the participation of former UCLA player and current professional player LiAngelo Ball.


title: IMG Academy

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the entire WNBA 2020 season was held there. Under a plan approved on June 15, the shortened 22-game regular season would be held without fans present.


title: IMG Academy

text: IMG Academy has an academy lacrosse program and year-round camps. IMG Academy launched a high school team in 2012, featuring a new women's program made in 2018. Notable alumni include Tehoka Nanticoke. Prior to that, IMG Academy hosted their first full-time lacrosse student-athlete, Matthew Xirinachs, starting in September 2010. Xirinachs went on to join the Drexel men's lacrosse team in fall 2011.


title: IMG Academy

text: Since opening in 1978, IMG Academy has trained hundreds of Olympic and professional athletes, including those in the NBA, NFL, MLB, MLS, ATP, WTA, PGA Tour and LPGA Tour.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) is India's premier nuclear research facility, headquartered in Trombay, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. It was founded by Homi Jehangir Bhabha as the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET) in January 1954 as a multidisciplinary research program essential for India's nuclear program. It operates under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), which is directly overseen by the Prime Minister of India.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC is a multi-disciplinary research centre with extensive infrastructure for advanced research and development covering the entire spectrum of nuclear science, chemical engineering, material sciences and metallurgy, electronic instrumentation, biology and medicine, supercomputing, high-energy physics and plasma physics and associated research for Indian nuclear programme and related areas.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC's core mandate is to sustain peaceful applications of nuclear energy. It manages all facets of nuclear power generation, from the theoretical design of reactors to, computer modeling and simulation, risk analysis, development and testing of new reactor fuel, materials, etc. It also researches spent fuel processing and safe disposal of nuclear waste. Its other research focus areas are applications for isotopes in industries, radiation technologies and their application to health, food and medicine, agriculture and environment, accelerator and laser technology, electronics, instrumentation and reactor control and material science, environment and radiation monitoring etc. BARC operates a number of research reactors across the country.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Its primary facilities are located in Trombay, with new facilities also located in Challakere in Chitradurga district of Karnataka. A new Special Mineral Enrichment Facility which focuses on enrichment of uranium fuel is under construction in Atchutapuram near Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, for supporting India's nuclear submarine program and produce high specific activity radioisotopes for extensive research.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: When Homi Jehangir Bhabha was working at the Indian Institute of Science, there was no institute in India which had the necessary facilities for original work in nuclear physics, cosmic rays, high energy physics, and other frontiers of knowledge in physics. This prompted him to send a proposal in March 1944 to the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust for establishing "a vigorous school of research in fundamental physics".


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: When Bhabha realised that technology development for the atomic energy programme could no longer be carried out within TIFR he proposed to the government to build a new laboratory entirely devoted to this purpose. For this purpose, 1200 acres of land was acquired at Trombay from the Bombay Government. Thus the Atomic Energy Establishment Trombay (AEET) started functioning in 1954. The same year the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was also established.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Bhabha established the BARC Training School to cater to the manpower needs of the expanding atomic energy research and development program. Bhabha emphasized self-reliance in all fields of nuclear science and engineering.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The Government of India created the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET) with Bhabha as the founding director on 3 January 1954. It was established to consolidate all the research and development activities for nuclear reactors and technology under the Atomic Energy Commission. All scientists and engineers engaged in the fields of reactor designing and development, instrumentation, metallurgy, and material science, etc., were transferred with their respective programs from the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) to AEET, with TIFR retaining its original focus for fundamental research in the sciences. After Bhabha's death in 1966, the centre was renamed as the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre on 22 January 1967.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The first reactors at BARC and its affiliated power generation centres were imported from the west. India's first power reactors, installed at the Tarapur Atomic Power Station were from the United States.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The primary importance of BARC is as a research centre. The BARC and the Indian government has consistently maintained that the reactors are used for this purpose only: Apsara (1956; named by the then Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru when he likened the blue Cerenkov radiation to the beauty of the Apsaras), CIRUS (1960; the "Canada-India Reactor" with assistance from the US), the now-defunct ZERLINA (1961; Zero Energy Reactor for Lattice Investigations and Neutron Assay), Purnima I (1972), Purnima II (1984), Dhruva (1985), Purnima III (1990), and KAMINI.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Apsara was India's first nuclear reactor built at BARC in 1956 to conduct basic research in nuclear physics. It is 1 MWTh light water cooled and moderated swimming pool type thermal reactor that went critical on August 4, 1956, and is suitable for production of isotopes, basic nuclear research, shielding experiments, neutron activation analysis, neutron radiography and testing of neutron detectors. It was shutdown permanently in 2010 and replaced with Apsara-U. Purnima-I is a plutonium oxide fuelled 1 MWTh pulsed-fast reactor that was built starting in 1970 and went critical on 18 May 1972 to primarily support the validation of design parameters for development of plutonium-239 powered nuclear weapons. On the twentieth anniversary of the 1974 Pokhran nuclear test, Purnima's designer, P. K. Iyengar, reflected on the reactor's critical role: " Purnima was a novel device, built with about 20 kg of plutonium, a variable geometry of reflectors, and a unique control system. This gave considerable experience and helped to benchmark calculations regarding the behaviour of a chain-reacting system made out of plutonium. The kinetic behaviour of the system just above critical could be well studied. Very clever physicists could then calculate the time behaviour of the core of a bomb on isotropic compression. What the critical parameters would be, how to achieve optimum explosive power, and its dependence on the first self sustaining neutron trigger, were all investigated". It was decommissioned in 1973.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Along with DRDO and other agencies and laboratories BARC also played an essential and important role in nuclear weapons technology and research. The plutonium used in India's 1974 Smiling Buddha nuclear test came from CIRUS. In 1974 the head of this entire nuclear bomb project was the director of the BARC, Raja Ramanna. The neutron initiator was of the polonium–beryllium type and code-named Flower was developed by BARC. The entire nuclear bomb was engineered and finally assembled by Indian engineers at Trombay before transportation to the test site. The 1974 test (and the 1998 tests that followed) gave Indian scientists the technological know-how and confidence not only to develop nuclear fuel for future reactors to be used in power generation and research but also the capacity to refine the same fuel into weapons-grade fuel to be used in the development of nuclear weapons.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC was also involved in the Pokhran-II series of five nuclear test conducted at Pokhran Test Range in May 1998. It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted after Smiling Buddha by India. The tests achieved their main objective of giving India the capability to build fission and thermonuclear weapons(Hydrogen bomb/fusion bomb) with yields up to 200 Kilotons. The then Chairman of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission described each one of the explosions of Pokhran-II to be "equivalent to several tests carried out by other nuclear weapon states over decades". Subsequently, India established computer simulation capability to predict the yields of nuclear explosives whose designs are related to the designs of explosives used in this test. The scientists and engineers of the BARC, the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMDER), and the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) were involved in the nuclear weapon assembly, layout, detonation and data collection.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: On 3 June 1998 BARC was hacked by hacktivist group milw0rm, consisting of hackers from the United States, United Kingdom and New Zealand. They downloaded classified information, defaced the website and deleted data from servers.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC also designed a class of Indian Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor IPHWR (Indian Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor), the baseline 220 MWe design was developed from the Canadian CANDU reactor. The design was later expanded into 540 MW and 700 MW designs.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The IPHWR-220 (Indian Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor-220) was the first in class series of Indian pressurized heavy-water reactor designed by the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre. It is a Generation II reactor developed from earlier CANDU based RAPS-1 and RAPS-2 reactors built at Rawatbhata, Rajasthan. Currently there are 14 units operational at various locations in India. Upon completion of the design of IPHWR-220, a larger 540 MWe design was started around 1984 under the aegis of BARC in partnership with NPCIL. Two reactors of this design were built in Tarapur, Maharashtra starting in the year 2000 and the first was commissioned on 12 September 2005. The IPHWR-540 design was later upgraded to a 700 MWe with the main objective to improve fuel efficiency and develop a standardized design to be installed at many locations across India as a fleet-mode effort. The design was also upgraded to incorporate Generation III+ features. Almost 100% of the parts of these indigenously designed reactors are manufactured by Indian industry.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC designed and built India's first pressurised water reactor at Kalpakkam, a 80MW land based prototype of INS Arihant's nuclear power unit, as well as the Arihant's main propulsion reactor. Three other submarine vessels of the class(Arihant class) including the upcoming INS arighat, S4 and S4* will also get the same class of reactors as there primary propulsion.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC also developed stabilization systems for Seekers, Antenna Units for India's multirole fighter HAL Tejas and contributed to Chandrayaan-I and Mangalyaan missions. BARC has contributed for collaboration with various mega science projects of National and International repute viz. CERN (LHC), India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO), ITER, Low Energy High Intensity Proton Accelerator (LEHIPA), Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research (FAIR), Major Atmospheric Cerenkov Experiment Telescope (MACE), etc.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: In 2012 it was reported that new facilities and campuses of BARC were planned in Atchutapuram, near Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, and in Challakere in Chitradurga district in Karnataka. BARC would be setting 30 MW special research reactor using an enriched uranium fuel at Visakhapatnam to meet the demand for high specific activity radio isotopes and carry out extensive research and development in nuclear sector. The site would also support the nuclear submarine program.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC is a multi-disciplinary research centre with extensive infrastructure for advanced research and development covering the entire spectrum of nuclear science, chemical engineering, material sciences and metallurgy, electronic instrumentation, biology and medicine, supercomputing, high-energy physics and plasma physics and associated research for Indian nuclear programme and related areas.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC is a premier nuclear and multi-disciplinary research organisation though founded primarily to serve India's nuclear program and its peaceful applications of nuclear energy does an extensive and advanced research and development covering the entire spectrum of nuclear science, chemical engineering, Radiology and their application to health, food, medicine, agriculture and environment, accelerator and Laser Technology, electronics, High Performance Computing, instrumentation and reactor control, Materials Science and radiation monitoring, high-energy physics and plasma physics among others.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC is an agency of the Department of Atomic Energy. It is divided into a number of Groups, each under a director, and many more Divisions.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC's Nuclear Recycle Board (NRB) was formed in 2009. It is located in three cities – Mumbai, Tarapur, and Kalpakkam.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC conducts extensive and advanced research and development covering the entire spectrum of nuclear science, chemical engineering, material sciences and metallurgy, electronics instrumentation, biology and medicine, advance computing, high-energy plasma physics and associated research for Indian nuclear program and related areas. The few are:


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: India has a unique position in the world, in terms of availability of nuclear fuel resource. It has a limited resource of uranium but a large resource of thorium. The beach sands of Kerala and Orissa have rich reserves of monazite, which contains about 8–10% thorium.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Studies have been carried out on all aspects of thorium fuel cycle - mining and extraction, fuel fabrication, utilisation in different reactor systems, evaluation of its various properties and irradiation behaviour, reprocessing and recycling. Some of the important milestones achieved / technological progress made in these are as follows:


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The process of producing thoria from monazite is well established. IREL has produced several tonnes of nuclear grade thoria powder


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The fabrication of thoria based fuel by powder-pellet method is well established. Few tonnes of thoria fuel have been fabricated at BARC and NFC for various irradiations in research and power reactors.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Studies have been carried out regarding use of thorium in different types of reactors with respect to fuel management, reactor control and fuel utilisation.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: A Critical Facility has been constructed and is being used for carrying out experiments with thoria based fuels.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Post-irradiation examinations have been carried out on the irradiated PHWR thoria fuel bundles and (Th-Pu) MOX fuel pins.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Thoria fuel rods irradiated in CIRUS have been reprocessed at Uranium Thorium Separation Facility (UTSF) BARC. The recovered 233U has been fabricated as fuel for KAMINI reactor.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Thoria blanket assemblies irradiated in FBTR have been reprocessed at IGCAR. The recovered 233U has been used for experimental irradiation of PFBR type fuel assembly in FBTR.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Thoria fuel bundles irradiated in PHWRs will be reprocessed in Power Reactor Thorium Reprocessing Facility (PRTRF). The recovered 233U will be used for reactor physics experiments in AHWR-Critical Facility.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Advanced reactors AHWR and AHWR300-LEU have been designed at BARC to provide impetus to the large-scale utilisation of thorium.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: After certain energy utilization, known as burn-up (a legacy of thermal power) is reached, nuclear fuel in a reactor is replaced by fresh fuel so that fission chain reactions can sustain and desired power output can be maintained. The spent fuel discharged from the reactor is known as spent nuclear fuel (SNF). BARC has come a long way since it first began reprocessing of spent fuel in the year 1964 at Trombay. India has more than five decades of experience for reprocessing of spent fuel of Uranium based first stage reactor resulting in development of well matured and highly evolved PUREX based reprocessing flow sheet involving recovery of SNM.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Implementation of thorium fuel cycle requires extraction of 233U from irradiated thorium fuel and its re-insertion into the fuel cycle. Based on indigenous efforts, a flow sheet for reprocessing of spent thoria rods was developed and demonstrated at Uranium Thorium Separation Facility (UTSF), Trombay. After gaining successful experience at UTSF, Power Reactor Thoria Reprocessing Facility (PRTRF) has been set up employing advanced laser based technology for dismantling of thoria bundle and single pin mechanical chopper for cutting of fuel pins. Thoria irradiated fuel bundles from PHWR were reprocessed using TBP as extractant to recover 233U.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: High Level Liquid Waste (HLLW) generated during reprocessing of spent fuel contains most of the radioactivity generated in entire nuclear fuel cycle. The HLLW is immobilised into an inert Sodium Boro-Silicate glass matrix through a process, called vitrification. The vitrified waste is stored for an interim period in an air cooled vault to facilitate the dissipation of heat generated during radioactive decay. Prior to its eventual disposal in geological disposal facility. Vitrification of HLLW is a complex process and poses challenges in view of high temperature operations in presence of high amount of radioactivity. As a result, very few countries in world could master the technology of vitrification of HLLW and India is among them. Three melter technologies, Induction Heated Metallic Melter (IHMM), Joule Heated Ceramic Melter (JHCM) and Cold Crucible Induction Melter (CCIM), have been indigenously developed for vitrification of HLLW. HLLW vitrification plants, based on IHMM or JHCM technologies, have been constructed and successfully operated at Trombay, Tarapur and Kalpakkam sites of India.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Vitrification Cell (IHMM), WIP, Trombay Joule Heated Ceramic Melter, Tarapur Inside view of Cold Crucible Induction Melter R&D in the field of partitioning of Minor Actinides from HLLW are also aimed to separate out the long-lived radioactive waste constituents prior to immobilizing then in glass matrice. The long lived radio-contaminants is planned to be burnt in Fast reactor or Accelerator Driven Sub Critical systems to get converted into short- lived species. This will reduce the need of long term isolation of radionuclide from environment by multifold. R&D is also directed towards management of Hulls, contaminated left over pieces of zirconium clad tube after dissolution of fuel, and Geological Disposal Facility for safe disposal of vitrified HLLW and long lived waste with objective to long term isolation of radionuclide from the human environment.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The Advanced Fuel Fabrication Facility (AFFF), a MOX fuel manufacturing facility, is part of the Nuclear Recycle Board (NRB), and located at the Tarapur Atomic Power Station at Tarapur, Maharashtra. It makes plutonium-based fuels for boiling water reactors (BWRs).


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The interdisciplinary research includes investigation of matter under different physicochemical environments, including temperature, magnetic field and pressure. Reactors, ion and electron accelerators and lasers are being employed as tools to investigate crucial phenomena in materials over wide length and time scales. Major facilities, operated by BARC for research in Physical sciences, include the Pelletron-Superconducting linear accelerator at TIFR, the National Facility for Neutron Beam Research (NFNBR) at Dhruva, a number of state-of-the-art beam lines at INDUS synchrotron, RRCAT-Indore, the TeV Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescope with Imaging Camera (TACTIC) at Mt. Abu, the Folded Tandem Ion Accelerator (FOTIA) and PURNIMA fast neutron facilities at BARC, the 3 MV Tandetron accelerator at the National Centre for Compositional Characterization of Materials (NCCCM) at Hyderabad, the 10 MeV electron accelerator at the Electron Beam Centre at Navi Mumbai.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC also has sustained programs of indigenous development of detectors, sensors, mass spectrometer, imaging technique and multilayer-mirrors. Recent achievements include: commissioning of the Major Atmospheric Cerenkov Experiment Telescope (MACE) at Ladakh, a time-of-flight neutron spectrometer at Dhruva, the beam-lines at INDUS (Small-and wide angle X-ray Scattering (SWAXS), protein crystallography, Infrared spectroscopy, Extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS), Photoelectron spectroscopy (PES/ PEEM), Energy and angle-dispersive XRD, and imaging), commissioning of beam-lines and associated detector facilities at BARC-TIFR Pelletron facility, the Low Energy High Intensity Proton Accelerator (LEHIPA) at BARC, the Digital holographic microscopy for biological cell imaging at Vizag.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The Low Energy High Intensity Proton Accelerator (LEHIPA) project is under installation at common facility building in BARC premises. The 20 MeV, 30 mA, CW proton linac will consist of a 50 keV ion source, a 3 MeV, 4 m long, radio-frequency quadrupole (RFQ) and a 3-20 MeV, 12 m long, drift-tube linac (DTL) and a beam dump.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Major Atmospheric Cerenkov Experiment Telescope (MACE) is an Imaging Atmospheric Cerenkov telescope (IACT) located near Hanle, Ladakh, India. It is the highest (in altitude) and second largest Cerenkov telescope in the world. It was built by Electronics Corporation of India, Hyderabad, for the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre and was assembled at the campus of Indian Astronomical Observatory at Hanle. The telescope is the second-largest gamma ray telescope in the world and will help the scientific community enhance its understanding in the fields of astrophysics, fundamental physics, and particle acceleration mechanisms. The largest telescope of the same class is the 28-metre-diameter High Energy Stereoscopic System (HESS) telescope being operated in Namibia.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Ongoing basic and applied research encompasses a broad spectrum covering condensed matter physics, nuclear physics, astrophysical sciences and atomic and molecular spectroscopy. Important research areas include advanced magnetism, soft and nano structured materials, energy materials, thin film and multi-layers, accelerator/reactor based fusion-fission studies, nuclear-astrophysics, nuclear data management, reactor based neutrino physics, very high-energy astrophysics and astro-particle physics.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Some of the important ongoing developmental activities are: Indian Scintillat or Matrix for Reactor Anti-Neutrinos (ISMRAN), neutron guides, polarizers and Neutron supermirror, Nb-based superconducting RF cavities, high purity Germanium detector, 2-D neutron detectors, cryogen-free superconducting magnets, electromagnetic separator for radio-isotopes, nuclear batteries and radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG) power source and liquid Hydrogen cold neutron source. Other activities include research and developmental towards India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO) and quantum computing.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC designed and developed a series of supercomputers for their internal usage. They were mainly used for molecular dynamical simulations, reactor physics, theoretical physics, computational chemistry, computational fluid dynamics, and finite element analysis.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC has started development of supercomputers under the ANUPAM project in 1991 and till date, has developed more than 20 different computer systems. All ANUPAM systems have employed parallel processing as the underlying philosophy and MIMD (Multiple Instruction Multiple Data) as the core architecture. BARC, being a multidisciplinary research organization, has a large pool of scientists and engineers, working in various aspects of nuclear science and technology and thus are involved in doing diverse nature of computation.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: To keep the gestation period short, the parallel computers were built with commercially available off-the-shelf components, with BARC's major contribution being in the areas of system integration, system engineering, system software development, application software development, fine tuning of the system and support to a diverse set of users.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The series started with a small four-processor system in 1991 with a sustained performance of 34 MFlops. Keeping in mind the ever increasing demands from the users, new systems have been built regularly with increasing computational power. The latest in the series of supercomputers is Anupam-Aganya with processing power of 270 TFLOPS and PARALLEL PROCESSING SUPERCOMPUTER ANUPAM-ATULYA:Provides sustained LINPACK performance of 1.35 PetaFlops for solving complex scientific problems.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC's research and development programing electrical, electronics, instrumentation and computers is in the fields of Nuclear Science and Technology, and this has resulted in the development of various indigenous technologies.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: In the fields of nuclear energy, many Control and Instrumentation systems including In Service Inspection Systems were designed, developed and deployed for Nuclear Reactors ranging from PHWR, AHWR, LWR, PFBR, to new generation Research Reactors and C&I for reprocessing facilities. Development of simulators for Nuclear Power Plant are immense as they provide the best training facilities for the reactor personal and also for licensing of reactor operators.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Core competencies cover a wide spectrum and include Process Sensors, Radiation Detector, Nuclear Instruments, Microelectronics, MEMS, Embedded Real Time Systems, Modelling and Simulation, Computer Network, High Integrity Software Engineering, High performance DAQ systems, High Voltage Supplies, Digital Signal Processing, Image Processing, Deep Learning, Motion control, Security Electronics, Medical Electronics etc.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Development of stabilization systems for Seekers, Antenna Platform Unit for LCA HAL Tejas multi-mode Radar, Servo system for Indian Deep Space Network IDSN32- 32 meter antenna which tracked Chandrayaan-I and Mangalyaan, Instrumented PIG for Oil Pipe line inspection, Servo control and camera electronics for MACE telescope, Radiometry and Radiation Monitoring Systems etc.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Various technology spin-offs include products developed for industrial, medical, transportation, security, aero-space and defense applications.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Generic electronic products like Qualified Programmable Logic Controller platform (TPLC-32), suitable for deployment in safety critical applications, Reactivity meters, Machinery Protection systems, Security Gadgets for Physical Protection, Access Control Systems, Perimeter Intrusion Detection Systems, CCTV and Video surveillance Systems, Scanning Electron Microscope, VHF Communication Systems have been developed as part of the indigenization process.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Materials Science and Engineering plays an important role in all aspects including sustaining and providing support for Indian nuclear program and also developing advanced technologies. The minerals containing elements of interest to DAE e.g. Uranium, Rare-earth elements are taken up for developing beneficiation techniques/flow sheets to improve the metal value for its extraction. The metallic Uranium required for research reactors is produced. Improvement of process efficiency for operating uranium mills is done and inputs for implemented at plants by Uranium Corporation of India. The process flow sheet to separate individual rare earth oxide from different resources (including from secondary sources e.g. scrap/used products) are developed, demonstrated and technology is transferred to Indian Rare Earths Limited (IREL) for production at its plants.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: All the requirements of refractory materials for DAE applications including neutron absorber applications are being met by research, development and production in Materials Group. Materials Group works for development of flow sheets/processes for the materials required for DAE plants/applications e.g. Ti sponge, advanced alloys, coatings using various processes including pack cementation, chemical vapour, physical vapour, Electroplating/Electroless plating. Recovery of high purity Cobalt from various wastes/scrap material has also been demonstrated and technologies transferred for productionization.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Research aimed at advanced materials technologies using Thermodynamics, Mechanics, Simulation and Modelling, characterisation and performance evaluation is done. Studies aimed at understanding radiation damage in materials are undertaken using advanced characterization techniques to help in alloy development and material degradation assessment activities. Generation of thermo-physical and defect property database of nuclear materials e.g., Thoria-based Mixed oxide and metallic fuels; studies on Fe-Zr alloys and natural and synthetic minerals as hosts for metallic waste immobilization through modelling and simulations is being pursued.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Development of novel solvents to extract selected elements from the nuclear waste for medical applications and specific metallic values from E-waste is being done. Technologies such as Large-scale synthesis of carbon nanotube (CNT), low-carbon ferro-alloys (FeV, FeMo, FeNb, FeW, FeTi and FeC), Production of tungsten metal powder and fabrication of tungsten (W) and tungsten heavy alloy (WHA) and Production of zirconium diboride (ZrB) powder and Fabrication of high density ZrB shapes etc., have been realised.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The key features underlying the development effort are self-reliance, achieving products with very high purity specifications, working with separation processes characterized by low separation factors, aiming high recoveries, optimal utilization of scarce resources, environmental benignity, high energy efficiency and stable continuous operation. Non-power application of nuclear energy has been demonstrated in the area of water desalination using the technologies such as Multi Stage Flash Distillation and Multi Effect Distillation with Thermo Vapor Compression (MED-TVC). Membrane technologies have been deployed not only for nuclear waste treatment but for society at large in line with the Jal Jeevan Mission of Government of India to provide safe drinking water at the household level.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Development and demonstration of fluidized bed technology for applications in nuclear fuel cycle; synthesis and evaluation of novel extractants; synthesis of TBM materials (synthesis of lithium titanate pebbles); molecular modeling for various phenomena (such as permeation of hydrogen and its isotopes through different metals, desalination using carbon nanotubes, effect of composition of glass on properties relevant for vitrification, design of solvents and metal organic frameworks);applications of microreactors for intensification of specific processes; development of low temperature freeze desalination process; environment-friendly integrated zero liquid discharge based desalination systems; treatment of industrial effluents; new generation membranes (such as high performance graphene-based nanocomposite membranes, membranes for haemodialysis, forward osmosis and metallic membranes); hydrogen generation and storage by various processes (electrochemical water splitting, iodine-sulphur thermochemical, copper-chlorinehybrid thermochemical cycles); development of adsorptive gel materials for specific separations; heavy water upgradation; metal coatings for various applications (such as membrane permeator, neutron generator and special applications);fluidized bed chemical vapour deposition; and chemical process applications of Ultrasound Technology (UT).


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: A pre-cooled modified Claude cycle based 50 L/hr capacity helium liquefier (LHP50) has been developed and commissioned by BARC at Trombay.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Major component technologies involved in LHP50 include ultra-high speed gas bearing supported miniature turboexpanders and compact plate fin heat exchangers along with cryogenic piping and long-stem valves all housed inside the LHP50 Cold Box. Other major equipment include a coaxial helium transfer line and a liquid helium receiver vessel.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC also monitors Environmental impact and dose / risk assessment for radiological and chemical contaminants, Environmental surveillance and radiation protection for the entire nuclear fuel cycle facilities, Meteorological and hydro-geological investigations for DAE sites. Modelling of contaminant transport and dispersion in the atmosphere and hydrosphere, Radiological impact assessment of waste management and disposal practices, Development of Environmental Radiation Monitoring systems and Establishment of country wide radiation monitoring network, establishment of benchmarks for assessing the radiological impact of the nuclear power activities on the marine environment.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The highlights of these programs are Positron and positronium chemistry, Actinide chemistry and spectroscopy,Isotope hydrology for water resource management, Radiotracer for Industrial Applications, Separation and purification of new, radionuclides for medical applications, Advance fuel development by sol gel method, Chemical quality control of nuclear fuels, Complexation and speciation of actinides, Separation method development for back end fuel cycle processes.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The other major research projects are thermo-physical property evaluation of molten salt breeder reactor (MSBR) systems, development of core-catcher materials, hydrogen mitigation, catalysts for hydrogen production, hydrogen storage materials, nanotherapeutics and bio-sensors, decontamination of reactor components, biofouling control and thermal ecology studies, supramolecular chemistry, environmental and interfacial chemistry, ultrafast reaction dynamics, single molecule spectroscopy, synthesis and applications of nanomaterials, cold plasma applications, luminescent materials for bio-imaging, materials for light emitting devices and security applications etc.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Development of new elite crop varieties including oil seeds and pulses. Using radiation-induced mutagenesis, hybridization, and tissue culture techniques 49 crop varieties have been developed, released and Gazette-notified for commercial cultivation. Development of molecular markers, transgenics, biosensors, fertilizer formulations with improved nutrient use efficiency. Understanding DNA damage repair, replication, redox biology and autophagy process and development of radio-sensitizers, chemo-sensitizers for cancer therapy. Design and synthesis of organo-fluorophores and organic electronic molecules, relevant to nuclear sciences and societal benefits (advanced technology and health). Design and synthesis of organo-fluorophores and organic electronic molecules, relevant to nuclear sciences and societal benefits (advanced technology and health).


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Synthesis and development of nuclear medicine ligands for diagnosis and therapy of cancer and other diseases.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Asymmetric total synthesis and organocatalytic methods (green chemistry approach) for the synthesis of biologically active compounds.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: R&D activities in the frontier areas of radiation biology for understanding the effect of low- and high LET radiations, chronic and acute radiation exposure, high background radiation, and radionuclide exposure on mammalian cells, cancer cells, experimental rodents and human health.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Preclinical and translational research is aimed at development of new drugs and therapeutics for prevention and mitigation of radiation injury, de-corporation of heavy metals and treatment of inflammatory disorders and cancers.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Studying macromolecular structures and protein-ligand interactions using biophysical techniques like X-ray crystallography, neutron-scattering, circular dichroism and synchrotron radiation, with an aim for ab-initio design of therapeutic molecules.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Understanding the extraordinary resistance to DNA damage and oxidative stress tolerance in bacteria, and epigenetic regulation of alternate splicing in plants and mammalian cells.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Development of CRISPR-Cas mediated genome editing technologies in both basic and applied research and is engaged in the development of gene technologies and products for bio-medical applications. Studies on uranium sequestration by Nostoc and bacteria isolated from uranium mines.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Synthesis of substrates from suitable precursors for use in radio-labeling with diagnostic (Tc) and therapeutic (Lu, Sm, Ho, Re, Pd, Y, Yb, Tm) radioisotopes in the preparation of agents intended for use as radiopharmaceuticals.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Custom preparation of special sources to suit the requirements of the Defense Research Organization of India (DRDO) and National Research Laboratories such as National Physics Research Laboratory, ISRO etc.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: India's three-stage nuclear power programme was formulated by Homi Bhabha in the 1950s to secure the country's long term energy independence, through the use of uranium and thorium reserves found in the monazite sands of coastal regions of South India. The ultimate focus of the programme is on enabling the thorium reserves of India to be utilised in meeting the country's energy requirements. Thorium is particularly attractive for India, as it has only around 1–2% of the global uranium reserves, but one of the largest shares of global thorium reserves at about 25% of the world's known thorium reserves.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: In the first stage of the programme, natural uranium fueled pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWR) produce electricity while generating plutonium-239 as by-product. PHWRs was a natural choice for implementing the first stage because it had the most efficient reactor design in terms of uranium utilisation, and the existing Indian infrastructure in the 1960s allowed for quick adoption of the PHWR technology. Natural uranium contains only 0.7% of the fissile isotope uranium-235. Most of the remaining 99.3% is uranium-238 which is not fissile but can be converted in a reactor to the fissile isotope plutonium-239. Heavy water (deuterium oxide, DO) is used as moderator and coolant.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: In the second stage, fast breeder reactors (FBRs) would use a mixed oxide (MOX) fuel made from plutonium-239, recovered by reprocessing spent fuel from the first stage, and natural uranium. In FBRs, plutonium-239 undergoes fission to produce energy, while the uranium-238 present in the mixed oxide fuel transmutes to additional plutonium-239. Thus, the Stage II FBRs are designed to "breed" more fuel than they consume. Once the inventory of plutonium-239 is built up thorium can be introduced as a blanket material in the reactor and transmuted to uranium-233 for use in the third stage


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The surplus plutonium bred in each fast reactor can be used to set up more such reactors, and might thus grow the Indian civil nuclear power capacity till the point where the third stage reactors using thorium as fuel can be brought online.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The design of the country's first fast breeder, called Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR), was done by Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR).


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Doubling time refers to the time required to extract as output, double the amount of fissile fuel, which was fed as input into the breeder reactors. This metric is critical for understanding the time durations that are unavoidable while transitioning from the second stage to the third stage of Bhabha's plan, because building up a sufficiently large fissile stock is essential to the large deployment of the third stage


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: A Stage III reactor or an Advanced nuclear power system involves a self-sustaining series of thorium-232–uranium-233 fuelled reactors. This would be a thermal breeder reactor, which in principle can be refueled – after its initial fuel charge – using only naturally occurring thorium. According to the three-stage programme, Indian nuclear energy could grow to about 10 GW through PHWRs fueled by domestic uranium, and the growth above that would have to come from FBRs till about 50GW.[b] The third stage is to be deployed only after this capacity has been achieved.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: As there is a long delay before direct thorium utilisation in the three-stage programme, the country is looking at reactor designs that allow more direct use of thorium in parallel with the sequential three-stage programme. Three options under consideration are the Indian Accelerator Driven Systems (IADS), Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) and Compact High Temperature Reactor. Molten Salt Reactor is also under development.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: India's Department of Atomic Energy and US's Fermilab are designing unique first-of-its-kind accelerator driven systems. No country has yet built an Accelerator Driven System for power generation. Dr Anil Kakodkar, former chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission called this a mega science project and a "necessity" for humankind.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC has developed a wide array of nuclear reactor designs for nuclear research, production of radioisotopes, naval propulsion and electricity generation


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC has developed various sizes of IPHWR class of pressurized heavy-water reactors powered by Natural Uranium for the first-stage Three-stage nuclear power programme which produce electricity and plutonium-239 to power the fast-breeder reactors being developed by IGCAR for the second stage of the program.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The IPHWR class was developed from the CANDU reactors built at RAPS in Rawatbhata, Rajasthan. As of 2020, three successively larger designs IPHWR-220, IPHWR-540 and IPHWR-700 of electricity generation capacity of 220 MWe, 540 MWe and 700 MWe respectively have been developed.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC is developing a 300 MWe advanced heavy-water reactor design that is powered by thorium-232 and uranium-233 to power the third stage of India's three-stage nuclear power programme. The AHWR at standard is set to be a closed nuclear fuel cycle. AHWR-300 is expected to have design life close to 100 years and will utilise Uranium-233 produced in the fast-breeder reactors being developed by IGCAR.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The Indian molten salt breeder reactor (IMSBR) is the platform to burn thorium as part of 3rd stage of Indian nuclear power programme. The fuel in IMSBR is in the form of a continuously circulating molten fluoride salt which flows through heat exchangers for ultimately transferring heat for power production to Super-critical based Brayton cycle (SCBC) so as to have larger energy conversion ratio as compared to existing power conversion cycle. Because of the fluid fuel, online reprocessing is possible, extracting the 233Pa (formed in conversion chain of 232Th to 233U) and allowing it to decay to 233U outside the core, thus making it possible to breed even in thermal neutron spectrum. Hence IMSBR can operate in self sustaining 233U-Th fuel cycle. Additionally, being a thermal reactor, the 233U requirement is lower (as compared to fast spectrum), thus allowing higher deployment potential.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC with experience gained from the development of the light-water reactor for the Arihant-class submarine is developing a large 900 MWe pressurized water reactor design known as IPWR-900. The design will include Generation III+ safety features like Passive Decay Heat Removal System, Emergency Core Cooling System (ECCS), Corium Retention and Core Catcher System.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: BARC has developed multiple designs of light-water reactor designs suitable for nuclear marine propulsion for Indian Navy submarines beginning with the CLWR-B1 reactor design for the Arihant-class submarine.Total four submarine will be built for this class.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: India is not a part of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), citing concerns that it unfairly favours the established nuclear powers, and provides no provision for complete nuclear disarmament. Indian officials argued that India's refusal to sign the treaty stemmed from its fundamentally discriminatory character; the treaty places restrictions on the non-nuclear weapons states but does little to curb the modernisation and expansion of the nuclear arsenals of the nuclear weapons states.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: More recently, India and the United States signed an agreement to enhance nuclear cooperation between the two countries, and for India to participate in an international consortium on fusion research, ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor).


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The BARC also researches biotechnology at the Gamma Gardens and has developed numerous disease-resistant and high-yielding crop varieties, particularly groundnuts. It also conducts research in Liquid Metal Magnetohydrodynamics for power generation.


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: On 4 June 2005, intending to encourage research in basic sciences, BARC started the Homi Bhabha National Institute. Research institutions affiliated to BARC(Bhabha Atomic Research Centre) include IGCAR (Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research), RRCAT (Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology), and VECC (Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre).


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: Power projects that have benefited from BARC expertise but which fall under the NPCIL (Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited) are KAPP (Kakrapar Atomic Power Project), RAPP (Rajasthan Atomic Power Project), and TAPP (Tarapur Atomic Power Project).


title: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in addition to its nuclear research mandate also conducts research in other high technology areas like accelerators, micro electron beams, materials design, supercomputers, and computer vision among the few. The BARC has dedicated departments for these specialized fields. BARC has designed and developed, for its own use an infrastructure of supercomputers, Anupam using state of the art technology.


title: Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome

text: Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome (WPWS) is a disorder due to a specific type of problem with the electrical system of the heart. About 60% of people with the electrical problem developed symptoms, which may include an abnormally fast heartbeat, palpitations, shortness of breath, lightheadedness, or syncope. Rarely, cardiac arrest may occur. The most common type of irregular heartbeat that occurs is known as paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia.


title: Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome

text: The cause of WPW is typically unknown and is likely due to a combination of chance and genetic factors. A small number of cases are due to a mutation of the PRKAG2 gene which may be inherited from a person's parents in an autosomal dominant fashion. The underlying mechanism involves an accessory electrical conduction pathway between the atria and the ventricles. It is associated with other conditions such as Ebstein anomaly and hypokalemic periodic paralysis. The diagnosis of WPW occurs with a combination of palpitations and when an electrocardiogram (ECG) show a short PR interval and a delta wave. It is a type of pre-excitation syndrome.


title: Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome

text: WPW syndrome may be monitored or treated with either medications or an ablation (destroying the tissues) such as with radiofrequency catheter ablation. It affects between 0.1 and 0.3% in the population. The risk of death in those without symptoms is about 0.5% per year in children and 0.1% per year in adults. In some cases, non-invasive monitoring may help to more carefully risk stratify patients into a lower risk category. In those without symptoms ongoing observation may be reasonable. In those with WPW complicated by atrial fibrillation, cardioversion or the medication procainamide may be used. The condition is named after Louis Wolff, John Parkinson, and Paul Dudley White who described the ECG findings in 1930.


title: Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome

text: People with WPW are usually asymptomatic when not having a fast heart rate. However, individuals may experience palpitations, dizziness, shortness of breath, or infrequently syncope (fainting or near fainting) during episodes of supraventricular tachycardia. WPW is also associated with a very small risk of sudden death due to more dangerous heart rhythm disturbances.


title: Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome

text: Electrical activity in the normal human heart begins when a cardiac action potential arises in the sinoatrial (SA) node, which is located in the right atrium. From there, the electrical stimulus is transmitted via internodal pathways to the atrioventricular (AV) node. After a brief delay at the AV node, the stimulus travels through the bundle of His to the left and right bundle branches and then to the Purkinje fibers and the endocardium at the apex of the heart, then finally to the ventricular myocardium.


title: Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome

text: The AV node serves an important function as a "gatekeeper", limiting the electrical activity that reaches the ventricles. In situations where the atria generate excessively rapid electrical activity (such as atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter), the AV node limits the number of signals conducted to the ventricles. For example, if the atria are electrically activated at 300 beats per minute, half those electrical impulses may be blocked by the AV node, so that the ventricles are stimulated at only 150 beats per minute – resulting in a pulse of 150 beats per minute. Another important property of the AV node is that it slows down individual electrical impulses. This is manifested on the electrocardiogram as the PR interval (the time from electrical activation of the atria to electrical activation of the ventricles), which is usually shortened to less than 120 milliseconds in duration.


title: Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome

text: Individuals with WPW have an accessory pathway that communicates between the atria and the ventricles, in addition to the AV node. This accessory pathway is known as the bundle of Kent. This accessory pathway does not share the rate-slowing properties of the AV node and may conduct electrical activity at a significantly higher rate than the AV node. For instance, in the example above, if an individual had an atrial rate of 300 beats per minute, the accessory bundle may conduct all the electrical impulses from the atria to the ventricles, causing the ventricles to contract at 300 beats per minute. Extremely rapid heart rates such as this may result in hemodynamic instability or cardiogenic shock. In some cases, the combination of an accessory pathway and abnormal heart rhythms can trigger ventricular fibrillation, a leading cause of sudden cardiac death.


title: Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome

text: The bundle of Kent is an abnormal extra or accessory conduction pathway between the atria and ventricles that is present in a small percentage (between 0.1 and 0.3%) of the general population. This pathway may communicate between the left atrium and the left ventricle, in which case it is termed a "type A pre-excitation", or between the right atrium and the right ventricle, in which case it is termed a "type B pre-excitation" in old, currently abandoned classification. Problems arise when this pathway creates an electrical circuit that bypasses the AV node. The AV node is capable of slowing the rate of conduction of electrical impulses to the ventricles, whereas the bundle of Kent lacks this capability. When an aberrant electrical connection is made via the bundle of Kent, tachydysrhythmias may therefore result.


title: Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome

text: WPW is commonly diagnosed on the basis of the electrocardiogram in an asymptomatic individual. In this case, it is manifested as a delta wave, which is a slurred upstroke in the QRS complex that is associated with a short PR interval. The short PR interval and slurring of the QRS complex are reflective of the impulse making it to the ventricles early (via the accessory pathway) without the usual delay experienced in the AV node.


title: Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome

text: If a person with WPW experiences episodes of atrial fibrillation, the ECG shows a rapid polymorphic wide-complex tachycardia (without "torsades de pointes"). This combination of atrial fibrillation and WPW is considered dangerous, and most antiarrhythmic drugs are contraindicated.


title: Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome

text: When an individual is in normal sinus rhythm, the ECG characteristics of WPW are a short PR interval (less than 120 milliseconds in duration), widened QRS complex (greater than 120 milliseconds in duration) with slurred upstroke of the QRS complex, and secondary repolarization changes (reflected in ST segment-T wave changes).